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diff --git a/old/60438-0.txt b/old/60438-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 75ddc4a..0000000 --- a/old/60438-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9214 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Chile and Her People of To-day, by Nevin O. Winter - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Chile and Her People of To-day - -Author: Nevin O. Winter - -Release Date: October 6, 2019 [EBook #60438] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHILE AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - -CHILE AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY - - - - -Uniform with This Volume - - Cuba and Her People of To-day $3.00 - BY FORBES LINDSAY - - Panama and the Canal To-day. _New Revised Edition_ 3.00 - BY FORBES LINDSAY - - Chile and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Argentina and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Brazil and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Guatemala and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Mexico and Her People of To-day. _New Revised Edition_ 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Bohemia and the Čechs 3.00 - BY WILL S. MONROE - - In Viking Land. Norway: Its Peoples, Its Fjords and Its Fjelds 3.00 - BY WILL S. MONROE - - Turkey and the Turks 3.00 - BY WILL S. MONROE - - Sicily, the Garden of the Mediterranean 3.00 - BY WILL S. MONROE - - In Wildest Africa 3.00 - BY PETER MACQUEEN - - L. C. PAGE & COMPANY - 53 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. - - - - -[Illustration: A CHILEAN GIRL WITH THE _MANTA_. - -(_See page 90_)] - - - - - CHILE AND HER - PEOPLE OF - TO-DAY - - AN ACCOUNT OF THE - CUSTOMS, CHARACTERISTICS, AMUSEMENTS, - HISTORY AND ADVANCEMENT - OF THE CHILEANS, AND THE - DEVELOPMENT AND RESOURCES OF - THEIR COUNTRY - - BY - NEVIN O. WINTER - - Author of “Mexico and Her People of To-day,” - “Guatemala and Her People of To-day,” - “Brazil and Her People of To-day,” - “Argentina and Her People of - To-day” - - ILLUSTRATED FROM ORIGINAL AND SELECTED - PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE AUTHOR - - [Illustration] - - BOSTON - L. C. PAGE AND COMPANY - MDCCCCXII - - _Copyright, 1912_ - BY L. C. PAGE & COMPANY - (INCORPORATED) - - _All rights reserved_ - - First Impression, January, 1912 - - _Electrotyped and Printed by - THE COLONIAL PRESS - C. H. Simonds & Co., Boston, U.S.A._ - - - - -PREFACE - - -To the jealousy of Francisco Pizarro was due the discovery and conquest -of Chile. Reports having reached Pizarro that there were regions to the -south yet virgin, and teeming with wealth richer than that of Peru, he -sent Diego de Almagro, one of his lieutenants, with an expedition to -conquer these unknown lands. Almagro failed, and later he sent Pedro de -Valdivia with another expedition. There was another reason for sending -these expeditions, for Pizarro hoped that neither of these men would -return to Peru, since he feared their shrewdness and popularity. - -Valdivia succeeded in establishing a permanent settlement, but himself -fell a victim to the hardy tribesmen of the central valley of Chile, who -were far different from the soft and mild Incas enslaved by Pizarro. He -had found that it was no easy task he had undertaken, and the sturdy race -of Araucanians was still unconquered when the Spaniards were driven out -of the country by the generations that had grown up from the time of its -first settlement. - -The Chileans have ever been independent in thought and action, and they -have proved to be the best soldiers of South America. The temperate -climate, the mountainous character of the country and its isolation, -and the admixture of blood with the unconquerable Araucanians, who most -nearly resemble the North American redmen of any of the aborigines -of South America, have all contributed to the development of this -characteristic. - -The government is now as stable and hopeful as that of any of the South -American nations, and, because of its natural formation, Chile has -developed into the strongest maritime nation of that continent. Its fine -bays and harbours, its coal supplies and its long seacoast, undoubtedly -destine Chile to be the master of the southern seas in the ages yet to -come. Furthermore, its vast and fertile valleys, where every product of -the temperate climate grows, and where immense herds of cattle may be -fed, its mineral wealth and vast nitrate fields, undoubtedly destine it -to a greatness on land as well as on the sea. - -The history of Chile has always appealed to the writer, in common with -thousands of other people, and it has been a pleasure to trace the -development of the country from its incipiency to its present condition. -The same care has been exercised in the preparation of “Chile and Her -People of To-day” as in the other books of the series, which have been so -well received. Any repetitions that appear of expressions or ideas are -intentional and not the result of hasty or careless preparation. - -The author wishes to acknowledge his obligation to The Pan-American -Bulletin for two or three photographs which appear in this work, and also -to the Bureau under which it is issued for many courtesies received at -the hands of the Director and his associates. - - NEVIN O. WINTER. - - TOLEDO, OHIO, _January, 1912_. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - PREFACE v - - I. THE COUNTRY 1 - - II. THE WEST COAST 19 - - III. VALE OF PARADISE 46 - - IV. THE CITY OF SAINT JAMES 69 - - V. THE GRANARY OF THE REPUBLIC 92 - - VI. THE LAND OF THE FIRE 120 - - VII. THE BACKBONE OF THE CONTINENT 148 - - VIII. A LABORATORY OF NATURE 178 - - IX. THE PEOPLE 191 - - X. AN UNCONQUERABLE RACE 212 - - XI. EDUCATION AND THE ARTS 230 - - XII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION 243 - - XIII. RELIGIOUS INFLUENCES 261 - - XIV. THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 280 - - XV. THE NITRATE WAR 315 - - XVI. CIVIL WAR AND ITS RESULTS 336 - - XVII. PRESENT CONDITIONS AND FUTURE POSSIBILITIES 360 - - APPENDICES 391 - - INDEX 405 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - A CHILEAN GIRL WITH THE _MANTA_ (_See page 90_) _Frontispiece_ - - MAP OF CHILE 2 - - THE ANDES FROM SANTA LUCIA 6 - - THE WEST COAST 20 - - A MILK BOY IN PERU 28 - - ROW BOATS CROWDING AROUND A STEAMER 33 - - THE HARBOUR OF ARICA 36 - - A STREET SCENE, ANTOFAGASTA 42 - - COQUIMBO, A TYPICAL WEST COAST TOWN 44 - - AN “ASCENSOR” IN VALPARAISO 47 - - A CHICKEN PEDDLER, VALPARAISO 57 - - A VENDER OF DONKEY’S MILK, VALPARAISO 58 - - AN ATTRACTIVE HOME, VIÑA DEL MAR 60 - - SANTA LUCIA 71 - - ALAMEDA DE LAS DELICIAS, SANTIAGO 72 - - DANCING LA CUECA, THE NATIONAL DANCE 75 - - A GROUP OF NEWSBOYS, SANTIAGO 81 - - A MARKET SCENE, SANTIAGO 82 - - THE OLDEST BUILDING IN SANTIAGO 89 - - A PLANTATION OWNER 97 - - DRAWING AN AMERICAN THRESHER 99 - - VIEW OF PUERTO MONTT 108 - - IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN 122 - - A WRECK ON THE COAST OF CHILE 128 - - GENERAL VIEW OF PUNTA ARENAS 132 - - PORT FAMINE, IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN 135 - - THE ACONCAGUA RIVER 149 - - LOOKING TOWARDS ACONCAGUA 151 - - THE SALTO DEL SOLDADO 154 - - REFUGE HOUSE ALONG THE OLD INCA TRAIL 157 - - THE CHRIST OF THE ANDES 161 - - THE SOLITUDE OF THE ANDES 163 - - LOADING NITRATE 186 - - A GROUP OF CHILEAN GIRLS 206 - - OX CARTS 223 - - THE ESCUELA NAVAL, VALPARAISO 233 - - THE HARBOUR, VALPARAISO 248 - - JUNCAL STATION 258 - - TRANSANDINO CHILENO RAILWAY, SHOWING ABT SYSTEM OF COGS 260 - - A CHILEAN PRIEST 268 - - JOSÉ DE SAN MARTIN 289 - - CONGRESS PALACE, SANTIAGO 305 - - DIGGING NITRATE 316 - - THE MILITARY BARRACKS, SANTIAGO 346 - - CHILEAN SOLDIERS 352 - - A MARKET SCENE, VALPARAISO 364 - - THE BATTLESHIP, “O’HIGGINS” 371 - - A TYPICAL COAST SCENE 377 - - THE CUSTOM HOUSE, VALPARAISO 388 - - - - -CHILE AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE COUNTRY - - -The republic of Chile has one of the strangest configurations of any -country on the globe. It stretches over thirty-eight degrees of latitude, -thus giving it a coast line of twenty-six hundred and twenty-five miles -from its northern border to the most southerly point on the Fuegian -Archipelago. It is a long and narrow ribbon of land, at no place wider -than two hundred miles, and in places narrowing to sixty-five miles. It -has an average width of only ninety miles, while the length is fully -thirty times the average width. Placed on the western coast of North -America, in the corresponding latitude, this republic would extend from -Sitka, Alaska, to a point on the Pacific coast opposite the City of -Mexico. If the state of Texas should be stretched out into a narrow -strip of land two thousand and five hundred miles in length, it would -give a fair idea of the peculiar shape of Chile. It follows quite -closely the seventieth parallel of longitude, which would correspond -with that of Boston. This strange development has been due to the Andean -mountain range, which, with its lofty peaks and numberless spurs, forms -the eastern boundary throughout its entire length. For a long time the -boundary lines with its neighbours were in dispute, but these have all -been successfully adjusted. - -[Illustration] - -Within these boundaries there is naturally a wide divergence of climate. -In the north, at sea level, the vegetation is tropical, and it is -semi-tropical for several hundred miles south. If one goes inland the -mountains are soon encountered, and the line of perpetual snow is reached -at about fifteen thousand feet, but this line descends as you proceed -south. On the Fuegian Islands snow seldom disappears from sight, although -at sea level it may all thaw. The temperature everywhere varies according -to altitude and proximity to the sea. In the north it is milder than the -same latitude on the eastern coast, because of the Antarctic Current -which washes the shores, and at the south it is warmer than the same -latitude in North America. Within these extremes, from the regions which -are washed by the Antarctic seas to the banks of the Sama River, which -separates it from Peru, and between the shores where the Pacific breakers -roll and the Cordilleras of the Andes which mark the boundary with -Argentina, there are two hundred and ninety-one thousand, five hundred -square miles, and supporting a population of three and a quarter millions -of people, of many shades of colour. - -One-fourth or more of the territory of Chile is made up of islands. The -largest of these, of course, is Tierra del Fuego, of which a little more -than one-half is Chilean territory. The coast from Puerto Montt to the -southern limits of the continent is notched and indented with fiords and -inlets, and scores of islands have been formed, probably by volcanic -action. Few of these have claimed any attention, and, of all those lashed -by the waves of the Antarctic seas, Tierra del Fuego is the only one -that has received any development. The sheep man has taken possession of -portions of that island, and hundreds of thousands of sheep now graze on -its succulent grasses. The island of Chiloé, near Puerto Montt, is one -of the most important of the islands, and several small foreign colonies -have been located on its rich soil. Some of the islands are very remote -from the mainland. The most isolated one is Pascua, or Easter, island, -which is at a distance of more than two thousand miles from the coast. -It is almost in the centre of the Pacific Ocean. The San Felix and San -Ambrosio groups, and that of Juan Fernandez, the reputed home of Robinson -Crusoe, are also at a distance of several hundred miles from the shores -of the republic. - -From the northern boundary to Concepción, the coast line is generally -uniform and indentations are rare. There are only a few bays of any -considerable size, and only an occasional cape or promontory. From Chiloé -to Tierra del Fuego is a stretch of coast five hundred miles in length, -which a glance at the map will show is a perfect network of islands, -peninsulas and channels. This is the Chilean Patagonia. It provides -scenery as grandly picturesque as the famous fiords along the coast of -Norway, and greatly resembles that broken and rugged coast. The bays and -gulfs cut into the shores to the foothills of the Andean range. They -are of great depth. The Gulf of Las Peñas furnishes an entrance to this -labyrinth at the north, and the Straits of Magellan at the south. Some -of the passes are so narrow that they seem like gigantic splits in the -mountain ranges—grandly gloomy and narrow. Through these openings in the -rock the water rushes with terrific force owing to the action of the -tides. But, once within, the opening broadens out into little bays, where -the waters are as calm and serene as a mountain lake. These channels -are a vast Campo Santo, or God’s Acre, of wrecked vessels. Numerous as -the disasters have been the sight of a stranded boat is rare, for the -grave is usually hundreds of fathoms deep. In every case, however, the -wrecked vessel has given her name to the rock that brought disaster, and -the official charts are dotted with the names of rocks, which thus form -eternal headstones for the unfortunate vessels. One writer has given the -following account of these channels:— - -“If one can imagine the Hudson River bordered continuously by -verdure-covered mountains descending precipitously into the water, and -jutting out here and there in fantastic buttress-like headlands, one has -some idea of Messier Channel. But add to this a network of long, thin -cataracts threading their way thousands of feet down through gullies and -alleys from mountain crest to water edge. Far up the mountain sides they -are so distant as to seem motionless, like threads of silver beaten into -the crevices of the rocks; but near the water their motion can be both -seen and heard as they fall amid the rocks to reach the sea.” - -The southern portion of the republic terminates in two peninsulas, known -as King William and Brunswick, which are separated by the gulfs of Otway -and Skyring. The Straits of Magellan then separate the mainland from the -Fuegian Archipelago. This channel, which varies in width from one to -twenty-five miles, is three hundred and sixty-two miles in length from -Cape Pillar to Cape Virgenes, the latter being the eastern, or Atlantic, -terminus. It affords a safe passage for vessels, and is used almost -exclusively by steamers bound from one coast to the other. - -[Illustration: THE ANDES FROM SANTA LUCIA.] - -After forming the plateau of Bolivia, the Andes, the backbone of South -America, stretches down to the lower end of the continent. It is formed -by a succession of high mountains, with lofty peaks covered with the -eternal snows. At intervals passes are found which permit of access -from one side of the mountain to another. The highest point of this -mighty range is reached just opposite Valparaiso, Mt. Aconcagua, and -from there it descends until, at the Straits of Magellan, it reaches -sea level. It probably continues still farther, but its highest spurs -are engulfed beneath the ocean. The width also varies greatly, from -forty-five to one hundred miles. Along the Chilean border there are more -than fifty definite peaks exceeding thirty-three hundred feet in height, -and twenty-nine of more than ten thousand feet in altitude. Four are -above twenty thousand feet. Most of these were originally volcanoes, -but they are nearly all now extinct or quiescent. South of Aconcagua -is a succession of lofty volcanic peaks, such as San José de Maipu, -San Fernando, Tingueririca and others, all apparently extinct. Then -follow Nevado del Chillan, Antuco, Villarica and Osorno, all of which -occasionally emit vapour, and, lastly, the Tronador (thunderer) near the -southern extremity of the country. - -By reason of its peculiar shape easy access is given to all parts of the -republic, and the exploitation of its resources has been comparatively -easy. In no place are the mountains far distant, and short spurs of -railway connect the mineral deposits with the sea. Along the coast there -are no fewer than fifty-nine ports, between which regular communication -by steamer is carried on. Fourteen of these are ports of entry, in which -customs houses are located, and the others are minor ports, at which only -national coasting steamers stop. - -There are very many rivers in the country, but only a very few of them -are any aid to navigation. They are mostly short streams which are formed -by the melting snows of the Andes, and then rush onward toward the sea by -a more or less direct route. The principal rivers are all in the southern -half of the country. In the deserts of the northern section the waters -formed by melting snows are evaporated or are absorbed by the parched -soil long before they reach the sea. The Yelcho and Palena are the -largest rivers of Chile. The latter is the longest, for it cuts through a -pass in the Andes and runs back into Argentine territory for seventy-five -miles. Others are the Maullin, Calle-Calle, Bio-Bio, Bueno and Maule. -Some, such as the Bio-Bio and Maule, are navigable for short distances by -vessels of shallow draft. Their importance to commerce is insignificant, -however, when compared with the great rivers of the eastern coast. The -Bio-Bio, for instance, is only one hundred and sixty miles long. They -do furnish water for irrigation purposes, only a small portion of which -has as yet been developed. There are several lakes in Chile, of which -Llanquihue, Todos Santos, and Ranco are the most important. The two first -mentioned have steam navigation. - -There are many valleys of very fertile land which can be made among the -richest agricultural lands of the world. As a rule these valleys are -small and irrigated by streams flowing from the east to the west. The -great central valley, which runs in a southerly direction for several -hundred miles from Santiago, is one of the most remarkable features of -the country and the garden of the republic. This valley is almost six -hundred miles in length from north to south, but varies considerably in -width. Its average width for the entire length is probably thirty miles. -This is the granary of the country, and the source of its principal -food supply. All of the cereals grow to perfection in this climate -and on this soil. Wheat, barley, corn, rye and oats are cultivated in -large quantities. All of the vegetables and fruits that flourish in -the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere also grow to large size. -Alfalfa makes a fine pasture. And yet even this fertile valley has only -been developed in part. Not more than one-fourth of the landed surface -of Chile is fitted for cultivation, but of this portion not more than -one-fourth has been touched by the agriculturist or ranchman. Hence -there are great possibilities of development yet unexploited in this -republic. Cattle and sheep are profitable and are increasing in number. -The waterfalls, also, give great possibilities of cheap power for -manufacturing purposes, and the future will probably find all of the -railroads operated by electric power, because of the cheapness with which -current can be produced. This result seems to be only the natural outcome -of existing conditions. - -Such a country, with such a long extent of sea coast, would ordinarily be -an almost impossible country to handle. It has, perhaps, been fortunate -that the coast is easily reached in all parts, from the inhospitable -deserts of the northern regions to the dense forests of the south. -No country of equal size in the world has such a marvellously varied -configuration. The humming-bird follows the fuchsia clear to the Straits -of Magellan, and the penguin has followed the fish almost as far as -Valparaiso. The government has done well in managing this ribbon-like -country. Coast service has been built up and a longitudinal railway -promises an interior development. Cross lines and transcontinental routes -will provide much needed facilities for the interchange of commerce. The -telegraph and telephone have linked together hitherto remote sections, -and a creditable postal service has been created. - -Chile is a republic, with the customary division into legislative, -executive and judicial branches. It is not a confederation of provinces, -as in Brazil and Argentina, but is a single state with one central -government. It is divided for governmental purposes into twenty-three -provinces and one territory. These are again divided into departments, -districts and municipalities. Congress is composed of a Senate and -Chamber of Deputies. The former is at present composed of thirty-two -members and the latter of ninety-four. Deputies are elected for a term -of three years by direct vote, in the proportion of one to every -thirty thousand inhabitants. Senators are elected for six years in the -proportion of one to every three deputies, and the terms of one-third -expire every two years. Members of the House of Deputies must have an -income of five hundred dollars a year, and a Senator must be thirty-six -years of age and is required to have an annual income four times that -sum. Congress sits from June 1 to September 1 each year, but an extra -session may be called at any time. A peculiar feature is that during -the recess of Congress a committee consisting of seven from each house -acts for that body, and is consulted by the President on all matters of -importance. - -The President is chosen by electors, who are elected by direct vote, for -a term of five years. He serves the state for a salary of about eleven -thousand dollars, including the allowance for expenses. He is ineligible -to serve two consecutive terms and may not leave the country during his -term of office, or for one year after its expiration, without the consent -of Congress. He has a cabinet of six secretaries, who are known as -Ministers of Interior, Foreign Affairs, Justice and Public Instruction, -Treasury, War and Marine, Industry and Public Works. The Minister of the -Interior is the Vice-President, and succeeds to the office of President -in the event of his death or disability. Elections are held on the 25th -of June every fifth year, and inauguration of the new President follows -on the succeeding 18th of September. The cabinet may be forced to resign -at any time by a vote of lack of confidence by Congress, to whom they are -directly responsible. In addition to the cabinet there is a Council of -State consisting of eleven members, six of whom are appointed by Congress -and five by the President, who assist that official in an advisory -capacity. Furthermore, when Congress adjourns, it appoints a standing -committee of seven from each house, which acts as the representative of -that body during vacation. The President must consult with it in certain -matters, and the committee may request him to call an extraordinary -session if, in their opinion, such a course is advisable. - -There is a national Supreme Court of seven members that sits at Santiago, -which is the final judicial authority. Courts of appeal consisting of -from five to twelve members also sit at Santiago, Valparaiso, Tacna, -Serena, Talca, Valdivia and Concepción. There are also a number of -minor courts which are located in the various provinces and departments. -Each province is governed by an _intendente_, who is appointed by the -President of the republic. The departments are governed by governors, who -are subordinate to the _intendentes_, and the districts by inspectors, -who are also appointed. The only popular element is the municipal -district, or commune, which is governed by a board composed of nine men, -who are elected by direct vote in each municipality. - -When the Spaniards reached Chile they found native races occupying it. -In the northern portions the tribes were under at least the nominal sway -of the Incas, although separated from them either by the inhospitable -Andes or dreary desert wastes. In the great central valley, however, -the land appeared a pleasant garden, and so rich that nowhere had -the Spaniards seen anything similar either for its fertility or the -wealth of its fruits and herds. “It is all an inhabited place and a -sown land or a gold-mine, rich in herds as that of Peru, with a fibre -drawn from the soil rich in food supplies sown by the Indians for their -subsistence”—so wrote the chroniclers. They lived in comfort and had a -certain civilization. Each _cacique_ had his own ranch house, the number -of doors indicating the number of his wives, of which some had as many as -fifteen. These people were the Araucanians, who proved to be a brave and -courageous race. The Spaniards immediately began their usual cruelties -and efforts to enslave these people, but succeeded only temporarily. The -natives soon rose in rebellion. Three hundred years of warfare decimated -their ranks, but did not subdue them, and when the Spanish rule ended -these people were as unconquered as when it began. Their history has been -written in blood, but it is the struggle of a heroic race, and it is not -dimmed by the excesses and cruelties that attached to the Spaniards in -their efforts to subjugate and enslave these valiant people. - -After he had conquered Peru, Pizarro sent an expedition south to explore -the country and take possession of it in the name of the King of Spain. -One of his lieutenants, Diego de Almagro, was placed in charge. He -crossed the great nitrate desert and reached as far as Copiapó, where -he was driven back by hostile Indians. He had reached a valley called -by the natives Tchili, which signified in their language beautiful, -and that name was given to the country. A few years later, in 1540, -another expedition was fitted out under Captain Pedro de Valdivia, -which was more successful. He marched as far as the present city of -Santiago, and founded a city, which has ever since remained the capital. -Although colonists came from Spain, little progress was made for a long -time because of the hostility of the Araucanian Indians. These attacks -continued until 1640, when a treaty was concluded with these indomitable -natives by which the Bio-Bio River was established as the boundary, and -both together were to resist the English and Dutch buccaneers, who had -begun to harass the coast. Early in the nineteenth century the spirit -of independence reached Chile, and insurrections against the Spanish -authorities broke out. - -On the 18th of September, 1810, the Spanish authorities were deposed and -a provisional government was set up. Troops were poured in by Spain, -and it was not until 1818, when the Spanish troops were defeated in the -battle of Maipu by the Argentine general, San Martin, that freedom from -the foreign yoke was secured. General Don Ambrosio O’Higgins, an Irish -patriot who had greatly distinguished himself in the war for freedom, -was chosen as the first President, and he introduced many reforms and -endeavoured to ameliorate the condition of the natives. The Jesuit -missionaries followed in the wake of the soldiers and began their work -of converting the natives. Since that time there has been considerable -internal struggle between rival political factions, and some foreign -troubles. There was a brief war with Spain, a frightful conflict with -the neighbouring republic of Peru, and disagreements with Bolivia and -Argentina. A few years ago war with the latter country seemed inevitable -over the international boundary, but wise counsels prevailed and the -matter was successfully arbitrated. At the present time peace prevails, -although there are continual mutterings in Peru, and that country only -needs a hot-headed leader to bring about another war with Chile over the -lost revenue from the nitrate fields. - -The Chileans are a brave and a courageous people. The natural boundaries -have no doubt aided in developing a national spirit and love of -independence. Truly no people in South America have fought so long and -so hard to achieve national independence. The Araucanian mixture has -brought virility and industry into the race—a far different element -than the Inca blood farther north. These Yankees of the South American -continent have accomplished much, and there is still greater promise for -the future. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE WEST COAST - - -Cruising along the west coast of South America is a delightful -experience. It is the perfection of ocean travel. One is always sure of -fine weather, for it neither rains nor blows, and the swell is seldom -strong enough to make even the susceptible person seasick. In defiance -of our idea of geography the sailors speak of going “up” the coast, when -bound towards the south. The boats along this coast are built for fair -weather and tropical seas. They have their cabins opening seaward, and -the decks reach down almost to the water’s edge. Some swing hammocks and -sleep on deck, and it is very comfortable. Such vessels would not be -adapted for the stormy Atlantic, and would not live long in a storm upon -the Caribbean Sea. Sailors say that the wind is never strong enough to -“ruffle the fur on a cat’s back,” and this immense stretch of sea might -be likened unto a great mill pond. It is this part of the ocean, between -the Isthmus and Peru, that suggested to the Spaniards the name of Pacific. - -Near the equator the days and nights are equal. The sun ceases doing duty -promptly at six, and reappears at the same hour the following morning. -There is no twilight, little gloaming, and darkness succeeds daylight -almost as soon as the big red ball disappears in the western sea. At -night beautiful phosphorescence may be seen. The water is so impregnated -with phosphorus, that each tiny wave is tipped with a light and the -vessel leaves a trail of fire. From above the Southern Cross looks down -upon the scene in complaisance. And thus the days pass in succession one -after the other. The temperature is not uncomfortable, as the Antarctic -Current tempers the tropical sun, and there is generally a southerly -or southwesterly wind that aids. It is a pleasanter ride, and subject -to fewer inconveniences than the ride along the eastern coast of the -continent. - -[Illustration: THE WEST COAST.] - -When the Stars and Stripes have faded from view at Balboa, and the jagged -backbone of the continent has disappeared into the mists on either -horizon, towards Nicaragua and Colombia, one feels that a new world has -been reached. The real South America has been entered, and, when the -good ship crosses the Line, about the third day out, home and the rest -of the world seem very far away. It is a long journey to Valparaiso, -Chile, if one takes a steamer that stops at all the intermediate -ports, as it lasts more than three weeks. There are swifter vessels, -however, that avoid Ecuador and make the journey in twelve days. The -slower vessels follow the coast line, and the passenger is given many a -view of the Andes, whose peaks are crowned with eternal snows but are -frequently wrapped in fleecy clouds. At Guayaquil, the westernmost city -of South America, it is even possible on occasions in clear weather -to see Chimborazo, eighty miles from the sea. Nowhere in the world is -there a greater assembly of lofty peaks than will be seen as the vessel -proceeds along the coast. The Spaniards called these “sierras,” because -their uneven summits resembled the teeth of a saw. Some of the peaks are -regular in outline, but more often they are irregular and even grotesque, -so that the imaginative minds of the natives have fancied resemblances -to works of nature and have given them corresponding names. Nowhere in -the world are there stranger freaks in geological formations, or more -startling contrasts. Near the coast run the foothills, which gradually -become higher and bolder until they end in the loftiest peaks. Back, and -beyond all, an occasional volcanic peak may be seen lifting itself in -solitary grandeur. - -At the mouth of the Guayas River, in Ecuador, there is a dense growth -of tropical vegetation. It seems to be a veritable hothouse of nature, -where plants and trees wage a desperate war for existence against the -vines, mosses and other parasites that attack them. This is the end of -such scenes, however, for days and days. It would be difficult to find a -more dreary aspect than the coast of South America from the boundary of -Ecuador almost to Valparaiso. From the water’s edge to the Andes chain -of mountains stretches a yellow and brown desert, unrelieved by a tinge -of green, except where irrigation has been employed. At midday all is -clear, but in the evening a purple haze covers the whole landscape. It -bears a close resemblance to parts of Arizona and New Mexico in general -characteristics. Cliffs three hundred to four hundred feet high, and -which are scooped out into fantastic shapes, often form the water’s -edge. The distant mountains look gloomy and forbidding. It very seldom -rains there, perhaps once in six or seven years is a fair average. In -other places a generation can almost grow up and pass away without an -experience with rain. When it does rain, however, the desertlike plains -and slopes immediately spring into life. Where for years there has been -nothing but drifting sands appear meadows of nutritious grasses, and -flowers and plants spring up in great confusion. Wherever the seeds -come from is a mystery, but every nook and corner is soon ablaze with -vegetation. - -The boats stop at many ports from Ecuador to Chile. These little towns -will be found nestling in little hollows at the foot of the hills, or -tacked on the hillside. Each one is walled away from the other, and -each is a gateway to a fertile valley or rich mining section. Sometimes -a narrow gauge railway runs back into the interior, but there are no -connections coastwise. The steamer furnishes the only communication -with the world beyond, and the arrival of the boat is an event of great -importance. Each town has its own specialty. At Guayaquil and Paita -many merchants will come aboard with Panama hats, and good-natured -bargaining will then be carried on with the passengers. Buying a hat is -a tedious matter. The seller does not expect more than about one-third -of the price he asks. If the passenger looks indifferent the native -will hunt him up and reduce his offer. “How much would the señor give?” -“Thirty soles! That would be robbery.” But the ship’s gong strikes and -the time of departure is at hand. “Here, señor, is your hat. _Muchas -gracias. Adios!_” The deal is concluded, and you have your hat at the -price you offered, if you are shrewd enough to see that a cheaper hat -was not substituted at the last minute. Deck traders board the vessel -and stay with it for days, doing a good business in almost everything -from vegetables and fruits to dry goods, and jewelry. Parrots, monkeys -and even mild-eyed ant-eaters are offered the passengers for pets. -Passengers join the boat at every stop, and, instead of hat boxes, as -American women would be burdened with, the women here all bring on board -their bird cages with their noisy occupants. Swarthy Spaniards and the -darker-hued natives join the boat, many of them dressed in gay attire, -and particularly wearing gaudy neckties and waistcoats. The boat always -anchors at some distance from the shore, while passengers and freight -are brought out either in lighters or row-boats. At some places a dozen -lighters may be filled with freight for the steamer. The ship’s crew -bring up from the hold scores of bales and boxes with labels familiar and -unfamiliar. International commerce becomes real—almost a thing of flesh -and blood. Each sling load brought up from the hold has its own tale to -tell, and everyone becomes commercialized. The crowing of roosters at -night, the bleating of sheep and bawling of the cattle remind you of a -country barnyard at times, for the boat carries its own live stock, which -are killed as the conditions of the larder demand. Thus it is that these -slow galleons float along the coast past Paita, Pacasmayo, Salaverry, -Pisco and the rest of the little ports. Five minutes after the ladder -would be lowered the deck would become a floating bazaar. - -Guayaquil is the port for the equatorial republic of Ecuador. Quite a -business is done there, for more than one-third of the world’s supply of -cacao beans, from which our chocolate is made, comes through this port. -It is generally infested with more or less fever, and most people prefer -to make their stay as short as possible. One of the curious things to -attract the traveller’s attention is to see the mules with their legs -encased in trousers. This is not due to any excessive modesty on the -part of the inhabitants, for children several years old may be seen -without as much clothing on. The purpose is to protect the legs of the -animals from the bite of the gadfly, which is very numerous here. It was -near Guayaquil that Pizarro landed with one hundred and eighty men to -conquer the empire of the Incas. The capital of Ecuador, Quito, lies in -a saucer-shaped cup at the foot of Mt. Pichincha, with many other lofty -peaks in sight. It perhaps retains more of the original characteristics -than any other city of South America. It vies with the City of Mexico the -distinction of being the oldest city of the Americas. For centuries prior -to the coming of the Spaniards it was the capital of one of the branches -of the Incas, and Atahualpa used to eat his meals off plates made of -solid gold. Hitherto accessible only over a long and difficult mountain -trail, which was impassable during half of the year, Quito can now be -reached by a railroad—thanks to American enterprise. No less than twenty -volcanoes are visible from the track, of which three are active, five -dormant and twelve are classed as extinct. - -Callao (pronounced Cal-ya-o) is the principal port of Peru. It is always -full of steamers and masts and has a general aspect of business. More -than a thousand vessels touch here every twelve months. Its history has -been exciting and there are many monuments to its heroes. Some warships -are generally floating in the harbour. Lima is distant but seven miles -from Callao, and it is a ride of only twenty minutes by an excellent -electric road of American construction throughout. To the hum of the -trolley one is hurried past irrigated fields, beautiful gardens and -villas, and Inca ruins many centuries old. As the boats remain at Callao -for a day the traveller is able to spend a few hours in the “City of the -Kings,” as Pizarro christened it. Lima is a wonderfully interesting city, -and its history is full of romance. It preserves in wood and stone the -spirit of old Spain as it was transplanted into the New World. Carved -balconies, which were patterned after their native Andalusia, still -overhang the narrow streets of the Peruvian capital. Up-to-date electric -cars whirl past old monastery walls where life has scarcely changed in -three centuries. The Limaños are an easy-going, pleasure-loving people, -among whom the strenuous life has few disciples. It has been the scene of -many revolutions, and the marks of street fighting are numerous. Churches -and ecclesiastical institutions abound on every hand, and ecclesiastics -are numerous on the streets. The cathedral, in which the sacristan will -show the alleged bones of Francisco Pizarro, is a fine specimen of -architecture—one of the best in the world. On another corner of the plaza -is the passageway from which the conspirators emerged on their way to -assassinate the conqueror. The building which was the headquarters of the -Inquisition in South America occupies still another site on the plaza. - -[Illustration: A MILK BOY IN PERU.] - -Pisco is the next port of importance, and it is situated near a rich -and fertile irrigated valley where sugar-cane grows abundantly. It is -the port also for the interior towns of Ayacucho and Huancavelica, -where numerous rich mines are found. Just a few miles out at sea are -the Chincha Islands, from which Peru obtained such a large revenue for -the guano found there. These deposits, once considered inexhaustible, -because in places they were eighty feet or more in depth, have been -almost exhausted. The great wealth received from them and nitrate has -been dissipated. - -At Mollendo, the last Peruvian port, there is a railway that runs to La -Paz, the capital of the inland republic of Bolivia. It is a surf-lashed -port where vessels are sometimes unable to land their passengers and -freight. In fact the landing is through a “sort of Niagara Gorge gateway -of rock, which gives to the mere landing some of the noise and a good -deal of the excitement of a rescue at sea.” It takes three days’ travel -to reach La Paz from Mollendo, as the train only runs by day. The first -stage of the trip, as far as Arequipa, is over an almost trackless -desert, where the wind piles the sand up in movable half-moon heaps. The -sand-storms of the centuries have covered everything with these whitish -particles, and the dusted peaks and hillocks stand out without relief -of any kind. The second day brings the traveller to Lake Titicaca, the -sacred lake of the Incas, which is crossed by boat, and a side trip -will take the traveller to Cuzco, the capital of the Inca confederacy. -Lake Titicaca is the highest and one of the most wonderful lakes in -the world. It is larger than all the lakes of Switzerland together, and -lies in a hollow two and one-half miles above the waters of the ocean. -Lying in a peaceful valley, in a scene of desolate grandeur, where the -trees are stunted and only a few of the hardiest plants survive, lies La -Paz. The City of Peace, its name indicates, but this city has been the -scene of turmoil and strife entirely foreign to its name ever since the -Spaniards invaded these solitudes. Bolivia is another Tibet—one of the -highest inhabited plateaus in the world, as well as one of the richest -mineral sections. - -In no part of the world, perhaps, is there such an abundance of life in -sea and air as along the coast of Peru. Soon after leaving Callao the -tedium of the voyage is relieved by the flight of millions upon millions -of birds. There are gulls, ducks, cormorants, divers of all kinds and -great pelicans with huge pouches under their bills. The sea is as -animated as the air, and schools of fish, innumerable in numbers, may be -seen darting through the water with their fins showing above its surface. -Danger besets them from above and from beneath. The divers poise on wing -every few minutes and then drop suddenly into the sea like a flash. For -a few seconds they disappear beneath the surface, and then reappear with -a fish in their bills. The lumbering and stately pelicans drop with a -mighty splash that sends up a dash of spray. These greedy birds continue -this foraging process until their pouches are so filled with fish that -they are unable to rise out of the water until the load is digested or -they disgorge themselves. The seals and sea lions keep themselves as busy -as the birds, and constantly display their sinuous and shiny bodies above -the surface, as they pursue the fish or come up to breathe. - -We passed by the famous guano islands just before nightfall. The air was -filled with birds, all of which were flying toward a great island that -lifted up its rocky surface above the blue of the sea. At some distance -above the sea were the smaller birds, which, at a distance, looked like -mere specks against the sky. A little lower were the pelicans flying in -single file, and in flocks of from twelve to thirty. They seemed to play -the game of “follow the leader,” for if the leader poised his wings or -lifted himself higher all did the same. Near the surface were divers, -called “pirates” in the local parlance, in flocks of a thousand or more. -They sailed along just above the surface of the water and continually -altered their formation. With the naked eye the number of birds was -myriad, but the telescope showed ten times as many. As far as one could -see there was the same multitude of birds, all heading for this one -island. The island itself was black with the birds already settled for -the night, but each new arrival seemed to find a resting place either on -the surface of the rock or in the caves underneath. For countless ages -these birds have occupied these sterile volcanic rocks as their resting -place, and have deposited the guano which has brought millions of dollars -of wealth into the Peruvian treasury. A glimpse of this remarkable bird -life shows how the guano has accumulated in such enormous quantities. - -[Illustration: ROW BOATS CROWDING AROUND A STEAMER.] - -The northern part of Chile contains the dreariest section of this forlorn -coast. There are no harbours, and a tremendous surf which rolls half way -around the world before it strikes a breakwater dashes into foam upon -these beaches. Several prosperous towns are located here as a result -of the workings of nature’s laboratories. To reach these ports it is -necessary to trust yourself to one of the boatmen, who crowd around the -ladder as soon as the vessel drops anchor. Judicious bargaining is always -advisable, and never pay the boatman until he has returned you safely to -your floating hotel. The boat is guided through the surf with amazing -skill, and it is very seldom that an accident occurs. They sometimes -crowd each other off, however, in their eagerness to get the best -position at the bottom of the ladder and secure the first passengers. But -all these men are good swimmers, and the only result is a good wetting -and much amusement for the steamer’s passengers who welcome any diversion. - -Arica is the first port of importance in Chile at the north. It is only a -day’s journey from Mollendo, the last Peruvian port. The Peruvian heaves -a sigh when he enters Arica, but there is some hope in it, for he trusts -to add this province to Peru’s possessions at some time in the future -again. But at Iquique the hope fades, for sovereignty is lost for ever. -Although not a large town, Arica has been the scene of several memorable -events. It was here that were built the boats which carried the troops -for the conquest of Chile. It was at that time a place of some importance -among the natives, and the valleys back of it were densely populated and -were cultivated by means of irrigation. Sir Francis Drake touched at this -place in 1579, and found a collection of Indian huts on the shore. It is -supposed to have been founded in 1250 by the Incas. It is like an oasis -in the desert to the traveller who has coasted along the shore for days -or weeks without seeing vegetation. At the present time it is famous -for its oranges. They are grown in the rich valleys that lie behind the -rather unattractive and forbidding hills next to the coast, and through -the opening in the flat-topped hills one is permitted to catch glimpses -of these valleys. Near the coast is a prehistoric cemetery filled with -dead bodies, which were embalmed with almost as great skill as the -mummies of Egypt. - -Arica is a pleasant little place of several thousand inhabitants. There -is a handsome little plaza which encloses a plot of shrubbery adorned -with morning-glories and purple vine trees. One of the striking features -is the brilliant colouring of the houses. There is also a rather imposing -parochial church which is painted in the gaudiest colours that I have -seen in any country; and it would be hard to duplicate it anywhere, even -in Spanish America, a land of rich colouring. It used to be a great -market for the skins of the vicuña, which are so beautiful. In late -years, however, the skins are becoming less plentiful and the prices -have jumped accordingly. The harbour is commodious and well sheltered. -Interesting glimpses of native life are afforded by the Indian women -coming to town. Some of them ride astride, being almost concealed by the -huge panniers containing their market produce. Others trudge along by the -side of the animals. - -From this city a highway runs into the interior of Peru and Bolivia, -which was constructed by the Incas a thousand years ago and has been -used ever since. To-day caravans of mules, donkeys and llamas may be -seen constantly passing up and down this ancient trail. They bring down -ore and take back mining supplies and miscellaneous merchandise. It is -known as the “camino real,” and is several hundred miles long. Near here -is supposed to be the underground outlet of Lakes Titicaca and Poopo. -One argument advanced in favour of this theory is that a certain kind of -fresh water fish that abounds in that lake is caught in considerable -numbers in the ocean near this town. It has been the scene of several -disastrous earthquakes. On August 13th, 1868, it was almost washed away, -and many of its inhabitants perished in a tidal wave which came without -warning and devastated the coast for a hundred miles. Two United States -men-of-war, which were in the harbour at that time, were lifted from -their anchorage by waves sixty feet high and carried inland a mile over -the roofs of the town. One of the vessels, the _Fredonia_, was dashed -against a ledge of rocks and entirely destroyed, while the other, the -_Wateree_, was left lying in the sand. Everyone on the former boat was -lost and about half of the latter. For many years the boat lying on the -sand was used as a boarding house for the railway employees. - -[Illustration: THE HARBOUR OF ARICA.] - -On June 7th, 1880, Arica was the scene of a furious battle and a terrible -massacre. At one end of the town, and directly on the sea front, -is a promontory, which rises six hundred feet above the sea almost -precipitously. On this rock, which is known as the Morro, the Peruvians -had erected a powerful battery to defend the harbour. The Chileans, -however, landed a force of four thousand men several miles below at -night. In the morning the Peruvians found themselves attacked in the -rear with no means of escape. As their guns were pointed to the sea they -were useless to defend against those back on the landward side. Although -short of small arms and ammunition, the Peruvians made a heroic defence -and engaged in a hand-to-hand contest that lasted for an hour. At the end -of that time the commander leaped over the precipice into the sea, and -his body was crushed to a pulp among the rocks. Several hundred of his -soldiers followed him, preferring to die that way to having their throats -cut by the Chileans. For months afterward their bodies could be seen -lying where they had lodged on the jutting rocks below. It is claimed -that seventeen hundred Peruvians were killed, as this was the total -strength of the garrison and no prisoners were taken. On a slab near the -slope of the rock is an inscription in whitewashed stone, “Viva Battalion -No. 4.” It was placed there by the victorious Chileans to commemorate the -heroism of the enemy. - -Arica is in the province of Tacna, which is the most northerly province -in the republic, and is about the size of New Jersey. Agriculture in -this province is very limited, and there has not been much of mineral -development. There are some veins of copper and lead, and some scattered -deposits of nitrate as well that have not been worked. A railroad from -Arica runs back to the city of Tacna, the capital, which is one of the -oldest railroads in South America. It is quite an important town, and is -situated in a valley made fertile by irrigation. A railroad is now being -built across the Cordilleras from this city to connect with the Bolivian -railways. When that is completed it is believed that this line will be -the best one, as it is the shortest, and every traveller is anxious to -escape as much of the dust in crossing the desert region as possible. -It is only a little over three hundred miles from Arica to La Paz. This -road will add to the importance of Arica, for it will be one of the main -arteries of commerce from Bolivia to the outside world, but it is not -likely to help Tacna any in its growth. - -The next province adjoining Tacna is Tarapacá, which is one of the -wealthiest sections in the Americas because of its nitrate deposits. It -contains the richest nitrate region in the world. From Arica the cliffs -rise up almost perpendicularly from the sea for the first day’s journey. -Pisagua, the first port as you travel “up” the coast, is a city of about -five thousand. This port does not differ much from a mining town in the -States. Although considerable shipping is done here, Pisagua fades in -importance beside its more important rivals. - -“We do not want rain in Iquique.” - -This statement was made to me by the manager of the nitrate trust, who -lives in that prosperous city of thirty thousand or more inhabitants, and -which is one hundred and eleven miles south of Arica. It was the first -time I had ever heard of a community that did not desire rainfall. Water -used to be brought by boat from more favoured regions, and was peddled -through the streets at so much a quart or gallon. At times it is said to -have sold as high as two dollars per gallon. A pipe line one hundred and -fifty miles long now supplies this necessary liquid to this city, and it -is sold by the metre instead of being put up in pint or quart bottles. - -A walk through this city on the edge of the sea, with bare, brown and -rugged hills for a background, showed not a blade of grass, except on -the public squares and in a few diminutive courtyards within the houses, -where the hand of man supplied the necessary water for growth. It is -little wonder that lawn-mowers are a drug on the market in Iquique. The -sun is fierce, and its unrelenting rays, absorbed and reflected by the -vast area of desert waste, inflame the air to almost furnace heat. The -streets are dusty and the fine particles get into your ears and nostrils, -and you can almost taste it on your tongue. Many of the houses have a -piazza on top, or a second roof, to break the force of the sun’s rays. -The Arturo Prat Square has been made quite attractive, and is ornamented -with a very creditable statue of that hero. Business around the shipping -quarters is always lively, as it is bound to be where such an enormous -export and import trade is carried on. In 1891, during the revolutionary -fighting between the Balmacedists and Congressists, the custom house was -the scene of a stubborn battle. The town was set on fire and confusion -and disorder reigned supreme. At the present time Iquique is an important -port and more than one thousand vessels enter it each year. - -The dreariness and unattractiveness of the surroundings is hard to -describe. Street cars with girls as conductors, good stores, the -telephone and other modern conveniences, and even comfortable clubs -do not make up for the lack of green vegetation. The groceries are -filled with condensed milk from England, sardines from France, sausages -from Germany, cheese from Holland, jellies and jam from Britain, and -macaroni from Italy. But fresh vegetables and meats are at a premium, -and unnatural tastes are developed. Many English live in Iquique. They -are great brandy drinkers, and show discrimination “in not exhausting -the wealth of the nitrate beds by taking too much soda in their brandy,” -as one writer says. Nevertheless the people are happy, for wealth lies -at their very doors and rain would cause great loss. By reason of this -Iquique has grown until it is second only to Valparaiso in commercial -importance. It has grown with a swiftness than can only be compared with -our own western towns. In the first days of the saltpetre era nothing -went slow and the town spread like magic. Much of the population is a -rough one and hard to govern, but the authorities have done well. The -battles that have been fought with fortune in Iquique and on this coast -have cost many lives and much privation. A few have acquired fortune, -but more have not even obtained a modest competence in return for the -deprivation and sacrifice endured. Whatever has been gained at the cost -of much labour and privation has been fully earned by some one—and -perhaps by one who did not reap the reward. - -[Illustration: A STREET SCENE, ANTOFAGASTA.] - -The province of Antofagasta joins that of Tarapacá on the south. -Tocopilla is the first port of importance, but Antofagasta, a little over -two hundred miles from Iquique, is the principal city. This province is -a desert in appearance similar to the other, and this city can boast no -advantages over its more northerly rival. Antofagasta is almost on the -Tropic of Capricorn, and is in about the same latitude as Rio de Janeiro, -on the Atlantic coast. It lies almost at the foot of some hills that are -quite high, and is a city of about twenty thousand. The dull-coloured -houses can scarcely be distinguished from the sombre hills at a distance. -The dust is anything but pleasant. A great deal of nitrate and some -copper are shipped from Antofagasta. There are several small wharves, but -everything has to be transferred to lighters. The harbour is a wretched -roadstead and, to get ashore, one has to brave a lashing surf. The pride -of the city is a little plaza, where considerable coaxing has caused a -little evidence of green from the grass and a few trees. A narrow gauge -railroad, two feet and six inches in width, runs from here to La Paz, and -a great deal of freight is transshipped to Bolivian towns. - -The province of Atacama comes next, which does not differ much in -physical characteristics from the three previously named. In some of the -valleys, where water can be secured for irrigation, a little agriculture -is attempted. There are also a number of minerals to be found, but not so -much as in Tarapacá and Antofagasta. Caldera, the principal port, is two -hundred and seven miles from Antofagasta, and has a well sheltered bay. -The oldest railroad in South America connects this port with Copiapó, the -capital of the province. This city is situated in a fertile valley on the -banks of a river of the same name. It is an old and quite important town, -and has a number of educational institutions. It will soon be connected -with Santiago by the longitudinal railway. - -The last of the northern provinces is that of Coquimbo. This province is -really at the end of the dry zone, and there are a number of rich valleys -where the land is fertile and agriculture flourishes. It is a mining -province as well, and a great deal of mineral wealth has been discovered. -Guayacan is a port, but the principal port is Coquimbo, which is only a -couple of hundred miles from Valparaiso. It has a population of probably -ten thousand. The city extends along the bay in an irregular manner for -some distance. The capital of the province is La Serena, and it is only -a few miles from Coquimbo. There is nothing especially in its favour, -although an attractive little city, but it is a relief from the dreary -places farther north which have been mentioned. - -[Illustration: COQUIMBO, A TYPICAL WEST COAST TOWN.] - -Every one going this way is bound for Valparaiso. The voyager, who has -journeyed twenty-six hundred miles along the Pacific coast, hails with -delight the beautiful half-moon bay in which that city is located. He -welcomes the splash of the anchor, which means a speedy transfer to the -shore and the comforts of a good hotel. Many disasters have been recorded -in this bay. In the winter terrific storms arise, and steamers oftentimes -lift their anchors and steam out into the open sea for safety. The -largest steamers are tossed about like eggshells, while the buoys bob -around like water-sprites. The enthusiastic Chilean loves to compare -it with the Bay of Naples. But it is not Naples. The waters are not so -blue, nor the skies as perfect, but it has a charm all its own. A row -boat or launch quickly transfers the traveller to the landing steps, and -courteous officials promptly pass the baggage. Then a short ride in a -rickety carriage, and the doors of the Royal Hotel hospitably open to -receive the guests. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -VALE OF PARADISE - - -Val-paraiso means the “Vale of Paradise,” and it is the name of both a -province and a city. The name is so incongruous on this unattractive -shore as to cause a smile, for the location of Valparaiso does not merit -any such appellation. It was so named after a little town in Spain, which -was the home of Juan de Saavedra, the man who captured the Indian village -located at this point in 1536. There is only a narrow strip of land -between the bay and the barren hills behind it, which, in places, rise -up to a thousand or fifteen hundred feet in height. At one place it is -wide enough for only two streets, which are very close together. At other -places this ledge creeps back farther, but nowhere does the gap between -sea and hills exceed half a mile, and a part of this has been reclaimed -from the sea. Through the centre of this level space runs Victoria -Street, which follows the coast line the entire length of the city and -is several miles in length. It is the main commercial street, and is -lined with business houses, public buildings and even private residences. - -[Illustration: AN “ASCENSOR” IN VALPARAISO.] - -It used to be that all of the city was built on this narrow strip of -land. Little by little, however, the city has crept up the side of the -hills, and the streets rise in terraces one above the other. On the edges -of the cliffs in many places the poorer classes have built for themselves -dwellings of the rudest kind from all sorts of debris. Some of these are -perched upon almost inaccessible rocks, and are propped up with wooden -supports. On the extreme upper part of the rock has been built the real -residence quarter, and many fine homes are found there. It is reached by -steep and winding roads, which tire the pedestrian not used to them; but -there are a dozen inclined elevators, or “ascensors,” as they are called -in Valparaiso, which carry the passenger to the upper heights for a very -small sum. Up the steep roadway the poor horses may be seen drawing their -loads, while the drivers beat them and vociferously berate them with -their tongues. - -From the heights one has a magnificent view of the bay, which is like -a half-moon, and is one of the prettiest bays in the world. It has a -northern exposure, however, and is subject to terrific storms in the -winter season, which lash the seas into a fury and the waves beat -upon the sea front with destructive force. It is still to all extents -and purposes an open roadstead, although plans have been drawn for a -breakwater to provide a sheltered harbour. The drawback has been that the -bay is very deep only a short distance from shore, and the problem of -building such a protection is a difficult one. The surface of the bay is -always dotted with vessels from almost every quarter of the globe. One -can at any time see the flags of a half dozen or more different nations -floating from the mastheads. Then there are hundreds of small lighters -which are used to carry the freight between vessel and shore, as no docks -have been constructed at which vessels can unload. In the far distance -may be seen, on a clear day, the backbone of the continent, the Andes, -with its serrated ridges and snowy summits glistening in the sunlight. -The hoary head of Aconcagua, the highest peak of the Cordilleras, can -easily be distinguished from the others by reason of its superior height. - -Next to San Francisco, Valparaiso is the most important port on the -eastern shores of the Pacific. This city of two hundred thousand has as -much commerce as the average town of double that size, as it is the port -for Santiago and the greater part of Chile. A business-like character -is impressed upon the entire city. Here live the men who design and -carry out the vast nitrate and mining enterprises of northern Chile, -and practically all business, except that of politics, is managed from -this city. The docks and warehouses are at all times busy places, and -are crowded with boxes and bales from almost every commercial nation. -Banditti-like _rotos_ drive carts and wagons filled with merchandise. -One of the first sights after being set down on the landing-stage is -the two-wheeled dray of Valparaiso. It is drawn by two or three wiry -and sweating horses, on the back of one of which rides the driver, who -lashes the horses unmercifully. The ridden horse is hitched by a trace -just outside the shafts, and he is trained to push at the shaft with his -shoulder, or pull at right angles when the occasion arises, and in every -way is as clever as any Texas bronco. One of these drays with the driver -lashing his team might well figure on the escutcheon of this city. - -The “U. S.” mark is less frequently seen in Valparaiso than that of -Hamburg or London, for the United States has not become such an exporting -country of manufactured products as those commercial nations of the older -world; nor is the Yankee in flesh and blood. The predominance of the -British is shown by the prevalence of the English language. Nearly every -one engaged in business has at least a slight acquaintance with that -tongue. One can not go far without crossing the path of some ruddy Briton -or voluble Irishman. Many of the best stores bear English names, and one -will see the same goods displayed as in New York or London. In fact it -is more predominantly English in appearance than any other city of South -America. There are cafés where they meet to drink their “half-and-half” -or other beverages, and there is a club where the _Times_, _Punch_, and -other favourites can be read. It is said that the foreign population -almost equals the native in numbers. Only a small part of this foreign -element is English, as there are many Italians, Germans and French, but -the English are the bankers and tradesmen, and have impressed their -characteristics more forcibly upon the city than the other nations. -There are amusements in plenty, for there are clubs, concerts and an -abundance of theatres to provide recreation as a relaxation from the -strenuous life. There are tennis grounds, football fields and a golf -course at Viña. There are many monuments over the city in the plazas and -on the new alameda, erected to the nation’s heroes, and one to William -Wheelwright, the American who did so much to aid Chile in developing her -transportation facilities. The naval school, which crowns one of the -hills, is one of the most attractive places in Valparaiso, and provides -one of the finest views of the bay and surrounding hills. - -“One of the great advantages of life in Valparaiso,” says Arthur Ruhl in -“The Other Americans,” “is the absence of a professional fire department. -The glorious privilege of fighting fires is appropriated by the _élite_, -who organize themselves into clubs, with much the same social functions -as the Seventh Regiment and Squadron A in New York, wear ponderous -helmets and march in procession in great style whenever they get a -chance. One comes upon these _bomberos_ practising in the evening, on -the Avenida, for instance, in store clothes and absent-mindedly puffing -cigarettes, getting a stream on an imaginary blaze. In any emergency they -perform much the same duties as our militia. - -“It is the delightful privilege of the _bombero_ to drop his work -whenever the alarm is given, dash from his office to the blaze, and -there man hose-lines, smash windows, chop down partitions, and indulge -to the fullest one of the keenest primordial emotions of man. Inasmuch -as buildings are seldom more than two or three stories in height and -built of masonry, there is comparatively little danger of a large -conflagration, and the average of one fire in four days is ‘just about -right,’ as one of my Valparaiso acquaintances explained, ‘to give a man -exercise.’ Their only unhappiness, he said, was that there were about -fifteen hundred firemen in town, and they were getting so expert that -what one could call a really ‘good’ fire was almost unknown.” - -Like its commercial rival, San Francisco, Valparaiso suffered from a -destructive earthquake in 1906. Slight quakes are quite common in this -city, but the inhabitants do not seem to fear them, and go along the -even tenor of their way as though such a thing as an earthquake was -unknown. In one year as many as thirty-five shocks have been recorded, -but the one mentioned above is the only one for a half century or more in -which any lives were lost. In fact Valparaiso has had its full share of -troubles and vicissitudes of all kinds. It was captured and sacked three -times by buccaneers, twice by the British and once by a Dutch pirate. It -has suffered severely from earthquake shocks on half a dozen different -occasions, was destroyed by fire in 1858, bombarded by the Spanish fleet -in 1866, and much property was destroyed in the Balmaceda revolution a -little later. Few cities in the New World have had a career so troubled -and diversified. - -The most disastrous experience in the history of Valparaiso occurred -in 1906. On the 16th of August of that year, only four months after -the destruction of San Francisco, the greater part of the city was -destroyed by an earthquake and the fire that followed. The day had been -unusually calm and pleasant. About eight o’clock in the evening the first -earthquake shock was felt, which was almost immediately followed by -others. The whole city seemed to swing backward and forwards; then came -a sudden jolt, and whole rows of buildings fell with a terrific crash. -The electric light wires snapped, and gas and water mains were broken. -The city was left in intense darkness, which was rendered all the more -horrible by the shrieks of the injured and terrified inhabitants. Fires -soon started which, fanned by a strong wind, soon became conflagrations. -Between the fires and earthquake a large proportion of the lower town was -completely destroyed, but the upper town was practically uninjured. Many -of the better-built business houses withstood the earth’s tremblings, and -the wind blew the flames in the opposite direction. - -The authorities acted promptly in the matter, so that patrols of troops -and armed citizens were soon on guard. The progress of the fire was -impeded by the use of dynamite. Appeals for help were sent to Santiago -and other cities, which were responded to as promptly as possible. There -was necessarily some delay, for telegraph lines and the railroads had -likewise suffered. The shocks continued for the two following days at -irregular intervals, which likewise interfered with the work of cleaning -up the city. A terrific downpour of rain also added to the confusion of -the first night, for the vivid flashes of lightning and the clanging of -the fire-bells made it a night not easily forgotten by the inhabitants. -The killed and injured numbered at least three thousand persons. But -fifty thousand or more were rendered homeless. Thousands of these were -camped on the barren hills above the city, and thousands more were cared -for by boats in the bay. - -Strangely enough no damage was done to the shipping in the bay. The -destruction was not confined to Valparaiso alone, but extended inland as -far as Los Andes, and many of the small inland cities near Valparaiso -suffered more or less damage. The property loss in Valparaiso has been -estimated at one hundred million dollars. Like San Francisco, however, a -new Valparaiso is arising which will be superior to the old. The greater -part of the destroyed district has been rebuilt in a better and more -enduring manner. The national government has advanced large sums of -money to the municipality, which, in turn, has given it under certain -conditions to those who suffered losses. To-day in the business section -of Valparaiso it would be almost impossible, after only five years, to -find evidence of this disastrous earthquake, but a little farther out its -handiwork can quickly be traced. - -There is a quaint side to life in Valparaiso. A visit to the market -reveals many things of interest. One will first be impressed by the fine -fruits of Chile, for nowhere in the world can one find more delicious -pears, peaches and plums. The marketers bring their produce in huge -two-wheeled carts drawn by the slow-moving ox. The stalls presided over -by men and women fill every available inch of space, until it is almost -impossible to force one’s way through. Everywhere are groups bargaining -over fruits, vegetables or household articles, for these people dearly -love a bargain. Many show by their faces a tinge of the Indian blood that -runs in their veins. - -[Illustration: A CHICKEN PEDDLER, VALPARAISO.] - -The peripatetic merchants, who carry supplies from door to door, come -to the market for their stock in trade. It is invariably carried on the -back of a donkey or mule, as it is difficult to draw a loaded wagon up -the steep ascents. Their quaint cries may be heard in almost any part -of the city during the morning hours. As a rule this merchant carries -only one article, or possibly two or three, if it is vegetables. The -chicken peddler has built little coops for his birds which take the place -of a saddle. It is interesting to watch him gesticulate and praise the -excellence of his fowls to the good housewife, or the servant who comes -out in answer to his warning cry. The scissors-grinder and dealers in -notions swell the list of perigrinating business men who make the streets -vocal with their calls. The milkman carries the milk in cans swung over -the back of his mule or donkey, or else drives the cows themselves from -door to door. - -“_Leche de las burras y vacas_,” meaning donkey’s and cow’s milk, was the -cry that reached my ears one morning in Valparaiso. On looking around I -saw a man leading two donkey mares and three cows through the streets. -Each donkey mare was closely followed by its pretty but comical little -colt. This is a custom imported from Spain and Italy, where goats are -also taken from door to door and oftentimes up three or four flights of -stairs to be milked. It might even be possible to find a milkman with -donkeys, cows and goats in his collection, so that a regular department -store variety of milk could be provided his customers. Add to these the -camel and reindeer, and you have the sources of the world’s milk supply. -Donkey’s milk is used a great deal for babies in South America, as it -is considered better for them than the milk of either cows or goats. -Milk delivered in this way does not need a sterilized label upon it, or -a certificate from the department of health. Furthermore, there is very -little danger of adulteration. The housekeeper reaps the benefit of this -style of milk delivery, but it must be a slow and costly method for the -dairyman. It is another evidence that primitiveness has not entirely -disappeared from Chile. - -[Illustration: A VENDER OF DONKEY’S MILK, VALPARAISO.] - -One other peculiar feature of life in Valparaiso is that the conductors -on all the street cars are women. This innovation was introduced in the -time of war with Peru, when men were hard to secure for that work. They -did the work so well that they have been employed continuously ever -since. It can not be said of them that they are especially attractive, or -even look very jaunty in their uniforms of blue surmounted by a sailor -hat. The fares are the cheapest I have ever found. The cars are all -double-decked. For two cents one can ride inside, and it costs only half -that rate to ride on the upper deck, which is a far better way to see -the city. The service is good, and there are more than twenty-five miles -of trolley in and about the city. The electric current for this as well -as lighting is generated by water power a few miles north of the city, -where a huge dam has been built across a stream. - -A night view of Valparaiso from the bay is delightful. The many electric -lamps in all parts of the city illuminate the otherwise dark shadows, and -are reflected in the waters near the shore. Here and there move streaks -of light in the lower town, as the electric cars dash along from one end -of the city to the other; similar lines of light move up and down in a -dozen places, as the “ascensors” carry their loads between the upper and -lower town. At such times Valparaiso looks like a city of enchantment, a -chosen bit from fairyland. - -A trolley line leads out to the aristocratic suburb of Viña del Mar, -where the rich people of Chile also have their summer residences. There -are some beautiful homes in this city, of splendid architecture and -surrounded by luxuriant foliage. In these villas the wearied and worried -man of business finds rest after business hours. For a few months in the -summer this resort is the centre of the social life of the republic, and -the hotel is so crowded that it is difficult to secure accommodation, -unless arranged for beforehand. There are delightful drives, when not -too dusty, and then there are tennis courts, golf links, polo grounds -and other places of recreation. A fine club building has been erected, -where the devotees of games of chance can find the alluring games that -their natures seem to crave. At Miramar is a small bathing resort, but it -is extremely dangerous, for just a short distance from shore the bottom -seems to drop to a great depth. It is used principally as a place for -promenades and dress show for the society folks, and every day a long -line of carriages wend their way out to that pleasant little bit of -beach. - -[Illustration: AN ATTRACTIVE HOME, VIÑA DEL MAR.] - -The great attraction of Viña, however, is the race course. Sunday is, -of course, the gala day, and the race course is crowded with lovers of -the sport. The people of Chile have passed the bull-fight period in -civilization, for the bull-fight and lottery have both been banished by -statutory enactment, and the horse races have taken their place. They vie -with the residents of Buenos Aires in their devotion to this sport. The -residents entertain house parties on that day and all attend the track. -They become very enthusiastic, and few who have the money neglect an -opportunity to stake it on the horses, for all are posted on the records -of the various animals listed in the races, and each one has his or her -favourite. - -The province of Valparaiso does not extend quite to the Cordilleras, -but it does reach out several hundred miles into the Pacific. Some four -hundred miles west of Valparaiso lies the island of Juan Fernandez, which -is generally known among English-speaking people as Robinson Crusoe’s -Island. - - “Poor old Robinson Crusoe! Poor old Robinson Crusoe! - They made him a coat of an old Nanny goat, - I wonder how they could do so!” - -Thus runs the old nursery rhyme with which all of us are familiar. There -are few reading people, young or old, who have not read that fascinating -tale of adventure, written by Daniel Defoe, which depicts the adventures -of Robinson Crusoe. And yet, perhaps, there are not so many who are -familiar with the location of the island which Defoe pretends to describe. - -The island of Juan Fernandez, generally known among Chileans as -Mas-a-Tierra, is a great mass of rock almost twelve miles long by seven -miles wide, a large part of which is as barren as a desert. One side, -however, where fruits grow and the wild sheep and goats find their -sustenance, is covered with a luxuriant vegetation. It is in a desolate -location, for it is away from the trade routes and there are few vessels -that pass that way. The fishing boats that ply between Valparaiso and -the island keep up communication with the mainland. The waters of the -Pacific teem with fish, and the fishermen have found the little bays -of this small island profitable waters for their trade. It is a great -lobster-fishing ground also, and the largest lobsters by far that I ever -have seen were caught at this island. - -Even to-day there are very few people who live on the island of Juan -Fernandez. Only about half of it is fertile, and access to it is so -difficult that it does not appeal to many. There is one settlement at San -Juan Bautista—St. John the Baptist—where the boats land, and one or two -other little groups of houses where a few colonists live. The attempt -that has been made by the Chilean Government to colonize it cannot be -called a success, for fewer people live there to-day than there did a -few years ago. - -Were it not for the story woven about the island few people would be -interested in it to-day. It was here among these barren hills, and in -the natural caves which abound on the island, that Alexander Selkirk -lived for four years and four months, more than two centuries ago. It -was here that he met and adopted a lone Indian, whom he named Friday, -because of the day he first found him. It is little wonder that existence -was lonesome, and it is even a greater wonder that he did not lose his -mind from lack of association with other human beings. At last his -watch fires attracted the attention of a passing schooner and the lone -wanderer was taken to England, where, for a time, he became quite a hero. -He was found, as the captain of the boat said, “clad in goat-skins and -was running about as though he were demented.” There is a rock on the -island which is called “Robinson Crusoe’s Lookout,” because it is said -to be the place where the signal fires were built. It is on a high hill -and commands a view of the sea for many miles. A large cave, which is as -large as the average parlour, is supposed to have been his home. In the -sides of this rock are rusty nails said to have been driven into it by -pirates who used to make the place their rendezvous. - -A marble tablet has been erected on the “Lookout.” This was placed there -by some English naval officers in 1868, for Selkirk himself was a naval -officer. Among other things this tablet says: - - IN MEMORY OF - ALEXANDER SELKIRK - MARINER. - A NATIVE OF LARGO, IN THE COUNTY OF FIFE, - SCOTLAND, WHO LIVED ON THIS ISLAND, - IN COMPLETE SOLITUDE, FOUR YEARS - AND FOUR MONTHS. - - HE WAS LANDED FROM THE “CINQUE PORTS” - GALLEY, 96 TONS, 18 GUNS, A. D., 1704, AND WAS TAKEN - OFF IN THE “DUKE,” PRIVATEER, 12TH FEBRUARY, 1709. - - HE DIED LIEUTENANT OF H. M. S. “WEYMOUTH,” A. D., - 1723, AGED 47 YEARS. - - THIS TABLET IS ERECTED NEAR SELKIRK’S LOOKOUT - BY COMMODORE POWELL AND THE OFFICERS - OF H. M. S. “TOPAZ” A. D., 1868. - -Although Defoe’s tale is not wholly true, and some of the descriptions -are incorrect, yet the story was suggested by the adventures of the -marooned mariner, and the terrors of loneliness, solitude and fear which -overwhelmed Robinson Crusoe were the same as those undergone by Alexander -Selkirk. - -Pascua, or Easter, Island is situated considerably farther out in the -ocean than Juan Fernandez, and farther north. It was so named by a -Dutch navigator, who landed on the island on Easter morning, in 1722. -He carried back with him to Amsterdam the first record of its strange -monuments. The greatest length of this island is eleven miles, and its -greatest breadth is four miles. Yet here on this little speck in the -ocean, an island no larger than Manhattan Island, where the sun is warm -both summer and winter, and the climate is enervating, at one time lived -a strange and marvellous people. None of the inhabitants of the island at -the time of its discovery knew anything about the monuments or the race -that built them. The traditions which were handed down from father to -son shed no light on that subject. Some claim that they were a race of -giants, evidently inspired by the gods whom they worshipped. Others claim -they were a race that antedated the flood. There is also a theory, based -on these monuments and those on other islands of the Polynesian Islands, -that this entire group were once a part of a continent now submerged. - -These people hauled mammoth stones from quarries that face the sea, -carved on them faces and cut with rude implements upon all the four -sides the story they wanted to tell. These stones were transported to -chosen sites and set up with engineering accuracy, until almost the whole -island became a gallery of monumental sculpture. Then came a new era; -the race of builders disappeared, and no one is now able to decipher -the hieroglyphics. In all there are over five hundred of these carved -statues, colossal heads and other samples of the art of these prehistoric -people. Except in a few cases the monuments face the sea, and to the -east, and they range in size from a mammoth monolith seventy feet in -height to a pigmy the size of a small boy. Some of them weigh several -tons and were transported from quarries distant as much as eight miles. -How this was done without the aid of mechanical devices is a mystery. - -Besides the statues there are several immense platforms constructed of -large cut stones piled together, as if they had been shaped to conform -to the plan of an architect, and all are set with true edges without -cement and plaster. These platforms are about thirty feet high, and from -two hundred to three hundred feet in length. After a fashion they look -like immense banquet tables or council platforms. Around or upon these -tables the prehistoric chiefs may have sat in stone seats and deliberated -or made plans to conquer enemies. - -On this island there are some peaks which rise as high as twelve hundred -feet above the surface of the sea, and there are walls of stone formed -from lava which for scores of centuries have lain there, and small lakes -formed in natural cups and bowls which were probably once the open mouths -of volcanoes. There are the remains of what was once a house of stone. -As the tumbled blocks now lie they mark out a structure one hundred feet -long, twenty feet wide, with walls five feet thick. Some of the slabs -are marked with geometrical figures and with representations of animals -and birds. These suggest a gigantic species, larger than any that exist -to-day. In fact all their representations of life suggest a heroic mould. -But the peculiar feature of this house is that the ceiling was not -more than five feet high, which would seem to render it unsuited for -a dwelling place. It might have been intended for a storehouse of some -sort. At the present time there are only a few hundred people living on -the island who are of the Sawaiori race, and resemble very strongly the -natives of Tahiti. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE CITY OF SAINT JAMES - - -“We will call this city Santiago (Saint James), for he has guided us -thus far,” said Pedro de Valdivia, as he staked out the level ground -surrounding a lofty rock into square blocks, one of which was given to -each of his followers. - -Few cities in the world have as fine a location as this City of Saint -James. It lies in the centre of a magnificent amphitheatre, about forty -miles long and perhaps eighteen miles wide, which is enclosed by a mighty -wall of mountains on all sides save one, half of which are covered with -perpetual snows. The Mapocho River, which flows through the city through -an artificial channel, escapes from the valley through the opening on -the south, which leads into the great central valley that forms the -real heart of the republic. The great amphitheatre in which Santiago -is situated is divided into large _haciendas_, on which are erected -magnificent mansions that resemble the ancient baronial homes of England. -In these the owners live and rule almost like lords of old. - -Santiago was founded as the first town in Chile. Valdivia erected a -stronghold on the rock, which he named Santa Lucia, and then set to work -to build the city at its base, which he had named after the patron saint -of Spain. The squares were laid out with the lines running east and west, -north and south. Each of his followers to whom was given a square for a -garden, was required to construct a house for his own use. Thus it will -be seen that Santiago is not a new city, nor has its growth been of the -mushroom variety. Founded in the sixteenth century, it preserves in wood -and stone, to a great extent, the spirit of old Spain transplanted to -the New World. The Spanish cavalier stalked in complete mail through the -streets of Santiago before the _Mayflower_ landed the pilgrims on the -shores of Massachusetts. The priests were chanting the solemn service of -the church here long before the English landed at Jamestown. Dust had -gathered on the volumes in the municipal library of this city centuries -preceding the building of the first little red school-house in the -United States. Before New York was even thought of, the drama of life was -being enacted daily in this beautiful valley after Castilian models. - -[Illustration: SANTA LUCIA.] - -But let us take a look at this ancient capital. At one side of the city -is El Cerro de Santa Lucia, a mass of volcanic rock almost as high as -the Washington Monument. It has a base of several acres, but gradually -narrows as it rises precipitously above all the buildings, until it -ends in the jagged piece of rock which crowns the summit. After the -fortress was removed it became the burial place of Jews, Protestants, -infidels and all who were forbidden burial in consecrated ground. When -these bones were finally removed they were dumped in a corner of one of -the Catholic cemeteries, and the church authorities erected a monument -with the inscription “exiles from both heaven and earth.” This freak -of nature, which geologists say was dropped by some wandering iceberg, -has been made into a delightful place, partly by private subscription -and partly at public expense. The summit is reached by several winding -roads and walks that are enclosed by walls in a most picturesque manner. -In the crevices of the rocks flowers, bushes and curious plants are -growing. Eucalyptus trees rise up, and gigantic ferns reach out so -that the hill seems a veritable garden in the air. At intervals are -kiosks for music or refreshments, and half way up is a theatre where -vaudeville entertainments are occasionally given for the entertainment -of the people. Terraces, fountains, winding walks and steps cut out of -the rock add to the beauties and comforts of Santa Lucia. On the summit -is a little chapel where the remains of Mr. Benjamine Vicuña Mackenna, -who planned this scheme and gave large sums towards its completion, lies -buried. On the way up one passes one wonderful rock formation after -another, delightful grottoes and cozy nooks, until at last all Santiago -is spread out before you like a panorama. - -[Illustration: ALAMEDA DE LAS DELICIAS, SANTIAGO.] - -Below is a vast expanse of flat roofs, out of which here and there rise -trees and a wealth of green. These are in the patios, or inside courts, -of the larger houses. Here and there rise the towers of the numerous -churches with which Santiago is provided. The many streets cross each -other in checkerboard fashion, thus dividing the city into square blocks. -At one side can be distinguished the Alameda de las Delicias, with its -double rows of great poplar trees, which furnish an arbour of dense -shade from one end of the city to the other, a distance of three miles, -and which leads out to the parks known as Quinta Normal and Cousiño. -This avenue, which was formerly the principal road leading into the -city, has been laid out as a broad highway more than three hundred feet -in width, with a promenade in the centre and a wide driveway on either -side. Fronting this Alameda are many very fine residences—the finest in -the city. Some of the houses are very large, containing fifty rooms or -more, and the furnishings are elaborate. The ceilings are very high, -which gives ample opportunity for decorative effect. One striking feature -is the absence of chimneys, for the Chileans are averse to artificial -heat. In the winter time it is nothing unusual for a guest to be received -by the host and his family wearing furs and heavy wraps. A few of the -newer houses have installed heating plants. With these homes the best -and most attractive part is usually hidden from the street. There are -several stands along the Alameda at which military bands discourse music -frequently. The promenade is broken by many statues of Chile’s heroes, -and others commemorating events important in Chilean history; and at -every few feet throughout its length are stone seats on which the people -rest. - -One of the finest private residences in South America is that belonging -to the Cousiño family, which was erected by the late Señora Isadora -Cousiño. It was designed by a famous French architect and will compare -favourably with those of New York. It is built of brick, stuccoed in the -usual manner to resemble stone, and is imposing. Its interior decorations -are elaborate, but rather the style one would expect in a public building -than in a private home. They are all French scenes, as the work was done -by French artists. It is still one of the show places, although the -señora has been dead for many years, and her descendants have more modest -taste. She was a remarkable woman, and her chief concern seemed to be to -expend her enormous income. Her extravagance was frequently the gossip -of Europe as well as her native land. Herself the richest woman in Chile -before marriage, she married the richest man, and all his wealth was -willed to her at his death. She had millions of dollars in herds, mines, -railroads, steamships, real estate, etc. Another magnificent château at -Lota was built by her, and the _estancia_ of Macul, an hour’s ride from -Santiago, was almost a principality in itself. The land stretched from -the environs of the city to the distant Cordilleras with their mantle of -snow. - -[Illustration: DANCING LA CUECA, THE NATIONAL DANCE.] - -Señora Cousiño did one good thing for Santiago; she presented to the city -beautiful Cousiño Park. It is a large park of several hundred acres, -which is the popular playground of the masses. It has cheap cafés, -merry-go-rounds and other amusements, and is the nearest approach to a -Coney Island that the capital affords. There are a number of stands for -dancing where, on a Sunday especially, one may see the Chilean national -dance, La Cueca, which is a sort of refined can-can. The couples pair -off with handkerchiefs in their hands, and dance face to face, while the -musicians sit on benches near-by and thrum guitars, pick mandolins, or -play other instruments. Each dancer waves his handkerchief in the air -with graceful gestures, and sways around in attitudes which are supposed -to show grace and suppleness. A race track has also been constructed in -the centre of the park, called the “Club Hippico,” where races are held -almost every Sunday afternoon and frequently on holidays. This is the -most popular amusement in Chile. Another park, the Quinta Normal, has -been provided for the people, and in it is quite an extensive zoological -garden. Among the many “strange” and “fierce” animals kept in cages are -several species of dogs and cats, which seem very much out of place in -such surroundings. A very interesting museum also occupies a pretty site -near the entrance. A botanical garden and experiment station is also -maintained here, and an exposition building in which agricultural fairs -are held each year. - -There are a number of very fine public buildings in Santiago. Perhaps the -finest is the Palace of Congress, which is a large building of modern -classical construction covering an entire square—not differing much from -many public buildings that one will find in the United States. I attended -a session of the Senate and the proceedings seemed very strange. The -members talked at random without even addressing the chair or rising -from their seats. In fact the proceedings were the most informal of any -legislative body I ever attended. Not infrequently, however, the sessions -are very stormy, and the reputation of the Spaniard for excitability is -well maintained. The National Library is almost opposite this building, -but is not an imposing building, although it contains an interesting -and valuable collection of books. La Moneda is the name given to the -residence of the President, and it also contains the offices of many of -the government departments. It is a large three-story building with quite -imposing surroundings. The President is generally attended by a military -guard during his drives around the city. Other buildings are the Palace -of Justice, in which the highest courts sit, the Army Building, and the -Intendency, or City Hall. - -At one place in Santiago a beautiful marble monument has been erected -on the site of a church that was burned in 1863. Church festivals have -always played an important part in the social life of the capital. At -the time of the Christmas festivities of that year a gorgeous _fête_ was -in progress in the Jesuits’ church, which was known as the Feast of the -Virgins. The interior was festooned and decorated everywhere with light -gauze, wreaths of paper flowers and other inflammable material. Candles -had been attached to these flimsy decorations. The church was crowded -with women while high mass was being celebrated by the bishop. Suddenly -the hangings caught fire, the burning candles fell among the crowd of -worshippers and everyone rushed for the doors. As usual, the doors opened -inward, and the crowds, jammed against them, made it impossible for -them to be opened. It is claimed that almost three thousand women and -girls lost their lives in this terrible holocaust. After the fire the -bodies were found packed in a solid mass against the doors. The church -was afterwards razed to the ground by order of the government, and this -monument erected on the site. Scarcely a leading family in Santiago -escaped bereavement, and the Feast of the Virgins has ever since been -celebrated with mourning in Chile. - -There are many worthy charitable institutions in Santiago. Some of -these are municipal institutions and others are church charities. Among -these are numerous hospitals for the care of the sick and unfortunate. -There is one very large orphan asylum, which cares for many hundreds -of unfortunate children—many of them of unknown parentage. The method -of reception of these unfortunate, and generally unwelcome, infants is -unique. In the rear wall is an opening with a wooden box in it which -swings in and out. The mother wishing to get rid of her baby places the -little mite in the box and swings it in. The automatic ringing of a bell -notifies the nuns inside and the baby is taken charge of by them. No -effort is ever made to find the mother, and she is thus enabled to rid -herself of her charge. Some moralists would criticize this practice, but -it is certainly better than infanticide, which is said to be an almost -unknown crime in Chile, where the ratio of illegitimate births is very -large. - -The Opera House is a municipal institution and is a very fine building. -During the season opera is given here several nights each week, and -generally by Italian companies. Not only is the building furnished free, -but a good subsidy is given the management each year in order to bring -good talent here. The seats and boxes are sold by subscription for the -season as a guaranty fund and are paid for in advance, although many sell -their seats occasionally if there is a demand for them. The audiences are -very interesting, for the people dress exceedingly well and are lavish -in their wearing of jewels. There is a large foyer in which the people -promenade between acts and there are refreshment rooms where all kinds -of refreshments are served. A special box is reserved for the President -of the republic and the _intendente_ of the city. There is also a -mourning box protected by screens, where those in mourning may watch the -performance without being themselves seen. - -The city of Santiago is a municipality within the province of the same -name. A little more democracy has been infused into the government than -used to prevail. The city is divided into ten sections or wards. Each of -these wards, called _circumscripciones_, elects three councillors, all -the members together constituting the municipal legislative body. They -must be citizens of at least five years’ residence in the city, must not -have any interest in national or municipal contracts, and must not hold -any other public office or commission. The three members from each ward -have certain local powers and duties principally in connection with the -elections. From its members the council elect three alcaldes, or mayors, -fixing the order of precedence among the three, also a secretary and -treasurer. The powers and jurisdiction of this body extends to the entire -government, subject only to the constitution and the organic act under -which the municipality is organized. The principal revenues are derived -from a personal tax levied for school purposes, a tax on liquors and -tobacco, a license for industries and professions, revenues derived from -city property and an annual grant from the national Congress. - -[Illustration: A GROUP OF NEWSBOYS, SANTIAGO.] - -It is in the market-places that one can best study the common people. -There are two markets in Santiago, both of them on the bank of the -Mapocho. At the newer one one will be sure to find some newsboys plying -their trade. “_La Union_” and “_El Mercurio_” are the cries of these busy -little newsboys, as they flit in and out among the marketers of Santiago. -They are barefooted ragamuffins, most of them, but they industriously -ply their trade. Their complexions are of different shades, for some of -the boys have Indian blood in their veins, which gives them a deeper -colouring. I posed two small boys for a picture, but before I could take -it a half dozen had crowded into it, making an interesting group. The -boys of South America, just like their counterparts in the United States, -want to take a part in everything that comes within their range of vision. - -It would be difficult to find a more interesting place in Santiago -than the old market, which will soon be abandoned. Around it will be -seen the huge, two-wheeled market carts in which the produce has been -brought. Many of these marketers have been on the road for two or three -days, bringing in the products of their fertile fields for the people in -the city. The meek-eyed oxen stand or recline while chewing their cud, -no doubt enjoying to the full the brief respite from their work. The -produce displayed in the market is good. The fruits of Chile are simply -delicious in flavour, and they are large in size. The pears and peaches -of California are not better than those grown here below the equator, and -yet they have been grown with very little care in their cultivation. - -One must bargain with or pay an exorbitant price to these market men and -women. If it is only a melon, or a dozen juicy pears, twice as much will -be asked as is expected. If you shake your head when a price is given, -the man or woman in charge of the stall will immediately ask, “What will -you give?” On the outside of the market building dozens of women will -be seen seated on the ground with a little pile of tomatoes, radishes, -potatoes or melons heaped up in front of them. The housewife or servant -will pass around among them making purchases and gradually filling up the -basket which she carries, or hires some boy to bear for her. - -[Illustration: A MARKET SCENE, SANTIAGO.] - -The poorer Chileans are a hard working people—the most industrious of -the South Americans. A walk through the sections of the city occupied by -them shows much grinding poverty. Across the Mapocho penury stretches on -all sides. The dwellings are low, with floors oftentimes below the street -level, and the interiors show unsanitary conditions and an entire lack of -the comforts of life, let alone the decencies. The improvement of such -surroundings should command immediate attention from the authorities. -The wages paid this class are not very large, so that they are compelled -to live in comparative poverty. They drink a great deal on Sundays and -holidays. Monday is a bad day to get anything done, for the peons must -have a few hours to recover from the previous day’s celebration. It -is a sort of a “_dias non_,” a day that is not. Holidays are greatly -desired, and it takes five of them to properly celebrate the “diaz y -ocho de Setiembre,” the 18th of September, the anniversary of Chilean -independence. _Fiestas_ are held in every park and plaza, and all the -banks and business houses close. Everybody, young and old, engages in the -festivities with zeal and enthusiasm. The poor people save up their money -for weeks and months in order to celebrate this occasion in the only -way that seems appropriate to them—that is, by carousing. Saturday is -beggars’ day, and every mendicant in the city is out with open palm. On -other days only the licensed beggars appear. Some beggars even come out -on horseback, for horses are remarkably cheap in Chile. - -Another good view may be had of the poorer classes on the occasion of a -church celebration, such as the festival of Corpus Christi. Both church -and state take a part in this _fiesta_. The troops appear in their finest -uniforms. The infantry are gorgeous in their blue and yellow, with -helmets surmounted with white plumes. The cavalry wear blue plumes and -the bands are adorned with red plumes. The religious procession consists -of the Procession of the Cross, which is composed of various societies, -the Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustinians and other orders. The parochial -clergy follow with the Archbishop in the lead. During the procession -hundreds of women and children, and some men, kneel in the streets. Some -men doff their hats, while others look on in seemingly idle curiosity -without any special attitude of reverence. - -The wealthier people take life easy. The real life is only for this -class. After breakfast, which is served from eleven to twelve o’clock, -comes the siesta. This meal is frequently an elaborate and formal -function if guests are present, and is more like a dinner. On the door -of many business houses one will see the sign “_cerrado de las 12 a 1½ -horas_,” which means that they are closed between these hours. Business -calls are usually made between two and four. At six o’clock every person -who owns or can hire a carriage goes out to Cousiño Park. Everyone -dresses in his best, the men wearing silk hats and frock suits, and -the women having on fashionable gowns and large hats. In the park the -carriages parade up and down the principal drives and the occupants -nod to their acquaintances. It is quite the correct thing for men -to make audible remarks about the personal appearance of ladies, if -they are complimentary. After about half an hour of this parade they -adjourn as by mutual consent to the Alameda, which is twice as wide as -Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, and the parade continues up one side -of the imposing avenue and down the other for another half hour. There -are all kinds of vehicles—drays, victorias, landaus, four-in-hands and -automobiles. The driving is superintended by mounted policemen, and -the scene is quite imposing, though rather stilted in the eyes of an -American. The parade then breaks up and all drive home to partake of the -dinner, which is the principal meal of the day. The politeness of the -Chileno is excessive. He will always give the lady the inner side of the -street, and would cheerfully step off the sidewalk in order to render -this courtesy. The man always extends the first greeting also to a lady -of his acquaintance. - -Club life is greatly enjoyed in Santiago, for the resident of that city -is very much of a night-hawk. The Club de la Union is the best club in -the country. It was my privilege to be entertained there a number of -times. The real life does not begin until rather late, and there is -always a representative crowd of men to be found there after ten o’clock, -and gambling is sure to be indulged in in some form. While the men are -at the club the women stay at home, or attend the theatre. - -When Italian opera is not being given, one-act comedies are the favourite -plays. Going to the theatre, however, usually means looking in for a -_zarzuela_ or two during the evening. Three or four of these one-act -pieces, or _zarzuelas_, are usually put on in an evening, and the house -is cleared after each performance. Those who dine late usually drop in -for the second turn, which begins about half-past nine; or one can catch -the last one, which does not begin until about eleven o’clock. Some -of these _zarzuelas_ are one-act musical plays, abridged from popular -operas, but most of them are melodrama or grotesque comedy. The audiences -are very alert and are quick to respond to appeals from the stage. - -“Oh, _Mamacita_, let us go around the plaza once more, for the band -has not yet quit playing,” plead the little girls and young ladies of -Santiago. On Tuesday, Thursday and Sunday evenings a band plays in the -Plaza de Armas, which is the centre of life and business in the Chilean -capital. Then occurs the _paseo_, or promenade, so common in Spanish -towns. It usually begins before the light has yet faded from the highest -peaks of the Andes, and while the newsboys are still calling out “_Las -Ultimas Noticias_.” The girls and young ladies, the boys and young men, -all come here on these evenings. The former are always accompanied by -their mothers, as the social customs are very strict and the girls do not -enjoy as much freedom as their cousins have in North America. The mothers -sit on the benches, while the younger women and girls walk around the -plaza in pairs and groups. The young men, among whom are many officers -in German uniforms and with clanking swords, walk around in the opposite -direction, and pass audible comments on the girls who pass. Their remarks -are irritating to an Anglo-Saxon who understands the Castilian lisp, but -the girls only laugh or smile, for they are quite accustomed to it. The -same attentions bestowed on young ladies on the average American street -would result in an interference by a man in blue uniform, and possibly a -gentle use of the “big stick.” The young men exchange a few words with -those with whom they are acquainted, but not for long, for mamma keeps -her vigilant eyes on them. The girls, even little tots, are finished -coquettes, and they aim to attract attention. This is one of the few -opportunities afforded to the young people to see each other. If a young -man observes a girl by whom he is attracted he will begin inquiries as to -who she is, and perhaps even his folks will aid him in his effort to make -the acquaintance of his inamorata. - -[Illustration: THE OLDEST BUILDING IN SANTIAGO.] - -Within almost a stone’s throw of the Plaza is all of Chile—those who -rule and those who own—the principal club, theatres, public buildings -and residences of diplomats. The chief business streets converge at this -plaza, and the leading business houses are near it. The great cathedral -and archbishop’s palace occupy one entire side, the post office and a -government building another side, and the portales, or corridors, under -which are many booths and stores, fill up the remaining two sides. The -stores around the plaza are small and like those of old Spain. This -is the oldest business section in Santiago and was in existence two -centuries before our own national capital. Some of the stores are like -holes in the wall, with goods stacked up in the doorway and even on the -street outside. They are far different from the larger and more modern -establishments near the corner of Ahumada and Huerfanos, a block away. -There one will find splendid stores where goods from all parts of the -world can be purchased. A fine large department store has recently been -opened up in the city, which is a great improvement over any of the old -establishments. The prices in the windows look very high, but an article -marked five dollars means only about one-fifth that amount in United -States currency. - -During the day many shoppers may be seen. The women trip along two by two -or roll up in their broughams, victorias or automobiles. In the morning -the women wear black gowns and the _mantas_, which are shawls folded into -a sort of bonnet which gives a very demure setting to the black-eyed, -oval, and, oftentimes, beautiful faces underneath. This is the dress worn -to the morning mass, and is not changed until after the breakfast hour. -One may sometimes see the roguish eyes of the wearer peering at him from -beneath this _manta_, even while the owner is fingering her beads and -uttering her prayers in the cathedral. Some one has described the _manta_ -as “that graceful euphemism which shields the poor and disarms the vain, -hides bad taste and clumsy waists, and wrapped about the head and nipped -in in some marvellous fashion at the nape of the neck, envelops all -femininity in gracefulness and mystery.” - -One’s visit is not complete without seeing a sunset from Santa Lucia. -Santiago is situated in a valley, surrounded by lofty mountains on every -side. At its back are the Cordilleras of the Andes, with their lofty -peaks which lift their eternal snows far up into the blue ethereal canopy -overhead. As the sun creeps slowly into the western sky it illumes the -red tile roof of the city and the many spires. Then its rays fall full -upon the snow-clad peaks, and long after the fiery ball has dropped -behind the lower range of mountains, which separate Santiago from the -sea, its rays continue to glisten upon the loftier peaks that form the -eastern horizon. Then, as darkness slowly falls over the landscape, the -electric lights of the city flash forth beneath you like visions in fairy -land. The whole scene, with its variations and transformations, is one -that will long linger in memory. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE GRANARY OF THE REPUBLIC - - -The heart of Chile lies in the great central valley which extends south -from Santiago, through Concepción and beyond, for a distance of almost -six hundred miles. It lies between the Andes and the less lofty range -of mountains that follows the coast line. This used to be Chile almost, -but the development of the nitrate industry to the north has made that -section of much greater importance than formerly. The climate in this -valley is delightful, neither too cold nor too wet, and its nearness to -the charms of the capital has made it an attractive dwelling place for -the Chilenos for several centuries. The climate is very similar to that -of California. The same crops and fruits are raised in both places, and -the conditions of farming are also very much the same. - -After leaving Santiago the railroad passes through numerous orchards -and extensive vineyards which grow around this proud city. Over the -fences of mud and stone trail the branches of peach trees, and along the -roads stretch eternal rows of solemn poplars and stiff clumps of the -eucalyptus. The waters of the Maipo ripple along near the track. There is -an appearance of enterprise and industry everywhere. Great carts drawn by -oxen, some of them with solid wheels like those of Pharaoh’s time, are -lined up at every station, as well as pack mules awaiting their burdens. -As a contrast a luxurious French or Italian automobile may be seen. Fine -_estancia_ buildings surrounded by vineyards loom up prominently along -the route, while, as a contrast, are the rude buildings inhabited by the -peons, which show absolutely no advance over centuries ago. There is the -same contrast in farming methods. Rude ploughs which merely scratch the -ground may be seen at work nearer to outfits which are strictly modern. - -The valley varies in its outline, for in places the surrounding mountains -press in and diminish its width. Numerous streams which have their origin -in the Andes cut across it, and their milky-white waters restlessly -rush onward to the sea. Among these are the Cachopoal, Maraquito, the -Bueno, the Maule and the Claro (clear), whose waters are more transparent -than the others. The altitude becomes lower and the temperature -correspondingly warmer. On the eastern side the lofty volcanoes of Maipo -and its companions are plainly in sight. Cattle may be seen grazing on -the rougher lands, while great fields of wheat and other grains grow -in the more tillable portions. At the stations farther down girls, who -show by the darkened complexion their admixture with the Indians, offer -baskets of all shapes and sizes, from one the size of a pea, to the -passengers as souvenirs. In this admixture the natives have conquered the -would-be conquerors. - -One of the most important places passed is Talca, which is one of the -largest cities of Chile. It has plenty of rainfall and is surrounded by -wheat farms. It has a very pretty plaza, and is ornamented with some -statuary brought from Peru at the time of the war with that country. -Two snow-clad volcanoes lift their hoary heads to the skies on the -eastern horizon, although at a considerable distance. It is situated at -a distance of about one hundred and fifty miles from the capital. The -streets are many of them lined with poplars, and magnolia trees lend -their fragrance. Vegetables and fruits grown here are of the finest, and -the inhabitants of Talca are able to live on the good things of life -after approved fashion. - -As old as is this valley, there is still much undeveloped land in it. -This land is partly covered with the bramble or other scrub growth. The -only trees to be seen for hundreds of miles are those that have been -planted. Some of the soil is very rich, while some is stony and hard -to cultivate. Where irrigation has been developed the soil responds -readily to the hand of the agriculturalist. The silt carried down from -the mountains by the streams acts as a fertilizer when deposited on -the surface of the valley. South of the Bio-Bio River no irrigation is -employed, or is necessary. The coast range gradually becomes lower until -it disappears. Evergreen trees take the place of the common forms of -deciduous trees. The Rio Itata is quite an important stream, but all -the rivers of this valley fade in importance by the side of the famous -Bio-Bio. Up to 1884 this river was the frontier boundary, all the land -beyond being under the sway of the Araucanian Indians, who were a sturdy -and independent tribe. Many battles have been fought near this stream -with the Indians, who resisted Spain and the succeeding republic for more -than three hundred years. The iron horse has now crossed it and opened up -the regions beyond, although all of the southern section has a much newer -appearance than that on the other side of the river. The newer towns -remind one very much of the frontier communities in the United States. -Many of them are settlements of Europeans, and some of them have had -hard struggles for existence. Onward the route leads through Victoria, -Temuco, and Valdivia to Puerto Montt, a port and the last town of any -importance until Punta Arenas is reached. It is also beyond what might be -termed the valley proper. Nearly all of this region is extremely fertile, -and contains some of the richest land in the republic. It only needs -irrigation in the north, and a clearing of the forests in the southern -portions, to make it blossom with wheat and other valuable grains for -the support of mankind. From the orange groves of Santiago to the apple -orchards of Temuco this valley ought to be one immense garden. - -[Illustration: A PLANTATION OWNER.] - -This great central valley is parcelled out among large landowners, many -of whom own almost princely estates. As agriculture has always been -the chief occupation of the Chilenos, fully one-half of the population -being engaged in it, these estates have been held in the same family for -generations in many instances. A farm of a thousand acres is small, and -there are many which number thirty or forty thousand acres. Upon the -product of these broad acres the owner lives in luxury almost like the -feudal lords of old. Hundreds of peons work on the _haciendas_, just as -their forefathers did before them, and they really form a small army of -retainers, who used to be ready to fight the battles of the _hacendado_ -at a moment’s call. Now they work for them for small wages, and are -always in debt. So long as they are indebted to the master they can be -compelled to remain and work it out. - -Irrigation has been considerably developed in some parts. Each -_hacendado_ is a subscriber to or shareholder in an irrigation canal. -These have been constructed at a great expense and are protected by very -strict laws. They consist of main canals starting well up among the -hills, and are pierced by many small outlets, called _regadores_. Each -of these has an outlet of a fixed number of litres per second. The fields -are traversed by parallel and intersecting smaller channels, and the -water is thus conducted from place to place. Movable dams of canvas stop -the flow into these intersecting channels, so that the amount flowing can -be regulated as the needs require. - -[Illustration: DRAWING AN AMERICAN THRESHER.] - -It is seldom that one will see fences of wire or boards, for most of -the estates are hemmed in with walls of stone. The absence of barns -on the landscape is a striking feature, and the only buildings of any -size are the low, rambling structures which form the residence of the -_hacendado_, his _administrador_, and other heads. These usually consist -of one-storied buildings, which are built around a central _patio_, -and have wide porches floored with brick. The _patios_ are laid out -in pretty little gardens, in which the palm is sure to have its part -in the attempt at ornamentation. Great avenues of lofty trees usually -run out in every direction along the roads or irrigation channels. The -most of the estates are fairly well kept, for the Chileans are quite -progressive agriculturalists. One will find on many of these great farms -the very latest of farming implements, including steam or gasoline -tractors for certain phases of the work. Especially is this true of their -harvesting machinery, which includes the latest North American patterns. -But in one respect there are some antiquated features, and that is in -transportation. If animal power is employed it is almost invariably oxen, -and not horses or mules. They plough the ground, haul the timber, and -behind them the thousands of bushels of grain produced in this valley are -conveyed to market. These animals are yoked by the horns, which seems a -very cruel way to treat these humble but faithful servants of man. It -looks to the onlooker as though every jar of the great carts must give -pain to the oxen, and oftentimes their eyes seem almost darting from -their heads. - -The vineyards of this valley cover thousands of acres, for the Chileans -drink wine as the Germans drink beer. A meal without the white or red -contents of a long-necked bottle would be incomplete. The vines are -dwarfed, and are planted in rows five or six feet apart. In many cases -they are trained upon wires, and the vineyards are not unlike those -in some parts of France. The abundance of a certain species of snail -is said to be one of the worst enemies of vitaculture. The Chilean -wines, both red and white, have quite a reputation, and the exports are -increasing each year. - -The abundance of dogs about these Chilean _haciendas_ impresses the -traveller. The Chilenos are very fond of these animals, and everybody -seems to keep many of them. Most of them are obliged to forage for a -living. They naturally become rather unsavoury scavengers under such -circumstances. It is not advisable to approach a farm, especially at -night, without being accompanied by some one connected with the place, -as the dogs seem to consider it their duty to protect the household from -intrusion. Furthermore, the people living there are free to fire at any -unauthorized person, because of the prevalence of petty thieving. - -Temuco is at a distance of a little less than five hundred miles from -Santiago. It is situated on the Cautin River, and is the capital of the -province of that name. Only thirty years old, this city already has a -population of twelve thousand, and covers about as much space as an -American town of the same size. Like an American town, also, its houses -are mostly of wood, a striking contrast to the older towns, farther down -the valley toward the capital. Although the temperature becomes quite -cold here at times the houses are built without chimneys, for the people -believe that fires are unhealthful. Churches, clubs and hotels have been -built, and there are saloons where almost pure alcohol is dished out to -the poor peons. - -Back into the wilderness from here and other places the government has -pushed short spurs of railroads in order to open it up. The government -locates the stations and lays out the lots, which are sold at low prices -to actual settlers. The lands round about are sold at auction in good -sized blocks of fifteen hundred acres or more. This land will bring from -one to twelve dollars per hectare (about two and a quarter acres). A farm -of two thousand acres of choice land could probably be secured for five -thousand dollars in United States currency. The sales are generally made -upon the basis of one-third cash, and the balance is distributed over a -period of years. The only provision exacted by the government is that -the purchaser must fence in his newly-acquired possessions, but this is -oftentimes a great expense. This land when heavily stocked with cattle -is said to yield very good returns. - -A few years ago every new immigrant was promised one hundred acres of -land, a team of oxen, a barrel of nails and enough boards to build -a small house. He was also advanced the money necessary for his -transportation. All of this had to be repaid, however, and the land alone -was the only actual gift. Under these terms many Germans were induced to -come to this land of promise. Many of these settlers have done well, and -some towns, such as Valdivia and Puerto Montt, are largely German cities. - -The first German settlers arrived about 1850, and they continued to -come in considerable numbers for the next decade. The first emigrants -arrived in the German barque _Hermann_, after a journey of one hundred -and twenty days from Hamburg. She brought seventy men, ten women and five -children. They had been lured by the promises of an immigration agent who -described the country as flowing with milk and honey. When they arrived -everything was in hopeless confusion, for titles were uncertain and the -country was an almost unbroken forest. The colonists began work under -these discouraging conditions and the face of the country soon showed -alteration. Puerto Montt was founded, and a good road built through the -trackless and swampy woodland to Lake Llanquihue. The influx of Germans -has continued even to this day, and many will be found who can speak no -other tongue than that of the Vaderland. - -On the journey from Santiago to Puerto Montt no less than a dozen -provinces are passed. Many of these are comparatively small, such as -O’Higgins, which is about the size of Delaware, to Llanquihue, which -corresponds with our own state of Indiana. Most of them run from the -Andes to the coast, but Arauco and Maule are purely coast provinces. The -names of the provinces in this section, and their order beginning with -the one adjoining the province of Santiago, are as follows:—O’Higgins, -Colchagua, Curico, Talca, Maule, Linares, Nuble, Concepción, Bio-Bio, -Arauco, Malleco, Cautin, Valdivia, and Llanquihue. - -Along the coast between Puerto Montt and Valparaiso are several ports of -more or less importance. Among these are Constitucion, situated at the -mouth of the River Talcahuano, and Coronel. The latter is the Newcastle -of Chile, for it is in the midst of many coal mines. Many of these mines -run out under the Pacific for long distances. The seams of coal are from -three to five feet thick. They are under a strata of slate and shale, -which is so compact as to be absolutely water-tight. It is a strange -experience to run out in these mines, which form a veritable catacomb -of corridors and chambers, and realize that perhaps at that very moment -some of the great ocean steamers are majestically sailing the blue waters -directly over you. I know of no similar mines except those of Whitehaven, -England, where the galleries run out several miles under the sea and seem -to be headed for the Isle of Man. - -Lota is also another mining town on this same bay, and is a town of -about fifteen thousand people. This city and Coronel are really twin -ports. Lota was founded by Matias Cousiño, who opened up the mines and -established smelter works in 1855. The company owns a large amount of -property and employs several thousand men. It furnishes huts, free -medical attendance, a church, schools and a hospital for its employees. -The sight of this town is the wonderful palace built by his widow, -which was constructed at a cost of many thousands of dollars. It is a -_château_ of white Italian marble, and stands in the centre of a French -landscape garden. There are ravines, fountains, statuary, arbours, -terraces, grottoes, artificial lakes and a small zoological exhibit on -the grounds. It blends French and English landscape gardening with some -original ideas. Few country homes in Europe can compare with it. It is -said that all the material was brought from France in the Señora Doña -Isadora Goyenecheo de Cousiño’s own ships, and the interior is adorned -with fine furniture and decorations by famous French artists. Cousiño -Park at Lota has become the pride of Chile. - -By far the most important town is Concepción, also in the coal district, -and which is known as the southern capital. It has had many serious -struggles with the Indians, gaunt famine and the still more terrible -earthquake. It is really a fine city of about fifty thousand inhabitants. -The last serious earthquake occurred in 1835, when nearly the whole town -was destroyed. It is situated on the banks of the Bio-Bio River, and -has for its port Talcahuano at the mouth of that river. Talcahuano has -a splendid harbour, and is better protected than Valparaiso, as it is -sheltered by the island of Quiriquina. Whaling ships now leave it for the -Antarctic seas and bring back considerable oil and whalebone. There is -a factory here for the manufacture and refining of whale oil. It is the -Chilean Annapolis, as it is the principal naval harbour, with arsenals -and dockyards, and is also the site of a naval school. It will eventually -be the Pacific terminus of a transcontinental railroad running to Bahia -Blanca, in Argentina. - -Concepción is the supply centre of Southern Chile, and does a large -wholesale business as well as some manufacturing on a small scale. -Quite a foreign colony is found there, and there are as good clubs and -hotels as in Valparaiso, its northern rival. It has forgotten all about -earthquakes and has risen above its former disasters. It is arranged very -much as other Chilean cities. There is an alameda bordered with poplars, -and there is a plaza. Lord Cochrane (pronounced Coch-rah-ne by the -Chileans), and Admiral O’Higgins are remembered in the nomenclature of -the streets. You can sit under municipal vines and fig-trees, or the pear -or cherry loaded with blossoms, if you happen to be there in September. -The markets are overflowing with fine vegetables, such as cauliflower, -lettuce, artichokes, carrots, radishes, potatoes, cabbage, etc., etc. -Indian faces are very numerous at the market and on the streets. Bands -play two or three nights in the week and the music is good. The flat -plain on which the town is situated is not especially beautiful, but -it gives unlimited opportunity for growth, and the Bio-Bio, especially -when at flood, is an impressive stream. The galvanized iron used so -extensively in construction does not add much to the beauty of the town. -As Southern Chile develops, Concepción becomes of greater and greater -importance, and it has a steady and healthy increase each year. - -Osorno is a thriving city a little ways inland on a branch of the Rio -Bueno, and was a place of considerable importance in the Spanish days. -Corral is at the mouth of the river that leads back to Valdivia, a dozen -miles inland. It has a trade of considerable importance with the other -ports, and is distant from Valparaiso almost five hundred miles. The -coast is not so densely wooded as farther south, and the tide is not more -than one-fourth as high on the average. Puerto Montt is a prosperous -and progressive little town situated on Reloncavi Bay. It has a well -protected harbour and enjoys a considerable trade in lumber, wheat and -leather. The lofty Andes are plainly visible on a clear day, especially -the volcano Cabulco, which is only twenty-two miles distant. A half -century ago this port had a commerce of considerable value and was even -then exporting food products, although its population did not much exceed -a couple of thousand. - -[Illustration: VIEW OF PUERTO MONTT. - -Courtesy of Bulletin of the Pan American Union.] - -There are innumerable islands, which lie close to the mainland, from -Puerto Montt to the Fuegian Archipelago. The largest of these is Chiloé, -which is a hundred miles long by from thirty to fifty miles in width. -It is generally considered to be one of the sloppiest islands in the -world, for that was the reputation the naturalist Darwin gave it, and his -opinion has been corroborated many times. Its length runs parallel to the -mainland, from which it is separated by a quite broad bay. The shores -are generally wild and rather inhospitable. If one lands any place, -excepting where a settler is located, the dense growth will be found -almost impenetrable, with all branches dripping with moisture, and only -an occasional sunbeam being able to push its way through the openings -in the evergreen shrubbery. Moss-covered bogs abound in which one may -sink to the waist in the mire. On this moist land everything grows with -wonderful rapidity that does not require a great amount of sunshine. -Moss, yards in length, and of great delicacy and beauty, hangs from the -branches, while ferns and polypodia scramble up the trunks. Beautifully -scalloped lichens, in brown and gold and lavender, decorate the fallen -trees wherever they can take hold, and fungi covers the larger trees. -Tough-fibred climbers of great length also decorate the trees. They are -oftentimes employed to tie up the fences instead of nails, and are also -used in weaving some of the beautiful baskets made by the natives. Brooms -made of it are likewise exported. This dense growth abounds everywhere, -with the exception of barren pampas which sometimes stretch for a quarter -of a mile or so. Cattle will sometimes wander into these thick meshes, -and no one but an Indian accustomed to the tangle can penetrate with -anything like facility in their efforts to find the recalcitrant animals. - -Several thousand Indians dwell on this large island. They have been -semi-civilized for two or three centuries. They seem to have been less -warlike than the Araucanians on the mainland. Their clothing is modelled -somewhat after that of the _rotos_, for nearly all sport a white cotton -or linen shirt, which is oftentimes worn under the gaily-coloured -indigo-dyed _poncho_. The shoes are generally simply made of a piece of -raw oxhide fastened to the feet with thongs of leather. Their houses -are the very simplest of contrivances. The family that starves does so -only through indifference. Land is cheap and nature productive. Most of -them live near the seacoast or rivers, where fish are very abundant, -and edible wild-fowl of many kinds, including ducks, geese and pigeons, -are easy to capture. The forests yield a number of wild fruits and -vegetables. Among the wild fruits may be mentioned strawberries of a -delicious flavour, and a species of myrtle which bears a palatable -berry. The fruit of the luma, or kow-chow, is very abundant, and is -used in making a fermented liquor much used by the natives. They have -remained as poor as when the Spaniards came, and the population has -actually decreased in the last century. This island, as well as others, -was a feudal holding and the tyranny of the proprietors and abuses of -the merchants account for that. Justice and humanity were frequently -unknown terms. Churches are not wanting, for at one place nineteen can be -counted on islands and mainland when the weather is clear. The church is -always an important and conspicuous building in every community. A few -colonists, German, French and British, have located on this island, and -have succeeded in carving a home out of the wilderness if sufficiently -industrious. Nevertheless many of them have endured great hardships. The -Chilean government brought them over but had neglected to provide the -necessary roads. - -Chiloé is the name of a province composed entirely of islands. -In addition to the large island just described, it includes the -archipelagoes of Chonos and Guaytecas, and embraces altogether no less -than a thousand islands. Many of them contain only a few inhabitants, -although the natural characteristics are similar to Chiloé itself. There -are several towns on Chiloé. One of them is Chacao, which, for two -hundred years, was the principal port. It was founded in 1567, but was -practically abandoned three hundred years later. Castro was the capital -until it was transferred to Ancud in 1834. These towns were plundered by -Dutch freebooters and also destroyed by earthquakes. Ancud is situated -pleasantly, but the bay seems to be filling up so that large vessels have -to anchor several miles out at sea. Lord Cochrane once attacked this town -and wrested it from the Spaniards. Living in this town is very cheap, for -the necessities of life can be purchased in the ample market at very low -prices. South of Ancud there is only one town of importance, Mellinca, -on the Guaytecas archipelago. With the exception of Punta Arenas it is -the most southerly settlement of any size in Chile. To-day it is much -less important than formerly, although still somewhat of a village with -probably less than a thousand population. The first establishment in -these towns is usually a distillery of aguardiente (brandy), and its -product is not a good friend of either native or settler. - -The life both in air and water is very abundant. The sea is most lavish -in life of all kinds, and can furnish an almost exhaustless supply of -food for those living farther north. The robalo is a Chilean fish of fine -flavour. The corbina, which is as large as a good-sized cod, is another -good species. The pege-ruge is a sort of smelt, and the herrings abound -in countless numbers. Oyster beds too are numerous. They are all natural -beds, however, but systematic farming might make them as good as those -along our own Atlantic coast. Other mussels and edible crabs of several -species abound. - -With such an abundance of sea life it is only natural that birds of the -fishing tribe should be plentiful. Huge pelicans, those dirty, unwieldy -birds, are attracted here by this abounding life. Cormorants are equally -numerous, as they are all along this coast. Penguins are also found -here. The grube, whose skin is in such demand, is also quite common. -The Antarctic goose is abundant, and the white gander on guard is a -rather beautiful black and white bird. He always occupies some prominent -rocky point, keeping watch and guard over his mate intent upon domestic -duties. Insect life is also very busy, and a red bee almost as large as -some humming-birds is especially characteristic of this region. It flies -rapidly and hovers around among the flowers almost like the humming-bird. - -Opposite Chiloé, on the mainland, is the Palena River, the largest river -in Chile. The excessive rains and melting snows from the lofty peaks, -which are plainly visible when the mists have cleared away, keep the -banks filled with water. Every cloud that sweeps in from the Pacific -comes down in rain as soon as it encounters the mountains. The slopes -are dotted with wood clear up to the snow-line. The woods here, as well -as elsewhere, are seemingly impenetrable. There are many flowering trees -which add their beauty to the scene. A tall cane from which the Indians -used to make spears grows in great confusion almost everywhere. It grows -in great stools like giant bunches of rushes. The genii of vegetation -takes possession of the riches of the ground. The beautiful green of -the Chilean pine predominates. The mouth of the river is a stretch of -delta. Of course it cannot compare with the streams on the Atlantic -coast, but it is a striking river. Dancing mountain streams join it here -and there—sometimes with a leap from the hills, thus forming numerous -cascades. These white streaks of the cascades are visible on the mountain -slopes in many places. The mists keep shifting and shimmering around -the various peaks,—now revealing and again hiding the silent glens or -gullies. The abundance of wooding oftentimes almost overcomes the -beholder with the helplessness of humanity in such a region. The north -winds which bring the rains are usually warm, while the south winds which -blow up from the Antarctic regions are dry and cold. These and the west -winds, which have such a stretch of sea to blow over, bring the worst -storms, for they are not impeded for thousands of miles. - -These facts lead one to speculate on the possibilities of timber -development in Chile. This republic probably contains almost as great -a proportion of wooded land as any country in the world. From the -Straits to Valdivia it is almost an unbroken forest. The trees are -sometimes almost covered with parasites. In places they are almost -matted together with the climbing bamboo, and at others they are covered -with soft cushions of the graceful liverworts and green mosses. In the -extreme southern part of the republic the trees become more stunted and -gnarled, and are not large enough to be of commercial value for lumber -purposes. This primeval forest probably extended along the coast as far -as Valparaiso, since that place was originally selected as a seaport -because the rich woods near at hand afforded material for shipbuilding. -Those forests have entirely disappeared. In the southern part of the -central valley they are being ruthlessly destroyed. It is simply cut -down and burned, while the republic as a whole imports hundreds of -thousands of dollars’ worth of timber products from other countries. It -is quite probable that an important lumber industry is still awaiting -development in Southern Chile. Much of it will certainly be valuable -for wood pulp if for nothing else, so that of the making of books and -periodicals there may still be no end. The dangerous nature of the coast -may make navigation perilous. The Pacific Ocean down there is not always -so pacific and peaceful as farther north. The change is felt soon after -leaving Valparaiso on the journey southward bound. - -Chilean Patagonia, which stretches along the Pacific coast for five -hundred miles, is little known, but it is a region of wild beauty. -It is a perfect labyrinth of channels and islands, to which there is -an entrance at each end, and one near the centre through the Gulf of -Trinidad. These entrances are through narrow channels which are difficult -to find, as they are so similar to other channels which lead into -_cul-de-sacs_. Powerful currents and cross-currents rush through these -contracted channels, so that vessels have to make them at full speed or -run the risk of being dashed helplessly upon the rocky barriers. Once -within the enclosure, however, the waters are calm even when the most -violent storms rage outside. Terrific rains which are veritable deluges -frequently fall, and impenetrable mists at times enshroud everything. The -barometer moves up and down by leaps and bounds. Suddenly a rift will -appear in the clouds, denoting the breaking of the storm, and the blue -sky and bright sun will be revealed. Then the scenery becomes glorious -in its radiant beauty—an amphitheatre of overhanging mountains with -glittering snow-dad crests against a sky of dazzling blue. Then all about -will be seen little islets, covered with trees and bushes of brilliant -green and flowers of many hues. - -In spite of the snow-clad mountains the temperature is usually not -extreme. The jungles will rival the Amazonian jungles. It is a perfect -compress of hollys, ferns, beeches, orchids, vines and countless thorny -bushes. It is indeed - - “The silent wilderness, - Where the soul need not repress - Its music, lest it should not find - An echo in another’s mind.” - -The surface is a spongy mass, and a foothold less than knee deep is rare. -This exuberant vegetation is caused by the excessive moisture which -is here precipitated. Flower-bearing bushes are numerous, and genuine -field daisies are as plentiful in places as on a New England meadow. -Cataracts are everywhere in sight and mark the mountain sides like long -white streaks. At times when the boat is near the shore their roar can be -heard. An occasional wreck may be sighted, but more of them lie unseen, -buried beneath countless fathoms of water, for the shore descends down -in an almost perpendicular line to fathomless depths. Few vessels thread -these narrows, but it is a sight never to be forgotten by one who has had -the privilege of making the trip. - -The future of this great undeveloped region remains to be seen. At -present there are no inhabitants, except occasionally a stray settlement -of Indians. Exploring itself is no child’s play, and there are still -tracts of untrodden forest, although the government has had numerous -surveying parties in the field. The boundary commission has done a great -deal in making this territory better understood. It differs widely from -the broad reaches of pampa of Argentine Patagonia, where rain is scant -and desert stretches are not uncommon. When development has taken place -it may far exceed in fertility and wealth the eastern slopes, and the -broad leagues of rich plain between the Andes and the Atlantic Ocean. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE LAND OF THE FIRE - - -“Tierra del Fuego,” meaning the land of the fire, exclaimed the followers -of Magellan, as they saw the wreaths of smoke ascending through the -frosty air. It was merely the signal fires of the Indians dwelling on one -of the islands of that remote southern archipelago, when they beheld the -strange white-winged vessels of Magellan sailing through the Straits, -since named after him. The name has clung to the group of islands during -the succeeding centuries, although thousands of white people have since -placed foot on them and the name is known to be a misnomer, for no -volcanic fires exist there. - -Beginning in Alaska, a chain of gigantic granite vertebrae extends clear -to Cape Horn. It clings close to the Pacific coast throughout the entire -distance, and ends in grandeur near the Antarctic Circle. Some say that -the lower end of this backbone of the American continents was shattered -by a convulsion, in which mighty masses of rock were thrown off into the -ocean, thus forming the numberless islands which lie at the southern -extremity of South America. The better theory, however, is that they were -formed by the submerging of the lower end of the Andes Mountains. When -the land sank the stormy water beat through the valleys and chiselled the -shores into incongruous shapes and labyrinths. - -Between the islands and the mainland are the Straits of Magellan. Some -of the finest scenery in the world is found in this intricate waterway, -especially in what is known as Smyth’s Channel, which separates Southern -Chile from the group of islands. Smyth’s Channel is very narrow, so that -most vessels take the broader Straits. The depth has never been fathomed. -There is a grandeur in the serrated peaks, and cliffs, snowy crests, -cascades and the glaciers under a brilliant sun and deep blue sky that is -simply overwhelming. Numerous mountain peaks reveal themselves, of which -Mt. Sarmiento is the noblest, and lifts its snowy head to a height of -over seven thousand feet. Its beauty is enhanced by numerous blue-tinted -glaciers, which descend to the waters of the sea like a multitude -of frozen Niagaras. Floating glaciers are common in the Straits, and -vessels, unequipped with ice-making machinery, often tie up to one while -the crew chop enough ice to fill the refrigerators. - -Few places on the earth’s surface within easy reach can compare with -the Straits of Magellan. This channel has become the great trade route -between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Few boats, except sailing -vessels, now take the longer route around Cape Horn, because of the -storms that lash the Antarctic seas into fury. For several hundred miles -the Straits furnish a succession of beautiful scenes; green shores -alternating with the eternal glaciers of the mountain peaks, blue waters -contrasting with the shimmering crystal of the floating icebergs. These -masses of ice are as imperishable as the glaciers of Greenland, and they -add a feature to the scenery that is not to be found elsewhere within -the ordinary course of steamers. It is a region of marvellous sunsets as -well as rugged scenery, when the weather is clear, but mist, snow or rain -often dim the view. - -[Illustration: IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN.] - -The eastern entrance to the Straits lies between Cape Virgenes, on -the mainland, and Cape Espiritu, on the island, a distance of about -fourteen miles. For some distance the channel is wide, with the mainland -gently undulating and covered with grass. Then come the first narrows, -and afterwards the second narrows. These narrows are about two miles -in width, and there is generally a strong current through them. In the -spring the tides are thrown up to a height of fifty feet, and this is -the reason sailing vessels prefer the open waters around Cape Horn, even -though the seas are more tempestuous. When nearing Punta Arenas the -mountains become higher, and at times the way seems blocked by them. -Stunted bush and underbrush appear. After leaving Punta Arenas the shores -grow bolder and more picturesque. The snow-covered mountains and glaciers -resemble the Alaska coast or that of Northern Norway. The islands are as -numerous as in the St. Lawrence or Georgian Bay. - -Nodales Peak and Mt. Victoria lift their hoary heads on the mainland, -while Mt. Buckland and Mt. Sarmiento rise to a still greater height on -the islands. The latter beautiful and majestic peak is the noblest of -them all. Its snowy head rises to a height of seven thousand three -hundred feet, with a broad base and two distinct peaks. It is generally -more or less hidden by vapour. The three Evangelistas keep their lonely -vigil where straits and ocean join on the north. Cape Pillar, the -western end of the Straits, is two hundred and forty-five miles from -Cape Virgenes, but the steamer route is almost half as long again. Old -voyagers were wont to take eighty days in this passage when the weather -was a little unfavourable. The western end is the stormiest, and the -pilot books give it a very bad reputation. South of them the Antarctic -seas are seldom free from the storm king. The weather is nearly always -bad, and oftentimes worse. In one recent year it is said that eighty-two -sailing vessels and thirty-nine steamers were lost—a fearful toll claimed -by old Neptune. - -Fernando de Magelhaens, although of Portuguese birth, had entered the -Spanish service. In charge of a fleet of five small ships, the largest -of only one hundred and thirty tons, boarded and manned by a crew of -sixty-two men, he sailed from Seville on the 10th of August, 1519. -The voyage was an arduous one, and was beset not only with terrific -storms at sea but mutinies among the sailors that were scarcely less -terrifying. Only two of his vessels remained faithful, but he conquered -the mutiny with the loss of only one vessel. On the 21st of October, -1520, he entered the eastern entrance of the channel, and it was a month -later, after almost unheard-of difficulties, that he emerged into the -broad Pacific. Of the subsequent expeditions that attempted this route -the experiences were most unfortunate. In nearly every instance almost -one out of every three vessels was wrecked, some in one channel and some -in another, for there is a perfect labyrinth of channels around and -between the many islands. Some of the names indicate the experiences or -impressions of these early navigators. Fatal Bay, Port Famine, Famine -Reach, Escape Beach, Last Wreck Point, Dislocation Harbour, Thieves -Island, Useless Bay, Fury Islands, Breakneck Peninsula, Desolation -Harbour, Preservation Cove, and last, Hope Inlet, are a few of the names -that may be located on the map. In 1578, Sir Francis Drake, an English -explorer as well as freebooter, by accident found the route by the way -of Cape Horn. This great discovery stimulated navigation around South -America, for the Spaniards guarded the Straits route to the best of -their ability. The Spaniards described Drake as “a man of low condition, -but a skilful seaman and a valiant pirate.” - -The Fuegian Archipelago covers a goodly territory. The islands contain -as much land as Nebraska, and are several hundred miles long from east -to west. A perfect labyrinth of tortuous, wind-swept waterways separate -the hundreds of islands which form this group. They are not all a -desolate mass of ice and snow, however, but contain plains which are -covered with succulent grasses, and slopes which are thickly wooded. -The Chilean portion of these islands, and the mainland along the coast -beyond the fiftieth parallel of latitude, is included in the territory of -Magellanes, the largest territorial division in the republic. The largest -island, called Tierra del Fuego, land of the fire, is half as large as -Illinois. It is divided longitudinally between Chile and Argentina, by -far the largest portion belonging to the former nation, and the best part -of it too. - -Thirty years ago this entire island was roamed and hunted over by the -aborigines. The fact that the northern part consisted of open country, -with few ranges of hills, caused the white man to look upon it with -envious eyes, as it promised good pasturage for sheep. Then began a -warfare against the Indians which almost resulted in their extermination. -Thousands of sheep now quietly graze in the rich valleys and on the -verdant plains, and thrive very well indeed. Very little of the land -is cultivated, although probably susceptible of cultivation, but the -marketing of the products would be a difficult feature at the present -time, and the season is short. Its latitude is about that of Southern -Greenland, but the climate is probably milder, and its longitude is -approximately that of Eastern Massachusetts. In the summer the grass is -green, but in the winter the chilly winds change it to a rich brown. The -ground rats are a terrible nuisance to the farmer, as they burrow in the -fields so much that they destroy half the usefulness of a good meadow. -The mountain slopes are covered with a thick growth of trees, ferns and -mosses up to a height of a thousand feet or more, due to the great amount -of rainfall, but above that distance the growth is very stunted. It seems -strange to see green trees and green grasses amid snows and glaciers, but -such is the contrast offered by this “land of the fire.” The trees are -mostly evergreen, not very high, but very close together. A deep bed of -moss, into which a man may sink knee-deep, generally surrounds them, and -large ferns with leaves a yard long grow in places otherwise bare. Even -bright flowers make the sombre landscape seem almost gay when the sun -shines on a summer day. - -Desolation Island, on the Chilean side, is a bleak and barren island well -indicated by its name, while other names are Clarence, St. Inas, and -Navarin. There are many others, from islands twenty miles in length to -some so small that a good baseball pitcher could toss a stone clear over -them. Cape Horn is a monster rock which thrusts its jagged outline into -the Antarctic seas. It is a couple of hundred miles south of the Straits -of Magellan, and more than a thousand miles nearer the undiscovered -South Pole than the Cape of Good Hope. It is surrounded by waters that -are tossed by terrific storms which mariners fear. The hulks of wrecked -vessels can be seen on every hand as reminders of the terrible tribute -which has been here levied. Glaciers are always in sight, and masses of -ice hundreds of feet high are frequently seen, seeming to threaten the -venturesome mariner for invading those beautiful waters. - -[Illustration: A WRECK ON THE COAST OF CHILE.] - -A number of years ago a steamer was wrecked on these shores, but the -crew managed to save sufficient provisions to sustain all those rescued -for some time. While sinking shallow wells they discovered a strata of -black sand that sparkled with particles of gold. Their reports led to -great excitement over the discovery of gold on Tierra del Fuego. Although -adventurers had sailed through the Straits for centuries, looking for -the wealth that they might obtain either honestly or dishonestly, yet -the gold deposits remained undiscovered until 1867. Their covetous eyes -had gazed upon the gold-bearing shores, and they had even filled their -water-casks in the gold-bearing rivulets without seeing the wealth. In -the few years following a number of Argentine explorers visited that -region, and found the source of some of the gold. The gold was almost -exclusively found in free particles in a layer of black sand, which was -found under the surface sand. As soon as the report of their find reached -the settlements, a number of expeditions were fitted out and sent to -that region. The best payings were found right on the beach, which was -washed by the waves of the sea at a high tide and during storms. It was -also found that the tides brought in fresh gold-bearing sands from the -seas. The miners used to sit down and smoke their pipes until the storms -passed, and then dig up the black sand with the gold in it after the surf -had gone down. - -It all seemed to be pockets, so that where the gold would be found in -considerable quantities for a while, it would soon become so scarce that -mining it under the crude conditions prevailing became unprofitable. The -prospectors sailed in and out of the stormy and dangerous bays, and many -of them lost their lives. The hidden reefs and whirling tornadoes form -combinations that made navigation in the small catboats that were used -extremely perilous. Many, who were wrecked, were obliged to live upon -whatever wild food they could find for weeks, and others were killed -by the hostile Indians. The original stories said that nuggets as big -as kernels of corn were plentiful, but they were not true to fact. No -gold quartz veins were ever discovered, but in all the finds it was -simply particles mixed up with the black sand. Gold mining to-day is not -prosecuted in that region as much as it was a couple of decades ago, -although some gold is washed each year. If the whole story was known, it -would probably be found that there were more skeletons of dead miners -left on those inhospitable shores than records of wealth acquired in -Tierra del Fuego. Most of those who did find wealth got no farther than -Punta Arenas with it, for that city was to that region what San Francisco -was in the early days of California, and mining prospectors are the same -the world over. - -The first attempt to establish a settlement on the Straits of Magellan -was in the latter part of the sixteenth century. Pedro Sarmiento de -Gamboa was placed in command of this expedition. His instructions were -as follows: “For the honour and glory of God and of the Virgin Mary, -His Mother and Our Lady, whom you, Captain Pedro Sarmiento, are to take -for Advocate and Patron of the ships and crews under your orders for -this discovery and enterprise in the Straits of Magellan.” After several -narrow escapes from shipwreck the expedition landed, and established a -settlement not far from the present city of Punta Arenas. From the very -first misfortune seemed to follow the colonists, and the Indians soon -became hostile. At the end of the second winter the three hundred or -more colonists had dwindled to eighteen, who were finally rescued. They -had been obliged to live on berries, shell-fish, oysters, and such other -ocean life that they were able to catch. The Indians had driven the -guanaco and other wild game into the interior where the colonists could -not reach them. - -[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF PUNTA ARENAS.] - -The continent of South America extends much farther south than Africa. -The southernmost point is Cape Frowards, which is a dark mass of rock -five hundred feet high joined by a low neck of land to snow-clad -mountains. At almost the southernmost point of the mainland lies the -little city of Punta Arenas (Sandy Point). It is situated on the Straits -of Magellan, which is sheltered from the worst storms by the many -islands that lie between it and the Antarctic seas. Punta Arenas is the -southernmost city in the world, eight hundred miles farther south than -Cape Town. There is plenty of building space left in this city still, -but a few years ago, when the boom was on, the people had visions of a -southern Chicago. Fabulous prices were asked for building lots, and real -estate agents were almost as plentiful as the Indians. That time has -passed, and the town has dwindled in population. Its latitude is about -that of Labrador, but it is much more equable than that country and the -weather is not so severe as many imagine. It is so named because built -on a sandy beach that runs out into the Straits. It is now a city of -twelve thousand people, and they seem to be contented. It is a very mixed -population. You can hear Spanish, English, German, Italian, Russian and -even the Chinese mingled with the guttural tongues of the Indians. The -Scotch are probably the most thrifty of the inhabitants, and many of them -have lived there two or three generations. - -There are many rough characters in Punta Arenas, some even who have -drifted from the mining camps of our western states. It is said to be -bad policy to ask a man where he came from, or what his name was before -his arrival, as it might be an embarrassing subject. The loafing places -are the bars, where many brawls occur during the long winters. There are -probably as many saloons to the number of inhabitants as in any other -place on the globe, for nearly every other door seems to bear such a -sign. Much gambling is also done at these and in the clubs. There are -clubs, where the well-to-do gather and have their games just as they do -the world over. The principal club is the Cuerpo de Bomberos, which means -the Society of Firemen, and was organized as a volunteer fire department. -Most of the buildings are cheap one-story affairs, frequently being built -of the corrugated iron so common in this land. Punta Arenas is a free -port, and this fact has aided in its prosperity. All the vessels passing -through the Straits call there for supplies and coal, and this business, -together with the trade in whaling products, wool and furs, furnish -the inhabitants with employment. It is one of the great wool-exporting -ports of the world, having shipped more than sixteen million pounds of -that commodity in a single season, and four hundred thousand pelts. The -trade in furs is very large. One of the prettiest things sold here is an -ostrich robe made of the breasts of the young birds. - -[Illustration: PORT FAMINE, IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN.] - -Punta Arenas is the business centre of the region extending from Port -Desire, on the Patagonian coast to Cape Horn, and from the Falkland -Islands on the east to the westernmost limits of Chile. The little -settlement that originally was established there was called La Colonia -de Magellanes. On the 21st of April, 1843, Chile first planted her -tri-coloured banner at a place near here, which was called Port Famine, -because of the disastrous end of the Sarmiento settlement, which had been -located there a couple of centuries previously. - -Chile had a double purpose in establishing this post. One was its desire -to hold the territory as a national possession, and the other was to -establish a penal colony which would be so far away from the capital that -the prisoners, even if they escaped, could not return. Several hundred -prisoners were generally confined there, who were kept in subjection -by a small company of soldiers. On two occasions the convicts rebelled -and took possession of this settlement. On one of these the governor -and many of the guards were killed and the mutineers boarded a ship -that chanced to be in the harbour, but they were overtaken by a Chilean -man-of-war and overcome. The men were hung, and it is said that a man -was seen hanging from every yard-arm of the war-ship. After the first -revolt a new settlement was established on the present site of Punta -Arenas, which was given the old name. The tongue of sand there, however, -the English-speaking people called Sandy Point, and thereafter the name -Punta Arenas, which means the same in Spanish, was given it; at least it -is entirely known by that name now. - -In 1877 the last revolt occurred, when the convicts revenged the -cruelties to which they had been subjected upon the commander of the -garrison and many of the soldiers. When a man-of-war appeared they fled -into the interior, where most of them died from starvation and hardships. -The establishment of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company was the cause -of the abandonment of this place as a penal colony. It proved to be a -convenient stopping place for the steamers to take on coal and supplies, -and this gave it a new life. Later came the discovery of gold, which -brought many to the settlement. Still later a Scotchman brought some -sheep from the Falkland Islands, and found that the region around Punta -Arenas and on the island opposite was well adapted for sheep raising. -Others took advantage of this experience, until the neighbourhood around -became noted for its sheep culture. Some day, if a freezing establishment -should be established here, Punta Arenas will become a still more -important place, and it is undoubtedly only a question of time until -such will be done. The town itself makes a poor foreground for the -magnificent setting of nature. It is laid out on the usual checkerboard -plan, with several streets running from the shores back up the hills. -It has a plaza and the streets are unpaved. The beach is sandy and the -streets are either filled with loose sand or mud. - -Across the Straits the green hills of Tierra del Fuego may be seen -rising, and over to the south the snow-capped peaks of Mt. Sarmiento and -its neighbours appear above the horizon. To the west are mountains which -are ever green and rise boldly up to the western edge, while to the north -the hills are generally bare. At one time it was thought that coal had -been discovered and the mine was opened up; some track was built and an -old locomotive brought down. It proved, however, to be only lignite, and -so the mine has been practically abandoned. - -A considerable trade has been developed in Indian curios and goods. -The Indians from the pampas and islands come here to sell their furs, -feathers, bows, hides, etc. Passengers passing through the Straits on the -various steamers usually lay in a supply of these goods, some of which -are genuine and others are prepared especially for such passengers. One -wonders at the number of palms and plants which are seen in this town -so far beyond all other settlements, for even wild flowers of certain -kinds seem to grow in great profusion, while ferns and lichens everywhere -delight the eye. - -South of Punta Arenas there is only one settlement of any importance, and -that is Ushuaia. This town is situated on the Argentine side of Tierra -del Fuego, and, small as it is, it is the capital of that territory. It -stands nearer to the South Pole than any other civilized village in the -world. The barriers created by nature are almost insurmountable. To the -south is the unknown Antarctic, to the north the impassable barrier of -snow-clad peaks, and in all other directions are the fathomless channels -separating it from the other islands. Established first as a mission -settlement, its site was selected as the capital of the territory. The -Argentine flag was first unfolded over the first building erected for -the use of officials in 1884. Shortly after that work upon prisons was -begun, and it became a still more important settlement. Here, in this -isolated quarter of the globe, guarded by a few score of armed men, are -confined several hundred men, many of whom are the very dregs of humanity -sent from Buenos Aires. These unfortunates work on the roads, dress stone -for new and stronger walls, or make the garments worn by themselves and -their fellow prisoners. Few attempt to escape and fewer still succeed, -for the loneliness and desolation alone would keep a prisoner where human -companionship may be found. - -Small and unimportant as this town is to-day, and wretched as it would -seem to many people, yet it has a full complement of officials with their -secretaries and servants. There is a complete list of judicial officers -and police officials, even though the police have no patrol to beat and -the court has no docket. About the only part of the official equipment -that has any work to do is the culinary department, for it takes a great -deal of cooking and preparation to provide food for every one there. -Out of a population of several hundred to-day, made up principally of -prisoners and officials, there are only a very few plain common citizens -who dwell there. - -Most of the buildings in Ushuaia are frame structures, which have been -erected near the bay that bears the same name as the town. It is situated -on Beagle Channel. The houses consist of plain unpainted wooden walls, -with a roof of corrugated iron. The governor’s palace itself is not much -better than the other buildings. A few of the buildings have little green -patches, enclosed with picket fences, in which they are able to grow a -few vegetables. For a location so far south the climate is not so bad as -one would expect, as the snowfall is not as great as in the same latitude -in northern regions. In the winter time the nights are very long and -the days short. The mountains just at the back of the town cut off the -sunlight when the sun is low, so that the town only receives about four -hours of daylight. It is certainly a cheerless sort of existence that the -people lead in this southern capital. There are still one or two missions -that are conducted by English missionaries on this coastland, but they -have had very little influence upon the natives. One of the missions -consists of quite a large ranch, where the minister in charge of the -mission lives and employs the natives to do his work. - -For several hundred miles north of Punta Arenas lies the formerly -unknown land of Patagonia—the land of the Pata-goas, the “big feet,” as -they were named by Magellan. One can see in that city almost any day -descendants of that race in the Tehuelche tribe of Indians who come -there to sell their furs and skins. Out upon the broad pampas away from -the town, the traveller will occasionally stumble upon the _toldos_ -(huts) of the Tehuelches. These are simply made huts of the skins of -the guanaco sewn loosely together at the edges, and supported squarely -upon awkward-looking props, or posts, forked at the top to admit the -ridge-poles. The skins are fastened to the earth by wooden pegs. The -Tehuelches are the native Indians of Patagonia—the so-called giants—and -are well built specimens of manhood. These Indians live almost as -their ancestors did hundreds of years ago. They are still nomads, and -exist entirely by the chase. They do not cultivate anything whatever, -but sometimes own a few cattle. In general they still dress in skins, -although some of them have purchased store clothes at the settlements. As -a rule they are mild mannered, when sober, and do not deserve the name of -being bloodthirsty savages. Their numbers have greatly decreased, since -the first discovery of Patagonia, through dissipation and disease, and -some have estimated that the total number yet remaining will not exceed a -few hundred. - -Only a few years ago the geographers labelled Patagonia “no man’s land.” -To-day millions of sheep graze over its fertile plains. It is as large as -several of our western states. It is a land of big distances and enormous -holdings. In the pasture section it is often a ride of three or four -days from one ranch to another. Most of these ranches are near the coast -or along the few rivers. As one travels into the interior a white face -becomes more and more rare; empty leagues surround you on every hand. -One accustomed to cities only would find it very lonely indeed on these -plains. One seems to stand alone with only the wind, the mirages and the -limitless distances, and the blue sky above for a canopy. The last land -to have been the habitation of the greater beasts of preceding ages, -according to geologists, Patagonia is one of the last to receive its -proper share of the human population. - -There are three races of Indians who inhabit these Fuegian islands, -the Yahgans, Alacaloofs and the Onas, all of whom are very low in -intelligence. They are commonly known under the general characterization -of the Firelanders. None of them are as far advanced as the Esquimaux, -who build warm igloos for their habitation. Even though the climate is -very cold the greater part of the year these aborigines formerly wore -very little clothing, but greased their bodies with fish oil that keeps -out the cold. In recent years, however, they have begun to wear warmer -garments, when such can be obtained. The Yahgans are very treacherous, -and many murders have been traced to them. They will mingle very little -with white people, but always hold themselves aloof. Their houses are of -the most primitive character, and are frequently little more than a rude -construction of thatch on a skeleton of sticks stuck in the ground. - -These Yahgans live almost entirely on sea food. They divide their time -between these rude huts and canoes, or dugouts made from the trunks of -trees, in which they paddle through the tortuous channels from one island -to another. Should a storm overtake the boat and it becomes necessary to -lighten it, the men show their instinct for self-preservation by throwing -the women and children overboard. They are not particular about food, -as to whether it is very fresh or not. There is frequently a dearth of -food, and then it is that they are driven to eat the flesh of a stranded -whale or of an animal found dead. Ground rats and the fishy-flavoured -penguin are included on their regular bill-of-fare. Their camping-places -can generally be located by the mounds of shells that accumulate. They -are as near to primitive savages as it would be possible to find on the -Americas. As usual among savage tribes, the women do the most of the -work, and assist in the hunting and fishing as well as prepare the meat -after it has once been caught. The Yahgans are short and muscular and -below medium height. Their lower limbs seem rather stunted, but above -the waist they are heavily built. Marriage is a matter of purchase and -sale, and wives are sometimes exchanged. The marriage ceremony consists -in painting the girl in a peculiar way, and then the husband takes her to -his hut or that of his parents. - -The Alacaloofs, or Alakalufs, occupy the western islands and are similar -in their habits to the Yahgans. Their canoes are made of strips of bark -or planks fastened together with vines and caulked with moss. Their huts -look like New England haycocks made of boughs and covered with skins or -bark strips. They frequently row out to meet passing steamers and beg for -food. They are not an attractive people. In colour they strongly resemble -the North American red men, but they are not much over five feet in -height. The only domesticated animal owned by them is the dog. With this -tribe, as well as the Yahgans, everything is held in common and it is no -crime to take of your neighbour’s fuel or food. - -The Onas are a hunting tribe and they are larger than either of the -other tribes. They occupy the prairie lands and open bush of Tierra del -Fuego. The men are active and athletic, and they are especially skilful -in stalking the guanaco of that island. They are expert in the use of -the rude bows and arrows which they make for themselves. The bows are -fashioned out of a native wood cut with shell knives, and the arrows -are made out of reeds armed with a flint or glass point. Horse meat is -a great delicacy with them. The struggle for existence has made these -people inexpressive in features and stoical in actions. A good fortune or -an ill fortune is met in much the same way. Their homes are generally -saucer-shaped hollows that have been scraped out, over which poles and -brush are piled and guanaco skins are used as doors. All the family lie -down together, and the dogs are included for warmth. They are nomads and -wander from one place to another in search of food. Fire is made with -bits of iron ore or flints and dry fungus. Some of this tribe are now -employed as servants by the white people, but most of them prefer the -wild life in the open. - -With all the hardships that seem to fall to the lot of these Indians who -live so far to the south, they seem to be fairly happy and are contented -with their surroundings. This is truly fortunate. People who live in the -temperate zones are inclined to think that they are the only truly happy -ones. By travel one’s view is broadened, and at last he realizes the -truth expressed by Oliver Goldsmith in the following lines:— - - “If countries we compare, - And estimate the blessings which they share, - Though patriots flatter, still shall wisdom find - An equal portion dealt to all mankind. - The shuddering tenant of the frigid zone - Boldly proclaims that happiest spot his own; - Extols the treasures of the stormy seas, - And his long nights of revelry and ease; - The naked negro, panting at the Line, - Boasts of his golden sands and palmy wine, - Basks in the glare, or strives the tepid wave. - And thanks his gods for all the good they gave.” - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE BACKBONE OF THE CONTINENT - - -The trip across the continent of South America is now made very -comfortably by train. The start is from the very pleasant station of the -State Railway of Valparaiso. For a number of miles the tracks run almost -along the water’s edge, and thus afford many beautiful views of the blue -bay of Valparaiso. The trains on this road are very comfortable, for the -Chilean State Railway is one of the very few railroads in South America -that provide Pullman cars for their patrons. After leaving Viña del Mar -the line soon abandons the bay, and threads its way through the coast -range of mountains. One gets many glimpses of the higher Andes through -the passes, and there are also green glens where advantage has been taken -of the running water for irrigation. Cacti become very abundant, and one -is reminded of the plateaus of Mexico, for these silent sentinels seem to -keep watch over the herds of sheep and goats that feed on the slopes. -Any one who has seen Southern Chile first will notice the difference as -soon as the train leaves Santiago. The progressive dryness of the climate -has a pronounced effect on the vegetation. The cacti are frequently from -twelve to fifteen feet in height, and their entire surface is covered -with stout, curved spines. - -[Illustration: THE ACONCAGUA RIVER.] - -After creeping along the shore and then through a valley, the railroad -soon joins the Aconcagua River, which leaps and foams along, thus -forming a series of diminutive cascades. In the winter time the change -in temperature is very marked as the upward climb continues. In places -the valley spreads out to quite generous proportions, and one will -see _haciendas_ that are well kept up and which show evidence of -careful cultivation. Contrast is afforded by the sight of oxen drawing -one-handled, wooden ploughs. How powerful must have been the Moorish -influence in Spain, for these ploughs are exact duplicates of the plough -of ancient Chaldea and Egypt, which was carried along the coast of -Barbary into Spain, and left there as a heritage to the Spaniards, who -introduced it into the New World. The general impression left with the -traveller over this route, between Valparaiso and Santiago, is one of -comparative barrenness and desolation. - -Viña del Mar, Limache and Quillota are three quite important towns that -are passed _en route_, the latter two of which have some important -manufacturing establishments. Llai Llai (pronounced Yi-yi) is about half -way, and this is the diverging point for the two routes. One leads to -the capital, and the other is the continuation of the transcontinental -railroad. Llai Llai is a pleasant little town of five or six thousand -inhabitants, and is situated about twenty-six hundred and twenty-five -feet above sea level. A number of fruit sellers are sure to be at the -station, and one who does not purchase a few of the delicious pears or -peaches, that are sold so reasonably, misses a great treat. They are -grown in a rich valley below which is a sort of agricultural Arcadia. - -The through cars are switched to another track, a different engine is -attached to them and the traveller is soon bound for Los Andes. The -journey does not differ greatly from that already described. The city -of San Felipe is the largest town passed and it is situated amidst well -cultivated fields. It is a city of about twelve thousand. Soon afterwards -the train reaches Santa Rosa de Los Andes, which marks a break in -the journey. Here it is necessary to change trains, and frequently to -stay over night. It is at the foothills of the Andes, and one can find -many pleasant little excursions into the foothills here, if he has -the inclination to tarry for a few days. The climate is good, and the -physical wants of the traveller are very well looked after at the hotel. -A few Americans will be found there, for the railroad is operated by that -nationality. - -[Illustration: LOOKING TOWARDS ACONCAGUA.] - -If it is the summer time one will find Los Andes a very pleasant little -place, with quite an abundance of vegetation around it. The altitude -is about twenty-six hundred feet, which gives it a delightful climate. -Fruits grow abundantly, and the fruit-canning industry has been -considerably developed. This is in the province of Aconcagua, which -contains some of the most notable elevations in the entire republic, -and, in fact, in the entire world. This province is about as large -as Connecticut and Rhode Island combined. In addition to the eastern -boundary of lofty peaks there are numerous low hills, between which lie -fertile valleys. Through the use of irrigation agriculture flourishes -in these valleys, and there is a considerable production of grains and -wine. There are also a number of silver and copper mines in the province. -San Felipe is the capital, and is distant about seventy-eight miles from -both Santiago and Valparaiso. - -“_Vamonos_,” says the conductor of the narrow gauge train, as it pulls -out of the station on its way to the limits of Chilean territory. One -will begin to take notice of his fellow-travellers. The passengers will -be found to be of many nationalities, and of many shades of colour, -for, since the railway journey is continuous, fewer people take the -much longer route via the Straits of Magellan. There will be Chilenos, -with big hats and _ponchos_, and Chilenas, whose faces are coated with -powder or paste. There will be priests in beaver hats and black gowns, -which reach to their feet. Soldiers in uniforms modelled after the -German army are quite likely to be companions as far as the border. -Americans, British, French, Germans, Italians and Argentinians—all of -these nationalities go to make up a potpourri of nations and national -characteristics. As the start is generally made in the morning, one sees -the stars disappear and the dawn break over the mountains. The gray -skies turn to a steel-blue, then to a rosy pink, until, at last, the -highest peaks are illuminated by the rays of the sun. One may leave Los -Andes clad in its summer plumage, with myriads of butterflies and moths -flitting about, but these characteristics soon disappear, for the upward -climb begins almost immediately. In the next thirty-five miles this rack -and pinion road climbs upward more than seven thousand feet. It is a much -steeper ascent than on the Argentine side, for it requires three times -the distance to reach the same level on that slope. - -The track follows the course of the Aconcagua River. This river is at no -time a great stream, yet the total volume of water carried down in its -swift-flowing current must be considerable. Many glimpses of the simple -natives, and their primitive means of conveyance, are afforded on the -ancient highway that threads the same valley. On the mountainside an -occasional mud hut may be seen around and over which climb creepers and -flowering vines. The scenery is beautiful and full of variations. Every -turn of the tortuous track reveals a new scene of beauty, and there are -few railway journeys in the world that will afford a greater variety of -views than this overland route to Buenos Aires. The mountains grow from -grand to grander, as if Ossa had been piled upon Pelion. When sunlight -and shadow play upon the rock the contrasts are dazzling and the senses -gladdened. There is a prodigality of colours such as even the Yosemite, -the Grand Cañon or the Dolomites do not surpass. Guardia Viega, the -“old guard,” is one of the stations, and is so named because it was for -two centuries a guard station on the Antiguo Camino, or ancient road -between the two republics. The vegetation becomes scanter as the altitude -increases, but, scant as it is, it is a pleasing change to the traveller -coming from the other direction. Juncal, which for several years was the -terminus, is passed. One of the most beautiful views afforded is that of -the narrow gorge, known as the Salto del Soldado, the Soldier’s Leap, -through which the tempestuous waters of the river foam and toss. There -is a tradition connected with this strange freak of nature of which the -Chileans are proud. During the war of independence it is said that a -Chilean pursued by the enemy, leaped across this chasm and saved his -life. Owing to the width it is an almost impossible tale to believe. - -[Illustration: THE SALTO DEL SOLDADO.] - -Just beyond Juncal is a beautiful little lake, which is as opalescent and -translucent as any of the lakes of Switzerland, and several thousand feet -higher. It is the Lago del Inca, the Lake of the Incas. Pure as crystal, -and clear as an unclouded sky, this little body of water rests tranquilly -amidst as harsh and severe a setting as one could well find. Masses of -rock seem poised on ledges ready to project themselves down into valleys -with destruction in their path. The mad gods who formed these eternal -peaks must have paused for a moment in their work in order to add this -one touch of real beauty to the landscape. - -Here one may also see the huge condors, flying at such heights that they -look no larger than a swallow. The glass will sometimes reveal others -that can scarcely be distinguished with the naked eye. They sail and -circle around in the rarefied air with scarcely a flap of the wing. In -the winter time the condor may be found near the coast, but in summer -they always return to the highest Andean peaks, where they rear their -young. The eggs are deposited in lofty clefts or caverns, where no form -of animal life exists that might destroy the young birds. A young condor -during the first year clings to the parent bird, for its body is too -big for its wings. This royal bird figures on the national escutcheon of -Chile as an emblem of strength and independence. The Indians surround it -with many legends, and some of them believe that the souls of the lost -enter the bodies of the condor and are thus poised between heaven and -earth, so as to see the glories of both and be able to enjoy neither, -like the doom of Tantalus. - -At last Caracoles, the name given to the little station at the Chilean -end of the international railroad, is reached, at an elevation of a -little more than ten thousand feet above sea level. The tunnel is just -about the same length as the altitude, for it is ten thousand three -hundred and eighty-five feet from entrance to exit. Near the centre of -this hole bored through the Andean rock the international boundary is -passed, and, when the train emerges at Las Cuevas, the other terminus, -the traveller catches his first glimpse of Argentina. It is a scene of -vast desolation that meets his gaze. It is a picture of solitude, with -nothing to relieve it in the way of vegetation. The vivid colourings of -the stratas of rock and the white summits of the many peaks in sight, -however, make it a scene of wild glory that uplifts the soul at the -majesty of nature. One stands aghast at the marvellous richness of -colouring that is revealed on every hand. - -[Illustration: REFUGE HOUSE ALONG THE OLD INCA TRAIL.] - -The traveller may be thankful that he has not been obliged to traverse -this pass in the winter time. Nothing can surpass these vast ridges -clad in their winter dress. White and cold, they form a veritable -valley of desolation. It is the cold of death, the white mantle of -annihilation—something that the brain can scarcely compass. The feeling -of solitude in the midst of the whiteness everywhere almost overwhelms -the traveller with despair. In places the snow is frequently as much as -fifteen feet in depth, deep enough to bury a horse and rider. Sudden -storms are likely to overtake the traveller, and he would be snowed in in -one of the _casuchas_. These are shelters that were built at intervals -along the pass for the protection of travellers. They are dome-shaped -structures which remind one of lime-kilns. They have a small door, but -no windows, and will accommodate as many as twenty people at a time. The -interior has a brick floor and is absolutely bare. Although protected -from the weather, woe be to the traveller obliged to spend a day or two -there with a group of _arrieros_, for filth is everywhere and the stench -is almost overpowering. - -Although fewer travellers ventured over this pass in the midst of winter, -the mail service continued uninterruptedly, and there was seldom a -day that some one did not attempt the crossing. A _capitas_, who was -generally a man with a little capital, would undertake to carry the -mails or other freight over the pass at a fixed price. He would then -engage his force of porters as cheaply as possible, agreeing to furnish -them with board and lodging so long as they remained with him. As time -was not specified in the mail contract, if a traveller came along the -_capitas_ would dump the mails and carry his baggage at an exorbitant -price. Everything was done up in packages weighing about sixty pounds. -Some of the porters would even undertake to carry two of these—a terrible -strain on a rough road. It is little wonder that this and unrestrained -dissipation usually gave these men a short life. Sometimes they slid -over a precipice, or were hurled to their doom by a falling stone. There -are many graves of those who met an untimely end along this route, and -it seems almost marvellous that they are not more numerous. After the -highest point was passed the porters would toboggan down the slopes, -seated on a sheepskin and guiding themselves with pointed staffs. In -this way the descent was quickly accomplished. The packages were simply -tumbled down, and oftentimes reached the bottom in a very dilapidated -condition. - -The Trasandino Argentino Railway threads its way out through the valley -of the Uspallata, and follows a small stream which gradually becomes -larger as little rivulets of melted snow join it. It soon becomes more of -a stream, and is given the name of Rio (river) Mendoza. At a distance of -less than a dozen miles the station called Puente del Inca is reached, -which is so named because of a natural bridge of stratified rock at -that place, which is very similar to the Natural Bridge of Virginia. -Underneath it bubble up boiling waters which are claimed to have great -medicinal value. It is said that the Incas in pre-Spanish times knew of -the value of these waters, and their chiefs came here to receive the -benefits of its curative waters. Near here one catches a glimpse of a -marvellous freak of nature, called the Cerro de los Penitentes, the -Ridge of the Penitents. The scattered rocky peaks and points standing -up through the sloping debris of the ascent, with their remarkable -imitations of toiling wayfarers, must have greatly impressed the Spanish -pioneers when they first came upon this scene. - -The route continues a picture of desolation, caused by volcanic upheavals -and the erosion of countless ages. The Mendoza River, coloured by the -various metals of the rocks over which it pours, tumbles along near the -railway as both follow one pass after another. Las Vacas, Uspallata, La -Invernada and other small stations are passed. About thirty miles before -Mendoza is reached a change begins, and poplar and larch trees, alfalfa -fields and the grape enliven the scene. Irrigation is utilized and the -melted snows cause the land to bloom with remarkable fertility. At last -the train runs into the creditable station of Mendoza, and the second -stage in the transcontinental journey is ended. - -[Illustration: THE CHRIST OF THE ANDES.] - -At Mendoza a change is made to the broad gauge trains of the Buenos -Aires and Pacific Railway, which will carry the traveller over the -remaining leagues of the journey. After leaving the irrigated lands of -this neighbourhood, another stretch of miserable scrub land is crossed -before the level pampas are entered. From there to Buenos Aires the -route is over as level land as is to be found on the earth’s surface. -Hour after hour the train rolls over these pampas, past small towns and -through great stretches of grain and alfalfa. At last, after about a day -and a half’s journey, the train enters the suburbs of Buenos Aires, and -finally, with a shrill shriek, rolls into the Retiro Station, which is -the end of the trip. - -Grand and wonderful as is the ride through and across the Andes by -railroad, the traveller has missed one of the most striking features of -these solitudes. Almost immediately over the tunnel, and nearly three -thousand feet higher, stands the famous statue, known as the Christ of -the Andes. This statue was erected in 1904 as a symbol of perpetual -peace between the two neighbouring nations. It was cast in bronze from -the cannon of the two nations, which had been purchased through fear of -impending war. Its location is on the new international boundary line -that had just been established by arbitration. Near it is a sign with the -words “CHILE” on one side, and “ARGENTINA” on the other side. - -The figure of Christ is twenty-six feet in height. In one hand it holds -the emblem of the cross, while the other is extended in a blessing, and -as if uttering the one magic word “Peace.” On one side is a tablet with -the inscription: “Sooner shall these mountains crumble into dust than the -people of Argentina and Chile break the peace to which they have pledged -themselves at the feet of Christ the Redeemer.” On another side is the -inscription: - - “He is our Peace - Who hath made both One.” - -The Cumbre, as this ridge is called, is the highest point on the old -trail. Travellers and baggage were transported over it by mule-back or in -carriages, if the almost springless vehicles could be called by such a -name, during the summer. It is a very zigzag trail up which the carriages -wound, where as many as twenty twists and turns can be counted. On the -downward trip the horses ran and jumped, until the timorous traveller -began to have visions of disaster. Accidents were rare, however, and -seldom was a vehicle overturned. Corners were turned on two wheels, -with only a few inches between the outside wheels and the edge of the -precipice. - - “The clouds have voices, and the rivers pour - Their floods in thunder down to ocean’s floor;— - The hills alone mysterious silence keep.” - -One of the most striking aspects which impress the traveller crossing -the Andes is the terribly bleak and desolate outlook that they present. -Blades of grass here and there, or perhaps a few stunted shrubs, are -the only signs of vegetation, for of trees there are none. There seems -to be no tree line, as in most mountains. A huge expanse of yellow sand -and stone spreads out everywhere with peaks rising up on every side in -clearly defined and rugged stratification, whose many-coloured hues are -almost bewildering to the eye. Great torrents flow down the middle of the -valleys, the water being of a dull brackish hue. The fording of these -streams is a very dangerous task for the explorer, as the torrents are -exceedingly rapid and full of deep, treacherous holes. - -[Illustration: THE SOLITUDE OF THE ANDES.] - -On either side rise high peaks, and the traveller is always interested in -knowing the names of these peaks. If he asks the average native which is -Aconcagua, or which Tupungato, he is likely to be misinformed. There is -to the inexperienced mountain traveller a disappointment when he finally -has one of these lofty peaks pointed out, and which he knows to be above -twenty thousand feet in height, because he has expected, perhaps, to see -an isolated peak rearing its snowy head to the sky for a distance of four -miles or more above the level on which he stands. The traveller forgets -that he himself is above the sea level almost half that distance, before -he gains a good clear view of the higher peak. It is well established -that Aconcagua is the loftiest peak of the Andes, but it is a little -uncertain whether Tupungato or the Mercedario is the second in height. - -Ten thousand miles of majestic mountains stretch from Alaska to Cape -Horn—the grandest range of mountains that can be found on the earth’s -surface. Throughout this series of connected mountains, from the wilds -of Alaska to those of Patagonia, and including the tropical plateaus -of Ecuador, there are many peaks that pierce the ethereal blue of the -skies. These are generally termed the Sierras, which is the Spanish word -for “saw,” and the name is applied to mountains because of the fancied -resemblance of their outlines to that of the carpenter’s tool. A dim -knowledge of the majesty of mountains is obtained from the smaller ranges -of North America, such as the Appalachian Mountains, but Mt. McKinley, -highest of North American mountains, must yield in majesty to a number of -peaks in the lofty Andean range of mountains. - -The lure of altitude seems to have caught at the spirit of man from early -times, and led him struggling up almost unscalable peaks. In recent years -the fascination of mountain climbing has become the romance of geography. -During the last half century daring explorers have conquered more -mountains, and gathered more geological data, than in all the previous -centuries. Many lives have been lost by devotees of this science, while -pitting skill and strength against nature and her secrets. It has not -been long since the elevations of the southern half of this continent -were an unknown land; some lofty peaks were unexplored and unnamed, and -only dim suggestions of their majesty and splendour had reached the -scientific world, but they now hold an interest second to none. The -loftiest peaks in the world, excepting only the Himalayas, are found -along the western coast of South America. They are in truth and reality -the mountain monarchs of the western world. In travelling along the west -coast of South America by steamer the serrated backbone of the continent -is ever in sight, but its hazy outlines are at such a distance that they -give but a dim idea of their real height from the steamer. - -It remained for European mountain climbers, men who received their -schooling in the Alps, to first conquer these lofty giants of nature. -Chimborazo (20,498 ft.), the “white watcher of the western seas,” was -the first to yield its topmost secrets to Edward Whymper, who fought his -way up the rugged snow-clad slopes to the very top. Next he conquered -Cotopaxi (19,615 ft.), and has given this volcano the following -recommendation: “Cotopaxi is an ideal volcano. It comports itself, -volcanically speaking, in a regular and well-behaved manner. It is not -one of the provoking sort—exploding in paroxysms and going to sleep -directly afterwards. It is in a state of perpetual activity, and has been -so ever since it had a place in history.” Could any volcano in the world -show a stronger recommendation? It is certainly an exemplary exponent of -the volcanic art. The explorer spent a night on the very edge of the -crater, peering into the cavernous recesses that belched forth fire and -smoke, and must have been under its hypnotic influence when inditing the -above. - -Going farther down the coast one reaches the mighty peaks of Peru and -Bolivia. An American woman, Miss Annie S. Peck, has scaled Mt. Huascaran -(22,051 ft.), and holds the unique record of having climbed higher than -any other woman. It was an achievement that deservedly brought her great -honour. Mt. Illimani (21,490 ft.) is the loftiest peak in Bolivia. It -means “bright condor,” according to the generally accepted derivation. -Its frozen crest was conquered by an Englishman, Sir Martin Conway, and -the Union Jack was planted on the very summit. This mountain, and its -neighbour, Mt. Sorata (21,490 ft.), were worshipped as gods by the Incas. -A band of superstitious natives, on learning his intention to invade the -sanctuary of their god, who dwelt on Illimani, made an attempt to murder -him, but did not succeed in finding the party. Their tradition asserts -that a great cross of gold was planted by the god on the summit, and they -were afraid these strangers would carry it away. At the foot of these -mountains lies Lake Titicaca, the sacred lake of the Incas. - -The hardships endured on these climbs are almost indescribable. The -intense cold and the rarefied air almost overcome the reserve vitality. -The weakening effect of diminished atmospheric pressure is so enervating -that exertion can only be made a few steps at a time. Headache, nausea -and blood running from the nose and ears are the more violent effects. -It is almost impossible to keep the feet from being frost-bitten, and -they have to be rubbed occasionally to restore circulation. Says Mr. -Conway: “I asked myself more than once whether the game was worth the -candle, for there was something so cold and unsympathetic about the -gloom and the ice and the bare rocks, that for a time it weighed like a -nightmare upon my spirits.” The exhaustion is so great that it is almost -impossible to enjoy the triumph of success. Speaking of this the same -explorer says: “The moment was one of satisfaction, in that our toil -ceased; but we had no sense of triumph, nor was there breath enough left -in any of us for an exclamation of joy in the hour of victory. Nothing -was said or done for several minutes; we just sat down and rested.” As -compensations, however, there are frequently magnificent cloud effects. -Out of the white sea of snow there mount, under the uplift of hot air -currents, great towers of cloud, which rise high into the air like the -smoke-discharge from a volcano. Huge caves and cloud avenues are formed, -wherein dark-blue shadows gather, with occasionally a high mountain top -peeping forth like the foundation stone of a gigantic cloud castle. Then -one’s vision is so broadened that he seems to stand on the very top of -the world itself. - -In “Argentina and Her People of To-day,” the writer has given an account -of an ascent of Aconcagua by Mr. E. A. Fitzgerald’s party, and in this -work some mention will be made of the conquest of Tupungato by the same -party. This mountain can be seen clearly outlined against the sky from -the Pass of the Cumbre, although it is distant fully thirty miles. The -route lies down through great masses of fallen rock, the stones being on -an average twice the size of a man’s head. The stones are hard and unworn -by the forces of nature, presenting a surface of sharp, jagged edges. It -is an extremely difficult pass to traverse because of these rocks and -danger of slipping, which in many cases would hurl the traveller many -hundreds of feet below. Sudden and violent storms also rage around this -mountain, which renders the work of climbing still more difficult and -dangerous. - -The distances, as in almost all mountain climbing, are very deceiving, -and what oftentimes seems to be but the work of an hour may require many -hours to accomplish. Terrific wind storms at times spring up, against -which it is almost impossible for a man to stand, and this also adds to -the dangers because of rocks which are sometimes hurled down the mountain -sides. As the altitude increases the rarity of the atmosphere and the -consequently intense cold render progress almost painful. It is necessary -for the mountain climber to stop every few minutes to rest, as the cold -and the wind and rare atmosphere all combine to exhaust the vitality. -Three times Mr. Fitzgerald’s party attempted the ascent of Tupungato, -and as many times were they compelled to abandon it. Bleeding at the -nose, frozen extremities and weakness of the heart attacked the various -members of the party, and compelled them to descend to lower altitudes. -A fourth attempt, however, was more successful. Each failure had taught -something, so that each effort was made under slightly better conditions -and with better equipment. - -Here is the description by Mr. Vines, as it appears in “The Highest -Andes:” “I was on the summit of Tupungato at last, and all my efforts and -disappointments were more than repaid. I stood on a great mound in shape -like a pyramid, with a blunted top some two yards wide rising several -hundred feet above the general surface of the dome. In the whole expanse -of sky around over ocean and land I could not discern a single cloud. -Only in the direction of the Pacific a haze hung over the mountains. In -the brilliant air the spectacle that lay before us was one of vast extent -and grandeur. Range upon range of mountains stretched away towards the -great plain of Santiago, forty miles to the west. Far away, beyond the -hills that almost seemed to lie at our feet, stretched the great waters -of the Pacific, a tract of blue ocean sparkling to the horizon, and -clearly visible, although the distance from Tupungato to the seacoast is -not less than one hundred and thirty miles. - -“The view from the top of Tupungato is in many ways even finer than that -obtained from Aconcagua. The expanse of ocean visible toward the west is -less vast, but there is ample compensation in the outlook over the great -unknown plain on the eastern side. The Pampas of Argentina stretch almost -without a break from our very feet to the South Atlantic Ocean. The Andes -seem to rise up from Santiago in ever ascending gradations, until at -last they culminate in the immense mass of Tupungato; behind, they fall -brokenly away; the mountains disappear; and a country almost fen-like in -its monotonous flatness succeeds. The only break on the Argentine side is -that of the Sierra de la Plata, not many more than twenty miles to the -northeast. On the Chilean side a score of dark peaks rear their heads, -a sinister array of precipitous impossibilities from which any climber -would turn away in despair. To the north and to the south the same great -barriers arise. Looking along this distinct and sharp edged chain to -the north and south it was hard to understand how any frontier question -between the republics could come about. - -“That Aconcagua was a high mountain we well knew. We had all suffered -from its height, but, when near at hand, it was quite impossible to -realize the vastness of its proportions. Not so from where we now stood -on a pinnacle sixty miles away. I had long known it was over four -thousand feet higher than any mountain within thirty miles of it, but -it looked ten thousand feet higher as it reared its immense head and -shoulders from amongst its brothers, like some huge rock projecting out -of the waves of the sea. It stood before me without rival, even the great -ridges of Juncal did not challenge it, although they were almost thirty -miles nearer. Behind Aconcagua, but almost forty miles farther, and too -far off for comparison, I could see the white slopes of Mercaderio.” - -The guanaco and llama are animals which are peculiar to the Andean -regions. The former is especially plentiful in Patagonia and the southern -Andean ranges, and many of them are found in Southern Chile. To the -natives it means food, garments and tents, so that it is hunted both for -its meat and skin. Without the guanaco the question of existence would be -a difficult one for those people to solve. The vicuña, which is found in -Northern Chile and Bolivia, is of the same family but smaller and more -beautiful. Its fur is very valuable and this animal is becoming scarce. -The alpaca is still smaller but flocks of this animal are maintained as -we herd sheep. The wool is almost as fine and soft as silk, and, after a -year’s growth, becomes almost a foot long. - -Of this animal family, which is closely allied to the camel, the most -important is the llama. To one who has never seen the llama, except in -a menagerie or “zoo,” its real usefulness is not apparent. Before the -arrival of the Spaniards on the west coast this gentle animal was the -only beast of burden known to the Inca races. Thousands upon thousands -of these American camels were used by the natives in transportation on -the plateaus and across the lofty mountains. Like the camel it can go -for days without food or drink. Even to-day, with the introduction of -the horse and mule, there are probably as many or more llamas in use -than when Pizarro first landed on the shores of South America. It is to -the Andean native what the reindeer is to the Lapp—milk and flesh for -food, skin for garments, hair for cloth, sinews for thread, etc. Some are -black, with pretty little white kids, while others are almost white and -have black little llamas following them. - -The llama is one of the proudest animals in the world. No matter where -you see this aristocrat of quadrupeds he holds his head high up in the -air, and looks out upon the earth as though he owned it. Unlike the -camel the llama never sulks, although sometimes stubborn. I have seen -camels grunt and groan as the loads were placed on their backs. They will -sometimes snap viciously at whoever passes near, and at other times tears -will flow down a camel’s cheeks like a baby’s, so it is said. The llama -always carries his burden with a proud air, scanning the landscape as -he goes, and pricking up his ears with interest at every new or strange -thing. He will carry a load of just so much, about one hundred pounds. If -a greater load is strapped on his back than he is accustomed to carry, -the llama will neither grunt nor groan, but he calmly kneels down and -will not move until the burden is lightened. - -The llamas are the most common burden-bearing animals in Bolivia and -on the high plateaus of Peru to-day. They will also be found in the -extreme northern part of Chile on the Andean slopes. They form the great -freight-carriers in that portion of the Andes, but cannot be worked -successfully at a lower altitude than two thousand feet. They are never -seen as near the coast as Lima, the Peruvian capital. One will see llama -trains every day in La Paz, or the other towns of Bolivia, and herds of -these animals feeding on the plains around Lake Titicaca are a common -sight. They are principally used in the carrying of ore from the mines to -the smelters or nearest railway station. These little animals, which are -said to have the head of a camel, the body of a sheep and the legs of a -deer, are only about four and one-half feet high and are really beautiful -creatures. They are gentle when well treated, and become very fond of -their masters. The Indians pet them and talk to them much as though they -were human beings. They sometimes dye the wool on the backs in different -colours, and tie bright-coloured ribbons through holes which they make -in the llamas’ ears. The wool of the llama is much coarser than that of -sheep, but one can see the Indian women spinning this wool into threads, -and then weaving it into cloth in many places. It can easily be used in -the coarse garments worn by these people. If offended the llama has a -curious habit of spitting on the offender, which is rather disagreeable, -as I know from experience. As the llama is a cud-chewing animal it seems -to have this material always ready for such occasions. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -A LABORATORY OF NATURE - - -The great desert of Tarapacá, which stretches along the coast of Chile -for hundreds of miles, has proven to be the most valuable of its entire -possessions. And yet it is as barren a desert as one could find on -the surface of the globe. Darwin thus describes a part of it that he -travelled over: “A complete and utter desert. The road was strewn with -the bones and dried skins of the many beasts of burden which had perished -on it from fatigue. Excepting the vulture which preys on the carcasses, I -saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor insect. On the coast mountains -at the height of about two thousand feet, where during the season the -clouds generally hang, a very few cacti were growing in the clefts of the -rock, and the loose sand was strewn over with a lichen which grows quite -unattached. In some parts it was of sufficient quantity to tinge the -sand, as seen from a distance, of a pale yellowish colour.” It is this -dry climate that has made possible the existence of the great nitrate -deposits along this coast. Rainfall, even in moderate quantities, would -dissolve the nitrate. These deposits lie as a rule just within the coast -range of mountains. - -Many theories have been advanced as to the cause of this chemical -composition. The most ingenious one, perhaps, is that nitric acid is -formed by a flash of lightning passing through a moist atmosphere, and -electrical storms are very common in the Cordilleras. The other is that -this coast was originally submerged in the ocean, and was gradually -upheaved. This would leave a line of lagoons and marshes, in which -seaweed and other plants flourished. As the lagoons successively dried -up, the plants would be decomposed and nitric acid and iodine formed. -This, united in combination with the gypsum-yielding soda found there, -formed nitrate of soda. At any rate, Nature, by some mysterious process, -has formed a chemical combination which has been of inestimable value to -the world in general. - -This desert coast is not all productive of nitrate. Some sections are -valueless, and some produce other chemical products. One can take -a narrow-gauge train at Antofagasta and travel inland for hundreds -of miles across the Andes and into the plateaus of Bolivia, and the -entire distance is almost as void of green as the great Sahara Desert. -Occasionally there is a scrubby tree which looks forlorn in its -loneliness. There are salt plains which reach to the hills on either -side. In one place there is a great salt field that is estimated to cover -more than eighty thousand acres. This produces almost pure chloride of -sodium in crystallized form. The thickness of the salt layer is not -known, but some wells are as much as eighty feet deep and the bottom of -the deposit has not been reached. It is a good quality of salt. There are -borax lakes along the route, where enough borax can be secured to supply -the entire world. But it is from the beds of nitrate of soda that the -greatest wealth of this region is secured. To it is due the prosperity of -all the ports from Pisagua to Taltal. - -This chemical product, which we call Chilean saltpetre, and which is -locally known as _salitre_, is found over hundreds of square miles of -territory. The only visible boundaries between the different owners are -marked by white posts at the corners of the different properties. With -this exception there are no marks whatever on the landscape, and no signs -of life except the factories, known as _oficinas_, the numerous homes of -the employees made of corrugated iron, and the workmen who are engaged -in blasting and hauling away this mineral. The nitrate beds follow the -coast line at a distance of from fifteen to a hundred miles from the -sea, generally at an elevation of from four thousand to five thousand -feet, and in deposits which vary from one to four miles in width. They -reach from near Antofagasta to a point some distance north of Iquique. -In some places the deposits play out, but they reappear again a little -farther on. The fields that have been exploited look as though they had -been ploughed over by gigantic ploughs, for immense clods are scattered -here and there wherever the work has been carried on. On either side of -this strip there is simply a mass of sand and rock, which extends from -the sea to the topmost peaks of the Andes. There is, however, a wonderful -colouring on the slopes of the mountains, and one will see many tints of -violet, green, lemon and gray within the horizon. - -Nitrate of soda is seldom found pure, and the nitrate rock, called -_caliche_, will vary from ten to sixty per cent. of the pure mineral. In -some fields it is found on the top of the soil, and in others it is as -much as forty feet beneath the surface, with the strata of salt rock on -the top of it. It varies considerably in composition. Holes are dug or -drilled down through the _caliche_ until a bed of gravelly material is -reached, into which charges of dynamite or blasting powder are placed, -and the nitrate rock is thus loosened up. When first exposed the nitrate -is sometimes as soft as cheese, but it hardens on contact with the air. -The lumps thus broken are then dug out with picks or crowbars and hauled -in mule-carts to the _oficinas_. - -There are many of these mills throughout the nitrate fields, and they -are busy places. The lumps are first crushed, and are then lifted by -elevators and placed in huge tanks filled with sea water. These tanks are -encircled by coils of steam pipes, which heat the water that is poured in -with the rock to any desired temperature. Nitrate is soluble in water, -and this purifying process rests upon the fact of its greater solubility -in water heated to the boiling point, than the other salts with which it -is associated. When the water has become supersaturated in the boiling -tanks, the nitrate of soda in solution is drawn into shallow vats which -are exposed to the air. At this state it looks like pale maple molasses. -As it cools, the nitrate of soda crystallizes in the vats, together with -a little common salt and a small amount of other impurities, and the -sides become covered with white sparkling crystals like alabaster. These -crystals are then shovelled upon drying boards and exposed to the sun for -a time, after which they are graded and put into bags weighing a little -over a hundred pounds each. This product, which is ninety-six per cent. -chemically pure nitrate of soda, is then transported to the seacoast, -from whence it is shipped to Europe or the United States, the latter -country receiving about one-fifth of the whole. - -Another product of these nitrate beds is iodine, which remains in the -liquid after the removal of the nitrate. This liquid is poured into -smaller pans, and is chemically treated until the iodine is precipitated -in the form of a black powder. This is then heated in a retort which -changes it to a vapour, and it is again condensed into beautiful violet -crystals. The iodine is packed in small casks which are shipped with -bullion and other valuables, for each cask is worth several hundred -dollars. As the consumption of iodine is not very large the _oficinas_ -refine only a part of the iodine in order to keep up the price. - -More than two million tons of nitrate of soda were shipped from Chile -last year, which is the greatest amount that has ever been produced. -It has been found especially valuable for increasing the growth of the -sugar beets in Europe, as it seems to provide the soil with the essential -elements for their growth. The consumption in the United States is -increasing rapidly, and it is looked upon as the best fertilizer provided -by nature. According to horticultural authorities it has been found -especially efficacious in stimulating the growth of vegetables, such -as cabbages, onions, carrots, beets, etc., and for field crops of many -kinds. It is said that even the Incas of Peru were acquainted with its -value as a fertilizer. It is also extensively used in the manufacture -of gunpowders and other high explosives, which in itself makes a -considerable demand. - -The discovery of the value of nitrate as a fertilizer was by accident. -A poor Scotchman, who lived near where Iquique now stands, had a small -garden which he cultivated with great care. One day he noticed that a -part of his garden, which had been banked up with soil containing this -mysterious white substance, flourished much more than the rest. This -led to experiments and some of this soil was sent back to Scotland. The -success of the experiments that followed gradually led to the development -of the present industry, but the discoverer died as poor as he was born. -The first nitrate works were established at Noria in 1826. It was not -until after the war between Chile and Peru that the industry reached -great proportions. Then an Englishman by the name of North began its -development and soon afterwards became known as the “nitrate king.” -Other nitrate princes rose, and thrived like the bonanza mining kings -of Mexico and Peru in their best days. Englishmen became peers of that -country through the influence of colossal fortunes paved with saltpetre. -In its raw state the nitrate contains some properties injurious to plant -life, but these are removed. As this process requires the latest modern -machinery to do the work economically, the business has drifted into the -hands of big combinations of capital. - -As the government of Chile exacts an export tax on every sack of nitrate -of soda exported, the revenue from this source is enormous and pays more -than two-thirds of the expenses of that extravagant government. Chile -owns practically all the nitrate of soda in the world. Small quantities -have been found elsewhere, but in this region are the only deposits -that can be operated at a profit. Most of the nitrate fields at one -time belonged to Peru, but Chile appropriated them as indemnity, after -a disastrous war was waged between the two countries in 1880, in which -Chile was victorious. You can not meet a Peruvian anywhere to-day who -does not swear vengeance against Chile, for thus robbing his country of -her greatest source of wealth. - -[Illustration: LOADING NITRATE.] - -English capital has developed this great industry in Chile, and no less -than one hundred million dollars in British sovereigns have been invested -in these dreary wastes. Almost one hundred million dollars’ worth of this -_salitre_ has been exported in a single year. The ports are at all times -filled with vessels which have brought coal and merchandise, and are -awaiting a load of nitrate. It is seldom that the Stars and Stripes are -seen floating from a masthead, but it is a welcome sight to an American. -The profits for a few years were so great that an overdevelopment -followed, and the price greatly dropped. Then a trust agreement was, -arrived at limiting the output, but even that was not a success and the -production is again unlimited. The population of the nitrate district is -a cosmopolitan one, and represents almost every nation on the face of the -earth. It gives employment to many thousands of persons. A homesick and -stranded American is not an uncommon sight. - -It is estimated that at the present rate of mining the known fields of -nitrate of soda in Chile will be exhausted in fifty years, or less. -The official board of engineers has recently reported to the Chilean -government that there are in sight four and a half million quintals -(220.4 lbs.) of nitrate in the deposits of the country. A previous -estimate had fixed the visible quantity at less than half that amount. It -is doubtful whether either of those estimates is very reliable. At any -rate the government and owners of the _oficinas_ are pushing the sales -in every way, and exploiting the use and value of nitrate as though it -was inexhaustible. It is possible that similar deposits may be found on -the Sahara Desert, or some of our own desert lands where similar climatic -and atmospheric conditions exist. The value of nitrate lands in Chile has -risen rapidly in recent years, and nearly all the undeveloped fields are -now owned by the Chilean government, which auctions them off as the need -for money arises. - -The nitrate industry has very naturally overshadowed all other mining -enterprises in Chile, and especially in the northern section. And yet -there are many more mining industries even in that part of the republic. -The Spaniards cared for nothing but gold and silver and set thousands -of Indians at work in the mines at Tucapel, Valdivia, and Quillota. -The Malga Malga mines, near the latter town, and the Madre de Dios -(mother of God) mines, near Mariguina, were the best producers of the -yellow metal. The district around Taltal also produced gold and silver. -By the primitive processes of the Spaniards only a portion of the ore -was extracted. The refuse has since been refined, and even houses have -been torn down that had been constructed of the by-products of the old -amalgamation process. Some of this refuse contained as much as sixty -ounces of pure silver to the ton. The total production of silver and gold -to-day is not great when compared with the other gold-producing nations. -Among the best mines now being worked are the Caracoles silver mines, -which are inland from Antofagasta a little over one hundred miles, and -the Inca Caracoles mines, which are fifty miles further inland. The total -output of these mines during the years they have been worked reaches -big figures, but the balmiest days have passed. Some of the workings -have reached a depth of twenty-five hundred feet. The ores are generally -chlorides or iodides, with mixtures of sulphides, but pockets of almost -pure silver are occasionally found. - -Copper production is next in value after nitrate. There are smelting -plants at Caldera, Cerro Blanco, Jarilla, Antofagasta, and other places. -Central Chile is the copper country, although Lota is one of the greatest -producers. The surface oftentimes shows the green outcroppings of the -copper deposits. The superior attraction of the nitrate fields has at -times caused a scarcity of labour there so that the development has been -greatly hampered. Nevertheless the copper industry has been a fairly -profitable and steady one. The annual output ranges from thirty-five -thousand to forty thousand tons, but it is doubtless capable of -considerable further development, with the aid of more modern methods and -the installation of the latest machinery. - -Iron ore has been found in only small quantities. Chile has the best -coal mines in South America, which, in 1909, produced a little less -than a million tons, not quite half of the consumption. Coal was first -discovered at Lota more than a century ago, but the deposits were not -worked until a half-century later. The only mines now being worked are in -the provinces of Concepción and Arauco. As small veins have been found at -Punta Arenas, it may be that the seams of coal run all the way between -those points. It is rather an inferior quality of bituminous coal. More -than a million tons are imported yearly, of which a little more than -one-half comes from England and the balance from Australia. The shipping -rate is very low as the boats come after cargoes of nitrate and will -carry coal at a very cheap rate rather than be obliged to make the long -outward journey in ballast. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE PEOPLE - - -The people of Chile are descendants of Spaniards and native races. About -one-third of the entire population are pure white. The Spaniards who -came here were Basques and Aragonese—a hardy and industrious people who -made thrifty farmers and merchants. They are among the best class of -Spaniards, for they are much more energetic and have less of the Moorish -admixture than those from Southern Spain. These people were not a mere -army of occupation, but they set about developing the real resources of -the country. The native element too were probably the hardiest of any -of the native races of South America. Notwithstanding the difference -in numbers, the Creoles, the name given to the descendants of Spanish -immigrants, rule the country absolutely and own the most of the property. -In few countries have the landed aristocracy exercised such absolute -power as in this narrow and elongated republic. The half-breeds form the -labouring class of Chile, and one will find those two classes all over -the republic, with the lines between the two strongly marked. There is no -clearly defined, well-developed middle class. - -The Chileans delight to call themselves the “English of the Pacific,” -or the “Yankees of South America.” In neither case is the comparison a -perfect one, although they are probably the hardest working race on that -continent. The Chileno is very proud of the progress that his country has -made, and this pride sometimes carries him to peculiar extremes. It at -least causes the average Chileno to become more or less of a braggart. -He is inclined to take all the credit for this advancement to himself, -when, in fact, much of it has been due to the English and German elements -in the country. His ideals of life, however, are not German or English, -but rather French, with its love of polished surface and general dislike -for disagreeable truths. Peru has retained more of the old culture and -grace of the Spanish cavalier than Chile, but the latter is far more -robust. The climate of Chile is remarkably healthful, and it has produced -a vigorous race. This is a general truth, whether applied to the race -amalgamated with the virile Araucanian of the south, or to the mixture -with the more delicate and refined descendant of the Inca at the north. -The ordinary _roto_ is tough and wiry, and capable of prolonged fatigue -on the poorest and simplest of food. - -The creoles have inherited all the traditions of the original -_conquistadores_—love, sentiment and passion, and the habit of intrigue. -It is not uncommon to see in a family the natural children of one or -the other parent, generally of the father, living side by side with the -legitimate children. The percentage of illegitimacy is very large, as -shown by the government statistics, for they do not attempt to cover up -this flagrant fault. The café and club life of the cities appeals to the -Chileans, and they have acquired a love of alcoholic stimulants. The -light wines, with which most of the people of Spanish blood are content, -do not satisfy, but they must have the stronger alcoholic beverages. As a -result there is much drunkenness in Chile, more than in the neighbouring -republics. It is an unfortunate fact, but true, as all who have made a -study of the subject agree. The first establishment in a new community -is generally a factory for the production of _aguardiente_, brandy made -from sugar cane, wheat or some vegetable. Some of it is as bad and -ruinous to the health as it is cheap. - -Chile has perhaps suffered in recent years from too great prosperity. -Like the child born with a silver spoon in its mouth, this country -found itself with seemingly inexhaustible treasure within its borders. -Its training under the autocracy of Spain was not a good education in -representative and democratic government. Then came the wealth of the -nitrate fields, after a successful war with Peru. The government coffers -were filled to overflowing with practically no effort on the part of -the government, and little tax contributed by the average citizens. As -a result, the habit of office holding and the desire for sinecures have -been a bad thing for the country. The enormous revenue has been used -up, and there is little to show for much of it. In public offices the -officials are oftentimes almost tumbling over each other, and everything -is checked and counter checked over and over again. Positions are created -and no equipment for carrying out the work provided. So long as the -government does not complain the appointee does not, and many salaries -of that kind are paid year after year for services unrendered. I verily -believe that the official work of the government could be carried on with -less than one-half the force employed. But the members of Congress have -friends, or sons of friends, who must be provided for, and the government -revenues are thus subject to a constant drain. - -Politics is the most genteel occupation in Chile to-day, for the army, -navy and church, formerly so popular with the Spaniards, no longer -appeal to the Chileno of good and influential family. A government -appointment means easy or no work, fair pay, and less danger than martial -occupations, where the call to arms might come at any time. It is not -because of lack of courage, for no braver or more courageous people can -be found in South America than these same Chileans, who sit in the cafés -and drink their spirits or puff tobacco wrapped in thin paper. With the -Chilean a valiant spirit covers a multitude of sins. His greatest boast -is the courage of his race. He is willing to make almost any kind of a -personal sacrifice for his country, if the occasion demands, but to pay -taxes is a hardship. - -The Chileans resemble very much the Irish in some of their -characteristics. One of these is their love of fighting, and the Chileans -have made about the best soldiers of any of the South American people. -They have an intense spirit and patriotism, which has shown itself in -their wars and revolutions. In addition to the Spanish blood a large -percentage have more or less of the blood of the Araucanian Indians, -who were the most stubborn race to conquer of any that the Spaniards -encountered in South America. As soldiers the Chileans have no sense of -mercy, and this characteristic has shown itself in all of their wars. -They are impetuous, impulsive, passionate and generous, but have very -little self-control. Many of them fight simply for the love of fighting, -just as do many of the Irish, who seem to scrap simply for the sake of -scrapping. - -The Chileno as a rule has a fiery temper. He loves a fight. It is not -a fist fight that he will indulge in, but it must be a fight with -revolvers, or, better yet, with knives. The knife is an indispensable -equipment with the _roto_. It used to be said that as many lives were -lost in a Chilean fair as in a decent battle. It is a sad fact that -murders are extremely frequent, and scarcely a day passes in Santiago or -Valparaiso without some fatal affray. _Aguardiente_ may be placed at the -bottom of most of these, just as rum is the primary cause of most of the -murders in the United States. It inflames the naturally hot temper of -the race and brings out all the passions of envy, hatred and jealousy. -The death penalty is seldom inflicted, although sentence is frequently -imposed. The prisoners are kept in confinement, and their sentence -commuted from time to time. If the convicted one belongs to a family of -prominence, he will eventually be released; if of poorer origin, he may -be sent to some remote section of the country and set to work. Among the -_rotos_ there is a general contempt for death, which also adds to the -prevalence of murders, and sometimes of brigandage in the mountains. A -little judicious weeding out of some of these criminals would not be a -bad thing for the country. - -The _rotos_ constitute the masses in Chile. In the country the _roto_ -is a peon or inquilino,—an agriculturalist; in the city he is a -longshoreman—a roustabout. In all of them there is a race admixture with -the white race. Of the native races this mixture is not all Araucanian, -for there are at least ten distinct aboriginal tribes. This _roto_ is -not always an agreeable companion, for he is not generally so cleanly as -he might be. But he is not a hopeless element in society. His vices are -generally the result of a lack of restraining power of the passions. His -virtues are independence and industry. He is a prejudiced individual, and -persists in his prejudices. He is intensely patriotic, and has fought the -battles of his country—and always in the ranks. Neither in the army nor -in the navy has he been permitted to rise above this position. - -Peonage is the common form of labour on the large landed estates, -although it is somewhat more favourable to the labourer than in Mexico or -Peru. The labourer, or peon, is rented a small tract of land, including -a little hut, and is allowed to grow his own vegetables. He may also be -allowed to pasture a few animals. In return, he must work, or provide -labour, for the _hacendado_ as required. For this he is paid a certain -small wage. The landlord allows him credit for supplies at the store, -which is invariably a part of the establishment, at prices which mean a -good profit. As long as he is indebted to the owner, the peon must stay -on the place. If he is even in his account, he is at liberty to depart -wherever the notion takes him. - -The proprietor is a magistrate, and has power to put a man in irons if he -deems it necessary. As a rule the peons do not change employers often, -and it is seldom that one is compelled to leave. They are not ambitious, -and a living, permission to celebrate holidays, and, perhaps, get drunk -occasionally, constitutes their idea of happiness. So long as these -conditions exist the peon does not seek anything better, for, to his -mind, such a condition is ideal in itself. He has, - - “The sun, and moon and air, - And never a bit of the burthen of care; - And with all our caring, what more have we?” - -The landlord, on his part, is satisfied, for he has labour at hand at a -small cost, just as his fathers had before him. It is true that it takes -more labourers of this kind to accomplish a given amount of work, but the -total cost is still comparatively small. - -The _rotos_ in the city are not attractive individuals. Their appearance -is often hard and repellent, and the stranger is almost inclined to fear -them. They are restless, too, and serious labour disturbances have -occurred in the cities, for trade unionism has entered the social fabric -there. A few years ago a wild mob resulted from a strike against the -steamship companies, and it took to destroying property after the most -approved fashion. The offices of the Chilean companies were burned, but -foreign property was not disturbed, although the grievance was the same. -Santiago has also had a grievous experience with strikes. This was due to -a tax upon cattle imported from Argentina, which resulted in an advance -in meat prices. Rioting and the destruction of property were again the -forms it took. - -These instances show that a social question has been developed in Chile -as well as other countries. How much is due to socialistic propaganda, -it is difficult to estimate. It is probably only a protest against the -condition in which this class finds itself. The _roto_ holds a grievance -against the Church, also, because that organization possesses immense -wealth and pays no taxes. He feels that he does the real work, but is -always kept in an inferior station, a ball to be kicked and rolled around -at the will of the governing and military classes. It is no doubt true -that the _roto_ has many legitimate grievances, and the government will -eventually be compelled to recognize them. Thousands of _rotos_ have -emigrated across the Andes to Argentina, being drawn there by the higher -wages that can be secured. Whether the movement will become greater or -not, the future alone will reveal. - -The _rotos_ of Chile work hard when they work, but they are generally -improvident and do not think of saving money. The only occasion which -leads the average _roto_ to save any money is the prospect of a holiday -ahead, for which he will sometimes save a little surplus, in order that -he may have sufficient funds to celebrate the occasion in the way he -thinks it should be celebrated,—and that is by carousing. His idea is -that he must imbibe plenty of liquor in order to get the proper effect. -This is not universally true, for the savings banks of the country show -that thousands of those in the unskilled occupations have at least -small bank accounts. As wages are comparatively small, this indicates -considerable thrift. - -Drinking in Chile has become a curse. Monday is said by employers -of labour to be a very unsatisfactory day, because so many of their -employees have not yet recovered from the dissipation of the previous -day. This is likewise true after some national holiday, such as the -18th of September, for which occasion five days are set aside, as this -is the Chilean 4th of July. The better element of the Chileans have -long realized that the drunkenness incident to these celebrations is a -serious menace to the country, for, on the day following, the hospitals -are oftentimes filled with wounded. There are always several deaths by -violence, because every Chilean peon does not consider himself properly -dressed until he has a knife placed in his belt where it can be easily -reached. - -To correct the errors resulting from this excessive drinking, a society -has been formed in Chile, which has become quite prominent, and is called -La Liga Contra el Alcoholismo, which, literally translated, means an -organization against excessive alcoholism. It is not, as one might think, -a prohibition or total abstinence society, for such an organization -would be very unpopular among all classes of Chileans. Its object is -to restrain as much as possible, both by legislation and persuasion, -the appetite for liquor, and cultivate habits of moderation in its -indulgence. The courts have been asked to impose certain restriction upon -the sale of liquors, and employers of labour have been asked to change -the method of paying their help. - -“The women of Chile are as pious as the men are proud,” says a writer. -Nowhere will one find women more conscientious in the performance of -their religious duties. The morning mass is always crowded with women -and children in attendance upon these ceremonies. One is impressed by -the piety of the Chilenas when he sees the _penitentas_—as women who are -doing penance for some sin are called. Skirts of white flannel are worn -with the _manta_ by these women. They will be seen hovering around the -churches, where they will sometimes rest on their knees for hours before -the altar of some saint. They may be clustered around the confessional -awaiting absolution from the confessor. Some of these women have -committed sin, while others are simply carrying out a vow, in order to -perfect themselves and thus get nearer to heaven. They will go about the -street with downcast eyes and recognize no one—not even a friend. Among -these _penitentas_ one will find women of high social rank, as well as -young girls of wonderful beauty. Those who feel that this more simple -method will not atone for their sin, or raise them to a state of absolute -perfection, retire to a convent in the suburbs of the city, called the -Convent of the Penitentes. There they dress in sackcloth, feed on mouldy -bread, and scourge themselves with whips. These scenes are more common -during Lent, or at the end of the social season. It is said, however, -that the number of women doing penance is becoming less each year. It is -also a fact that one never sees a man humiliating himself and proclaiming -his wrong-doing in this public way. - -The women of Chile, the Chilenas, are of medium height and well formed. -The real slender type is the exception, and the average maiden is -well-rounded and plump. As the women grow older they run to adipose -tissue, and many of the matrons are decidedly fat. They look healthy, -and a vigorous body carries with it a corresponding appetite, and this, -together with little exercise, is responsible for the later development. -The type is quite uniform. Black hair, and dark, lustrous eyes are almost -universal. Dress is as much sought after by the Chileans as in any part -of the world. Paris creations are in demand by those who can afford -them, and the others purchase the best gowns that their means will permit. - -Etiquette is very carefully observed by the Chileans. There is an -etiquette for a man toward a woman, and one for a person of a lower rank -toward one better born. And all are scrupulously observed. A man must -always speak to a woman first. A girl of the better families could not -appear on the street alone without her mother, aunt or servant with her. -A little nurse girl, though of no earthly use, is a sufficient compliance -with the requirement of etiquette. Her best young man, instead of being a -protection, would be an occasion for the severest tongue-wagging. These -things are the inherited restraints upon the liberty of women which have -come down from a thousand years of custom. - -A young man and young woman have little opportunity to become acquainted -before marriage. In many instances the young people have very little to -say about the matter, supposed to be one of hearts, and are scarcely -consulted. About the only way he can learn anything about the disposition -of his intended is for a young man to bribe the servants and thus get -first-hand information. He can never see her except in the parlour, -surrounded by all the family, or at dances, where she is always under the -eye of her chaperon. In fact, during the whole of her maidenhood a girl -is closely watched, and is seldom permitted to be out of sight of her -mother’s vigilant eye. The girl naturally thinks that these restrictions -are unnecessary, but mamma thinks that they are essential, father -approves, and so the custom remains. The lover bears the name of _novio_, -and his sweetheart is _novia_. Neither dare pay any attention to another, -and for a _novio_ to dance with any other girl than his _novia_ would be -a direct offence, and probably cause a breaking of the engagement. - -Every girl looks forward to marriage as her sole career. The independence -of the American girl has not influenced her, and the suffragette -agitation has not reached Chile. Marriage is the beginning of freedom for -a woman, for up to that time she is practically kept in a cage, or is -tied by a string to some guardian. When the priest performs the wedding -ceremony, however, the shackles are broken. Nevertheless they make good -wives, for their tastes are domestic; and they make good mothers, to -whom children are welcome, and the more of them the better they are -satisfied. Musical clubs, literary clubs and missionary societies do -not exist to interfere with domestic duties. A houseful of servants are -usually kept to do the work, for each servant will only do the particular -duties for which he or she was hired. The groom often takes his bride to -his father’s house, and one will frequently find several families living -under the same roof in seeming peace and harmony. - -[Illustration: A GROUP OF CHILEAN GIRLS.] - -The colonies of Chile, such as Valdivia, Osorno and others around Lake -Llanquihue, are principally made up of Germans and Dutch. Most of these -were poor and ignorant when they came to their new homes, and some have -remained so. They have built up several prosperous communities, however, -and there they will be found, a quiet, peaceable and an intelligent -population. This frontier had quite a boom at one time, and thousands -were attracted here by the seductive literature sent out by the wily -agents stationed in Europe. Town after town sprang up. Men who had never -done a day’s work on a farm and ne’er-do-wells came over. Few of them had -any money. For several years there was much hardship. The government was -not always prompt in carrying out its pledges, for the officials could -not see why “to-morrow” would not do just as well. Some finally returned, -and others drifted into the larger cities. But many were very successful -and now have good farms to show as a reward for their industry. After the -war with Peru many of the disbanded soldiers were granted tracts of land -here. Considerable lawlessness followed, as they robbed the unresisting -Germans of their cattle and other animals. The outlaws being in league -with the officials, no redress could be secured, and the colonists -complained with good reason. These conditions have ended. The Teutons -have generally remained apart from the Chileans, and the percentage of -intermarriage has been small. Some have not even mastered the Spanish -tongue, and few take any part in the government. These two races may -become amalgamated eventually, and it would be a good thing for Chile to -receive into its fold this sturdy Teutonic blood. - -Of all the nationalities, other than Spanish, that have entered Chile, -the British is the most prominent and has been the most prosperous. It is -likewise the most numerous. Britons, such as the O’Higgins, Lord Cochrane -and Captain Prat, have helped to fight Chile’s battles, and their -financiers have advanced the money that has developed her resources. -Hence it is not surprising that one will find the characteristics of that -tight little island impressed upon the country, and, in many instances, -upon the people. English names are quite common among prominent Chilean -families, for they have become nationalized. Men who came there a -generation or two ago married the daughters of Chile, and the families -are essentially Chilean, although bearing English names. Many of these -English-Chilenos are very prominent. One man, who had been a member -of the Chilean Congress, told me that one-fourth of the members of -that body, at the time of his membership, had had English fathers or -grandfathers. The progress of Chile in many lines can be traced to this -influence. - -Valparaiso bears many British characteristics. A walk along the -principal business streets will show almost as many English signs as -those in Spanish. The English language will be heard on every corner. -The Anglo-Saxon face is a familiar sight. In the banking and shipping -quarters nearly everything is British, with a sprinkling of the Teuton. -At Iquique and Antofagasta it is still more marked, for the nitrate and -copper interests are almost entirely in the hands of English capital. -Each year scores of young men come out from the home land and accept -positions with the banks, railroads and manufacturing interests. Some of -them remain permanently, and others claim only a temporary domicile. Most -of them do not assimilate very readily with the Spaniard. There is both a -racial and religious antagonism. This wears away after a while with many, -for they are shut off from home ties and the restraints of society. - -Homes in the proper sense are not open to these aliens, and their -quarters are devoid of home comforts. Hence the young Englishmen seek -companionship where they are sure to be welcome. Always criticising -the loose morals of the Chileans, they generally do nothing to better -conditions, and oftentimes end by taking a part in the dissipation. -They frequent the bars and clubs and indulge in great quantities of -strong liquors. Shut off by social customs from the better homes, they -oftentimes unite themselves with the freer and easier strata of society. -As an English writer expresses himself of his own countrymen: “We have -done much to aid in developing the country along certain defined -lines; but we have done little or nothing to ingratiate ourselves with -the people, or to aid in raising the moral tone of those we affect to -despise. The English in Chile commonly remain like a bed of cabbages in -a Chilean flower-garden—self-satisfied and self-aggrandizing, usurping -all the nourishment they can obtain, and neither specially ornamental -nor specially interesting.” Chile has provided homes and, in many -instances, fortunes for the English, and they should return more to such -a hospitable mother than has been done heretofore. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -AN UNCONQUERABLE RACE - - -The most indomitable of the native races in the New World, with the -exception of the red men of North America, have been the Araucanians -of Chile. They are the proudest, richest and bravest of the Indians of -South America. At the time of the conquest this race occupied the greater -part of Chile, and had spread across the Andes into a part of Patagonia, -which country they shared with the Tehuelches, the so-called giants. For -three hundred years they waged a successful warfare against the Spanish -invaders, and the republic of Chile which later succeeded the Spanish -province. It was not until 1884 that they were finally conquered, and -submitted to the Chilean government after certain rights and privileges -were guaranteed to them. So long as the Chileans attempted to conquer -the Indians by brute force they failed, just as had the Spaniards before -them. It was not until some tact and judgment were used that any real -progress was made in the subjugation of these people. - -According to the early account the Araucanians were given to agriculture, -and the valleys south of the present city of Santiago teemed with an -industrious and energetic race. The Incas had spread their sovereignty -south of Santiago as far as the Maule River, and this probably accounted -in part for the agricultural development there. Some writers claim that -the Incas had enslaved the Araucanians and compelled them to do their -work. At any rate the Spaniards encountered little opposition in their -conquest before that river was reached. The fact is that these people -were really divided into three different tribes. The tribes that lived -along the coast were fishermen, those that lived on the higher lands -were hunters, while those who occupied the more fertile valleys were -agriculturists. It was estimated by some of the early writers that there -were at that time no less than a half million of these Indians. This -estimate is no doubt excessive, and half that number would be nearer the -truth. They knew not the use of any metals, excepting silver, which they -worked into various forms. Silver breastplates were worn by the wives of -the _caciques_, or chiefs, which told of the number of their children, as -large families were their boast. They also wore large crescent earrings -and great silver suns as breastpins, with hieroglyphics upon them which -told of a nature worship. Bracelets formed of a multiplicity of minute -silver beads were also fashioned very attractively, and in later years -silver stirrups were manufactured for the head men. Even to-day this race -is noted for its silver work. - -Down upon this stronghold of the Araucanians came Pedro de Valdivia, -in 1550, with two hundred horsemen and some other troops. This force -no doubt made an imposing appearance, as it marched along with their -coats of mail, helmets, swords and spears flashing in the sunlight. The -only firearms were clumsy arquebuses borne by the infantry, and fired -from a wooden support by the aid of a fuse only kept alight with great -difficulty. And yet the Spanish soldiers at that time were considered to -be the best in the world. They continually marched in order of battle, -preceded by an advanced guard and carrying their baggage in the centre. -From the time he reached the river Itata his march was a continuous -conflict, although he managed to get as far as the River Bio-Bio. - -How two hundred men were able to make this trip through a thickly -populated country can be explained by reason of the superior weapons -and armour of the Spaniards, as well as the fact that they used horses. -These animals at that time were unknown among the native races, and -inspired them with terror just as they did the Aztecs in Mexico. The -Indians had only wooden lances, arrows of the simplest manufacture, and -clubs; and yet they managed to stand against the Spaniards at times until -hundreds of them were slain. On one occasion the Spanish records say that -Valdivia was beset with twenty thousand Indians. As fast as one body -of the Indians was routed another took their place. Compact masses of -the Indians at times surrounded the Spaniards. The horses were clubbed, -and this together with the war-cries of the attacking force created a -terrible confusion. When the Indians were finally beaten off the ground -was literally covered with the dead bodies of their comrades. Every -Spaniard was wounded. This battle is known as that of Andalien. - -The cruelty of the Spaniards in this invasion was something terrible at -times. After the battle of Penco, where, according to the chroniclers, -forty thousand Indians attacked the invaders, Valdivia cut off the nose -and right hand of two hundred prisoners, and sent them back to terrorize -their comrades in this mutilated condition. They treated the natives with -absolute contempt, and endeavoured to reduce them to abject slavery. -Valdivia practically had no choice in the matter. Each soldier had to be -paid a grant of land, with a certain number of slaves. The soldiers were -of a fierce and intractable character, and it was almost impossible to -maintain any sort of discipline among them. Valdivia founded the city of -Imperial, fortified it and employed the natives in washing the gold found -in this district. He also established the city of Villa Rica, which means -the rich village, and was so named because of the wealth and fertility of -that valley, and another town that was named after himself. In fact he -endeavoured to establish a string of fortified outposts throughout that -entire section of the country. The Indians were parcelled out among the -conquerors, Valdivia retaining for himself about forty thousand. Although -at this time the Spanish population of the valley did not exceed one -thousand, yet they were able after a while to force the Indians to do -their work. The men were attended by a numerous retinue of servants -wherever they went, and even the women wanted to be followed by a large -concourse of slaves when they attended church. Rank and importance seemed -to be indicated by the number of menials. - -The end, however, was not long in coming. It was due to an Indian boy, -named Lautaro, who had been raised in the household of Valdivia himself, -that their freedom was finally obtained. He had learned to manage -horses, and to use the Spaniards’ weapons. Taking some of these animals, -he joined his people and stirred up a general insurrection. A public -assembly of the tribes was called, and Lautaro presented a definite plan -for a campaign against the enemy. When Valdivia arrived on the scene -to put this revolt down he found some of the towns already in ashes. -Lautaro, although only twenty-one years of age, had shown a genius for -war and was in command, and had already established some discipline -among his troops. Not a single Spaniard escaped in a battle, or series -of skirmishes, that was fought, although thousands of the Indians fell. -Contrary to the example set by the Spaniards Lautaro simply killed his -prisoners by beheading them without any preliminary torture.[1] Valdivia -himself was captured by the Indians. That general at once offered him two -hundred sheep for his release, and promised to withdraw all of his troops -from their territory. The Indian caciques, however, would not consent to -this, and, at a prearranged signal, one of the Indian soldiers struck -him on the head with a club and killed him. It is said that his body was -afterwards eaten by the assembled caciques, in order to give them heart -in the struggle against the Spaniards. This seems to have been a custom -among many primitive races. - -Thus was a struggle begun which lasted for three centuries. During this -time the Spaniards frequently penetrated the country of the Indians, and -were as many times driven back again. The number of horses owned by the -Indians soon increased, and they also secured many arms from the slain -Spaniards, so that by the latter part of the sixteenth century they were -in a better position to fight. In 1599 they were able to muster no less -than two thousand mounted troops. They had also developed herds of cattle -and sheep from original stock secured from the Spaniards. Plagues broke -out at different times, and these, together with the numbers lost in -battle, greatly decimated the natives. - -The death of Valdivia was the beginning of a heroic age for the Indians. -The whole country was soon in arms, and the Spaniards were ousted from -most of their settlements. Villagran, successor of Valdivia, was driven -out of the valley, but soon afterwards returned with reinforcements and -commenced a war of extermination. He employed bloodhounds as auxiliaries, -and these animals destroyed many Indians, especially women and children. -He destroyed the crops wherever possible, and this brought on starvation -and plague. He rebuilt some of the forts and established others, for he -was at the head of a splendidly appointed army of several thousand men -who had come there from Peru. - -At one time Villagran hung thirty caciques. One of the chiefs requested -that he be hanged on the highest tree, in order that his countrymen -might see him dying for his country. Another chief, who died a natural -death, asked that his body be burned, in order that he might arise to -the clouds and continue fighting the dead Spaniards who dwelt there. At -the same time he asked that a successor be chosen, in order that the war -might be continued against those below. In a later battle the Indians dug -pitfalls for the cavalry, and, when the horses stumbled into these, they -fell upon the riders and almost annihilated them. The Spanish leader cut -off the feet of many prisoners in order to terrify their compatriots. -Nevertheless, in spite of these cruelties and some successes on the part -of the invaders, the Indians were victorious, so that the Spaniards -were again obliged to withdraw. A severe earthquake, which occurred at -this time, also destroyed some of the town, as the shocks continued for -several months. - -In 1599 seven Spanish cities were destroyed by the Indians. The city -of Imperial was besieged for sixteen months, during which time the -greatest heroism was shown by both besieged and besiegers. The Indians -ingeniously diverted the river that supplied the town with water. It -finally succumbed and was destroyed. Another Spanish city held out -against the Indians for three years, until practically all those within -the fortifications were slain, starved to death or captured when seeking -food. In one year there were no less than twenty-four murderous Indian -raids. Thus after a conquest of half a century no permanent results -could be seen. The Indians had learned much from their oppressors and -were better fighters. They, as well as the Spaniards, had captured many -prisoners, and the Spanish women had been taken over as wives by the -caciques. As a result of this prolonged conflict the Spanish government -established the river Bio-Bio as the frontier line, which in itself was -quite a victory for the Indians. - -In 1641 the independence of Araucania was acknowledged. A few years -later, however, the treaty was broken by the Spaniards in their -slave-hunting expeditions. Another war of conquest was also begun. The -events of the preceding century were repeated in a number of instances, -until 1703, when the King of Spain ordered the raids into the Indian -country to cease. For a half century or more there was comparative -peace, although the Spaniards conducted some desultory raids against the -natives. - -During the war of independence some of these natives fought on the side -of Spain, and others were found on the side of the revolutionists. As -soon as independence was secured, however, the authorities began to use -the same methods towards these people that the Spaniards had, and thus -alienated whatever good will might have been felt by them. Several more -or less severe combats followed which really made it a local civil war. -It was not until Colonel Saavedra adapted a more conciliatory policy -that bloodshed ceased. The heroic age of the Araucanians had probably -passed away, and the later wars were not so fierce as those of former -years, for the vices of the Spaniards, especially a liking for brandy, -had fastened themselves upon many of them. Since 1884, the date of the -final agreement with the Araucanians, they have become more widely -scattered, but those who live in the southern provinces still follow the -old habits and customs of the early centuries. The people north of the -Bio-Bio River also had much Indian blood in their veins by this time, and -it is unquestionably true that the Chilean soldiers of to-day, who are -considered brave, owe very much of this valour to the Araucanians with -whom they have become intermixed. - -[Illustration: OX CARTS.] - -Many Araucanians may be seen in Temuco, Osorno, Puerto Montt and other -southern towns. They come there to trade. Some are on horseback, both -men and women riding astride, others come in clumsy ox-carts with their -wheat, corn or other produce. The women wear bright-coloured blankets, -which are so fastened at the shoulders that the arms are left bare. The -skirts are belted at the waist and fall about half way between the knee -and ankle, and they are generally barefooted as well as bareheaded. Those -who can afford it wear immense silver earrings and breast plates, and -fasten their garments with silver buckles. The men also wear blankets -and a _poncho_, which is a blanket with a hole in the centre through -which the head is thrust. Few wear hats, but a red handkerchief or a -band around the head answers for a head covering. Both sexes are fond of -bright colours. - -This race bears a very strong resemblance to the North American Indians. -They are somewhat lighter in colour, but they have the same high -cheek-bones and straight black hair, with little or no beard. Polygamy -is common among them, and it is no rare thing to find two or even three -women in the home of an Araucanian. They seem to get along fairly well -together, and each woman looks after her own brood of children. Between -them they look after the master of the house and assist him with his -crops. The houses are generally very simple structures, with low thatched -roofs, and one big door which can be closed up with skins. The floor is -usually the earth beaten down hard and covered with sheep skins. The -cooking and other household utensils are of the very crudest and simplest -design. Some of the Araucanians are very good farmers, and have even -progressed to the point where they have adopted American ploughs and -reapers. Many work on the _haciendas_ of the rich Chileans, and they are -said to make very good hands. The government allotted lands to these -people with a condition that it can not be sold, which was a very wise -provision. When an Araucanian acquires a liking for alcohol he would -trade his land, silver jewelry, his wife or anything else of value in -order to indulge his appetite for drink. When sober they are very clever -traders, and usually manage to secure full value for their goods. - -The Araucanians have never adopted the religion of the Spaniards as did -the Aztecs and Incas. It is true that there are some churches among them, -but the impress has not been very great. They still believe in their -old superstitions. The men purchase their wives and then go through the -farce of stealing them. The “medicine man,” who is oftentimes a woman, is -supposed to be able to ward off evil spirits and troubles of all kinds. -With these people the evil spirits are believed to be at the bottom of -sickness, bad crops and all other woes. They believe in a great father -who watches over them, and in a happy hunting ground somewhere in the -beyond to which all those departed go. - -One of the interesting characters met with along the Pacific coast of -South America is the calaguayas, or the Indian doctor. One will find him -everywhere, from Panama to the Araucanian country, carrying with him a -pack filled with dried herbs, cheap jewelry, handkerchiefs, ribbons, -mirrors and other notions, which he sells to the people. He may be met -with on the trains, the coast steamers or any other place, and generally -carries with him nothing but the suit he wears and a bright-coloured -_poncho_, which is thrown over his shoulders for additional warmth. He -may be seen sunning himself in the plaza of a town or tramping over -mountain trails. This man is both a trader and tinker, and his sources of -livelihood are many indeed. He can mend a clock, a tin pan, or a broken -piece of crockery. He can tell fortunes, interpret signs and omens, -or prepare love philters. He is a magician, and can do all sorts of -sleight-of-hand tricks. He is a conjurer; he helps people who have been -bewitched, and altogether has a reputation for superior wisdom, which he -applies on all possible occasions. - -The chief business, however, of this unique character is that of healing -the sick, whether man or beast, for he is equally successful as a -veterinary surgeon, or as a physician for the human race; and it is -really remarkable, as many white people testify, the knowledge he has -of certain climatic ills to which the people there are subject, and of -herbs which will relieve them. They claim to have herbs that will cure -everything to which humanity is subject. It is a fact that there is no -section of the globe to-day where so many modern drugs come from as the -northern half of South America, and it is quite probable that these -primitive doctors first discovered the medicinal value of many plants -that are now common pharmaceutical terms. Many stories are told among -miners and others, who have been obliged to live in the interior, where -regular physicians were not obtainable, of climatic fevers and other -illnesses which have been cured by these doctors. - -“I have herbs that will cure everything,” said the calaguayas to a doctor -who doubted his skill. As a proof he handed a leaf to the doubter and -asked him to smell it. As the man did so his nose began to bleed, and he -was unable to stop it. After a time the calaguayas handed him another -leaf, and told him to smell that. The hemorrhage immediately stopped. - -The botanical knowledge which they possess, for their medicines are all -herbs, has been handed down from generation to generation, from the time -of the ancient Incas. In fact their origin is supposed to date from that -ancient race, when the medical men had an official position at court and -in the cities. As it was a fixed law of the Incas that the son should -follow his father’s occupation, the knowledge of the father in the use of -herbs was passed by him to his son. The natives have much faith in the -skill of these doctors, so much so that if one of them pronounces a man -incurable, further effort to relieve the afflicted person is generally -abandoned. In fact with some of the tribes the sick are then exposed, in -order to hasten their death, so it is said. - -There is also said to be a sort of free-masonry among these doctors for -mutual protection, and they have built huts on some of the lonesome -trails, where the wandering medical man can seek shelter and make himself -as comfortable as possible. In these rude shelters the calaguayas is able -to take shelter for himself, if overtaken by storm, for he always carries -in his pack a little jerked beef, parched corn, beans, and some cocoa -leaves, the chewing of which relieves hunger to some extent and gives -strength for prolonged exertion. In these wild haunts they also collect -in secret their healing herbs, for they will never allow any one to -accompany them on such expeditions. It is impossible to get one of them -to tell of what his herbs consist, as they preserve the greatest secrecy -concerning all of them. - -The coming of the calaguayas is usually very welcome to the communities -that he visits, because he knows everybody; and travelling from one -village to another he carries news and personal messages, frequently, -between friends. He thus makes himself a travelling post-office as well -as a peripatetic newsmonger. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -EDUCATION AND THE ARTS - - -Modern Chile owes little to the mother country for its educational -system. With the exception of the establishment of a university at -Santiago, and one or two minor institutions, Spain almost entirely -neglected education in this province. The wealthy classes sent their -children to Europe for their education, and the poorer classes were given -a little instruction by the church. The Indians and peons were taught the -catechism and church doctrines in a desultory way. With that all attempt -at general intellectual development was ended. It is little wonder that -only a small proportion of the population were able to either read or -write, when the Spanish yoke was thrown off, or that even to-day, when -Chile has celebrated the centennial of her declaration of independence, -her educational system will not compare favourably with those found in -the Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic nations of the world. - -Education in Chile is absolutely free, though not compulsory. Within the -last few years the Chilean government has given considerable attention -to public instruction, and has been greatly extending the school system -all over the country. According to government reports there were, in -1907, twenty-two hundred and fifteen elementary schools, with forty-seven -hundred and twenty-nine teachers, and an attendance of one hundred and -seventy thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven pupils. This is only a -small percentage of those of school age, according to standards in the -United States. Besides these public schools there were more than one -hundred private schools for elementary instruction, which were subsidized -by the government. - -The school system is divided into primary, elementary, secondary and -the higher education. The secondary education, which corresponds to our -high school, is provided in the National Institute at Santiago, and at -lyceums located in various parts of the republic. One of these lyceums is -maintained in every province in the republic, no matter how small, and -in every city or town of any importance. In the same year, above cited, -thirty-nine of these institutions were for men and thirty for women, -having a total attendance of almost twelve thousand. For the higher -education there is a national university at Santiago, which is an old and -well-equipped institution, and fifteen normal schools located in various -parts of the republic. For technical instruction there are a number -of institutions located in different parts of the republic, which are -conducted by various societies. - -[Illustration: THE ESCUELA NAVAL, VALPARAISO.] - -For instruction in agriculture schools are maintained by the government -at Concepción, Santiago, Talca, San Fernando, Elqui and Salamanca. -These schools are all under the supervision of the National Society -of Agriculture, and the government contributes liberally toward their -maintenance. There is also a school conducted at Chillan for practical -agricultural instruction. A number of model farms are maintained by -the government, of which the principal one is the Quinta Normal in the -capital, and a number of experimental institutions for the cultivation -of vines, trees, etc., are also supported by the national government. -The agricultural schools, as well as those for the furtherance of -industries and mining, hold expositions from time to time, in which, the -products of the soil and factories are exhibited, as well as the latest -processes and appliances. To these exhibitions the government contributes -liberally, in order to acquaint the public with the latest scientific -development. The societies themselves are formed by a large number of -prominent Chileans, who devote considerable time and energy to the -development and improvement of these industries. - -Commercial schools have been established at Iquique, Antofagasta, -Valparaiso, Santiago, Concepción, Vallenar, Coquimbo, Talca and San -Carlos. A number of industrial schools are conducted under the direction -of the society for the improvement of industries, where technical -instruction is given to those preparing them for such occupations as -engineers, electricians, architects, plumbers, masons, etc. At Copiapó, -Santiago and La Serena, the government has established schools for the -practical instruction of mining engineers and mining in general. - -Military and naval education is given in ten different academies, -located in different parts of the republic. One of the best of these -is the Escuela Naval at Valparaiso, which is situated on a commanding -location overlooking the lower town and bay. As the navy of Chile -commands great consideration this branch of the educational system -receives considerable attention, and the cadets are put through a very -thorough course of instruction by able instructors. The University of -Santiago, as well as a university under the supervision of the Catholic -Church, gives instruction in law, political science, music, dentistry, -civil engineering, physics and mathematics. Then, in addition, there -is a National Conservatory of Music, a School of Fine Arts, a National -Observatory, an Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, and a School for the -Blind. - -A number of public libraries have been established in various cities, at -the head of which is the National Library at Santiago, which contains a -valuable collection of books and manuscripts. Next to this in importance -is the public library at Valparaiso. Several other cities have followed -the lead of these two and established free public libraries. Museums of -natural history and also of arts are maintained in Santiago. - -The newspaper in Chile is as much of an institution as it is in the -United States. In the cities of Valparaiso and Santiago one will find -the newspapers equipped with an energetic staff of reporters, who have, -what Americans would call, a good nose for news. Each one, like his -American counterpart, is trying to beat his competitor, and acquire at -least temporary notoriety and fame. - -_El Mercurio_ is the most noted newspaper of the country, and publishes -editions in Valparaiso, Santiago and Concepción. It ranks with _La -Prensa_, in Buenos Aires, and the _Jornal do Comercio_, in Rio de -Janeiro. In the two former cities _El Mercurio_ owns fine buildings, -which are superior in their equipments to the average newspaper office -in the United States. It has not only provided good quarters for its -editors, reporters, printers and other employees, but has dining-rooms, -private parlours, baths, bedrooms, assembly-rooms, and other features -which American newspaper plants are not equipped with. In these rooms -entertainments are given for the public, noted visitors to that country -are entertained, and many other features of more or less public interest -are provided for the people. The owner of _El Mercurio_ is Mr. Augustin -Edwards, who is a member of a famous banking family of Santiago, and has -occupied various official positions in the country. _El Mercurio_ was -founded in Valparaiso in 1827 and in Santiago in 1900. It has long been -one of the show things in Chile. The editorials in the editions are the -same, but the news columns differ considerably because of local interest. - -One will find the editors of these papers as well informed as the editors -of the leading newspapers in the United States, and their information -covers the whole world, perhaps better than the average American editor. -If there is any distinguished foreigner visiting the country the -reporters eagerly interview him, and the matter is displayed in headlines -which are quite similar to the land of yellow journalism. In fact, in -general make-up the Chilean newspapers more nearly resemble those of the -United States than the journals of any other country of South America. In -foreign news one will find two or three pages of cable dispatches in _El -Mercurio_, much more than is printed in papers published by newspapers -in cities of similar size in the United States. The _vida social_ -(society column) has much news concerning _las distinguidas señoras y -señoritas_. Interspersed with accounts of balls, parties, weddings, -visitors, etc., will be obituaries and notices of funerals. Echoes -of the get-rich-quick commercialism will be seen in the advertising -space, where columns of advertisements of banks, nitrate companies and -promotion companies appear. Rates of exchange, the movement of the stock -market and other items of commercial interest occupy a prominent place. -Sport is prominent, of which football is an integral part, having been -made popular by the British residents. The entries in the horse races, -together with the various riders and their weights, form a part of the -racing gossip, much as in English newspapers. In fact these cosmopolitan -publications provide much interesting reading for all who can read them. - -_Zig-Zag_ of Santiago, and _Sucesos_, of Valparaiso, are two illustrated -weeklies, which are really admirable and enterprising publications. -Each edition is practically a pictorial record of the week both at -home and abroad. There will be photographs of those prominent in the -social and political life, pictured scenes of the leading events of -the week, cartoons and news of the world depicted from the illustrated -publications of other countries. There is one English newspaper published -in Valparaiso. One feature, which is always displayed in the Chilean -newspaper, is an editorial on the foremost topic of the day. It is given -the leading position, every one reads it, and it is generally the topic -of conversation for the following day. These editorials are generally -well worth the reading, for they not only display knowledge but a -catholicity of treatment that speaks well for the Chilean. - -_La Union_ also publishes editions in Santiago and Valparaiso, and it -is a well edited and well conducted paper. Other newspapers of more or -less importance are _El Dia_, _La Lei_, _La Patria_, _El Chileno_, _La -Reforma_, _El Diario Popular_ and _Las Ultimas Noticias_, and others. -In all there are more than two hundred publications of all kinds. Every -one who can read at all generally reads about all the newspapers, so -that even though the reading class is not as large as with us, yet the -circulation of these newspapers is very creditable. Nevertheless one -wonders how they are all supported and manage to survive. - -Like all Spanish people the writers, though not numerous, are usually -voluminous. The number is not great because of the lack of readers and -library privileges. One Spanish writer says that the circle of readers -in each Spanish-American nation is in smaller numbers than in a single -street in London, a square in Paris, or a district in Italy. Such a -statement is not true of Chile, for Santiago, Valparaiso and Concepción -have large numbers of educated Chileans. But it is true that the writer -has a small circle as compared with the clientele of an American, English -or German author. Chilean writers have been the most prolific of any of -the countries on the Pacific coast of South America. The comparatively -stable rule for four decades was conducive to literary development. -The French influence in literature is more noted than any other, and -especially so in literature of the lighter vein. - -Before independence the chief subjects were history, religion and poetry, -and many of the writers were ecclesiastics. Since the establishment -of the republic fiction, philosophy and political economy have been -prominent, and lay writers have taken precedence over ecclesiastics. -Ramon Briceño and Venturo Marin are two well known writers of modern -philosophy and ethics. Other Chilean writers along similar lines were -Errázuriz, Casanova, Aracena Lopez, Arrasco, Albano and José Lara. -Andres Bello is a name that towers above all. Says Professor Currier: -“I regard him as one of the most extraordinary men that the Western -Hemisphere has produced. Entirely a self-made man, he explored almost -every field of human knowledge, and his numerous works testify to -his labours. Poet, philosopher, linguist, philologist, litterateur, -historian, educator and jurist, such was Bello. His civil code of Chile -places him among the world’s legislators. It is, perhaps, to be regretted -that in his earlier years his attention was so much divided among various -subjects that many of his labours remain unfinished. Few countries can -boast of a man so versatile and of such intellectual activity as Bello.” - -Journalism in Chile, like the other Spanish-American republics, is an -important profession. One of the greatest journalists Chile has produced -was Zorobabel Rodriguez, who exercised immense influence on public -thought for many years. His editorials were the ordinary topics at the -breakfast table, and were looked for by all parties from day to day. -Rodriguez was also a poet, novelist and all-round literary man. - -Chile has produced a number of historical writers. Among these might -be mentioned the brothers Miguel Luis and Gregorio Victor Amunategui, -Manuel Bilbao, Vicuña Mackenna and Diego Barrios Araña. Many have dropped -into poetry, for such a form of writing is popular and natural with the -Spanish race. The drama is also an important branch of Spanish literature -and Chile has produced her fair share of dramatists. The best known is -probably Carlos Walker Martinez, who succeeded in touching a sympathetic -and patriotic chord. A number of novels have also been written by Chilean -writers, but they are unknown among English readers. - -The artistic is a strong element in the Latin character. Foremost with -the Italians, perhaps, it also bears a vital relation to the Spaniard. -Any one who has visited any of the Latin-American countries has not -failed to observe this trait, for art has been well preserved in the -New World, wherever either Spaniards or Portuguese have held sway. In -Chile this art has not been tinged so much with Indian influences as -in Mexico. Here is found the transplanted art of the Spaniard with -very little modification. There are many fine churches, of which the -cathedral of Santiago is the most noted example. It is a fine specimen -of ecclesiastical architecture. Hospitals and other public buildings -are built with an eye to the artistic. Plazas are arranged with skill, -and fine statues abound all over the cities. Municipal theatres have -been built in several cities. The Municipal Theatre of Santiago is a -commodious building and of artistic design. Although it will not compare -with the Colon Theatre of Buenos Aires, or those in Rio de Janeiro or Sao -Paulo, Brazil, it is an artistic building. Through the aid of a subsidy -from the national treasury operatic talent is brought from Europe for at -least a few weeks each season. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION - - -Peace as well as war has its heroes. In the industrial development of -Chile there are two names of North Americans that deserve to stand side -by side with those of O’Higgins and Cochrane, heroes of the war of -independence. In Valparaiso will be found a monument to the memory of -William Wheelwright, who had the vision of a Franklin. Chance determined -the destiny of this remarkable man. Wrecked on the shores of the Rio -de la Plata, in 1823, the youthful Wheelwright saw the needs of this -great continent, and he determined to devote his energies towards the -development of harbours and transportation. He became a supercargo on a -vessel bound around Cape Horn, and in this way reached Valparaiso. At -first he was looked upon as a dreamer. American capitalists turned down -his scheme, and even the British did not welcome him at first. - -“If that insane Wheelwright calls here again,” said an English consul to -his servant, “do not admit him.” Nothing daunted, however, Wheelwright -went to London and succeeded in interesting some moneyed men in a scheme -for direct transportation between England and the west coast. The first -steamship traversed the Straits of Magellan under this concession and -reached a Chilean port in 1840. This was the beginning of the Pacific -Steam Navigation Company, which proved of inestimable benefit in the -upbuilding of Chile and Peru. It was not many years until this company -was operating vessels as far as Panama. - -The next vision of this master of industry was the problem of conquering -the Andes. Could they be penetrated? Could the seemingly insurmountable -difficulties be overcome? He planned a railroad from the port of Caldera -across the Andes. This port was opened and the railroad constructed as -far as Copiapó. This scheme got no farther, but it was only the beginning -of colossal schemes. He planned and built the railroad from Valparaiso -toward the capital as far as Llai Llai, but there it stopped because of -lack of funds. His struggles with the opposition to this line read like -some of the contests in the English Parliament over the first railroad -projects. Wheelwright then turned his attention to Argentina and built -the first railroad in that republic, a line from Rosario to Cordoba, a -distance of two hundred and forty-six miles. His last public work was a -short railroad running from Buenos Aires to Ensenada, in 1873. Although -he had further plans for public improvements his health failed, and he -sailed for London to seek medical advice, where he died that same year. -His remains are buried at Newburyport, Mass., the place of his birth, -where they lie amidst a long line of sturdy Puritan ancestors. - -In Catskill, New York, a boy was born on the 7th of July, 1811. His name -was Henry Meiggs. His history reads like romance, for he made and lost -several fortunes both on the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts. Elected as -treasurer of San Francisco County, California, he loaned public money to -friends who did not pay it back. He then fled as a defaulter to South -America. He first landed in Chile. The uncompleted railroad to the -capital, that had been begun by Wheelwright, first engaged the mental -activities of this remarkable man. For a decade the government had been -planning to extend this railroad “to-morrow.” Meiggs negotiated with the -government and finally secured the contract. With characteristic Yankee -ingenuity he succeeded in getting a clause inserted giving a premium for -each section completed within a specified time. He succeeded in building -each section in the shortest period and collected the maximum premium. -The result was that Meiggs realized a profit of more than a million -dollars, and made a great reputation for himself. Since that time the -Chilean government is very chary about such bonuses. - -Meiggs married a Chilean woman and built a magnificent residence in -Santiago. But his later enterprises were in Peru. He built the railroad -from Mollendo to Arequipa. His greatest undertaking, however, was the -famous Oroya Railroad over the Andes, the highest railroad in the world -and one of its wonders. Great gorges were surmounted, rushing streams -spanned with bridges where such work seemed impossible, tunnels bored -where men had to hang over precipices by means of ropes to secure a start -and other obstacles of nature were overcome. Before the completion of -the road Meiggs was compelled to use his own private fortune. But he -accomplished the task. One hears many tales of this eccentric man in -Chile and Peru. It stands to his credit that, although he lived in luxury -and spent money lavishly, he paid all his debts back in the land of his -birth in order to stand before the world as an honest man. - -The problem of connecting the widely separated sections of Chile with -easy and convenient means of transportation has been and is a serious -one. It was but natural, owing to the long extent of coast line, that the -first attention of the Chilean government was given to ocean navigation. -Furthermore, the Chileans have proven to be good navigators, and the -record of their steamships has been very good. There has been the further -advantage in developing this means of transportation in the fact that -no part of Chile is very far distant from the Pacific coast. This has -developed a large number of short railways, which run from the ports to -the mineral or agricultural districts of the interior. There are in all -sixteen ports open to international commerce, and forty-four inferior -ports which are used in the coast trade. The different character of the -northern, central and southern sections has created a demand for exchange -of products between those sections, which has made the coast trade of -great importance. - -The ports of Chile were opened to the commerce of all the world as soon -as the independent government was fully organized. It is a historic fact -that among the first vessels that arrived in Chile, after independence -had been achieved, was a frigate from New York, which brought one of the -first printing presses to South America and also some American printers, -who established the first Chilean periodical. At first Valparaiso claimed -nearly all of the tonnage, because of its nearness to the capital. At -that time, also, the Chilean seacoast was not more than half as long -as it is at the present time. Vessels soon began to operate under the -Chilean flag, although most of the first vessels were owned by foreign -capital. As early as 1834 there were no less than one hundred and -thirty-four national vessels, principally engaged in the coast trade. -When William Wheelwright organized the Pacific Steam Navigation Company -a new era in Chilean prosperity was begun. Two vessels, the _Chile_ and -_Peru_, both of them small boats, constituted the beginning of the fleet -which finally developed into the great company, which for many years -plied between the west coast and Europe. It has recently been absorbed by -another English company, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company. - -[Illustration: THE HARBOUR, VALPARAISO.] - -This English company, as well as other companies, were subsidized by -the Chilean government, in order to get better coast service between -the various ports. This service was eventually extended to the city of -Panama. In 1870 the most powerful Chilean company was organized under the -name of the Compañia Sul Americana de Vapores, which soon became a very -active competitor of the English company. The number of its vessels was -continually added to, most of them being built by English shipbuilders, -until to-day this company has more than twenty boats. Many of these are -very comfortable steamers, of considerable capacity, and operate all the -way between Puerto Montt and Panama. In addition to this company, there -are a number of small companies, owned by Chilean capital, and other -steamers belonging to private individuals, or business houses which carry -on a coast trade more or less extensive. The Chilean company and the -English company, which for a long time were active rivals, have at last -entered into an operating agreement. By the terms of this agreement -the government subsidy is shared, and the two companies operate an -alternating service between Valparaiso and Panama. The laws of Chile -governing maritime transportation are very liberal, and the fees levied -at the various ports are exceedingly reasonable. It has been recognized -by Chile that the development of commercial relations with the various -countries of America depends, to a great extent, upon the existence of -regular and rapid lines of navigation which will transport products at -reasonable rates. - -The government has spent a great deal of money in recent years in -dredging the channels, placing buoys at the dangerous points and erecting -lighthouses along the coast, until to-day there are more than fifty -lighthouses which are regularly maintained by Chile. - -What will eventually prove to be the backbone of the Chilean railway -system is termed the Longitudinal Railway, work upon which is being -prosecuted actively by the government at various places. When completed -it is planned to have a continuous railway from Tacna, in the north, to -Puerto Montt, at the south, a distance of almost two thousand miles. It -has been found that wherever the railroad has been extended, development -has followed. This has been especially true of the great central valley -through which rails have been laid as far as Osorno, only seventy-eight -miles from Puerto Montt. This line has been constructed entirely by the -government. It is built of standard gauge width, and also upon the same -gauge for some distance north of Santiago. Through the north central -part of Chile the government roads have all been built upon the narrow -gauge plan, one metre in width, because the occasional transverse spurs -of the Andes, which run toward the coast, have made construction more -difficult, and it has been easier to make the necessary curves by using -that gauge, so that the line could be built as inexpensive as possible. -At the present time nearly all of the energies of the government are -being applied to the completion of this great project, which has already -cost it many millions of dollars. - -A little more than one-half of the railway mileage in Chile has been -built and is owned by the government itself. It has not been a profitable -enterprise, for it costs about ninety-five per cent. of the gross income -for operating expenses and maintenance. One reason for this, of course, -is that the government lines, many of them, have been built through -thinly-settled territory, and where traffic up to the present time has -been very light. Then, again, the charges upon these state railways are -entirely too small, for nowhere can one travel so cheaply as upon the -government railways of Chile. Then there is also the problem which a -government must always face, in operating a public utility enterprise, -that the officials, whose duty it is to look after the work, do not apply -to it the same careful attention to detail, do not get as much work out -of their employees as a private corporation, and are likely to take a -chance at some form of graft when the opportunity affords. The question -has been seriously considered by the government of placing the operation -of the principal lines in the hands of a private company; in fact, one -company has made a proposition to operate the road between Santiago and -Valparaiso, and take for its profit simply what it can save in the cost -of operation over the present cost. - -In the northern provinces there are a number of railways operating from -the coast up a greater or lesser distance inland. The oldest railway in -the republic, as well as in South America, runs from Caldera to Copiapó. -As heretofore mentioned, this great undertaking was due to William -Wheelwright. It was his plan to continue this railway over the Andes, -and it is said by engineers to present fewer difficulties than the one -finally chosen, which was partly on sentimental grounds. It is quite -possible that the dream of the American captain of industry may some day -come true as development continues. It was never extended further than -the first terminus, over which the first locomotive was run in 1851. -The first locomotive exported from the United States was used on this -railroad. A number of short branches have now been built connecting with -this main line, but rail connection with the Federal capital is still a -thing of “to-morrow.” - -The most northern railway runs from the port of Arica to Tacna, and is -only about forty miles in length. From Arica an international railroad -is being built across the Andes into Bolivia, in accordance with a -treaty entered into between the two countries. It will not pass through -Tacna, as an independent route has been selected which promised fewer -difficulties. It is only about one hundred and forty miles to the -Bolivian frontier by this route, and only a little greater distance from -there to La Paz. This will make the shortest and most direct route to the -Bolivian capital. The contract has been let for the entire work, but it -is proceeding very slowly. - -Proceeding along the coast the next railway centre is in the nitrate -district, where a number of short railways connect Iquique, Pisagua, -Tocapilla, Caleta Buena and other towns in that district, making up a -total of nearly four hundred miles. Antofagasta also has some short spurs -which run back into the mineral regions, and carry the ore down to that -port. The principal line at this place, however, is the international -railway which runs from Antofagasta to the Bolivian city of Oruro, and -there connects with a Bolivian railway which runs to the capital, La Paz. -This railway is constructed upon an extremely narrow gauge of thirty -inches. The Chilean section of the railway ends at Ollague, a distance -of two hundred and seventy-five miles. This railway was originally -built to aid in developing some of the rich mines in Potosi, Bolivia. -By the aid of a government subsidy, it was finally completed in 1892. -This is the largest private railway enterprise in Chile. It would be -difficult to imagine a more dreary route over which a railway could be -planned than the Chilean section of this railway. At first the question -of a water supply for the engines was a serious problem, as the water -which they were able to secure easily was so permeated with minerals -that it destroyed the boilers. The concession of supplying the city of -Antofagasta with water was finally conceded to the railway company, and, -with that monopoly as an aid, pipes were laid for a distance of more than -two hundred miles to supply the water tanks of the railway and the city -of Antofagasta. The freight hauled over this road is quite considerable, -since it is one of the two lines which at present reach from the coast to -the republic of Bolivia. Half or more of the freight, to and from that -inland republic, is shipped by this route, in addition to the product of -the mines of the famous Huanchaca Company. - -In the province of Coquimbo there are several short sections of railroad, -all of which were constructed by the government. In all these lines total -about two hundred miles. It will not be long until Coquimbo will be -connected with the main line by a longitudinal railway. In the northern -section of the country there are no less than fourteen different lines, -and at least three different gauges of track. - -The railways of the central valley from Santiago south form the most -extensive system in the republic. All of these railways, with the -exception of a very few branches, belong to the state, and they form -a single system which unites the principal sections of population -throughout that section. The main track follows the longitudinal valley -from north to south in a line which keeps to the same general direction -until it ends at Osorno. In its course this system crosses no less than a -dozen of the provinces of Chile. Construction has been fairly difficult, -and the expense of bridges has been unusually high. There are many long -and high bridges, such as those across the Maule, Maipo, Mallico, Laja -and Bio-Bio rivers. Most of them have been of French construction. From -Santiago to Llanquihue, there are a number of cross railways which run -from this main line to the ports, and also some that run inland toward -the Andes for a short distance. These were built by the government in its -efforts to open up the unpopulated sections. In the carboniferous zone -around the Bay of Arauco there are a number of branches which connect -the mines, the mining towns and the ports. It will not be long until the -railway will be extended to Puerto Montt, which will complete the present -plans of the government for southern extension. - -There are no less than half a dozen transandine railways which have been -planned, and for which concessions have been granted by the government of -Chile. Two have been completed, two more have had actual work done in the -way of construction and the other two are still visionary. One project, -which bodes very fair to reach completion, is a railroad that will have -for its terminal points the Chilean port of Talcahuano and Bahia Blanca, -Argentina. It will run through Monte Aguila and Cholguan, and cross -the Andes at Lake Laja. There it will connect with the Great Southern -Railway of Argentina, which has already been built from Bahia Blanca to -Neuquen, and which is now being extended from there to Chos Malal. The -Andes at this point are not nearly so high as farther north, so that -fewer difficulties will be encountered in the construction than on those -transandine railways which have already been built. It will necessitate -a tunnel about one mile in length only to pass the summit. Engineers -who have surveyed this route report it as very feasible and strongly -recommend it. It is several hundred miles south of both Valparaiso and -Buenos Aires, passes through an extremely rich agricultural country -and ought to be constructed before many years. It will be of distinct -advantage to both republics. - -Interest in railroad construction in Chile in recent years has centred in -the transandine railway via Juncal and Uspallata pass, the historic route -by which General San Martin led his conquering legions into that country. -Its completion in the spring of 1910 was a significant event, which was -duly celebrated by both Chile and Argentina. Just a half century had -passed since Wheelwright first suggested to English capitalists the -feasibility of a railroad across the Andes to connect the Atlantic with -the Pacific, when the first train passed through the two mile tunnel -that pierced the international barrier of rock at this point. Trains are -now running regularly, and the interruption caused by the winter snows -is at an end. This is the first line to connect the two oceans, and, -to the South Americans, it was as great an event as the opening of the -first transcontinental railroad in the United States. The distance from -Valparaiso to Buenos Aires is eight hundred and eighty-eight miles, and -the trip is made in thirty-eight hours. It is hoped by the officials, -however, to reduce the running time to twenty-nine hours in the course of -time. - -[Illustration: JUNCAL STATION.] - -The first practical steps in this undertaking were made by two -English-Chilean engineers, John and Matthew Clark. They obtained the -necessary concession from Argentina in 1872, and from Chile two years -later. The Chilean government guaranteed seven per cent. on a capital of -three millions of dollars. But this concession was unsatisfactory. In -1889 the actual work of construction was begun, but it was stopped after -less than twenty miles had been completed. The old concession having -lapsed a new one was granted in 1903 to the Transandine Construction -company on a five per cent. guarantee for twenty years. In 1906 the -road was opened to Juncal, and in 1909 to Caracoles, the mouth of the -Chilean end of the tunnel. The entire distance from Los Andes to the -tunnel is forty-eight miles. In that distance the altitude rises almost -eight thousand feet. The grade in places reaches eight per cent. There -are several miles of the Abt system of cogs. Tunnels and bridges are -numerous, and a number of avalanche sheds have been built. The Chilean -slopes of the Andes are much more abrupt than those on the Argentina -side, and the work of construction has been correspondingly more -difficult. It provides a grand scenic route for the jaded continental -traveller that furnishes scenery as grandly picturesque as anywhere else -in the world. - -One unfortunate feature is the differing width of track. It will be -necessary to reload freight three times in the journey across the -continent. From Valparaiso to Los Andes the gauge is standard. Between -Los Andes and Mendoza it is one metre, and from Mendoza to Buenos Aires -it is five feet eight inches. This may possibly be changed in the future, -but it will be many years. In the meantime much trouble and extra work -will be necessitated in freight traffic. To the passenger it means only a -little annoyance, but not much delay. - -[Illustration: TRANSANDINO CHILENO RAILWAY, SHOWING ABT SYSTEM OF COGS.] - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -RELIGIOUS INFLUENCES - - -In order to fully understand the anomalous position occupied by Church -and State in the Spanish-American republics, it will be well to go back -several centuries and study for a moment the development of the clerical -policy of Spain, and its relations with the Church of Rome. With the -discovery of the New World, the Church was placed in a position where -it felt called upon to do something which it was next to impossible to -undertake independently. It felt the responsibility of evangelizing -the heathen in the newly-discovered countries, and yet it appreciated -its inability to assume this burden, because it had not the means to -propagate religion amongst a hostile people, which could only be advanced -efficiently by means of a costly expedition. Hence it was necessary for -the Holy See to proceed to convert the inhabitants of the New World -through ecclesiastics, or other persons who followed the invading forces. - -In compliance with this view the Pope issued the famous bull of -Alexander VI, in 1493, which is in part as follows: “We give, concede -and assign them (lands in the New World) in perpetuity to you and the -Kings of Castile and of Leon, your heirs and successors: and we make, -constitute and depute you and your heirs and successors, the aforesaid, -lords of these lands, with free, full and absolute power, authority and -jurisdiction.”[2] This absolute power granted to Spain was not used -against the Church, as subsequent events showed, for the priests and -monks everywhere accompanied the soldiers, and conquests of the civil -power were invariably attended with at least the nominal conversion -of the natives to Christianity. This alliance placed in the absolute -power of the king of Spain the privilege to name the priests, or other -ecclesiastics, who might accompany the expeditions, and gave him -absolute power over their work. All causes of friction between bishops, -priests and other dignitaries were decided alone by the sovereign or -his representatives in the New World, although it might be regarded -entirely as a spiritual matter. Under the interpretation given to this -papal authority, the King of Spain had it within his power to define the -boundaries of the archbishoprics and bishoprics, and the Church was even -compelled to secure his consent for the erection of vicarages, churches, -monasteries, convents and other places for religious worship. - -One decree of the King of Spain, which is similar to many others, reads -as follows: “We wish and command that there shall not be created, -instituted, founded or conceded any cathedral or parochial church, -monastery, hospital, votive church, or any other pious or religious place -without our express command, or that of the person who shall have our -authority of commission for this purpose.” And again, “That there shall -not be instituted or established any archbishopric, dignitary, canonry, -prebend, benefice, curacy, or any other benefice or ecclesiastical or -religious office without our consent or presentation.” At another time it -was decreed: “If in effect, or by dissimulation, any person shall make -or begin to make any of these edifices without this prerequisite the -viceroys, audiencas or governors shall cause them to be demolished, and -everything reduced to its previous state without cause or delay.” For -the erection of the cathedral churches the royal treasury contributed -one-third. - -These privileges were at first jealously guarded by the royal -authorities. In maintaining the right of patronage the civil courts were -given jurisdiction instead of the ecclesiastical courts, which likewise -gave the civil authorities an advantage. There was in each bishopric, -however, an ecclesiastical court over whose decision appeal might be made -to the archbishop. The cases which might be brought before this court -were those which concerned tithes, patronages, marriages, legitimation, -funerals, donations to churches and such other pious matters. If a -case arose in which a layman brought action against a priest, this was -tried before an ecclesiastical church, but, if a priest brought action -against a layman, the cause was tried before a secular tribunal. The -Church likewise had a general council, which was composed of a number -of archbishops, cardinals and other high church officials. It was the -general aim of the Church to have the ecclesiastical division correspond -with the civil divisions of the territory, thus making the political -capitals also the seats of religious authorities, although there were -exceptions to this rule. One of these was in Chile, where, although the -captaincy-general of Chile was independent of the vice-royalty of Peru, -yet the Bishop of Santiago was subservient to the Archbishop of Lima. -Thus at every step in the administration of ecclesiastical affairs in -America, the authority and domination of the civil power was recognized. -In the first century of the colonial period the Archbishop of Lima was -the metropolitan for all of South America under Spanish rule, but this -was later divided. - -Wherever the Spaniards established themselves in America, they made -the natives serfs, and forced them to approximately unrequited labour. -Looking upon these natives as an inferior race, it soon became -unpopular among the Spaniards to perform any labour which might be -considered menial. This made the opportunities for profitable employment -comparatively scarce. The doors of the monasteries were always open, -however, and the life within the cloisters, although seemingly one -of self abnegation and denial, in reality offered opportunities for -intellectual development, for vague contemplation and day dreaming, and -also a chance to enjoy more of the things of the world than fell to the -lot of the average man outside of the cloistered walls. Furthermore, -the fact that the ecclesiastical offices were at the disposal of the -representatives of the Crown gave opportunities to those persons to -favour friends who wore the cloak of the Church, which they could not -do if the same persons were following secular pursuits, because of the -limited number of positions at their disposal in civil life. Hence it -was that the ranks of the ecclesiastics came to be recruited not so much -from those who were religiously inclined, as from those who sought ease, -indulgence in the appetites and passions, and were ambitious for power -and authority. - -A century after the beginning of Spanish rule, the missionaries on the -frontier had lost their enthusiasm to make converts, and thereafter -assisted in advancing the civilization of the natives very little. The -cupidity of those priests, who were not noted for their piety, was -excited by the opportunities which their position gave them. There were -numerous opportunities to charge fees and perquisites for the services -required of them, and they took full advantage of it. Furthermore, they -sold to the Indians various articles, such as rosaries and images, at -an enormous profit, and persuaded them to labour upon their buildings -and in their little settlements without compensation other than a bare -living. Likewise many persons who had acquired great wealth in the New -World, but had probably lived reckless and immoral lives, when nearing -the end of life were anxious to secure absolution for their sins, and as -short an experience as possible in the purgatory of the next world. The -representatives of the Church urged upon them the necessity of giving -all of their worldly goods into its keeping, in return for the desired -absolution. The mysticism with which the Church surrounded itself was -favourable to the securing of such a boon, and the monastic and convent -orders accordingly accumulated great wealth. - -Thus it was that the power of the Church in the later period of colonial -rule was greatly increased through the accumulation of wealth, and -through the access to its ranks of men who were influenced by political -and covetous, rather than pious principles. After a century or more from -the beginning of Spanish rule the church dignitaries were able to a -great extent to defy the civil authorities. As a natural consequence, the -civil authorities then sought the aid and influence of the ecclesiastics. -The evil effects of these various influences upon the Church can be -traced down even to the present time in Chile, as well as the other -countries in South America. Most of the political troubles have been -the result of friction between the conservatives, who were aided by the -Church, and the liberals, who were intent upon restricting the power of -that body. - -[Illustration: A CHILEAN PRIEST.] - -The wealth of the Catholic Church in Chile is still enormous, even after -a considerable portion of it has been taken by the government for public -uses. Many of the public school and college buildings were formerly the -property of the Jesuit or other monastic order. It is said that the -church property in Santiago alone is worth not less than one hundred -million dollars in gold. It owns some of the best business blocks, as -well as hundreds of houses, and great _haciendas_ upon which wine is -manufactured and other products raised. A great part of this wealth is -owned by the various orders established in the country. The Carmelite -nuns of Santiago are a very wealthy organization and possess an enormous -income. These nuns never allow their faces to be seen by men. The -monastic order, known as the Dominican Friars, is also a very wealthy -body. They dress in black hats and gowns, with white flannel undergowns -which reach clear to the feet. This gives them quite a strange appearance -to one not familiar with the sight of such costumes worn by religious -orders. - -The Catholic Church of the west coast of South America is less liberal -than on the east coast. The reason for this condition, probably, is that -it has been less influenced by outside causes, because of the comparative -isolation of the countries and remoteness from Europe. One will find -still less liberality as you proceed along the west coast from Chile -northward. In Chile, there is an element of tolerance towards other forms -of worship, at least on the part of the officials. Protestant churches -exist in nearly all of the towns of any size, and quite a number of -mission workers are busily engaged in spreading their doctrines. In -Peru, a few Protestant congregations exist. They are not allowed to -own churches, and their congregations are gathered together by printed -invitations, which is simply a means of evading the letter of the law -that is permitted by the authorities. In Ecuador, although the government -attempts to observe religious tolerance, yet the power of the priesthood -is so strong that Protestant workers outside of Quito and Guayaquil are -oftentimes exposed to danger of violence. - -“The religion of the republic of Chile is the Roman Apostolic Catholic -to the exclusion of any other.” These are the words of the Constitution -of Chile, which thus gives to the Roman Catholic Church the protection -and support of the government. Nevertheless religious freedom prevails -for, by an act of July 27, 1865, it was established that those who do -not profess the Roman Catholic religion are allowed to worship within -the enclosure of private buildings, and are permitted to establish and -maintain schools in the doctrine of their respective faiths. From a -religious standpoint the republic is divided into one archbishopric, -three bishoprics and two vicarages. The cathedral at Santiago is the -church of the archbishop, and a magnificent residence for his use stands -alongside of the church. The bishoprics are known as Serena, Concepción -and Ancud. Two ecclesiastical vicarages have been established at -Antofagasta and Tarapacá. - -The Catholic Church in Chile, however, is as different from the same -church in the United States as it is possible for two branches of the -same general head to be. There is no spirit of liberality, and no general -purpose to recognize religious freedom except as it is compelled by -law. The influx of foreigners has naturally modified things to some -extent, because many of those coming in have been members of Protestant -denominations, but the old condition of affairs has not yet been entirely -eradicated. - -It is the women who support the Church, and they are intense devotees of -its worship. The men are generally absolutely indifferent to religion in -any form. As a prominent Chilean gentleman told me, “we leave the women -attend to the religious duties.” This statement seemed to be borne out -by the facts, as a number of visits to different churches at the hour of -mass showed that not one out of perhaps fifteen or twenty present were -men. The others were entirely women, girls and small children. The power -of the priesthood over the women is very strong, and it is in this way -that they exert whatever influence they have, as the women will blindly -do anything that the priests advise them to do. - -This condition of affairs would be less reprehensible, if every member of -the priesthood was an intelligent and proper person. It is an unfortunate -fact, however, that many members of the priesthood come from the lower -strata of society, rather than from the higher. They are persons of -low intelligence, rather than men of high attainments. To this class -of priests is due many of the strange practices which one will find -in the churches, or see done in the name of the Church in the remote -districts. Some of the processions are so grotesque that they seem -almost ridiculous, and certainly would not have the direct approval of -the Pontiff. As one of the priests said: “The ignorant people of these -regions are fond of demonstrations in which they can participate, and -it does them more good to carry a banner and walk in a procession than -you can imagine. If the Church does not provide such amusements, the -politicians will do so, and it is very important that we keep our people -under our own control.” It is upon this theory, that the ignorant natives -demand these public processions, that they are permitted to exist. But -the fact that they also provide a considerable source of revenue probably -has something to do with their continuation as well. - -In the city of Santiago a festival is held each year, which is a fair -illustration of the origin of many of these local celebrations. On -the fifth of May, 1848, there occurred in that city a most disastrous -earthquake. It was learned that a woman in that city, who had been -disgusted with the refusal of her particular saint to answer her prayers, -tore the image from the altar, and, stripping it of its decorations, -threw it into the street. At that very moment the earthquake began. -As it happened, however, a priest who was hurrying away from danger -saw the image, picked it up and carried it into a neighbouring church, -where it was reverently placed upon an altar. At that very moment the -earthquake ceased, and so from that time to this the fifth of May is -a holiday, which is second in importance only to Independence Day. It -used to be that this image was taken from the altar on these occasions, -carried through the streets under a scarlet canopy, and was followed by -a procession which included the president of the republic, his cabinet, -members of congress, justices, archbishop, bishop and all of the other -prelates of the Church and thousands of people with bands of music and -regiments of soldiers. This saint became known as Saint Cinco de Mayo -(Saint Fifth of May), because the woman who threw it into the street -and her family were killed in the earthquake, and it was impossible to -ascertain what particular saint it was originally intended to represent. -In recent years, however, this celebration has lost much of its -importance, although the Church still recognizes it as a regular holiday -in its calendar. - -The high fees charged for the services of the Church have been much -criticized, and deservedly so. In most places not a single service will -be performed without the payment of the fee in advance. This is specially -to be condemned in the case of the fees that are charged for marriages. -Although a marriage to be legal in Chile must have a civil ceremony, -for which only a small charge is made, yet those who are devoted to the -Church consider the religious ceremony the essential one. As the priests -will not perform this ceremony without the regular fee being paid, which -amounts to several dollars, and the contracting parties do not consider -the civil ceremony as of any value, because they are so instructed -by the priesthood, the result is that neither ceremony is performed, -and an injustice is done to all parties concerned. Even in the higher -circles great confusion sometimes arises where the man, for instance, -considers the civil ceremony necessary, and the woman, under the advice -of her counsellor, is not willing to have it performed. The result has -been considerable confusion, and also has made the Church and civil -authorities unnecessarily opposed to each other in many instances. - -Many claim that South America is not a legitimate field for Protestant -missionary work. Their theory is that the country was at one time -evangelized by missionaries, and therefore should not be touched by other -missionary effort. The fact is that religious conditions in South America -savour much of the darkness of the Middle Ages. There is to-day an -unbelief and utter indifference to spiritual things among the men, which -is hard to realize until one has had actual contact with it. Whatever -effort can better these conditions, and thereby improve the morals of -the people, should be encouraged. The Roman Catholics pursue their -efforts among the strongest Protestant countries, and they should not be -criticized for so doing. If they can reach a class or element that has -not been touched by Protestant effort, they are thereby doing good for -that nation and the world in general. True religion and true Christianity -should be recognized and encouraged under whatever name it may be found. -It would be far better if the Catholic Church in Chile, and other South -American countries, would welcome the Protestant ministers, and join -hands with them in their efforts to raise the standards of living among -the people. - -One will find signs of the Protestant invasion of Chile from Arica, -in the extreme north, to Tierra del Fuego. The movement has generally -been accompanied by educational enterprise, of which there are several -splendid examples in Chile. One of these is the American College for -Girls, and the Instituto Ingles, an institution for boys, both of which -are in Santiago. The former, which is under the control and direction -of the Methodist Episcopal Church, has achieved more than a national -reputation in Chile, and many of the very best families send their girls -to that college for their education. It is recognized as giving the very -best education that can be obtained in the Republic, and the enrollment -has included the names of the children of presidents of the republic, -and many others in high authority. The same may be said of the latter -institution, which is under the control of the American Presbyterian -Church, and which is always crowded to its utmost capacity, with many -names upon the waiting list who cannot be accommodated. The patrons of -the two institutions understand that the schools are Protestant schools, -that the Bible is read and studied, that morning prayers are compulsory, -but beyond that the students are at liberty to attend any religious -services that may be desired by the parents. Outside of the regular -religious services, no effort is made to alienate the students from the -church in which they have been baptized. The Methodists also conduct -grammar schools at Concepción and Iquique, and schools of the primary -and lower grammar grades at other places. In all more than fifty day -schools are conducted by these two denominations. The work that has been -begun is a beneficial one in a moral way, and the results have been very -satisfactory to those engaged in the work. - -At the present time the American Presbyterian and the Methodist Episcopal -Churches are the only American denominations that are aggressively -doing missionary work in Chile. The former began their work in 1873, -and the latter in 1878. The Methodists have thirty missionaries and a -large number of native workers assisting them, and have established -fifty-eight stations. The Presbyterians have twenty-six missionaries, and -these workers, together with native helpers, are at work in sixty-five -different communities. Both in Valparaiso and Santiago there is a Union -Church, to which members of various Protestant bodies come for the -religious services, and both of these churches are doing a very effective -work. - -The Protestant Anglican Church was the first to begin any evangelistic -work in Chile. Its first mission was established more than sixty years -ago. They began work in the extreme south, and still have stations -on Tierra del Fuego for the Indians. They also have churches at -Santiago, Valparaiso, Iquique, Concepción and Punta Arenas for the -English-speaking people who live in those cities. - -The American and British Bible Societies have aggressively spread over -the country. The colporteurs of these societies have gone up and down -over the country, by train and coach, on foot and mule-back, with copies -of the Scriptures in various languages. These books are sold for a very -small sum, and, if the person is too poor to buy, they are freely given. -The work has not always been easy or pleasant, for such deep prejudice is -oftentimes encountered that insults and little indignities have followed. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE - - -The subjugation and colonization of Chile was due to two causes. Pedro -de Valdivia, who had distinguished himself in Peru, wanted an empire for -himself, and Francisco Pizarro was desirous of ridding himself of so -formidable a rival. Valdivia was therefore graciously permitted to march -into and conquer at his own expense the country south of Peru. After many -months of preparation Valdivia set out on his expedition with one hundred -and fifty Spaniards, provided with horses and arms, one thousand Indians, -mostly carriers, and a supply of cattle, pigs, poultry and seeds of many -European plants. Thus equipped this cavalier set out from Lima, and -marched across the deserts of Arequipa, Tacna, Tarapacá and Atacama. He -reached the central valley of Chile without the loss of a single Spaniard -through sickness or desertion—a remarkable record. - -The first few years were hard ones for these colonists. Santiago was -founded and made the capitol. The Indians were hostile, and dissensions -soon arose among Valdivia’s followers. Several small parties of -reinforcements arrived, but the Spaniards’ position was always precarious -because of the fierce Araucanians. After Valdivia’s death in 1551, -misfortune followed misfortune in the new colony. Garcia Hurlado de -Mendoza, one of the viceroys of Peru, succeeded him as governor. This -man was a mere youth with no experience, and his rule was fraught -with disaster. He established churches and monastic orders, provided -magnificent shows and spectacles, but did not materially improve the -condition of the colony. Then came Francisco and Pedro de Villagran and -a number of other governors,—some good and more of them bad. The colony -slowly increased in numbers, but constant war with the Indians prevented -it from growing rapidly. The coast was swept several times by Dutch and -English pirates. Earthquakes and plagues reaped their harvests from -the inhabitants. But wealth was increasing. Thus passed the sixteenth, -seventeenth and part of the eighteenth centuries. It would be impossible -within the limits of this volume to detail all events, but some of the -Indian wars are mentioned in another chapter.[3] The usual narrow-sighted -policy of Spain toward all her dependencies was followed, and the local -disaffection grew more acute each year. - -It was Voltaire who said that “cruelty leads to independence.” The -colonial system of Spain in South and Central America, of which the -writer has had occasion to treat before, was one of selfishness, cruelty -and tyranny. Only the merchants of Cadiz were allowed to sell goods to -the colonists, and the colonists were permitted to sell their products -only to the same traders, who managed to reap a profit, owing to the -monopoly granted them, of as much as three hundred per cent. Local human -rights were not recognized by the government of Spain. It was treason -for a man to assert his freedom, or to seek a free field for his labour. -The natives were compelled to labour for the conquerors without profit. -Imposing buildings were constructed, cities were encircled with massive -walls, great monasteries, churches, and convents rose on the hills, -all by the unrequited toil of generations of these impressed natives. -Education was denied, and the local government, including the church -officials, united in this system of repression and disregard of human -rights. - -There was, however, another element which entered into final -independence. For this we must hark back to Spain for a moment. Charles -IV had resigned his throne in favour of his son, Ferdinand VII. The -colonists accepted this change because of their loyalty to the heredity -in line of succession, which had to them a religious as well as political -significance. Charles IV afterwards regretted his abdication and appealed -to Napoleon, who was then in the height of his power, alleging that the -abdication had not been voluntary. Napoleon poured troops into Spain, -and it was not long until Ferdinand VII was compelled to yield. Napoleon -then placed his favourite brother, Joseph, upon the throne of Spain. -Joseph was a well-meaning monarch, a man of far more principle than -his brother, who, perhaps, would have done well by the colonists, had -he been permitted to work out their destinies. The colonists, however, -felt no loyalty toward him, and would not recognize his authority. When -Ferdinand VII was finally restored to the throne after the downfall of -Napoleon, he became a tyrant, and violently opposed all liberal ideas. -The despotism that Napoleon had overthrown was reestablished. These -mistaken moves on the part of Ferdinand, a period of a few years during -which the Crown had been opposed, and the free air of America all had -tended to induce a spirit of liberalism and opposition to monarchy in the -New World. It was not long before Chile was caught in the same whirl as -the rest of the Spanish-American provinces. - -The approach of the end of almost three centuries of the colonial system -in Chile does not speak well for Spain. Trade was still restricted. The -post-office was a monopoly that had been farmed out to a private person. -A mail vessel arrived at Montevideo from Spain once in two months, and -from there the mails were transported across the Andes. There was a post -once a month between Concepción and Santiago, and twice a week between -Santiago and Valparaiso. Most people used private couriers or travellers -for their despatches. The only manufactures were the making of brandy and -wine, drying beef and tanning hides. - -No city, except Santiago, had more than six thousand people, and -that city had perhaps thirty thousand. Horse racing, cock-fighting, -bull-fighting and cards were the only amusements. The buildings were -creditable, but the streets were dirty, unlighted, and unsanitary. People -who went abroad at night had their servants carry lanterns before them. -Vice and disorder was everywhere. Robbery, brawls and assassination were -frequent. Begging was an intolerable curse. Titles of nobility were -common, and had been purchased by many unworthy persons. Decorations of -membership in orders of nobility had been scattered broadcast. There -was not even a school for girls in Santiago. The majority of the people -still lived in the country in homes that were without conveniences. They -had little furniture, but all were provided with an oratorio in which -each wandering missionary was expected to celebrate mass. The Indians -were held in practical slavery, and the landlords administered justice -over their tenants. A sentimental attachment, and also fear that a bad -condition might be made worse, kept these poor humans from leaving. -Diseases often became epidemic through the unsanitary conditions, so that -thousands were at times swept away. Concepción lost a fourth of its -population one year through the ravages of smallpox. It is probable that -at the beginning of the nineteenth century the total population of Chile, -exclusive of the Araucanian Indians, did not exceed a half million. - -There are two men by the name of O’Higgins prominent in Chilean history. -The first, Ambrosio O’Higgins, was born in Ireland in 1730, of humble -parentage. His uncle, a Spanish priest, sent the youth to South America, -and he finally landed in Chile. He first became a trader and peddler, -and then an engineer. During this latter employment he built the -_casuchas_, as the rest houses in the Uspallata pass are called. He also -distinguished himself in fights with the Indians, so that he received -government recognition. Plain Ambrose became Don Ambrosio. Then the Irish -youth, once a ragged, barefooted urchin, became successively Marquis of -Osorno, governor of Chile, and, finally, Viceroy of Peru. He died at -the age of eighty, in Peru, while he was filling the latter office. His -administration was marked by indefatigable activity. It was not until he -was sixty-eight years of age that he became captain-general of Chile, -which position he held for eight years. He introduced a number of -agricultural reforms and set aside many of the abuses on the plantations. -He constructed a passable road between Valparaiso and the capitol, where -none had hitherto been built, as the Spaniards were content to ride on -mules and carry their goods the same way. He improved the road over -the Andes via the Uspallata pass, as trade by this route had greatly -increased. Altogether the things accomplished by this energetic Irishman -were remarkable; his efforts and talents worked a great deal of good for -Chile and Peru. Had all the governors and viceroys been men of similar -character history would probably read differently. - -The year 1810 was fraught with direful consequences for Spain. In that -year Hidalgo sounded the _grito_ of independence in Mexico, and the -memorable assembly met in Buenos Aires, which was the forerunner of a -successful revolution. The news of the latter event, which happened -on the 25th of May, soon reached Santiago and fanned the fires of -revolution. On the 18th of September three hundred and fifty electors met -in that city and elected a _junta_ to take charge of the government. A -quiet submission to the new order of things followed for a few months. -A Congress was elected and opened with solemn religious ceremonies and -many eloquent speeches. But jealousies soon arose over the personnel of -the government _junta_, and several years of conflict with Spain and -internal dissension followed. The leaders of the patriot forces were -Bernardo O’Higgins, of Irish descent, Lord Cochrane, an Englishman, and -San Martin, an Argentinian. The disturbing element was contributed in the -main by three brothers, named Carrera. Though leaders for a while these -brothers, of whom José Miguel Carrera was the ablest one, all met violent -deaths at the hands of their indignant countrymen. - -[Illustration: JOSÉ DE SAN MARTIN.] - -Bernardo O’Higgins was born in Chillan, Chile, in 1776, an illegitimate -son of Ambrosio O’Higgins. He was educated in England, where he -imbibed republican sentiments. He returned to Chile a few years before -his father’s death, and immediately identified himself with the -revolutionists. By the year 1813 he was at the head of their forces. -He proved to be a man of wonderful activity, although not of military -training. Troubles between the Carreras and O’Higgins were unfortunate -for the patriot cause, but the latter was in the right and the -jealousies of the former thwarted him at every turn. After several years -of possession of the capitol by the revolutionists the loyalist forces -under General Osorio recaptured Santiago, and O’Higgins was compelled -to flee. The general fled to Mendoza and there joined General San -Martin, who was greatly impressed by the Irishman. For several years the -destinies of these two men were linked and intertwined. - -José de San Martin was a noble character, and his life was actuated by -unselfish principles. There was, according to the best accounts, a moral -grandeur in his character, which places him in the rank of the world’s -great leaders and patriots. No doubt he had his faults, which may have -been serious enough, but his life was far above his contemporaries, -and he has given us a sample of self abnegation which is well worth -remembering. He gave his sword to the best interests of the human race, -and when he found that his presence might not serve the cause of humanity -in the nations he had liberated, he went into exile and poverty.[4] - -Here is a pen picture of San Martin written by one who interviewed him -at Lima: “On the 25th of June I had an interview with General San Martin -on board a little schooner anchored in Callao Roads. There was little -at first sight in his appearance to engage attention, but when he arose -and began to speak his great superiority over every other person I have -seen in South America was sufficiently apparent. He received us in a very -simple style on the deck of his vessel, dressed in a surtout coat and a -large fur cap, seated at a table made of a few loose planks laid along -the top of two empty casks. Upon this occasion his views and feelings -were decidedly stated. ‘The contest in Peru,’ said he ‘is not a war of -conquest and culture, but entirely of opinion. It is a war of new and -liberal principles against prejudices, bigotry and tyranny. I do not want -military recognition; I have no ambition to become conqueror of Peru; I -want solely to liberate the country from oppression.’” - -In 1822 San Martin decided that he wanted to meet Bolivar. A meeting -was arranged between the two to take place at Guayaquil, on the coast -of Ecuador. Bolivar had driven the Spaniards from Venezuela, Colombia -and Ecuador, but had not proceeded farther south. San Martin wished -to cooperate with him in the subjugation of Peru. Bolivar came to the -city with some fifteen hundred men, and entered the city under arches -of triumph. San Martin arrived by sea on a little vessel called the -Macedonia. He landed and passed through files of soldiers who had been -drawn up to do him honour. When the two heroes met they embraced, entered -the house arm in arm and were left alone. What actually occurred no one -knows, as neither of the principals ever revealed the conversation. It is -known, however, from subsequent events, that San Martin decided upon self -abnegation, which, he believed, would be best for the cause of liberty. A -great ball was given to the two heroes, which was preceded by a banquet. -Bolivar loved these festive occasions, but San Martin avoided them -whenever possible. - -After his return to Peru San Martin wrote to Bolivar as follows: “My -decision is irrevocable. I have convened the Congress of Peru; the day -after its meeting I shall leave for Chile, believing that my presence is -the only obstacle that keeps you from going to Peru with your army.” - -Upon his resigning his office San Martin delivered a speech, of which the -following is a part. “I have witnessed the declaration of independence -of the states of Chile and Peru. I hold in my possession the standard -which Pizarro brought to enslave the empire of the Incas. I have ceased -to be a public man. Thus I am more than rewarded for ten years spent -in revolution and warfare. My promises to the countries in which I -warred are fulfilled—to make them independent and leave to their will -the elections of the governments. The presence of a fortunate soldier, -however disinterested he may be, is dangerous to newly constituted -states. I am also disgusted with hearing that I wish to make myself -a sovereign. Nevertheless, I shall always be ready to make the last -sacrifice for the liberty of the country, but in the class of the -private individual, and no other. With respect to my public conduct, my -compatriots (as is generally the case) will be divided in their opinions. -Their children will pronounce the true verdict. Peruvians! I leave your -national representation established. If you impose implicit confidence in -it, you will triumph. If not, anarchy will swallow you up. May success -preside over your destinies, and may they be crowned with felicity and -peace!” - -There were at least five great battles that decided the liberty of South -America. One of the greatest of these was that of Maipo, or Maipu, which -was fought on Chilean soil. Although this battle lasted only a few -hours, it was the result of years of careful preparation by San Martin. -In 1814 San Martin, who was then in Buenos Aires, decided that the best -way to free Argentina was to drive the Spaniards from the West Coast, -as that was the principal seat of their power. He accordingly sought -the governorship of the province of Cuyo, which bordered on Chile, and -repaired there to begin his real preparation. The _junta_, that governed -Buenos Aires, gave him a small body of troops, which San Martin had -already drilled and made effective soldiers. To these were added Chilean -exiles, slaves who had been freed, and others whom he could gather at -Mendoza, in the foothills of the Andes, which was his capitol. For two -years he trained these men, gathered his artillery and ammunition and -made his preparation to cross the passes of the Andes. No detail had -been omitted by this careful organizer. To no one did he reveal his -plans until he was ready for the start, then his army, which numbered -about four thousand, was divided into two bodies, which proceeded through -different passes across the border into Chile. More than seven thousand -mules had been collected for the soldiers to ride, and every mule was -shod. Specially designed sledges had been constructed on which to carry -the guns. Jerked beef, parched corn and other supplies had been prepared -for food in large quantities. - -The lonely and desolate passes of the mountains suddenly disgorged a -well-equipped and disciplined army on Chilean soil. The royalist forces -were taken by surprise, although reports had from time to time reached -the commander. General Maroto concentrated his forces on the ridge of -Chacabuco, whose yellowish-brown hills are almost devoid of vegetation. -There was no definite road over this ridge, which consisted of an -intricate complexity of steep-sided little valleys, or barrancas. General -San Martin divided his forces, the command of one section being given to -O’Higgins. Both sections attacked the Spanish forces vigorously, and the -latter soon gave way through the very force of the onslaught. - -O’Higgins formed his infantry in a solid column, and with drums beating, -advanced against the enemy’s front. The men were greatly fatigued by -their march, and the sun was beating down fiercely. After a slight -repulse O’Higgins and his infantry made a bayonet charge. The shock was -terrible, and the Spanish lines first wavered and then broke and ran. -The defeat was decisive for the royalist forces. The Spaniards left -two-thirds of their number on the field of battle or in the hands of the -victors. The loss of San Martin was insignificant, for his casualties did -not exceed one hundred and fifty. The Spanish governor abandoned Santiago -that same night, and General San Martin and his army entered it two days -later, on the 14th of February, 1817, in triumph. - -When the army reached Santiago a popular assembly was convened. The -dictatorship was offered to San Martin, but he declined. O’Higgins was -then selected and accepted. The country, however, was in a deplorable -condition. The new dictator exiled a bishop and many priests, shut up -traitorous women in convents and began vigorous measures to preserve -order. But the war was not yet over. Several sanguinary engagements -followed. - -General Osorio landed with an army at Talcahuano and slowly proceeded -northward. San Martin and O’Higgins endeavoured to entice him as far -as the river Maule, after the country had been thoroughly devastated. -General Osorio made an unexpected night attack at Cancha-Rayada and -inflicted a terrible defeat on the patriotic forces. San Martin retreated -in good order, and took up his position along a ridge of low hills about -two miles from Santiago. Osorio established himself on a similar ridge. -Between the two forces was a plain about half a mile in width. On this -plain was fought the battle of Maipo on the 5th of April, 1818. - -The day was exquisitely beautiful, and the sky was clear and serene. San -Martin opened with a strong artillery fire from both his right and left -flank. He then ordered a general advance. The horse grenadiers, who had -accompanied him from Argentina, charged the Spanish lines furiously. -Other battalions charged the royalist right, which was made up of -veterans of the Peninsular wars. The Spanish cavalry were driven from the -field. San Martin brought his reserves into action and the Spaniards -began an orderly retreat. They withdrew to the buildings and walled -enclosures of a _hacienda_. These were soon broken down by the patriot -guns. The closing scenes were horrible. The infuriated patriots showed no -mercy, and the _patios_ and gardens were soon littered with the dead. The -result, after several hours of fierce fighting, was of a most decisive -character. The Spaniards’ loss was nearly three thousand. The remainder -were flying in every direction, with the enemy in close pursuit. Osorio -finally reached Talcahuano with only ten men, the remnant of the -original force of five thousand that entered the battle of Maipo. The -revolutionists’ loss was eight hundred killed and one thousand wounded. -Spain at last realized the strength of her opposition. - -The war for liberty now turns toward Peru. Soon after the decisive battle -of Maipo San Martin reverted to his original plan to invade Peru. The -_junta_ at Buenos Aires commanded him to return to Argentina and aid them -in that city. But he refused to be drawn into the local struggle between -the different factions that were seeking to obtain control of the -government. He began work on his new expedition with the same careful -and methodical plans to gather about him an effective army as he had at -Mendoza. The survivors of that army were loyal to their commander, and -they willingly volunteered for this new enterprise. Others were added, -and all were carefully drilled. Supplies and ammunition were gathered. It -was not until 1820, however, that San Martin was ready to embark for Peru -with an army of four thousand one hundred men. This force was conveyed to -the Peruvian coast by the Chilean navy under command of Lord Cochrane, -who played an important part in driving the Spaniards from this coast and -liberating Chile and Peru from their domination. - -The name of Lord Cochrane is an honoured one in Chile, and the visitor -will find numerous monuments and memorials to that British soldier of -fortune. Thomas Cochrane was the tenth Earl of Dundonald, and was born in -Armsfield, Scotland, on the 14th of December, 1775. He became a member of -the House of Commons, and was an officer in the royal navy. One writer -says of him: “He was, after the death of Nelson, the most notable naval -commander in that age of glory.” He had made a reputation for himself as -a daring officer during the Peninsular War. In 1814 he was accused of -spreading a report of the death of Napoleon, and was fined, and expelled -from the navy and Commons. He was also sentenced to a year in prison, -which he served. - -Angered and embittered by what he considered the unjust treatment of his -country, Lord Cochrane accepted a commission from the revolutionary party -of Chile to take charge of their little navy. He arrived in that country -on the 28th of November, 1818. For the construction and equipment of -this little fleet ladies had given their jewels, and even church plate -had been contributed. He arrived in time to cooperate with San Martin in -the movement that was then being formulated for the advance against the -Spaniards in Peru. Maipo had already been won. With four little vessels -conveying the transports Cochrane started for Callao and arrived there -safely. The Spanish gunboats were anchored under the protection of the -batteries on shore. A terrific fire was opened on the _O’Higgins_, which -was the flagship, as the other boats were not able to get within range -because of a calm. Cochrane’s enthusiasm was caught by the crew, and -they successfully withstood the onslaught of several hundred guns. The -_Esmeralda_, the best ship of the Spaniards, was captured by strategy. -Cochrane always led his men in person, and was ever in the midst of the -greatest danger. His courage and recklessness soon won for the doughty -admiral the name of “El Diablo.” He declared and maintained a blockade -of the entire Peruvian coast. He used fire-ships which scattered terror -amongst the enemy. His vigorous tactics made his name feared by the -Spaniards and Peruvians, so that the battle was half won before it was -begun. And yet his crews and officers would be generally considered -unsatisfactory, for they were composed for the most part of adventurers. -He captured Valdivia by a clever ruse, which was the strongest fortified -place on the Pacific coast. - -Cochrane had the misfortune of a bad temper, and quarrelled with nearly -every one in authority. He could not understand San Martin’s deliberation -in attacking Peru, so that these two men, both able and honest, could -not work together. He quarrelled with O’Higgins and others. He drove the -Spanish fleet off the Pacific waters from Guayaquil south. He cleared -the waters of pirates, and to him in great part was due the emancipation -of Chile and Peru—all of this in two and one-half years. Cochrane finally -left Chile and commanded the Brazilian navy from 1823-5, which position -he resigned because of charges of insubordination. He then went to Greece -and commanded their army for two years. Finally his good name was cleared -in England and he returned to his native country, and had achieved the -high rank of rear-admiral in the British navy when he died at the ripe -old age of eighty-five. - -The victory of Maipo, although won at great loss, forever settled the -Spanish power in Chile. Absolute independence from Spain was at once -proclaimed. O’Higgins managed to introduce a few reforms, but the country -was still lawless, disturbed and unsettled. Armed bands of robbers, -calling themselves royalists, attacked haciendas and villages, and -murdered travellers. The dictator did the best he could and introduced -many reforms in procedure. Even these improvements seemed to bring -discontent. He was always optimistic, which was not for the best. Some -men in whom he placed confidence betrayed it. The priests were insidious -in their preaching, as they favoured the royalty. The Indians were -incited to rebellion whenever possible. - -Traitors arose among the malcontents. Others were jealous of O’Higgins. -San Martin and Lord Cochrane were both appointed to head the opposition, -but each declined. One General Freire consented. An assembly was -convened, which the dictator attended. After a stormy scene O’Higgins -resigned his office rather than plunge the country into civil war. The -withdrawal of his firm but kindly hand was a great loss to Chile. He went -to Peru, where he died an exile at Lima in 1842. - -The long struggle with Spain had accustomed the Chileans to military -service, and the control of the country naturally fell into the hands of -the military element. Once the common danger disappeared, intrigue and -personal ambition ran riot and led to a condition of affairs bordering on -anarchy. Chile, however, never acquired the revolutionary habit to such -an extent as its neighbours, for there was a powerful landed aristocracy -whose interests lay in the cultivation of the soil, for which peace was -necessary. Anarchy lasted only for a few years, and then followed four -decades during which time four successive presidents ruled the country -for two terms of five years each. - -After the resignation of O’Higgins, in January, 1823, Congress offered -the dictatorship to General Freire, who was then marching against the -capital with a considerable force. A constitution was promulgated, but it -proved to be only so much waste paper, for Freire soon suspended it. He -quarrelled with the Church authorities, banished the Bishop of Santiago -and issued decrees confiscating ecclesiastical property. Congress was -dissolved. A new election was ordered, but only a few members were -chosen. Political confusion followed, but another Congress was elected -that limited the dictator’s powers. He maintained his position only by -the use of sheer force. - -In 1826 Freire succeeded in driving the Spaniards from the island of -Chiloé, which was their last stronghold. This victory temporarily -strengthened his prestige somewhat, although the liberals were daily -becoming stronger. A financial crisis was impending as the expenses -exceeded the revenues. Freire was temporarily replaced by Manuel -Blanco Encalada. But things became worse and Freire was recalled. -This restoration lasted only a few months when he resigned in favour -of General Pinto. Pinto succeeded for a while in suppressing the -disturbances, and endeavoured to introduce some reforms in the army -and finances. A new Congress wrestled with the constitutional problem. -Rivalries among the leaders were too much for him. It was too easy for -the aristocratic landlords to get up an army from among their peons, -or inquilinos. A whole series of presidents and dictators followed in -the next couple of years. Social as well as political anarchy reigned -supreme. Disorders were prevalent, robberies occurred daily and life was -unsafe. - -Order was gradually coming out of chaos, however, for peace began to -appear above the political horizon. With the battle of Lircay the -conservatives, under General Prieto and Bulnes, won a decisive victory -over the other elements. Freire fled and a horrible slaughter followed, -for the victors were merciless. Freire himself and his partisans were -banished to Peru, and his sympathizers removed from the army. - -[Illustration: CONGRESS PALACE, SANTIAGO.] - -At the election in 1831, General Don Joaquin Prieto was chosen chief -magistrate. Although he owed his elevation to the military power, the -new President did not attempt the role of dictator at first. He was -ably seconded by his chief cabinet officer, Señor Portales, one of the -ablest statesmen that Chile has produced. After two years of careful -preparation a new constitution was promulgated in 1833. Although it has -been amended from time to time to meet new conditions, just as has our -own constitution, this instrument has remained the fundamental law of the -land. It gave to Chile a strong and stable government. The foundation of -the government, under the franchise conditions, was the property-holding -class. Political power originated in an oligarchy which obtained control -of Congress. Although such a possibility was not designed in the -constitution, it gradually developed a government by dictators. This was -due to the turbulent character of the people. Extraordinary powers were -granted from time to time in order to suppress revolutionary outbreaks. -These powers included the right to suspend the constitutional guarantees, -to imprison and exile political suspects without trial, and to adopt -such other arbitrary measures as the executive might deem advisable. All -of these powers were invoked by President Prieto before the end of his -first term. - -As there was no constitutional inhibition against a second term Prieto -was reelected in 1836, and Portales retained his portfolio. All branches -of the government had been reformed over the former chaotic conditions, -and industrial progress had been rapid. The credit of the country was -good, and interest was paid promptly. Life in the new republic, however, -was not dull. It was sometimes necessary to put down disorders with a -firm hand. Opponents were banished without mercy. Peru seemed to have -favoured those who sought refuge on her soil, and war was declared -against that republic. Several battles were fought, and Chile captured -the entire Peruvian navy, consisting of three vessels. Portales was -killed, and a serious repulse finally compelled Prieto to make peace. -This caused trouble at home, and it gave Prieto’s enemies a chance to -denounce the war and its outcome. A new expedition was sent against -Peru under General Bulnes, and this expedition was successful. The -Bolivian-Peruvian dictator was overwhelmingly defeated, and this success -made Chile the dominant power on the Pacific Coast, a position which it -has retained ever since. - -At the election in 1841 General Manuel Bulnes was chosen president. He -was a very distinguished soldier. Owing to his training as a soldier, -President Bulnes had little idea of any method of administration other -than by force. His course toward political opponents was severe, and -all attempts to dispute his authority were crushed with an iron hand. -Nevertheless, during the ten years administration of Bulnes, prosperity -made great strides and Chile became a nation of influence and importance. -The growth of the customs revenues placed the government finances on a -sound footing. The President fostered education and other reforms. A more -liberal religious atmosphere began to grow up. Mines were discovered and -opened. The Liberals began to be more numerous, but Bulnes was outspoken -in his opposition to them. In spite of their opposition he succeeded in -selecting Manuel Montt as his own successor in 1851. - -The new President was a civilian and had been a member of the Supreme -Court, and many reforms were expected from him. More would probably have -been granted by him, for his standing was of the highest, had not a -serious disturbance broken out just a few days after his inauguration. -The headquarters of the revolutionists were at Concepción. Proceeding -toward the capital they won several small victories. The decisive -battle of Loncomilla followed, however, in which the government was -victorious, but not until five thousand Chileans had lost their lives -in this internecine warfare. Peace and general amnesty followed this -victory, and equilibrium was quickly established. Montt welcomed liberals -among his followers. A number of administrative reforms were adopted, -although the liberal program was strenuously opposed. New treaties with -the leading commercial nations were negotiated. Nevertheless the policy -of centralizing the entire government with the bureaucracy of Santiago -was followed up. Many leading liberals were exiled. During his second -term Montt attempted to grant a greater degree of political liberties, -but insurrections broke out in the north and south, and there was bloody -rioting in Valparaiso. This led to a renewal of drastic measures. Montt -finally came into open rupture with Congress, because it favoured the -return of his political enemies, among whom were some of the ablest -men in the republic. The clergy were angry because they were compelled -to submit their decisions to the civil tribunals. He became more and -more dictatorial in his methods. Newspapers were suppressed, meetings -dispersed, and agitators imprisoned. President Montt succeeded in putting -down the various insurrections. In spite of defeat on the field of battle -the liberals in fact won a victory, for their cause was forced on the -government. It was obliged to make some concessions in order to prevent -a renewal of the conflict. The government was in this condition when -Montt’s second term reached an end in 1861. - -José Joaquin Perez, a man of high personal prestige, was unanimously -chosen as Montt’s successor. From the very commencement of his -administration Chile began to enjoy a freedom unknown in the preceding -thirty years. Criticism of the government was encouraged, instead of -being treated as a crime to be punished by imprisonment or banishment. -The policy of President Perez was one of conciliation, in order to unite -the discordant elements. A law was at once passed granting amnesty to -political offenders. The extraordinary powers heretofore granted to -dictatorial presidents was not even asked for by Perez, nor did he -need it. Railroads were opened up, and colonists began to come in. -Fierce parliamentary struggles over certain reform measures followed in -Congress, and there were many changes of ministry. - -The only serious disturbance of the Perez administration was a brief -war with Spain, which occurred in 1864-5. The dispute was primarily -between Spain and Peru, but Chile took the part of the latter, for fear -that Spain might seek to reestablish her authority in South America. -As a result Valparaiso was blockaded by the Spaniards and bombarded. -Millions of dollars worth of property were destroyed in a few hours, -but the Chileans would not yield and grant the apology demanded. Public -feeling ran very high for a few months. Chile had only one war-ship, but -this boat captured a Spanish gunboat. This so humiliated the Spanish -commander, Admiral Pareja, that he suicided. Although the war did not -officially end for many years, nothing hostile was done by Spain after -the bombardment of Valparaiso. Perez was reelected as a matter of course -in 1866, and finished his second term. Pressure for amendments to the -constitution had become very strong, for the foreign influences were -becoming noticeable. A measure was passed forbidding a president to be -reelected to succeed himself, and this marks an important step in the -evolution of political ideals. A desperate effort was made to enfranchise -all who could read and write. This measure, although favoured by Perez, -was defeated, but the property qualification was greatly reduced. In -every way the two administrations of President Perez marked the beginning -of a new era in Chilean affairs. The rights of the people began to -receive greater consideration from politicians. - -The election of 1871 was hotly contested. The liberals were very -aggressive. The conservatives united with the moderates, and Federico -Errázuriz, an astute politician, was chosen. This election practically -marks the elimination of the conservatives as an important element for -several presidential terms. It was not long after this election until -more radical elements controlled Congress, and Errázuriz sided with the -liberals in their program of reforms. The great issue was the amenability -of the clergy to the civil law. The anti-clerical party forced through -this law, and made concessions to Protestant worship. The requirement of -obligatory teaching of the Catholic religion in the public schools was -greatly modified. The Archbishop promptly excommunicated all who voted -for these laws, and the breach between the liberals and clericals was -further widened. The administration of President Errázuriz was marked -by considerable internal improvement and the beginning of a greater -navy, which was soon to be very useful. Political reforms went forward -with increasing momentum, but not without the usual results. As soon as -the liberals had things in their power, the various factions into which -they were divided began to intrigue among themselves for congressional -majorities. Material prosperity had continued until the great world panic -of 1873. The government customs fell and financial troubles followed, but -the debt was successfully refunded. One of the most remarkable features -of this administration was that the same Prime Minister held his office -during the entire term of four years without interruption. - -The election of 1876 brought out several candidates. In former years the -retiring President had practically selected his successor. More liberal -ideas now prevailed, and the Chileans were called upon to decide for -themselves who should be their chief magistrate. There were three active -candidates, among whom was Señor Anibal Pinto, who was nominated by the -moderates and elected. President Pinto was a man of studious habits and -a strong advocate of peaceful measures. And yet this man of peace was -called upon to preside over the nation during one of its most severe -trials. Never did he falter, even when war became necessary, and never -did he waver in his determination to protect Chilean interests. - -The dispute with Argentina over the southern boundary had by this time -become acute. Public feeling in both republics had reached such a stage -that peace was threatened. A previous treaty had declared that the -boundary should be the same as in colonial times. This was hazy and -uncertain, because that section had been and still was uninhabited. No -one had ever been concerned about it. Chile had always claimed the Andes -to the east and Cape Horn to the south. Punta Arenas had been founded -thirty-five years previously without serious opposition from Argentina. -For years this controversy continued between the two countries, but -impending war with Peru hastened a treaty. The territorial limitations -were finally decided upon and Chile practically got all that she had -contended for. Chile obtained practical control of both ends of the -Straits, although the channel was declared neutral and neither nation can -erect any fortifications along it. - -A severe economic crisis, due to the depression in the mining industry, -also disturbed this administration, but this situation was met as well -as it could be. But all the troubles of President Pinto pale before the -sanguinary war conducted against the combined forces of Peru and Bolivia, -in which the lives of twenty thousand of his subjects were sacrificed. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -THE NITRATE WAR - - -The early Spaniards were very little interested in geography, and the -boundaries between the provinces were often very vaguely described. Since -the independence of the various provinces these boundary lines have been -the cause of many disputes, and, in many instances, have nearly plunged -neighbouring republics into bloody war. The most serious dispute still -unsettled is between Peru and Ecuador, which involves a large part of the -territory of the latter republic. - -The older readers will remember that, when they studied geography, -Bolivia had a stretch of sea coast along the desert of Atacama. For a -considerable time after independence was secured little attention was -paid to Atacama, since it was regarded as worthless for colonization. -Chile claimed sovereignty, and its jurisdiction was generally recognized. -The year 1840 brought a change. In that year the wealth of fertilizer -along that coast began to be exploited. Disputes soon arose between Chile -and Bolivia as to the boundary line. The various claims made by Bolivia -were inconsistent. War threatened, and diplomatic relations between the -two countries were broken off. The outbreak of hostilities between Spain -and Peru united the two countries against what they considered a common -enemy. A treaty was drawn up in 1866 by which the 24th degree of south -latitude was agreed upon as the actual boundary, although the Chileans -were allowed to continue their operations in the nitrate regions beyond -that line. Furthermore, Chile was to pay over to Bolivia half the customs -received between the 24th and 25th degrees, and Bolivia was to hand over -to Chile half the customs received between the 23rd and 24th degrees, -south latitude. It was also provided that neither party to the treaty -could alienate its rights to a foreign government. - -[Illustration: DIGGING NITRATE.] - -This treaty gave rise to continual disputes. Chile regarded this -settlement as a final solution of the dispute, but Bolivia refused or -neglected to live up to her part of the agreement. By a later treaty -Chile renounced her claims between these two degrees, with the agreement -on the part of Bolivia that the export duties on mineral products from -that zone should not be increased, and that Chilean industries and -citizens should not be subjected to higher taxes than then prevailed. -This treaty was to remain in force for twenty-five years. The capital -invested in that zone was almost exclusively Chilean, and the labourers -employed were also of that nationality. Peru had large interests in the -nitrate industry and began to intrigue with Bolivia, in order to prevent -a ruinous competition in the market. So long as Chilean enterprise was -left free this monopoly was impossible. As the interests of Peru and -Bolivia were opposed to those of Chile, these two republics, in 1872, -entered into a secret treaty of alliance. Like many state secrets this -one became public, and Chile began to prepare for a conflict, which -seemed impending, by purchasing ironclads and in other ways strengthening -her navy. - -In 1870 a revolution occurred in Bolivia, and a new government came -into power which refused to carry out the provisions of the last treaty -entered into with Chile. It, furthermore, at the alleged suggestion -of Peru, attempted to increase the taxes upon all nitrate exports, -in absolute violation of its treaty obligations. The manager of a -Chilean company was imprisoned, and the property was confiscated on his -refusal to pay the enhanced tax. Chile issued an ultimatum through her -diplomatic representative. Upon the refusal of the Bolivian government -to recede, Chile landed troops at Antofagasta and took possession of -that city. Bolivia declared war against Chile on the 1st of March, 1879, -and, because Peru refused to abrogate the secret treaty between it and -Bolivia, Chile declared war against Peru the following month. Most -writers lay the blame for the war entirely upon the aggressiveness and -covetousness of Chile, but a careful study of the situation shows great -moderation on the part of Chile for a long period of time. - -It was generally believed that the Peruvian navy was far superior to that -of Chile, but, as a matter of fact, they were pretty evenly matched. For -several years Chile had steadily strengthened her naval forces. Peru -had suffered from internal dissensions and corrupt administrations, and -was ill prepared for war. Bolivia was in still worse condition. At the -time of the outbreak of hostilities the only available arms were fifteen -hundred Remington rifles, and the stock of ammunition was small; the rest -of the army was equipped with old flint-lock muskets. The bulk of both -the Peruvian and Bolivian armies were Indians. The Chilean army was not -large at the time of the declaration of war, but its personnel, man for -man, was far superior to either of its adversaries. The Chileans were -likewise prompt and energetic in their preparations for war. The land -forces were increased, and both naval and army supplies were accumulated -at strategic points. Because of the long stretch of sea coast it was -inevitable that the navies of the two countries would bear the brunt of -the fighting, as subsequent events proved. - -The naval war was opened with the blockade of Iquique by the Chileans. -With Iquique as a rendezvous the Chilean navy visited various ports, and -inflicted serious damage to commercial interests. The aim was to deprive -Peru of her main source of revenue. Peru had an intrepid and doughty -admiral by the name of Grau, who commanded the Peruvian fleet, of which -the _Huascar_ was the flagship. While the main part of the Chilean navy -was away from Iquique, two Peruvian boats appeared in that harbour. The -_Huascar_ rammed and sank the _Esmeralda_, one of the best of the Chilean -ships, after four hours of heavy firing. It was at this fight that Arturo -Prat, who was in command of the _Esmeralda_, made a hero of himself by -leaping upon the deck of the _Huascar_. “Follow me,” said this brave -officer, as he boarded the _Huascar_, sword in hand. The ships, however, -separated so quickly that only one man was able to follow him. Prat -rushed along the deck of the ship as though he himself had captured it. -“Surrender, Captain,” said Admiral Grau, “we wish to save the life of a -hero.” Prat refused, and was soon cut down while still fighting with his -sword. The _Esmeralda_ sank with colours flying, and only fifty out of a -crew of two hundred were saved. Before the conflict ended, however, Peru -also lost one vessel, the _Independencia_, which ran upon the rocks while -pursuing the Chilean _Covadonga_. - -For four months Admiral Grau traversed the Pacific coast from Arica to -Valparaiso. He prevented the transport of the Chilean army northward. -Discontent grew rapidly. The Chileans decided that they could do nothing -until they rid themselves of this doughty seaman. Their navy was divided -into two squadrons, both of which began patrolling the coast. The -_Huascar_ was accompanied by the Bolivian _Union_. These two vessels -were cruising together near Antofagasta on October 8th, 1879. When the -mist, which had been thick, lifted, they made out three distinct clouds -of smoke toward the northeast. These were soon recognized as one of -the Chilean squadrons. Admiral Grau fled, but soon ran into the other -squadron approaching him from the direction in which he was fleeing. The -Admiral at once decided that the only thing to do was to close with the -_Cochrane_ before the other boats could come up, and steamed straight -for that boat. None of the shots of either boat were effective until -they were in close quarters, when a chance shot disabled the _Huascar’s_ -turret. Grau tried to ram the _Cochrane_, but the latter was too quick -for her. By this time the Chilean _Blanco_ had come up and added her -shots to those of her sister boat. A shot struck the conning-tower, in -which the Admiral was stationed, and blew that commander into atoms. A -little later the second officer, and then the next one in seniority, were -killed, which demoralized the Peruvian crew. One-third of the officers -and men had been either killed or wounded when the vessel was finally -surrendered. This fight is interesting not only because it was one of the -deciding events of the war, but it was the first fight between modern -ironclads. The entire engagement lasted but little over an hour. After -repairs the _Huascar_ was incorporated into the Chilean navy. - -The capture of the _Huascar_ gave the Chileans the absolute command of -the sea, and enabled them to land an army wherever they pleased along -the coast. Nor did the Chileans delay their onward march. A Chilean army -of ten thousand men, well-equipped, had been landed at Antofagasta, and -other regiments were in Valparaiso ready to embark as occasion arose. On -the 28th of October this army was embarked on fifteen transports convoyed -by four men-of-war. The destination was kept a profound secret, but a -few days later they steamed into the harbour of Pisagua. A small force -of Bolivians defended this port, but they were unable to prevent the -landing of the Chilean troops. A brief skirmish ensued but the Bolivians -were soon in retreat. The allied forces of Peruvians and Bolivians had an -army of some nineteen thousand men at Iquique. These men were marched -out to meet the invaders. The march of these forces across the desert -regions was difficult because of the lack of provisions, and especially -the scant supply of water, from which the troops greatly suffered in many -instances. The Chileans had established themselves at Dolores and San -Francisco, where there was an abundant supply of fresh water. - -The majority of the allied armies were Inca and Aymara Indians. They had -generally been recruited by force. Villages would be surrounded, and -all the men that could be caught were impressed into the ranks. They -were generally obedient and brave, and were capable of enduring hunger, -thirst and fatigue such as would have overwhelmed white troops. They were -unequalled in their capacity to make long marches with scant supplies of -food and water. In no other way could the Chileans have been withstood. -The wives of many accompanied them. These women are called _rabonas_, -and were regularly recognized. As soon as a halt was made these women -immediately busied themselves in preparing the food. After the battles -they ministered to the wounded. Callous to all danger hundreds of these -faithful helpmates met death on the field of carnage. - -The first battle occurred at San Francisco and Porvenir. The vanguard -of the allies was made up of Indians from the Lake Titicaca district. -They were led by the brave Colonel Espinar. As these forces led a charge -against the Chilean guns a bullet pierced his forehead, and he fell -mortally wounded. A cry of grief and horror fell from his countrymen and -their courage failed. Disputing every inch of ground they fell back to -the main body of troops. The battle so gallantly fought resulted in a -decisive victory for the Chileans. - -General Buendia, commander of the allied forces, retreated to the village -of Tarapacá, which was a collection of mud huts. It is situated in a -narrow but fertile valley not to exceed six hundred yards in width, -and he there awaited the attack which he knew was soon to follow. With -practically no cavalry and a dozen antiquated field-guns the prospect -was not alluring. The odds seemed hopeless. He was not kept long in -suspense. A force under Colonel Arteaga consisting of picked men, cavalry -and artillery soon appeared. The aim was the complete destruction of -the allied army. For this purpose the force had been divided into three -divisions. - -A mist hung over the little valley while the Peruvian army rested with -stacked arms. Suddenly a muleteer galloped up to the commander and -reported the enemy approaching. Then two others reported the other -divisions. It looked as though they were being surrounded and caught in a -trap. Then came the call to arms. The men responded and advanced up the -bluffs against a withering fire. The stoical Indians saw their leaders -fall, but they set their teeth and continued the advance. The Chileans at -last found their equals. The allied forces were embarrassed by a lack of -artillery, but fought desperately. Many were the deeds of heroism of that -day. After a few hours of fighting they captured some guns from the enemy -and used them to good advantage. The result of the battle was a decided -victory for the allies, their only real victory of the war on land. San -Francisco was atoned for, and the loss of the _Huascar_ avenged. The -total loss was twelve hundred men, about equally divided. The allies -nevertheless retreated across the desert to Tacna, as it was impossible -to maintain an army in the interior and they were not strong enough to -recapture Iquique. In this way General Buendia saved the flower of his -army. In several battles of this campaign several thousand troops were -lost on each side, but, as a result, the Chileans came into control of -all of the nitrate country. Several months later Tacna was captured, and, -with the battle of Arica, which has heretofore been described, all of -present-day Chile was in control of the victors. - -The disasters to the armies of the allies caused revolutions in both -Peru and Bolivia, and the President of each of those countries fled to -Europe. Armed revolts arose and fighting took place in the streets of -Lima. The position of Peru was desperate. With her navy destroyed Peru -could no longer defend herself against the aggressions of the enemy on -the sea. The Chileans blockaded Callao, and a marauding expedition under -Captain Lynch bombarded a number of coast towns. Captain Lynch had been -ordered to ravage the whole coast north of Callao, and he executed his -instructions to the letter, destroying government and private property -in every direction. Several Chilean boats were sunk in the harbour of -Callao through ingenious schemes of the Peruvians. On one occasion the -Chileans saw a boat loaded with fresh provisions. They began to transfer -these supplies to the _Loa_. As the last of the cargo was being hoisted -aboard, a terrific explosion occurred that sank the _Loa_. It was no -doubt due to an infernal machine that had been placed in the bottom. The -_Covadonga_ was destroyed by a similar explosion on a small boat captured -in the harbour by the Chileans. - -The United States offered its mediation in October, 1880, and -commissioners of the three countries met on board the corvette -_Lackawanna_ of the United States navy, in the harbour of Arica. The -first meeting took place on the 22nd of October, when the American -minister took the chair and announced the purpose of the convention. -He added that the American representatives would take no part in the -discussion, but would be glad to help with friendly suggestions. The -Chilean commissioners presented a memorandum of their demands, which -was in substance what was eventually granted, but the Peruvians refused -such hard terms, thinking that foreign intervention would save them. -Chile absolutely refused arbitration or a full war indemnity, and the -convention broke up without any progress having been made towards peace. - -The delay of a few months in the progress of the war had enraged the -volatile Chileans, and those in charge of the war finally decided that -it would be necessary to capture Lima. An expeditionary force of thirty -thousand men of all arms was organized, transports were purchased and -the resources of the country were taxed to the utmost to carry on this -expedition. The army was formed into three divisions, one of which, under -Captain Patrick Lynch, was ordered to land at Pisco. A second division -was instructed to disembark at Curayaco Bay, which was one hundred miles -nearer the capital than Pisco. The first division was ordered to march by -land northward to join the second division in the final attack upon the -capital. - -At Lima all was confusion as the news of the actual advance of the -Chileans towards the capital reached that city. “The City of the Kings,” -as Pizarro had named it, the wealthy and prosperous capital of modern -Peru, was now threatened with all the horrors of war. The population -of the city at that time has been estimated at one hundred thousand -souls, of whom at least fifteen thousand were foreigners. The inhabitants -were pleasure-loving, and there was a very large irresponsible element, -composed in part of negroes and Indians, that meant trouble in those -dark days. The flower of the Peruvian army had been destroyed. Thousands -rested on the deserts of Tarapacá, and the sand hills of Tacna and Arica. -Those seasoned troops that were in the city had become more or less -disorganized. A decree was issued ordering every male resident in Lima -between the ages of sixteen and sixty, of whatever trade, profession and -calling, to join the army. Gay and thoughtless youths, students, idlers -and the vicious were all brought together in the ranks under this order. -It is easy to make such decrees, but a decree does not make an army. It -takes months to create an efficient fighting force. However brave these -Peruvians might be, they were not trained in military service, and they -lacked the qualities of the seasoned soldiers of the Chilean army. From -three to six in the afternoon all business was suspended by Presidential -decree, and these drafted troops were drilled. The call to arms was made -by the tolling of the bell in the great cathedral. The artillery was -inferior, and it could not compete with the Krupp and Armstrong guns with -which the invaders were provided. - -Nicolas de Pierola, who was at the head of the army, with the title of -Supreme Chief, realized the danger, and strove in the best way possible -to prepare for it. At a meeting of all the generals and naval officers, -plans were evolved to protect the city. As soon as it became known that -the invading army had landed to the south of Lima the preparations were -devoted to protecting the city from that direction. As the time was short -it was not possible to prepare extensive fortifications. A chain of -sandhills, which ran through Chorrillos, about ten miles from the city to -the south, was chosen as the first line of defense. These hills formed -a sort of natural barrier, and breastworks were thrown up at various -places along them, and these newly-recruited and hastily-drilled troops -were stationed along this first line of defense, which was at least six -miles long. A second line of defense just outside Miraflores, and four -miles nearer the capital, was established, and thousands of these troops -were stationed there. The time was too short to create very formidable -fortifications. - -The first division of the Chilean army landed at Pisco on the 13th -of December, and immediately began its march overland. Villages and -plantations were destroyed along the route, and the record of Captain -Lynch is a rather cruel one. On the 25th a junction of the two divisions -was made at Curayaco. These two bodies proceeded to Lurin, a small -village lying in a beautiful little valley, and remained there about -three weeks, while making their final preparations for the capture of the -capital. This time was spent in reconnoitering and collecting provisions -for the final campaign. The Chilean army at this time consisted of an -effective force of twenty-six thousand men, with seventy long range field -guns, and a considerable body of cavalry. Most of these troops were -thoroughly disciplined men, who had had experience in previous campaigns. -They were under the command of General Baquedano, who had made a record -for himself in this war. - -The battle of Chorrillos began at dawn on the morning of the 13th of -January, 1881. The Peruvians were taken by surprise, but resisted -bravely. It was not long, however, until their right flank was driven -back, and then various other points of defense were carried at the point -of the bayonet. The Chilean cavalry completed the victory by pursuing and -cutting down fugitives in every direction, until the plains for several -miles were covered with the dead bodies of the Peruvians. The Peruvians -fell back in more or less disorder to the second line of defense, -which was only six miles distant from the city itself. An armistice -was arranged by the diplomatic corps at Lima on the 15th, in the hope -of preventing any more bloodshed and averting the horrors of a battle -just outside the capital. This was done at the request of the Peruvian -commander-in-chief, and the Chilean general agreed that it should last -until midnight of the 15th. Through some misunderstanding some shots -were exchanged, and each party believed that the other had violated its -agreement, so that the battle of Miraflores was fought on that date. -The defense of the Peruvians was brave, as they were fighting for their -homes and the city which all of them loved. The battle extended over the -entire line of the second defense, which was not less than four miles. -The battle began early in the afternoon, and a number of warships in the -harbour near there assisted in the assault by firing their long range -guns. The ammunition of the defenders ran low and the defense began to -weaken. The Chileans made a bayonet charge, and one breastwork after -another was captured. For almost four hours the defense was maintained, -but at the end of that time the Chileans were victors. The village of -Miraflores was burned; the pleasant country homes surrounding it were -sacked, the crops destroyed and the work of devastation was terrible. On -the 16th, Lima was surrendered to the Chilean general by the Municipal -Alcalde, and possession was to be given on the following day. The -intervening night was a night of terror, and, had it not been for the -voluntary service of the foreign colony, the whole city might have been -sacked by the disorderly elements in it. - -The Chilean commander entered Lima on the 16th and established himself in -the palace. He immediately took possession of the revenues, policed the -city, and endeavoured to restore peaceful conditions to such an extent -as they could be under a military government by a hated foe. A million -pesos a month was levied upon the citizens, and they were required to -meet it. The conduct of the Chileans was reprehensible in that they -became vandals. A great part of the valuable library, filled with almost -priceless volumes, was looted and some of it sold as junk on the streets. -Pictures and statues were removed and taken to Chile, where they may -still be seen. The Chileans, coming from the same stock and claiming -allegiance to the same church, did not seem to have any consideration for -a fallen foe. - -Before a treaty could be entered into it was necessary to have a -government established with which to treat. Several attempts were made, -but no one could be found who dared sign a treaty that would permanently -alienate a portion of the country. The Chileans refused to treat with -Pierola, so that he resigned. Calderon assumed the presidency, but -the congress refused him authority to alienate any territory. Admiral -Montero next attempted the seemingly impossible and failed. At length -General Iglesias called a convention of his compatriots in the northern -districts, and it was decided to adopt measures that would secure -the speedy retirement of the Chileans, no matter at what sacrifice. -He declared himself President, and his pretensions were supported -by the Chileans. A treaty was arranged with Chile, which was signed -provisionally on the 23rd of October, 1883, and is known as the Treaty of -Ancon. Five days later the Peruvian flag was again hoisted in Lima, and -the Chileans left the country. It was a number of years later before a -treaty of peace was arranged with Bolivia, although no further fighting -took place. - -It is quite possible that the last word has not yet been spoken in the -nitrate controversy between Chile and Peru. The feeling of Peruvians -toward their late foe is intensely bitter. They all look forward to -another day of war, and predict that Peru will retake from Chile all that -she has lost. If some ambitious leader should arise in Peru and secure -the presidency, another war might easily follow. At the present time -Peru’s finances would not warrant such a step. It is to be hoped that -both nations will seriously consider the ultimate consequences of war, -and make unnecessary the reference of mooted questions to the arbitrament -of the field of battle. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -CIVIL WAR AND ITS RESULTS - - -The successful conclusion of the war with Peru and Bolivia began a new -era in Chile. The control of the nitrate fields meant an immense revenue -for the government, and everyone wanted a chance to reap some profit. -Politics absorbed the public attention, and the holding of office became -the most popular occupation. Material prosperity followed. The Chileans -believed themselves invincible on land and sea. With outside troubles -settled for the time being internal dissensions arose, and the fight -between the clergy and the anti-clericals broke out with renewed energy. -The time seemed ripe for the settlement of disturbing questions arising -out of the union of church and state. - -A new presidential election became necessary soon after the capture of -Lima, and while the victorious troops were still in possession of that -city. Through the influence of President Pinto, Don Domingo Santa Maria -(which, in English, means Sunday Saint Mary) was chosen as his successor. -The opposition tried to centre on General Baquedano, the popular hero of -the recent war, but the prestige of the government was too powerful. He -was a liberal and had been banished for his opinions by President Montt. -The conservatives by this time were in a great minority. Santa Maria was -bitterly opposed to clerical influence in political affairs, and this led -to bitter opposition from that quarter. The President proclaimed that -the time had come for absolute liberty of conscience, civil marriage -and the secularization of the cemeteries. Heretofore the priests alone -had charge of the registers of births, deaths and marriages, were alone -able to perform marriages, and in the cemeteries only those baptized -into the Roman Catholic church were permitted interment in consecrated -ground. All other political questions were held in abeyance during this -controversy, and feeling became intense. The President was obliged to -use all his official prestige in order to secure a majority in Congress, -but he succeeded in passing a law requiring civil marriage, freeing the -cemeteries and establishing a special official for the registration of -births, deaths and marriages. These were, indeed, valuable reforms, and -reflect credit on the administration of Santa Maria. Serious disorders -resulted as the 1886 election approached, in which several persons lost -their lives. Several men had the presidential bee in their bonnets -and were backed by an active following. Nevertheless, in spite of all -opposition, Santa Maria’s chief cabinet officer, and the man who had been -most active in carrying out his program, Balmaceda, was chosen to succeed -his chief, through the active aid of the administration and its official -influence. - -Since the close of the war with Peru, the most noted name in Chilean -history is that of José Manuel Balmaceda. He was inaugurated President on -the 18th of September, 1886, and his term was destined to be marked by -stirring events. This man was, as a contemporary describes him, “about -fifty years of age, six feet in height, of spare build and broad sloping -forehead, with a good, humourous eye and wears generally on his face a -half-playful, half-cynical smile.” His opponents call him a tyrant, a -usurper and a dictator, but historians generally credit him with being a -man far ahead of his time. - -The first position of prominence held by Balmaceda, except as a member -of Congress, was in the cabinet of President Santa Maria. Educated for -the priesthood, he had been saved from that career by the opposition -of his father, and later he became one of the most radical opponents -of the Church, and one of the leaders in the fight for the separation -of Church and State, which had been carried on during the term of his -predecessor. He had been one of the most active and influential advocates -of the radical programs of the _reformistas_. At the time of Balmaceda’s -election the country was divided into no less than six different parties, -ranging from the fiercest radicals to the most conservative churchmen. -The civil marriage law, which had been inaugurated during the term of -Santa Maria, as well as some other anti-church legislation, had aroused -the opposition of all the clergy. The priests went so far as to refuse to -perform a religious ceremony for any one who had been married by civil -officers, and had even excommunicated the President and his cabinet -who supported that measure. The women, who were especially under the -domination of the priests, used all of their influence in opposition to -the new marriage law. Nevertheless, with all of this opposition, ladies’ -entreaties and priests’ absolution could not prevent the election of -Balmaceda, who was chosen by a coalition of the radical elements, even -though they were somewhat loosely cohered. - -Balmaceda took the reins of government at an exceedingly unfortunate -period. I have already had occasion to state the predominating influence -of Congress in the government, and the possibilities it gave for an -obstinate Congress to embarrass the President. It had become one of -the unwritten laws that the resignation of a ministry should follow an -adverse vote on any measure. In other words a ministry could only hold -office when it represented a majority in Congress. As no power was given -the President to dissolve that body when an adverse majority existed, so -that an appeal might be made to the country, the President was greatly -hampered. The last year of Santa Maria’s administration had brought about -a serious condition of affairs. Violent scenes were enacted in Congress -in the fight between the supporters of the President and his opponents. -The revenue and appropriation bills had expired, and a filibuster on the -part of the opposition had prevented new ones from being enacted. - -It was at this crisis that Balmaceda was inaugurated. He faced the -situation courageously, and proceeded to collect the taxes and pay the -expenses in accordance with the provisions of the expired law. This -situation was accepted by the country, for a prosperity had fallen -upon Chile such as the country had never known. In spite of reckless -expenditures the revenues from the nitrate fields, which had been taken -from Peru, mounted up so rapidly that the surplus soon reached immense -sums. Mining industries of all kinds were exceedingly flourishing. -Balmaceda, who was both clever and capable, as well as sincere, entered -upon a campaign to educate the people, and no less than fifteen hundred -public schools were established by him. Hospitals, health offices, fire -brigades and other progressive institutions were aided liberally. Many -public works, including railways and colonization schemes, were fostered, -salaries were raised, and the Araucanian Indians were admitted as -citizens of the republic. New election laws were passed, which had for -their purpose the development of real democratic government. - -Nevertheless beneath the outward prosperity a smouldering fire was -burning. The slogan of Balmaceda “Chile for the Chileans” aroused the -opposition of foreign interests. The reduction of ecclesiastical fees -and stipends, and the enforcement of the civil marriage law, kept the -opposition of the clergy alive. The jealousy of the old families, who -had heretofore been supreme in the government, to the new democratic -measures advocated by Balmaceda were aroused. Furthermore the election -of Balmaceda was really not by a party, but the result of a temporary -coalition of three discordant elements. By 1889 Balmaceda had succeeded -in arousing the enmity of practically all the parties. The progressive -elements had split into nationals, liberals, dissentient-liberals and -radicals. Continual changes in his cabinet followed, and one group was -substituted for another every few months. It had been the ambition of -Balmaceda to unite all the liberal elements into one party, but in this -he had signally failed. - -Balmaceda soon found himself without a majority in Congress, and with -no prospect of securing one. Heretofore a majority had sometimes been -acquired by the trading of votes among the different factions in exchange -for a share of patronage. Even this method no longer availed. The idea -gradually became prevalent that the President was plotting to build up -a strong personal following, in order to establish a dictatorship and -replace with it the power of Congress. Circumstances, as much as anything -else, practically forced Balmaceda into this position. He believed in -himself and his own motives, and the selfishness of the different liberal -groups irritated him. All of this turmoil was galling to a man of the -character of Balmaceda. Reformation of various evils was his aim, but he -found himself thwarted at every turn. He soon grasped the fact that if he -could control Congress, he could settle the vexed questions which, in his -opinion, retarded the development of his country. Furthermore, he gave a -wider interpretation to the constitution in relation to the powers of the -executive than did the legislative body. - -Congress finally refused to pass appropriation bills or vote supplies for -the army, and, in retaliation, Balmaceda dissolved Congress, which he -claimed he had a right to do under the constitution of 1833. In January, -1890, he appointed a cabinet composed exclusively of personal followers, -and these new ministers announced that they would hold office so long -as they were satisfactory to the President, regardless of Congress. -A definite rupture was inevitable, for the breach had become so wide -that temporizing was impossible. Balmaceda must either resign or assume -dictatorial powers. He chose the latter. - -The _Comision Conservada_, which safeguards the interests of Congress -when that body is not in session, demanded that that body be convoked. -Balmaceda ignored the request. A mass meeting in Santiago denounced the -President. The opposition finally became so bold that a _junta_ was -formed, of which Captain Jorge Montt, a naval officer, was the head. The -particular charges made by the revolutionists were that the President had -no right to maintain any military forces after the appropriations for its -support were exhausted. Balmaceda retaliated with a proclamation that he -would follow the precedent established when he came into office, would -collect taxes and maintain the public service by executive authority -until the assembling of the next Congress. He expressly disclaimed any -intention of establishing a dictatorship, but refused to allow Congress -to interfere with the executive functions of the government. As neither -party would recede actual war soon followed. - -Through the influence of Captain Montt the entire navy, with the -exception of a couple of torpedo boats, adhered to the revolutionists. -On the night of January 6th, 1891, the Vice-President of the Senate -and the President of the Chamber of Deputies embarked on the _Blanco -Encalada_ with Captain Montt, and the revolution was begun. A cargo of -war material designed for the government was captured and the naval -stores at Talcahuana seized. On the 10th a skirmish occurred between the -shore batteries at Valparaiso and some boats of the navy, and in this -engagement the first blood in this civil war was shed. From this time -events moved forward with great rapidity. The majority of the aristocracy -espoused the cause of the revolutionists, and this move had great -influence. Although several attempts were made to produce mutiny among -the troops they remained loyal to Balmaceda. - -The disaffection of the entire navy was both a surprise and -disappointment to Balmaceda, but he immediately placed the army on a war -footing and increased their pay. A reward of two years pay was offered -to the crew of any man-of-war if the vessel deserted the revolutionary -cause, but this inducement had no effect. Balmaceda placed the troops -in several parts of the country, where he thought they would be most -useful in defense. The natural conditions of Chile, however, hindered -him. As the revolutionists had control of the sea, it was impossible -for Balmaceda to relieve the small garrisons at Iquique, Antofagasta -and Pisagua, the nitrate ports. The revolutionists, after a few short -skirmishes, obtained possession of these places. Pisagua fell first, -and a couple of bloody battles were fought for its possession and then -recovery. The troops at Iquique were withdrawn to resist the land forces, -and marines were landed who captured it. - -[Illustration: THE MILITARY BARRACKS, SANTIAGO.] - -The congressionalists then established their headquarters at Iquique, -and took possession of the immense revenues derived from the export -of nitrate. With this cash they purchased the most modern arms and -equipments. Balmaceda, although having means, was unable to get -modern rifles, so that his troops were not so well armed as those of -the revolutionists. The two torpedo boats, which remained loyal to -the government succeeded in sinking the _Blanco Encalada_, and also -in doing other damage to the navy, but not enough to cripple its -effectiveness. Blockades of the ports cut off all of Balmaceda’s outside -supplies. Balmaceda attempted to purchase ironclads in Europe, but the -revolutionists outbid him and he was unable to build up a navy. The long -seacoast was also a disadvantage to him, since it was impossible for him -to transport his troops by water as the revolutionists could. It was not -many months until all the northern provinces were under the control of -the revolutionists, but no engagements had taken place in the central -or southern provinces. The revolutionists were encouraged by these -successes, and public opinion was undoubtedly changing because of the -high-handed and arbitrary methods of Balmaceda. Suspected persons were -arrested, and many of them executed without trial. The value of human -life seemed to sink into insignificance, and a reign almost of terror -followed. In one instance a guerilla band composed of young men, some of -whom were not more than sixteen years of age, and all belonging to the -best families in Santiago, were captured by the government force at a -farmhouse. Eight were shot at once and the others, after a court martial, -were sent back to the place where they were captured to be executed. -This led to a storm of execration against Balmaceda. Furthermore, he had -chosen Señor Claudio Vicuña as his successor, and the latter was declared -elected after a farcical contest in which no opposing candidate appeared. -The congressionalists decided to carry the war into the heart of the -enemy’s country, and a large army was embarked at the various northern -ports under their control. - -On the 18th of August, 1891, the revolutionary fleet of seventeen vessels -suddenly appeared at Valparaiso with the entire revolutionary army, -consisting of a little less than ten thousand men, aboard. This force -was to oppose an army of forty thousand government forces. The former, -however, were volunteers, while the latter was known to contain large -numbers of disaffected ones. Two days later these troops were landed at -Quinteros, not far from Valparaiso, and near the mouth of the Aconcagua -River. - -At this place the river flows through a flat valley, which is from six -hundred to eight hundred yards in width, and is bordered by lines of -hills from four hundred and fifty to six hundred feet in height. The -government forces numbering six thousand, three hundred and twenty-two -men, were located on the southern bank of the river at Concon, where -their line was about three miles in length. They were armed with old -rifles, while the troops of the revolutionists were provided with -Mannlicher rifles of the newest pattern. General Korner, who was in -charge of the congressists, did not hesitate before this formidable -position. He divided his forces into three parts. One forded the icy-cold -waters of the Aconcagua at Concon _bajo_ and attacked the flank of the -enemy. The second and third brigades engaged them from the opposite side -of the river, and then crossed the river higher up. The ships of the navy -also directed their fire against the Balmacedists. The battle was begun -on the morning of the 21st. The government troops ran short of ammunition -and began to give way. After four and one-half hours of fighting the -battle was won. Retreat soon turned into a rout, and the defeated forces -fled in every direction. The government loss was seventeen hundred killed -and wounded, and fifteen hundred men and all their artillery captured. -The revolutionists had only eight hundred and sixty-nine casualties. The -result was a decided victory for Balmaceda’s enemies. - -Of the Balmacedist troops only two thousand could be mustered after -this disaster. But thousands of other troops were hurried to Valparaiso -before railroad communication was severed. A slight repulse was given -the congressists near Viña del Mar. The army then took a wide detour in -order to attack Valparaiso from the southeast. The government forces -took possession of the heights at Placilla and awaited the expected -battle. Each army at this time exceeded nine thousand men and were evenly -balanced. But the government forces were disheartened, even though they -occupied an exceptionally strong position. Their cavalry seems also to -have been untrustworthy, for they gave no intelligence of this expected -move of the enemy. No less than four hundred cavalrymen actually deserted -and joined the other army. The country through which the congressists -marched was broken, full of small streams and marshes. Hundreds of weary -stragglers slept out under the trees. They reached Las Cadenas on the -27th and rested during that night. Early on the morning of the following -day they started for the Balmacedist position on the heights, and this -seems to have been the first knowledge that army had of the presence of -the foe. The revolutionists began the engagement with artillery fire. -The advance was stubbornly resisted, but a bayonet charge carried an -outpost. A hand-to-hand conflict ensued until the defenders finally threw -down their arms. Generals Alcerrica and Barbosa fought valiantly until -killed. A horrible slaughter followed and the troops of Balmaceda fled -in all directions. The casualties on both sides were heavy. Although the -fighting only lasted four hours the government loss in killed and wounded -was three thousand, three hundred and sixty-three, and the victors lost -eighteen hundred. That same night Valparaiso was occupied, and a night -of carousal and lawlessness and bloodshed ensued. Houses were set on -fire, and ruffians shot at the firemen as they attempted to put out the -flames. The soldiers and mob seem to have been entirely beyond control. -The next morning four or five hundred dead bodies were found on the -streets. - -[Illustration: CHILEAN SOLDIERS.] - -This battle was the deciding point of the civil war. When the news -reached Valparaiso, Balmaceda realized it was useless to continue the -struggle. He decided to resign and turn his office over to General -Baquedano, a friend of the revolutionists. He issued a proclamation -beseeching the citizens to preserve order during the crisis, in order to -prevent bloodshed and plunder. On the 29th he turned the office over to -General Baquedano in a short and dignified speech. That day being his -wife’s saint day, the President had invited in several of his friends to -dine. Notwithstanding the changed conditions Balmaceda did not recall the -invitations, but acted during the whole evening as a generous host. As -soon as his visitors had left, he walked over to the Argentine legation -and took shelter. For several days the revolutionists believed that he -had escaped the country and fled in disguise. No one suspected that -the defeated President was at the house of the Argentine Minister, Mr. -Uriburu, afterwards president of Argentina. On the 18th of September, -the day upon which his legal term as president expired, the country was -shocked to hear that Balmaceda had shot himself that morning at the home -of his friend. - -Balmaceda feared that his friends might be embarrassed by his presence, -and he furthermore believed that his own death would make easier the -position of those who had supported him during the trying times of the -civil war. It is quite probable, also, that his pride could not brook -the idea of a public trial and the humiliation necessarily attending it. -To die, also, was to pose in a sense as a martyr. “I could escape,” he -said in a letter to his brother, “but I would never run the risk of the -ridicule any disaster to such an attempt would entail, and which would -be the beginning of vexatious humiliation that I could not endure for -myself or my family.” It was, indeed, a tragic end, and was done in a -more or less tragical way, as he believed that he thus offered himself as -an expiatory sacrifice. He left a message for his friends, which might -be called his political testament, in which were these words: “Whenever -you and the friends remember me, believe me that my spirit, full of the -tenderest love, will be amongst you.” General Baquedano ruled the country -for three days until the revolutionary _junta_ reached Santiago, when -he relinquished his authority to them. A short time later at a special -election Jorge Montt was chosen as Balmaceda’s successor, although Vicuña -had previously been selected by the following of the deceased executive. -As was to be expected, after such a desperate struggle, Congress was -composed of members having a common political platform. It had been -decided that the executive should be advised by and rule in harmony with -the legislative majority. President Montt accepted the situation and -appointed a cabinet acceptable to the majority. - -Confidence was soon restored and business quickly adjusted itself. The -new President proved to be conservative and non-aggressive. The country -was in a bad financial condition, but the nitrate revenues were large. -The Balmacedists were gradually brought under amnesty laws, until -all were finally permitted to return to Chile. Having been a sailor -President Montt took steps to build up a stronger navy, in order to -be ready for impending trouble with Argentina. For two years the new -administration kept a majority, but a new election gave the Balmacedists -the balance of power amidst the warring factions. Montt soon began -to experience the same trouble as his predecessors. No party had a -majority, and by new combinations of factions the dominating groups -were changed. A new cabinet became necessary every few weeks, and no -definite policy or program was possible. On the whole this administration -was very satisfactory in view of the difficulties under which it -laboured. Agricultural and mining depression further embarrassed his -administration, but for these no government could be held responsible. -President Montt retired from office with the respect of all. - -At the election in 1896 Señor Federico Errázuriz, son of a former -president of the same name, was elected over his opponent by a majority -of one. The new congressional elections still further complicated -matters. The liberal groups became more divided than ever. Cabinet -crises grew even more frequent, and it was only when Congress was not -in session that a ministry could remain in power any length of time. -The result was an absolute confusion in legislation. The most serious -foreign question was the dispute with Argentina. Excitement in both -countries ran high. Warlike speeches were made, and the public mind was -unduly excited. Preparations were made for the mobilization of an army of -fifty thousand men, and a declaration of war was expected almost daily. -President Errázuriz finally took the matter upon himself and asked that -the matter be submitted to arbitration. Argentina at last consented. -The northern part was to be decided by the representative of the United -States in Argentina, Mr. W. I. Buchanan, and the southern section by -Queen Victoria, of England. If Errázuriz had done nothing else during his -term of office this one act places the whole country greatly in his debt. -President Errázuriz died just before his term of office ended, and the -duties of the office were filled by the Minister of the Interior, Señor -Zañartú, until the inauguration of his successor. - -Señor Jerman Riesco was chosen president for the term beginning November -18th, 1901. The same confusion continued during the greater part of his -term, so that much useful legislation was rendered impossible. It was not -possible for the executive to select a cabinet that would be responsive -to his will, but he was obliged to take one selected for him by the -legislative body. As President Balmaceda said: “Only in the organization -of a popular representative government with independent and responsible -powers, and easy means to make that responsibility effective, will there -be parties of a national character, derived from the will of the people -and ensuing harmony between the different powers of the state.” The -several presidents since Balmaceda have realized this condition, but the -serious lesson of the civil war has prevented any radical step being -taken by the occupant of that office. - -At the election in 1906, Pedro Montt, son of Manuel Montt, was elected -to the office of President of Chile. President Montt had served his -country in many ways, having been a member of Congress for a long time, -had held positions in several cabinets, and had also represented Chile -as minister to the United States. Owing to his dark complexion Montt was -once taken for a negro in Washington and refused admission to a hotel. -He proved to be a conservative and able president, who had at heart the -best interests of his country. On few occasions, however, did he have the -legislative body with him, and many of his good projects failed. He had -ability, tact and honesty of purpose, but met the same obstacles as his -predecessors. In July, 1910, President Montt visited the United States. -He spent a few days in this country while on his way to Europe to secure -medical attention, and was shown numerous official courtesies. He was -a spectator of the shooting of Mayor Gaynor on board a steamer in New -York harbour. Soon after reaching Europe President Montt was attacked by -heart failure, and died in Bremen, Germany, on the 16th day of August, -1910. Señor Elias Fernandez Albano, Minister of the Interior, assumed the -office of executive on the death of President Montt. In poor health at -the time Acting-President Albano survived less than one month after his -inauguration, and died on the 7th of September. - -On the 15th of November, 1910, Dr. Ramon Barros Luco was elected -President of Chile, and assumed office on the 23rd of December, 1910. -Dr. Luco was born in 1835, and has had a long and honourable career in -politics. He held the office of Minister of Finance and Minister of -the Interior under several different administrations. He has also been -President of the Senate, and has filled numerous other responsible -positions. He now has the opportunity to round out a long life, which has -already passed the scriptural limit, with the highest office in the gift -of his countrymen. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -PRESENT CONDITIONS AND FUTURE POSSIBILITIES - - -Nitrates have heretofore formed the chief wealth of Chile, and will -continue to do so for some time in the future. But agricultural and -industrial development will eventually overshadow all else—even the -saltpetre deposits. The great central valley will be the chief centre of -a permanent and growing population. In this region all kinds of farming, -fruit-growing and stock-raising, flourish. Temperate and semi-tropical -products grow, for the orange and the grape, the pear and the apple -are found side by side. It not only grows enough for home consumption, -but large quantities of grain are exported. The raising of live stock, -especially cattle and hogs, is continually on the increase. Agriculture -in this valley is susceptible of very great expansion. The proprietors -of the large _haciendas_ are satisfied with comparatively small returns -from their lands, and this fact retards the development through its lack -of encouragement to the small farmer. There is no doubt that small farms -would add greatly to the production of this fertile valley, because the -effectiveness of each acre would be increased. More than sixty thousand -acres are set out in grapes alone. The beet root has been introduced and -is said to grow very well. - -Then come the forest lands of the southern provinces, which must -certainly prove a source of great natural riches in the not distant -future. Tierra del Fuego promises great things in the way of -sheep-raising. Sheep grow an especially fine quality of silky wool there, -which brings a good price in the market. There are already several -million head of sheep in that district. - -Chile still has a wealth of undiscovered mineral treasures within her -boundaries. The labour, transportation and fuel problem have heretofore -been the drawbacks, as well as isolation from the world’s consumption. -In the northern part of the republic, at the coast ports, coal costs -almost ten dollars per ton, a price that does not stimulate its use. In -the interior it is still higher because of the cost of transportation. -The government has enacted very favourable mining laws. A discoverer -of a new claim is entitled to fifteen hectares, or about thirty-six -acres. An ordinary mining claim is only one-third as large. No person can -file more than one claim at a time in a district, but other names are -oftentimes substituted in order to group claims together. Development of -a claim is not compulsory, and the tax upon undeveloped claims is very -low, so that it is not a burdensome proposition to hold a claim as long -as the law allows. Many wildcat companies have been organized in Chile, -as elsewhere, and there has been much speculation in these stocks. It is -not difficult to interest the Latin people in any form of gambling or -speculation. - -Chile promises great development in manufacturing. In fact, Chile is more -likely to become a commercial nation than any republic of South America. -There are already more than eight thousand industrial establishments of -all kinds. Tanning of leather, making of shoes, refining of chemical -products, woollen and cotton mills, etc., are included in these. The -government policy has been one of protection and, in some instances, of -actual bounties. Sugar refineries have thus been built up which refine -the raw product imported from Peru. They now grind much of their own -wheat. Some of the railway equipment used on the national railroads is -made in the country. The roto seems to make a competent workman in the -factories. The coal mines and prevalence of water power almost everywhere -gives Chile a great advantage over her neighbour, Argentina, in the way -of manufacturing advantages. - -Although the operation of the national railways has been unprofitable, -and permeated with gross mismanagement and graft, yet the dogged -persistence with which the parallel iron rails have been spread over -the country has been most commendable. The longitudinal railway has -been pushed little by little each year, and sometimes at the expense of -national sacrifice. The first transandine railway is now an accomplished -fact, and another route now occupies national attention. After the -settlement of the boundary question with Argentina, the vast sums that -had been expended annually in preparing for war were diverted to internal -development. The beneficial results can easily be traced in both cities -and country. The fearful earthquake of 1906 caused a severe back-set, as -the government was obliged to step in and aid in the rebuilding of its -principal port, Valparaiso. - -[Illustration: A MARKET SCENE, VALPARAISO.] - -The government in Chile is rather different from that of most of the -Latin-American countries. In form it is like unto that of the United -States; in fact, it is a government of a few of the leading families. In -theory the President is the executive head; in practice, that official is -very much of a cipher. Absolute powers for the executive, that prevailed -for the first half century of the republic, have been abolished, and -Congress is now the real ruling power. Whether the country is ruled or -misruled the blame must be placed on that body, for its authority is -very broad. In it a small group of families, generally said to be one -hundred, always predominate. Among these will be some who have become -rich through banking or commercial development, but most of them are -landowners in families that have been prominent for generations. All -the honours and emoluments are kept within this small circle. To it may -be added the power of the Church, for that organization has been most -powerful in political matters. It has been in times past simply a part -of the political system. In recent years the government has insisted on -the right to name the Archbishop, and Rome has been practically forced to -concede this privilege. As a rule the influence of the Church has been in -favour of what might be termed the reactionary element. - -As has been stated elsewhere the President is assisted by a body of -advisors, the majority of whom are chosen by the parliamentary body. -This has led to frequent and oftentimes ridiculous ministerial crises. -These numerous cabinet changes embarrass an executive in whatever -policy he may be trying to develop. But he is helpless under the theory -of parliamentary government that has grown up. Whenever the President -proposes a certain cabinet, he is met by a counter proposition from -some group or other in the legislative bodies. Sometimes he may gain -a little temporary majority by a coalition or fusion of some of the -groups represented in Congress. Selfish interests or jealousies, -however, soon break the union. It is at times embarrassing to diplomatic -representatives, for no sooner have they completed negotiations with one -cabinet official than he is succeeded by another. No vice-president -is elected, the executive office, if vacated by death or resignation, -is filled temporarily by the Minister of the Interior, who is usually -a member either of the Senate or House of Deputies. The Congress will -then select a new executive. A change in this system, which would make -the executive more independent, and provision for a different succession -might work marvels. This was the trouble with that able and progressive -President, Balmaceda. To carry out his beneficial policies he defied -Congress, and a bloody civil war followed. - -Politics in Chile seem very much complicated and confused to an -American. Instead of two or three parties, the small voting population -of the country are divided into no less than seven or eight, with -other combinations under new names appearing every year or two. At -the present time one can distinguish the following: Conservadores, -Liberales, Radicales, Democratas, Balmacedistas, Montinos and -Liberales-Democraticos. Of these the most extreme are probably the -Radicales, who occupy about the same position in Chile that the -Socialists do in our own country. At least they contest for that position -with the Liberales, who claim to be the most radical of any of the -political parties in Chile. - -The Conservadores are the old church party, and are made up of the -wealthy land owners, and those who have grown rich in mines, railroads, -etc. This party was formerly the strongest political organization, and -ruled the country for a long period; but, within the last two decades, -it has greatly lost its grip, and the only way in which it cuts much -of a figure in the government is when it enters into combinations -occasionally with some of the stronger elements. The Democratas are made -up principally of the labouring classes, who loudly proclaim what they -will do for the downtrodden labouring man, and they are blamed for the -strikes and riots in recent years. The Liberales-Democratas are, as the -name indicates, in a midway position between the two parties after whom -they are named. - -The Balmacedistas are those who stand for the things that Balmaceda stood -for; that is, for an enlarged power in the executive. This party, it -seems to me, is bound to grow because every president is confronted with -the domination of the legislative body. The Montistos are made up of the -followers of the Montt family, who have been prominent in the country -since the downfall of Balmaceda. They include those who favour the rule -of the country by Congress. - -Politics are no doubt more or less corrupt in Chile, as in many other -countries. In this respect the country is neither unique nor original. If -one was to believe the statements made in opposition press, just as if -one was to believe all such statements made in the sensational “yellow” -press of our own country, you would think the entire government was -rotten from President down to the lower officials. Free speech and a free -press run riot in Chile. There is an inclination to make wild charges, -and editorial writers certainly say more than they actually mean. - -Elections are oftentimes almost farcical. Nominations for Congress are -made very much as with us. Candidates are named, and a campaign is -carried on by means of meetings, placards and newspapers. Manifestos -and appeals to voters are issued by the various candidates and their -supporters. The side that gets control of the election machinery, -however, is in a much better position than the one that merely has the -votes. They are then counted as the ones in charge desire, and this -method is considered proper and legitimate by all parties. Bi-partisan -boards and an Australian ballot system are unheard of and unthought—and, -furthermore, an undesired innovation. What is the use of having the -election machinery in your control and not using it for your candidate? -This is the average Chilean view of the subject, and the losers usually -acquiesce more or less good naturedly. In this respect the situation is -very similar in all the republics south of the Rio Grande River. - -In business deals the Chilean is about as honest and reliable as in other -countries. Many think the Chilenos are robbers and cut-throats. But it is -not so. Those engaged in business in the country give the Chileans a good -reputation for honesty. They are procrastinating and slow sometimes in -meeting obligations, but they do not attempt to avoid payment; and they -are always willing to pay current rates of interest on overdue accounts. -My personal experience in Latin countries in that respect has been good, -as I have never lost anything whatever from thieves or purloiners in -hotels, stations or elsewhere. Many instances of the honesty of hotel -servants, cab drivers and other workers are told by foreigners, who -have been in Chile. The lottery and bull-fight have both been abolished -in Chile, and this speaks well for another form of honour among the -Chilenos. The bull-fight has disappeared from a number of the republics, -but Chile stands alone in prohibiting the lottery which is one of the -curses of all her neighbours. The lottery-ticket vendor is usually one of -the first persons seen in a Latin-American country. - -Military service in Chile is compulsory. It is not a crushing burden, -however, for the regular army does not exceed fifteen thousand men. -This proves that military service is not enforced very strongly, as -that number would include only a small proportion of those subject to -duty each year. One year is supposed to be spent with the colours, -after which the conscript passes to the first reserve for nine years, -and is then included in the second reserve until he attains the age of -forty-five years. Any child born in Chile is subject to this service, so -that foreigners sometimes grumble. The instructors in the army are often -German officers, and the tactics are strictly Teutonic as well as the -costumes. In every way the German influence is noticeable. The personnel -of the army is good. The men are hardy, active and vigorous. Their -courage has been proved on the field of battle many times. The country is -divided into five military zones with headquarters at Santiago. - -[Illustration: THE BATTLESHIP “O’HIGGINS.”] - -Chile has always possessed a good navy. The naval fleet at the present -time is composed of forty vessels, among which are nine ironclads and -protected cruisers, five gunboats and torpedo cruisers, thirteen torpedo -boats, four destroyers, etc. The finest ship is the _Esmeralda_, which -is a boat of seven thousand and thirty tons and capable of a speed of -twenty-one knots. She carries two 8-inch and sixteen 6-inch guns. Then -come the _O’Higgins_, _Ministro Zentano_, _Chacabuco_, and _President -Errázuriz_—all of them protected cruisers. The _Capitan Prat_ is a -battleship of six thousand nine hundred and sixty-six tons and twelve -thousand horse-power and a nominal speed of eighteen and three-tenths -knots. This boat was built in 1890. The cruisers were mostly constructed -from 1896 to 1898 in British and Italian shipyards. Chile has recently -placed an order for a Dreadnaught of the latest design, which will still -further add to the efficiency of the Chilean navy. In this respect she is -following the lead of Brazil and Argentina. - -The United States could and should have a much greater proportion of -Chile’s trade. Too many manufacturers depend wholly on business houses -conducted by English or German merchants—men who naturally prefer the -goods made by their own countrymen. Others send representatives who -are illy adapted to deal with Chileans and other Latin Americans. An -American bank would work wonders in developing trade. It seems strange -that American capitalists hesitate about investing their money in such -an institution. Foreign banks established in South America have paid -good dividends. Among those in Chile are the Anglo-South American Bank, -Bank of London and the River Plate, German Transatlantique and the -Banco Italiano. The figures of exports and imports given below are in -themselves eloquent testimonials of the value of Chilean trade. Branch -houses in charge of hustling Americans, or agencies placed with American -importers should be the aim of every manufacturer who intends to push -the trade into Chile or any of the other republics of Latin America. -At the present time there are very few citizens of the United States -resident in Chile—probably less than five hundred in the entire republic. - -“Why do you not buy your steel work in the United States?” I asked of -a wealthy Chilean gentleman who was building a large modern block in -Santiago. - -“I wanted to do so,” he answered, “but your manufacturers would not grant -the terms that were gladly and voluntarily offered me in Europe. As a -result, I bought all my steel for this building, which will cost more -than a half million dollars gold, in Belgium. The only equipment for the -building made in the United States will be a half dozen elevators.” - -This simply illustrates one phase of the shortsightedness of our -manufacturers in dealing with South America. The field is a large one, -and a discriminating one as well. It is humiliating at times to an -American to travel throughout the length and breadth of South America, -and see the trade that legitimately belongs to us slipping away to -Europe, even when some of our own factories in that particular line are -idle because of lack of orders. There has been an awakening in the past -few years, but there must still be much progress before the American -business man catches up with the British and German in the pursuit of the -world’s trade. - -Chilean trade has reached very respectable figures in recent years. -The total exports for the year 1910 amounted to $115,792,811, of which -$98,234,035 were mineral exports. Of this nitrate comprised the greatest -item. Great Britain took nearly one-half the exports; the United States -purchased $24,680,278, slightly more than Germany, which was a decided -increase over the preceding year. The imports amounted to $108,627,188. -Great Britain sent almost one-third of this, Germany was second with -less than one-fourth, and the United States was third with goods valued -at $13,369,774, or about one-eighth of the whole. Next in order came -France, Argentina, Peru and India. Spain, the mother country, furnished -less than one per cent. of the whole. This shows a large per capita -importation, amounting to more than $30.00, which is exceeded only by -Argentina and Uruguay, and shows a trade well worth looking after. Of -the goods imported textiles were one-fourth of the whole. Mineral -products, including coal, oil products, etc., are a third, and machinery -constituted about eleven per cent. of the whole. Machinery and petroleum -products are the principal importations from the United States. - -The American firm of W. R. Grace & Co. occupy a prominent position in -the commercial world along the west coast of South America, where it is -the largest firm engaged in business. Its founder, Wm. R. Grace, was -born in Ireland, but came to Peru in his youth. After making a success -in business there he went to New York and established the head offices -of his company. He became a citizen of the United States, and assisted -the government on several occasions. Mr. Grace became very prominent in -that metropolis. He was twice elected mayor, and gave a very creditable -administration. Mr. Grace died in 1904. W. R. Grace & Co. took over the -Oroya Railroad in Peru and completed it. They recently constructed the -Chilean end of the Transandine Railway, and have been engaged in many -other important public works in Chile, Peru and Bolivia. The foundation -of the fortune of Grace & Co. was guano and nitrate, and a line of boats -are run between the west coast and New York, although flying the English -flag. Branch houses are established in the principal cities of Chile, and -an immense business is done in importation and exportation. The principal -offices are still maintained in New York, although one of the members of -the firm lives in London. - -Chile’s dependence upon the sea renders foreign trade an essential -element in her prosperity. She has a hardy seafaring population, and -thousands are employed in that occupation. She is probably destined to -have a much larger part in the coast carrying trade in the future. Next -to the national steamers, the British have the biggest share in the -carrying trade of Chile. - -[Illustration: A TYPICAL COAST SCENE.] - -The foreign debt of Chile is in the neighbourhood of $100,000,000, most -of which is held by the Rothschild interests. Much of this debt was -contracted during the period of military expansion. Great quantities -of paper money were issued by various administrations, and, as a -result, the peso dropped in value. The gold peso has a fixed value of -thirty-two cents in United States currency, and the paper peso is worth -about twenty-one cents. The gradual drop in value of the currency has -made railroad travel on the government lines and postage the cheapest -in South America. It has also prevented much internal development. At -the present time a number of cities are installing hydraulic electric -plants, which are very practical for this country. Several schemes -are under consideration for port developments, of which the work at -Valparaiso will be the most important. Concepción, Talcahuano and Corral, -Iquique and Antofagasta, will also come in for their share. Several -irrigation projects are now being constructed which will add almost two -hundred thousand acres of irrigated land suitable for agriculture. The -electrification of the state railroad between Valparaiso and Santiago -will also doubtless be one of the developments of the near future. - -The postal and telegraph systems of the republic are good. There are more -than one thousand post offices, and the amount of mail transported is -very large. Newspapers circulate absolutely free, and domestic postage is -lower than in the United States. Foreign letters only cost three cents -for postage. There are more than eighteen thousand miles of telegraph -wires stretched across the country. A wireless telegraph station has -been opened at Valparaiso with a radius of eight hundred miles, and -others will be opened very soon at other places, including the Straits -district, where the wild and undeveloped nature of the country makes the -stretching and maintenance of overhead wires difficult. - -Like all the South American republics Chile is greatly in need of -immigration. With such a variety of climate it could afford congenial -homes for people from almost any country. A few thousand of immigrants -come in each year, from three to five, but that number is paltry. Tens of -thousands could be assimilated if they were agriculturalists. Argentina, -with her broad level acres, is too near, and draws twice as many as all -the other republics of South America together. Wages are higher there, -too, and the Italians and Spaniards, who comprise the greater proportion -of those seeking new homes in South America, are drawn there. A few Boer -colonies were established in Chile after the war in the Transvaal, but -the total number was not large. - -One unfortunate condition in Chile is the unusually high death rate. This -has been placed as high as seventy per thousand, but this rate would -only be in exceptional instances. It is a fact, however, that the cities -of Santiago, Valparaiso and Concepción will frequently show a mortality -rate of fifty to the thousand of population. The average for the whole -republic is about thirty-five per thousand, which is nearly double the -death rate for countries in the temperate zone. As Chile is not in the -torrid zone, it is not subject to epidemics of yellow fever or other -tropical scourges. Foreigners who live there find the climate, especially -in the central part, not only delightful, but healthful, and very old -people are quite common. The reason for this condition of affairs is -the indifference to personal comforts and sanitation of the roto. This -leads to a frightful mortality among the children. Occasionally there are -severe epidemics of smallpox, and the measles has caused great ravages -among children. - -Statistics show that in some years, even with the large birth rate among -the lower classes, the births exceed the deaths by only a few thousands. -It is a condition that demands action by the state, for the government -is paternal in its character, and is depended on by the people to look -after these things. The sturdiness of the roto may be due to the law -of the survival of the fittest, for only those who possess a sound -constitution reach manhood. One who can survive the lack of comforts and -harsh conditions of life to which he is subjected, and reach manhood, is -at least robust if not cultured or refined. There is, indeed, much room -for improvement in the sanitary conditions of the cities in the sections -occupied by the poor, and some measures have been taken in recent years. -For the nation it would be a good economic policy, as the decrease in -the death rate would aid in giving the population so much needed for the -development of the country. - -Chile dates her independence from Spain from the 18th of September, 1810, -and last year was celebrated as her first centennial. On this day, in the -year 1910, was laid the corner stone of a great monument in commemoration -of that event. This was participated in by the President of Argentina -and other officials of that neighbouring republic. This was but natural, -for the soldiers of both countries fought and bled side by side at -Maipu, Chacabuco and other places. A notable historic parade, with the -costumes and military characteristics of that period, was a feature of -the celebration. It represented the march of the victorious patriot army -into Santiago after its evacuation by the Spaniards. The _granaderos_, a -military organization in Buenos Aires which wears the same uniform as in -the time of San Martin, came over from that city to take part. The parade -halted in front of the statue of San Martin and saluted that noble hero. -Solemn religious services and social events made up a day that will long -be notable in the Chilean capitol. Elaborate decorations had been erected -all over the city, and especially on the Alameda where the parades took -place. - -Almost the entire month of September was given up to the festivities -incident to this national centennial throughout the entire republic. -There was scarcely a town or village that did not have its local -_fiesta_. Horse races, theatrical performances, fireworks, torchlight -processions, etc., were all included in the list of events. A naval -review was held in Valparaiso, in which four ships of the United States -took part with those of Chile and other nations. An industrial Exposition -was held in Valparaiso, and an Exposition of Fine Arts in Santiago. The -death of President Montt and his successor, both within a month preceding -the beginning of the festivities, cast somewhat of a gloom upon the -occasion, but it could not mar the festal spirit in a very marked degree. - -The relations between Chile and the United States have, in a number of -instances, been considerably strained. As a result there was for many -years an existant prejudice against the _Yanqui_. The first occasion -arose during the war between Peru and Chile, when the United States -offered its mediation, which was resented by Chile because that country -desired to reap the spoils of war. Another instance happened during -the Balmaceda administration. During his term, and the struggles which -resulted between himself and Congress, the sympathies of the United -States were with the President. A minister sent to the United States by -the revolutionists, after they had established a _junta_ at Iquique, and -were in possession of the customs throughout northern Chile, was refused -recognition by President Harrison. The steamship _Itata_, belonging to -the Chilean line, which at that time ran as far as San Francisco, was -seized and held for some time because she was loaded with arms and -ammunition intended for the revolutionists. Although the vessel escaped -it was followed by a United States cruiser and overtaken at Iquique, -where the revolutionist _junta_ turned it over to the cruiser and it was -taken back to San Francisco. This kept the opponents of the government -out of much-needed supplies. - -Later arose what is known as the “Baltimore incident.” Admiral Schley, -in charge of that gun boat, had been sent to Chile to protect American -interests. He sailed freely in and out from one port to another, and -was charged by the revolutionists with giving information to the -government party of their movements. As the navy was all on the side of -the revolutionists, they claimed that only in this way could the other -party on land have secured certain information. Admiral Schley denied -the accusations, and all of these charges were afterwards proven to be -false. Near the close of that internecine struggle a number of sailors -and others from the _Baltimore_ had gone ashore at Valparaiso. While in -a rather disreputable saloon in that city an altercation arose between -some Chilean soldiers and the party of American marines. One of the -Chileans was knocked down, and a general fight resulted in which the -Yankees were assaulted with clubs, knives and revolvers. One American was -killed instantly, another died from his injuries a short time later, and -a score of others were more or less seriously injured. In the diplomatic -correspondence which followed, an indemnity was courteously demanded by -the United States, to which an almost insulting reply was made by Chile. -International trouble threatened for a while, but Chile made apologies -and paid the sum of $75,000 as compensation. The matter was then dropped, -but the anti-American feeling did not evaporate as quickly as the -war-cloud. - -Only a little over a year ago another controversy arose through the -demand made by the State Department of the United States for the -settlement of a claim which had been in dispute for many years. As a -result much anti-American comment appeared in the newspapers of Chile, as -though the United States was trying to enforce a rejected claim against a -weaker nation. The visit of President Montt to the United States, while -on his way to Europe to seek medical advice, only a few months afterward, -however, seems to presage that the government of Chile has buried all -difficulties and good will is again restored. It was not necessary for -President Montt to come this way, and he undoubtedly did it in a spirit -of amity and good will. - -A great many erroneously place strong reliance upon the favourable -effect of the Monroe Doctrine in South America. As a matter of fact the -Monroe Doctrine at no period has caused the sale of a dollar’s worth -of merchandise in those markets. It has, on the other hand, through -misinterpretation of its intended beneficence, caused ill feeling, and, -perhaps, prevented the sale of American goods in many instances. If the -United States adheres to this doctrine, the completion of the Panama -Canal will increase the responsibilities of the United States instead of -lessening them. We, of the great North American republic, know that the -action of the United States under this doctrine has always been intended -for the welfare of the other Americans. Those who should feel kindly -toward us, because of it, as a matter of fact rather resent its effect. -They feel able to fight their own battles without the aid of the powerful -republic on the North American continent. The visit of the United States -fleet a few years ago at the various ports of South America, and the -trip made by Elihu Root, then Secretary of State, did more to encourage -a kindly feeling toward the United States and to develop a Pan-American -spirit than anything the United States has ever done. It now needs only -a wise and diplomatic policy to strengthen and extend the good feeling -engendered by those events. - -Chile, like all the west coast republics, is becoming very much -interested in the Panama Canal, and the effect that its completion will -have upon the country. Unlike the North American, the South American -does not become impatient over the probable date of the completion of -the canal, for it does not make much difference to him whether it is -ten years or twenty-five years hence. The only question in his mind is -what may be the ultimate effect of the canal. It is, perhaps, of more -interest to a North American, because the North American is interested in -the possibilities of trade development with that coast. At the present -time there are perhaps 11,500,000 of people living in the republics -of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile, which have a foreign commerce, -including both exports and imports, in excess of $300,000,000. In -addition to this there is the trade with the Pacific coast of Colombia. -Then there is added to this the question of the probability of future -development of those countries, which are in themselves larger than any -European kingdoms, except Russia. The enthusiastic Chilean, for instance, -will tell you how many times larger is his country than Holland, and -estimates the immense population that his country could support at the -same density per mile as that little European kingdom. This, of course, -is absolutely impossible, because such large sections of the country are -untillable. Furthermore, there never has been as yet such rapid increases -in population in any of the west coast countries as the United States, -Canada, Argentina and Australia can show. Hence it is not well to think -of this section as being likely to have sudden growths of population, -but there will doubtless be a slow and steady increase in each of the -countries mentioned. - -One advantage that will accrue from the completion of the canal will -be better transportation between all the ports of the west coast and -New York. A direct line of steamers between Valparaiso, and possibly -ports farther south, to New York is sure to be established, for business -conditions will not only demand, but warrant such a line. By this route -the distance from New York to Valparaiso will be only fifty-one hundred -miles, including the stops at several intervening ports. When this -distance is compared with that from Valparaiso to Liverpool, by the way -of the Straits of Magellan, which is ninety-five hundred miles, it shows -that New York will be several thousand miles nearer to Valparaiso than -European ports by the same route, and the difference becomes greater as -you journey along the coast toward Panama. If British steamers should use -the Panama Canal it would still make New York nearer to all the ports -on the west coast by almost three thousand miles. As it is there are no -boats flying the American flag which visit Chilean or other west coast -ports, except an occasional tramp lumber schooner which comes down from -Seattle, or a boat which comes through the Straits of Magellan now and -then from New York for a load of nitrate. Much of the traffic is obliged -to go to Callao, Peru, and there be transferred to another steamer to be -taken to Panama; then it is shipped by rail across the Isthmus, and again -loaded on another steamer destined either for New York or New Orleans. - -[Illustration: THE CUSTOM HOUSE, VALPARAISO.] - -It does not require an especially sharp insight to see the advantage -from a commercial standpoint of a direct line between these ports and -New York. Furthermore, since the completion of the Transandine Railway, -and still more so when the other route farther south may be finished, -large sections of fertile Argentina will be nearer to the west coast -than to Buenos Aires or Bahia Blanca, on the Atlantic coast. This would -mean that shipments which are destined for the United States from those -sections would probably be made by the steamers using the west coast -route, and through the Panama Canal. Of course that would not be true of -grain products, for those shipments go to Europe, as the United States -has not yet become an importer of grain, with the exception of flax seed. -We do, however, take the greatest portion of wool, hides and certain -other products. It will tend, in the opinion of the writer, to not only -bring about closer commercial relations, but to develop a spirit of -Pan-Americanism, which will mean a great deal for the United States. -Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador have been much under the influence of American -business interests, and Chile has a natural inclination as well toward -the North Americans, but the diplomatic incidents heretofore mentioned -have made the Chileans a little bit suspicious of the policies of the -United States. This will, however, I believe, be entirely overcome within -a very short time. The people of Chile will then realize that the North -Americans are their best friends. - - -THE END. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] This statement is disputed by some authorities. - -[2] South America on the Eve of Emancipation, by Bernard Moses. - -[3] An unconquerable race. - -[4] See Argentina and Her People of To-day. - - - - -APPENDICES - - -I - -AREA AND POPULATION - -The population of Chile is not large when its possibilities are -considered. It is very unevenly distributed. The number of persons to the -square mile is less than one-half the proportion in the United States. -The pure white population are undoubtedly in the minority. The following -table shows the names of provinces, with their area and population -according to government census of 1907: - - ---------------------+---------+----------+------------- - Province | Area |Population| Capital - ---------------------+---------+----------+------------- - Aconcagua | 5,410 | 128,486 | San Felipe - Antofagasta | 46,830 | 123,323 | Antofagasta - Arauco | 2,055 | 61,538 | Lebu - Atacama | 30,430 | 63,968 | Copiapó - Bio-Bio | 4,720 | 97,968 | Los Angeles - Cautin | 6,150 | 139,553 | Temuco - Chiloé | 8,600 | 88,619 | Ancud - Colchagua | 3,870 | 158,160 | San Fernando - Concepción | 3,545 | 216,994 | Concepción - Coquimbo | 13,465 | 175,021 | Le Serena - Curico | 2,900 | 107,090 | Curico - Linares | 3,875 | 109,363 | Linares - Llanquihue | 38,575 | 105,043 | Puerto Montt - Malleco | 3,100 | 113,775 | Angol - Maule | 2,425 | 110,462 | Cauquenes - Nuble | 3,460 | 166,239 | Chillan - O’Higgins | 2,050 | 92,278 | Rancagua - Santiago | 5,720 | 516,870 | Santiago - Tacna | 9,615 | 28,748 | Tacna - Talca | 3,750 | 131,958 | Talca - Tarapacá | 18,400 | 110,036 | Iquique - Valdivia | 8,400 | 119,277 | Valdivia - Valparaiso | 1,935 | 281,385 | Valparaiso - Magellanes Territory | 64,040 | 17,143 | Punta Arenas - ---------------------+---------+----------+------------- - -The following table shows the population according to the several -censuses taken:— - - ---------------+---------- - Census of 1835 | 1,010,332 - ” ” 1843 | 1,083,801 - ” ” 1854 | 1,439,120 - ” ” 1865 | 1,819,223 - ” ” 1875 | 2,075,971 - ” ” 1885 | 2,527,320 - ” ” 1895 | 2,712,145 - ” ” 1907 | 3,248,224 - ---------------+---------- - - -II - -MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES - -The Coast, or Maritime range of mountains in Chile does not present, -like the Andean range, a continuous chain, but is broken by valleys and -small plains, as well as by rivers in their course to the ocean. The -slopes of this range are generally formed by a succession of hills, -frequently covered with vegetation, but which rarely exceed six thousand -feet in height. In places cross ridges connect this range with its -loftier neighbouring range, where the two systems seem to merge into one. -The three highest peaks in the Maritime range are Cerro de Limon Verde -(11,380 ft.), Cerro de Agua Amarga (10,550 ft.) and Cerro de la Campana -de Quillota (9,325 ft.) - -The Andean range of mountains is a succession of high mountains with -lofty peaks covered with the everlasting snows. At intervals passes are -formed in this cordillera, which permit access from one side to the -other. The lowest of these is that of Perez Rosales (3,230 ft.) in -Southern Chile, and the highest is Agua Negra (15,715 ft.). The highest -point of the Andes is Mount Aconcagua, and from there to the south the -altitude gradually decreases until it reaches sea level at the Straits of -Magellan. - -The following table gives the names and height of the principal peaks of -this range of lofty mountains according to the best estimates. - - ------------------------------------+---------+--------- - Names |Latitude | Altitude - | | Feet - ------------------------------------+---------+--------- - Pico del Aconcagua | 32° 41´ | 23,080 - Cerro del Mercedario | 31° 59´ | 22,300 - Cerro Tupungato | 33° 25´ | 22,015 - Volcán de San José | 33° 41´ | 20,000 - Cerro Juncal | 33° 10´ | 19,500 - Cerro El Cobre | 28° 28´ | 18,320 - Cerro Peña Negra | 28° 11´ | 18,300 - Volcán de Maipo | 33° 59´ | 17,665 - Altura sin nombre | 27° 50´ | 17,100 - Llullaillaco | 24° 15´ | 17,060 - Cerro del Plomo | 33° 14´ | 16,750 - Cerro Doña Ana | 29° 37´ | 15,315 - Volcán de Tinguiririca | 34° 50´ | 14,700 - Cerro del Viento | 30° 45´ | 14,050 - Cerro del Campanario | 35° 57´ | 13,120 - Cerro Colorado | 35° 18´ | 12,975 - Descabezado del Maule | 35° 36´ | 12,755 - Cerro del Azufre o Copiapó | 31° 16´ | 12,000 - Volcán de Peteroa o Planchón | 35° 13´ | 11,925 - Volcán de Villarica or Quetripillan | 39° 14´ | 11,810 - Volcán de La Yegua | 36° 00´ | 11,342 - Nevado de Longavi | 36° 14´ | 10,522 - Volcán de Nevado de Chillan | 36° 47´ | 9,725 - Volcán de Antuco | 37° 23´ | 9,060 - Corcovado | 43° 10´ | 7,380 - Monte Sarmiento (Tierra del Fuego) | 54° 10´ | 6,890 - Yanteles | 43° 30´ | 6,625 - ------------------------------------+---------+--------- - - -III - -SUGGESTIONS FOR TRAVELLERS - -The completion of the Panama Canal, which is promised by 1914, will make -the access to the west coast of South America much more convenient. -Without doubt there will be established at that time a direct line of -steamers from New York to Valparaiso, which will touch at a number of -intermediate ports between Panama and that city. At the present time it -is necessary to take a steamer from New York, or New Orleans, to Colon, a -journey of six or seven days, cross the isthmus by train, and then embark -on another steamer from Panama to Valparaiso. Two lines of steamers, the -Pacific Steam Navigation Company (recently absorbed by the Royal Mail -Steam Packet Company) and the Compañia Sud Americana de Vapores, render -this service, but sometimes it is necessary to transship at Callao, Peru. -There is also a Peruvian line of fast steamers to Callao. The quickest -service between Panama and Valparaiso is twelve days, and, if one takes -the slower coast steamers, the time is longer by several days. The trip -is, however, a very interesting one and full of scenic beauty, as well -as novelty. It gives the traveller an opportunity to get a glimpse of -Jamaica, and to see the great work of Uncle Sam on the isthmus, which -is undoubtedly the most stupendous undertaking ever attempted by man. -Furthermore, it would be difficult to find smoother seas over which to -sail. - -From Guayaquil, Ecuador, the traveller is enabled to visit Quito, the -capital of this equatorial republic, which is situated at an elevation of -about 10,000 feet, and almost on the equatorial line. One can visit Lima, -capital of Peru, and one of the most interesting cities in South America, -and can also visit La Paz, capital of Bolivia, and the highest capital -in the world. By taking the transcontinental line across South America -to Buenos Aires, and returning to New York by the east coast route, one -is enabled to visit the leading republics of South America, and thus -gain an adequate idea of the entire continent. There is a very good -line of steamers from Buenos Aires to New York, stopping at Montevideo, -Uruguay, Santos, Rio de Janeiro and Bahia, Brazil, and Barbados Island; -or, if time is not urgent, the traveller can return via Europe at only a -slightly increased cost. The cost of such a trip from New York back to -New York, including all necessary expenses at sea, except gratuities, -is about five hundred dollars. This does not cover any of the expenses -on land. The trip around the southern end of the continent through the -Straits of Magellan is most interesting, and the scenery is magnificent. -The cost, however, is more, and the time involved is ten days greater. - -The language of Chile is Spanish, but, in the cities and towns, there -is very little difficulty for one not familiar with that language to -get along without much embarrassment. Comfortable hotels will be found -in Valparaiso, Santiago and many other cities. The prices are rather -higher than for similar accommodations in the United States. The rates -are generally inclusive, and provide coffee and rolls in the morning, -which are generally served in the bedroom, and two substantial meals -which are very similar in their menu. The railroad equipment of the -Chilean railroads is generally quite good, and one will find the only -real Pullman cars in South America. Chair cars will be found on some of -the State Railway trains, and sleepers also in the long journeys. The -railroad fare is exceedingly cheap, and one wonders how the service can -be provided at such a low cost. - -The money of Chile is arranged on the same system as our own, the -standard being the peso, which is divided into one hundred centavos and -has a value of about twenty-one cents, but the rate of exchange varies -somewhat from day to day. Exchange is always based on the value of the -English sovereign. The money is nearly all paper and very little gold -will be found in circulation. The price of most articles of wear is -rather high, because of the import duties. One will notice in travelling -on the English steamers that the barber carries a very large stock of -goods, and at each of the ports many people call on him and purchase -various articles, because his prices are so much lower than those on -shore. English book stores will be found in the cities, where books and -magazines can be purchased. The tariff for cab charges in all the cities -is very low and the equipment poor, but the traveller should be sure -to inform himself of the legitimate charges, or he will pay for his -experience. The cab driver of Chile is very much like his counterpart the -world over. Street car fares are very cheap also. - -The traveller must always remember that the seasons south of the equator -are reversed, and that summer time in that part of the world is the -winter season in the northern climates. As one goes south the temperature -becomes cooler, being just the reverse of conditions in northern -latitudes. The temperature also changes with the altitude, and this fact -must be borne in mind when arrangements are being made for the clothing -to be taken on the trip. Each thousand feet of elevation makes a very -perceptible change in the temperature. - - -IV - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - ALCOCK, FREDERICK: Trade and travel in South America. London, - 1903. - - AKERS, CHARLES E.: History of South America. London, 1904. - - BOYD, R. NELSON: Sketches of Chile and the Chileans. London, - 1881. - - BUTTERWORTH, HEZEKIAH: South America, a popular illustrated - history. New York, 1898. - - CARPENTER, FRANK G.: South America, social, industrial, and - political. Akron, Ohio, 1900. - - CHILD, THEODORE: The Spanish American Republics. New York, 1891. - - CHILE: a handbook. Washington, 1909. - - CLARK, FRANCIS E.: The continent of opportunity. New York, 1907. - - CONWAY, Sir MARTIN: Aconcagua and Tierra del Fuego. London, - 1902. - - CROMMELIN, MARY: Over the Andes from the Argentine to Chile and - Peru. New York, 1896. - - CURTIS, WILLIAM ELEROY: Between the Andes and the ocean. - Chicago, 1900. - - DARWIN, CHARLES: Voyage of the “Beagle.” London, 1845. - - DAWSON, THOMAS C.: The South American Republics. New York, 1904. - - Economical and social progress of the republic of Chile. - Valparaiso, 1906. - - ELLIOTT, G. F. SCOTT: Chile, its history and development. - London, 1909. - - FITZGERALD, E. A.: The Highest Andes. London, 1899. - - HANCOCK, ANSON URIEL: A history of Chile. Chicago, 1893. - - HERVEY, MAURICE N.: Dark days in Chile; an account of the - revolution of 1891. London, 1892. - - JONES, A. D.: History of South America. London, 1899. - - KEANE, A. H.: Central and South America. London, 1901. - - MARTIN, PERCY F.: Through five republics of South America. - London, 1905. - - MARKHAM, CLEMENTS R.: The war between Peru and Chile. London, - 1883. - - MITRE, BARTOLOMÉ: History of San Martin. London, 1893. - - MOSES, BERNARD: South America on the eve of emancipation. New - York, 1908. - - OSBORN, CHASE S.: Andean Land. 2 Vols. Chicago, 1909. - - PEPPER, CHARLES M.: Panama to Patagonia. Chicago, 1907. - - RUHL, ARTHUR: The other Americans. New York, 1908. - - RUSSELL, WILLIAM HOWARD: A visit to Chile and the nitrate - fields. London, 1890. - - SMITH, WILLIAM ANDERSON: Temperate Chile. London, 1889. - - SPEARS, JOHN R.: The gold diggings of Cape Horn. New York, 1895. - - United States, Hydrographic office: The West Coast of South - America. Washington, 1890. - - VINCENT, FRANK R.: Round and about South America. New York, - 1890. - - WIBORG, FRANK: A commercial traveller in South America. New - York, 1905. - - WRIGHT, MARIE ROBINSON: The Republic of Chile. Philadelphia, - 1905. - - - - -INDEX - - - Aconcagua, Mt., 7, 48, 149, 164, 169. - - Aconcagua, province of, 15. - - Aconcagua River, 153. - - Agriculture, 10, 93, 98, 213, 360; - school of, 232. - - Aguardiente, 112, 194. - - Alacaloofs, 142-4. - - Albano, Elias Fernandez, 358. - - Almagro, Diego de, 15. - - Alpaca, the, 174. - - Altitude, the lure of, 165. - - Americans, 187. - - Ancients, 65. - - Ancon, Treaty of, 335. - - Ancud, 111. - - Andes, the, 6, 21, 121, 156-173. - - Anglican Church, 278. - - Antarctic Circle, 120. - - Antarctic Sea, 3, 122. - - Antofagasta, 42, 180, 254, 255; - capture of by Chile, 318; - by revolutionists, 346. - - Araucanians, the, 15, 96, 196, 212 _et seq._, 278, 281, 341. - - Arauco, 190. - - Architecture, 241. - - Area, 1, 393. - - Arequipa, 29. - - Argentina, 17, 138, 156, 159-161, 201; - dispute with, 313, 356. - - Arica, 33-38, 253, 326, 327. - - Aristocracy, 85. - - Army, 370. - - Arrieros, 158. - - Arteaga, Colonel, 324. - - Artistic element, 241. - - Ascensors, 47. - - Atacama, desert of, 315. - - Australia, 190. - - Aymara Indians, 323. - - - Bahia Blanca, 106, 257. - - Balboa, 20. - - Balmaceda, José Manuel, 338 _et seq._, 357; - death of, 353. - - Balmacedists, 40. - - Baltimore incident, 383. - - Banking, 209, 372. - - Baquedano, General, 331, 337, 352. - - Bargaining, 33, 82. - - Bautista, San Juan, 62. - - Beagle Channel, 140. - - Bible societies, 279. - - Bibliography, 402. - - Bio-Bio River, 8, 95, 105, 215. - - Birds, 30, 113. - - Boer colonies, 378. - - Bolivar, 290-2. - - Bolivia, 6, 17, 30, 35, 253, 315; - war with, 314 _et seq._ - - Bomberos, 51, 134. - - Borax, 180. - - Brandy, 112. - - Bravery, 17. - - Brunswick, peninsula of, 6. - - Buendia, General, 324. - - Buenos Aires, 139, 161, 242, 259, 297. - - Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway, 160. - - Bulnes, General, 204, 307. - - - Cabinet, the, 12. - - Cacti, 148. - - Cadiz, 282. - - Calaguayas, 225-9. - - Caldera, 43, 189. - - Caleta Buena, 254. - - California, 245. - - Callao, 27, 290, 326, 397. - - Calle-Calle River, 8. - - Capricorn, Tropic of, 42. - - Caracoles, 156, 189, 259. - - Castro, 111. - - Casuchas, 157, 286. - - Cattle, 360. - - Cautin River, 100. - - Centennial, first, 380. - - Chacabuco, battle of, 294. - - Chacao, 111. - - Charities, 78, 234. - - Characteristics, 194. - - Charles IV., 283. - - Chiloé, 3, 108-111, 303. - - Chimborazo, Mt., 166. - - Christ of the Andes, 161. - - Chimneys, absence of, 73. - - Chincha Islands, 28. - - Chillan, 232. - - Chorrillos, battle of, 330-332. - - Church, the, 84, 261 _et seq._, 311, 337, 364; - wealth of, 268. - - Clark, John and Matthew, 259. - - Climate, 2, 122, 149, 192. - - Clubs, 86. - - Coal, 190, 257. - - Cochrane, Lord, 106, 112, 208, 298-301. - - Colleges, 276. - - Colombia, 290. - - Comision Conservada, 344. - - Commerce, 50, 372-5, 387. - - Concepción, 4, 92, 105-6, 190, 286, 308. - - Condors, 155. - - Conductors, women, 58. - - Congress, 11, 209, 365-7; - power of, 305, 340, 343, 356. - - Congress, Palace of, 76. - - Constitucion, city of, 103. - - Constitution, 270. - - Convents, 268. - - Conway, Sir Martin, 167, 168. - - Copiapó, 15, 43, 244, 253. - - Copper, 189. - - Coquimbo, 4; - province of, 255. - - Cordilleras, the, 91. - - Cordoba, 245. - - Corral, 107. - - Corruption, 368. - - Corso, the, 85. - - Cotopaxi, Mt., 166. - - Council of State, the, 13. - - Courts, 13. - - Courting, 205. - - Cousiño family, 74, 104. - - Cousiño Park, 73, 75. - - Creoles, 193. - - Crimes, 197, 285. - - Cross, Southern, 20. - - Cruelty, 348. - - Cruelties of Spaniards, 216. - - Crusoe, Robinson, 61. - - Cueca, La, 75. - - Cumbre, El, 162. - - Customs, 87, 144, 205. - - Cuyo, province of, 293. - - Cuzco, 29. - - - Darwin, Charles, 108, 178. - - Debt, foreign, 376. - - Deputies, chamber of, 345. - - Desert, 32-40; - the nitrate, 178 _et seq._ - - Desolation Island, 128. - - Development, 377. - - Disasters, ocean, 36. - - Doctor, Indian, 225-229. - - Dogs, 100. - - Dominican Friars, 269. - - Drake, Sir Francis, 34, 125. - - Drunkenness, 193, 199, 201. - - - Earthquake, 52, 273, 363. - - Easter Island, 4, 65. - - Ecuador, 22, 164, 270, 290. - - Education, 230 _et seq._, 341. - - Elections, 13, 368. - - Encalada Manuel Blanco, 303. - - England, Church of, 278. - - English, 50, 186, 192, 208-9. - - Equator, 20. - - Errázuriz, Federico, Sr., 311-2. - - Errázuriz, Federico, 355-6. - - Espinar, Colonel, 324. - - Espiritu, Cafe, 123. - - Exchange, 400. - - Exports, 374, 387. - - - Falkland Islands, 134. - - Famine, Port, 135. - - Farms, 101. - - Ferdinand VII, 283. - - Fertilizers, 184. - - Fiestas, 83, 273. - - Fire department, 51. - - Fire, Land of the, 120 _et seq._ - - Firemen, 134. - - Firelanders, 143-8. - - Fish, 30, 112. - - Fitzgerald, E. A., 169-171. - - Forests, 114, 361. - - Freire, General, 302-3. - - French, 50. - - Frowards, Cape, 132. - - Fruits, 95, 110. - - Fuegian Archipelago, 108, 120 _et seq._, 126. - - Fuego, Tierra del, 2, 3. - - - Gambling, 362. - - Germans, 50, 102, 192, 207, 370. - - Glaciers, 128. - - Gold, 129, 188. - - Governors, 14. - - Government, 11, 364. - - Grace, W. R., & Co., 375. - - Graft, 252. - - Grapes, 361. - - Grau, Admiral, 320-2. - - Great Southern Railway, 257. - - Grube, 113. - - Guanaco, 132, 145, 173. - - Guano, 28. - - Guayaquil, 21, 25, 290, 398. - - Guayacan, 44. - - Guaytecas Islands, 111. - - - Haciendas, 69, 97, 149, 224. - - Health, 378. - - Hidalgo, 287. - - Himalayas, the, 165. - - History, 14-18, 124-5, 212 _et seq._, 280 _et seq._ - - Historians, 240. - - Honesty, 369. - - Horn, Cape, 120-8. - - Huascaran, Mt., 167. - - - Iglesias, General, 334. - - Illimani, Mt., 167. - - Immigrants, 102, 378. - - Imperial, 216. - - Imports, 374, 387. - - Incas, 35, 168, 213, 227. - - Incas, Bridge of the, 159. - - Incas, Lake of the, 155. - - Independence, 16, 287, 380. - - Indians, 15, 94, 109, 137, 141-6, 176, 212 _et seq._; - endurance of, 323. - - Inquilinos, 97, 197. - - Insects, 113. - - Intemperance, 83. - - Intendentes, 14. - - Iodine, 183. - - Iquique, 39-42, 254, 277; - capture of by Chile, 319; - by revolutionists, 346. - - Irrigation, 95, 97, 151, 377. - - Iron, 190. - - Islands, 4. - - Italians, 50. - - Itata River, 95, 214. - - - Jamaica, 398. - - Jesuits, 17. - - Journalism, 240. - - Juan Fernandez Islands, 4, 61. - - Juncal, 155, 258. - - Jungles, 117. - - - King William, peninsula of, 6. - - Korner, General, 349. - - - La Paz, 29, 38, 43, 76, 254, 398. - - La Serena, 44. - - Lago del Inca, 155. - - Laja, Lake, 257. - - Language, 399. - - Las Cadenas, 351. - - Las Cuevas, 156. - - Las Peñas, Gulf of, 5. - - Lautaro, the Indian hero, 217. - - Libraries, 77, 234. - - Lima, Archbishop of, 265. - - Lima, 27, 398; - capture of by Chile, 328-334. - - Limache, 150. - - Literature, 234-240. - - Llai Llai, 150, 244. - - Llama, the, 173-7. - - Llanquihue, 256. - - Llanquihue, Lake, 207. - - Lobsters, 62. - - Longitudinal Railway, 250. - - Los Angeles, 150-1, 260. - - Lota, 104, 189. - - Luco, Ramon Barros, 358. - - Lynch, Captain, 326, 328. - - - Mackenna, Benjamine V., 72. - - Magellan, Ferdinand de, 120, 124. - - Magellan, Straits of, 6, 11, 120 _et seq._, 244. - - Mail service, 158, 284. - - Maipo, battle of, 293, 296. - - Maipo River, 93. - - Malga Malga, 188. - - Mellinca, 112. - - Manta, the, 90. - - Manufacturing, 362. - - Mapocho River, 69. - - Maritime laws, 250. - - Markets, 56, 81, 107. - - Mariguina, 188. - - Marriage, 144, 206, 274. - - Mas-a-Tierra, island of, 62. - - Maule River, 213. - - McKinley, Mt., 165. - - Meiggs, Henry, 245-6. - - Mendoza, 160, 260, 293. - - Mendoza, Garcia, 281. - - Mendoza River, 159. - - Merchants, peripatetic, 56. - - Mercedario, Mt., 164, 173. - - Methodist Episcopal Church, 276-8. - - Military, 370. - - Milk selling, 57. - - Minerals, 188, 361. - - Mines, 254. - - Mining Claim, 362. - - Miramar, 60. - - Miraflores, battle of, 330-3. - - Missions, 138. - - Mollendo, 29. - - Monasteries, 265. - - Money, 90, 376, 400. - - Monroe Doctrine, 385. - - Montt, Jorge, 344, 345, 354-5. - - Montt, Manuel, 307-9. - - Montt, Pedro, 357, 384. - - Montevideo, 284. - - Mortality, 378. - - Mountains, 21, 395-6. - - Music, 234. - - Museums, 234. - - - Napoleon, 283. - - Napoleon, Joseph, 283. - - Navigation, 116, 247-9. - - Navy, 371; - revolt of, 345. - - Newsboys, 81. - - Newspapers, 234-7. - - Nitrate of soda, 38-42, 178 _et seq._, 360. - - Novelists, 239. - - - Officials, 194. - - Oficinas, 184. - - O’Higgins, Bernardo, 288. - - O’Higgins, General Don Ambrosio, 16, 286, 294 _et seq._ - - Ollague, 254. - - Onas, the, 142-7. - - Opera, 79. - - Oroya Railroad, 246. - - Orphanage, 78. - - Oruro, 254. - - Osorno, 107, 223, 251. - - Osorio, General, 296. - - Oysters, 113. - - - Pacific Steam Navigation Company, 136, 244, 248, 397. - - Paita, 23. - - Palena River, 113. - - Panama, 225. - - Panama Canal, 386-390, 397. - - Parasites, 115. - - Pareja, Admiral, 310. - - Parties, political, 339, 347, 366. - - Paseo, the, 87. - - Pascua Island, 4, 65. - - Patagonia, 4, 116, 141, 173. - - Peck, Annie S., 167. - - Pelicans, 31, 113. - - Peonage, 198, 282. - - Peons, 97, 197. - - People, 83, 191 _et seq._ - - Penco, battle of, 216. - - Penguins, 144. - - Penitents, Ridge of the, 159. - - Penitentas, 203. - - Perez, José Joaquin, 309-311. - - Peru, 17, 185, 186, 269, 290, 297; - war with, 36, 314 _et seq._ - - Pierola, Nicolas de, 330. - - Pillar, Cape, 6, 124. - - Pinto, Anibal, 304, 313, 336. - - Pisagua, 39, 180. - - Pisco, 28, 328, 331. - - Pizarro, 15, 26, 280. - - Placilla, battle of, 350-2. - - Politeness, 86. - - Politics, 195, 364. - - Polygamy, 223. - - Poncho, 223. - - Poopo, Lake, 35. - - Pope, the, 262. - - Population, 393-4. - - Ports, 8, 247. - - Portales, 305-6. - - Porvenir, battle of, 324. - - Postal service, 377. - - Post-office, 284. - - Poverty, 83. - - Prat, Arturo, 40, 209, 320. - - Presbyterian Church, 277-8. - - Press, the, 234-8, 368. - - Priests, 266. - - Prieto, General, 304-6. - - Prisons, 135, 138. - - Protestantism, 271, 275-9. - - Provinces, 103, 393-4. - - Puente del Inca, 159. - - Puerto Montt, 3, 96, 103, 107, 223, 250, 257. - - Punta Arenas, 96, 123, 131-8, 190, 278, 313. - - - Quillota, 150, 188. - - Quinta Normal, 73, 76, 232. - - Quinteros, battle of, 349. - - Quito, 26, 398. - - - Races, 60, 75. - - Railways, 11, 101, 148 _et seq._, 243 _et seq._, 363. - - Rain, lack of, 23. - - Religion, 203, 225, 261 _et seq._ - - Revolution, 16, 287, 344 _et seq._ - - Riesco, Jerman, 356-7. - - Rio de Janeiro, 42, 242. - - Rivers, 8. - - Robinson Crusoe, island of, 4. - - Rodriguez, Zorobabel, 240. - - Rosario, 245. - - Rotos, 49, 83, 110, 196-201, 363. - - - Saavedra, Juan de, 46, 222. - - Salitre, 180 _et seq._ - - Saltpetre, 180 _et seq._ - - Salto del Soldado, 154. - - San Felipe, 152. - - San Francisco, California, 49. - - San Francisco, battle of, 323. - - San Martin, José de, 258, 289 _et seq._, 381. - - Santa Lucia, rock of, 70, 91. - - Santa Maria, Domingo, 337-8. - - Santiago, 16, 43, 69 _et seq._, 200, 270, 273, 281, 284, 295. - - Sarmiento, Mt., 121, 123, 137. - - Schley, Admiral, 383. - - School, Naval, 233. - - Schools, 51, 231, 233. - - Sea lions, 31. - - Selkirk, Alexander, 63. - - Serfdom, 265. - - Sheep, 3, 127, 136, 361. - - Shopping, 89, 376. - - Sierras, the, 21, 164. - - Silver, 188. - - Soldier’s Leap, 154. - - Sorata, Mt., 167. - - Spain, King of, 262. - - Spain, 17; - war with, 310. - - Spaniards, 14, 191, 214. - - Sports, 237. - - Statues, curious, 66. - - Strikes, 200. - - - Tacna, 37, 250, 253, 365. - - Talca, 94. - - Talcahuano, 105, 257, 296, 345. - - Taltal, 180, 188. - - Tarapacá, desert of, 38, 178, 329. - - Tchili, 15. - - Tehuelches, 141, 212. - - Telegraph, 377. - - Temperature, 117. - - Temuco, 96, 100, 223. - - Theatres, 79, 87, 242. - - Tierra del Fuego, 120 _et seq._, 276. - - Timber, 114. - - Titicaca, Lake, 29, 35, 168, 176. - - Todos Santos, Lake, 9. - - Trade, possibilities, 389. - - Transandino Chileno Railway, 258-260. - - Transandino Argentino Railway, 159. - - Travel, 307-400. - - Travellers, fellow, 24. - - Travelling, 152. - - Trinidad, Gulf of, 116. - - Tucapel, 188. - - Tupungato, Mt., 164, 170. - - - United States, 36, 50, 327, 373, 381-5. - - Universities, 232. - - Ushuaia, 138-140. - - Uspallata pass, 159, 258, 286. - - - Valley, great central, 9, 92 _et seq._, 256, 360. - - Valdivia, city of, 96, 107, 188, 300. - - Valdivia, Pedro de, 16, 69, 214, 216-8, 280. - - Valparaiso, 7, 21, 46-59, 148, 209, 233, 310, 348; - capture of, 351. - - Vandalism, 334. - - Vicuña, 35. - - Vicuña, Señor, 35, 348, 354. - - Villagran, 219. - - Villagran, the, 281. - - Viña del Mar, 59, 148, 350. - - Vineyards, 99. - - Virgenes, Cape, 6, 123, 124. - - Virgins, Feast of the, 77. - - Volcanoes, 7, 67, 94, 395-6. - - - War, the nitrate, 315 _et seq._ - - Waterfalls, 10, 118. - - Water power, 363. - - Wheelwright, William, 243-5, 253, 258. - - Whymper, Edward, 166. - - Wine, 99. - - Women, 58, 90, 203-7, 271-339. - - Wool, 134, 361. - - Wrecks, 5. - - - Yahgans, the, 142-4. - - Yanqui, the, 382. - - - Zañartú, Señor, 356. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Chile and Her People of To-day, by Nevin O. 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