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diff --git a/old/60424-0.txt b/old/60424-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 29897f2..0000000 --- a/old/60424-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4239 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A treatise on the art of making good -wholesome bread of wheat, oats, rye,, by Frederick Accum - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A treatise on the art of making good wholesome bread of wheat, oats, rye, barley and other farinaceous grains - -Author: Frederick Accum - -Release Date: October 4, 2019 [EBook #60424] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ART OF MAKING GOOD WHOLESOME BREAD *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Barry Abrahamsen, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - A TREATISE - - ON THE ART OF - - MAKING GOOD AND WHOLESOME - - BREAD - - OF - - WHEAT, OATS, RYE, BARLEY, - - AND - - OTHER FARINACEOUS GRAIN - - EXHIBITING - - THE ALIMENTARY PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION - OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF BREAD CORN, AND OF THE - VARIOUS SUBSTITUTES USED FOR BREAD, IN - DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD. - -[Illustration] - - BY FREDRICK ACCUM, - - OPERATIVE CHEMIST, - - Lecturer on Practical Chemistry, on Mineralogy, and on Chemistry applied - to the Arts and - Manufactures; Member of the Royal Irish Academy; Fellow of the Linnæan - Society; - Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, and of the Royal Society - of Arts of Berlin, &c. &c. - - ------- - - LONDON: - - PRINTED FOR THOMAS BOYS, 7, LUDGATE HILL, - By C. Green, Leicester Street, Leicester Square. - 1821. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - PREFACE. - - ---------- - - - LONDON, - COMPTON STREET, SOHO. - - -The object of this Treatise is to exhibit the chemical principles of the -art of making good and wholesome Bread, of Wheat, Oats, Rye, Barley, -Rice, Potatoes, and other farinaceous substances used for this purpose -in different parts of the world. - -I have first taken a view of the chemical constitution of the Alimentary -Substances derived from the vegetable kingdom, and have added an -Historical Sketch of the Art of Making Bread. I have elucidated the -chemical constitution of the substances of which Bread is made among -civilized nations, as well as of various nutritive materials, besides -Bread Corn, which are used in different countries as substitutes for -Bread. - -I have described the chemical analysis of Bread Flour, its immediate -constituent parts, their proportions in different kinds of grain, and -the method of separating them. I have pointed out the materials more -particularly fitted for the fabrication of Bread; I have explained the -reason why a variety of Alimentary Farinaceous Seeds, in common use, -cannot be made into light and porous loaf-bread, although they are well -calculated, under other forms, of being converted into highly nutritious -food. - -I have explained the chemical distinction which exists between bread -made with yeast, as well as with leaven, and bread made without either -of these species of ferment; and, lastly, I have given specific -directions for making the different kinds of Bread prepared from Wheat, -Oats, Rye, Barley, Rice, Maize, Buck-wheat, Potatoes, and other -farinaceous substances, as practised in various countries. - - - FREDRICK ACCUM. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - ------- - - - PAGE - - PREFACE i - - CONTENTS 1 - - PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS, CHIEFLY WITH REGARD TO 7 - THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION AND NUTRITIVE QUALITY - OF THE SUBSTANCES OF FOOD DERIVED FROM THE - VEGETABLE KINGDOM - - HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ART OF MAKING BREAD 25 - - BREAD CORN 30 - - THE BREAD-FRUIT 39 - - SAGO BREAD, and SAGO 41 - - CASAVA BREAD, and TAPIOCA 43 - - PLANTAIN BREAD 45 - - BANANA BREAD 46 - - BREAD OF DRIED FISH 47 - - BREAD MADE OF MOSS 49 - - BREAD MADE OF EARTH 50 - - ——————— - - ANALYSIS OF BREAD FLOUR 52 - - QUANTITY OF FLOUR OBTAINABLE FROM VARIOUS KINDS OF 55 - CEREAL AND LEGUMINOUS SEEDS EMPLOYED IN THE - FABRICATION OF BREAD, AND DIFFERENT KINDS OF - FLOUR MANUFACTURED FROM WHEAT - - REASON WHY OATS, PEASE, BEANS, RICE, MAIZE, 58 - MILLET, BUCKWHEAT, AND OTHER NUTRITIVE GRAINS - CANNOT BE MADE INTO LIGHT AND POROUS BREAD - - THEORY OF THE PANIFICATION OF BREAD FLOUR 61 - - ——————— - - UNLEAVENED BREAD 66 - - OATMEAL CAKES 68 - - MIXED OATMEAL AND PEASE BREAD 69 - - UNLEAVENED MAIZE BREAD 70 - - UNLEAVENED BEAN-FLOUR BREAD 71 - - UNLEAVENED BUCKWHEAT BREAD 71 - - UNLEAVENED ACORN BREAD 72 - - SEA BISCUIT 73 - - ——————— - - LEAVENED BREAD 79 - - LEAVENED RYE BREAD 83 - - HUNGARIAN RYE BREAD 85 - - ——————— - - BREAD MADE WITH YEAST 88 - - METHOD OF MAKING WHEATEN BREAD, AS PRACTISED BY 93 - THE LONDON BAKERS - - QUANTITY OF BREAD OBTAINABLE FROM A GIVEN QUANTITY 97 - OF WHEATEN FLOUR - - HOME-MADE WHEATEN BREAD 100 - - TO MAKE PAN-BREAD 102 - - BROWN WHEATEN BREAD 103 - - MIXED WHEATEN BREAD 104 - - ROLLS 105 - - FRENCH BREAD 105 - - MUFFINS AND CRUMPETS 105 - - BARLEY BREAD 109 - - MIXED BARLEY BREAD 111 - - RYE BREAD 112 - - TURNIP BREAD 114 - - RICE BREAD 116 - - POTATOE BREAD 121 - - POTATOE ROLLS 124 - - APPLE BREAD 125 - - DOMESTIC OVEN FOR BAKING BREAD 126 - - POPULAR ERRORS CONCERNING THE QUALITY OF BREAD 133 - - LAWS PROHIBITING THE ADULTERATION OF BREAD AND 149 - BREAD FLOUR - - ECONOMICAL APPLICATION OF YEAST 162 - - ECONOMICAL PREPARATION OF YEAST 165 - - ECONOMICAL METHOD OF MAKING YEAST, RECOMMENDED BY 165 - DR. LETTSOM - - POTATOE YEAST 166 - - METHOD OF PRESERVING YEAST 167 - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - A - - TREATISE - - ON THE ART OF MAKING - - Good and Wholesome Bread. - - - ------- - - - - - PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. - - -To most animals nature has designed a limited range of aliment, when -compared to the extensive choice allotted to man. If we look into the -history of the human race, inhabiting the different parts of the globe, -as far as we are acquainted with it, we find, that man appears to be -designed by nature to eat of all substances that are capable of -nourishing him: fruits, grains, roots, herbs, flesh, fish, reptiles, and -fowls, all contribute to his sustenance. He can even subsist on every -variety of these substances, under every mode of preparation, dried, -preserved in salt, hardened in smoke, pickled in vegetable acids, &c. - -The Author of Nature has so constructed our organs of digestion, that we -can accommodate ourselves to every species of aliment; no kind of food -injures us; we are capable of being habituated to every species, and of -converting into nutriment almost every production of nature. - -When we enquire more minutely into the chemical constitution of the -different alimentary materials, which promote the growth, support the -strength, and renew the waste of our body, we find that animal -substances are not suited to form the whole of our daily food; and that, -in fact, if long and extensively used, their stimulating effects at -length exhausts and debilitates the system, which it at first -invigorated and supported. Those, accordingly, who have lived for any -great length of time on a diet composed entirely of animal matter, -become oppressed, heavy, and indolent, the tone and excitability of -their frame are impaired, they are affected with indigestion, the -breathing is hurried on the smallest exercise, the gums become spongy, -the breath is fœtid, and the limbs swell. We recognize in this -description the approach of scurvy, a disease familiar to sailors, to -the inhabitants of besieged towns, and, in general, to all who are -wholly deprived of a just proportion of vegetable aliment. - -On the other hand, vegetable food being less stimulating is also less -nourishing; besides, this kind of aliment is, upon the whole, of more -difficult assimilation than the food derived from the animal kingdom. -Hence it is, perhaps, that nature has provided a greater extent of -digestive organs for animals wholly herbivorous. It is insufficient to -raise the human system to all the strength and vigour of which it is -susceptible. Flatulency of the stomach, muscular and nervous debility, -and a long series of disorders, are not unfrequently the consequences of -this too sparing diet. Some Eastern nations, indeed, live almost -entirely on vegetable substances; but these, it is remarked, are seldom -so robust, so active, or so brave, as men who live on a mixed diet of -animal and vegetable food. Few, at least, in the countries of Europe can -be sufficiently nourished by vegetable food alone; and even those -nations, and individuals, who are said to live exclusively on -vegetables, because they do not eat the flesh of animals, generally make -use of milk at least, of eggs, and butter and cheese. - -Food composed of animal and vegetable materials is, in truth, that which -is best suited to the nature and condition of man. The proportions in -which these should be used it is not easy to determine, but generally -the quantity of vegetables should exceed that of animal food. “On this -head,” says Dr. Fothergill, “I have only one short caution to give. -Those who think it necessary to pay any attention to their health, at -table, should take care that the quantity of bread, of meat, and of -pudding, and of greens, should not compose, each of them, a meal, as if -some only were thrown in to make weight, but carefully to observe that -the sum of, altogether, do not exceed due bounds or incroach upon the -first feeling of satiety.” - -All the products of the vegetable kingdom, used as aliment, are not -equally nutritious. When we contemplate with a chemical eye the -nutritive principles contained in vegetable substances, we soon perceive -that they are but few in number, namely, starch, gluten, mucilage, -jelly, fixed oil, sugar, and acids; and the different vegetable parts of -them are nutritious, wholesome, and digestible, according to the nature -and proportion of their principles contained in them. The starch and -gluten appear the most nutritious, and together with mucilage at the -same time, the most abundant ingredients contained in those vegetables -from which man derives his subsistence. Hence, from time immemorial, and -in all parts of the earth, man has used farinaceous seeds as part of his -food, for they contain the above-mentioned materials in the greatest -abundance. Of these the most nutritive are the seeds of the _Cerealia_, -under which title are commonly comprehended the _Gramineæ_, or -_Culminiferous_ plants. Whilst the seeds of the _Gramineæ_ supply the -most important part of food furnished by the vegetable kingdom, in -almost every part of the world, their leaves and young shoots support -that class of animals hence called graminivorous, whose flesh is most -generally eaten. - -These vegetables are distributed so universally over the face of the -earth, and have become to such a degree the object of culture, that they -are very generally made into bread, or are employed instead of it; and, -upon the whole, it appears that they are nutritive merely in the -proportion to the quantity of farinaceous matter contained in them; but -this substance exists in different combinations in different cereal and -leguminous seeds. It is combined with gluten in wheat, with a saccharine -matter in oats, and in many leguminous seeds, such as Harricot beans and -pease, and with viscous mucilage in rye and Windsor beans. - -Next to the _Cerealia_ and _Leguminosæ_ may be ranged the oily -farinaceous seeds, such as almonds, walnuts, filberts, &c. These abound -in starch and mucilage. The use of chocolate, which is prepared from the -chocolate nut, growing in the West Indies, ground into a paste, with or -without sugar, is in itself a nutritious substance, and to those with -whom it agrees, it may be considered as a wholesome nutritious aliment. -Yet the vegetable farina, in this state of existence, though highly -nutritious, and to many palates very agreeable, is more difficult of -digestion, and does not, upon the whole, afford a very wholesome -alimentary substance. When too freely used, those kinds of seeds are -sure to disagree, more especially if from age the oil has become rancid. -They must be considered rather as a delicacy than as fitted to form a -portion of our daily food, and with some particular stomachs they never -agree. - -Of the alimentary farinaceous roots, the potatoe, boiled or roasted, is -one of the most useful, and perhaps after the _Cerealia_, one of the -most wholesome and most nutritious vegetables in common use; its -nourishing powers, there can be no doubt, depend upon the amylaceous -fecula of which it is chiefly composed. The Jerusalem artichoke deserves -likewise to be noticed here, as being a highly alimentary root, chiefly -composed of farinaceous matter. Of the fruits rich in farinaceous and -mucilaginous matter, few are indigenous. The chesnut, when roasted, -affords an alimentary food, but in the East and West Indies the bread -fruit, bananas, and the fruit of the plantain tree, are the substitutes -for bread. - -Scarcely any of the various alimentary substances employed by man are -consumed in the raw and crude state in which they are presented to us by -nature. Almost all of them are previously subjected to some kind of -preparation, or change, by which for the most part they are rendered -more wholesome and more digestible, and sometimes more nutritive. -Accordingly, the observations we have made on the properties of -different vegetable aliments, are to be considered as applied to them in -the state in which they are commonly used among us. - -When in the preparation of bread a baking heat is applied to the flour -dough, a complete change is produced in the constitution of the mass. -The new substance of bread differs materially from flour, it no longer -forms a tenacious mass with water, nor can starch and gluten be any more -separated from it. - -By the application of heat to vegetables the more volatile and watery -parts are in some cases dissipated. The different principles, according -to their peculiar properties, are extracted, softened, dissolved, or -coagulated; but most commonly they are changed into new combinations, so -as to be no longer distinguishable by the forms and chemical properties -which they originally possessed. - -In like manner the leguminous seeds, and farinaceous roots are greatly -altered by the chemical action of heat. The raw potatoe is -ill-flavoured, extremely indigestible, and even unwholesome. By -roasting, or boiling, it becomes farinaceous, sweet, and agreeable to -the taste, wholesome, digestible, and highly nutritious. Little is lost, -and nothing is added to the potatoe by this process, yet its properties -are greatly changed; its principles, in short, have suffered very -remarkable chemical changes. - -Even in the simple boiling of the various leguminous seeds, pot-herbs, -and esculent roots, the effect does not seem confined to the mere -softening of the fibres, the solution of some, and coagulation of other -of their juices and principles; not only their texture, but their -flavour, and other sensible qualities have undergone a change, by which -their alimentary properties have been improved; the farinaceous matter -by boiling is rendered soluble, the vegetable fibre softened. Saccharine -matter is often formed, mucilage and jelly extracted and combined, and -the product is rendered more palatable, wholesome, and nourishing. And, -although every country has its own favourite articles of food, and modes -of preparing them, and there is perhaps no subject in regard to which -local prejudices are so strong, yet there can be no reason why the -farinaceous matter of cereal seeds should always be consumed in the -state of bread; many of them are not less agreeable, and not less -wholesome in other forms of food. - -In Scotland nine-tenths of those in the more humble walks of life live -upon barleybroth, and there are not more healthy people to be found any -where.—_Cullen’s Materia Medica_, v. I. p. 287. - -It is chiefly to save the trouble of dressing any other kind of food, -and that bread, from its portability and convenience of always being -ready, has become the principal sustenance, but it is far from being the -most economical method of using farinaceous grain. There can be no doubt -that the same quantity of farinaceous matter made into bread might, in -other forms, be used to a much greater advantage; for the great art of -preparing good and wholesome food is to convert the alimentary matter -into such a substance as to fill up the stomach and alimentary canal -without overcharging it with more nutritive matter than is requisite for -the support of the animal, and this may be done either by bread, or by -converting the mealy substance of which it is composed into other forms, -of which there is a great variety. - -Persons who have travelled much on the continent are well aware that our -neighbours have the art of throwing much more variety and gratification -of the palate into the article of subsistence which has been -emphatically called the staff of life, than we possess. The French and -Germans convert the farinaceous flour of vegetables into a variety of -excellent articles of food, and not serving, like our own, as a mere -companion to pair off with so many mouthfuls of meat. - -In speaking thus of the use of bread, I do not mean to deny that bread -is highly alimentary, its nourishing powers are undoubtedly very great. - -The finest bread, says an eminent physician (Dr. Buchan), is not always -the best adapted for answering the purposes of nutrition. Household -bread, which is made by grinding the whole grain, and only separating -the coarse bran, is, without doubt, the most wholesome. - -The people of South Britain generally prefer bread made of the finest -wheat flour, while those of the Northern countries eat a mixture of -flour and oatmeal, or rye bread. The common people of Scotland also eat -a mixed bread, but more frequently bread made of oatmeal only. - -In Germany the common bread is made of rye. The flour of millet is made -in France, Spain, and Italy, into wholesome and nourishing pastry and -puddings. The American and West Indian labourer thinks no bread so -strengthening as that which is made of Indian corn. - -The inhabitants of Westphalia, who are a hardy and robust people, -capable of enduring the greatest fatigues, live on a coarse brown rye -bread, which still retains the opprobrious name once given to it by a -French traveller, “_Bon pour Nicole_—good for his horse Nichol.” - -The great advantage of eating pure and genuine bread must be obvious; -but bread is often spoiled to please the eye. I have elsewhere[1] shewn, -that in the making of bread, more especially in London, various -ingredients are occasionally mingled with the dough. The baker is -obliged to suit the caprice of his customers, to have his bread light -and porous, and of a pure white colour. It is impossible to produce this -sort of bread from flour alone, unless it be of the finest quality. The -best flour, however, being mostly used by the biscuit bakers and pastry -cooks, it is only from the inferior sorts that bread is made; and it -becomes necessary, in order to have it of that light and porous quality, -and of a fine white, to mix alum with the dough. Without this ingredient -the flour used by the London bakers would not yield so white a bread as -that sold in this metropolis, and herein consists the fraud, that the -baker is enabled by the use of this ingredient to produce, from bad -materials, bread that is light, white, and porous, but of which the -quality does not correspond to the appearance, and thus to impose upon -the public. - -Footnote 1: - - Adulterations of Food and Culinary Poisons, 2nd Edit. 1820, p. 130. - -In the following pages I have enumerated the methods by which all the -different kinds of farinaceous substances are made into good and -wholesome bread, and are used in different countries as articles of -daily sustenance. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - Art of making Bread. - - ------- - - - - - HISTORICAL SKETCH - - OF - - THE ART OF MAKING BREAD. - - -Nothing appears so easy at first sight, as to grind corn, or other -farinaceous substances, to knead the flour with water into dough, and to -convert it, by baking, into porous bread. But, simple as these -operations may now appear to us, the art of making loaf-bread was by no -means one of the earliest among human inventions. - -For, however essential this species of food may be considered among us -as an article of primary subsistence, it is perfectly certain, that men -had long existed in a state of civilization, before bread was known -among them. - -It is evident that every species of corn must have been originally the -spontaneous production of the earth; but as the grain, previous to -cultivation, would grow but scantily, its importance as food might long -escape observation, and mankind would naturally derive a more obvious, -though less nutritive subsistence, from acorns, berries, and other -fruits which were within their reach. Ages elapsed ere Ceres, according -to the Grecian mythology, descended from heaven to teach mankind the use -of agriculture. - -In the early ages of society, according to some historians, men were -satisfied with parching their corn for immediate use as food. The next -advance appears to have been, to pulverize the grain in a mortar or -handmill, and to form it, by the addition of water or milk, into a kind -of porridge; or to make the bruised grain into dough, which was rendered -eatable by baking on embers. - -Even after the method of grinding corn into meal, and separating the -bran by sifting, had become known, it was long before the art of -fermenting the dough, in order to produce bread full of eyes and of a -soft consistence, was discovered. - -Like most other operations of primary importance, the origin of the art -of making bread is lost in the darkness of ages past. - -We are, however, certain that the Jews practised this art in the time of -Moses; for we find in the Book of Exodus, chap. xii. v. 18, a -prohibition to make use of _leavened_, that is, fermented bread, during -the celebration of the Passover. But it does not appear that -_loaf-bread_ was known to Abraham, for in his history we read frequently -of cakes, but not of fermented bread. It is, therefore, very probable, -that the art of making fermented bread took its rise in the East, and -that the Jews learned it from the Egyptians. - -The Greeks attribute the art of making bread to the god Pan. - -Bakers were unknown in Rome till the year of the city 850, or about 200 -years before the Christian era. The Roman bakers, according to Pliny, -came from Greece with the Macedonian army. Before this period, the -Romans were often distinguished by the appellation of _eaters of pap_. - -At the time of Augustus, there were upwards of 300 baking houses in -Rome, almost the whole of which were occupied by Greeks. The bakers -enjoyed in ancient Rome great privileges. The public granaries were -entrusted to their care; they formed a corporation, or kind of college, -from which neither they nor their children were permitted to withdraw. -They were exempted from guardianships and public services, which might -interfere with their occupation. They were eligible to become Senators; -and those who married the daughters of bakers, became members of the -college. - -From the establishment of bakers in Rome, the art of making loaf, or -fermented bread, spread amongst the ancient Gauls; but its progress in -the northern countries of Europe was slow, and in some northern -districts, the luxury of eating fermented, or loaf-bread, is at this day -not in general use. Some of the modern Italians consume the greatest -part of their bread-flour in the state of _macaroni_ and _vermicelli_, -and in other forms of _polenta_, or soft pudding; and even at present -millions of people neither sow nor reap, but content themselves with -enjoying the spontaneous productions of the earth. - - - Bread Corn, - -Properly so called, of which loaf-bread is chiefly made among cultivated -nations, comprehends the seeds of the whole tribe of (_cerealia_), or -gramineous plants; for they all contain a farinaceous substance, of a -similar nature, and chiefly composed of starch. Those of the _cerealia_ -in common use are the following: - - Wheat _Triticum hybernum._ - Barley _Hordeum vulgare._ - Rye _Secale cereale._ - -With us, wheat is chiefly employed for the fabrication of bread. It is, -in fact, the only grain of which light porous bread can be made; but rye -and barley are also used as bread-corn. The farina of the other -_cerealia_ afford also a nutritive and wholesome bread; though their -flour is not so susceptible of the panary fermentation, it cannot be -made into the white texture of the wheaten loaf. The bread formed from -them is consequently much inferior to that prepared from wheat. The -following seeds are chiefly employed to make a species of bread: - - Oats _Avena Sativa._ - Maize _Zea Mays._ - Rice _Oriza Sativa._ - Millet _Panicum milliaceum._ - -Oats are used in the north of Europe for making a kind of bread, called -oatmeal-cake, and particularly by the inhabitants of Scotland. Maize is -frequently employed as bread-corn in North America. - -Rice nourishes more human beings than all the other seeds together, used -as food; and it is by many considered the most nutritive of all sorts of -grain. A very ridiculous prejudice has existed with respect to rice, -namely, that it is prejudicial to the sight, by causing diseases of the -eye; but no authority can warrant this assertion: on the contrary, the -opinion of the ablest men (Cullen’s Mat. Med. v. i. p. 229) may be -quoted in favour of rice being a very healthy food: and the experience -of all Asia and America may be adduced with sufficient weight to have -answered this objection, if it had been supported by any thing more than -vulgar prejudice, unsupported by facts. This grain is peculiarly -calculated to diminish the evils of a scanty harvest, an inconvenience -which must occasionally affect all countries, particularly those which -are very populous. It is the most fitted of all food to be of use in -relieving general distress in a bad season[2], because it comes from a -part of the world where provisions are cheap and abundant; it is light, -easy of carriage, keeps well for a long time, and contains a great deal -of wholesome food within a small compass. Indeed, it has been -ascertained that one part of rice contains as much food and useful -nourishment as six of wheat. - -Footnote 2: - - Reports of the Society for bettering the Condition of the Poor, Vol. - I. p. 137. - -Next to the _cerealia_, the seeds of _leguminous plants_ may be regarded -as substitutes for bread corn. Their ripe seeds afford the greatest -quantity of alimentary matter. Their meal has a sweetish taste, but they -cannot be made into light and porous bread, without the addition of a -portion of wheaten flour. Their meal, however, though it forms but a -coarse and indifferent bread, neither very palatable nor very -digestible, except by the most robust stomachs, is yet highly nutritive. - -It is remarked by Dr. Cullen, that “on certain farms of this country, -upon which the leguminous seeds are produced in great abundance, the -labouring servants are much fed upon that kind of grain; but if such -servants are removed to a farm upon which the _leguminous seeds_ are not -in such plenty, and therefore they are fed with the _cerealia_, they -soon find a decay of strength; and it is common for servants, in making -such removals, to insist on their being provided daily, or weekly, with -a certain quantity of the leguminous meal.” We are not, however, to -conclude from this observation, that pease-meal bread, is really more -nutritive than wheaten bread, or than the meal of the other _cerealia_. -We are rather disposed to regard it as an example of the effect of -habit. - -The _leguminous seeds_ employed in the fabrication of bread, are - - Pease _Pisum Sativum._ - Beans _Vicia faba._ - Kidney Beans _Phaseolus vulgaris._ - -The whole of this tribe afford a much more agreeable, though not a more -nutritive aliment, when their seeds are used green, young, and tender, -and simply boiled, than when fully ripened, and their flour baked. - -It is remarked, that all the substances of which bread is made, as well -as the substitutes for it, when chemically considered, are chiefly -composed of one and the same identical material; namely, the farinaceous -matter of the seeds, roots, fruits, or other products of vegetables, of -different climates and soils; and that _starch_, or the amylaceous -fecula, forms the most valuable part of all the materials used for -making bread, and its substitutes. - -This substance forms by far the most abundant, the most nourishing, and -the most easy to be procured aliment, obtainable from the vegetable -kingdom. - -“Whilst immense tribes of creatures devour the amylaceous fecula in the -grain, as nature produces it, man knows how to give it different forms, -from the most simple boiling to the most complicated delicacies of the -arts of the confectioner and pastry-cook. - -“It is singular that man should waste so valuable a substance for the -purpose of hair-powder, a kind of custom perhaps ridiculous, in which -modern nations imitate, without being aware of it, those people whom -they term barbarous, and by which custom they lavish away a portion of -the subsistence of a great number of families.” - -This nutritive aliment, we find, exists in various combinations, in the -roots, seeds, in the stems, and fruits of plants. Many roots abounding -in the amylaceous fecula, yields a palatable and highly nutritious -aliment. - -Hence the potatoe is a substance largely employed as a substitute for -bread. Its nutritious qualities are fully ascertained by the experience -of all Europe; it makes a considerable portion of the food of the poor; -and in Ireland in particular, millions of people exist, who, from -sufficient evidence, we are pretty certain live for years together -almost wholly on this root and water, without any other seasoning than a -little salt. It contains much amylaceous fecula, and when mixed with -wheaten flour, may be formed into good and palatable bread. Other -substances, besides the grains before mentioned, are in different parts -of the world substituted for bread. These are the following: - - - The Bread-Fruit. - -The Bread-fruit Tree (_Artocarpus incisa_) affords the inhabitants of -the South Pacific Ocean a substance resembling bread. They only climb -the tree to gather the fruit, which is of a round shape, from five to -six inches in diameter; it grows on boughs like apples, and, when quite -ripe, is of a yellowish colour. The bread-fruit has a tough reticulated -rind; there is neither seed nor stone in the inside of it. The eatable -part, which lies between the skin and the core, is as white as snow, and -of the consistence of new bread. The fruit is roasted on embers, or -baked in an oven, which scorches the rind and turns it black; this is -rasped off, and there remains a thin white crust, while the inside is -soft and white, like crumbs of fine loaf-bread. It is eaten new, for if -it is kept longer than twenty-four hours, it becomes harsh and -unpalatable. It is also boiled, by which means the interior is rendered -white, like a boiled potatoe. They make three dishes of it, by putting -either water or the milk of the cocoa-nut to it, then beating it into a -paste with a stone pestle, and afterwards mixing it with banana paste, -which has been suffered to become sour. - -The bread-fruit remains in season eight months in the year, during which -time the natives eat no other sort of food of the bread kind; and the -deficiency of the other four months of the year, is made up chiefly with -cocoa-nuts, bananas, plantains, bread nuts (_brosimum alicastrum_), and -other farinaceous fruits. - - - Sago Bread. - -The Sago-Tree (_Cycas Circinalis_), which grows spontaneously in the -East Indies, and particularly on the Coast of Malabar, furnishes to -numerous Indian tribes their bread. In the Islands of Banda and Amboyna, -they saw the body of the tree into small pieces, and, after bruising and -beating them in a mortar, pour water upon the fragments; this is left -for some hours undisturbed, to suffer the pithy farinaceous matter to -subside. The water is then poured off, and the meal, being properly -dried, is formed into cakes, or fermented and made into bread, which, it -is said, eats nearly as well as wheaten bread. - -The Hottentots make a kind of bread of another species of sago-tree -(_Cycas Resoluta_). The pith, or medulla, which abounds in the trunk of -this little palm, is collected and tied up in dressed calf’s or sheep’s -skin, and then buried in the ground for several weeks, which renders it -mellow and tender. It is then kneaded with water into dough, and made -into small loaves or cakes, which are baked under embers. Other -Hottentots, not quite so nice, merely dry and roast the farinaceous -pith, and afterwards make it into a kind of frumety or porridge. - - - SAGO. - -The same meal, or medulla, of the sago-tree, reduced into grain, by -passing it whilst still moist through a kind of sieve, produces the -_sago_ of commerce, which receives its brown colour by being heated on -hot stones. - - - Casava Bread. - -In the Caribbee Islands they make bread of a very poisonous root -(_Jatropa Maniat_), rendered wholesome by the extraction of its acrid -juice, which the Indians use for poisoning their arrows. A tea-spoonful -of the juice is sufficient to poison a man. - -The root of the maniat, after being crashed, scraped clean, and grated -in a tub, is enclosed in a sack of rushes, of very loose texture, which -is suspended upon a stick placed upon two wooden forks. To the bottom of -this sack a heavy vessel is suspended, which, by drawing the sack, -presses the grated root and receives the juice that flows out of it. -When the starch is well exhausted of its juice, it is exposed to smoke -in order to dry it; and when well dried it is passed through a sieve. In -this state it is termed Casava. It is baked into cakes, by spreading it -on hot plates of iron or earth, turning it on both sides, in order to -give it a good reddish colour. - - - TAPIOCA. - -The article of commerce, called _tapioca_, is the finest part of the -farinaceous pith of the casava. It is separately collected and formed -into small tears, by straining the mass while still moist, to form it -into small irregular lumps. - - - Plantain Bread. - -The Plantain Tree (_Musa Paradisiaca_), which is a native of the East -Indies and other parts of the Asiatic Continent, furnishes the -inhabitants with a species of bread. The fruit of the plantain-tree is -about a foot long, and from an inch and a half to two inches in -diameter. It is at first green, but when ripe of a pale yellow. It has a -tough skin, and within is a soft pulp of a sweet flavour. The fruit is -generally cut before it is ripe; the green skin is peeled off, and the -heart is roasted in a clear coal fire for a few minutes, and frequently -turned; it is then scraped and served up as bread. This tree is -cultivated on an extensive scale in Jamaica. Without this fruit, Dr. -Wright says, the Islands would be scarcely inhabitable, as no species of -provisions could supply its place. Even flour and bread itself would be -less agreeable to the labouring Negro. - - - Banana Bread. - -The fruit of the Banana Tree (_Musa Sapientum_), differs from the -preceding, being shorter, straighter, and rounder. It is about four or -five inches long, of the shape of a cucumber, and of a highly grateful -flavour. Bananas grow in bunches that weigh twelve pounds and upwards. -This fruit yields a softer pulp than the plantain-tree, and of a more -luscious taste. It is never eaten green, but when ripe is a very -pleasant food, either raw or fried in slices like fritters. It is -relished by all ranks of people in the West Indies. When the natives of -the West Indies undertake a voyage, they take the ripe fruit of the -banana and make provisions of the paste; and, having squeezed it through -a sieve, form the mass into loaves, which are dried in the sun or baked -on hot ashes, after being previously wrapped up in leaves. - - - Bread of Dried Fish. - -The Laplanders, who have no corn of their own, make a kind of bread of -the inner soft bark of a pine tree, either mixed with the coarsest -barley meal, or with dried fish beaten into powder. The bark is -collected when the sap is rising, it is afterwards dried in the sun, or -over a slow fire, and then mixed with the coarsest barley meal, or dried -fish beaten into powder. The poorer people grind the chaff, and even -some of the straw along with the barley. - -Another kind of bread is made of dried fish and the root of the water -dragon (_Calla palustris_), the root is taken up in the spring, before -the leaves shoot out. It is dried, pounded, and boiled, till it becomes -thick, like flummery, and after standing three or four days to lose its -bitterness it is mixed with the powder of dried fish and the inner bark -of the pine tree, and then made into a stiff paste, and baked over -embers. - - - Bread made of Moss. - -Some species of the tribe of Lichen, contain a considerable portion of -starch, as the _Lichen Rangiferinus_, or rein-deer moss, which affords -food to the stags and other fallow cattle of the North of Europe. The -Icelanders form the lichen islandicus into bread, which is found to be -extremely nutritious. The moss is collected in the summer, and, when -dry, ground into powder, of which bread and gruel, or pottage, are made. -It is sometimes also put whole into broth, or is boiled in whey, till it -be converted into a jelly. In general, it is either previously steeped -for some hours in warm water, or the water of the first boiling is -rejected, in order to remove a part of the bitter extractive matter, -which, if left, produces a disagreeable taste, and is apt to prove -purgative. - - - Bread made of Earth. - -The strangest substitute for bread that has ever been employed, is a -sort of white earth. The poor in the Lordship of Moscoa in Upper -Lusania, have been frequently compelled to make use of this earth as a -substitute for bread. - -The earth is dug out of a pit where saltpetre had formerly been worked; -when exposed to the rays of the sun it splits and cracks, and small -globules issue from it like meal, which ferments when mixed with flour. -On this earth, baked into bread, many persons have subsisted a -considerable time. A similar earth is met with near Genomu, in -Catalonia. - -In the western parts of Luisania too, the inhabitants have a most -extraordinary custom of eating a white earth, mixed with clay and salt. - -The rowers also, who ply on the river Mississippi, frequently drink -large quantities of muddy water, which cannot fail to leave in the -stomach a considerable quantity of earth. But it cannot be doubted, that -a large quantity of earthy substances taken into the stomach would prove -deleterious to health. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - Analysis of Bread Flour. - - -On examining bread corn, for instance wheat, we perceive an outside -coating, which after the grain has been soaked in water, may readily be -peeled off. This forms the bran of the flour. Immediately under it, is -that part of the grain which affords the coarsest flour, it is soft to -the touch, and not easily reduced to an impalpable powder, and of a -sweetish taste. This constitutes about one half of the grain. Underneath -this substance lies what is called by millers, the kernel or heart of -the wheat, namely, a hard mealy substance, almost transparent. This part -of the grain is capable of being speedily reduced to an impalpable -powder, it ferments more readily than the outer layers, and it is this -which produces the finest and best kind of wheaten flour. Such is the -mechanical constitution of the grain. When chemically examined we find -that the flour of wheat, rye, and barley, is composed of three -ingredients, or immediate constituent parts, which may be separated by -simple processes, viz. starch, gluten, and saccharine mucilage. The -proportion of these differ materially in different kinds of corn. The -method of separating them is as follows: - -Make any quantity of wheaten flour into a stiff paste with cold water, -and let it be kneaded and wrought in the hands under water; or put the -flour into a coarse linen bag, and knead it between the hands whilst a -small rill of cold water is suffered to pass over it. The water will -carry away the starch in the form of a white powder, and the dough -become more and more elastic, in proportion as the water carries off the -starch; continue kneading the mass till the water runs off from the -kneaded dough colourless. It will also be observed, that in proportion -as the water carries off the starch, the paste in the bag assumes a more -grey colour, less brilliant, as it were semi-transparent, and of a -softer consistence, but, at the same time, more tenaceous, more viscid, -more gluey, and more elastic. - -Thus the flour is separated into three substances, by a method incapable -of decomposing or altering any of its immediate constituent parts. The -starch is precipitated in a white powder at the bottom of the water, -from which it may readily be separated by suffering it to subside, and -the supernatant liquid, contains in solution the saccharine mucilage; -this may be obtained in the form of a syrup, by evaporating slowly in a -warm place the clear decanted fluid; and the third substance, the -gluten, remains in the bag, in the state of a soft, cohesive, and -elastic substance. - -In a similar manner the analysis of any species of bread corn may be -effected. - -QUANTITY OF FLOUR OBTAINABLE FROM VARIOUS KINDS OF CEREAL AND LEGUMINOUS - SEEDS EMPLOYED IN THE FABRICATION OF BREAD, AND DIFFERENT KINDS OF - FLOUR MANUFACTURED FROM WHEAT. - -The Board of Agriculture, in order to ascertain what each of the various -sorts of grain employed as substitutes for bread-corn would produce, -when ground into flour, with only the broad bran taken out, caused a -bushel of each of the undermentioned sorts of seeds to be ground for -their inspection: the weight of the grain, as well as the bran and the -flour, was as follows: - - - Weight Weight - - Weighed. of Flour. of Bran. - - _One Bushel of_ _lb._ _lb._ _lb._ - _oz._ _oz._ - - Barley 46 38 10½ 5 10½ - - Buckwheat 46¼ 38 9 5 5 - - Rye 54 43 0 9 5½ - - Maize 53 44 0 8 10½ - - Rice 61¼ 60 5 0 0 - - Oats 38¼ 23 5 13 10½ - - Beans 57¾ 43 5½ 12 5 - - Pease 61¾ 47 0 12 5 - - -A bushel of wheat, upon an average, weighs sixty-one pounds; when -ground, the meal weighs 60¾ lbs.; this on being dressed, produces 46¾ -lbs. of flour of the sort called _seconds_, which alone is used for the -making of bread in London, and throughout the greater part of this -country; and of pollard and bran 12¾ lbs., which quantity, when bolted, -produces 3 lbs. of fine flour; this when sifted produces in good second -flour 1¼ lb. - - - lbs. - - The whole quantity of 48 - bread-flour obtained from - the bushel of wheat, weighs - - lbs. - - Fine pollard 4¼ - - Coarse pollard 4 11 - - Bran 2¾ - - — - - The whole together 59 - - To which add the loss of 2 - weight in manufacturing the - bushel of wheat - - — - - Produces the original weight 61 - - -REASON WHY OATS, PEASE, BEANS, RICE, MAIZE, MILLET, BUCKWHEAT, AND OTHER - NUTRITIVE GRAINS CANNOT BE MADE INTO LIGHT AND POROUS BREAD. - -Every person is acquainted with the difference there is between light -well fermented bread, and that which is sodden, heavy, and badly risen, -and the decided preference given to the former over the latter, as the -most palatable, and easy of digestion. - -The only substances for making _loaf bread_, by which term is meant, -bread which is light, white, and porous, is the flour of wheat; and it -is to the larger quantity of gluten, that wheat flour owes the property -of being converted into loaf-bread. The average quantity of gluten -contained in wheat flour, amounts to about one-fifth of the whole weight -of the meal; but it varies in quantity in different kinds of wheat, -according to the soil and season in which the corn has been reared, -culture, and various other circumstances. Wheat kept in damp storehouses -affords scarcely any gluten, and hence, in proportion as the flour of -wheat is altered and deteriorated, which happens, as it is known, when -it is kept too much compressed, without being occasionally stirred up -and aired in hot and close granaries; in a word, as it undergoes a -chemical change, its property of making good bread is diminished; and -chemical analysis shows the quantity of gluten has become lessened under -such circumstances; and when it is greatly diminished the meal forms no -longer a tenaceous ductile dough. The spoiled flour produces a kind of -bread which is heavy, harsh, and difficult of digestion. - -The greater the proportion of gluten, the easier the panification of -bread-flour is effected, and the better is the bread. The wheat of the -South of Europe generally contains a larger quantity of gluten, and is -therefore more excellent for the manufacture of Maccaroni, Vermicelli, -and other alimentary substances, requiring a glutenous paste. - -Sir H. Davy found the flour of the wheat of this country to consist of -from twenty to twenty-four per cent. of gluten. Barley contains six, and -rye five per cent. of gluten. - -We may now understand why potatoes, rice, beans, pease, buckwheat, -millet, oats, and other nutritive cereal grains, abounding in starch, -cannot be made into light and porous bread, although they are well -calculated for being made into wholesome puddings, and why they only -form crude, heavy, insipid cakes, when made into dough and baked, and -not light porous loaf-bread. - -In further confirmation of this statement it may be remarked, that if -gluten of wheat, or only a portion of wheaten flour be incorporated by -kneading with the before-named kinds of flour, a fermentable cohesive -paste is produced, from which perfect bread may be made. - - - THEORY OF THE PANIFICATION OF BREAD FLOUR. - -Bread, when chemically examined, is very different from flour; it no -longer forms with water a tenaceous ductile mass, nor can starch, -gluten, and saccharine mucilage be separated from it. - -The chemical changes that take place in the panification of bread-flour, -are by no means well understood. The saccharine mucilage, it appears, -commences the fermentative chemical action that takes place in the -dough, for without this substance, a mixture of flour, yeast, and water, -cannot be made into true bread. The fermenting process when once -commenced, is kept up by the gluten, forming the body of the paste -through which the fecula and saccharine matter are diffused; and when -the slight fermentation which it suffers, from changes in the saccharine -matter, and supported by the presence of the gluten, has commenced, the -paste becomes spongy and porous, from the disengagement of carbonic acid -gas, while it still retains in some measure its elasticity; hence the -lightness and porosity of well-baked wheaten bread; and hence bread, -possessing these qualities, cannot be prepared from the flour of oats, -barley, rye, or rice, or from any of the nutritive roots, as in all of -these the quantity of gluten is considerably less, or entirely wanting, -and no gluey elastic dough can be formed. The starch, which was merely -diffused through the gluey dough, combines, during the baking, with a -portion of water, into a stiff jelly, which renders the bread more -digestible, and the gluten wholly disappears. A portion of carbonic acid -gas, which becomes disengaged during the fermenting process, enlarges -the bulk of the dough, which is thus rendered light, porous, and full of -eyes, or cavities, in consequence of the extraction of the air bubbles, -in the viscid glutenous matter; and the porosity of the bread is in -proportion to the extent to which the rising of the dough is suffered to -proceed. - -Some chemists persuade themselves that the fermentation of the flour -dough differs materially from the fermentation of saccharine substances; -namely, that the vinous, acetous, and putrefactive stages of the -fermenting process take place simultaneously in the dough. They imagine -the vinous fermentation to take place in the saccharine mucilage, the -acetous in the starch, and the putrefactive in the gluten at the same -time, and from the modification of each by the others, they consider -that peculiar action to originate which converts paste into bread. -Against this opinion, however, the following objections may be urged. In -the first place, the quantity of saccharine mucilage is so extremely -small as to produce no sensible effect alone on the whole mass, and what -little there is probably passes speedily into the acetous fermentation. -Secondly, the temperature that is required for bread-making is -considerably lower than that at which starch dissolves in water, and -where this is the case no alteration will take place, even in a long -course of time: this is clearly shown by the usual process of -starch-making, in which the bruised wheat is fermented for several days -in large vats, in order to destroy the gluten, after which the starch is -procured by simple deposition from the washings of the residue; and -thirdly, no vestige whatever of the products evolved during the -putrefactive fermentation of gluten, can be traced in any stage of the -panification of bread flour. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - Unleavened Bread. - - -Bread prepared by baking from the meal of farinaceous seeds kneaded with -water into a dough and baked, is divided into three sorts, namely;—1. -Unleavened bread; 2. Leavened bread; and, 3. Bread made with yeast. - -Unleavened bread contains all the component parts of the flour but -little altered. The meal is simply mixed with water, and baked into -cakes. It is heavy, dry, friable, and not porous. The oatmeal bread of -Scotland, is unleavened bread; as also sea biscuit, and all other kinds -of biscuit. - -The bread that is eaten by the Jews during the passover is unleavened. -The usage of which was introduced in commemoration of their hasty -departure from Egypt, [Exodus, chap. 12, v. 14 to 17.] when they had not -leisure to bake leavened bread, but took the dough before it was -fermented and baked unleavened cakes. - -In Roman catholic countries it is still used, and prepared with the -finest wheaten flour, moistened with water, and pressed between two -plates, graven like wafer moulds, being first rubbed with wax to prevent -the paste from sticking, and when dry it is used. Unleavened bread is -hardly less nutritious than loaf or fermented bread, but it is generally -speaking neither so wholesome nor so digestible. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - To make Oatmeal Cakes. - -To a peck of oatmeal add a few table-spoonsful of salt; knead the -mixture into a stiff paste, with warm water, roll it out into thin -cakes, and bake it in an oven or on embers. - -In some cottages oatmeal bread undergoes a partial fermentation, whereby -it is rendered lighter; but the generality of the people in the more -humble walks of life, where oatmeal bread is eaten, merely soften their -oatmeal with water, and having added to it a little salt, bake it into -cakes. To strangers oatmeal bread has a dry, harsh, unpleasant taste, -but the cottagers of Scotland, in particular, most commonly prefer it to -wheaten bread. - - - Mixed Oatmeal and Pease Bread. - -To a peck of pease flour, and a like quantity of oatmeal, previously -mixed by passing the flour through a sieve, add three or four ounces of -salt, knead it into a stiff mass with warm water, roll it out into thin -cakes, and bake them in an oven. In some parts of Lancashire and -Scotland, this kind of bread is made into flattened rolls, and the -cottagers usually bake them in an iron pot. - -In Norway they make unleavened bread of oatmeal and barley, which keeps -thirty or forty years, and is considered the better for being old, so -that at the baptism of a child, bread is sometimes used which has been -baked perhaps at the baptism of its great grandfather. - - - Unleavened Maize Bread. - -The bread made of maize flour, which is in common use in North America, -is unleavened bread. The maize flour is kneaded with a little salt and -water into a stiff mass; which, after being rolled out into thin cakes, -is usually baked on a hot broad iron hoe. - -Another kind of unleavened _maize cakes_, which is a North American -bread, called _Hoe cake_, is made in the following manner.[3] - -Take maize, boil it with a small proportion of kidney beans, until it -becomes almost a pulp, and bake it over embers into a cake. - -Footnote 3: - - This and several other of the directions here given, for making - various species of bread, are taken from Edlin’s excellent Treatise on - bread making, a small work, long ago out of print. - - - Unleavened Bean-Flour Bread. - -Take a quarter of a peck of bean-flour and one ounce of salt, mix it -into a thick batter with water, pour a sufficient quantity to make a -cake into an iron kettle, and bake it over the fire, taking care to turn -it frequently. - - - Unleavened Buckwheat Bread.[4] - -Footnote 4: - - From the Reports of the Board of Agriculture. - -Take a gallon of water, set it over a fire, and when it boils, let a -peck of the flour of buckwheat be mixed with it, little by little, and -keep the mixture constantly stirred, to prevent any lumps being formed -till a thick batter is made. Then add two or three ounces of salt, set -it over the fire again, and allow it to boil an hour and a half, pour -the proper proportion for a cake into an iron kettle and bake it. - - - Unleavened Acorn Bread. - -Take acorns, fully ripe, deprive them of their covers and beat them into -a paste, let them lay in water for a night, and then press the water -from them, which deprives the acorns entirely of their astringency. Then -dry and powder the mass for use. When wanted, knead it up into a dough -with water, and roll it out into thin cakes, which may be baked over -embers. - -Bread made after this method is by no means disagreeable, and even to -this day, it is said to be made use of in some countries. - - - Sea Biscuit. - -The process of biscuit-baking for the British navy is as follows, and it -is equally simple and ingenious. The meal, and every other article, -being supplied with much certainty and simplicity, large lumps of dough, -consisting merely of flour and water, are mixed up together; and as the -quantity is so immense as to preclude, by any common process, a -possibility of kneading it, a man manages, or, as it is termed, rides a -machine, which is called a horse. This machine is a long roller, -apparently about four or five inches in diameter, and about seven or -eight feet in length. It has a play to a certain extension, by means of -a staple in the wall, to which is inserted a kind of eye, making its -action like the machine by which they cut chaff for horses. The lump of -dough being placed exactly in the centre of a raised platform, the man -sits upon the end of the machine, and literally rides up and down -throughout its whole circular direction, till the dough is equally -indented; and this is repeated till it is sufficiently kneaded; at which -times, by the different positions of the lines, large or small circles -are described, according as they are near to or distant from the wall. - -The dough in this state is handed over to a second workman, who slices -it with a prodigious knife; and it is then in a proper state for the use -of those bakers who attend the oven. These are five in number; and their -different departments are as well calculated for expedition and -correctness, as the making of pins, or other mechanical employments. On -each side of a large table, where the dough is laid, stands a workman; -at a small table near the oven stands another; a fourth stands by the -side of the oven, to receive the bread; and a fifth to supply the peel. -By this arrangement the oven is as regularly filled and the whole -exercise performed in as exact time, as a military evolution. The man on -the further side of the large table, moulds the dough, having previously -formed it into small pieces till it has the appearance of muffins, -although rather thinner, and which he does two together, with each hand; -and, as fast as he accomplishes this task, he delivers his work over to -the man on the other side of the table, who stamps them with a docker on -both sides with a mark. As he rids himself of this work, he throws the -biscuits on the smaller table next the oven, where stands the third -workman, whose business is merely to separate the different pieces into -two, and place them immediately under the hand of him who supplies the -oven, whose work of throwing, or rather chucking, the bread upon the -peel, must be so exact, that if he looked round for a single moment, it -is impossible he should perform it correctly. The fifth receives the -biscuit on the peel, and arranges it in the oven; in which duty he is so -very expert, that though the different pieces are thrown at the rate of -seventy in a minute, the peel is always disengaged in time to receive -them separately. - -As the oven stands open during the whole time of filling it, the -biscuits first thrown in would be first baked, were there not some -counteraction to such an inconvenience. The remedy lies in the ingenuity -of the man who forms the pieces of dough, and who, by imperceptible -degrees, proportionably diminishes their size, till the loss of that -time, which is taken up during the filling of the oven, has no more -effect to the disadvantage of one of the biscuits than to another. - -So much critical exactness and neat activity occur in the exercise of -this labour, that it is difficult to decide whether the palm of -excellence is due to the moulder, the marker, the splitter, the chucker, -or the depositor; all of them, like the wheels of a machine, seeming to -be actuated by the same principle. The business is to deposit in the -oven seventy biscuits in a minute; and this is accomplished with the -regularity of a clock; the clack of the peel, during its motion in the -oven, operating like the pendulum. - -The biscuits thus baked, are dried in lofts over the oven till they are -perfectly dry, to prevent them getting mouldy when stored for use. - -One-hundred and twelve pounds of flour produce one hundred and two -pounds of perfectly dry biscuits. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - Leavened Bread, - - -Or bread made with a portion of fermented sour dough, obtained by -keeping some bread dough till the acetous fermentation takes place, when -it swells, rarifies, and acquires a taste somewhat sour, and rather -disagreeable. This fermented dough is well worked up with some fresh -dough, which is, by that mixture and moderate heat, disposed to ferment; -and by this fermentation the dough is attenuated and divided, carbonic -acid is extricated, which being incapable of disengaging itself from the -tenaceous and solid dough, forms it into small cavities, and raises and -swells it; hence, the small quantity of fermented dough which disposes -the rest of the mass to ferment is called _leaven_. - -Most of the bread used by the people in the lower walks of life in -France, Germany, Holland, and other European countries, is made in this -manner. - -Leavened bread, therefore, differs from unleavened bread, in being -fermented by means of _leaven_, which is nothing more than a piece of -dough kept in a warm place, till it undergoes a process of fermentation, -swelling, becoming spongy, and full of air bubbles, and at length -disengaging an acidulous vapour, and contracting a sour taste. Leaven -must, therefore, be considered as dough which has fermented and become -sour, but which is still in its progress towards greater acidity. - -The addition of leaven, or this species of ferment to fresh dough, -produces an important change in the bread, for when a small portion of -leaven is intimately mixed with a large proportion of fresh dough, it -gradually causes the whole mass to ferment throughout, a quantity of -carbonic acid gas is extracted from the flour, but remaining entangled -by the tenacity of the mass in which it is expanded by heat, this raises -the dough, and as soon as the mass has acquired a due increase of bulk -from the carbonic acid gas which endeavours to escape, it is judged to -be sufficiently fermented and fit for the oven, the heat of which, by -driving off the water, checks the fermentation, and forms a bread full -of small cavities, entirely different from the heavy, compact, viscous -masses, made by baking unfermented dough. - -A great deal of nicety is required in conducting this operation, for if -it is continued too long, the bread will be sour, and if too short a -time has been allowed for the dough to ferment and rise, it will be -heavy. - -Bread raised by leaven is usually made of a mixture of wheat and rye, -not very accurately cleared of the bran. It is distinguished by the name -of _rye bread_; and the mixture of these two kinds of grain is called -bread-corn, in many parts of the kingdom, where it is raised on one and -the same piece of ground, and passes through all the processes of -reaping, thrashing, grinding, &c. A mixture of one-hundred pounds of -equal parts of wheat and rye flour, produce from one-hundred and -fifty-four to one-hundred and fifty-six pounds of leavened bread. - - - Leavened Rye Bread. - -Take a piece of dough, of about a pound weight, and keep it for use—it -will keep several days very well. Mix this dough with some warm water, -and knead it up with a portion of flour to ferment; then take half a -bushel of flour, and divide it into four parts; mix a quarter of the -flour with the leaven, and a sufficient quantity of water to make it -into dough, and knead it well. Let this remain in a corner of your -trough, covered with flannel, until it ferments and rises properly; then -dilute it with more water, and add another quarter of the flour, and let -it remain and rise. Do the same with the other two quarters of the -flour, one quarter after another, taking particular care never to mix -more flour till the last has risen properly. When finished, add six -ounces of salt; then knead it again, and divide it into eight loaves, -making them broad, and not so thick and high as is usually done, by -which means they will be better baked. Let them remain to rise, in order -to overcome the pressure of the hand in forming them; then put them in -the oven, and reserve a piece of dough for the next baking. The dough -thus kept, may with proper care, be prevented from spoiling, by mixing -from time to time small quantities of fresh flour with it. - -It requires some attention to be able to determine the exact quantity of -leaven necessary for the proper fermentation of the dough. When it is -deficient in quantity, the process of fermentation is interrupted, and -the bread thus prepared is solid and heavy, and if too much leaven be -used, it communicates to the bread a disagreeable sour taste. - - - Hungarian Rye Bread. - -Two large handfuls of hops are boiled in four quarts of water: this is -poured upon as much wheaten bread as it will moisten, and to this are -added four or five pounds of leaven. When the mass is warm, the several -ingredients are worked together till well mixed. It is then deposited in -a warm place for twenty-four hours, and afterwards divided into small -pieces, about the size of a hen’s egg, which are dried by being placed -on a board, and exposed to a dry air, but not to the sun; when dry, they -are laid up for use, and may be kept half a year. The ferment, thus -prepared, is applied in the following manner: for baking six large -loaves, six good handfuls of these balls are dissolved in seven or eight -quarts of warm water; this water is poured through a sieve into one end -of the bread trough, and after it three quarts of warm water; the -remaining mass being well pressed out. The liquor is mixed up with -flour, sufficient to form a mass of the size of a large loaf; this is -strewed over with flour: the sieve, with its contents, is put upon it, -and the whole is covered up warm, and left till it has risen enough, and -its surface has begun to crack; this forms the leaven. Fifteen quarts of -warm water, in which six handfuls of salt has been dissolved, are then -poured upon it through the sieve; the necessary quantity of flour is -added, and mixed and kneaded with the leaven: this is covered up warm, -and left for about half an hour. It is then formed into loaves, which -are kept for another half-hour in a warm room; and after that they are -put into the oven, where they remain two or three hours, according to -their size. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - Bread made with Yeast. - - -The principal improvement that has been made in the art of fabricating -bread, consists in the substitution of yeast, (or the froth that rises -to the surface during the fermentation of malt liquors,) instead of -common flour dough, in a state of acescency, called _leaven_, to rise -the bread dough, made of flour and water, before it is baked. This -substance very materially improves the bread. Yeast makes the dough rise -more effectually than ordinary _leaven_, and the bread thus produced is -much lighter, and free from that sour taste which may often be perceived -in bread raised with leaven; because too much has been added to the -paste, or because the dough has been allowed to advance too far in the -process of fermentation before it was baked. - -The discovery of the application of yeast, to improve the panification -of bread flour, was made and first secretly adopted by the bakers of -Paris; but when the practice was discovered, the College of Physicians -there, in 1688, declared it prejudicial to health, and it was not till -after a long time that the bakers succeeded in convincing the people, -that bread made with yeast was superior to bread made with sour dough or -leaven. - -The bread used in this metropolis and in most other large towns in -England, is made of wheaten flour, water, yeast, and salt. The average -proportion are two pints by weight, of water, to three of flour, but the -proportions vary considerably with the diversity of climate, years, -season, age, and grinding of the wheat. There are some kinds of wheat -flour that require precisely three-fourths of their weight of water. -That flour is always the best which combines with the greatest possible -quantity of water. Bakers and pastry-cooks judge of the quality of flour -from the characters of the dough. The best flour forms instantly by the -addition of water a very gluey elastic paste, whereas bad flour produces -a dough that cannot be elongated without breaking. - -The flour, in this case, being seldom mixed up oftener than twice, that -is, the yeast previously diluted with water, is added to a part of the -flour, and well kneaded; in a short time, swells and rises in the baking -trough, and is called by the bakers, _setting the sponge_. The remainder -of the flour is afterwards added, with a sufficient quantity of warm -water to make it into a stiff dough, and then allowed to ferment. It is -of essential consequence that the whole of the yeast should be -intimately mixed with the two-thirds of the quantity of the flour put -into the kneading trough, in order that the fermentation of the dough -may commence in every part of the mass at the same time. The dough is -then covered up, and the water which is mixed with the yeast being warm, -speedily extricates air in an elastic state, and as it is now by -kneading, diffused through every part of the dough, every particle must -become raised, and the viscidity of the mass retains it, when it is -again well kneaded and made up into loaves, and put into the oven. The -heat converts the water also into an elastic vapour, and the loaf swells -more and more, till at last it is perfectly porous. - -During the baking, a still greater quantity of gazeous matter is -extricated by the increased heat; and as the crust of the bread becomes -formed, the air is prevented from escaping, the water is dissipated, the -loaf rendered somewhat dry and solid, and between every particle of -bread there is a particle of air, as appears from the spongy appearance -of the bread. - -It is curious that new flour does not afford bread of so good a quality -as that which has been kept some months. The flour of grain too, which -has suffered incipient germination, is much inferior in the quality of -bread prepared from it: and from this principally appears to arise the -injury which wheat sustains from a wet harvest. Various methods have -been employed to remedy the imperfections of bread from inferior flour, -such as washing the grain with hot water if it is musty, proposed by Mr. -Hatchet;[5] drying and heating it even to a certain extent; adding -various substances, such as magnesia, &c. Some experiments on this -subject have been given by Mr. E. Davy. See a Treatise on Adulterations -of Food, Second Edition, p.137. - -Footnote 5: - - See a Treatise on Adulterations of Food and Culinary Poisons, Second - Edition, p. 143. - - - METHOD OF MAKING WHEATEN BREAD, AS PRACTISED BY THE LONDON BAKERS. - -To make a sack of flour into bread, the baker pours the flour into the -kneading trough, and sifts it through a fine wire sieve, which makes it -lie very light, and serves to separate any impurities with which the -flour may be mixed. Two ounces of alum are then dissolved in about a -quart of boiling water, and the solution (technically called liquor,) is -poured into _the seasoning-tub_. Four or five pounds of salt are -likewise put into the tub, and a pailful of hot water. When this mixture -has cooled to the temperature of about 84°, from three to four pints of -yeast are added; the whole is mixed, strained through the seasoning -sieve, emptied into a hole made in the mass of the flour, and mixed up -with the requisite portion of it to the consistence of a thick batter. -Some dry flour is then sprinkled over the top, and it is covered up with -sacks or cloths. This operation is called setting _quarter sponge_. - -In this situation it is left three or four hours. It gradually swells -and breaks through the dry flour scattered on its surface. An additional -quantity, (about one pailful,) of warm (liquor) water, in which one -ounce of alum is dissolved, is now added, and the dough is made up into -a paste as before; the whole is then covered up. In this situation it is -left for four or five hours. This is called _setting half sponge_. - -The whole is then intimately kneaded with more water, (about two pails -full,) for upwards of an hour. The dough is cut into pieces with a -knife, and penned to one side of the trough; some dry flour is sprinkled -over it, and it is left to _prove_ in this state for about four hours. -It is then kneaded again for half an hour. The dough is now taken out of -the trough, put on the lid, cut into pieces, and weighed, in order to -furnish the requisite quantity for each loaf. - -The operation of moulding is peculiar, and can only be learnt by -practice; it consists in cutting the mass of dough destined for a loaf, -into two equal portions: they are kneaded either round or long, and one -placed in a hollow made in the other, and the union is completed by a -turn of the knuckles on the centre of the upper piece. - -The loaves are left in the oven about two hours and a half, or three -hours, when taken out of the oven, they are turned with their bottom -side upwards to prevent them from splitting. They are then covered up -with a blanket to cool slowly. - - - QUANTITY OF BREAD OBTAINABLE FROM A GIVEN QUANTITY OF WHEATEN FLOUR. - -A sack of flour, weighing two hundred and eighty pounds, is made with -five pounds of salt, and from three to four pints of yeast, into dough, -with the requisite quantity of water, which varies according to the -quality of the flour. - -The older the flour, provided the wheat has been sound, and the flour -well preserved, the greater will be the quantity of water required to -convert it into a stiff dough, and the greater the produce of bread. - -The quantity of flour for a quartern loaf is reckoned at an average, -three pounds and a half, which produces, if the flour be of the best -quality, five pounds avoirdupoise of dough. The quartern loaf produced -from this quantity of flour weighs four pounds, five ounces and a half, -and hence the dough loses, during baking, eleven ounces and a half. - -The quantity of bread obtainable from the same quantity of flour is, -however, much influenced by the manner in which the dough is fermented, -and the skilful regulation of the heat employed for baking the bread. - -A variation of temperature also makes a considerable difference to the -baker’s profit or loss. In summer, a sack of flour will yield a quartern -loaf more than in winter; and the sifting it, before it is wetted, if it -does not make it produce more bread, certainly causes the loaves to be -larger. - -The loss of weight occasioned by the heat is proportional to the extent -of the surface of the loaf, and to the length of time it remains in the -oven. Hence the smaller the surface, or the nearer the figure of the -loaf approaches to a globe, the smaller is the loss of weight sustained -in baking; and the longer the loaf continues in the oven the greater is -the loss. - -A loaf that weighed just four pounds when taken out of the oven, after -the usual baking, was put in again, and after ten minutes was found to -have lost two ounces, and in ten minutes more it lost another ounce. The -longer bread is kept the lighter it is, unless it be kept in a damp -place, or wrapt round with a wet cloth, which is an excellent method of -preserving bread fresh and free from mould, for a long time. - - - Home-made Wheaten Bread. - -Take a bushel of wheaten flour, and put two third parts of it in one -heap into a trough or tub; then dilute two pints of yeast with three or -four pints of warm water, and add to this mixture from eight to ten -ounces of salt. Make a hole in the middle of the heap of flour, pour the -mixture of yeast, salt, and water into it, and knead the whole into an -uniform stiff dough, with such an additional quantity of water as is -requisite for that purpose, and suffer the dough to rise in a warm -place. - -When the dough has risen, and just begins again to subside, add to it -gradually the remaining one third part of the flour; knead it again -thoroughly, taking care to add gradually so much warm water as is -sufficient to form the whole into a stiff tenaceous dough, and continue -the kneading. At first the mass is very adhesive and clings to the -fingers, but it becomes less so the longer the kneading is continued; -and when the fist, on being withdrawn, leaves its perfect impression in -the dough, none of it adhering to the fingers, the kneading may be -discontinued. The dough may be then divided into loaf pieces, (of about -5lb. in weight). Knead each piece once more separately, and having made -it up in the proper form, put it in a warm place, cover it up with a -blanket to promote the last rising; and when this has taken place, put -it into the oven. When the loaves are withdrawn they should be covered -up with a blanket to cool as slowly as possible. - - - To make Pan Bread. - -Mix up the flour, salt, and yeast, (See page 97), with the requisite -portion of warm water, into a moderately stiff paste; but instead of -causing part of the flour to ferment, (or setting the sponge), as stated -in the preceding process, suffer the whole mass to rise at once. Then -divide it into earthenware pans, or sheet iron moulds, and bake the -loaves till nearly done, in a quick oven; at that time remove them out -of the pans, or moulds, and set them on tins for a few minutes, in order -that the crust may become brown, and when done wrap them up in flannel, -and rasp them when cold. - -Bread made in this manner is much more spongy or honeycombed, than bread -made in the common way. It is essential that the dough be not so stiff, -as when intended for common bread, moulded by the hand. - - - Brown Wheaten Bread. - -Suppose a Winchester bushel of good wheat weighs fifty-nine pounds, let -it be sent to the mill and ground; including the bran, the meal will -weigh fifty-eight pounds, for not more than a pound will be lost in -grinding. - -Mix it up with water, yeast, and salt, like the dough of common bread, -(See page 97); the mass, before it is put into the oven, will weigh -about eighty-eight pounds. - -Divide it into eighteen loaves, and put them into the oven; when -thoroughly baked, and after they are drawn out and left two hours to -cool, they will weigh seventy-four pounds and a half. - - - Mixed Wheaten Bread. - -Take a peck of wheaten flour, the same quantity of oatmeal, and half a -peck of boiled potatoes, skinned and mashed; let the mass be kneaded -into a dough, with a proper quantity of yeast, salt, and warm milk; make -the dough into loaves, and put them into the oven to bake. - -The bread, thus prepared, rises well in the oven, is of a light brown -colour, and by no means of an unpleasant flavour; it tastes so little of -the oatmeal, as to be taken, by those who are unacquainted with its -composition, for barley or rye bread. It is sufficiently moist, and, if -put in a proper place, keeps well for a week. - - - Rolls, French Bread, Muffins and Crumpets. - -The dough of which rolls are made by the generality of the London -bakers, is suffered to _prove_, that is to rise more, than dough -intended to be made into loaf-bread. It is, therefore, left in the -kneading trough, whilst the loaves made of the same dough are in the -oven. During this period it rises more, and the fermentation is further -promoted, by placing the rolls, when moulded, in a warm place, to cause -the dough to expand as much as possible. When this has taken place, they -are put in the oven to be baked, which is effected in about twenty or -thirty minutes. When taken out of the oven they are slightly brushed -over with a buttered brush, which gives the top crust a shining -appearance, they are then covered up with flannel to cool gradually. - -I have witnessed at a baker’s, who has the reputation for making -excellent rolls, forty-eight pounds of dough moulded into one hundred -(penny) rolls; they weighed, when drawn out of the oven, twenty-six -pounds. - -The bread called in this metropolis French rolls, and French bread, is -made precisely in the same manner, namely, from common bread dough, but -of a less stiff consistence; they are suffered to rise to a greater -extent than dough intended for loaf-bread. - -Some bakers make rolls and French bread of a superior kind, for private -families, in the following manner: - -Put a peck of flour into the kneading trough, and sift it through a wire -sieve, then rub in three quarters of a pound of butter, and, when it is -intimately blended with the flour, mix up with it two quarts of warm -milk, a quarter of a pound of salt, and a pint of yeast; let these be -mixed with the flour, and a sufficient quantity of warm water to knead -it into a dough; suffer it to stand two hours to prove, and then mould -it into rolls, which are to be placed on tins, and set for an hour near -the fire or in the proving closet. They are then put into a brisk oven -for about twenty minutes, and when drawn, the crust is rasped. - -The cakes, called in this metropolis, _muffins_ and _crumpets_, are -baked, not in an oven, but on a hot iron plate. - -For muffins, wheaten flour is made with water, or milk, into a batter or -dough. To a quarter of a peck of flour is usually added three quarters -of a pint of yeast, four ounces of salt, and so much water (or milk) -slightly warmed, as is sufficient to form a dough of rather a soft -consistence. Small portions of the dough are then put into holes, -previously made in a layer of flour, about two inches thick, placed on a -board, and the whole is covered up with a blanket and suffered to stand -near a fire, to cause the muffin dough to rise. When this has been -effected, the small cakes will exhibit a semi-globular shape. They are -then carefully transferred on the heated iron plate to be baked, and -when the bottom of the muffin begins to acquire a brown colour, they are -turned and baked on the opposite side. - -_Crumpets_ are made of a batter composed of flour, water (or milk), and -a small quantity of yeast. To one pound of the best wheaten flour is -usually added three table-spoonsful of yeast. A portion of the liquid -paste, after having been suffered to rise, is poured on a heated iron -plate, and quickly baked, like pancakes in a frying pan. - - - Barley Bread. - -Barley, next to wheat, is the most profitable of the farinaceous grains, -and when mixed with a small proportion of wheat flour, may be made into -bread. Barley bread is not spongy, and feels heavier in the hand than -wheaten bread. - -To remedy this defect in part, it is always best to set the _sponge_ -with wheat flour only, for barley flour does not readily ferment with -yeast, and adding the barley flour, when the dough is intended to be -made. Bread made in this way requires to be kept a longer time in the -oven than wheaten bread, and the heat of the oven should also be -somewhat greater; but barley bread is sometimes made without the -addition of wheaten flour. - -Suppose a bushel of barley to weigh fifty-two pounds and a half to be -made into bread; let it be sent to the mill, and have the bran taken -out, which, with what is lost in grinding and dressing, will probably -reduce it to forty-four pounds. If the meal be kneaded into dough, with -water, yeast, and salt, suffered to rise, and then divided into eight -loaves, and thoroughly baked, they will weigh about sixty pounds, after -drawn out of the oven, and left two hours to cool. - -Barley bread is eaten by many of the farmers and labourers in husbandry, -also by the miners in Devonshire and Cornwall. - - - Mixed Barley Bread. - -Take four bushels of wheat ground to form one sort of flour, extracting -only a very small quantity of the coarser bran.[6] Add to it three -bushels and a half of barley flour, mix up the flour into a dough in the -usual manner, with salt, yeast, and warm water, (See page 97), let it be -divided into loaves, and put them into the oven made hotter than it -would be for baking wheaten bread. Let them remain in the oven three -hours and a half. In Yorkshire, bread made from a mixture of these -grains is esteemed more wholesome to those who are used to it, than -bread made from wheat alone. - -Footnote 6: - - From the Reports of the Board of Agriculture. - - - Rye Bread. - -Rye is a grain whose cultivation is not much encouraged in this kingdom, -but in the northern parts of Europe it is in very extensive use as a -nourishing food for mankind. When made into bread alone, it is of a dark -brown colour, and sweetish taste, and if eat by people unaccustomed to -its use, it is found to have a laxative effect. In some parts of this -kingdom, a mixture of rye and wheat is reckoned an excellent bread. In -Yorkshire, bread made from a mixture of these two grains is esteemed. - -The following method of making household rye bread, has been recommended -by the board of agriculture.[7] - -Footnote 7: - - Account of Experiments tried by the Board of Agriculture, p. 12. - -Suppose a bushel of rye to weigh sixty pounds, add to it a fourth part, -or fifteen pounds of rice; this when ground has only the broad bran -taken out, which seldom exceeds four and a half or five pounds for that -quantity; it is thus directed to be prepared for household rye bread. - -Take fourteen pounds of the mixed flour, a sufficient quantity of yeast, -salt, and warm water, and let it be made in a dough, and baked in the -usual way. It will produce twenty-two pounds weight of bread, which is a -surplus of three pounds and a half in fourteen pounds, over and above -what is usually produced in the common process of converting household -wheat flour into bread. - - - Turnip Bread. - -A very good turnip bread may be made by the following process: Let the -turnips be pared and boiled. When they are soft enough, for being -mashed, the greater part of the water should be pressed out of them, and -they should be mixed with an equal quantity in weight of wheat flour. -The dough may then be made in the usual manner, with yeast, salt, and -warm water. It will rise well in the trough, and after being kneaded, it -may be formed into loaves, and put into the oven. It requires to be -baked rather longer than ordinary bread, and when taken from the oven is -equally light and white, rather sweeter, with a slight but not -disagreeable taste of the turnip. After it has been allowed to stand -twelve hours, this taste is scarcely perceptible, and the smell is -totally lost, and after an interval of twenty-four hours, it cannot be -known that it has turnips in its composition, although it has still a -peculiar sweetish taste, but by no means unpalatable. It keeps for -upwards of a week. - - - Rice Bread. - -Rice, though one of the roughest and driest of farinaceous vegetables, -is converted by the Americans into a very pleasant fermented bread. The -process is as follows: The grain is first washed by pouring water upon -it, then stirring it, and changing the water until it be sufficiently -cleansed. The water is afterwards drawn off, and the rice, being -sufficiently drained, is put, while yet damp, into a mortar, and beaten -to powder; it is now completely dried, and passed through a common hair -sieve. The flour, thus obtained, is generally kneaded with a small -proportion of Indian corn meal, and boiled into a thickish consistence; -or sometimes it is mixed with boiled potatoes, and a small quantity of -leaven, or yeast, is added to the mass. When it has fermented, -sufficiently, the dough is put into pans, and placed in an oven. The -bread made by this process is light and wholesome, pleasing to the eye, -and agreeable to the taste. But rice flour will make excellent bread, -without the addition of either potatoes, or any kind of meal. Let a -sufficient quantity of the flour be put into a kneading trough; and at -the same time let a due proportion of water be boiled in a cauldron, -into which throw a few handfuls of rice in grain, and boil it till it -break. This forms a thick and viscous substance, which is poured upon -the flour, and the whole kneaded with a mixture of salt and yeast; the -dough is then covered with warm clothes, and left to rise. In the -process of fermentation, this dough, firm at first, becomes liquid as -soup, and seems quite incapable of being wrought by the hand. To obviate -this inconvenience, the oven is heated while the dough is rising; and -when it has attained a proper temperature, a tinned box is taken, -furnished with a handle long enough to reach to the end of the oven; a -little water is poured into this box, which is then filled with dough, -and covered with cabbage leaves and a leaf of paper. The box is thus -committed to the oven, and suddenly reversed. The heat of the oven -prevents the dough from spreading, and keeps it in the form which the -box has given it. This bread is both beautiful and good; but when it -becomes a little stale, loses much of its excellence. It comes out of -the oven of a fine yellow colour, like pastry which has yolks of eggs in -it. Other methods of making rice bread are the following: - -1. Boil a quarter of a pound of rice till it is quite soft; then put it -on the back part of a sieve to drain, and when it is cool, mix it up -with three quarters of a pound of wheaten flour, a spoonful of yeast, -and two ounces of salt. Let it stand for three hours, then knead it -well, and roll it in about a handful of wheaten flour, so as to make the -outside dry enough to put it in the oven. About an hour and a quarter -will bake it, and it will produce one pound fourteen ounces of very good -white bread, but it should not be cut till it is two days old. Another -way is the following: - -2. Take half a peck of rice flour, and one peck of wheaten flour, mix -them together and knead the dough up with a sufficient quantity of salt, -yeast, and warm water, as stated in page 97. Suffer it to ferment, -divide it into eight loaves, and bake them. - -3. Take a peck of rice, boil it over night till it becomes soft, then -put it in a pan, and the next morning it will be found to have swelled -prodigiously. A peck of potatoes should now be boiled, skinned, and -mashed into a fine pulp, and while hot, be well kneaded up with the -rice, and a peck of wheaten flour; a sufficient quantity of yeast and -salt must now be added, and the dough left in the kneading trough to -prove or ferment; and when well risen it may be divided into loaves and -baked in the usual way. - - - Potatoe Bread. - -Potatoes, mixed in various quantities, with flour, make a wholesome, -nutritive, and pleasant bread. Various methods are employed for -preparing the potatoes. - -1. Pare a peck of potatoes, put them into a proper quantity of water, -and boil them till they are reduced to a pulp, then beat them up into a -smooth mass with the water they boiled in, and knead the mass, with two -pecks of wheaten flour, with a sufficient quantity of yeast and salt, -into a dough; cover it up, and allow it to ferment like common wheaten -bread, then make it up into loaves and bake them. Another method is the -following: - -2. Take twelve pounds of the most mealy sort of peeled potatoes, boil -and press them through a fine wire sieve, in such a manner as to reduce -the roots, as nearly as possible, to a state of dry flour. Mix it up -with twenty pounds of wheaten flour; and of this mixture make, and set -the dough in the same manner as if the whole were wheaten flour. See -page 97. - -3. Take three pounds of potatoes, boil, skin, and mash them, and whilst -warm, bruise them with a spoon, and put them into a dish before the -fire, to let the moisture evaporate, stirring them frequently, that no -part grows hard; when dry, rub them as fine as possible and add nine -pounds of wheaten flour, and with a sufficient quantity of yeast and -salt, knead it up as other dough; lay it a little while before the fire -to ferment, and then divide it into loaves and bake them in a very hot -oven. Another method is the following: - -4. Boil and peel the potatoes as for eating, reduce them without any -water to a fine meal or stiff paste. Add to two parts by weight of the -paste, one part of potatoe starch, and half a part of wheaten flour, and -having added to it salt and yeast, suffer it to ferment; mould the dough -into loaves, and bake them in the usual manner. - -M. Parmentier found, from a variety of experiments, that good bread -might be made from a mixture of raw potatoe-pulp and wheaten meal, with -the addition of yeast and salt; and Dr. Darwin asserts, that if eight -pounds of good raw potatoes be grated into cold water, and after -stirring the mixture the starch be left to subside, and when collected, -mixed with eight pounds of boiled potatoes, the mass will make as good -bread as that from the best wheaten flour. - - - Potatoe Rolls. - -Bruise four pounds of boiled and skinned potatoes, with as much milk as -will just produce a mass, which readily may be squeezed through a -cullender, add this mass to wheaten flour paste of a middling stiffness, -obtained from six pounds of wheaten flour; put it before a fire to rise, -make it into rolls, and bake them in a quick oven. The rolls thus made -will be more porous and light than common rolls. - - - Apple Bread. - -M. Duduit de Maizieres, a French officer of the king’s household, has -invented and practised with great success, a method of making bread of -common apples, very far superior to potatoe bread. After having boiled -one third of peeled apples, he bruised them, while quite warm, into -two-thirds of flour, including the proper quantity of yeast, and kneaded -the whole without water, the juice of the fruit being quite sufficient. -When this mixture had acquired the consistency of paste, he put it into -a vessel, in which he allowed it to rise for about twelve hours. By this -process he obtained a very excellent bread, full of eyes, and extremely -palatable and light. - - - Domestic Oven for Baking Bread. - -The figure on the title page exhibits a convenient culinary oven for -families who bake their own bread. It is usually erected on one side of -the kitchen fire-place, and heated by a flue that passes from the -fire-grate under the bottom of the oven. Although this is in many -respects a convenient and neat way of heating the oven, yet the manner -of managing the fire renders it only economical in families where a -large fire is always kept up in the kitchen-grate. In small families it -is far more economical to heat the oven by means of a separate -fire-place built underneath it. A fire-place six inches wide, nine -inches long, and six inches deep, is sufficient to heat an oven eighteen -inches wide, twenty-four inches long, and from twelve to fifteen inches -high, which is a convenient size for the baking of bread. The grate -should be placed at least twelve inches below the bottom of the oven -when the fuel employed is pit-coal; and, in order to prevent the fire -from operating with too much violence upon any part of the oven, the -brick-work should be sloped outwards and upwards on every side, from the -top of the burning fuel, to the ends and sides of the bottom of the -oven, that the whole may be exposed to the direct rays of the fire. If -the fire-place be built in this manner, and properly managed, it is -almost incredible how small a quantity of fuel will answer for heating -the oven, and keeping it hot. In this small fire-place there is always a -very strong draft of air passing into it, and this circumstance, which -is unavoidable, renders it necessary to keep the fire-place door -constantly closed, and to leave but a small opening, for the passage of -the air, through the ash-pit. If these precautions are neglected, the -fuel will be consumed very rapidly, the bottom of the oven will be -burnt, and the oven get chilled as soon as the fire-place ceases to be -filled with burning fuel. In an oven of this description, I have baked -two loaves, each weighing five pounds, and fifteen rolls weighing two -pounds, by means of half a peck (ten pounds) of coal. - -The figures on the plate facing the titlepage[See Note] exhibit an oven -to be heated with pit-coal for baking bread, now generally employed in -this metropolis. - -The oven from which this design has been made, is eight feet wide, and -seven deep. The fire-place, called by the bakers, the furnace, for -heating the oven, is placed at the side, and enters the oven diagonally; -it is furnished with a grate, ash holes, and iron door, similar to a -common fire-place for heating a boiler, but having a partition to -separate it from the oven, and to allow the fire to enter into the oven; -it, therefore, forms a canal, by which the flame is directed into the -oven. Over the fire-place or furnace is erected, and lets into the -brick-work, a boiler furnished with a pipe, to supply warm water as -occasion may require. - -When the oven is required to be heated, the boiler is filled with water, -and the fire being kindled in the furnace, the flame passes into the -oven, and the smoke escapes into the chimney. - -The sides of the oven are nearly straight, and turned as sharp as -possible at the shoulder, for this form has been found better calculated -to retain the heat than any other. - -The flues to carry off the smoke is over the entrance door, as shown by -the dotted line _a_ of the figure here exhibited, exhibiting the plan of -the oven. - -[Illustration] - -A piece of cast iron covers the space before the door of the oven, -exactly level with its floor; the opening underneath is applied to no -particular use, but is generally made a receptacle for coal. - -_Fig. 1_, is an _elevation_ of the oven. The mouth is closed with a cast -iron door, in which is a small sight-hole with a slide valve. To heat -the oven, the door is thrown back, and a _blower_ is applied to the -mouth, so contrived, as not only to cover the mouth of the oven -completely, but to enclose also the throat of the chimney; by this -contrivance the draft is quickly so much increased, that the oven -becomes speedily heated, and if at anytime it is too hot, it is only -necessary to throw open the door of the fire place, and to put up the -_blower_ for a few minutes; the current of cool air which is thus made -to pass through it, soon lowers the heat to the temperature required. In -the _blower_ is also an opening of the same kind as that in the oven -door, which may be opened and shut at pleasure; the course of the flue -is described by the dotted lines at (_b_). - -_Fig. 2_, is the _blower_ before mentioned for regulating the heat of -the oven. - -_Fig. 3_, is a transverse section from _A_ to _B_ on the plan, looking -towards the opening, the fire-place entering the oven at _c_, the crown -of the oven is turned with the bricks on end, and in building the oven -instead of centering the arch, the whole space is filled with sand, -which is well trod down and shaped to the shape which it is intended the -crown of the oven shall be of. When the upper work is finished, the sand -is dug out at the mouth of the oven. - -_Fig. 4_, is a longitudinal section of the oven from _C_ to _D_. In this -sketch the situation of the flue is evident, and the sectional line of -the _blower_, fig. 2, when in its place, is shown by the dotted line -_d_, the open space _a_, under the oven, has been before spoken of. - - - Popular Errors concerning the Quality of Bread. - -The great advantage of eating pure and genuine bread must be obvious. -Every part of the wheat, which may be called flour, was not only -intended to be eaten by man, but it really makes the best bread. The -delusion, however, by which so many persons are misled to think that -even the whole flour is not good enough, obliges them to pay much dearer -for their bread than they need, to gratify a perverted and fanciful -appetite. Had it not been for the custom of eating whiter bread than the -whole of the _flour_ can make, the miller and baker would not have -employed their art to render the bread as white as possible, and to make -the consumer pay for the artificial whiteness. The average quantity of -flour, from an unvaried series of experiments, made from age to age, -through the course of many hundred years, appears to be three-fourth -parts in weight of the whole grain of wheat, taking all wheats together, -being more in the finer sorts, and less in the coarser; and the bread -made from this flour has always been deemed the standard of the food of -bread corn. But, by insensible degrees, the manufacture of bread became -separated into two distinct employments. - -In consequence of this alteration, the baker, having no further -connexion with the market for corn, became dependant solely on the -mealman for supplying him with flour, who, not considering himself -amenable to the then existing assize laws, made different kinds of -flour, some extremely fine and white, while others were very coarse and -unpalatable. These artificial whites, when made into bread, were so -pleasing to the eye and taste, that, in the course of a few years, they -got into such general use that the people refused any longer to purchase -the bread made of the whole of the grain. - -“Our forefathers[8] never _refined_ so much: they never preyed so much -on each other; nor, I presume, made so many laws necessary for their -restraint, as we do.” - -Footnote 8: - - The great advantage of eating pure and genuine bread, comprehending - the heart of the wheat with all its flour. Shewing how this may be a - means of promoting health and plenty, preserving infants from the - grave, by destroying the temptation to the use of alum and other - ingredients in our present wheaten bread. By an advocate for the - trade. London, 1773. See also Important considerations upon the act of - the thirty-first of George II. relative to the assize of bread. - London: T. Becket, Strand, 1768. - -“In looking back, for some hundred years, it appears that they adopted a -certain plan, supposing that nature had given nothing in vain, and that -every part of the wheat which may be called flour, was not only intended -to be eaten by _men_, but that it really made the best bread, as that -might be called the _best_, which is best adapted to general use, and in -itself so fine, as to contain no parts of the coat, or husks of grain.” - -“The inference which I mean to draw from what is premised, is to remind -my fellow citizens of the unfortunate delusion of thinking that even the -_whole flour_ of the wheat is not good enough for _them_; that part of -it must be taken away, and given to _birds_ or _beasts_.” - -“By this delusion, supposing a certain quantity of wheat appropriated to -their use, (and this is the view they should see it in,) they lose one -third part of the flour, and consequently have so much the less bread to -supply their wants.” - -“Is it not then monstrous to hear them complain? Is it not absurd to -talk of poverty, and yet pay a _seventh_ or _eighth part_ more than they -need, to gratify a fantastic appetite? Had it not been from the custom -of eating whiter bread than the whole flour of the wheat will make, -should we have thus imposed on ourselves? Would the miller or baker -employ all his art to make the bread as _white_ as possible, and oblige -us to pay for this _artificial_ whiteness? They tell the consumer, the -_whiter it is_, the _finer_; and the finer, the more nutritive. Thus we -become _dupes_ so far as to overlook the essential good properties of -genuine bread, made of all the flour of the wheat, and likewise the -difference in the price.” - -“We are taught to favour a gross delusion at the suggestion of -interested persons, against our own substantial welfare. It is the -interest of every one to be _honest_, and say nothing contrary to his -real sentiments, as it is the duty of those who have knowledge, to -inform such as are ignorant. Those who have never eaten bread of all the -flour in a pure state, with the native taste of wheat, and the moisture -which it preserves, can know nothing of the comparative excellence of it -with respect to the whitened city bread which they have been accustomed -to eat all their lives.” - -“The dictates of the understanding will ever yield to the pleasures of -the imagination: and the provident will be attentive to take the -advantage of the extravagant. Thus it happens that the poor have been -bewildered, and deprived of the object they sought.” - -“The event depends on the good sense of masters and mistresses of -families, and their right understanding of what they mean to eat, _that -is_, of what parts of the wheat the bread they consume is made. If they -are satisfied that the bread is more pure than what they used to eat, -and _sufficiently fine_, we may presume, if they are in their right -minds, they will prefer it for domestic use. Every family of fourteen or -fifteen persons, consuming at the rate of one pound each, in a day, pays -near 16_s._ a week: if they can save 2_s._ 6_d._ or 1_s._ 6_d._ it is an -object: to a poor man who spends 5_s._ in bread, if he can save eight or -ten pence, it may purchase two or three pounds of animal substance -towards making one feast in a week.” - -“In regard to the patriotic miller, he does not pretend to consult our -good in preference to his own; on the contrary, he reasons very deeply, -as if it were best for us to live on the essence of a leg of mutton, -brought within the compass of a pint, than feed on such porterly food as -the mutton prepared in the ordinary way of roasting or boiling. He -maintains, that the finer the bread, though the quantity be smaller, the -more nutritive.” - -The wheaten bread, of the London baker, is acknowledged to be whitened -by a mixture of alum, which serves to keep the loaf in better shape, -renders it the whiter, and causes it to imbibe the more water to -increase the quantity of the bread. Thus he consults his interest, -without regard to the consumer: the whiter it is, the more adulterated; -and, as constant experience proves, such bread, after it is two days -old, becomes dry and husky.” - -“If bread, made in a private family, of the same flour as the baker -uses, will not be so white, we must suppose that there is an art of -whitening; and that this would be no secret, if it were not pernicious.” - -“The bread recommended, made of all the flour of the wheat, retains all -the good properties of bread; it is eatable at the distance of eight or -ten days: is it not on this account the most eligible?” - -“Take a loaf of the wheaten London bread, made by the baker in his usual -way; let the same baker make another with all the flour of the wheat, -without any attempt to whiten or otherwise adulterate it. Let him keep -both in the same temperature of air, and produce a specimen of each at -any reasonable distance of time, and it will be easily seen what the -difference is. This arises not only from _mixtures_, but the _peculiar -manner of raising the sponge_.” - -“In regard to the difference of consuming new bread of the first day, -and that which has been made for three, four, or five days, it is -computed to be at least a fourth part. If our present wheaten bread -cannot be eaten with pleasure beyond the second day, it is not wonderful -to discover at last that we are lighting our candle at both ends.” - -“That the vitiated bread agrees with some people, whether by the force -of habit, or the mixtures it contains, is not disputed; but in general -it is very hurtful.” - -“Great numbers of our fellow-subjects eat their bread much coarser than -the Londoners: are they weaker? they are generally stronger. Some part -of the advantage must be carried to this account.” - -“Let us have time to subdue our prejudices, and we shall find that bread -of all the flour of the wheat, for the general use, is better both in -quality and price than the present wheaten bread.” - -“In regard to the _London baker_, ask him of what parts of the wheat his -bread is made, and he frankly acknowledges he cannot tell; and how -should he? He can buy only what is to be sold; and the quality is not -ascertained with any such precision as to enable him to answer the -question. He, _poor man_ does the best he can, not to give a sweet -wholesome aliment, but something which is _white_. He knows that bread -made of a proper proportion of the wheat, not only differs in colour, -but is moister at the end of eight days than _his_ the third day; he -likewise knows that it is sweeter, and has the native grateful flavour -of the wheat, as the God of Nature hath given it, and not as it hath -been adulterated.” - -“If the parliament had required us to eat plum-cake, seed-cake, or -sugar-cake, we should have known that plums, seed, and sugar, -constituted the difference; but from the moment the law made -distinctions in the division of the flour for three different kinds of -bread for common use, we were exposed to the mercy of the miller to give -the baker what he pleased, and call it by what name he pleased; we could -only judge whether the bread pleased us or not. The miller and the baker -divide and subdivide; and instead of flour for bread, and the bran that -remained, according to ancient practice, whereby the beggar as well as -the prince was pleased, _bread_ became a mystery, and we no longer knew -what we were eating.” - -“Our misfortune, in regard to bread, is, that we eat it too fine; we -decline the use of barley in bread, having hardly enough for beer. Oats -and pease are rejected: at length we reject even _wheaten flour_,—unless -we are supplied with the finest parts only!—What will befall us in the -end?” - -“_Custom_ often makes a law more forcible than _Law-givers_, and we have -now to contend with _custom_.—The first consideration should be, that -the _flour_ which represents _three-fourths of the wheat_, shall be -really such, and brought to market in sacks, marked _Standard_: the -value of it may be more easily ascertained, than that of which is made -the wheaten bread we now eat.” - -“The baker may be a little the more reluctant to come into this salutary -proposal, as knowing that if he is to decline the use of alum, flour -that is in any degree musty, or made of wheat that has grown or -vegetated before gathered in, as sometimes happens, he cannot work it up -so advantageously in the bread now proposed to be made, as in the -wheaten bread.—Be this as it may, as soon as the baker finds this -_standard_ flour is vendable in bread, he will buy it; and knowing what -part of the wheat it ought to be, he will work it into bread with so -much the more satisfaction; and being sensible that we mean to eat -_genuine_ bread, he will cease to _whiten_ it by any hurtful art. We -shall all understand what we eat, and the trade will be familiar to us; -we shall be so much happier as we become so much the more honest, and -more healthy than we were before. Such is the serious light in which I -see the subject before me.” - -“Every occupation hath its mystery; and the professors are gratified in -thinking themselves wiser than the rest of the world in their own way. -Every professed _cook_ of the first rate can melt down a large ham into -the contents of half a pint. The confectioner uses bitter almonds, which -are poisonous; the oilman colours his pickles with _copper_, to render -them green; and the baker uses alum to _whiten_ his bread, and make his -flour imbibe the more water, by which he makes the more bread out of the -same quantity of flour. This, and other _occasional_ mixtures of the -flour of different grains, renders his bread husky, dry, and -disagreeable the third day.—Are we the _better_ for any such mysteries?” - -“Whether the wheat be all of one kind, or _married_, which is the phrase -for mixing of wheats of different kinds, it will be easy for people of -condition, by experiment, or by the comparison with genuine bread made -in their families, to know whether justice be done; though we may easily -discover that the baker for the _public_, is generally a better master -of his trade than most housewives are. The _mystery_ may be thus -developed; our health and pleasure promoted; and our bread be as much -cheaper than it is now, as the gain on the _flour_ will make it, by -using _all_ that the wheat produces.” - -“Every one may try by grinding and bolting his own grain, and baking his -own bread, and the manufacturers of bread may find nearly as good -account in bread of all _the flour_, which can be so easily ascertained; -as they do in the wheaten, which is involved in difficulties.” - -“The public have administered to their own delusion, their eyes are shut -to their own advantage. If the wealthy will adopt the use of the bread -in question, the labouring part of our fellow-subjects will certainly -follow the example; and as to _paupers_, they will gladly comply.” - -“Common sense, in all ages, has achieved wonders.” - - - Laws prohibiting the Adulteration of Bread and Bread Flour. - -The adulteration of bread and bread flour is forbidden by law, as is -obvious from the following acts of parliament: - -“No person shall put into any corn,[9] meal, or flour, which shall be -ground, dressed, bolted, or manufactured for sale, any ingredient or -mixture whatsoever, whereby the same may be adulterated, or shall sell -any flour of one sort of grain as for the flour of another, but shall -only sell the real genuine meal or flour of the grain the same shall -import to be, under the penalty of five pounds for every such offence.” - -Footnote 9: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 883. - -“If any person have cause to suspect that any miller[10] who grinds, -dresses, or bolts any grain for toll or reward, or manufactures any -flour for sale, or that any baker mixes up with his flour any mixture or -ingredient, not the genuine produce of the grain, so that the purity of -the meal in any wise be adulterated, and reports the same on oath to a -magistrate, then, in that case, such magistrate, or a peace-officer duly -authorized by him, shall enter the premises of such suspected person, -and search or examine whether such mixture or ingredient, not the -genuine produce of the grain, is in the possession of such miller, -mealman, or baker; and such meal and flour as shall be deemed to have -been adulterated may be seized, together with the base mixtures; and if -seized by a peace-officer, it is to be carried before a magistrate, but -if seized by the magistrate, he may immediately dispose of it as he -shall think fit. And the person on whose premises such mixture or -ingredient shall be found, and adjudged to be intended to be used in -adulterating the flour, shall forfeit a sum not exceeding ten pounds, -and have his name, offence, and place of abode published in some -newspaper that is printed or circulated near his place of abode, unless -he shall make it appear, to the satisfaction of the magistrate, that the -same was not lodged there with the intention of adulterating the flour, -but for some other lawful purpose.” - -Footnote 10: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 888. - -“That if any person shall wilfully obstruct[11] or hinder any search -being made for such mixtures as are designed to adulterate the meal or -flour, or shall oppose their being carried away, such person shall -forfeit a sum not exceeding five pounds, nor less than forty shillings.” - -Footnote 11: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 889. - -“And that the good design of these regulations may be more effectually -accomplished, it shall be lawful for the several wardmote[12] inquests -of the city of London, or any magistrate[13] or peace-officer authorized -by a warrant from such magistrate, without the jurisdiction of the city -of London, to enter into any bake-house or shop, at all seasonable -times, to search for and weigh all the bread therein; and if any of the -loaves are found wanting in the goodness of the stuff of which they -should be made, or deficient in the due baking or working thereof, or -shall be wanting in the weight, or shall not be truly marked, such -persons may seize such bread; and, if a magistrate is not present, it -shall be taken before one, who may dispose of it as he shall think fit.” - -Footnote 12: - - 37 Geo. 3. c. 98. sec. 22. - -Footnote 13: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 890. - -“That if any person shall wilfully[14] obstruct or hinder any such -search, or prevent the carrying the same away, he shall, on conviction -before a magistrate, be fined a sum not exceeding five pounds, nor less -than twenty shillings.” - -Footnote 14: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 890. - -“That it shall be lawful for any magistrate[15], or peace-officer, -authorised by a warrant, and accompanied by one or more master bakers, -to enter, at seasonable times, any shop or bake-house within the city of -London, or within ten miles of the Royal Exchange, to search and examine -whether any alum, or other ingredients, shall have been mixed up with, -or put into, any meal, flour, dough, or bread, in the possession of any -such baker, and also to search for alum, or any other ingredients, which -may be intended to be used for the purpose of adulterating the bread; -and if, on enquiry, they find any alum, or other unlawful ingredients, -or that any flour, meal, dough, or bread, contains any preparation of -alum, such shall be immediately seized, and carried before some -magistrate within whose jurisdiction the baker lives, and who shall -dispose of it as he shall think fit. And if the magistrate is satisfied -that such pernicious ingredients were put into the bread with the -consent or privity of the baker, or if he acknowledges it himself, or -one or two credible witnesses certify, on oath, that they know he uses -alum, such baker shall forfeit any sum of money not exceeding twenty -pounds, or be committed to, and kept at hard labour in, the house of -correction, or some other prison, for six calendar months, unless he can -prove, to the satisfaction of the magistrate, that the alum, or other -ingredients, were designed for some lawful purpose. And further, the -magistrate is expressly required to cause the offender’s name, place of -abode, and offence, to be published in some newspaper which shall be -printed or published in or near the city of London, or the liberties -thereof.” - -Footnote 15: - - 38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 14 and 15. - -“That if any person or persons shall wilfully obstruct[16] or hinder -such search or seizure, as above described, he or they shall, for every -offence, forfeit and pay any sum not exceeding ten pounds, nor less than -five, at the discretion of the magistrate before whom the offender or -the offenders shall be convicted.” - -Footnote 16: - - 38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 16. - -“That where any baker[17] shall make a complaint before a magistrate, -and make it appear that any offence he was charged with, and paid the -penalty of, was occasioned by the wilful neglect or default of his -journeyman, or other servant, the magistrate shall issue his warrant for -apprehending the party, and if, on examining into the matter, it appears -that such was the case, such journeyman, or other servant, shall be -directed immediately to pay to his master a reasonable recompence in -money, and, on non-payment thereof, he shall be committed to the house -of correction, or some other prison, and kept to hard labour, for any -time not exceeding one calendar month, unless payment be sooner made.” - -Footnote 17: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 891. and 38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 17. - -“And, for the better and more easy recovery of the several penalties[18] -incurred by disobedience to the several acts, all offences may be heard -and determined in a summary way, by the Lord Mayor, or any other -magistrate or magistrates, within their several jurisdictions, who shall -summon the offenders before them, and if they do not appear, or offer a -reasonable excuse, they may cause them to be apprehended; and when the -matter is enquired into, and the party convicted, if he does not pay the -penalty within twenty-four hours, such magistrate shall issue a warrant -of distress and sale on the goods of the offender; and, should the goods -of the party be removed into another jurisdiction, the magistrate -thereof is to back the warrant, and the distress, if not redeemed within -five days, is to be appraised and sold, and all expences thereby -incurred are to be deducted thereout. And if the offender is possessed -of no goods or chattels that can be seized, then he shall be committed -to the house of correction, or some other prison, for one calendar -month, unless payment be sooner made.” - -Footnote 18: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 892. and 38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 19. - -“That if information[19], on oath, is offered to any magistrate, that -any one within his jurisdiction is likely to offer or give material -evidence in behalf of the prosecutor of any offender, and refuses -voluntarily to come forward, such magistrate shall issue a summons to -cause him to appear, and if he still refuses, to grant a warrant to -compel his attendance, and then if he refuses to be examined, he may be -committed to some public prison for fourteen days.” - -Footnote 19: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 894. - -That no certiorari[20], letters of advocation, or of suspension, shall -be granted, to remove any conviction or other proceedings had therein; -but if any person is punished, and he thinks himself aggrieved by the -judgment of a magistrate, he may appeal to the next quarter sessions, -and, in such case, the execution of the judgment shall be suspended, -upon his entering into a recognisance, with two sufficient sureties, in -double the sum such person shall be adjudged to forfeit, to prosecute -the appeal, and abide the determination of the justices at the said -quarter sessions; and if he makes good his appeal, he shall be -discharged the conviction, and reasonable costs awarded him, which shall -be paid by the person who lodged the information.” - -Footnote 20: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 895. - -“That no person shall be convicted[21] of any offence under these acts, -unless the prosecution shall be commenced against him within fourteen -days after the offence is committed, except in cases of perjury[22]; and -no person who shall be prosecuted to conviction for any offence done or -committed against these acts, shall be liable to be prosecuted for the -same offence under any other law.” - -Footnote 21: - - 37 Geo. 3. c. 98. sec. 28. - -Footnote 22: - - 38 Geo 3. c. 55. sec. 20. - -“That all penalties, when recovered in pursuance of these regulations, -shall be disposed of in the manner following: that is to say, one[23] -moiety thereof to be paid to the informer, and the other moiety to the -poor of the parish where such offence shall be committed; and, in case -there is no informer, then the whole sum shall be given to the poor of -the parish, or applied in such a way as the magistrate, in his -discretion, shall think fit.” - -Footnote 23: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 897. - - - Economical Application of Yeast. - -It frequently happens, in the summer season, that the brewers, in order -to render their beer less liable to spoil, use more hops than usual; the -consequence of which is, that the yeast becomes very bitter, and gives a -disagreeable flavour to the bread. To obviate this inconvenience, Mr. -Stone has recommended the following method of raising a bushel of flour -with only a tea-spoonful of yeast. - -Suppose a bushel of flour be put it into the kneading trough, then take -about three quarters of a pint of warm water, and one tea-spoonful of -yeast. Stir it in till it is thoroughly mixed with the water; and make a -hole in the middle of the flour, large enough to contain two gallons of -water. Pour in the yeast and add some of the flour until it is a thick -liquid paste; strew some of the dry flour over it, and let it stand an -hour. Then take a quart more of warm water, and pour it in: in about an -hour it will be seen that the small quantity of yeast has raised the -mixture so, that it will break through the dry flour placed over it; and -when the warm water has been added, take a stick and stir in more flour -until it is as thick as before; then shake again some dry flour over it, -and leave it for two hours more, the mass will rise and break through -the dry flour again; you may then add three quarts or a gallon of water, -and stir in the flour, and make it into a soft paste, taking care to -cover it with dry flour again, and in about three or four hours more the -dough may be mixed up, and covered up warm; and in four or five hours -more it may be made up into loaves, and put in the oven; and in this -manner may be produced as light a bread as though a pint of yeast had -been used. It does not take above a quarter of an hour more than the -usual way of baking, for there is no time lost but that of adding the -water at three or four times. The author of this method assures us that -he constantly bakes in this way. In the morning, about six or seven -o’clock, he puts the flour in the trough, and mixes up the spoonful of -yeast with the warm water; in an hour’s time he adds more flour, in two -hours, again more, and about noon makes up the dough, and about six in -the evening it is put into the oven: he has always good bread. - - - Economical Preparation of Yeast. - -The following economical method of making yeast is recommended by Dr. -Lettsom. - -Thicken two quarts of water with four ounces of fine flour, boil it for -half an hour, then sweeten it with three ounces of brown sugar; when -almost cold, pour it with four spoonfuls of baker’s yeast into an -earthen jug, deep enough for the fermentation to go on without running -over; place it for a day near the fire, then pour off the thin liquor -from the top, shake the remainder, and close it up for use, first -straining it through a sieve. To preserve it sweet, set it in a cool -cellar, or hang it some depth in a well. Keep always some of this to -make the next quantity of yeast that is wanted. Mr. I. Kerby recommends -the following method of obtaining yeast from potatoes. - - - Potatoe Yeast. - -Boil potatoes of the mealy sort, till they are thoroughly soft, skin and -mash them very smooth, and put as much hot water on them as will make a -mash of the consistency of common beer yeast, but not thicker. Add to -every pound of potatoes, two ounces of treacle, and when just warm, stir -in for every pound of potatoes, two large spoonfuls of yeast. Keep it -warm till it has done fermenting, and in twenty-four hours it will be -fit for use. A pound of potatoes will make near a quart of yeast, which -has been found to answer the purpose so well, as not to be able to -distinguish the bread made with it, from bread made with brewer’s yeast. - - - Method of Preserving Yeast. - -When yeast is plentiful, take a quantity and work it well with a whisk -until it becomes thin; then procure a large wooden dish or platter, -clean and dry, and with a soft brush lay a thin layer of yeast on the -dish, and turn the top downwards to keep out the dust, but not the air, -which is to dry it. When the first coat is dry, lay on another, and let -that dry, and so continue till the quantity is sufficient; by this means -it may soon be made two or three inches thick, when it may be preserved -in dry tin canisters or stopped bottles, for a long time, good. When -used for baking, cut a piece off and dissolve it in warm water, when it -will be fit for use. - - - FINIS. - - - - - C. GREEN, LEICESTER STREET, - LEICESTER SQUARE. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - NOTICE. - - _The Public are respectfully informed, that a new Edition, - considerably enlarged (price 9s.), has lately been published_, - - OF - - ACCUM’S - - Treatise on Adulterations of Food, - - AND CULINARY POISONS; - - Exhibiting the fraudulent Sophistications of Bread, Beer, Wine, - Spirituous Liquors, Tea, Coffee, Cream, Confectionary, - Vinegar, Mustard, Pepper, Cheese, Olive Oil, - Pickles, and other Articles employed in - Domestic Economy; and Method - of detecting them. - - (_Copied from the British Review, No. XXIX. p. 171._) - -Mr. Accum seems determined that even the outside of his book shall -awaken our fears. The cover of our copy bears a death’s head emblazoned -upon a pall, and, underneath, the motto “there is death in the pot.” The -pall is supported by the point of a dart. Four other darts support the -four corners of the device. Twelve serpents, with forked tongues and -tails entwined, form a terrific wreath around; while the middle is -occupied with a large cobweb, delineated with much attention to detail, -in the centre of which a spider, full as large as a moderate sized hazel -nut, and so frightful that more than one young lady of our acquaintance -would think it necessary to scream at the sight of it, holds in its -envenomed fangs an ill-fated fly, which is sinking under the loss of -blood, and buzzing in the agonies of death. - -We are by no means desirous to raise or maintain a popular clamour; but -Mr. Accum certainly advances some weighty charges, and his work comes -with an advantage in bearing a name not unknown to the scientific world. -Of the adulterations specified, some are deleterious, and others merely -fraudulent. Accordingly, we shall offer a few extracts, both from the -original matter of Mr. Accum, and from his citations drawn from previous -authors. - - “Among the number of substances used in domestic economy - which are now very generally found sophisticated, may be - distinguished,—tea, coffee, bread, beer, wine, spirituous - liquors, salad oil, pepper, vinegar, mustard, cream, and - other articles of subsistence. Indeed it would be difficult - to mention a single article of food which is not to be met - with in an adulterated state. And there are some substances - which are scarcely ever to be procured genuine.” (P. 3.) - -But we pass on from the general statements at the beginning of the work -to particulars. - -Water, by standing in leaden reservoirs, acquires a highly deleterious -property. - -In some particular cases, the consequences have been most fatal. - - “‘A gentleman was the father of a numerous offspring, having had - one and twenty children, of whom eight died young, and thirteen - survived their parents. During their infancy, and indeed _until - they had quitted the place of their usual residence, they were - all remarkably unhealthy_, being particularly subject to - disorders of the stomach and bowels. The father, during many - years, was paralytic; the mother, for a long time was subject to - cholics and bilious obstructions.’” (P. 78, 79.) - -These effects were traced to a leaden pump, in the cylinder of which -there were found several perforations, while the cistern “was reduced to -the thinness of common brown paper, and was full of holes like a sieve.” -(P. 79.) - -We now come to the adulteration of wine; to many of our readers, -probably, a far more interesting concern than that of water. - - “All persons moderately conversant with the subject are aware, - that a portion of alum is added to young and meagre red wines, - for the purpose of brightening the colour; that Brazil-wood, or - the husks of elderberries and bilberries, are employed to impart - a deep rich purple tint to red port of a pale, feint colour; - that gypsom is used to render cloudy white wines transparent; - that an additional astringency is imparted to immature red wines - by means of oak-wood sawdust, and the husks of filberts, and - that a mixture of spoiled foreign and home-made wines is - converted into the wretched compound frequently sold in this - town by the name of _genuine old Port_.... A _nutty_ flavour is - produced by bitter almonds; fictitious Port wine is flavoured - with a tincture drawn from the seeds of raisins, and the - ingredients employed to form the _bouquet_ of high-flavoured - wines, are sweet brier, orris-root, clary, cherry-laurel-water, - and elder flowers. The flavouring ingredients used by - manufacturers, may all be purchased by those dealers in wine who - are initiated in the mysteries of the trade. And even a - manuscript receipt-book for preparing them, and the whole - mystery of managing all sorts of wines, may be obtained on - payment of a considerable fee.” (P. 95, 97.) - - “The particular and separate department in this factitious - wine-trade, called _crusting_, consists in lining the interior - surface of empty wine bottles, in part, with a red crust of - super-tartrate of potash, by suffering a saturated, hot solution - of this salt, coloured with a decoction of Brazil-wood, to - chrystallize within them.” (P. 101, 102.) - -But the crusting is not confined to the bottle. - - “A correspondent operation is performed on the wooden cask; the - whole interior of which is stained artificially with a - chrystalline crust of super-tartrate of potash, artfully affixed - in a manner precisely similar to that before stated. Thus the - wine-merchant, after bottling off a pipe of wine, is enabled to - impose on the understanding of his customers, by taking to - pieces the cask, and exhibiting the beautiful dark-coloured and - fine chrystalline crust, as an indubitable proof of the age of - the wine; a practice by no means uncommon to flatter the vanity - of those who pride themselves in their acute discrimination of - wines.” (P. 103, 104) - -This our readers will excuse, for it is pleasing to read of impositions -which are practised on the sagacious. But, says Mr. Accum, - - “Several well-authenticated facts have convinced me, that the - adulteration of wine with substances deleterious to health is - certainly practised oftener than is, perhaps, suspected.” (P. - 104, 105.) - -Presently follows the story of the passengers by the coach, who dined at -Newark. Half a bottle of port made them all ill, one dangerously. Part -of the other half caused the death of an inhabitant of the place, on -whom an inquest was held, and a verdict returned, of—_Died by poison_. - -A gentleman having been taken severely ill on two successive days, after -drinking each day a pint of Madeira from the same bottle, his apothecary -ordered that it should be examined. - - “‘The bottle happened to slip out of the hand of the servant, - disclosed a row of shot wedged forcibly into the angular bent-up - circumference of it. On examining the beads of shot, they - crumbled into dust, the outer crust (defended by a coat of black - lead with which the shot is glazed) being alone unacted on, - whilst the remainder of the metal was dissolved. The wine, - therefore, had become contaminated with _lead and arsenic_, the - shot being a compound of these metals, which no doubt had - produced the mischief.’” (P. 113, 114.) - -For detecting the presence of lead or any other deleterious metal in -wine, Mr. Accum recommends the _wine test_. - -We now come to that part of the subject, which, as _some persons_ have -thought, _is merely the business of ale-drinkers_, and their brethren, -the porter-drinkers. - - “The fraud of imparting to porter and ale an intoxicating - quality by narcotic substances, appears to have flourished - during the period of the late French war. For, if we examine the - importation lists of drugs, it will be noticed that the - quantities of cocculus indicus imported in a given time prior to - that period, will bear no comparison with the quantity imported - in the same space of time during the war, although an additional - duty was laid upon this commodity. Such has been the amount - brought into this country in five years, that it far exceeds the - quantity imported during twelve years anterior to the above - epoch. The price of this drug has risen within these ten years - from two shillings to seven shillings the pound.... It was at - the period to which we have alluded that the preparation of an - extract of cocculus indicus first appeared, as a new saleable - commodity, in the price-currents of _brewers’ druggists_. It was - at the same time also that a Mr. Jackson, of notorious memory, - fell upon the idea of brewing beer from various drugs, without - any malt and hops. This chemist did not turn brewer himself, but - he struck out the more profitable trade of teaching his mystery - to the brewers for a handsome fee. From that time forward, - written directions and receipt books, for using the chemical - preparations to be substituted for malt and hops, were - respectively sold. And many adepts soon afterwards appeared - every where to instruct brewers in the nefarious practice first - pointed out by Mr. Jackson. From that time, also, the fraternity - of brewers’ chemists took its rise. They made it their chief - business to send - - travellers all over the country with lists and samples - exhibiting the price and quality of the articles manufactured by - them for the use of brewers only. Their trade spread far and - wide, but it was amongst the country brewers chiefly that they - found the most customers. And it is among them up to the present - day, as I am assured by some of these operators, on whose - veracity I can rely, that the greatest quantities of unlawful - ingredients are sold.” (P. 157-160.) - -Part of these evils the porter-drinkers bring upon themselves. - - “One of the qualities of good porter, is, that it should bear a - _fine frothy head_, as it is technically termed: because - professed judges of this beverage, would not pronounce the - liquor excellent, although it possessed all other good qualities - of porter, without this requisite.—To impart to porter this - property of frothing when poured from one vessel into another, - or to produce what is also termed a _cauliflower head_, the - mixture called _beer-heading_, composed of common green vitriol - (sulphate of iron) alum and salt, is added. This addition to the - beer is generally made by the publicans.” (P. 182, 183.) It is - added in a note:—”’Alum gives likewise a smack of age to beer, - and is penetrating to the palate.’—_S. Child on Brewing_, p. - 18.” “The great London brewers, it appears, believe that the - publicans alone adulterate the beer.” (P. 211.) - - “Capsicum and grains of paradise, two highly acrid substances, - are employed to give a pungent taste to weak insipid beer. Of - late, a concentrated tincture of these articles, to be used for - a similar purpose, and possessing a powerful effect, has - appeared in the price-currents of brewers’ druggists. Ginger - root, coriander seed, and orange peels, are employed as - flavouring substances chiefly by the ale brewers.” (P. 184, - 185.) - -We find the following articles, in a list of illegal ingredients, seized -at various breweries and brewers’ druggists. - - “Multum, 84 lbs.; cocculus indicus, 12 lbs.; colouring, 4 galls; - honey, about 180 lbs.; hartshorn shavings, 14 lbs.; Spanish - juice, 46 lbs.; orange powder, 17 lbs.; ginger, 56 lbs.; grains - of paradise, 44 lbs.; quassia, 10 lbs.; liquorice, 64 lbs.; - carraway seeds, 40 lbs.; multum, 26 lbs.” “Capsicum, 88 lbs.; - copperas, 310 lbs.; colouring and drugs, 84 lbs.; mixed drugs, - 240 lbs.; coriander seed, 2 lbs.; beer colouring, 24 gallons.” - (P. 186-189.) [The list which includes these articles is copied - from the minutes of the committee of the House of Commons.] - -Some of the substances above enumerated may be thought comparatively -harmless. But others are absolutely poisonous. - - “To increase the intoxicating quality of beer, the deleterious - _vegetable_ substance, called _cocculus indicus_, and the - extract of this poisonous berry, technically called _black - extract_, or by some, _hard multum_, are employed. Opium, - tobacco, nux vomica, and extracts of poppies, have also been - used.—This fraud constitutes by far the most censurable offence - committed by unprincipled brewers. And it is a lamentable - reflection to behold so great a number of brewers prosecuted, - and convicted of this crime. Nor is it less deplorable to find - the names of druggists, eminent in trade, implicated in the - fraud, by selling the unlawful ingredients to brewers for - fraudulent purposes.” (P. 205, 206.) - -Then follows a list of thirty-four convictions of brewers, for receiving -or using illegal ingredients.—We perfectly agree with the following -observations. - - “That a minute portion of an unwholesome ingredient, daily taken - in beer, cannot fail to be productive of mischief, admits of no - doubt: and there is reason to believe that a small quantity of a - narcotic substance (and cocculus indicus is - - a powerful narcotic), daily taken into the stomach, together - with an intoxicating liquor, is highly more efficacious than it - would be without the liquor. The effect may be gradual; and a - strong constitution, especially if it be assisted with constant - and hard labour, may counteract the destructive consequences - perhaps for many years. But it never fails to show its baneful - effects at last.” (P. 209, 210.) - -We now come to the business of another small portion of the community, -namely, the _tea-drinkers_. Perhaps the following descriptions will -assist them in forming a diagnosis. - - “All the samples of spurious green tea (nineteen in number) - which I have examined, were coloured with carbonate of copper, - (a poisonous substance), and not by means of verdigrise, or - copperas.” (P. 240.) “Mr. Twining asserts, that ‘the leaves of - spurious tea are boiled in a copper, with copperas and sheep’s - dung.’” (P. 240. Note.) “Tea rendered poisonous by carbonate of - copper, speedily imparts to liquid ammonia, a fine sapphire blue - tinge. It is only necessary to shake up in a stopped vial, for a - few minutes, a tea-spoonful of the suspected leaves, with about - two table-spoonsful of liquid ammonia, diluted with half its - bulk of water. The supernatant liquid will exhibit a fine blue - colour, if the minutest quantity of copper be present. Green - tea, coloured with carbonate of copper, when thrown into water - impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, immediately acquires - a black colour. Genuine green tea, suffers no change from the - action of these tests.” (P. 241.) - -The following extracts may perhaps prove interesting to -_brandy-drinkers_. - - “‘It is a custom among retailing distillers, which I have not - taken notice of in this directory, to put one third or one - fourth part of proof molasses brandy, proportionably, to what - rum they dispose of; which cannot be distinguished, but by an - extraordinary palate, and does not at all lessen the body or - proof of the goods; but makes them about two shillings a gallon - cheaper; and must be well mixed and incorporated together in - your retailing cask. But you should keep some of the best rum, - not adulterated, to please your customers, whose judgment and - palate must be humoured.—When you are to draw a sample of goods - to show a person that has judgment in the proof, do not draw - your goods into a phial to be tasted, or make experiment of the - strength thereof that way, because the proof will not hold - except the goods be exceedingly strong. But draw the pattern of - goods either into a glass from the cock, to run very small, or - rather draw off a small quantity into a little pewter pot, and - pour it into your glass, extending your pot as high above the - glass as you can without wasting it, which makes the goods carry - a better head abundantly, than if the same goods were to be put - and tried in a phial.—You must be so prudent as to make a - distinction of the persons you have to deal with. What goods you - sell to gentlemen for their own use, who require a great deal of - attendance, and as much for time of payment, you must take a - considerably greater price than of others; what goods you sell - to persons where you believe there is a manifest, or at least - some hazard of your money, you may safely sell for more than - common profit; what goods you sell to the poor, especially - medicinally, (as many of your goods are sanative), be as - compassionate as the cases require.—All brandies, whether - French, Spanish, or English, being proof goods, will admit of - one pint of _liquor_‘ (_water_) ‘to each gallon, to be made up - and incorporated therewith in your cask, for retail, or selling - smaller quantities. And all persons that insist upon having - proof goods, which not one in twenty understand, you must supply - out of what goods are not so reduced, though at a higher - price.’” (P. 267-270.) - -Some of the adulterations of spirituous liquors are exceedingly -pernicious. - - “Another method of fining spirituous liquors, consists in adding - to it, first, a solution of sub-acetate of lead, and then a - solution of alum. This practice is highly dangerous, because - part of the sulphate of lead produced, remains dissolved in the - liquor, which it thus renders poisonous.” (P. 284.) “The cordial - called shrub frequently exhibits vestiges of copper.” (P. 285.) - -Gloucester Cheese has been found contaminated with red lead. The article -used in colouring cheese is anotto. In one instance, the anotto, being -inferior, had been coloured with vermilion; and the vermilion -adulterated by a druggist, (who little thought that it would ever enter -into the composition of cheese,) with red lead. The account of the whole -transaction as given by Mr. Accum, is worth reading, but too long to be -extracted. - -Cayenne pepper, “is sometimes adulterated with red lead, to prevent its -becoming bleached on exposure to light.” (P. 305.) Pickles “are -sometimes intentionally coloured by means of copper.” (P. 306.) “Mrs. E. -Raffald directs, ‘to render pickles green, boil them with halfpence, or -allow them to stand twenty-four hours in copper or brass pans.’” (P. -309.) “Vinegar is sometimes largely adulterated with sulphuric acid, to -give it more acidity.” (P. 311.) “Red sugar drops are usually coloured -with the inferior kind of vermilion. This pigment is generally -adulterated with red lead. Other kinds of sweetmeats are sometimes -rendered poisonous by being coloured with preparations of copper.” (P. -315, 316.) “The foreign conserves ... are frequently impregnated with -copper.” (P. 317.) “Quantities” of catsup “are daily to be met with, -which on a chemical examination, are found to abound with copper.” (P. -319.) “The quantity of copper which we have more than once detected in -this sauce, used for seasoning, and which, on account of its cheapness, -is much resorted to by people in the lower walks of life, has exceeded -the proportion of lead to be met with in other articles employed in -domestic economy.” (P. 320.) “The leaves of the cherry-laurel, _prunus -laurocerasus_, a poisonous plant,” are used to flavour custards, -_blanc-mange_, and other delicacies of the table. (P. 324.) An instance -is given of the dangerous consequences of this practice. (P. 325, 326.) -“The water distilled from cherry-laurel leaves is frequently mixed with -brandy and other spirituous liquors.” (P. 327.) Several samples of -anchovy sauce “have been found contaminated with lead.” (P. 328.) It is -not unusual to employ, in preparing this sauce, “a certain quantity of -Venetian red, added for the purpose of colouring it, which, if genuine, -is an innocent colouring substance. But instances have occurred of this -pigment having been adulterated with orange lead, which is nothing else -than a better kind of minimum or red oxid of lead.” (P, 328, 329.) In -lozenges, “the adulterating ingredient is usually pipe-clay, of which a -liberal portion is substituted for sugar.” (P. 330.) Dr. T. Lloyd says, -“‘I was informed,’” (at a _respectable_ chemist’s shop in the city) -“‘that there were two kinds of ginger lozenges kept for sale, the one at -three-pence the once, and the other at six-pence; and that the article -furnished to me by mistake was the cheaper commodity. The latter were -distinguished by the epithet _verum_, they being composed of sugar and -ginger only. But the former were manufactured partly of white Cornish -clay, with a portion of sugar only, with ginger and Guinea pepper. I was -likewise informed, that of Tolu lozenges, peppermint lozenges, and -ginger pearls, and several other sorts or lozenges, two kinds were kept; -that the _reduced_ prices, as they were called, were manufactured for -those very clever persons in their own conceit, who are fond of -haggling, and insist on buying better bargains than other people, -shutting their eyes to the defects of an article, so that they can enjoy -the delight of getting it cheap: and, secondly, for those persons, who -being but bad paymasters, yet as the manufacturer, for his own credit’s -sake, cannot charge more than the usual price of the article, he thinks -himself therefore authorized to adulterate it in value, to make up for -the risk he runs, and the long credit he must give.’” (P. 332, 333.) - -Well—there is then some honesty left in the world. What a pleasure it is -to have to deal with a _respectable_ man. But we return to the practices -of the _knaves_. - -Olive oil “is sometimes contaminated with lead.” (P. 334.) The dealers -in this commodity assert that lead or pewter “prevents the oil from -becoming rancid. And hence some retailers often suffer a pewter measure -to remain immersed in the oil.” (P. 336.) “The beverage called soda -water is frequently contaminated both with copper and lead.” (P. 351.) -Mr. Johnston, of Greek Street, Soho, was the first who pointed out the -danger to the public. “Many kinds of viands are frequently impregnated -with copper, in consequence of the employment of cooking utensels made -of that metal. By the use of such vessels in dressing food, we are daily -liable to be poisoned.” (P. 352.) “Mr. Thiery, who wrote a thesis on the -noxious quality of copper, observes that ‘our food receives its quantity -of poison, in the kitchen by the use of copper pans and dishes. The -brewer mingles poison in our beer, by boiling it in copper vessels. The -sugar-baker employs copper pans. The pastry-cook bakes our tarts in -copper moulds. The confectioner uses copper vessels. The oilman boils -his pickles in copper or brass vessels, and verdigrise is plentifully -formed by the action of the vinegar upon the metal.’” (P. 353, 354.) -Moreover, “various kinds of food, used in domestic economy, are liable -to become impregnated with lead.” (P. 359.) - -Mr. Accum, speaking on the subject of Beer, says, - - “It will be noticed that some of the sophistications are - comparatively harmless, whilst others are affected by substances - deleterious to health.” (P. 185.) - - We think, however, that the candour of Mr. Accum leads him to - make too much allowance for this consideration throughout. - Surely, though many articles of food be not absolutely - poisonous, a diet consisting of drugs and chemical compounds and - articles never intended by nature to be eaten or drunk, articles - for which, presented simple, the hungriest stomach would feel no - appetite or inclination, cannot be wholesome. Brick and mortar - are not poison; yet we cannot, like the dragon of Wantley, - swallow a church, and pick our teeth with the steeple. Many can - eat oysters, but few could manage the oyster-knife. Even the - Welshman of King Arthur’s court, fond as he was of toasted - cheese, would inevitably have been choked by the mouse that ran - down his throat to eat it, had he not “pulled him out by the - tail.” - -We could give farther extracts; but must refer the reader to the work -itself, which contains much interesting matter, besides what we have -selected. THE MONEY THAT IS OFTEN LAID OUT IN THE PURCHASE OF COOKERY -BOOKS, WHICH TEACH THE ART OF EXCITING DISEASE AND PAIN BY DUBIOUS -COMBINATIONS AND CULINARY POISONS, MIGHT, WE THINK, BE MUCH BETTER -EXPENDED UPON A BOOK LIKE THE PRESENT; EVERY PAGE OF WHICH GIVES WARNING -OF SOME DANGER, OF WHICH WE OUGHT ALL TO BE AWARE. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - A - - Treatise on Adulterated Provisions. - - BY FREDRICK ACCUM. - - ------- - - THERE IS DEATH IN THE POT. - - II. KINGS—CHAP. VI. VERSE XI. - - (_From Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, No. XXXV. Page 542._) - -Mr. Accum, it appears, is one of those very good-natured friends, who is -quite resolved not to allow us to be cheated and poisoned as our fathers -were before us, and our children will be after us, without cackling to -us of our danger, and opening our eyes to abysses of fraud and -imposition, of the very existence of which we had until now the good -fortune to be entirely ignorant. His book is a perfect death’s head, a -memento mori, the perusal of any single chapter of which is enough to -throw any man into the blue devils for a fortnight. Mr. Accum puts us -something in mind of an officious blockhead, who, instead of comforting -his dying friend, is continually jogging him on the elbow with such -cheering assurances as the following. “I am sorry there is no hope; my -dear fellow, you must kick the bucket soon. Your liver is diseased, your -lungs gone, your bowels as impenetrable as marble, your legs swelled -like door-posts, your face as yellow as a guinea, and the doctor just -now assured me you could not live a week.” - -Mr. Accum’s work is evidently written in the same spirit of dark and -melancholy anticipation, which pervades Dr. Robison’s celebrated “Proofs -of a Conspiracy, &c. against all the crowned heads of Europe.” The -conspiracy disclosed by Mr. Accum is certainly of a still more dreadful -nature, and is even more widely ramified than that which excited so much -horror in the worthy professor. It is a conspiracy of brewers, bakers, -grocers, wine-merchants, confectioners, apothecaries, and cooks, against -the lives of all and every one of his majesty’s liege subjects. It is -easy to see that Mr. Accum’s nerves are considerably agitated, that— - - “Sad forebodings shake him as he writes.” - -Not only at the festive board is he haunted by chimeras dire of -danger—not only does he tremble over the tureen—and faint over the -flesh-pot: but even in his chintz night-gown, and red morocco slippers, -he is not secure. An imaginary sexton is continually jogging his elbow -as he writes, a death’s head and cross bones rise on his library table; -and at the end of his sofa he beholds a visionary tomb-stone of the best -granite— - -ON WHICH ARE INSCRIBED THE DREADFUL WORDS— - -[Illustration: - - _Hic Jacet_, - FREDRICK ACCUM, - Operative Chemist, - OLD COMPTON STREET, - _SOHO_. -] - -Since we read his book, our appetite has visibly decreased. At the -Celtic club, yesterday, we dined almost entirely on roast beef; Mr. -Oman’s London-particular Madeira lost all its relish, and we turned pale -in the act of eating a custard, when we recollected the dreadful -punishment inflicted on custard-eaters, in page 326 of the present work. -We beg to assure our friends, therefore, that at the present moment they -may invite us to dinner with the greatest impunity.—Our diet is at -present quite similar to that of Parnel’s hermit, - -“Our food the fruits, our drink the crystal well;” - -though we trust a few days will recover us from our panic, and enable us -to resume our former habits of life. Those of our friends, therefore, -who have any intention of pasturing us, had better not lose the present -opportunity of doing so. So favourable a combination of circumstances -must have been quite unhoped for on their part, and most probably will -never occur again.[24] V. S. - -Footnote 24: - - To save some trouble, we may announce that we are already engaged to - dinner, on the 23d, 27th, and 28th of this month, and to evening - parties, on the 22d, 23d, 26th, 28th, and 29th, and 3d of March. - -Since, by the publication of Mr. Accum’s book, an end has been for ever -put to our former blessed state of ignorance, let us arm ourselves with -philosophy, and boldly venture to look our danger in the face; or, as -the poet beautifully expresses it, in language singularly applicable, - - “Come, Christopher, and leave all meaner things, - To low ambition and the pride of kings; - Let us, since life can little else supply; - Than just to swallow poison and to die; - Expatiate free o’er all this dreadful field, - Try what the brewer, what the baker yield; - Explore the druggists’ shop, the butchers’ stall; - Expose their roguery, and—damn them all!” - POPE. - -Melancholy as the details are, there is something almost ludicrous, we -think, in the very extent to which the deceptions are carried. So -inextricably are we all immersed in this mighty labyrinth of fraud, that -even the venders of poison themselves are forced, by a sort of -retributive justice, to swallow it in their turn.—Thus the apothecary, -who sells the poisonous ingredients to the brewer, chuckles over his -roguery, and swallows his own drugs in his daily copious exhibitions of -Brown stout. The brewer in his turn, is poisoned by the baker, the -wine-merchant, and the grocer. And, whenever the baker’s stomach fails -him, he meets his _coup de grace_ in the adulterated drugs of his friend -the apothecary, whose health he has been gradually contributing to -undermine, by feeding him every morning on chalk and alum, in the shape -of hot rolls. - -Our readers will now, we think, be able to form a general idea of the -perils to which they are exposed by every meal. - -Mr. Accum’s details on the adulteration of wine are extremely ample, and -so interesting, that we regret our limits prevent our making more -copious extracts, and oblige us to refer our readers for farther -information to the work itself. - -Having thus laid open to our view the arcana of the cellar, Mr. Accum -next treats us with an expose of the secrets of the brew-house. Verily, -the wine-merchant and brewer are _par nobile fratrum_; and after the -following disclosures, it will henceforth be a matter of the greatest -indifference to us, whether we drink Perry or Champaigne, Hermitage or -Brown stout. _Latet anguis in poculo_, there is disease and death in -them all, and one is only preferable to the other, because it will -poison us at about one-tenth of the expense. - - “Malt liquors, and particularly porter, the favourite beverage - of the inhabitants of London and of other large towns, is - amongst those articles, in the manufacture of which the greatest - frauds are frequently committed. - - “The practice of adulterating beer appears to be of early date. - To shew that they have augmented in our own days, we shall - exhibit an abstract from documents laid lately before - Parliament. - - “Mr. Accum not only amply proves, that unwholesome ingredients - are used by fraudulent brewers, and that very deleterious - substances are also vended both to brewers and publicans for - adulterating beer, but that the ingredients mixed up in the - brewer’s enchanting cauldron are placed above all competition, - even with the potent charms of Macbeth’s witches: - - ‘Root of hemlock, digg’d i’ the dark, - * * * * - * * * * - For a charm of pow’rful trouble. - Like a hell-broth boil and bubble; - Double, double, toil and trouble, - Fire burn, and cauldron bubble.’ - -Mr. Accum very properly gives us a list of those miscreants who have -been convicted of adulterating their porter with poisonous ingredients, -and want of room alone prevents us from damning them to everlasting -fame, by inserting their names along with that of the Rev. Sennacherib -Terrot, in the imperishable pages of this miscellany. - -Mr. Accum gives us a long dissertation on counterfeit tea, and another -on spurious coffee; but as these are impositions by which we are little -affected, we shall not allow them to detain us. The leaves of the -sloe-thorn are substituted for the former, and roasted horse beans for -the latter. These frauds, it appears, are carried to a very great -extent. - -We must now draw our extracts to a close; but we can assure our readers, -that we have not yet introduced them to one tythe of the poisonous -articles in common use, detected by Mr. Accum. We shall give the titles -of a few to satisfy the curious:—Poisonous confectionary, poisonous -pickles, poisonous cayenne pepper, poisonous custards, poisonous anchovy -sauce, poisonous lozenges, poisonous lemon acid, poisonous mushrooms, -poisonous ketchup, and poisonous soda water! Read this, and wonder how -you live! - -While we thus suffer under accumulated miseries brought upon us by the -unprincipled avarice and cupidity of others, it is surely incumbent on -us not wantonly to increase the catalogue by any negligence or follies -of our own. Will it be believed, that in the cookery book, which forms -the prevailing oracle of the kitchens in this part of the island, there -is an express injunction to “_boil greens with halfpence_ in order to -improve their _colour_?”—That our puddings are frequently seasoned with -laurel leaves, and our sweetmeats almost uniformly prepared in copper -vessels? Why are we thus compelled to swallow a supererogatorary -quantity of poison which may so easily be avoided? And why are we -constantly made to run the risk of our lives by participating in -custards, trifles, and blancmanges, seasoned by a most deadly poison -extracted from the _prunus lauro-cerasus_? Verily, while our present -detestable system of cookery remains, we may exclaim with the sacred -historian, that there is indeed “Death in the Pot.” - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - A Treatise on Adulterations of Food, - - AND CULINARY POISONS, - - Exhibiting the Fraudulent Sophistications of Bread, Beer, Wine, - Spirituous Liquors, &c. and Methods of detecting them. - - BY FREDRICK ACCUM. - - (_From the Edinburgh Review, No. LXV. Page 131._) - -It is curious to see how vice varies its forms, and maintains its -substance, in all conditions of society;—and how certainly those -changes, or improvements as we call them, which diminish one class of -offences, aggravate or give birth to another.—In rude and simple -communities, most crimes take the shape of violence and outrage—in -polished and refined ones, of Fraud. Men sin from their animal -propensities in the first case, and from their intellectual depravation -in the second. The one state of things is prolific of murders, -batteries, rapines, and burnings—the other of forgeries, swindlings, -defamations, and seductions. The sum of evil is probably pretty much the -same in both—though probably greatest in the civilized and enlightened -stages; the sharpening of the intellect, and the spread of knowledge, -giving prodigious force and activity to all criminal propensities. - -Among the offences which are peculiar to a refined and enlightened -society, and owe their birth, indeed, to its science and refinement, are -those skilful and dexterous adulterations of the manifold objects of its -luxurious consumption, to which their value and variety, and the -delicacy of their preparation, hold out so many temptations; while the -very skill and knowledge which are requisite in their formation, furnish -such facilities for their sophistication. The very industry and busy -activity of such a society, exposes it more and more to such -impostures;—and by the division of labour which takes place, and -confines every man to his own separate task, brings him into a complete -dependence on the industry of others for a supply of the most necessary -articles. - -The honesty of the dealer, and of the original manufacturer, is the only -security to the public for the genuineness of the article in which he -deals. The consumer can in general know nothing of their component -parts; he must take them as he finds them; and, even if he is -dissatisfied, he has in general no effectual means of redress. - -It will be found, that as crimes of violence decrease with the progress -of society, frauds are multiplied; and there springs up in every -prosperous country a race of degenerate traders and manufacturers, whose -business is to cheat and to deceive; who pervert their talents to the -most dishonest purposes, prefering the illicit gains thus acquired to -the fair profits of honorable dealing; and counter-working, by their -sinister arts, the general improvement of society. - -In almost every branch of manufacture, there are fraudulent dealers, who -are instigated by the thirst of gain, to debase the articles which they -vend to the public, and to exact a high price for what is comparatively -cheap and worthless. After pointing out various deceptions of this -nature, Mr. Accum, the ingenious author of the work before us, proceeds -in his account of those frauds, in the following terms. - - ‘Soap used in house-keeping is frequently adulterated with a - considerable portion of fine white clay, brought from St. - Stephen’s in Cornwall. In the manufacture of printing paper, a - large quantity of plaster of Paris is added to the paper stuff, - to increase the weight of the manufactured article. The selvage - of cloth is often dyed with a permanent colour, and artfully - stitched to the edge of cloth dyed with a fugitive dye. The - frauds committed in the tanning of skins, and in the manufacture - of cutlery, and jewellery, exceed belief.’ pp. 27-29. - -What is infinitely worse, however, than any of those frauds, -sophistications, we are informed, are carried on to an equal extent in -all the essential articles of subsistence or comfort. So long as our -dishonest dealers do not intermeddle with these things, their deceptions -are comparatively harmless; the evil in all such cases amounting only to -so much pecuniary damage. But when they begin to tamper with food, or -with articles connected with the table, their frauds are most -pernicious: in all cases the nutritive quality of the food is injured, -by the artificial ingredients intermixed with it; and when these -ingredients, as frequently happens, are of a poisonous quality, they -endanger the health and even the life of all to whom they are vended. We -cannot conceive any thing more diabolical than those contrivances; and -we consider their authors in a far worse light than ordinary felons, -who, being known, can be duly guarded against. But those fraudulent -dealers conceal themselves under the fair show of a reputable -traffic—they contrive in this manner to escape the infamy which justly -belongs to them—and, under the disguise of wealth, credit, and -character, to lurk in the bosom of society, wounding the hand that -cherishes them, and scattering around them poison and death. - -It is chiefly for the purpose of laying open the dishonest artifices of -this class of dealers, that Mr. Accum has published the present very -interesting and popular work; and he gives a most fearful view of the -various and extensive frauds which are daily practised on the -unsuspecting public. - - ‘Among the number of substances used in domestic economy, - which are now very generally found sophisticated, may be - distinguished—tea, coffee, bread, beer, wine, spirituous - liquors, salad oil, pepper, vinegar, mustard, cream, and other - articles of subsistence.—Indeed, it would be difficult to - mention a single article of food which is not to be met with - in an adulterated state; and there are some substances which - are scarcely ever to be procured genuine.—Some of these - spurious compounds are comparatively harmless when used as - food; and as, in these cases, merely substances of inferior - value are substituted for more costly and genuine ingredients, - the sophistication, though it may affect our purse, does not - injure our health. Of this kind are the manufacture of - factitious pepper, the adulterations of mustard, vinegar, - cream, &c. Others, however, are highly deleterious; and to - this class belong the adulterations of beer, wines, spirituous - liquors, pickles, salad oil, and many others.’ pp. 2-4. - -There are, it appears, particular chemists who make it their sole -employment to supply the unprincipled brewer of porter and ale with -drugs, and other deleterious preparations; while others perform the same -office to the wine and spirit merchant, as well as to the grocer and -oilman—and these illicit pursuits have assumed all the order and method -of a regular trade. - - ‘The eager and insatiable thirst for gain’ (Mr. Accum justly - observes), which seems to be a leading characteristic of the - times, calls into action every human faculty, and gives an - irresistible impulse to the power of invention; and where lucre - becomes the reigning principle, the possible sacrifice of a - fellow-creature’s life is a secondary consideration.’ - -Mr. Accum having exhibited this general view of his subject, proceeds to -enter into an examination of the articles most commonly counterfeited, -and to explain the nature of the ingredients used in sophisticating -them. He commences with a dissertation on the qualities of good water, -in which he briefly points out the dangerous sophistications to which it -is liable, from the administration of foreign ingredients. - -But in the case of water, the adulteration is purely accidental, which -cannot be said of the other articles specified by Mr. Accum. In the -making of Bread, more especially in London, various ingredients are -occasionally mingled with the dough. To suit the caprice of his -customers, the baker is obliged to have his bread light and porous, and -of a pure white. It is impossible to produce this sort of bread from -flour alone, unless it be of the finest quality. The best flour, -however, being mostly used by the biscuit-bakers and pastry-cooks, it is -only from the inferior sorts that bread is made; and it becomes -necessary, in order to have it of that light and porous quality, and of -a fine white, to mix alum with the dough. Without this ingredient, the -flour used by the London bakers would not yield so white a bread as that -sold in the metropolis. - -Wine appears to be a subject for the most extensive and pernicious -frauds. - - ‘All persons (Mr. Accum observes) moderately conversant with the - subject, are aware, that a portion of alum is added to young and - meagre red wines, for the purpose of brightening their colour; - that Brazil wood, or the husks of elderberries and bilberries, - which are imported from Germany, under the fallacious name of - _berry-dye_, are employed to impart a deep rich purple tint to - red port of a pale colour; that gypsum is used to render cloudy - white wines transparent; that an additional astringency is - imparted to immature red wines by means of oak-wood and sawdust, - and the husks of filberts; and that a mixture of spoiled foreign - and home-made wines is converted into the wretched compound - frequently sold in the metropolis by the name _genuine old - Port_.’ - -Other expedients are resorted to, in order to give flavour to insipid -wines. For this purpose bitter almonds are occasionally employed; -factitious port wine is also flavoured with a tincture drawn from the -seeds of raisins; and other ingredients are frequently used, such as -sweet brier, orris root, clary, cherry-laurel water, and elder flowers. - -In London, the sophistication of wine is carried to an enormous extent, -as well as the art of manufacturing spurious wine, which has become a -regular trade, in which a large capital is invested; and it is well -known that many thousand pipes of spoiled cider are annually sent to the -metropolis for the purpose of being converted into an imitation of port -wine. - -Innumerable are the tricks practised to deceive the unwary, by giving to -weak, thin, and spoiled wines, all the characteristic marks of age, and -also of flavour and strength. In carrying on these illicit occupations, -the division of labour has been completely established; each has his own -task assigned him in the confederate work of iniquity; and thus they -acquire dexterity for the execution of their mischievous purposes. To -one class is allotted the task of _crusting_, which consists in lining -the interior surface of empty wine bottles with a red crust. This is -accomplished by suffering a saturated hot solution of super-tartrate of -potash, coloured red with a decoction of Brazil wood to chrystallize -within them. A similar operation is frequently performed on the wooden -cask which is to hold the wine, and which, in the same manner as the -bottle, is artificially stained with a red crust; and on some occasions, -the lower extremities of the corks in wine bottles are also stained red, -in order to give them the appearance of having been long in contact with -the wine. It is the business of a particular class of wine-coopers, by -means of an astringent extract mixed with home-made and foreign wines, -to produce ‘genuine old port,’ or to give an artificial flavour and -colour to weak wine; while the mellowing and restoring of spoiled white -wines is the occupation of another class called refiners of wine. Other -deceptions are practised by fraudulent dealers, which are still more -culpable. The most dangerous of these is where wine is adulterated by an -admixture of lead. - -Mr. Accum justly observes, that the ‘merchant or dealer who practises -this dangerous sophistication, adds the crime of murder to that of -fraud, and deliberately scatters the seeds of disease and death among -those customers who contribute to his emolument.’ - -Spirituous liquors, which in this country form one of the chief articles -of consumption, are subjects of equally extensive fraud with wine. The -deceptions which are practised by the dealers in this article, are -chiefly confined to fraudulent imitations of the peculiar flavour of -different sorts of spirits; and as this flavour constitutes, along with -the strength, the value of the spirit, the profit of the dealer consists -in imitating this quality at a cheaper rate than it is produced in the -genuine spirit. The flavour of French brandy is imitated, by distilling -British molasses spirit over wine lees; previous to which, however, the -spirit is deprived of its peculiar disagreeable flavour, by -rectification over fresh-burnt charcoal and quicklime. This operation is -performed by those who are called brewers’ druggists, and forms the -article in the _prices-current_ called _Spirit Flavour_. Wine lees are -imported into this country for the purpose, and they pay the same duty -as foreign wines. Another method of imitating the flavour of brandy, -which is adopted by brandy merchants, is by means of a spirit obtained -from raisin wine, after it has begun to become somewhat sour. ‘Oak -sawdust,’ (Mr. Accum observes), ‘and a spirituous tincture of raisin -stones, are likewise used to impart to new brandy and rum a _ripe -taste_, resembling brandy or rum long kept in oaken casks, and a -somewhat oily consistence, so as to form a durable froth at its surface, -when strongly agitated in a vial. The colouring substances are burnt -sugar, or molasses; the latter gives to imitative brandy a luscious -taste, and fulness in the mouth.’ Gin, which is sold in small quantities -to those who judge of the strength by the taste, is made up for sale by -fraudulent dealers with water and sugar; and this admixture rendering -the liquor turbid, several expedients are resorted to, in order to -clarify it; some of which are harmless, while others are criminal. A -mixture of alum with subcarbonate of potash, is sometimes employed for -this purpose; but more frequently, in place of this, a solution of -subacetate of lead, and then a solution of alum,—a practice reprobated -by Mr. Accum as highly dangerous, owing to the admixture of the lead -with the spirit, which thereby becomes poisonous. After this operation, -it is usual to give a false appearance of strength to the spirit by -mixing with it grains of paradise, guinea pepper, capsicum, and other -acrid and aromatic substances. - -In the manufacture of malt liquors, a wide field is opened for the -operations of fraud. The immense quantity of the article consumed, -presents an irresistible temptation to the unprincipled dealer; while -the vegetable substances with which beer is adulterated, are in all -cases difficult to be detected, and are frequently beyond the reach of -chemical analysis. There is, accordingly, no article which is the -subject of such varied and extensive frauds. These are committed in the -first instance by the brewer, during the process of manufacture, and -afterwards by the dealer, who deteriorates, by fraudulent intermixtures, -the liquor which he sells to the consumer. ‘The intoxicating qualities -of porter (he continues) are to be ascribed to the various drugs -intermixed with it;’ and, as some sorts of porter are more heady than -others, the difference arises, according to this author, ‘from the -greater or less quantity of stupifying ingredients’ contained in it. -These consist of various substances, some of which are highly -deleterious. Thus, the extract disguised under the name of _black -extract_, and ostensibly destined for the use of tanners and dyers, is -obtained by boiling the berries of the _cocculus indicus_ in water, and -converting, by a subsequent evaporation, this decoction into a stiff -black tenacious mass, possessing in a high degree the narcotic and -intoxicating quality of the poisonous berry from which it is prepared. -Quassia is another substance employed in place of hops, to give the beer -a bitter taste; and the shavings of this wood are sold in a half -torrified and ground state, in order to prevent its being recognised. - -Not only is the use of all these deleterious substances strictly -prohibited to the brewer under severe penalties, but all druggists or -grocers convicted of supplying him with any of them, or who have them -in their possession, are liable to severe penalties; and Mr. Accum -gives a list of twenty-nine convictions for this offence, from the -year 1812 to 1819. From the year 1813 to 1819, the number of brewers -prosecuted and convicted of using illegal ingredients in their -breweries, amounts to thirty-four. Numerous seizures have also been -made during the same period at various breweries, and in the -warehouses of brewers’-druggists, of illegal ingredients, to be used -in the brewing of beer, some of them highly deleterious. - -Malt liquors, after they are delivered by the brewer to the -retail-dealer, are still destined to undergo various mutations before -they reach the consumer. It is a common practice with the retailers of -beer, though it be contrary to law, to mix table-beer with strong beer; -and, to disguise this fraud, recourse is had to various expedients. It -is a well known property of genuine beer, that when poured from one -vessel into another, it bears a strong white froth, without which -professed judges would not pronounce the liquor good. This property is -lost, however, when table-beer is mixed with strong beer; and to restore -it, a mixture of what is called _beer-heading_ is added, composed of -common green vitriol, alum, and salt. To give a pungent taste to weak -insipid beer, capsicum and grains of paradise, two highly acrid -substances, are employed; and, of date, a concentrated tincture of these -articles has appeared for sale in the prices-current of -brewers’-druggists. To bring beer forward, as it is technically called, -or to make it hard, a portion of sulphuric acid is mixed with it, which, -in an instant, produces an imitation of the age of eighteen months; and -stale, half-spoiled, or sour beer, is converted into mild beer, by the -simple admixture of an alkali or an alkaline earth; oyster-shell powder, -and subcarbonate of potash, or soda, being usually employed for that -purpose. In order to show that these deceptions are not imaginary, Mr. -Accum refers to the frequent convictions of brewers for those fraudulent -practices, and to the seizures which have been made at different -breweries of illegal ingredients—a list of which, and of the proprietors -of the breweries where they were seized, he has extracted from the -Minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons, appointed to Inquire -into the Price and Quality of Beer. It may be observed, that while some -of the sophistications of beer appear to be perfectly harmless, other -substances are frequently employed for this purpose which are highly -deleterious, and which must gradually undermine the health of those by -whom they are used. - -Many other of the most ordinary articles of consumption are mentioned by -our author as being the object of the most disgusting and pernicious -frauds. Tea, it is well known, from the numerous convictions which have -lately taken place, has been counterfeited to an enormous extent; and -copper, in one form or another, is the chief ingredient made use of for -effecting the imitation. - -The practice of adulterating coffee, has also been carried on for a long -time, and to a considerable extent, while black and white pepper, -Cayenne pepper, mustard, pickles of all sorts, have been all of them -debased by an admixture of baser, and, in many cases, poisonous -ingredients. Ground pepper is frequently sophisticated by an admixture -from the sweepings of the pepper warehouses. These sweepings are -purchased in the market under the initials P. D., signifying pepper -dust. ‘An inferior sort of this vile refuse (Mr. Accum observes), or the -sweepings of P. D., is distinguished among venders by the abbreviation -of D. P. D., denoting dust, or dirt of pepper dust.’ - -Of those various frauds so ably exposed in Mr. Accum’s work, and which -are so much the more dangerous, as they are committed under the disguise -of an honourable trade, it is impossible to speak in terms of too strong -reprobation; and in the first impulse of our indignation, we were -inclined to avenge such iniquitous practices by some signal punishment. -We naturally reflect, that such offences, in whatever light they are -viewed, are of a far deeper dye than many of those for which our -sanguinary code awards the penalty of death—and we wonder that the -punishment hitherto inflicted, has been limited to a fine. If we turn -our view, however, from the moral turpitude of the act, to a calm -consideration of that important question, namely,—What is the most -effectual method of protecting the community from those frauds?—we will -then see strong reasons for preferring the lighter punishment. We do not -find from experience, that offences are prevented by severe punishments. -On the contrary, the crime of forgery, under the most unrelenting -execution of the severe law against it, has grown more frequent. As -those, therefore, by whom the offence of adulterating articles of -provision is committed, are generally creditable and wealthy -individuals, the infliction of a heavy fine, accompanied by public -disgrace, seems a very suitable punishment: and if it be duly and -reasonably applied, there is little doubt that it will be found -effectual to check, and finally to root out, those disgraceful frauds. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - POISONING OF FOOD. - - A Treatise on Adulterations of Food, - - AND CULINARY POISONS; - - _Exhibiting the Fraudulent Sophistications of Bread, Beer, Wine, - Spirituous Liquors, Tea, Coffee, Cheese, Pepper, Mustard, &c. &c. - And methods of detecting them._ - - BY FREDRICK ACCUM. - - (_From the Literary Gazette, No. CLVI. 1820._) - -One has laughed at the whimsical description of the cheats in Humphrey -Clinker, but it is really impossible to laugh at Mr. Accum’s exposition. -It is too serious for a joke to see that in almost every thing which we -eat or drink, we are condemned to swallow swindling, if not poison—that -all the items of metropolitan, and many of country consumption, are -deteriorated, deprived of nutritious properties, or rendered obnoxious -to humanity by the vile arts and merciless sophistications of their -sellers. So general seems the corruption, and so fatal the tendency of -most of the corrupting materials, that we can no longer wonder at the -prevalence of painful disorders, and the briefness of existence (on an -average) in spite of the great increase of medical knowledge, and the -amazing improvement in the healing science, which distinguish our era. -No skill can prevent the effects of daily poisoning; and no man can -prolong his life beyond a short standard, where every meal ought to have -its counteracting medicine. - -Mr. Accum acts the part of Dionysius with us; only the horse-hair by -which he suspends the sword over our heads allows the point gradually to -enter the flesh, and we do not escape, like Damocles, with the simple -fright: yet it is but justice to acknowledge, that in almost every case -he furnishes us with tests whereby we can ascertain the nature of our -danger; and no man could do more towards enabling us to mitigate or -escape from it. - -Advising our readers to abstain from perusing the annexed synopsis till -after they have dined, that they may have one more meal in comfort ere -they die, we proceed to the various heads under which the author ranges -his dread array. - -Devoted to disease by baker, brewer, grocer, &c. the physician is called -to our assistance; but here again the pernicious system of fraud, as it -has given the blow, steps in to defeat the remedy. - -It is so horribly pleasant to reflect how we are in this way -be-swindled, be-trayed, be-drugged, and be-devilled, that we are almost -angry with Mr. Accum for the great service he has done the community by -opening our eyes, at the risk of shutting our mouths for ever. - -His account of water is so fearful, that we see there is no wisdom in -the well; and if we then fly to wine, we find, from his analysis, that -there is no truth in that liquid: bread turns out to be a crutch to help -us onward to the grave, instead of the staff of life; in porter there is -no support, in cordials no consolation; in almost every thing poison, -and in scarcely any medicine, cure. - -The work contains a great many excellent observations on the various -sorts of water, and the modes of conveying and preserving them for use: -it appears generally that leaden pipes and cisterns, and copper vessels -are highly dangerous. - -Good heavens! we think we hear it exclaimed, is there no end to these -infamous doings? does nothing pure or unpoisoned come to our tables, -except butcher’s meat, which has been rendered far less nutritive than -formerly, by new methods of feeding? Why, we must answer, hardly any -thing: for our author proceeds to shew that _cheese_ (Gloucester he -mentions) has been contaminated with red lead, a deadly poison mixed -with the colouring anotto, when that article was scarce: that _pepper_ -is adulterated with factitious pepper-corns “made up of oil-cakes (the -residue of lint-seed, from which the oil has been pressed), common clay, -and a portion of Cayenne pepper, formed in a mass, and granulated by -being first pressed through a sieve, and then rolled in a cask;” and -further, that “ground pepper is very often sophisticated by adding to a -portion of genuine pepper, a quantity of pepper dust, or the sweepings -from the pepper warehouses, mixed with a little Cayenne pepper. The -sweepings are known, and purchased in the market, under the name of P.D. -signifying pepper dust. An inferior sort of this vile refuse, or the -sweepings of P.D. is distinguished among vendors by the abbreviation -D.P.D, denoting, dust (dirt) of pepper dust.” - -As we read on, we learn the method of manufacturing adulterated vinegar, -adulterated cream, adulterated lozenges, adulterated mustard, -adulterated lemon acid, poisonous Cayenne, poisonous pickles, poisonous -confectionary, poisonous catsup, poisonous custards, poisonous anchovy -sauce, poisonous olive oil, poisonous soda water; and, if not done to -our hands, of rendering poisonous all sorts of food by the use of copper -and leaden vessels. Suffice it to record, that our pickles are made -green by copper; our vinegar rendered sharp by sulphuric acid; our cream -composed of rice powder or arrow root in bad milk; our comfits mixed of -sugar, starch, and clay, and coloured with preparations of copper and -lead; our catsup often formed of the dregs of distilled vinegar with a -decoction of the outer green husk of the walnut, and seasoned with -all-spice, cayenne, pimento, onions, and common salt—or if founded on -mushrooms, done with those in a putrefactive state remaining unsold at -market; our mustard a compound of mustard, wheaten flour, cayenne, bay -salt, raddish seed, turmeric, and pease flour; and our citric acid, our -lemonade, and our punch, to refresh or to exhilarate, usually cheap -tartareous acid modified for the occasion. - -Against all these, and many other impositions, Mr. Accum furnishes us -with easy and certain tests: his work, besides, contains many curious -documents and useful recipes; and it is replete with intelligence, and -often guides to the right while it exposes the wrong. - - - ------- - - - _Other Works lately published by FREDRICK ACCUM._ - DESCRIPTION - OF - THE PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING - COAL GAS, - For the Lighting of Streets, Houses, and Public Buildings, - WITH ELEVATIONS, SECTIONS, AND PLANS, - Of the most improved Sorts of Apparatus now employed at the - Gas Works in London, - And the principal Provincial Towns of Great Britain. - _Price 15s._ - - - ------- - - - CHEMICAL AMUSEMENT, - - Comprising a Series of curious and instructive Experiments in Chemistry, - which - are easily performed, and unattended by Danger. - - _The Fourth Edition. Price 9s._ - - - ------- - - - _This Day is published_, - - A TREATISE - - ON THE - - Art of Brewing, - - Exhibiting the London practice of Brewing Porter, Brown Stout, Ale, - Table - Beer, and various other kinds of Malt Liquors. - - BY FREDRICK ACCUM. - - - ------- - - - _By the same Author_, - - - A TREATISE - - ON THE ART OF MAKING WINE - - From Native Fruits; - -Elucidating the Chemical Principles upon which the Art of Wine-making -depends. The Fruits best adapted for Home-made Wines, and the Methods of -preparing them. - - - ------- - - - A MANUAL OF ANALYTICAL MINERALOGY, - -Intended to facilitate the practical Analysis of Minerals, by pointing -out to the Student concise Directions for performing the Analysis of -Metallic Ores, Earths, and other Minerals. _Second Edition. 2 Vols. -Price 15s._ - - - ------- - - - A SYSTEM OF THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY, - - _In Two Vols. with Plates. Second Edition. Price 15s._ - - - ------- - - - ELEMENTS OF CHRYSTALLOGRAPHY, - - _After the Method of Haüy with Plates and Graphic Designs_, - -Exhibiting the Forms of Crystals, their Geometrical Structure, and -general Laws, according to which the immense variety of actually -existing Crystals are produced. _Price 15s._ - - - ------- - - - A DESCRIPTION OF THE CHEMICAL APPARATUS AND - INSTRUMENTS, - - WITH FIFTEEN QUARTO COPPER-PLATES. - - - ------- - - - A PRACTICAL ESSAY ON CHEMICAL RE-AGENTS OR TESTS, - -Exhibiting the general Nature of Chemical Re-Agents or Tests—the Effects -which they produce upon different Bodies—the Uses to which they may be -supplied, and the Art of applying them successfully. - - _Second Edition. Illustrated by a Series of Experiments. Price 9s._ - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - ● Transcriber’s Notes: - ○ The references to figures 1 through 4 on pages 130 and 132 do not - exist in any edition of the book. This has been confirmed by the - Project Manager. - ○ Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected. - ○ Typographical errors were silently corrected. - ○ Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only - when a predominant form was found in this book. - ○ Text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_). - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A treatise on the art of making good -wholesome bread of wheat, oats, rye,, by Frederick Accum - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ART OF MAKING GOOD WHOLESOME BREAD *** - -***** This file should be named 60424-0.txt or 60424-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/4/2/60424/ - -Produced by deaurider, Barry Abrahamsen, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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