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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..367e23f --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #60424 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60424) diff --git a/old/60424-0.txt b/old/60424-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 29897f2..0000000 --- a/old/60424-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4239 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A treatise on the art of making good -wholesome bread of wheat, oats, rye,, by Frederick Accum - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A treatise on the art of making good wholesome bread of wheat, oats, rye, barley and other farinaceous grains - -Author: Frederick Accum - -Release Date: October 4, 2019 [EBook #60424] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ART OF MAKING GOOD WHOLESOME BREAD *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Barry Abrahamsen, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - A TREATISE - - ON THE ART OF - - MAKING GOOD AND WHOLESOME - - BREAD - - OF - - WHEAT, OATS, RYE, BARLEY, - - AND - - OTHER FARINACEOUS GRAIN - - EXHIBITING - - THE ALIMENTARY PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION - OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF BREAD CORN, AND OF THE - VARIOUS SUBSTITUTES USED FOR BREAD, IN - DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD. - -[Illustration] - - BY FREDRICK ACCUM, - - OPERATIVE CHEMIST, - - Lecturer on Practical Chemistry, on Mineralogy, and on Chemistry applied - to the Arts and - Manufactures; Member of the Royal Irish Academy; Fellow of the Linnæan - Society; - Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, and of the Royal Society - of Arts of Berlin, &c. &c. - - ------- - - LONDON: - - PRINTED FOR THOMAS BOYS, 7, LUDGATE HILL, - By C. Green, Leicester Street, Leicester Square. - 1821. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - PREFACE. - - ---------- - - - LONDON, - COMPTON STREET, SOHO. - - -The object of this Treatise is to exhibit the chemical principles of the -art of making good and wholesome Bread, of Wheat, Oats, Rye, Barley, -Rice, Potatoes, and other farinaceous substances used for this purpose -in different parts of the world. - -I have first taken a view of the chemical constitution of the Alimentary -Substances derived from the vegetable kingdom, and have added an -Historical Sketch of the Art of Making Bread. I have elucidated the -chemical constitution of the substances of which Bread is made among -civilized nations, as well as of various nutritive materials, besides -Bread Corn, which are used in different countries as substitutes for -Bread. - -I have described the chemical analysis of Bread Flour, its immediate -constituent parts, their proportions in different kinds of grain, and -the method of separating them. I have pointed out the materials more -particularly fitted for the fabrication of Bread; I have explained the -reason why a variety of Alimentary Farinaceous Seeds, in common use, -cannot be made into light and porous loaf-bread, although they are well -calculated, under other forms, of being converted into highly nutritious -food. - -I have explained the chemical distinction which exists between bread -made with yeast, as well as with leaven, and bread made without either -of these species of ferment; and, lastly, I have given specific -directions for making the different kinds of Bread prepared from Wheat, -Oats, Rye, Barley, Rice, Maize, Buck-wheat, Potatoes, and other -farinaceous substances, as practised in various countries. - - - FREDRICK ACCUM. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - ------- - - - PAGE - - PREFACE i - - CONTENTS 1 - - PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS, CHIEFLY WITH REGARD TO 7 - THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION AND NUTRITIVE QUALITY - OF THE SUBSTANCES OF FOOD DERIVED FROM THE - VEGETABLE KINGDOM - - HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ART OF MAKING BREAD 25 - - BREAD CORN 30 - - THE BREAD-FRUIT 39 - - SAGO BREAD, and SAGO 41 - - CASAVA BREAD, and TAPIOCA 43 - - PLANTAIN BREAD 45 - - BANANA BREAD 46 - - BREAD OF DRIED FISH 47 - - BREAD MADE OF MOSS 49 - - BREAD MADE OF EARTH 50 - - ——————— - - ANALYSIS OF BREAD FLOUR 52 - - QUANTITY OF FLOUR OBTAINABLE FROM VARIOUS KINDS OF 55 - CEREAL AND LEGUMINOUS SEEDS EMPLOYED IN THE - FABRICATION OF BREAD, AND DIFFERENT KINDS OF - FLOUR MANUFACTURED FROM WHEAT - - REASON WHY OATS, PEASE, BEANS, RICE, MAIZE, 58 - MILLET, BUCKWHEAT, AND OTHER NUTRITIVE GRAINS - CANNOT BE MADE INTO LIGHT AND POROUS BREAD - - THEORY OF THE PANIFICATION OF BREAD FLOUR 61 - - ——————— - - UNLEAVENED BREAD 66 - - OATMEAL CAKES 68 - - MIXED OATMEAL AND PEASE BREAD 69 - - UNLEAVENED MAIZE BREAD 70 - - UNLEAVENED BEAN-FLOUR BREAD 71 - - UNLEAVENED BUCKWHEAT BREAD 71 - - UNLEAVENED ACORN BREAD 72 - - SEA BISCUIT 73 - - ——————— - - LEAVENED BREAD 79 - - LEAVENED RYE BREAD 83 - - HUNGARIAN RYE BREAD 85 - - ——————— - - BREAD MADE WITH YEAST 88 - - METHOD OF MAKING WHEATEN BREAD, AS PRACTISED BY 93 - THE LONDON BAKERS - - QUANTITY OF BREAD OBTAINABLE FROM A GIVEN QUANTITY 97 - OF WHEATEN FLOUR - - HOME-MADE WHEATEN BREAD 100 - - TO MAKE PAN-BREAD 102 - - BROWN WHEATEN BREAD 103 - - MIXED WHEATEN BREAD 104 - - ROLLS 105 - - FRENCH BREAD 105 - - MUFFINS AND CRUMPETS 105 - - BARLEY BREAD 109 - - MIXED BARLEY BREAD 111 - - RYE BREAD 112 - - TURNIP BREAD 114 - - RICE BREAD 116 - - POTATOE BREAD 121 - - POTATOE ROLLS 124 - - APPLE BREAD 125 - - DOMESTIC OVEN FOR BAKING BREAD 126 - - POPULAR ERRORS CONCERNING THE QUALITY OF BREAD 133 - - LAWS PROHIBITING THE ADULTERATION OF BREAD AND 149 - BREAD FLOUR - - ECONOMICAL APPLICATION OF YEAST 162 - - ECONOMICAL PREPARATION OF YEAST 165 - - ECONOMICAL METHOD OF MAKING YEAST, RECOMMENDED BY 165 - DR. LETTSOM - - POTATOE YEAST 166 - - METHOD OF PRESERVING YEAST 167 - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - A - - TREATISE - - ON THE ART OF MAKING - - Good and Wholesome Bread. - - - ------- - - - - - PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. - - -To most animals nature has designed a limited range of aliment, when -compared to the extensive choice allotted to man. If we look into the -history of the human race, inhabiting the different parts of the globe, -as far as we are acquainted with it, we find, that man appears to be -designed by nature to eat of all substances that are capable of -nourishing him: fruits, grains, roots, herbs, flesh, fish, reptiles, and -fowls, all contribute to his sustenance. He can even subsist on every -variety of these substances, under every mode of preparation, dried, -preserved in salt, hardened in smoke, pickled in vegetable acids, &c. - -The Author of Nature has so constructed our organs of digestion, that we -can accommodate ourselves to every species of aliment; no kind of food -injures us; we are capable of being habituated to every species, and of -converting into nutriment almost every production of nature. - -When we enquire more minutely into the chemical constitution of the -different alimentary materials, which promote the growth, support the -strength, and renew the waste of our body, we find that animal -substances are not suited to form the whole of our daily food; and that, -in fact, if long and extensively used, their stimulating effects at -length exhausts and debilitates the system, which it at first -invigorated and supported. Those, accordingly, who have lived for any -great length of time on a diet composed entirely of animal matter, -become oppressed, heavy, and indolent, the tone and excitability of -their frame are impaired, they are affected with indigestion, the -breathing is hurried on the smallest exercise, the gums become spongy, -the breath is fœtid, and the limbs swell. We recognize in this -description the approach of scurvy, a disease familiar to sailors, to -the inhabitants of besieged towns, and, in general, to all who are -wholly deprived of a just proportion of vegetable aliment. - -On the other hand, vegetable food being less stimulating is also less -nourishing; besides, this kind of aliment is, upon the whole, of more -difficult assimilation than the food derived from the animal kingdom. -Hence it is, perhaps, that nature has provided a greater extent of -digestive organs for animals wholly herbivorous. It is insufficient to -raise the human system to all the strength and vigour of which it is -susceptible. Flatulency of the stomach, muscular and nervous debility, -and a long series of disorders, are not unfrequently the consequences of -this too sparing diet. Some Eastern nations, indeed, live almost -entirely on vegetable substances; but these, it is remarked, are seldom -so robust, so active, or so brave, as men who live on a mixed diet of -animal and vegetable food. Few, at least, in the countries of Europe can -be sufficiently nourished by vegetable food alone; and even those -nations, and individuals, who are said to live exclusively on -vegetables, because they do not eat the flesh of animals, generally make -use of milk at least, of eggs, and butter and cheese. - -Food composed of animal and vegetable materials is, in truth, that which -is best suited to the nature and condition of man. The proportions in -which these should be used it is not easy to determine, but generally -the quantity of vegetables should exceed that of animal food. “On this -head,” says Dr. Fothergill, “I have only one short caution to give. -Those who think it necessary to pay any attention to their health, at -table, should take care that the quantity of bread, of meat, and of -pudding, and of greens, should not compose, each of them, a meal, as if -some only were thrown in to make weight, but carefully to observe that -the sum of, altogether, do not exceed due bounds or incroach upon the -first feeling of satiety.” - -All the products of the vegetable kingdom, used as aliment, are not -equally nutritious. When we contemplate with a chemical eye the -nutritive principles contained in vegetable substances, we soon perceive -that they are but few in number, namely, starch, gluten, mucilage, -jelly, fixed oil, sugar, and acids; and the different vegetable parts of -them are nutritious, wholesome, and digestible, according to the nature -and proportion of their principles contained in them. The starch and -gluten appear the most nutritious, and together with mucilage at the -same time, the most abundant ingredients contained in those vegetables -from which man derives his subsistence. Hence, from time immemorial, and -in all parts of the earth, man has used farinaceous seeds as part of his -food, for they contain the above-mentioned materials in the greatest -abundance. Of these the most nutritive are the seeds of the _Cerealia_, -under which title are commonly comprehended the _Gramineæ_, or -_Culminiferous_ plants. Whilst the seeds of the _Gramineæ_ supply the -most important part of food furnished by the vegetable kingdom, in -almost every part of the world, their leaves and young shoots support -that class of animals hence called graminivorous, whose flesh is most -generally eaten. - -These vegetables are distributed so universally over the face of the -earth, and have become to such a degree the object of culture, that they -are very generally made into bread, or are employed instead of it; and, -upon the whole, it appears that they are nutritive merely in the -proportion to the quantity of farinaceous matter contained in them; but -this substance exists in different combinations in different cereal and -leguminous seeds. It is combined with gluten in wheat, with a saccharine -matter in oats, and in many leguminous seeds, such as Harricot beans and -pease, and with viscous mucilage in rye and Windsor beans. - -Next to the _Cerealia_ and _Leguminosæ_ may be ranged the oily -farinaceous seeds, such as almonds, walnuts, filberts, &c. These abound -in starch and mucilage. The use of chocolate, which is prepared from the -chocolate nut, growing in the West Indies, ground into a paste, with or -without sugar, is in itself a nutritious substance, and to those with -whom it agrees, it may be considered as a wholesome nutritious aliment. -Yet the vegetable farina, in this state of existence, though highly -nutritious, and to many palates very agreeable, is more difficult of -digestion, and does not, upon the whole, afford a very wholesome -alimentary substance. When too freely used, those kinds of seeds are -sure to disagree, more especially if from age the oil has become rancid. -They must be considered rather as a delicacy than as fitted to form a -portion of our daily food, and with some particular stomachs they never -agree. - -Of the alimentary farinaceous roots, the potatoe, boiled or roasted, is -one of the most useful, and perhaps after the _Cerealia_, one of the -most wholesome and most nutritious vegetables in common use; its -nourishing powers, there can be no doubt, depend upon the amylaceous -fecula of which it is chiefly composed. The Jerusalem artichoke deserves -likewise to be noticed here, as being a highly alimentary root, chiefly -composed of farinaceous matter. Of the fruits rich in farinaceous and -mucilaginous matter, few are indigenous. The chesnut, when roasted, -affords an alimentary food, but in the East and West Indies the bread -fruit, bananas, and the fruit of the plantain tree, are the substitutes -for bread. - -Scarcely any of the various alimentary substances employed by man are -consumed in the raw and crude state in which they are presented to us by -nature. Almost all of them are previously subjected to some kind of -preparation, or change, by which for the most part they are rendered -more wholesome and more digestible, and sometimes more nutritive. -Accordingly, the observations we have made on the properties of -different vegetable aliments, are to be considered as applied to them in -the state in which they are commonly used among us. - -When in the preparation of bread a baking heat is applied to the flour -dough, a complete change is produced in the constitution of the mass. -The new substance of bread differs materially from flour, it no longer -forms a tenacious mass with water, nor can starch and gluten be any more -separated from it. - -By the application of heat to vegetables the more volatile and watery -parts are in some cases dissipated. The different principles, according -to their peculiar properties, are extracted, softened, dissolved, or -coagulated; but most commonly they are changed into new combinations, so -as to be no longer distinguishable by the forms and chemical properties -which they originally possessed. - -In like manner the leguminous seeds, and farinaceous roots are greatly -altered by the chemical action of heat. The raw potatoe is -ill-flavoured, extremely indigestible, and even unwholesome. By -roasting, or boiling, it becomes farinaceous, sweet, and agreeable to -the taste, wholesome, digestible, and highly nutritious. Little is lost, -and nothing is added to the potatoe by this process, yet its properties -are greatly changed; its principles, in short, have suffered very -remarkable chemical changes. - -Even in the simple boiling of the various leguminous seeds, pot-herbs, -and esculent roots, the effect does not seem confined to the mere -softening of the fibres, the solution of some, and coagulation of other -of their juices and principles; not only their texture, but their -flavour, and other sensible qualities have undergone a change, by which -their alimentary properties have been improved; the farinaceous matter -by boiling is rendered soluble, the vegetable fibre softened. Saccharine -matter is often formed, mucilage and jelly extracted and combined, and -the product is rendered more palatable, wholesome, and nourishing. And, -although every country has its own favourite articles of food, and modes -of preparing them, and there is perhaps no subject in regard to which -local prejudices are so strong, yet there can be no reason why the -farinaceous matter of cereal seeds should always be consumed in the -state of bread; many of them are not less agreeable, and not less -wholesome in other forms of food. - -In Scotland nine-tenths of those in the more humble walks of life live -upon barleybroth, and there are not more healthy people to be found any -where.—_Cullen’s Materia Medica_, v. I. p. 287. - -It is chiefly to save the trouble of dressing any other kind of food, -and that bread, from its portability and convenience of always being -ready, has become the principal sustenance, but it is far from being the -most economical method of using farinaceous grain. There can be no doubt -that the same quantity of farinaceous matter made into bread might, in -other forms, be used to a much greater advantage; for the great art of -preparing good and wholesome food is to convert the alimentary matter -into such a substance as to fill up the stomach and alimentary canal -without overcharging it with more nutritive matter than is requisite for -the support of the animal, and this may be done either by bread, or by -converting the mealy substance of which it is composed into other forms, -of which there is a great variety. - -Persons who have travelled much on the continent are well aware that our -neighbours have the art of throwing much more variety and gratification -of the palate into the article of subsistence which has been -emphatically called the staff of life, than we possess. The French and -Germans convert the farinaceous flour of vegetables into a variety of -excellent articles of food, and not serving, like our own, as a mere -companion to pair off with so many mouthfuls of meat. - -In speaking thus of the use of bread, I do not mean to deny that bread -is highly alimentary, its nourishing powers are undoubtedly very great. - -The finest bread, says an eminent physician (Dr. Buchan), is not always -the best adapted for answering the purposes of nutrition. Household -bread, which is made by grinding the whole grain, and only separating -the coarse bran, is, without doubt, the most wholesome. - -The people of South Britain generally prefer bread made of the finest -wheat flour, while those of the Northern countries eat a mixture of -flour and oatmeal, or rye bread. The common people of Scotland also eat -a mixed bread, but more frequently bread made of oatmeal only. - -In Germany the common bread is made of rye. The flour of millet is made -in France, Spain, and Italy, into wholesome and nourishing pastry and -puddings. The American and West Indian labourer thinks no bread so -strengthening as that which is made of Indian corn. - -The inhabitants of Westphalia, who are a hardy and robust people, -capable of enduring the greatest fatigues, live on a coarse brown rye -bread, which still retains the opprobrious name once given to it by a -French traveller, “_Bon pour Nicole_—good for his horse Nichol.” - -The great advantage of eating pure and genuine bread must be obvious; -but bread is often spoiled to please the eye. I have elsewhere[1] shewn, -that in the making of bread, more especially in London, various -ingredients are occasionally mingled with the dough. The baker is -obliged to suit the caprice of his customers, to have his bread light -and porous, and of a pure white colour. It is impossible to produce this -sort of bread from flour alone, unless it be of the finest quality. The -best flour, however, being mostly used by the biscuit bakers and pastry -cooks, it is only from the inferior sorts that bread is made; and it -becomes necessary, in order to have it of that light and porous quality, -and of a fine white, to mix alum with the dough. Without this ingredient -the flour used by the London bakers would not yield so white a bread as -that sold in this metropolis, and herein consists the fraud, that the -baker is enabled by the use of this ingredient to produce, from bad -materials, bread that is light, white, and porous, but of which the -quality does not correspond to the appearance, and thus to impose upon -the public. - -Footnote 1: - - Adulterations of Food and Culinary Poisons, 2nd Edit. 1820, p. 130. - -In the following pages I have enumerated the methods by which all the -different kinds of farinaceous substances are made into good and -wholesome bread, and are used in different countries as articles of -daily sustenance. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - Art of making Bread. - - ------- - - - - - HISTORICAL SKETCH - - OF - - THE ART OF MAKING BREAD. - - -Nothing appears so easy at first sight, as to grind corn, or other -farinaceous substances, to knead the flour with water into dough, and to -convert it, by baking, into porous bread. But, simple as these -operations may now appear to us, the art of making loaf-bread was by no -means one of the earliest among human inventions. - -For, however essential this species of food may be considered among us -as an article of primary subsistence, it is perfectly certain, that men -had long existed in a state of civilization, before bread was known -among them. - -It is evident that every species of corn must have been originally the -spontaneous production of the earth; but as the grain, previous to -cultivation, would grow but scantily, its importance as food might long -escape observation, and mankind would naturally derive a more obvious, -though less nutritive subsistence, from acorns, berries, and other -fruits which were within their reach. Ages elapsed ere Ceres, according -to the Grecian mythology, descended from heaven to teach mankind the use -of agriculture. - -In the early ages of society, according to some historians, men were -satisfied with parching their corn for immediate use as food. The next -advance appears to have been, to pulverize the grain in a mortar or -handmill, and to form it, by the addition of water or milk, into a kind -of porridge; or to make the bruised grain into dough, which was rendered -eatable by baking on embers. - -Even after the method of grinding corn into meal, and separating the -bran by sifting, had become known, it was long before the art of -fermenting the dough, in order to produce bread full of eyes and of a -soft consistence, was discovered. - -Like most other operations of primary importance, the origin of the art -of making bread is lost in the darkness of ages past. - -We are, however, certain that the Jews practised this art in the time of -Moses; for we find in the Book of Exodus, chap. xii. v. 18, a -prohibition to make use of _leavened_, that is, fermented bread, during -the celebration of the Passover. But it does not appear that -_loaf-bread_ was known to Abraham, for in his history we read frequently -of cakes, but not of fermented bread. It is, therefore, very probable, -that the art of making fermented bread took its rise in the East, and -that the Jews learned it from the Egyptians. - -The Greeks attribute the art of making bread to the god Pan. - -Bakers were unknown in Rome till the year of the city 850, or about 200 -years before the Christian era. The Roman bakers, according to Pliny, -came from Greece with the Macedonian army. Before this period, the -Romans were often distinguished by the appellation of _eaters of pap_. - -At the time of Augustus, there were upwards of 300 baking houses in -Rome, almost the whole of which were occupied by Greeks. The bakers -enjoyed in ancient Rome great privileges. The public granaries were -entrusted to their care; they formed a corporation, or kind of college, -from which neither they nor their children were permitted to withdraw. -They were exempted from guardianships and public services, which might -interfere with their occupation. They were eligible to become Senators; -and those who married the daughters of bakers, became members of the -college. - -From the establishment of bakers in Rome, the art of making loaf, or -fermented bread, spread amongst the ancient Gauls; but its progress in -the northern countries of Europe was slow, and in some northern -districts, the luxury of eating fermented, or loaf-bread, is at this day -not in general use. Some of the modern Italians consume the greatest -part of their bread-flour in the state of _macaroni_ and _vermicelli_, -and in other forms of _polenta_, or soft pudding; and even at present -millions of people neither sow nor reap, but content themselves with -enjoying the spontaneous productions of the earth. - - - Bread Corn, - -Properly so called, of which loaf-bread is chiefly made among cultivated -nations, comprehends the seeds of the whole tribe of (_cerealia_), or -gramineous plants; for they all contain a farinaceous substance, of a -similar nature, and chiefly composed of starch. Those of the _cerealia_ -in common use are the following: - - Wheat _Triticum hybernum._ - Barley _Hordeum vulgare._ - Rye _Secale cereale._ - -With us, wheat is chiefly employed for the fabrication of bread. It is, -in fact, the only grain of which light porous bread can be made; but rye -and barley are also used as bread-corn. The farina of the other -_cerealia_ afford also a nutritive and wholesome bread; though their -flour is not so susceptible of the panary fermentation, it cannot be -made into the white texture of the wheaten loaf. The bread formed from -them is consequently much inferior to that prepared from wheat. The -following seeds are chiefly employed to make a species of bread: - - Oats _Avena Sativa._ - Maize _Zea Mays._ - Rice _Oriza Sativa._ - Millet _Panicum milliaceum._ - -Oats are used in the north of Europe for making a kind of bread, called -oatmeal-cake, and particularly by the inhabitants of Scotland. Maize is -frequently employed as bread-corn in North America. - -Rice nourishes more human beings than all the other seeds together, used -as food; and it is by many considered the most nutritive of all sorts of -grain. A very ridiculous prejudice has existed with respect to rice, -namely, that it is prejudicial to the sight, by causing diseases of the -eye; but no authority can warrant this assertion: on the contrary, the -opinion of the ablest men (Cullen’s Mat. Med. v. i. p. 229) may be -quoted in favour of rice being a very healthy food: and the experience -of all Asia and America may be adduced with sufficient weight to have -answered this objection, if it had been supported by any thing more than -vulgar prejudice, unsupported by facts. This grain is peculiarly -calculated to diminish the evils of a scanty harvest, an inconvenience -which must occasionally affect all countries, particularly those which -are very populous. It is the most fitted of all food to be of use in -relieving general distress in a bad season[2], because it comes from a -part of the world where provisions are cheap and abundant; it is light, -easy of carriage, keeps well for a long time, and contains a great deal -of wholesome food within a small compass. Indeed, it has been -ascertained that one part of rice contains as much food and useful -nourishment as six of wheat. - -Footnote 2: - - Reports of the Society for bettering the Condition of the Poor, Vol. - I. p. 137. - -Next to the _cerealia_, the seeds of _leguminous plants_ may be regarded -as substitutes for bread corn. Their ripe seeds afford the greatest -quantity of alimentary matter. Their meal has a sweetish taste, but they -cannot be made into light and porous bread, without the addition of a -portion of wheaten flour. Their meal, however, though it forms but a -coarse and indifferent bread, neither very palatable nor very -digestible, except by the most robust stomachs, is yet highly nutritive. - -It is remarked by Dr. Cullen, that “on certain farms of this country, -upon which the leguminous seeds are produced in great abundance, the -labouring servants are much fed upon that kind of grain; but if such -servants are removed to a farm upon which the _leguminous seeds_ are not -in such plenty, and therefore they are fed with the _cerealia_, they -soon find a decay of strength; and it is common for servants, in making -such removals, to insist on their being provided daily, or weekly, with -a certain quantity of the leguminous meal.” We are not, however, to -conclude from this observation, that pease-meal bread, is really more -nutritive than wheaten bread, or than the meal of the other _cerealia_. -We are rather disposed to regard it as an example of the effect of -habit. - -The _leguminous seeds_ employed in the fabrication of bread, are - - Pease _Pisum Sativum._ - Beans _Vicia faba._ - Kidney Beans _Phaseolus vulgaris._ - -The whole of this tribe afford a much more agreeable, though not a more -nutritive aliment, when their seeds are used green, young, and tender, -and simply boiled, than when fully ripened, and their flour baked. - -It is remarked, that all the substances of which bread is made, as well -as the substitutes for it, when chemically considered, are chiefly -composed of one and the same identical material; namely, the farinaceous -matter of the seeds, roots, fruits, or other products of vegetables, of -different climates and soils; and that _starch_, or the amylaceous -fecula, forms the most valuable part of all the materials used for -making bread, and its substitutes. - -This substance forms by far the most abundant, the most nourishing, and -the most easy to be procured aliment, obtainable from the vegetable -kingdom. - -“Whilst immense tribes of creatures devour the amylaceous fecula in the -grain, as nature produces it, man knows how to give it different forms, -from the most simple boiling to the most complicated delicacies of the -arts of the confectioner and pastry-cook. - -“It is singular that man should waste so valuable a substance for the -purpose of hair-powder, a kind of custom perhaps ridiculous, in which -modern nations imitate, without being aware of it, those people whom -they term barbarous, and by which custom they lavish away a portion of -the subsistence of a great number of families.” - -This nutritive aliment, we find, exists in various combinations, in the -roots, seeds, in the stems, and fruits of plants. Many roots abounding -in the amylaceous fecula, yields a palatable and highly nutritious -aliment. - -Hence the potatoe is a substance largely employed as a substitute for -bread. Its nutritious qualities are fully ascertained by the experience -of all Europe; it makes a considerable portion of the food of the poor; -and in Ireland in particular, millions of people exist, who, from -sufficient evidence, we are pretty certain live for years together -almost wholly on this root and water, without any other seasoning than a -little salt. It contains much amylaceous fecula, and when mixed with -wheaten flour, may be formed into good and palatable bread. Other -substances, besides the grains before mentioned, are in different parts -of the world substituted for bread. These are the following: - - - The Bread-Fruit. - -The Bread-fruit Tree (_Artocarpus incisa_) affords the inhabitants of -the South Pacific Ocean a substance resembling bread. They only climb -the tree to gather the fruit, which is of a round shape, from five to -six inches in diameter; it grows on boughs like apples, and, when quite -ripe, is of a yellowish colour. The bread-fruit has a tough reticulated -rind; there is neither seed nor stone in the inside of it. The eatable -part, which lies between the skin and the core, is as white as snow, and -of the consistence of new bread. The fruit is roasted on embers, or -baked in an oven, which scorches the rind and turns it black; this is -rasped off, and there remains a thin white crust, while the inside is -soft and white, like crumbs of fine loaf-bread. It is eaten new, for if -it is kept longer than twenty-four hours, it becomes harsh and -unpalatable. It is also boiled, by which means the interior is rendered -white, like a boiled potatoe. They make three dishes of it, by putting -either water or the milk of the cocoa-nut to it, then beating it into a -paste with a stone pestle, and afterwards mixing it with banana paste, -which has been suffered to become sour. - -The bread-fruit remains in season eight months in the year, during which -time the natives eat no other sort of food of the bread kind; and the -deficiency of the other four months of the year, is made up chiefly with -cocoa-nuts, bananas, plantains, bread nuts (_brosimum alicastrum_), and -other farinaceous fruits. - - - Sago Bread. - -The Sago-Tree (_Cycas Circinalis_), which grows spontaneously in the -East Indies, and particularly on the Coast of Malabar, furnishes to -numerous Indian tribes their bread. In the Islands of Banda and Amboyna, -they saw the body of the tree into small pieces, and, after bruising and -beating them in a mortar, pour water upon the fragments; this is left -for some hours undisturbed, to suffer the pithy farinaceous matter to -subside. The water is then poured off, and the meal, being properly -dried, is formed into cakes, or fermented and made into bread, which, it -is said, eats nearly as well as wheaten bread. - -The Hottentots make a kind of bread of another species of sago-tree -(_Cycas Resoluta_). The pith, or medulla, which abounds in the trunk of -this little palm, is collected and tied up in dressed calf’s or sheep’s -skin, and then buried in the ground for several weeks, which renders it -mellow and tender. It is then kneaded with water into dough, and made -into small loaves or cakes, which are baked under embers. Other -Hottentots, not quite so nice, merely dry and roast the farinaceous -pith, and afterwards make it into a kind of frumety or porridge. - - - SAGO. - -The same meal, or medulla, of the sago-tree, reduced into grain, by -passing it whilst still moist through a kind of sieve, produces the -_sago_ of commerce, which receives its brown colour by being heated on -hot stones. - - - Casava Bread. - -In the Caribbee Islands they make bread of a very poisonous root -(_Jatropa Maniat_), rendered wholesome by the extraction of its acrid -juice, which the Indians use for poisoning their arrows. A tea-spoonful -of the juice is sufficient to poison a man. - -The root of the maniat, after being crashed, scraped clean, and grated -in a tub, is enclosed in a sack of rushes, of very loose texture, which -is suspended upon a stick placed upon two wooden forks. To the bottom of -this sack a heavy vessel is suspended, which, by drawing the sack, -presses the grated root and receives the juice that flows out of it. -When the starch is well exhausted of its juice, it is exposed to smoke -in order to dry it; and when well dried it is passed through a sieve. In -this state it is termed Casava. It is baked into cakes, by spreading it -on hot plates of iron or earth, turning it on both sides, in order to -give it a good reddish colour. - - - TAPIOCA. - -The article of commerce, called _tapioca_, is the finest part of the -farinaceous pith of the casava. It is separately collected and formed -into small tears, by straining the mass while still moist, to form it -into small irregular lumps. - - - Plantain Bread. - -The Plantain Tree (_Musa Paradisiaca_), which is a native of the East -Indies and other parts of the Asiatic Continent, furnishes the -inhabitants with a species of bread. The fruit of the plantain-tree is -about a foot long, and from an inch and a half to two inches in -diameter. It is at first green, but when ripe of a pale yellow. It has a -tough skin, and within is a soft pulp of a sweet flavour. The fruit is -generally cut before it is ripe; the green skin is peeled off, and the -heart is roasted in a clear coal fire for a few minutes, and frequently -turned; it is then scraped and served up as bread. This tree is -cultivated on an extensive scale in Jamaica. Without this fruit, Dr. -Wright says, the Islands would be scarcely inhabitable, as no species of -provisions could supply its place. Even flour and bread itself would be -less agreeable to the labouring Negro. - - - Banana Bread. - -The fruit of the Banana Tree (_Musa Sapientum_), differs from the -preceding, being shorter, straighter, and rounder. It is about four or -five inches long, of the shape of a cucumber, and of a highly grateful -flavour. Bananas grow in bunches that weigh twelve pounds and upwards. -This fruit yields a softer pulp than the plantain-tree, and of a more -luscious taste. It is never eaten green, but when ripe is a very -pleasant food, either raw or fried in slices like fritters. It is -relished by all ranks of people in the West Indies. When the natives of -the West Indies undertake a voyage, they take the ripe fruit of the -banana and make provisions of the paste; and, having squeezed it through -a sieve, form the mass into loaves, which are dried in the sun or baked -on hot ashes, after being previously wrapped up in leaves. - - - Bread of Dried Fish. - -The Laplanders, who have no corn of their own, make a kind of bread of -the inner soft bark of a pine tree, either mixed with the coarsest -barley meal, or with dried fish beaten into powder. The bark is -collected when the sap is rising, it is afterwards dried in the sun, or -over a slow fire, and then mixed with the coarsest barley meal, or dried -fish beaten into powder. The poorer people grind the chaff, and even -some of the straw along with the barley. - -Another kind of bread is made of dried fish and the root of the water -dragon (_Calla palustris_), the root is taken up in the spring, before -the leaves shoot out. It is dried, pounded, and boiled, till it becomes -thick, like flummery, and after standing three or four days to lose its -bitterness it is mixed with the powder of dried fish and the inner bark -of the pine tree, and then made into a stiff paste, and baked over -embers. - - - Bread made of Moss. - -Some species of the tribe of Lichen, contain a considerable portion of -starch, as the _Lichen Rangiferinus_, or rein-deer moss, which affords -food to the stags and other fallow cattle of the North of Europe. The -Icelanders form the lichen islandicus into bread, which is found to be -extremely nutritious. The moss is collected in the summer, and, when -dry, ground into powder, of which bread and gruel, or pottage, are made. -It is sometimes also put whole into broth, or is boiled in whey, till it -be converted into a jelly. In general, it is either previously steeped -for some hours in warm water, or the water of the first boiling is -rejected, in order to remove a part of the bitter extractive matter, -which, if left, produces a disagreeable taste, and is apt to prove -purgative. - - - Bread made of Earth. - -The strangest substitute for bread that has ever been employed, is a -sort of white earth. The poor in the Lordship of Moscoa in Upper -Lusania, have been frequently compelled to make use of this earth as a -substitute for bread. - -The earth is dug out of a pit where saltpetre had formerly been worked; -when exposed to the rays of the sun it splits and cracks, and small -globules issue from it like meal, which ferments when mixed with flour. -On this earth, baked into bread, many persons have subsisted a -considerable time. A similar earth is met with near Genomu, in -Catalonia. - -In the western parts of Luisania too, the inhabitants have a most -extraordinary custom of eating a white earth, mixed with clay and salt. - -The rowers also, who ply on the river Mississippi, frequently drink -large quantities of muddy water, which cannot fail to leave in the -stomach a considerable quantity of earth. But it cannot be doubted, that -a large quantity of earthy substances taken into the stomach would prove -deleterious to health. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - Analysis of Bread Flour. - - -On examining bread corn, for instance wheat, we perceive an outside -coating, which after the grain has been soaked in water, may readily be -peeled off. This forms the bran of the flour. Immediately under it, is -that part of the grain which affords the coarsest flour, it is soft to -the touch, and not easily reduced to an impalpable powder, and of a -sweetish taste. This constitutes about one half of the grain. Underneath -this substance lies what is called by millers, the kernel or heart of -the wheat, namely, a hard mealy substance, almost transparent. This part -of the grain is capable of being speedily reduced to an impalpable -powder, it ferments more readily than the outer layers, and it is this -which produces the finest and best kind of wheaten flour. Such is the -mechanical constitution of the grain. When chemically examined we find -that the flour of wheat, rye, and barley, is composed of three -ingredients, or immediate constituent parts, which may be separated by -simple processes, viz. starch, gluten, and saccharine mucilage. The -proportion of these differ materially in different kinds of corn. The -method of separating them is as follows: - -Make any quantity of wheaten flour into a stiff paste with cold water, -and let it be kneaded and wrought in the hands under water; or put the -flour into a coarse linen bag, and knead it between the hands whilst a -small rill of cold water is suffered to pass over it. The water will -carry away the starch in the form of a white powder, and the dough -become more and more elastic, in proportion as the water carries off the -starch; continue kneading the mass till the water runs off from the -kneaded dough colourless. It will also be observed, that in proportion -as the water carries off the starch, the paste in the bag assumes a more -grey colour, less brilliant, as it were semi-transparent, and of a -softer consistence, but, at the same time, more tenaceous, more viscid, -more gluey, and more elastic. - -Thus the flour is separated into three substances, by a method incapable -of decomposing or altering any of its immediate constituent parts. The -starch is precipitated in a white powder at the bottom of the water, -from which it may readily be separated by suffering it to subside, and -the supernatant liquid, contains in solution the saccharine mucilage; -this may be obtained in the form of a syrup, by evaporating slowly in a -warm place the clear decanted fluid; and the third substance, the -gluten, remains in the bag, in the state of a soft, cohesive, and -elastic substance. - -In a similar manner the analysis of any species of bread corn may be -effected. - -QUANTITY OF FLOUR OBTAINABLE FROM VARIOUS KINDS OF CEREAL AND LEGUMINOUS - SEEDS EMPLOYED IN THE FABRICATION OF BREAD, AND DIFFERENT KINDS OF - FLOUR MANUFACTURED FROM WHEAT. - -The Board of Agriculture, in order to ascertain what each of the various -sorts of grain employed as substitutes for bread-corn would produce, -when ground into flour, with only the broad bran taken out, caused a -bushel of each of the undermentioned sorts of seeds to be ground for -their inspection: the weight of the grain, as well as the bran and the -flour, was as follows: - - - Weight Weight - - Weighed. of Flour. of Bran. - - _One Bushel of_ _lb._ _lb._ _lb._ - _oz._ _oz._ - - Barley 46 38 10½ 5 10½ - - Buckwheat 46¼ 38 9 5 5 - - Rye 54 43 0 9 5½ - - Maize 53 44 0 8 10½ - - Rice 61¼ 60 5 0 0 - - Oats 38¼ 23 5 13 10½ - - Beans 57¾ 43 5½ 12 5 - - Pease 61¾ 47 0 12 5 - - -A bushel of wheat, upon an average, weighs sixty-one pounds; when -ground, the meal weighs 60¾ lbs.; this on being dressed, produces 46¾ -lbs. of flour of the sort called _seconds_, which alone is used for the -making of bread in London, and throughout the greater part of this -country; and of pollard and bran 12¾ lbs., which quantity, when bolted, -produces 3 lbs. of fine flour; this when sifted produces in good second -flour 1¼ lb. - - - lbs. - - The whole quantity of 48 - bread-flour obtained from - the bushel of wheat, weighs - - lbs. - - Fine pollard 4¼ - - Coarse pollard 4 11 - - Bran 2¾ - - — - - The whole together 59 - - To which add the loss of 2 - weight in manufacturing the - bushel of wheat - - — - - Produces the original weight 61 - - -REASON WHY OATS, PEASE, BEANS, RICE, MAIZE, MILLET, BUCKWHEAT, AND OTHER - NUTRITIVE GRAINS CANNOT BE MADE INTO LIGHT AND POROUS BREAD. - -Every person is acquainted with the difference there is between light -well fermented bread, and that which is sodden, heavy, and badly risen, -and the decided preference given to the former over the latter, as the -most palatable, and easy of digestion. - -The only substances for making _loaf bread_, by which term is meant, -bread which is light, white, and porous, is the flour of wheat; and it -is to the larger quantity of gluten, that wheat flour owes the property -of being converted into loaf-bread. The average quantity of gluten -contained in wheat flour, amounts to about one-fifth of the whole weight -of the meal; but it varies in quantity in different kinds of wheat, -according to the soil and season in which the corn has been reared, -culture, and various other circumstances. Wheat kept in damp storehouses -affords scarcely any gluten, and hence, in proportion as the flour of -wheat is altered and deteriorated, which happens, as it is known, when -it is kept too much compressed, without being occasionally stirred up -and aired in hot and close granaries; in a word, as it undergoes a -chemical change, its property of making good bread is diminished; and -chemical analysis shows the quantity of gluten has become lessened under -such circumstances; and when it is greatly diminished the meal forms no -longer a tenaceous ductile dough. The spoiled flour produces a kind of -bread which is heavy, harsh, and difficult of digestion. - -The greater the proportion of gluten, the easier the panification of -bread-flour is effected, and the better is the bread. The wheat of the -South of Europe generally contains a larger quantity of gluten, and is -therefore more excellent for the manufacture of Maccaroni, Vermicelli, -and other alimentary substances, requiring a glutenous paste. - -Sir H. Davy found the flour of the wheat of this country to consist of -from twenty to twenty-four per cent. of gluten. Barley contains six, and -rye five per cent. of gluten. - -We may now understand why potatoes, rice, beans, pease, buckwheat, -millet, oats, and other nutritive cereal grains, abounding in starch, -cannot be made into light and porous bread, although they are well -calculated for being made into wholesome puddings, and why they only -form crude, heavy, insipid cakes, when made into dough and baked, and -not light porous loaf-bread. - -In further confirmation of this statement it may be remarked, that if -gluten of wheat, or only a portion of wheaten flour be incorporated by -kneading with the before-named kinds of flour, a fermentable cohesive -paste is produced, from which perfect bread may be made. - - - THEORY OF THE PANIFICATION OF BREAD FLOUR. - -Bread, when chemically examined, is very different from flour; it no -longer forms with water a tenaceous ductile mass, nor can starch, -gluten, and saccharine mucilage be separated from it. - -The chemical changes that take place in the panification of bread-flour, -are by no means well understood. The saccharine mucilage, it appears, -commences the fermentative chemical action that takes place in the -dough, for without this substance, a mixture of flour, yeast, and water, -cannot be made into true bread. The fermenting process when once -commenced, is kept up by the gluten, forming the body of the paste -through which the fecula and saccharine matter are diffused; and when -the slight fermentation which it suffers, from changes in the saccharine -matter, and supported by the presence of the gluten, has commenced, the -paste becomes spongy and porous, from the disengagement of carbonic acid -gas, while it still retains in some measure its elasticity; hence the -lightness and porosity of well-baked wheaten bread; and hence bread, -possessing these qualities, cannot be prepared from the flour of oats, -barley, rye, or rice, or from any of the nutritive roots, as in all of -these the quantity of gluten is considerably less, or entirely wanting, -and no gluey elastic dough can be formed. The starch, which was merely -diffused through the gluey dough, combines, during the baking, with a -portion of water, into a stiff jelly, which renders the bread more -digestible, and the gluten wholly disappears. A portion of carbonic acid -gas, which becomes disengaged during the fermenting process, enlarges -the bulk of the dough, which is thus rendered light, porous, and full of -eyes, or cavities, in consequence of the extraction of the air bubbles, -in the viscid glutenous matter; and the porosity of the bread is in -proportion to the extent to which the rising of the dough is suffered to -proceed. - -Some chemists persuade themselves that the fermentation of the flour -dough differs materially from the fermentation of saccharine substances; -namely, that the vinous, acetous, and putrefactive stages of the -fermenting process take place simultaneously in the dough. They imagine -the vinous fermentation to take place in the saccharine mucilage, the -acetous in the starch, and the putrefactive in the gluten at the same -time, and from the modification of each by the others, they consider -that peculiar action to originate which converts paste into bread. -Against this opinion, however, the following objections may be urged. In -the first place, the quantity of saccharine mucilage is so extremely -small as to produce no sensible effect alone on the whole mass, and what -little there is probably passes speedily into the acetous fermentation. -Secondly, the temperature that is required for bread-making is -considerably lower than that at which starch dissolves in water, and -where this is the case no alteration will take place, even in a long -course of time: this is clearly shown by the usual process of -starch-making, in which the bruised wheat is fermented for several days -in large vats, in order to destroy the gluten, after which the starch is -procured by simple deposition from the washings of the residue; and -thirdly, no vestige whatever of the products evolved during the -putrefactive fermentation of gluten, can be traced in any stage of the -panification of bread flour. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - Unleavened Bread. - - -Bread prepared by baking from the meal of farinaceous seeds kneaded with -water into a dough and baked, is divided into three sorts, namely;—1. -Unleavened bread; 2. Leavened bread; and, 3. Bread made with yeast. - -Unleavened bread contains all the component parts of the flour but -little altered. The meal is simply mixed with water, and baked into -cakes. It is heavy, dry, friable, and not porous. The oatmeal bread of -Scotland, is unleavened bread; as also sea biscuit, and all other kinds -of biscuit. - -The bread that is eaten by the Jews during the passover is unleavened. -The usage of which was introduced in commemoration of their hasty -departure from Egypt, [Exodus, chap. 12, v. 14 to 17.] when they had not -leisure to bake leavened bread, but took the dough before it was -fermented and baked unleavened cakes. - -In Roman catholic countries it is still used, and prepared with the -finest wheaten flour, moistened with water, and pressed between two -plates, graven like wafer moulds, being first rubbed with wax to prevent -the paste from sticking, and when dry it is used. Unleavened bread is -hardly less nutritious than loaf or fermented bread, but it is generally -speaking neither so wholesome nor so digestible. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - To make Oatmeal Cakes. - -To a peck of oatmeal add a few table-spoonsful of salt; knead the -mixture into a stiff paste, with warm water, roll it out into thin -cakes, and bake it in an oven or on embers. - -In some cottages oatmeal bread undergoes a partial fermentation, whereby -it is rendered lighter; but the generality of the people in the more -humble walks of life, where oatmeal bread is eaten, merely soften their -oatmeal with water, and having added to it a little salt, bake it into -cakes. To strangers oatmeal bread has a dry, harsh, unpleasant taste, -but the cottagers of Scotland, in particular, most commonly prefer it to -wheaten bread. - - - Mixed Oatmeal and Pease Bread. - -To a peck of pease flour, and a like quantity of oatmeal, previously -mixed by passing the flour through a sieve, add three or four ounces of -salt, knead it into a stiff mass with warm water, roll it out into thin -cakes, and bake them in an oven. In some parts of Lancashire and -Scotland, this kind of bread is made into flattened rolls, and the -cottagers usually bake them in an iron pot. - -In Norway they make unleavened bread of oatmeal and barley, which keeps -thirty or forty years, and is considered the better for being old, so -that at the baptism of a child, bread is sometimes used which has been -baked perhaps at the baptism of its great grandfather. - - - Unleavened Maize Bread. - -The bread made of maize flour, which is in common use in North America, -is unleavened bread. The maize flour is kneaded with a little salt and -water into a stiff mass; which, after being rolled out into thin cakes, -is usually baked on a hot broad iron hoe. - -Another kind of unleavened _maize cakes_, which is a North American -bread, called _Hoe cake_, is made in the following manner.[3] - -Take maize, boil it with a small proportion of kidney beans, until it -becomes almost a pulp, and bake it over embers into a cake. - -Footnote 3: - - This and several other of the directions here given, for making - various species of bread, are taken from Edlin’s excellent Treatise on - bread making, a small work, long ago out of print. - - - Unleavened Bean-Flour Bread. - -Take a quarter of a peck of bean-flour and one ounce of salt, mix it -into a thick batter with water, pour a sufficient quantity to make a -cake into an iron kettle, and bake it over the fire, taking care to turn -it frequently. - - - Unleavened Buckwheat Bread.[4] - -Footnote 4: - - From the Reports of the Board of Agriculture. - -Take a gallon of water, set it over a fire, and when it boils, let a -peck of the flour of buckwheat be mixed with it, little by little, and -keep the mixture constantly stirred, to prevent any lumps being formed -till a thick batter is made. Then add two or three ounces of salt, set -it over the fire again, and allow it to boil an hour and a half, pour -the proper proportion for a cake into an iron kettle and bake it. - - - Unleavened Acorn Bread. - -Take acorns, fully ripe, deprive them of their covers and beat them into -a paste, let them lay in water for a night, and then press the water -from them, which deprives the acorns entirely of their astringency. Then -dry and powder the mass for use. When wanted, knead it up into a dough -with water, and roll it out into thin cakes, which may be baked over -embers. - -Bread made after this method is by no means disagreeable, and even to -this day, it is said to be made use of in some countries. - - - Sea Biscuit. - -The process of biscuit-baking for the British navy is as follows, and it -is equally simple and ingenious. The meal, and every other article, -being supplied with much certainty and simplicity, large lumps of dough, -consisting merely of flour and water, are mixed up together; and as the -quantity is so immense as to preclude, by any common process, a -possibility of kneading it, a man manages, or, as it is termed, rides a -machine, which is called a horse. This machine is a long roller, -apparently about four or five inches in diameter, and about seven or -eight feet in length. It has a play to a certain extension, by means of -a staple in the wall, to which is inserted a kind of eye, making its -action like the machine by which they cut chaff for horses. The lump of -dough being placed exactly in the centre of a raised platform, the man -sits upon the end of the machine, and literally rides up and down -throughout its whole circular direction, till the dough is equally -indented; and this is repeated till it is sufficiently kneaded; at which -times, by the different positions of the lines, large or small circles -are described, according as they are near to or distant from the wall. - -The dough in this state is handed over to a second workman, who slices -it with a prodigious knife; and it is then in a proper state for the use -of those bakers who attend the oven. These are five in number; and their -different departments are as well calculated for expedition and -correctness, as the making of pins, or other mechanical employments. On -each side of a large table, where the dough is laid, stands a workman; -at a small table near the oven stands another; a fourth stands by the -side of the oven, to receive the bread; and a fifth to supply the peel. -By this arrangement the oven is as regularly filled and the whole -exercise performed in as exact time, as a military evolution. The man on -the further side of the large table, moulds the dough, having previously -formed it into small pieces till it has the appearance of muffins, -although rather thinner, and which he does two together, with each hand; -and, as fast as he accomplishes this task, he delivers his work over to -the man on the other side of the table, who stamps them with a docker on -both sides with a mark. As he rids himself of this work, he throws the -biscuits on the smaller table next the oven, where stands the third -workman, whose business is merely to separate the different pieces into -two, and place them immediately under the hand of him who supplies the -oven, whose work of throwing, or rather chucking, the bread upon the -peel, must be so exact, that if he looked round for a single moment, it -is impossible he should perform it correctly. The fifth receives the -biscuit on the peel, and arranges it in the oven; in which duty he is so -very expert, that though the different pieces are thrown at the rate of -seventy in a minute, the peel is always disengaged in time to receive -them separately. - -As the oven stands open during the whole time of filling it, the -biscuits first thrown in would be first baked, were there not some -counteraction to such an inconvenience. The remedy lies in the ingenuity -of the man who forms the pieces of dough, and who, by imperceptible -degrees, proportionably diminishes their size, till the loss of that -time, which is taken up during the filling of the oven, has no more -effect to the disadvantage of one of the biscuits than to another. - -So much critical exactness and neat activity occur in the exercise of -this labour, that it is difficult to decide whether the palm of -excellence is due to the moulder, the marker, the splitter, the chucker, -or the depositor; all of them, like the wheels of a machine, seeming to -be actuated by the same principle. The business is to deposit in the -oven seventy biscuits in a minute; and this is accomplished with the -regularity of a clock; the clack of the peel, during its motion in the -oven, operating like the pendulum. - -The biscuits thus baked, are dried in lofts over the oven till they are -perfectly dry, to prevent them getting mouldy when stored for use. - -One-hundred and twelve pounds of flour produce one hundred and two -pounds of perfectly dry biscuits. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - Leavened Bread, - - -Or bread made with a portion of fermented sour dough, obtained by -keeping some bread dough till the acetous fermentation takes place, when -it swells, rarifies, and acquires a taste somewhat sour, and rather -disagreeable. This fermented dough is well worked up with some fresh -dough, which is, by that mixture and moderate heat, disposed to ferment; -and by this fermentation the dough is attenuated and divided, carbonic -acid is extricated, which being incapable of disengaging itself from the -tenaceous and solid dough, forms it into small cavities, and raises and -swells it; hence, the small quantity of fermented dough which disposes -the rest of the mass to ferment is called _leaven_. - -Most of the bread used by the people in the lower walks of life in -France, Germany, Holland, and other European countries, is made in this -manner. - -Leavened bread, therefore, differs from unleavened bread, in being -fermented by means of _leaven_, which is nothing more than a piece of -dough kept in a warm place, till it undergoes a process of fermentation, -swelling, becoming spongy, and full of air bubbles, and at length -disengaging an acidulous vapour, and contracting a sour taste. Leaven -must, therefore, be considered as dough which has fermented and become -sour, but which is still in its progress towards greater acidity. - -The addition of leaven, or this species of ferment to fresh dough, -produces an important change in the bread, for when a small portion of -leaven is intimately mixed with a large proportion of fresh dough, it -gradually causes the whole mass to ferment throughout, a quantity of -carbonic acid gas is extracted from the flour, but remaining entangled -by the tenacity of the mass in which it is expanded by heat, this raises -the dough, and as soon as the mass has acquired a due increase of bulk -from the carbonic acid gas which endeavours to escape, it is judged to -be sufficiently fermented and fit for the oven, the heat of which, by -driving off the water, checks the fermentation, and forms a bread full -of small cavities, entirely different from the heavy, compact, viscous -masses, made by baking unfermented dough. - -A great deal of nicety is required in conducting this operation, for if -it is continued too long, the bread will be sour, and if too short a -time has been allowed for the dough to ferment and rise, it will be -heavy. - -Bread raised by leaven is usually made of a mixture of wheat and rye, -not very accurately cleared of the bran. It is distinguished by the name -of _rye bread_; and the mixture of these two kinds of grain is called -bread-corn, in many parts of the kingdom, where it is raised on one and -the same piece of ground, and passes through all the processes of -reaping, thrashing, grinding, &c. A mixture of one-hundred pounds of -equal parts of wheat and rye flour, produce from one-hundred and -fifty-four to one-hundred and fifty-six pounds of leavened bread. - - - Leavened Rye Bread. - -Take a piece of dough, of about a pound weight, and keep it for use—it -will keep several days very well. Mix this dough with some warm water, -and knead it up with a portion of flour to ferment; then take half a -bushel of flour, and divide it into four parts; mix a quarter of the -flour with the leaven, and a sufficient quantity of water to make it -into dough, and knead it well. Let this remain in a corner of your -trough, covered with flannel, until it ferments and rises properly; then -dilute it with more water, and add another quarter of the flour, and let -it remain and rise. Do the same with the other two quarters of the -flour, one quarter after another, taking particular care never to mix -more flour till the last has risen properly. When finished, add six -ounces of salt; then knead it again, and divide it into eight loaves, -making them broad, and not so thick and high as is usually done, by -which means they will be better baked. Let them remain to rise, in order -to overcome the pressure of the hand in forming them; then put them in -the oven, and reserve a piece of dough for the next baking. The dough -thus kept, may with proper care, be prevented from spoiling, by mixing -from time to time small quantities of fresh flour with it. - -It requires some attention to be able to determine the exact quantity of -leaven necessary for the proper fermentation of the dough. When it is -deficient in quantity, the process of fermentation is interrupted, and -the bread thus prepared is solid and heavy, and if too much leaven be -used, it communicates to the bread a disagreeable sour taste. - - - Hungarian Rye Bread. - -Two large handfuls of hops are boiled in four quarts of water: this is -poured upon as much wheaten bread as it will moisten, and to this are -added four or five pounds of leaven. When the mass is warm, the several -ingredients are worked together till well mixed. It is then deposited in -a warm place for twenty-four hours, and afterwards divided into small -pieces, about the size of a hen’s egg, which are dried by being placed -on a board, and exposed to a dry air, but not to the sun; when dry, they -are laid up for use, and may be kept half a year. The ferment, thus -prepared, is applied in the following manner: for baking six large -loaves, six good handfuls of these balls are dissolved in seven or eight -quarts of warm water; this water is poured through a sieve into one end -of the bread trough, and after it three quarts of warm water; the -remaining mass being well pressed out. The liquor is mixed up with -flour, sufficient to form a mass of the size of a large loaf; this is -strewed over with flour: the sieve, with its contents, is put upon it, -and the whole is covered up warm, and left till it has risen enough, and -its surface has begun to crack; this forms the leaven. Fifteen quarts of -warm water, in which six handfuls of salt has been dissolved, are then -poured upon it through the sieve; the necessary quantity of flour is -added, and mixed and kneaded with the leaven: this is covered up warm, -and left for about half an hour. It is then formed into loaves, which -are kept for another half-hour in a warm room; and after that they are -put into the oven, where they remain two or three hours, according to -their size. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - Bread made with Yeast. - - -The principal improvement that has been made in the art of fabricating -bread, consists in the substitution of yeast, (or the froth that rises -to the surface during the fermentation of malt liquors,) instead of -common flour dough, in a state of acescency, called _leaven_, to rise -the bread dough, made of flour and water, before it is baked. This -substance very materially improves the bread. Yeast makes the dough rise -more effectually than ordinary _leaven_, and the bread thus produced is -much lighter, and free from that sour taste which may often be perceived -in bread raised with leaven; because too much has been added to the -paste, or because the dough has been allowed to advance too far in the -process of fermentation before it was baked. - -The discovery of the application of yeast, to improve the panification -of bread flour, was made and first secretly adopted by the bakers of -Paris; but when the practice was discovered, the College of Physicians -there, in 1688, declared it prejudicial to health, and it was not till -after a long time that the bakers succeeded in convincing the people, -that bread made with yeast was superior to bread made with sour dough or -leaven. - -The bread used in this metropolis and in most other large towns in -England, is made of wheaten flour, water, yeast, and salt. The average -proportion are two pints by weight, of water, to three of flour, but the -proportions vary considerably with the diversity of climate, years, -season, age, and grinding of the wheat. There are some kinds of wheat -flour that require precisely three-fourths of their weight of water. -That flour is always the best which combines with the greatest possible -quantity of water. Bakers and pastry-cooks judge of the quality of flour -from the characters of the dough. The best flour forms instantly by the -addition of water a very gluey elastic paste, whereas bad flour produces -a dough that cannot be elongated without breaking. - -The flour, in this case, being seldom mixed up oftener than twice, that -is, the yeast previously diluted with water, is added to a part of the -flour, and well kneaded; in a short time, swells and rises in the baking -trough, and is called by the bakers, _setting the sponge_. The remainder -of the flour is afterwards added, with a sufficient quantity of warm -water to make it into a stiff dough, and then allowed to ferment. It is -of essential consequence that the whole of the yeast should be -intimately mixed with the two-thirds of the quantity of the flour put -into the kneading trough, in order that the fermentation of the dough -may commence in every part of the mass at the same time. The dough is -then covered up, and the water which is mixed with the yeast being warm, -speedily extricates air in an elastic state, and as it is now by -kneading, diffused through every part of the dough, every particle must -become raised, and the viscidity of the mass retains it, when it is -again well kneaded and made up into loaves, and put into the oven. The -heat converts the water also into an elastic vapour, and the loaf swells -more and more, till at last it is perfectly porous. - -During the baking, a still greater quantity of gazeous matter is -extricated by the increased heat; and as the crust of the bread becomes -formed, the air is prevented from escaping, the water is dissipated, the -loaf rendered somewhat dry and solid, and between every particle of -bread there is a particle of air, as appears from the spongy appearance -of the bread. - -It is curious that new flour does not afford bread of so good a quality -as that which has been kept some months. The flour of grain too, which -has suffered incipient germination, is much inferior in the quality of -bread prepared from it: and from this principally appears to arise the -injury which wheat sustains from a wet harvest. Various methods have -been employed to remedy the imperfections of bread from inferior flour, -such as washing the grain with hot water if it is musty, proposed by Mr. -Hatchet;[5] drying and heating it even to a certain extent; adding -various substances, such as magnesia, &c. Some experiments on this -subject have been given by Mr. E. Davy. See a Treatise on Adulterations -of Food, Second Edition, p.137. - -Footnote 5: - - See a Treatise on Adulterations of Food and Culinary Poisons, Second - Edition, p. 143. - - - METHOD OF MAKING WHEATEN BREAD, AS PRACTISED BY THE LONDON BAKERS. - -To make a sack of flour into bread, the baker pours the flour into the -kneading trough, and sifts it through a fine wire sieve, which makes it -lie very light, and serves to separate any impurities with which the -flour may be mixed. Two ounces of alum are then dissolved in about a -quart of boiling water, and the solution (technically called liquor,) is -poured into _the seasoning-tub_. Four or five pounds of salt are -likewise put into the tub, and a pailful of hot water. When this mixture -has cooled to the temperature of about 84°, from three to four pints of -yeast are added; the whole is mixed, strained through the seasoning -sieve, emptied into a hole made in the mass of the flour, and mixed up -with the requisite portion of it to the consistence of a thick batter. -Some dry flour is then sprinkled over the top, and it is covered up with -sacks or cloths. This operation is called setting _quarter sponge_. - -In this situation it is left three or four hours. It gradually swells -and breaks through the dry flour scattered on its surface. An additional -quantity, (about one pailful,) of warm (liquor) water, in which one -ounce of alum is dissolved, is now added, and the dough is made up into -a paste as before; the whole is then covered up. In this situation it is -left for four or five hours. This is called _setting half sponge_. - -The whole is then intimately kneaded with more water, (about two pails -full,) for upwards of an hour. The dough is cut into pieces with a -knife, and penned to one side of the trough; some dry flour is sprinkled -over it, and it is left to _prove_ in this state for about four hours. -It is then kneaded again for half an hour. The dough is now taken out of -the trough, put on the lid, cut into pieces, and weighed, in order to -furnish the requisite quantity for each loaf. - -The operation of moulding is peculiar, and can only be learnt by -practice; it consists in cutting the mass of dough destined for a loaf, -into two equal portions: they are kneaded either round or long, and one -placed in a hollow made in the other, and the union is completed by a -turn of the knuckles on the centre of the upper piece. - -The loaves are left in the oven about two hours and a half, or three -hours, when taken out of the oven, they are turned with their bottom -side upwards to prevent them from splitting. They are then covered up -with a blanket to cool slowly. - - - QUANTITY OF BREAD OBTAINABLE FROM A GIVEN QUANTITY OF WHEATEN FLOUR. - -A sack of flour, weighing two hundred and eighty pounds, is made with -five pounds of salt, and from three to four pints of yeast, into dough, -with the requisite quantity of water, which varies according to the -quality of the flour. - -The older the flour, provided the wheat has been sound, and the flour -well preserved, the greater will be the quantity of water required to -convert it into a stiff dough, and the greater the produce of bread. - -The quantity of flour for a quartern loaf is reckoned at an average, -three pounds and a half, which produces, if the flour be of the best -quality, five pounds avoirdupoise of dough. The quartern loaf produced -from this quantity of flour weighs four pounds, five ounces and a half, -and hence the dough loses, during baking, eleven ounces and a half. - -The quantity of bread obtainable from the same quantity of flour is, -however, much influenced by the manner in which the dough is fermented, -and the skilful regulation of the heat employed for baking the bread. - -A variation of temperature also makes a considerable difference to the -baker’s profit or loss. In summer, a sack of flour will yield a quartern -loaf more than in winter; and the sifting it, before it is wetted, if it -does not make it produce more bread, certainly causes the loaves to be -larger. - -The loss of weight occasioned by the heat is proportional to the extent -of the surface of the loaf, and to the length of time it remains in the -oven. Hence the smaller the surface, or the nearer the figure of the -loaf approaches to a globe, the smaller is the loss of weight sustained -in baking; and the longer the loaf continues in the oven the greater is -the loss. - -A loaf that weighed just four pounds when taken out of the oven, after -the usual baking, was put in again, and after ten minutes was found to -have lost two ounces, and in ten minutes more it lost another ounce. The -longer bread is kept the lighter it is, unless it be kept in a damp -place, or wrapt round with a wet cloth, which is an excellent method of -preserving bread fresh and free from mould, for a long time. - - - Home-made Wheaten Bread. - -Take a bushel of wheaten flour, and put two third parts of it in one -heap into a trough or tub; then dilute two pints of yeast with three or -four pints of warm water, and add to this mixture from eight to ten -ounces of salt. Make a hole in the middle of the heap of flour, pour the -mixture of yeast, salt, and water into it, and knead the whole into an -uniform stiff dough, with such an additional quantity of water as is -requisite for that purpose, and suffer the dough to rise in a warm -place. - -When the dough has risen, and just begins again to subside, add to it -gradually the remaining one third part of the flour; knead it again -thoroughly, taking care to add gradually so much warm water as is -sufficient to form the whole into a stiff tenaceous dough, and continue -the kneading. At first the mass is very adhesive and clings to the -fingers, but it becomes less so the longer the kneading is continued; -and when the fist, on being withdrawn, leaves its perfect impression in -the dough, none of it adhering to the fingers, the kneading may be -discontinued. The dough may be then divided into loaf pieces, (of about -5lb. in weight). Knead each piece once more separately, and having made -it up in the proper form, put it in a warm place, cover it up with a -blanket to promote the last rising; and when this has taken place, put -it into the oven. When the loaves are withdrawn they should be covered -up with a blanket to cool as slowly as possible. - - - To make Pan Bread. - -Mix up the flour, salt, and yeast, (See page 97), with the requisite -portion of warm water, into a moderately stiff paste; but instead of -causing part of the flour to ferment, (or setting the sponge), as stated -in the preceding process, suffer the whole mass to rise at once. Then -divide it into earthenware pans, or sheet iron moulds, and bake the -loaves till nearly done, in a quick oven; at that time remove them out -of the pans, or moulds, and set them on tins for a few minutes, in order -that the crust may become brown, and when done wrap them up in flannel, -and rasp them when cold. - -Bread made in this manner is much more spongy or honeycombed, than bread -made in the common way. It is essential that the dough be not so stiff, -as when intended for common bread, moulded by the hand. - - - Brown Wheaten Bread. - -Suppose a Winchester bushel of good wheat weighs fifty-nine pounds, let -it be sent to the mill and ground; including the bran, the meal will -weigh fifty-eight pounds, for not more than a pound will be lost in -grinding. - -Mix it up with water, yeast, and salt, like the dough of common bread, -(See page 97); the mass, before it is put into the oven, will weigh -about eighty-eight pounds. - -Divide it into eighteen loaves, and put them into the oven; when -thoroughly baked, and after they are drawn out and left two hours to -cool, they will weigh seventy-four pounds and a half. - - - Mixed Wheaten Bread. - -Take a peck of wheaten flour, the same quantity of oatmeal, and half a -peck of boiled potatoes, skinned and mashed; let the mass be kneaded -into a dough, with a proper quantity of yeast, salt, and warm milk; make -the dough into loaves, and put them into the oven to bake. - -The bread, thus prepared, rises well in the oven, is of a light brown -colour, and by no means of an unpleasant flavour; it tastes so little of -the oatmeal, as to be taken, by those who are unacquainted with its -composition, for barley or rye bread. It is sufficiently moist, and, if -put in a proper place, keeps well for a week. - - - Rolls, French Bread, Muffins and Crumpets. - -The dough of which rolls are made by the generality of the London -bakers, is suffered to _prove_, that is to rise more, than dough -intended to be made into loaf-bread. It is, therefore, left in the -kneading trough, whilst the loaves made of the same dough are in the -oven. During this period it rises more, and the fermentation is further -promoted, by placing the rolls, when moulded, in a warm place, to cause -the dough to expand as much as possible. When this has taken place, they -are put in the oven to be baked, which is effected in about twenty or -thirty minutes. When taken out of the oven they are slightly brushed -over with a buttered brush, which gives the top crust a shining -appearance, they are then covered up with flannel to cool gradually. - -I have witnessed at a baker’s, who has the reputation for making -excellent rolls, forty-eight pounds of dough moulded into one hundred -(penny) rolls; they weighed, when drawn out of the oven, twenty-six -pounds. - -The bread called in this metropolis French rolls, and French bread, is -made precisely in the same manner, namely, from common bread dough, but -of a less stiff consistence; they are suffered to rise to a greater -extent than dough intended for loaf-bread. - -Some bakers make rolls and French bread of a superior kind, for private -families, in the following manner: - -Put a peck of flour into the kneading trough, and sift it through a wire -sieve, then rub in three quarters of a pound of butter, and, when it is -intimately blended with the flour, mix up with it two quarts of warm -milk, a quarter of a pound of salt, and a pint of yeast; let these be -mixed with the flour, and a sufficient quantity of warm water to knead -it into a dough; suffer it to stand two hours to prove, and then mould -it into rolls, which are to be placed on tins, and set for an hour near -the fire or in the proving closet. They are then put into a brisk oven -for about twenty minutes, and when drawn, the crust is rasped. - -The cakes, called in this metropolis, _muffins_ and _crumpets_, are -baked, not in an oven, but on a hot iron plate. - -For muffins, wheaten flour is made with water, or milk, into a batter or -dough. To a quarter of a peck of flour is usually added three quarters -of a pint of yeast, four ounces of salt, and so much water (or milk) -slightly warmed, as is sufficient to form a dough of rather a soft -consistence. Small portions of the dough are then put into holes, -previously made in a layer of flour, about two inches thick, placed on a -board, and the whole is covered up with a blanket and suffered to stand -near a fire, to cause the muffin dough to rise. When this has been -effected, the small cakes will exhibit a semi-globular shape. They are -then carefully transferred on the heated iron plate to be baked, and -when the bottom of the muffin begins to acquire a brown colour, they are -turned and baked on the opposite side. - -_Crumpets_ are made of a batter composed of flour, water (or milk), and -a small quantity of yeast. To one pound of the best wheaten flour is -usually added three table-spoonsful of yeast. A portion of the liquid -paste, after having been suffered to rise, is poured on a heated iron -plate, and quickly baked, like pancakes in a frying pan. - - - Barley Bread. - -Barley, next to wheat, is the most profitable of the farinaceous grains, -and when mixed with a small proportion of wheat flour, may be made into -bread. Barley bread is not spongy, and feels heavier in the hand than -wheaten bread. - -To remedy this defect in part, it is always best to set the _sponge_ -with wheat flour only, for barley flour does not readily ferment with -yeast, and adding the barley flour, when the dough is intended to be -made. Bread made in this way requires to be kept a longer time in the -oven than wheaten bread, and the heat of the oven should also be -somewhat greater; but barley bread is sometimes made without the -addition of wheaten flour. - -Suppose a bushel of barley to weigh fifty-two pounds and a half to be -made into bread; let it be sent to the mill, and have the bran taken -out, which, with what is lost in grinding and dressing, will probably -reduce it to forty-four pounds. If the meal be kneaded into dough, with -water, yeast, and salt, suffered to rise, and then divided into eight -loaves, and thoroughly baked, they will weigh about sixty pounds, after -drawn out of the oven, and left two hours to cool. - -Barley bread is eaten by many of the farmers and labourers in husbandry, -also by the miners in Devonshire and Cornwall. - - - Mixed Barley Bread. - -Take four bushels of wheat ground to form one sort of flour, extracting -only a very small quantity of the coarser bran.[6] Add to it three -bushels and a half of barley flour, mix up the flour into a dough in the -usual manner, with salt, yeast, and warm water, (See page 97), let it be -divided into loaves, and put them into the oven made hotter than it -would be for baking wheaten bread. Let them remain in the oven three -hours and a half. In Yorkshire, bread made from a mixture of these -grains is esteemed more wholesome to those who are used to it, than -bread made from wheat alone. - -Footnote 6: - - From the Reports of the Board of Agriculture. - - - Rye Bread. - -Rye is a grain whose cultivation is not much encouraged in this kingdom, -but in the northern parts of Europe it is in very extensive use as a -nourishing food for mankind. When made into bread alone, it is of a dark -brown colour, and sweetish taste, and if eat by people unaccustomed to -its use, it is found to have a laxative effect. In some parts of this -kingdom, a mixture of rye and wheat is reckoned an excellent bread. In -Yorkshire, bread made from a mixture of these two grains is esteemed. - -The following method of making household rye bread, has been recommended -by the board of agriculture.[7] - -Footnote 7: - - Account of Experiments tried by the Board of Agriculture, p. 12. - -Suppose a bushel of rye to weigh sixty pounds, add to it a fourth part, -or fifteen pounds of rice; this when ground has only the broad bran -taken out, which seldom exceeds four and a half or five pounds for that -quantity; it is thus directed to be prepared for household rye bread. - -Take fourteen pounds of the mixed flour, a sufficient quantity of yeast, -salt, and warm water, and let it be made in a dough, and baked in the -usual way. It will produce twenty-two pounds weight of bread, which is a -surplus of three pounds and a half in fourteen pounds, over and above -what is usually produced in the common process of converting household -wheat flour into bread. - - - Turnip Bread. - -A very good turnip bread may be made by the following process: Let the -turnips be pared and boiled. When they are soft enough, for being -mashed, the greater part of the water should be pressed out of them, and -they should be mixed with an equal quantity in weight of wheat flour. -The dough may then be made in the usual manner, with yeast, salt, and -warm water. It will rise well in the trough, and after being kneaded, it -may be formed into loaves, and put into the oven. It requires to be -baked rather longer than ordinary bread, and when taken from the oven is -equally light and white, rather sweeter, with a slight but not -disagreeable taste of the turnip. After it has been allowed to stand -twelve hours, this taste is scarcely perceptible, and the smell is -totally lost, and after an interval of twenty-four hours, it cannot be -known that it has turnips in its composition, although it has still a -peculiar sweetish taste, but by no means unpalatable. It keeps for -upwards of a week. - - - Rice Bread. - -Rice, though one of the roughest and driest of farinaceous vegetables, -is converted by the Americans into a very pleasant fermented bread. The -process is as follows: The grain is first washed by pouring water upon -it, then stirring it, and changing the water until it be sufficiently -cleansed. The water is afterwards drawn off, and the rice, being -sufficiently drained, is put, while yet damp, into a mortar, and beaten -to powder; it is now completely dried, and passed through a common hair -sieve. The flour, thus obtained, is generally kneaded with a small -proportion of Indian corn meal, and boiled into a thickish consistence; -or sometimes it is mixed with boiled potatoes, and a small quantity of -leaven, or yeast, is added to the mass. When it has fermented, -sufficiently, the dough is put into pans, and placed in an oven. The -bread made by this process is light and wholesome, pleasing to the eye, -and agreeable to the taste. But rice flour will make excellent bread, -without the addition of either potatoes, or any kind of meal. Let a -sufficient quantity of the flour be put into a kneading trough; and at -the same time let a due proportion of water be boiled in a cauldron, -into which throw a few handfuls of rice in grain, and boil it till it -break. This forms a thick and viscous substance, which is poured upon -the flour, and the whole kneaded with a mixture of salt and yeast; the -dough is then covered with warm clothes, and left to rise. In the -process of fermentation, this dough, firm at first, becomes liquid as -soup, and seems quite incapable of being wrought by the hand. To obviate -this inconvenience, the oven is heated while the dough is rising; and -when it has attained a proper temperature, a tinned box is taken, -furnished with a handle long enough to reach to the end of the oven; a -little water is poured into this box, which is then filled with dough, -and covered with cabbage leaves and a leaf of paper. The box is thus -committed to the oven, and suddenly reversed. The heat of the oven -prevents the dough from spreading, and keeps it in the form which the -box has given it. This bread is both beautiful and good; but when it -becomes a little stale, loses much of its excellence. It comes out of -the oven of a fine yellow colour, like pastry which has yolks of eggs in -it. Other methods of making rice bread are the following: - -1. Boil a quarter of a pound of rice till it is quite soft; then put it -on the back part of a sieve to drain, and when it is cool, mix it up -with three quarters of a pound of wheaten flour, a spoonful of yeast, -and two ounces of salt. Let it stand for three hours, then knead it -well, and roll it in about a handful of wheaten flour, so as to make the -outside dry enough to put it in the oven. About an hour and a quarter -will bake it, and it will produce one pound fourteen ounces of very good -white bread, but it should not be cut till it is two days old. Another -way is the following: - -2. Take half a peck of rice flour, and one peck of wheaten flour, mix -them together and knead the dough up with a sufficient quantity of salt, -yeast, and warm water, as stated in page 97. Suffer it to ferment, -divide it into eight loaves, and bake them. - -3. Take a peck of rice, boil it over night till it becomes soft, then -put it in a pan, and the next morning it will be found to have swelled -prodigiously. A peck of potatoes should now be boiled, skinned, and -mashed into a fine pulp, and while hot, be well kneaded up with the -rice, and a peck of wheaten flour; a sufficient quantity of yeast and -salt must now be added, and the dough left in the kneading trough to -prove or ferment; and when well risen it may be divided into loaves and -baked in the usual way. - - - Potatoe Bread. - -Potatoes, mixed in various quantities, with flour, make a wholesome, -nutritive, and pleasant bread. Various methods are employed for -preparing the potatoes. - -1. Pare a peck of potatoes, put them into a proper quantity of water, -and boil them till they are reduced to a pulp, then beat them up into a -smooth mass with the water they boiled in, and knead the mass, with two -pecks of wheaten flour, with a sufficient quantity of yeast and salt, -into a dough; cover it up, and allow it to ferment like common wheaten -bread, then make it up into loaves and bake them. Another method is the -following: - -2. Take twelve pounds of the most mealy sort of peeled potatoes, boil -and press them through a fine wire sieve, in such a manner as to reduce -the roots, as nearly as possible, to a state of dry flour. Mix it up -with twenty pounds of wheaten flour; and of this mixture make, and set -the dough in the same manner as if the whole were wheaten flour. See -page 97. - -3. Take three pounds of potatoes, boil, skin, and mash them, and whilst -warm, bruise them with a spoon, and put them into a dish before the -fire, to let the moisture evaporate, stirring them frequently, that no -part grows hard; when dry, rub them as fine as possible and add nine -pounds of wheaten flour, and with a sufficient quantity of yeast and -salt, knead it up as other dough; lay it a little while before the fire -to ferment, and then divide it into loaves and bake them in a very hot -oven. Another method is the following: - -4. Boil and peel the potatoes as for eating, reduce them without any -water to a fine meal or stiff paste. Add to two parts by weight of the -paste, one part of potatoe starch, and half a part of wheaten flour, and -having added to it salt and yeast, suffer it to ferment; mould the dough -into loaves, and bake them in the usual manner. - -M. Parmentier found, from a variety of experiments, that good bread -might be made from a mixture of raw potatoe-pulp and wheaten meal, with -the addition of yeast and salt; and Dr. Darwin asserts, that if eight -pounds of good raw potatoes be grated into cold water, and after -stirring the mixture the starch be left to subside, and when collected, -mixed with eight pounds of boiled potatoes, the mass will make as good -bread as that from the best wheaten flour. - - - Potatoe Rolls. - -Bruise four pounds of boiled and skinned potatoes, with as much milk as -will just produce a mass, which readily may be squeezed through a -cullender, add this mass to wheaten flour paste of a middling stiffness, -obtained from six pounds of wheaten flour; put it before a fire to rise, -make it into rolls, and bake them in a quick oven. The rolls thus made -will be more porous and light than common rolls. - - - Apple Bread. - -M. Duduit de Maizieres, a French officer of the king’s household, has -invented and practised with great success, a method of making bread of -common apples, very far superior to potatoe bread. After having boiled -one third of peeled apples, he bruised them, while quite warm, into -two-thirds of flour, including the proper quantity of yeast, and kneaded -the whole without water, the juice of the fruit being quite sufficient. -When this mixture had acquired the consistency of paste, he put it into -a vessel, in which he allowed it to rise for about twelve hours. By this -process he obtained a very excellent bread, full of eyes, and extremely -palatable and light. - - - Domestic Oven for Baking Bread. - -The figure on the title page exhibits a convenient culinary oven for -families who bake their own bread. It is usually erected on one side of -the kitchen fire-place, and heated by a flue that passes from the -fire-grate under the bottom of the oven. Although this is in many -respects a convenient and neat way of heating the oven, yet the manner -of managing the fire renders it only economical in families where a -large fire is always kept up in the kitchen-grate. In small families it -is far more economical to heat the oven by means of a separate -fire-place built underneath it. A fire-place six inches wide, nine -inches long, and six inches deep, is sufficient to heat an oven eighteen -inches wide, twenty-four inches long, and from twelve to fifteen inches -high, which is a convenient size for the baking of bread. The grate -should be placed at least twelve inches below the bottom of the oven -when the fuel employed is pit-coal; and, in order to prevent the fire -from operating with too much violence upon any part of the oven, the -brick-work should be sloped outwards and upwards on every side, from the -top of the burning fuel, to the ends and sides of the bottom of the -oven, that the whole may be exposed to the direct rays of the fire. If -the fire-place be built in this manner, and properly managed, it is -almost incredible how small a quantity of fuel will answer for heating -the oven, and keeping it hot. In this small fire-place there is always a -very strong draft of air passing into it, and this circumstance, which -is unavoidable, renders it necessary to keep the fire-place door -constantly closed, and to leave but a small opening, for the passage of -the air, through the ash-pit. If these precautions are neglected, the -fuel will be consumed very rapidly, the bottom of the oven will be -burnt, and the oven get chilled as soon as the fire-place ceases to be -filled with burning fuel. In an oven of this description, I have baked -two loaves, each weighing five pounds, and fifteen rolls weighing two -pounds, by means of half a peck (ten pounds) of coal. - -The figures on the plate facing the titlepage[See Note] exhibit an oven -to be heated with pit-coal for baking bread, now generally employed in -this metropolis. - -The oven from which this design has been made, is eight feet wide, and -seven deep. The fire-place, called by the bakers, the furnace, for -heating the oven, is placed at the side, and enters the oven diagonally; -it is furnished with a grate, ash holes, and iron door, similar to a -common fire-place for heating a boiler, but having a partition to -separate it from the oven, and to allow the fire to enter into the oven; -it, therefore, forms a canal, by which the flame is directed into the -oven. Over the fire-place or furnace is erected, and lets into the -brick-work, a boiler furnished with a pipe, to supply warm water as -occasion may require. - -When the oven is required to be heated, the boiler is filled with water, -and the fire being kindled in the furnace, the flame passes into the -oven, and the smoke escapes into the chimney. - -The sides of the oven are nearly straight, and turned as sharp as -possible at the shoulder, for this form has been found better calculated -to retain the heat than any other. - -The flues to carry off the smoke is over the entrance door, as shown by -the dotted line _a_ of the figure here exhibited, exhibiting the plan of -the oven. - -[Illustration] - -A piece of cast iron covers the space before the door of the oven, -exactly level with its floor; the opening underneath is applied to no -particular use, but is generally made a receptacle for coal. - -_Fig. 1_, is an _elevation_ of the oven. The mouth is closed with a cast -iron door, in which is a small sight-hole with a slide valve. To heat -the oven, the door is thrown back, and a _blower_ is applied to the -mouth, so contrived, as not only to cover the mouth of the oven -completely, but to enclose also the throat of the chimney; by this -contrivance the draft is quickly so much increased, that the oven -becomes speedily heated, and if at anytime it is too hot, it is only -necessary to throw open the door of the fire place, and to put up the -_blower_ for a few minutes; the current of cool air which is thus made -to pass through it, soon lowers the heat to the temperature required. In -the _blower_ is also an opening of the same kind as that in the oven -door, which may be opened and shut at pleasure; the course of the flue -is described by the dotted lines at (_b_). - -_Fig. 2_, is the _blower_ before mentioned for regulating the heat of -the oven. - -_Fig. 3_, is a transverse section from _A_ to _B_ on the plan, looking -towards the opening, the fire-place entering the oven at _c_, the crown -of the oven is turned with the bricks on end, and in building the oven -instead of centering the arch, the whole space is filled with sand, -which is well trod down and shaped to the shape which it is intended the -crown of the oven shall be of. When the upper work is finished, the sand -is dug out at the mouth of the oven. - -_Fig. 4_, is a longitudinal section of the oven from _C_ to _D_. In this -sketch the situation of the flue is evident, and the sectional line of -the _blower_, fig. 2, when in its place, is shown by the dotted line -_d_, the open space _a_, under the oven, has been before spoken of. - - - Popular Errors concerning the Quality of Bread. - -The great advantage of eating pure and genuine bread must be obvious. -Every part of the wheat, which may be called flour, was not only -intended to be eaten by man, but it really makes the best bread. The -delusion, however, by which so many persons are misled to think that -even the whole flour is not good enough, obliges them to pay much dearer -for their bread than they need, to gratify a perverted and fanciful -appetite. Had it not been for the custom of eating whiter bread than the -whole of the _flour_ can make, the miller and baker would not have -employed their art to render the bread as white as possible, and to make -the consumer pay for the artificial whiteness. The average quantity of -flour, from an unvaried series of experiments, made from age to age, -through the course of many hundred years, appears to be three-fourth -parts in weight of the whole grain of wheat, taking all wheats together, -being more in the finer sorts, and less in the coarser; and the bread -made from this flour has always been deemed the standard of the food of -bread corn. But, by insensible degrees, the manufacture of bread became -separated into two distinct employments. - -In consequence of this alteration, the baker, having no further -connexion with the market for corn, became dependant solely on the -mealman for supplying him with flour, who, not considering himself -amenable to the then existing assize laws, made different kinds of -flour, some extremely fine and white, while others were very coarse and -unpalatable. These artificial whites, when made into bread, were so -pleasing to the eye and taste, that, in the course of a few years, they -got into such general use that the people refused any longer to purchase -the bread made of the whole of the grain. - -“Our forefathers[8] never _refined_ so much: they never preyed so much -on each other; nor, I presume, made so many laws necessary for their -restraint, as we do.” - -Footnote 8: - - The great advantage of eating pure and genuine bread, comprehending - the heart of the wheat with all its flour. Shewing how this may be a - means of promoting health and plenty, preserving infants from the - grave, by destroying the temptation to the use of alum and other - ingredients in our present wheaten bread. By an advocate for the - trade. London, 1773. See also Important considerations upon the act of - the thirty-first of George II. relative to the assize of bread. - London: T. Becket, Strand, 1768. - -“In looking back, for some hundred years, it appears that they adopted a -certain plan, supposing that nature had given nothing in vain, and that -every part of the wheat which may be called flour, was not only intended -to be eaten by _men_, but that it really made the best bread, as that -might be called the _best_, which is best adapted to general use, and in -itself so fine, as to contain no parts of the coat, or husks of grain.” - -“The inference which I mean to draw from what is premised, is to remind -my fellow citizens of the unfortunate delusion of thinking that even the -_whole flour_ of the wheat is not good enough for _them_; that part of -it must be taken away, and given to _birds_ or _beasts_.” - -“By this delusion, supposing a certain quantity of wheat appropriated to -their use, (and this is the view they should see it in,) they lose one -third part of the flour, and consequently have so much the less bread to -supply their wants.” - -“Is it not then monstrous to hear them complain? Is it not absurd to -talk of poverty, and yet pay a _seventh_ or _eighth part_ more than they -need, to gratify a fantastic appetite? Had it not been from the custom -of eating whiter bread than the whole flour of the wheat will make, -should we have thus imposed on ourselves? Would the miller or baker -employ all his art to make the bread as _white_ as possible, and oblige -us to pay for this _artificial_ whiteness? They tell the consumer, the -_whiter it is_, the _finer_; and the finer, the more nutritive. Thus we -become _dupes_ so far as to overlook the essential good properties of -genuine bread, made of all the flour of the wheat, and likewise the -difference in the price.” - -“We are taught to favour a gross delusion at the suggestion of -interested persons, against our own substantial welfare. It is the -interest of every one to be _honest_, and say nothing contrary to his -real sentiments, as it is the duty of those who have knowledge, to -inform such as are ignorant. Those who have never eaten bread of all the -flour in a pure state, with the native taste of wheat, and the moisture -which it preserves, can know nothing of the comparative excellence of it -with respect to the whitened city bread which they have been accustomed -to eat all their lives.” - -“The dictates of the understanding will ever yield to the pleasures of -the imagination: and the provident will be attentive to take the -advantage of the extravagant. Thus it happens that the poor have been -bewildered, and deprived of the object they sought.” - -“The event depends on the good sense of masters and mistresses of -families, and their right understanding of what they mean to eat, _that -is_, of what parts of the wheat the bread they consume is made. If they -are satisfied that the bread is more pure than what they used to eat, -and _sufficiently fine_, we may presume, if they are in their right -minds, they will prefer it for domestic use. Every family of fourteen or -fifteen persons, consuming at the rate of one pound each, in a day, pays -near 16_s._ a week: if they can save 2_s._ 6_d._ or 1_s._ 6_d._ it is an -object: to a poor man who spends 5_s._ in bread, if he can save eight or -ten pence, it may purchase two or three pounds of animal substance -towards making one feast in a week.” - -“In regard to the patriotic miller, he does not pretend to consult our -good in preference to his own; on the contrary, he reasons very deeply, -as if it were best for us to live on the essence of a leg of mutton, -brought within the compass of a pint, than feed on such porterly food as -the mutton prepared in the ordinary way of roasting or boiling. He -maintains, that the finer the bread, though the quantity be smaller, the -more nutritive.” - -The wheaten bread, of the London baker, is acknowledged to be whitened -by a mixture of alum, which serves to keep the loaf in better shape, -renders it the whiter, and causes it to imbibe the more water to -increase the quantity of the bread. Thus he consults his interest, -without regard to the consumer: the whiter it is, the more adulterated; -and, as constant experience proves, such bread, after it is two days -old, becomes dry and husky.” - -“If bread, made in a private family, of the same flour as the baker -uses, will not be so white, we must suppose that there is an art of -whitening; and that this would be no secret, if it were not pernicious.” - -“The bread recommended, made of all the flour of the wheat, retains all -the good properties of bread; it is eatable at the distance of eight or -ten days: is it not on this account the most eligible?” - -“Take a loaf of the wheaten London bread, made by the baker in his usual -way; let the same baker make another with all the flour of the wheat, -without any attempt to whiten or otherwise adulterate it. Let him keep -both in the same temperature of air, and produce a specimen of each at -any reasonable distance of time, and it will be easily seen what the -difference is. This arises not only from _mixtures_, but the _peculiar -manner of raising the sponge_.” - -“In regard to the difference of consuming new bread of the first day, -and that which has been made for three, four, or five days, it is -computed to be at least a fourth part. If our present wheaten bread -cannot be eaten with pleasure beyond the second day, it is not wonderful -to discover at last that we are lighting our candle at both ends.” - -“That the vitiated bread agrees with some people, whether by the force -of habit, or the mixtures it contains, is not disputed; but in general -it is very hurtful.” - -“Great numbers of our fellow-subjects eat their bread much coarser than -the Londoners: are they weaker? they are generally stronger. Some part -of the advantage must be carried to this account.” - -“Let us have time to subdue our prejudices, and we shall find that bread -of all the flour of the wheat, for the general use, is better both in -quality and price than the present wheaten bread.” - -“In regard to the _London baker_, ask him of what parts of the wheat his -bread is made, and he frankly acknowledges he cannot tell; and how -should he? He can buy only what is to be sold; and the quality is not -ascertained with any such precision as to enable him to answer the -question. He, _poor man_ does the best he can, not to give a sweet -wholesome aliment, but something which is _white_. He knows that bread -made of a proper proportion of the wheat, not only differs in colour, -but is moister at the end of eight days than _his_ the third day; he -likewise knows that it is sweeter, and has the native grateful flavour -of the wheat, as the God of Nature hath given it, and not as it hath -been adulterated.” - -“If the parliament had required us to eat plum-cake, seed-cake, or -sugar-cake, we should have known that plums, seed, and sugar, -constituted the difference; but from the moment the law made -distinctions in the division of the flour for three different kinds of -bread for common use, we were exposed to the mercy of the miller to give -the baker what he pleased, and call it by what name he pleased; we could -only judge whether the bread pleased us or not. The miller and the baker -divide and subdivide; and instead of flour for bread, and the bran that -remained, according to ancient practice, whereby the beggar as well as -the prince was pleased, _bread_ became a mystery, and we no longer knew -what we were eating.” - -“Our misfortune, in regard to bread, is, that we eat it too fine; we -decline the use of barley in bread, having hardly enough for beer. Oats -and pease are rejected: at length we reject even _wheaten flour_,—unless -we are supplied with the finest parts only!—What will befall us in the -end?” - -“_Custom_ often makes a law more forcible than _Law-givers_, and we have -now to contend with _custom_.—The first consideration should be, that -the _flour_ which represents _three-fourths of the wheat_, shall be -really such, and brought to market in sacks, marked _Standard_: the -value of it may be more easily ascertained, than that of which is made -the wheaten bread we now eat.” - -“The baker may be a little the more reluctant to come into this salutary -proposal, as knowing that if he is to decline the use of alum, flour -that is in any degree musty, or made of wheat that has grown or -vegetated before gathered in, as sometimes happens, he cannot work it up -so advantageously in the bread now proposed to be made, as in the -wheaten bread.—Be this as it may, as soon as the baker finds this -_standard_ flour is vendable in bread, he will buy it; and knowing what -part of the wheat it ought to be, he will work it into bread with so -much the more satisfaction; and being sensible that we mean to eat -_genuine_ bread, he will cease to _whiten_ it by any hurtful art. We -shall all understand what we eat, and the trade will be familiar to us; -we shall be so much happier as we become so much the more honest, and -more healthy than we were before. Such is the serious light in which I -see the subject before me.” - -“Every occupation hath its mystery; and the professors are gratified in -thinking themselves wiser than the rest of the world in their own way. -Every professed _cook_ of the first rate can melt down a large ham into -the contents of half a pint. The confectioner uses bitter almonds, which -are poisonous; the oilman colours his pickles with _copper_, to render -them green; and the baker uses alum to _whiten_ his bread, and make his -flour imbibe the more water, by which he makes the more bread out of the -same quantity of flour. This, and other _occasional_ mixtures of the -flour of different grains, renders his bread husky, dry, and -disagreeable the third day.—Are we the _better_ for any such mysteries?” - -“Whether the wheat be all of one kind, or _married_, which is the phrase -for mixing of wheats of different kinds, it will be easy for people of -condition, by experiment, or by the comparison with genuine bread made -in their families, to know whether justice be done; though we may easily -discover that the baker for the _public_, is generally a better master -of his trade than most housewives are. The _mystery_ may be thus -developed; our health and pleasure promoted; and our bread be as much -cheaper than it is now, as the gain on the _flour_ will make it, by -using _all_ that the wheat produces.” - -“Every one may try by grinding and bolting his own grain, and baking his -own bread, and the manufacturers of bread may find nearly as good -account in bread of all _the flour_, which can be so easily ascertained; -as they do in the wheaten, which is involved in difficulties.” - -“The public have administered to their own delusion, their eyes are shut -to their own advantage. If the wealthy will adopt the use of the bread -in question, the labouring part of our fellow-subjects will certainly -follow the example; and as to _paupers_, they will gladly comply.” - -“Common sense, in all ages, has achieved wonders.” - - - Laws prohibiting the Adulteration of Bread and Bread Flour. - -The adulteration of bread and bread flour is forbidden by law, as is -obvious from the following acts of parliament: - -“No person shall put into any corn,[9] meal, or flour, which shall be -ground, dressed, bolted, or manufactured for sale, any ingredient or -mixture whatsoever, whereby the same may be adulterated, or shall sell -any flour of one sort of grain as for the flour of another, but shall -only sell the real genuine meal or flour of the grain the same shall -import to be, under the penalty of five pounds for every such offence.” - -Footnote 9: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 883. - -“If any person have cause to suspect that any miller[10] who grinds, -dresses, or bolts any grain for toll or reward, or manufactures any -flour for sale, or that any baker mixes up with his flour any mixture or -ingredient, not the genuine produce of the grain, so that the purity of -the meal in any wise be adulterated, and reports the same on oath to a -magistrate, then, in that case, such magistrate, or a peace-officer duly -authorized by him, shall enter the premises of such suspected person, -and search or examine whether such mixture or ingredient, not the -genuine produce of the grain, is in the possession of such miller, -mealman, or baker; and such meal and flour as shall be deemed to have -been adulterated may be seized, together with the base mixtures; and if -seized by a peace-officer, it is to be carried before a magistrate, but -if seized by the magistrate, he may immediately dispose of it as he -shall think fit. And the person on whose premises such mixture or -ingredient shall be found, and adjudged to be intended to be used in -adulterating the flour, shall forfeit a sum not exceeding ten pounds, -and have his name, offence, and place of abode published in some -newspaper that is printed or circulated near his place of abode, unless -he shall make it appear, to the satisfaction of the magistrate, that the -same was not lodged there with the intention of adulterating the flour, -but for some other lawful purpose.” - -Footnote 10: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 888. - -“That if any person shall wilfully obstruct[11] or hinder any search -being made for such mixtures as are designed to adulterate the meal or -flour, or shall oppose their being carried away, such person shall -forfeit a sum not exceeding five pounds, nor less than forty shillings.” - -Footnote 11: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 889. - -“And that the good design of these regulations may be more effectually -accomplished, it shall be lawful for the several wardmote[12] inquests -of the city of London, or any magistrate[13] or peace-officer authorized -by a warrant from such magistrate, without the jurisdiction of the city -of London, to enter into any bake-house or shop, at all seasonable -times, to search for and weigh all the bread therein; and if any of the -loaves are found wanting in the goodness of the stuff of which they -should be made, or deficient in the due baking or working thereof, or -shall be wanting in the weight, or shall not be truly marked, such -persons may seize such bread; and, if a magistrate is not present, it -shall be taken before one, who may dispose of it as he shall think fit.” - -Footnote 12: - - 37 Geo. 3. c. 98. sec. 22. - -Footnote 13: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 890. - -“That if any person shall wilfully[14] obstruct or hinder any such -search, or prevent the carrying the same away, he shall, on conviction -before a magistrate, be fined a sum not exceeding five pounds, nor less -than twenty shillings.” - -Footnote 14: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 890. - -“That it shall be lawful for any magistrate[15], or peace-officer, -authorised by a warrant, and accompanied by one or more master bakers, -to enter, at seasonable times, any shop or bake-house within the city of -London, or within ten miles of the Royal Exchange, to search and examine -whether any alum, or other ingredients, shall have been mixed up with, -or put into, any meal, flour, dough, or bread, in the possession of any -such baker, and also to search for alum, or any other ingredients, which -may be intended to be used for the purpose of adulterating the bread; -and if, on enquiry, they find any alum, or other unlawful ingredients, -or that any flour, meal, dough, or bread, contains any preparation of -alum, such shall be immediately seized, and carried before some -magistrate within whose jurisdiction the baker lives, and who shall -dispose of it as he shall think fit. And if the magistrate is satisfied -that such pernicious ingredients were put into the bread with the -consent or privity of the baker, or if he acknowledges it himself, or -one or two credible witnesses certify, on oath, that they know he uses -alum, such baker shall forfeit any sum of money not exceeding twenty -pounds, or be committed to, and kept at hard labour in, the house of -correction, or some other prison, for six calendar months, unless he can -prove, to the satisfaction of the magistrate, that the alum, or other -ingredients, were designed for some lawful purpose. And further, the -magistrate is expressly required to cause the offender’s name, place of -abode, and offence, to be published in some newspaper which shall be -printed or published in or near the city of London, or the liberties -thereof.” - -Footnote 15: - - 38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 14 and 15. - -“That if any person or persons shall wilfully obstruct[16] or hinder -such search or seizure, as above described, he or they shall, for every -offence, forfeit and pay any sum not exceeding ten pounds, nor less than -five, at the discretion of the magistrate before whom the offender or -the offenders shall be convicted.” - -Footnote 16: - - 38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 16. - -“That where any baker[17] shall make a complaint before a magistrate, -and make it appear that any offence he was charged with, and paid the -penalty of, was occasioned by the wilful neglect or default of his -journeyman, or other servant, the magistrate shall issue his warrant for -apprehending the party, and if, on examining into the matter, it appears -that such was the case, such journeyman, or other servant, shall be -directed immediately to pay to his master a reasonable recompence in -money, and, on non-payment thereof, he shall be committed to the house -of correction, or some other prison, and kept to hard labour, for any -time not exceeding one calendar month, unless payment be sooner made.” - -Footnote 17: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 891. and 38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 17. - -“And, for the better and more easy recovery of the several penalties[18] -incurred by disobedience to the several acts, all offences may be heard -and determined in a summary way, by the Lord Mayor, or any other -magistrate or magistrates, within their several jurisdictions, who shall -summon the offenders before them, and if they do not appear, or offer a -reasonable excuse, they may cause them to be apprehended; and when the -matter is enquired into, and the party convicted, if he does not pay the -penalty within twenty-four hours, such magistrate shall issue a warrant -of distress and sale on the goods of the offender; and, should the goods -of the party be removed into another jurisdiction, the magistrate -thereof is to back the warrant, and the distress, if not redeemed within -five days, is to be appraised and sold, and all expences thereby -incurred are to be deducted thereout. And if the offender is possessed -of no goods or chattels that can be seized, then he shall be committed -to the house of correction, or some other prison, for one calendar -month, unless payment be sooner made.” - -Footnote 18: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 892. and 38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 19. - -“That if information[19], on oath, is offered to any magistrate, that -any one within his jurisdiction is likely to offer or give material -evidence in behalf of the prosecutor of any offender, and refuses -voluntarily to come forward, such magistrate shall issue a summons to -cause him to appear, and if he still refuses, to grant a warrant to -compel his attendance, and then if he refuses to be examined, he may be -committed to some public prison for fourteen days.” - -Footnote 19: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 894. - -That no certiorari[20], letters of advocation, or of suspension, shall -be granted, to remove any conviction or other proceedings had therein; -but if any person is punished, and he thinks himself aggrieved by the -judgment of a magistrate, he may appeal to the next quarter sessions, -and, in such case, the execution of the judgment shall be suspended, -upon his entering into a recognisance, with two sufficient sureties, in -double the sum such person shall be adjudged to forfeit, to prosecute -the appeal, and abide the determination of the justices at the said -quarter sessions; and if he makes good his appeal, he shall be -discharged the conviction, and reasonable costs awarded him, which shall -be paid by the person who lodged the information.” - -Footnote 20: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 895. - -“That no person shall be convicted[21] of any offence under these acts, -unless the prosecution shall be commenced against him within fourteen -days after the offence is committed, except in cases of perjury[22]; and -no person who shall be prosecuted to conviction for any offence done or -committed against these acts, shall be liable to be prosecuted for the -same offence under any other law.” - -Footnote 21: - - 37 Geo. 3. c. 98. sec. 28. - -Footnote 22: - - 38 Geo 3. c. 55. sec. 20. - -“That all penalties, when recovered in pursuance of these regulations, -shall be disposed of in the manner following: that is to say, one[23] -moiety thereof to be paid to the informer, and the other moiety to the -poor of the parish where such offence shall be committed; and, in case -there is no informer, then the whole sum shall be given to the poor of -the parish, or applied in such a way as the magistrate, in his -discretion, shall think fit.” - -Footnote 23: - - 31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 897. - - - Economical Application of Yeast. - -It frequently happens, in the summer season, that the brewers, in order -to render their beer less liable to spoil, use more hops than usual; the -consequence of which is, that the yeast becomes very bitter, and gives a -disagreeable flavour to the bread. To obviate this inconvenience, Mr. -Stone has recommended the following method of raising a bushel of flour -with only a tea-spoonful of yeast. - -Suppose a bushel of flour be put it into the kneading trough, then take -about three quarters of a pint of warm water, and one tea-spoonful of -yeast. Stir it in till it is thoroughly mixed with the water; and make a -hole in the middle of the flour, large enough to contain two gallons of -water. Pour in the yeast and add some of the flour until it is a thick -liquid paste; strew some of the dry flour over it, and let it stand an -hour. Then take a quart more of warm water, and pour it in: in about an -hour it will be seen that the small quantity of yeast has raised the -mixture so, that it will break through the dry flour placed over it; and -when the warm water has been added, take a stick and stir in more flour -until it is as thick as before; then shake again some dry flour over it, -and leave it for two hours more, the mass will rise and break through -the dry flour again; you may then add three quarts or a gallon of water, -and stir in the flour, and make it into a soft paste, taking care to -cover it with dry flour again, and in about three or four hours more the -dough may be mixed up, and covered up warm; and in four or five hours -more it may be made up into loaves, and put in the oven; and in this -manner may be produced as light a bread as though a pint of yeast had -been used. It does not take above a quarter of an hour more than the -usual way of baking, for there is no time lost but that of adding the -water at three or four times. The author of this method assures us that -he constantly bakes in this way. In the morning, about six or seven -o’clock, he puts the flour in the trough, and mixes up the spoonful of -yeast with the warm water; in an hour’s time he adds more flour, in two -hours, again more, and about noon makes up the dough, and about six in -the evening it is put into the oven: he has always good bread. - - - Economical Preparation of Yeast. - -The following economical method of making yeast is recommended by Dr. -Lettsom. - -Thicken two quarts of water with four ounces of fine flour, boil it for -half an hour, then sweeten it with three ounces of brown sugar; when -almost cold, pour it with four spoonfuls of baker’s yeast into an -earthen jug, deep enough for the fermentation to go on without running -over; place it for a day near the fire, then pour off the thin liquor -from the top, shake the remainder, and close it up for use, first -straining it through a sieve. To preserve it sweet, set it in a cool -cellar, or hang it some depth in a well. Keep always some of this to -make the next quantity of yeast that is wanted. Mr. I. Kerby recommends -the following method of obtaining yeast from potatoes. - - - Potatoe Yeast. - -Boil potatoes of the mealy sort, till they are thoroughly soft, skin and -mash them very smooth, and put as much hot water on them as will make a -mash of the consistency of common beer yeast, but not thicker. Add to -every pound of potatoes, two ounces of treacle, and when just warm, stir -in for every pound of potatoes, two large spoonfuls of yeast. Keep it -warm till it has done fermenting, and in twenty-four hours it will be -fit for use. A pound of potatoes will make near a quart of yeast, which -has been found to answer the purpose so well, as not to be able to -distinguish the bread made with it, from bread made with brewer’s yeast. - - - Method of Preserving Yeast. - -When yeast is plentiful, take a quantity and work it well with a whisk -until it becomes thin; then procure a large wooden dish or platter, -clean and dry, and with a soft brush lay a thin layer of yeast on the -dish, and turn the top downwards to keep out the dust, but not the air, -which is to dry it. When the first coat is dry, lay on another, and let -that dry, and so continue till the quantity is sufficient; by this means -it may soon be made two or three inches thick, when it may be preserved -in dry tin canisters or stopped bottles, for a long time, good. When -used for baking, cut a piece off and dissolve it in warm water, when it -will be fit for use. - - - FINIS. - - - - - C. GREEN, LEICESTER STREET, - LEICESTER SQUARE. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - NOTICE. - - _The Public are respectfully informed, that a new Edition, - considerably enlarged (price 9s.), has lately been published_, - - OF - - ACCUM’S - - Treatise on Adulterations of Food, - - AND CULINARY POISONS; - - Exhibiting the fraudulent Sophistications of Bread, Beer, Wine, - Spirituous Liquors, Tea, Coffee, Cream, Confectionary, - Vinegar, Mustard, Pepper, Cheese, Olive Oil, - Pickles, and other Articles employed in - Domestic Economy; and Method - of detecting them. - - (_Copied from the British Review, No. XXIX. p. 171._) - -Mr. Accum seems determined that even the outside of his book shall -awaken our fears. The cover of our copy bears a death’s head emblazoned -upon a pall, and, underneath, the motto “there is death in the pot.” The -pall is supported by the point of a dart. Four other darts support the -four corners of the device. Twelve serpents, with forked tongues and -tails entwined, form a terrific wreath around; while the middle is -occupied with a large cobweb, delineated with much attention to detail, -in the centre of which a spider, full as large as a moderate sized hazel -nut, and so frightful that more than one young lady of our acquaintance -would think it necessary to scream at the sight of it, holds in its -envenomed fangs an ill-fated fly, which is sinking under the loss of -blood, and buzzing in the agonies of death. - -We are by no means desirous to raise or maintain a popular clamour; but -Mr. Accum certainly advances some weighty charges, and his work comes -with an advantage in bearing a name not unknown to the scientific world. -Of the adulterations specified, some are deleterious, and others merely -fraudulent. Accordingly, we shall offer a few extracts, both from the -original matter of Mr. Accum, and from his citations drawn from previous -authors. - - “Among the number of substances used in domestic economy - which are now very generally found sophisticated, may be - distinguished,—tea, coffee, bread, beer, wine, spirituous - liquors, salad oil, pepper, vinegar, mustard, cream, and - other articles of subsistence. Indeed it would be difficult - to mention a single article of food which is not to be met - with in an adulterated state. And there are some substances - which are scarcely ever to be procured genuine.” (P. 3.) - -But we pass on from the general statements at the beginning of the work -to particulars. - -Water, by standing in leaden reservoirs, acquires a highly deleterious -property. - -In some particular cases, the consequences have been most fatal. - - “‘A gentleman was the father of a numerous offspring, having had - one and twenty children, of whom eight died young, and thirteen - survived their parents. During their infancy, and indeed _until - they had quitted the place of their usual residence, they were - all remarkably unhealthy_, being particularly subject to - disorders of the stomach and bowels. The father, during many - years, was paralytic; the mother, for a long time was subject to - cholics and bilious obstructions.’” (P. 78, 79.) - -These effects were traced to a leaden pump, in the cylinder of which -there were found several perforations, while the cistern “was reduced to -the thinness of common brown paper, and was full of holes like a sieve.” -(P. 79.) - -We now come to the adulteration of wine; to many of our readers, -probably, a far more interesting concern than that of water. - - “All persons moderately conversant with the subject are aware, - that a portion of alum is added to young and meagre red wines, - for the purpose of brightening the colour; that Brazil-wood, or - the husks of elderberries and bilberries, are employed to impart - a deep rich purple tint to red port of a pale, feint colour; - that gypsom is used to render cloudy white wines transparent; - that an additional astringency is imparted to immature red wines - by means of oak-wood sawdust, and the husks of filberts, and - that a mixture of spoiled foreign and home-made wines is - converted into the wretched compound frequently sold in this - town by the name of _genuine old Port_.... A _nutty_ flavour is - produced by bitter almonds; fictitious Port wine is flavoured - with a tincture drawn from the seeds of raisins, and the - ingredients employed to form the _bouquet_ of high-flavoured - wines, are sweet brier, orris-root, clary, cherry-laurel-water, - and elder flowers. The flavouring ingredients used by - manufacturers, may all be purchased by those dealers in wine who - are initiated in the mysteries of the trade. And even a - manuscript receipt-book for preparing them, and the whole - mystery of managing all sorts of wines, may be obtained on - payment of a considerable fee.” (P. 95, 97.) - - “The particular and separate department in this factitious - wine-trade, called _crusting_, consists in lining the interior - surface of empty wine bottles, in part, with a red crust of - super-tartrate of potash, by suffering a saturated, hot solution - of this salt, coloured with a decoction of Brazil-wood, to - chrystallize within them.” (P. 101, 102.) - -But the crusting is not confined to the bottle. - - “A correspondent operation is performed on the wooden cask; the - whole interior of which is stained artificially with a - chrystalline crust of super-tartrate of potash, artfully affixed - in a manner precisely similar to that before stated. Thus the - wine-merchant, after bottling off a pipe of wine, is enabled to - impose on the understanding of his customers, by taking to - pieces the cask, and exhibiting the beautiful dark-coloured and - fine chrystalline crust, as an indubitable proof of the age of - the wine; a practice by no means uncommon to flatter the vanity - of those who pride themselves in their acute discrimination of - wines.” (P. 103, 104) - -This our readers will excuse, for it is pleasing to read of impositions -which are practised on the sagacious. But, says Mr. Accum, - - “Several well-authenticated facts have convinced me, that the - adulteration of wine with substances deleterious to health is - certainly practised oftener than is, perhaps, suspected.” (P. - 104, 105.) - -Presently follows the story of the passengers by the coach, who dined at -Newark. Half a bottle of port made them all ill, one dangerously. Part -of the other half caused the death of an inhabitant of the place, on -whom an inquest was held, and a verdict returned, of—_Died by poison_. - -A gentleman having been taken severely ill on two successive days, after -drinking each day a pint of Madeira from the same bottle, his apothecary -ordered that it should be examined. - - “‘The bottle happened to slip out of the hand of the servant, - disclosed a row of shot wedged forcibly into the angular bent-up - circumference of it. On examining the beads of shot, they - crumbled into dust, the outer crust (defended by a coat of black - lead with which the shot is glazed) being alone unacted on, - whilst the remainder of the metal was dissolved. The wine, - therefore, had become contaminated with _lead and arsenic_, the - shot being a compound of these metals, which no doubt had - produced the mischief.’” (P. 113, 114.) - -For detecting the presence of lead or any other deleterious metal in -wine, Mr. Accum recommends the _wine test_. - -We now come to that part of the subject, which, as _some persons_ have -thought, _is merely the business of ale-drinkers_, and their brethren, -the porter-drinkers. - - “The fraud of imparting to porter and ale an intoxicating - quality by narcotic substances, appears to have flourished - during the period of the late French war. For, if we examine the - importation lists of drugs, it will be noticed that the - quantities of cocculus indicus imported in a given time prior to - that period, will bear no comparison with the quantity imported - in the same space of time during the war, although an additional - duty was laid upon this commodity. Such has been the amount - brought into this country in five years, that it far exceeds the - quantity imported during twelve years anterior to the above - epoch. The price of this drug has risen within these ten years - from two shillings to seven shillings the pound.... It was at - the period to which we have alluded that the preparation of an - extract of cocculus indicus first appeared, as a new saleable - commodity, in the price-currents of _brewers’ druggists_. It was - at the same time also that a Mr. Jackson, of notorious memory, - fell upon the idea of brewing beer from various drugs, without - any malt and hops. This chemist did not turn brewer himself, but - he struck out the more profitable trade of teaching his mystery - to the brewers for a handsome fee. From that time forward, - written directions and receipt books, for using the chemical - preparations to be substituted for malt and hops, were - respectively sold. And many adepts soon afterwards appeared - every where to instruct brewers in the nefarious practice first - pointed out by Mr. Jackson. From that time, also, the fraternity - of brewers’ chemists took its rise. They made it their chief - business to send - - travellers all over the country with lists and samples - exhibiting the price and quality of the articles manufactured by - them for the use of brewers only. Their trade spread far and - wide, but it was amongst the country brewers chiefly that they - found the most customers. And it is among them up to the present - day, as I am assured by some of these operators, on whose - veracity I can rely, that the greatest quantities of unlawful - ingredients are sold.” (P. 157-160.) - -Part of these evils the porter-drinkers bring upon themselves. - - “One of the qualities of good porter, is, that it should bear a - _fine frothy head_, as it is technically termed: because - professed judges of this beverage, would not pronounce the - liquor excellent, although it possessed all other good qualities - of porter, without this requisite.—To impart to porter this - property of frothing when poured from one vessel into another, - or to produce what is also termed a _cauliflower head_, the - mixture called _beer-heading_, composed of common green vitriol - (sulphate of iron) alum and salt, is added. This addition to the - beer is generally made by the publicans.” (P. 182, 183.) It is - added in a note:—”’Alum gives likewise a smack of age to beer, - and is penetrating to the palate.’—_S. Child on Brewing_, p. - 18.” “The great London brewers, it appears, believe that the - publicans alone adulterate the beer.” (P. 211.) - - “Capsicum and grains of paradise, two highly acrid substances, - are employed to give a pungent taste to weak insipid beer. Of - late, a concentrated tincture of these articles, to be used for - a similar purpose, and possessing a powerful effect, has - appeared in the price-currents of brewers’ druggists. Ginger - root, coriander seed, and orange peels, are employed as - flavouring substances chiefly by the ale brewers.” (P. 184, - 185.) - -We find the following articles, in a list of illegal ingredients, seized -at various breweries and brewers’ druggists. - - “Multum, 84 lbs.; cocculus indicus, 12 lbs.; colouring, 4 galls; - honey, about 180 lbs.; hartshorn shavings, 14 lbs.; Spanish - juice, 46 lbs.; orange powder, 17 lbs.; ginger, 56 lbs.; grains - of paradise, 44 lbs.; quassia, 10 lbs.; liquorice, 64 lbs.; - carraway seeds, 40 lbs.; multum, 26 lbs.” “Capsicum, 88 lbs.; - copperas, 310 lbs.; colouring and drugs, 84 lbs.; mixed drugs, - 240 lbs.; coriander seed, 2 lbs.; beer colouring, 24 gallons.” - (P. 186-189.) [The list which includes these articles is copied - from the minutes of the committee of the House of Commons.] - -Some of the substances above enumerated may be thought comparatively -harmless. But others are absolutely poisonous. - - “To increase the intoxicating quality of beer, the deleterious - _vegetable_ substance, called _cocculus indicus_, and the - extract of this poisonous berry, technically called _black - extract_, or by some, _hard multum_, are employed. Opium, - tobacco, nux vomica, and extracts of poppies, have also been - used.—This fraud constitutes by far the most censurable offence - committed by unprincipled brewers. And it is a lamentable - reflection to behold so great a number of brewers prosecuted, - and convicted of this crime. Nor is it less deplorable to find - the names of druggists, eminent in trade, implicated in the - fraud, by selling the unlawful ingredients to brewers for - fraudulent purposes.” (P. 205, 206.) - -Then follows a list of thirty-four convictions of brewers, for receiving -or using illegal ingredients.—We perfectly agree with the following -observations. - - “That a minute portion of an unwholesome ingredient, daily taken - in beer, cannot fail to be productive of mischief, admits of no - doubt: and there is reason to believe that a small quantity of a - narcotic substance (and cocculus indicus is - - a powerful narcotic), daily taken into the stomach, together - with an intoxicating liquor, is highly more efficacious than it - would be without the liquor. The effect may be gradual; and a - strong constitution, especially if it be assisted with constant - and hard labour, may counteract the destructive consequences - perhaps for many years. But it never fails to show its baneful - effects at last.” (P. 209, 210.) - -We now come to the business of another small portion of the community, -namely, the _tea-drinkers_. Perhaps the following descriptions will -assist them in forming a diagnosis. - - “All the samples of spurious green tea (nineteen in number) - which I have examined, were coloured with carbonate of copper, - (a poisonous substance), and not by means of verdigrise, or - copperas.” (P. 240.) “Mr. Twining asserts, that ‘the leaves of - spurious tea are boiled in a copper, with copperas and sheep’s - dung.’” (P. 240. Note.) “Tea rendered poisonous by carbonate of - copper, speedily imparts to liquid ammonia, a fine sapphire blue - tinge. It is only necessary to shake up in a stopped vial, for a - few minutes, a tea-spoonful of the suspected leaves, with about - two table-spoonsful of liquid ammonia, diluted with half its - bulk of water. The supernatant liquid will exhibit a fine blue - colour, if the minutest quantity of copper be present. Green - tea, coloured with carbonate of copper, when thrown into water - impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, immediately acquires - a black colour. Genuine green tea, suffers no change from the - action of these tests.” (P. 241.) - -The following extracts may perhaps prove interesting to -_brandy-drinkers_. - - “‘It is a custom among retailing distillers, which I have not - taken notice of in this directory, to put one third or one - fourth part of proof molasses brandy, proportionably, to what - rum they dispose of; which cannot be distinguished, but by an - extraordinary palate, and does not at all lessen the body or - proof of the goods; but makes them about two shillings a gallon - cheaper; and must be well mixed and incorporated together in - your retailing cask. But you should keep some of the best rum, - not adulterated, to please your customers, whose judgment and - palate must be humoured.—When you are to draw a sample of goods - to show a person that has judgment in the proof, do not draw - your goods into a phial to be tasted, or make experiment of the - strength thereof that way, because the proof will not hold - except the goods be exceedingly strong. But draw the pattern of - goods either into a glass from the cock, to run very small, or - rather draw off a small quantity into a little pewter pot, and - pour it into your glass, extending your pot as high above the - glass as you can without wasting it, which makes the goods carry - a better head abundantly, than if the same goods were to be put - and tried in a phial.—You must be so prudent as to make a - distinction of the persons you have to deal with. What goods you - sell to gentlemen for their own use, who require a great deal of - attendance, and as much for time of payment, you must take a - considerably greater price than of others; what goods you sell - to persons where you believe there is a manifest, or at least - some hazard of your money, you may safely sell for more than - common profit; what goods you sell to the poor, especially - medicinally, (as many of your goods are sanative), be as - compassionate as the cases require.—All brandies, whether - French, Spanish, or English, being proof goods, will admit of - one pint of _liquor_‘ (_water_) ‘to each gallon, to be made up - and incorporated therewith in your cask, for retail, or selling - smaller quantities. And all persons that insist upon having - proof goods, which not one in twenty understand, you must supply - out of what goods are not so reduced, though at a higher - price.’” (P. 267-270.) - -Some of the adulterations of spirituous liquors are exceedingly -pernicious. - - “Another method of fining spirituous liquors, consists in adding - to it, first, a solution of sub-acetate of lead, and then a - solution of alum. This practice is highly dangerous, because - part of the sulphate of lead produced, remains dissolved in the - liquor, which it thus renders poisonous.” (P. 284.) “The cordial - called shrub frequently exhibits vestiges of copper.” (P. 285.) - -Gloucester Cheese has been found contaminated with red lead. The article -used in colouring cheese is anotto. In one instance, the anotto, being -inferior, had been coloured with vermilion; and the vermilion -adulterated by a druggist, (who little thought that it would ever enter -into the composition of cheese,) with red lead. The account of the whole -transaction as given by Mr. Accum, is worth reading, but too long to be -extracted. - -Cayenne pepper, “is sometimes adulterated with red lead, to prevent its -becoming bleached on exposure to light.” (P. 305.) Pickles “are -sometimes intentionally coloured by means of copper.” (P. 306.) “Mrs. E. -Raffald directs, ‘to render pickles green, boil them with halfpence, or -allow them to stand twenty-four hours in copper or brass pans.’” (P. -309.) “Vinegar is sometimes largely adulterated with sulphuric acid, to -give it more acidity.” (P. 311.) “Red sugar drops are usually coloured -with the inferior kind of vermilion. This pigment is generally -adulterated with red lead. Other kinds of sweetmeats are sometimes -rendered poisonous by being coloured with preparations of copper.” (P. -315, 316.) “The foreign conserves ... are frequently impregnated with -copper.” (P. 317.) “Quantities” of catsup “are daily to be met with, -which on a chemical examination, are found to abound with copper.” (P. -319.) “The quantity of copper which we have more than once detected in -this sauce, used for seasoning, and which, on account of its cheapness, -is much resorted to by people in the lower walks of life, has exceeded -the proportion of lead to be met with in other articles employed in -domestic economy.” (P. 320.) “The leaves of the cherry-laurel, _prunus -laurocerasus_, a poisonous plant,” are used to flavour custards, -_blanc-mange_, and other delicacies of the table. (P. 324.) An instance -is given of the dangerous consequences of this practice. (P. 325, 326.) -“The water distilled from cherry-laurel leaves is frequently mixed with -brandy and other spirituous liquors.” (P. 327.) Several samples of -anchovy sauce “have been found contaminated with lead.” (P. 328.) It is -not unusual to employ, in preparing this sauce, “a certain quantity of -Venetian red, added for the purpose of colouring it, which, if genuine, -is an innocent colouring substance. But instances have occurred of this -pigment having been adulterated with orange lead, which is nothing else -than a better kind of minimum or red oxid of lead.” (P, 328, 329.) In -lozenges, “the adulterating ingredient is usually pipe-clay, of which a -liberal portion is substituted for sugar.” (P. 330.) Dr. T. Lloyd says, -“‘I was informed,’” (at a _respectable_ chemist’s shop in the city) -“‘that there were two kinds of ginger lozenges kept for sale, the one at -three-pence the once, and the other at six-pence; and that the article -furnished to me by mistake was the cheaper commodity. The latter were -distinguished by the epithet _verum_, they being composed of sugar and -ginger only. But the former were manufactured partly of white Cornish -clay, with a portion of sugar only, with ginger and Guinea pepper. I was -likewise informed, that of Tolu lozenges, peppermint lozenges, and -ginger pearls, and several other sorts or lozenges, two kinds were kept; -that the _reduced_ prices, as they were called, were manufactured for -those very clever persons in their own conceit, who are fond of -haggling, and insist on buying better bargains than other people, -shutting their eyes to the defects of an article, so that they can enjoy -the delight of getting it cheap: and, secondly, for those persons, who -being but bad paymasters, yet as the manufacturer, for his own credit’s -sake, cannot charge more than the usual price of the article, he thinks -himself therefore authorized to adulterate it in value, to make up for -the risk he runs, and the long credit he must give.’” (P. 332, 333.) - -Well—there is then some honesty left in the world. What a pleasure it is -to have to deal with a _respectable_ man. But we return to the practices -of the _knaves_. - -Olive oil “is sometimes contaminated with lead.” (P. 334.) The dealers -in this commodity assert that lead or pewter “prevents the oil from -becoming rancid. And hence some retailers often suffer a pewter measure -to remain immersed in the oil.” (P. 336.) “The beverage called soda -water is frequently contaminated both with copper and lead.” (P. 351.) -Mr. Johnston, of Greek Street, Soho, was the first who pointed out the -danger to the public. “Many kinds of viands are frequently impregnated -with copper, in consequence of the employment of cooking utensels made -of that metal. By the use of such vessels in dressing food, we are daily -liable to be poisoned.” (P. 352.) “Mr. Thiery, who wrote a thesis on the -noxious quality of copper, observes that ‘our food receives its quantity -of poison, in the kitchen by the use of copper pans and dishes. The -brewer mingles poison in our beer, by boiling it in copper vessels. The -sugar-baker employs copper pans. The pastry-cook bakes our tarts in -copper moulds. The confectioner uses copper vessels. The oilman boils -his pickles in copper or brass vessels, and verdigrise is plentifully -formed by the action of the vinegar upon the metal.’” (P. 353, 354.) -Moreover, “various kinds of food, used in domestic economy, are liable -to become impregnated with lead.” (P. 359.) - -Mr. Accum, speaking on the subject of Beer, says, - - “It will be noticed that some of the sophistications are - comparatively harmless, whilst others are affected by substances - deleterious to health.” (P. 185.) - - We think, however, that the candour of Mr. Accum leads him to - make too much allowance for this consideration throughout. - Surely, though many articles of food be not absolutely - poisonous, a diet consisting of drugs and chemical compounds and - articles never intended by nature to be eaten or drunk, articles - for which, presented simple, the hungriest stomach would feel no - appetite or inclination, cannot be wholesome. Brick and mortar - are not poison; yet we cannot, like the dragon of Wantley, - swallow a church, and pick our teeth with the steeple. Many can - eat oysters, but few could manage the oyster-knife. Even the - Welshman of King Arthur’s court, fond as he was of toasted - cheese, would inevitably have been choked by the mouse that ran - down his throat to eat it, had he not “pulled him out by the - tail.” - -We could give farther extracts; but must refer the reader to the work -itself, which contains much interesting matter, besides what we have -selected. THE MONEY THAT IS OFTEN LAID OUT IN THE PURCHASE OF COOKERY -BOOKS, WHICH TEACH THE ART OF EXCITING DISEASE AND PAIN BY DUBIOUS -COMBINATIONS AND CULINARY POISONS, MIGHT, WE THINK, BE MUCH BETTER -EXPENDED UPON A BOOK LIKE THE PRESENT; EVERY PAGE OF WHICH GIVES WARNING -OF SOME DANGER, OF WHICH WE OUGHT ALL TO BE AWARE. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - A - - Treatise on Adulterated Provisions. - - BY FREDRICK ACCUM. - - ------- - - THERE IS DEATH IN THE POT. - - II. KINGS—CHAP. VI. VERSE XI. - - (_From Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, No. XXXV. Page 542._) - -Mr. Accum, it appears, is one of those very good-natured friends, who is -quite resolved not to allow us to be cheated and poisoned as our fathers -were before us, and our children will be after us, without cackling to -us of our danger, and opening our eyes to abysses of fraud and -imposition, of the very existence of which we had until now the good -fortune to be entirely ignorant. His book is a perfect death’s head, a -memento mori, the perusal of any single chapter of which is enough to -throw any man into the blue devils for a fortnight. Mr. Accum puts us -something in mind of an officious blockhead, who, instead of comforting -his dying friend, is continually jogging him on the elbow with such -cheering assurances as the following. “I am sorry there is no hope; my -dear fellow, you must kick the bucket soon. Your liver is diseased, your -lungs gone, your bowels as impenetrable as marble, your legs swelled -like door-posts, your face as yellow as a guinea, and the doctor just -now assured me you could not live a week.” - -Mr. Accum’s work is evidently written in the same spirit of dark and -melancholy anticipation, which pervades Dr. Robison’s celebrated “Proofs -of a Conspiracy, &c. against all the crowned heads of Europe.” The -conspiracy disclosed by Mr. Accum is certainly of a still more dreadful -nature, and is even more widely ramified than that which excited so much -horror in the worthy professor. It is a conspiracy of brewers, bakers, -grocers, wine-merchants, confectioners, apothecaries, and cooks, against -the lives of all and every one of his majesty’s liege subjects. It is -easy to see that Mr. Accum’s nerves are considerably agitated, that— - - “Sad forebodings shake him as he writes.” - -Not only at the festive board is he haunted by chimeras dire of -danger—not only does he tremble over the tureen—and faint over the -flesh-pot: but even in his chintz night-gown, and red morocco slippers, -he is not secure. An imaginary sexton is continually jogging his elbow -as he writes, a death’s head and cross bones rise on his library table; -and at the end of his sofa he beholds a visionary tomb-stone of the best -granite— - -ON WHICH ARE INSCRIBED THE DREADFUL WORDS— - -[Illustration: - - _Hic Jacet_, - FREDRICK ACCUM, - Operative Chemist, - OLD COMPTON STREET, - _SOHO_. -] - -Since we read his book, our appetite has visibly decreased. At the -Celtic club, yesterday, we dined almost entirely on roast beef; Mr. -Oman’s London-particular Madeira lost all its relish, and we turned pale -in the act of eating a custard, when we recollected the dreadful -punishment inflicted on custard-eaters, in page 326 of the present work. -We beg to assure our friends, therefore, that at the present moment they -may invite us to dinner with the greatest impunity.—Our diet is at -present quite similar to that of Parnel’s hermit, - -“Our food the fruits, our drink the crystal well;” - -though we trust a few days will recover us from our panic, and enable us -to resume our former habits of life. Those of our friends, therefore, -who have any intention of pasturing us, had better not lose the present -opportunity of doing so. So favourable a combination of circumstances -must have been quite unhoped for on their part, and most probably will -never occur again.[24] V. S. - -Footnote 24: - - To save some trouble, we may announce that we are already engaged to - dinner, on the 23d, 27th, and 28th of this month, and to evening - parties, on the 22d, 23d, 26th, 28th, and 29th, and 3d of March. - -Since, by the publication of Mr. Accum’s book, an end has been for ever -put to our former blessed state of ignorance, let us arm ourselves with -philosophy, and boldly venture to look our danger in the face; or, as -the poet beautifully expresses it, in language singularly applicable, - - “Come, Christopher, and leave all meaner things, - To low ambition and the pride of kings; - Let us, since life can little else supply; - Than just to swallow poison and to die; - Expatiate free o’er all this dreadful field, - Try what the brewer, what the baker yield; - Explore the druggists’ shop, the butchers’ stall; - Expose their roguery, and—damn them all!” - POPE. - -Melancholy as the details are, there is something almost ludicrous, we -think, in the very extent to which the deceptions are carried. So -inextricably are we all immersed in this mighty labyrinth of fraud, that -even the venders of poison themselves are forced, by a sort of -retributive justice, to swallow it in their turn.—Thus the apothecary, -who sells the poisonous ingredients to the brewer, chuckles over his -roguery, and swallows his own drugs in his daily copious exhibitions of -Brown stout. The brewer in his turn, is poisoned by the baker, the -wine-merchant, and the grocer. And, whenever the baker’s stomach fails -him, he meets his _coup de grace_ in the adulterated drugs of his friend -the apothecary, whose health he has been gradually contributing to -undermine, by feeding him every morning on chalk and alum, in the shape -of hot rolls. - -Our readers will now, we think, be able to form a general idea of the -perils to which they are exposed by every meal. - -Mr. Accum’s details on the adulteration of wine are extremely ample, and -so interesting, that we regret our limits prevent our making more -copious extracts, and oblige us to refer our readers for farther -information to the work itself. - -Having thus laid open to our view the arcana of the cellar, Mr. Accum -next treats us with an expose of the secrets of the brew-house. Verily, -the wine-merchant and brewer are _par nobile fratrum_; and after the -following disclosures, it will henceforth be a matter of the greatest -indifference to us, whether we drink Perry or Champaigne, Hermitage or -Brown stout. _Latet anguis in poculo_, there is disease and death in -them all, and one is only preferable to the other, because it will -poison us at about one-tenth of the expense. - - “Malt liquors, and particularly porter, the favourite beverage - of the inhabitants of London and of other large towns, is - amongst those articles, in the manufacture of which the greatest - frauds are frequently committed. - - “The practice of adulterating beer appears to be of early date. - To shew that they have augmented in our own days, we shall - exhibit an abstract from documents laid lately before - Parliament. - - “Mr. Accum not only amply proves, that unwholesome ingredients - are used by fraudulent brewers, and that very deleterious - substances are also vended both to brewers and publicans for - adulterating beer, but that the ingredients mixed up in the - brewer’s enchanting cauldron are placed above all competition, - even with the potent charms of Macbeth’s witches: - - ‘Root of hemlock, digg’d i’ the dark, - * * * * - * * * * - For a charm of pow’rful trouble. - Like a hell-broth boil and bubble; - Double, double, toil and trouble, - Fire burn, and cauldron bubble.’ - -Mr. Accum very properly gives us a list of those miscreants who have -been convicted of adulterating their porter with poisonous ingredients, -and want of room alone prevents us from damning them to everlasting -fame, by inserting their names along with that of the Rev. Sennacherib -Terrot, in the imperishable pages of this miscellany. - -Mr. Accum gives us a long dissertation on counterfeit tea, and another -on spurious coffee; but as these are impositions by which we are little -affected, we shall not allow them to detain us. The leaves of the -sloe-thorn are substituted for the former, and roasted horse beans for -the latter. These frauds, it appears, are carried to a very great -extent. - -We must now draw our extracts to a close; but we can assure our readers, -that we have not yet introduced them to one tythe of the poisonous -articles in common use, detected by Mr. Accum. We shall give the titles -of a few to satisfy the curious:—Poisonous confectionary, poisonous -pickles, poisonous cayenne pepper, poisonous custards, poisonous anchovy -sauce, poisonous lozenges, poisonous lemon acid, poisonous mushrooms, -poisonous ketchup, and poisonous soda water! Read this, and wonder how -you live! - -While we thus suffer under accumulated miseries brought upon us by the -unprincipled avarice and cupidity of others, it is surely incumbent on -us not wantonly to increase the catalogue by any negligence or follies -of our own. Will it be believed, that in the cookery book, which forms -the prevailing oracle of the kitchens in this part of the island, there -is an express injunction to “_boil greens with halfpence_ in order to -improve their _colour_?”—That our puddings are frequently seasoned with -laurel leaves, and our sweetmeats almost uniformly prepared in copper -vessels? Why are we thus compelled to swallow a supererogatorary -quantity of poison which may so easily be avoided? And why are we -constantly made to run the risk of our lives by participating in -custards, trifles, and blancmanges, seasoned by a most deadly poison -extracted from the _prunus lauro-cerasus_? Verily, while our present -detestable system of cookery remains, we may exclaim with the sacred -historian, that there is indeed “Death in the Pot.” - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - A Treatise on Adulterations of Food, - - AND CULINARY POISONS, - - Exhibiting the Fraudulent Sophistications of Bread, Beer, Wine, - Spirituous Liquors, &c. and Methods of detecting them. - - BY FREDRICK ACCUM. - - (_From the Edinburgh Review, No. LXV. Page 131._) - -It is curious to see how vice varies its forms, and maintains its -substance, in all conditions of society;—and how certainly those -changes, or improvements as we call them, which diminish one class of -offences, aggravate or give birth to another.—In rude and simple -communities, most crimes take the shape of violence and outrage—in -polished and refined ones, of Fraud. Men sin from their animal -propensities in the first case, and from their intellectual depravation -in the second. The one state of things is prolific of murders, -batteries, rapines, and burnings—the other of forgeries, swindlings, -defamations, and seductions. The sum of evil is probably pretty much the -same in both—though probably greatest in the civilized and enlightened -stages; the sharpening of the intellect, and the spread of knowledge, -giving prodigious force and activity to all criminal propensities. - -Among the offences which are peculiar to a refined and enlightened -society, and owe their birth, indeed, to its science and refinement, are -those skilful and dexterous adulterations of the manifold objects of its -luxurious consumption, to which their value and variety, and the -delicacy of their preparation, hold out so many temptations; while the -very skill and knowledge which are requisite in their formation, furnish -such facilities for their sophistication. The very industry and busy -activity of such a society, exposes it more and more to such -impostures;—and by the division of labour which takes place, and -confines every man to his own separate task, brings him into a complete -dependence on the industry of others for a supply of the most necessary -articles. - -The honesty of the dealer, and of the original manufacturer, is the only -security to the public for the genuineness of the article in which he -deals. The consumer can in general know nothing of their component -parts; he must take them as he finds them; and, even if he is -dissatisfied, he has in general no effectual means of redress. - -It will be found, that as crimes of violence decrease with the progress -of society, frauds are multiplied; and there springs up in every -prosperous country a race of degenerate traders and manufacturers, whose -business is to cheat and to deceive; who pervert their talents to the -most dishonest purposes, prefering the illicit gains thus acquired to -the fair profits of honorable dealing; and counter-working, by their -sinister arts, the general improvement of society. - -In almost every branch of manufacture, there are fraudulent dealers, who -are instigated by the thirst of gain, to debase the articles which they -vend to the public, and to exact a high price for what is comparatively -cheap and worthless. After pointing out various deceptions of this -nature, Mr. Accum, the ingenious author of the work before us, proceeds -in his account of those frauds, in the following terms. - - ‘Soap used in house-keeping is frequently adulterated with a - considerable portion of fine white clay, brought from St. - Stephen’s in Cornwall. In the manufacture of printing paper, a - large quantity of plaster of Paris is added to the paper stuff, - to increase the weight of the manufactured article. The selvage - of cloth is often dyed with a permanent colour, and artfully - stitched to the edge of cloth dyed with a fugitive dye. The - frauds committed in the tanning of skins, and in the manufacture - of cutlery, and jewellery, exceed belief.’ pp. 27-29. - -What is infinitely worse, however, than any of those frauds, -sophistications, we are informed, are carried on to an equal extent in -all the essential articles of subsistence or comfort. So long as our -dishonest dealers do not intermeddle with these things, their deceptions -are comparatively harmless; the evil in all such cases amounting only to -so much pecuniary damage. But when they begin to tamper with food, or -with articles connected with the table, their frauds are most -pernicious: in all cases the nutritive quality of the food is injured, -by the artificial ingredients intermixed with it; and when these -ingredients, as frequently happens, are of a poisonous quality, they -endanger the health and even the life of all to whom they are vended. We -cannot conceive any thing more diabolical than those contrivances; and -we consider their authors in a far worse light than ordinary felons, -who, being known, can be duly guarded against. But those fraudulent -dealers conceal themselves under the fair show of a reputable -traffic—they contrive in this manner to escape the infamy which justly -belongs to them—and, under the disguise of wealth, credit, and -character, to lurk in the bosom of society, wounding the hand that -cherishes them, and scattering around them poison and death. - -It is chiefly for the purpose of laying open the dishonest artifices of -this class of dealers, that Mr. Accum has published the present very -interesting and popular work; and he gives a most fearful view of the -various and extensive frauds which are daily practised on the -unsuspecting public. - - ‘Among the number of substances used in domestic economy, - which are now very generally found sophisticated, may be - distinguished—tea, coffee, bread, beer, wine, spirituous - liquors, salad oil, pepper, vinegar, mustard, cream, and other - articles of subsistence.—Indeed, it would be difficult to - mention a single article of food which is not to be met with - in an adulterated state; and there are some substances which - are scarcely ever to be procured genuine.—Some of these - spurious compounds are comparatively harmless when used as - food; and as, in these cases, merely substances of inferior - value are substituted for more costly and genuine ingredients, - the sophistication, though it may affect our purse, does not - injure our health. Of this kind are the manufacture of - factitious pepper, the adulterations of mustard, vinegar, - cream, &c. Others, however, are highly deleterious; and to - this class belong the adulterations of beer, wines, spirituous - liquors, pickles, salad oil, and many others.’ pp. 2-4. - -There are, it appears, particular chemists who make it their sole -employment to supply the unprincipled brewer of porter and ale with -drugs, and other deleterious preparations; while others perform the same -office to the wine and spirit merchant, as well as to the grocer and -oilman—and these illicit pursuits have assumed all the order and method -of a regular trade. - - ‘The eager and insatiable thirst for gain’ (Mr. Accum justly - observes), which seems to be a leading characteristic of the - times, calls into action every human faculty, and gives an - irresistible impulse to the power of invention; and where lucre - becomes the reigning principle, the possible sacrifice of a - fellow-creature’s life is a secondary consideration.’ - -Mr. Accum having exhibited this general view of his subject, proceeds to -enter into an examination of the articles most commonly counterfeited, -and to explain the nature of the ingredients used in sophisticating -them. He commences with a dissertation on the qualities of good water, -in which he briefly points out the dangerous sophistications to which it -is liable, from the administration of foreign ingredients. - -But in the case of water, the adulteration is purely accidental, which -cannot be said of the other articles specified by Mr. Accum. In the -making of Bread, more especially in London, various ingredients are -occasionally mingled with the dough. To suit the caprice of his -customers, the baker is obliged to have his bread light and porous, and -of a pure white. It is impossible to produce this sort of bread from -flour alone, unless it be of the finest quality. The best flour, -however, being mostly used by the biscuit-bakers and pastry-cooks, it is -only from the inferior sorts that bread is made; and it becomes -necessary, in order to have it of that light and porous quality, and of -a fine white, to mix alum with the dough. Without this ingredient, the -flour used by the London bakers would not yield so white a bread as that -sold in the metropolis. - -Wine appears to be a subject for the most extensive and pernicious -frauds. - - ‘All persons (Mr. Accum observes) moderately conversant with the - subject, are aware, that a portion of alum is added to young and - meagre red wines, for the purpose of brightening their colour; - that Brazil wood, or the husks of elderberries and bilberries, - which are imported from Germany, under the fallacious name of - _berry-dye_, are employed to impart a deep rich purple tint to - red port of a pale colour; that gypsum is used to render cloudy - white wines transparent; that an additional astringency is - imparted to immature red wines by means of oak-wood and sawdust, - and the husks of filberts; and that a mixture of spoiled foreign - and home-made wines is converted into the wretched compound - frequently sold in the metropolis by the name _genuine old - Port_.’ - -Other expedients are resorted to, in order to give flavour to insipid -wines. For this purpose bitter almonds are occasionally employed; -factitious port wine is also flavoured with a tincture drawn from the -seeds of raisins; and other ingredients are frequently used, such as -sweet brier, orris root, clary, cherry-laurel water, and elder flowers. - -In London, the sophistication of wine is carried to an enormous extent, -as well as the art of manufacturing spurious wine, which has become a -regular trade, in which a large capital is invested; and it is well -known that many thousand pipes of spoiled cider are annually sent to the -metropolis for the purpose of being converted into an imitation of port -wine. - -Innumerable are the tricks practised to deceive the unwary, by giving to -weak, thin, and spoiled wines, all the characteristic marks of age, and -also of flavour and strength. In carrying on these illicit occupations, -the division of labour has been completely established; each has his own -task assigned him in the confederate work of iniquity; and thus they -acquire dexterity for the execution of their mischievous purposes. To -one class is allotted the task of _crusting_, which consists in lining -the interior surface of empty wine bottles with a red crust. This is -accomplished by suffering a saturated hot solution of super-tartrate of -potash, coloured red with a decoction of Brazil wood to chrystallize -within them. A similar operation is frequently performed on the wooden -cask which is to hold the wine, and which, in the same manner as the -bottle, is artificially stained with a red crust; and on some occasions, -the lower extremities of the corks in wine bottles are also stained red, -in order to give them the appearance of having been long in contact with -the wine. It is the business of a particular class of wine-coopers, by -means of an astringent extract mixed with home-made and foreign wines, -to produce ‘genuine old port,’ or to give an artificial flavour and -colour to weak wine; while the mellowing and restoring of spoiled white -wines is the occupation of another class called refiners of wine. Other -deceptions are practised by fraudulent dealers, which are still more -culpable. The most dangerous of these is where wine is adulterated by an -admixture of lead. - -Mr. Accum justly observes, that the ‘merchant or dealer who practises -this dangerous sophistication, adds the crime of murder to that of -fraud, and deliberately scatters the seeds of disease and death among -those customers who contribute to his emolument.’ - -Spirituous liquors, which in this country form one of the chief articles -of consumption, are subjects of equally extensive fraud with wine. The -deceptions which are practised by the dealers in this article, are -chiefly confined to fraudulent imitations of the peculiar flavour of -different sorts of spirits; and as this flavour constitutes, along with -the strength, the value of the spirit, the profit of the dealer consists -in imitating this quality at a cheaper rate than it is produced in the -genuine spirit. The flavour of French brandy is imitated, by distilling -British molasses spirit over wine lees; previous to which, however, the -spirit is deprived of its peculiar disagreeable flavour, by -rectification over fresh-burnt charcoal and quicklime. This operation is -performed by those who are called brewers’ druggists, and forms the -article in the _prices-current_ called _Spirit Flavour_. Wine lees are -imported into this country for the purpose, and they pay the same duty -as foreign wines. Another method of imitating the flavour of brandy, -which is adopted by brandy merchants, is by means of a spirit obtained -from raisin wine, after it has begun to become somewhat sour. ‘Oak -sawdust,’ (Mr. Accum observes), ‘and a spirituous tincture of raisin -stones, are likewise used to impart to new brandy and rum a _ripe -taste_, resembling brandy or rum long kept in oaken casks, and a -somewhat oily consistence, so as to form a durable froth at its surface, -when strongly agitated in a vial. The colouring substances are burnt -sugar, or molasses; the latter gives to imitative brandy a luscious -taste, and fulness in the mouth.’ Gin, which is sold in small quantities -to those who judge of the strength by the taste, is made up for sale by -fraudulent dealers with water and sugar; and this admixture rendering -the liquor turbid, several expedients are resorted to, in order to -clarify it; some of which are harmless, while others are criminal. A -mixture of alum with subcarbonate of potash, is sometimes employed for -this purpose; but more frequently, in place of this, a solution of -subacetate of lead, and then a solution of alum,—a practice reprobated -by Mr. Accum as highly dangerous, owing to the admixture of the lead -with the spirit, which thereby becomes poisonous. After this operation, -it is usual to give a false appearance of strength to the spirit by -mixing with it grains of paradise, guinea pepper, capsicum, and other -acrid and aromatic substances. - -In the manufacture of malt liquors, a wide field is opened for the -operations of fraud. The immense quantity of the article consumed, -presents an irresistible temptation to the unprincipled dealer; while -the vegetable substances with which beer is adulterated, are in all -cases difficult to be detected, and are frequently beyond the reach of -chemical analysis. There is, accordingly, no article which is the -subject of such varied and extensive frauds. These are committed in the -first instance by the brewer, during the process of manufacture, and -afterwards by the dealer, who deteriorates, by fraudulent intermixtures, -the liquor which he sells to the consumer. ‘The intoxicating qualities -of porter (he continues) are to be ascribed to the various drugs -intermixed with it;’ and, as some sorts of porter are more heady than -others, the difference arises, according to this author, ‘from the -greater or less quantity of stupifying ingredients’ contained in it. -These consist of various substances, some of which are highly -deleterious. Thus, the extract disguised under the name of _black -extract_, and ostensibly destined for the use of tanners and dyers, is -obtained by boiling the berries of the _cocculus indicus_ in water, and -converting, by a subsequent evaporation, this decoction into a stiff -black tenacious mass, possessing in a high degree the narcotic and -intoxicating quality of the poisonous berry from which it is prepared. -Quassia is another substance employed in place of hops, to give the beer -a bitter taste; and the shavings of this wood are sold in a half -torrified and ground state, in order to prevent its being recognised. - -Not only is the use of all these deleterious substances strictly -prohibited to the brewer under severe penalties, but all druggists or -grocers convicted of supplying him with any of them, or who have them -in their possession, are liable to severe penalties; and Mr. Accum -gives a list of twenty-nine convictions for this offence, from the -year 1812 to 1819. From the year 1813 to 1819, the number of brewers -prosecuted and convicted of using illegal ingredients in their -breweries, amounts to thirty-four. Numerous seizures have also been -made during the same period at various breweries, and in the -warehouses of brewers’-druggists, of illegal ingredients, to be used -in the brewing of beer, some of them highly deleterious. - -Malt liquors, after they are delivered by the brewer to the -retail-dealer, are still destined to undergo various mutations before -they reach the consumer. It is a common practice with the retailers of -beer, though it be contrary to law, to mix table-beer with strong beer; -and, to disguise this fraud, recourse is had to various expedients. It -is a well known property of genuine beer, that when poured from one -vessel into another, it bears a strong white froth, without which -professed judges would not pronounce the liquor good. This property is -lost, however, when table-beer is mixed with strong beer; and to restore -it, a mixture of what is called _beer-heading_ is added, composed of -common green vitriol, alum, and salt. To give a pungent taste to weak -insipid beer, capsicum and grains of paradise, two highly acrid -substances, are employed; and, of date, a concentrated tincture of these -articles has appeared for sale in the prices-current of -brewers’-druggists. To bring beer forward, as it is technically called, -or to make it hard, a portion of sulphuric acid is mixed with it, which, -in an instant, produces an imitation of the age of eighteen months; and -stale, half-spoiled, or sour beer, is converted into mild beer, by the -simple admixture of an alkali or an alkaline earth; oyster-shell powder, -and subcarbonate of potash, or soda, being usually employed for that -purpose. In order to show that these deceptions are not imaginary, Mr. -Accum refers to the frequent convictions of brewers for those fraudulent -practices, and to the seizures which have been made at different -breweries of illegal ingredients—a list of which, and of the proprietors -of the breweries where they were seized, he has extracted from the -Minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons, appointed to Inquire -into the Price and Quality of Beer. It may be observed, that while some -of the sophistications of beer appear to be perfectly harmless, other -substances are frequently employed for this purpose which are highly -deleterious, and which must gradually undermine the health of those by -whom they are used. - -Many other of the most ordinary articles of consumption are mentioned by -our author as being the object of the most disgusting and pernicious -frauds. Tea, it is well known, from the numerous convictions which have -lately taken place, has been counterfeited to an enormous extent; and -copper, in one form or another, is the chief ingredient made use of for -effecting the imitation. - -The practice of adulterating coffee, has also been carried on for a long -time, and to a considerable extent, while black and white pepper, -Cayenne pepper, mustard, pickles of all sorts, have been all of them -debased by an admixture of baser, and, in many cases, poisonous -ingredients. Ground pepper is frequently sophisticated by an admixture -from the sweepings of the pepper warehouses. These sweepings are -purchased in the market under the initials P. D., signifying pepper -dust. ‘An inferior sort of this vile refuse (Mr. Accum observes), or the -sweepings of P. D., is distinguished among venders by the abbreviation -of D. P. D., denoting dust, or dirt of pepper dust.’ - -Of those various frauds so ably exposed in Mr. Accum’s work, and which -are so much the more dangerous, as they are committed under the disguise -of an honourable trade, it is impossible to speak in terms of too strong -reprobation; and in the first impulse of our indignation, we were -inclined to avenge such iniquitous practices by some signal punishment. -We naturally reflect, that such offences, in whatever light they are -viewed, are of a far deeper dye than many of those for which our -sanguinary code awards the penalty of death—and we wonder that the -punishment hitherto inflicted, has been limited to a fine. If we turn -our view, however, from the moral turpitude of the act, to a calm -consideration of that important question, namely,—What is the most -effectual method of protecting the community from those frauds?—we will -then see strong reasons for preferring the lighter punishment. We do not -find from experience, that offences are prevented by severe punishments. -On the contrary, the crime of forgery, under the most unrelenting -execution of the severe law against it, has grown more frequent. As -those, therefore, by whom the offence of adulterating articles of -provision is committed, are generally creditable and wealthy -individuals, the infliction of a heavy fine, accompanied by public -disgrace, seems a very suitable punishment: and if it be duly and -reasonably applied, there is little doubt that it will be found -effectual to check, and finally to root out, those disgraceful frauds. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - POISONING OF FOOD. - - A Treatise on Adulterations of Food, - - AND CULINARY POISONS; - - _Exhibiting the Fraudulent Sophistications of Bread, Beer, Wine, - Spirituous Liquors, Tea, Coffee, Cheese, Pepper, Mustard, &c. &c. - And methods of detecting them._ - - BY FREDRICK ACCUM. - - (_From the Literary Gazette, No. CLVI. 1820._) - -One has laughed at the whimsical description of the cheats in Humphrey -Clinker, but it is really impossible to laugh at Mr. Accum’s exposition. -It is too serious for a joke to see that in almost every thing which we -eat or drink, we are condemned to swallow swindling, if not poison—that -all the items of metropolitan, and many of country consumption, are -deteriorated, deprived of nutritious properties, or rendered obnoxious -to humanity by the vile arts and merciless sophistications of their -sellers. So general seems the corruption, and so fatal the tendency of -most of the corrupting materials, that we can no longer wonder at the -prevalence of painful disorders, and the briefness of existence (on an -average) in spite of the great increase of medical knowledge, and the -amazing improvement in the healing science, which distinguish our era. -No skill can prevent the effects of daily poisoning; and no man can -prolong his life beyond a short standard, where every meal ought to have -its counteracting medicine. - -Mr. Accum acts the part of Dionysius with us; only the horse-hair by -which he suspends the sword over our heads allows the point gradually to -enter the flesh, and we do not escape, like Damocles, with the simple -fright: yet it is but justice to acknowledge, that in almost every case -he furnishes us with tests whereby we can ascertain the nature of our -danger; and no man could do more towards enabling us to mitigate or -escape from it. - -Advising our readers to abstain from perusing the annexed synopsis till -after they have dined, that they may have one more meal in comfort ere -they die, we proceed to the various heads under which the author ranges -his dread array. - -Devoted to disease by baker, brewer, grocer, &c. the physician is called -to our assistance; but here again the pernicious system of fraud, as it -has given the blow, steps in to defeat the remedy. - -It is so horribly pleasant to reflect how we are in this way -be-swindled, be-trayed, be-drugged, and be-devilled, that we are almost -angry with Mr. Accum for the great service he has done the community by -opening our eyes, at the risk of shutting our mouths for ever. - -His account of water is so fearful, that we see there is no wisdom in -the well; and if we then fly to wine, we find, from his analysis, that -there is no truth in that liquid: bread turns out to be a crutch to help -us onward to the grave, instead of the staff of life; in porter there is -no support, in cordials no consolation; in almost every thing poison, -and in scarcely any medicine, cure. - -The work contains a great many excellent observations on the various -sorts of water, and the modes of conveying and preserving them for use: -it appears generally that leaden pipes and cisterns, and copper vessels -are highly dangerous. - -Good heavens! we think we hear it exclaimed, is there no end to these -infamous doings? does nothing pure or unpoisoned come to our tables, -except butcher’s meat, which has been rendered far less nutritive than -formerly, by new methods of feeding? Why, we must answer, hardly any -thing: for our author proceeds to shew that _cheese_ (Gloucester he -mentions) has been contaminated with red lead, a deadly poison mixed -with the colouring anotto, when that article was scarce: that _pepper_ -is adulterated with factitious pepper-corns “made up of oil-cakes (the -residue of lint-seed, from which the oil has been pressed), common clay, -and a portion of Cayenne pepper, formed in a mass, and granulated by -being first pressed through a sieve, and then rolled in a cask;” and -further, that “ground pepper is very often sophisticated by adding to a -portion of genuine pepper, a quantity of pepper dust, or the sweepings -from the pepper warehouses, mixed with a little Cayenne pepper. The -sweepings are known, and purchased in the market, under the name of P.D. -signifying pepper dust. An inferior sort of this vile refuse, or the -sweepings of P.D. is distinguished among vendors by the abbreviation -D.P.D, denoting, dust (dirt) of pepper dust.” - -As we read on, we learn the method of manufacturing adulterated vinegar, -adulterated cream, adulterated lozenges, adulterated mustard, -adulterated lemon acid, poisonous Cayenne, poisonous pickles, poisonous -confectionary, poisonous catsup, poisonous custards, poisonous anchovy -sauce, poisonous olive oil, poisonous soda water; and, if not done to -our hands, of rendering poisonous all sorts of food by the use of copper -and leaden vessels. Suffice it to record, that our pickles are made -green by copper; our vinegar rendered sharp by sulphuric acid; our cream -composed of rice powder or arrow root in bad milk; our comfits mixed of -sugar, starch, and clay, and coloured with preparations of copper and -lead; our catsup often formed of the dregs of distilled vinegar with a -decoction of the outer green husk of the walnut, and seasoned with -all-spice, cayenne, pimento, onions, and common salt—or if founded on -mushrooms, done with those in a putrefactive state remaining unsold at -market; our mustard a compound of mustard, wheaten flour, cayenne, bay -salt, raddish seed, turmeric, and pease flour; and our citric acid, our -lemonade, and our punch, to refresh or to exhilarate, usually cheap -tartareous acid modified for the occasion. - -Against all these, and many other impositions, Mr. Accum furnishes us -with easy and certain tests: his work, besides, contains many curious -documents and useful recipes; and it is replete with intelligence, and -often guides to the right while it exposes the wrong. - - - ------- - - - _Other Works lately published by FREDRICK ACCUM._ - DESCRIPTION - OF - THE PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING - COAL GAS, - For the Lighting of Streets, Houses, and Public Buildings, - WITH ELEVATIONS, SECTIONS, AND PLANS, - Of the most improved Sorts of Apparatus now employed at the - Gas Works in London, - And the principal Provincial Towns of Great Britain. - _Price 15s._ - - - ------- - - - CHEMICAL AMUSEMENT, - - Comprising a Series of curious and instructive Experiments in Chemistry, - which - are easily performed, and unattended by Danger. - - _The Fourth Edition. Price 9s._ - - - ------- - - - _This Day is published_, - - A TREATISE - - ON THE - - Art of Brewing, - - Exhibiting the London practice of Brewing Porter, Brown Stout, Ale, - Table - Beer, and various other kinds of Malt Liquors. - - BY FREDRICK ACCUM. - - - ------- - - - _By the same Author_, - - - A TREATISE - - ON THE ART OF MAKING WINE - - From Native Fruits; - -Elucidating the Chemical Principles upon which the Art of Wine-making -depends. The Fruits best adapted for Home-made Wines, and the Methods of -preparing them. - - - ------- - - - A MANUAL OF ANALYTICAL MINERALOGY, - -Intended to facilitate the practical Analysis of Minerals, by pointing -out to the Student concise Directions for performing the Analysis of -Metallic Ores, Earths, and other Minerals. _Second Edition. 2 Vols. -Price 15s._ - - - ------- - - - A SYSTEM OF THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY, - - _In Two Vols. with Plates. Second Edition. Price 15s._ - - - ------- - - - ELEMENTS OF CHRYSTALLOGRAPHY, - - _After the Method of Haüy with Plates and Graphic Designs_, - -Exhibiting the Forms of Crystals, their Geometrical Structure, and -general Laws, according to which the immense variety of actually -existing Crystals are produced. _Price 15s._ - - - ------- - - - A DESCRIPTION OF THE CHEMICAL APPARATUS AND - INSTRUMENTS, - - WITH FIFTEEN QUARTO COPPER-PLATES. - - - ------- - - - A PRACTICAL ESSAY ON CHEMICAL RE-AGENTS OR TESTS, - -Exhibiting the general Nature of Chemical Re-Agents or Tests—the Effects -which they produce upon different Bodies—the Uses to which they may be -supplied, and the Art of applying them successfully. - - _Second Edition. Illustrated by a Series of Experiments. Price 9s._ - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - ● Transcriber’s Notes: - ○ The references to figures 1 through 4 on pages 130 and 132 do not - exist in any edition of the book. This has been confirmed by the - Project Manager. - ○ Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected. - ○ Typographical errors were silently corrected. - ○ Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only - when a predominant form was found in this book. - ○ Text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_). - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A treatise on the art of making good -wholesome bread of wheat, oats, rye,, by Frederick Accum - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ART OF MAKING GOOD WHOLESOME BREAD *** - -***** This file should be named 60424-0.txt or 60424-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/4/2/60424/ - -Produced by deaurider, Barry Abrahamsen, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A treatise on the art of making good wholesome bread of wheat, oats, rye, barley and other farinaceous grains - -Author: Frederick Accum - -Release Date: October 4, 2019 [EBook #60424] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ART OF MAKING GOOD WHOLESOME BREAD *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Barry Abrahamsen, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/cover.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><span class='small'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c000' /> -</div> -<div> - <h1 class='c001'><span class='large'>A TREATISE</span><br /> <br /><span class='small'>ON THE ART OF</span><br /> <br /><span class='large'>MAKING GOOD AND WHOLESOME</span> <br /> <br /><span class='xxlarge'><b>BREAD</b></span><br /> <br /><span class='small'>OF</span><br /> <br /><span class='large'><b>WHEAT, OATS, RYE, BARLEY,</b></span> <br /> <br /><span class='small'>AND</span><br /> <br /><span class='large'>OTHER FARINACEOUS GRAIN</span></h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c000'> - <div>EXHIBITING</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>THE ALIMENTARY PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF BREAD CORN, AND OF THE</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>VARIOUS SUBSTITUTES USED FOR BREAD, IN</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div id='oven' class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/oven.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span class='large'><span class='sc'>By</span> FREDRICK ACCUM,</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='large'><i>OPERATIVE CHEMIST</i>,</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>Lecturer on Practical Chemistry, on Mineralogy, and on Chemistry applied to the Arts and</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Manufactures; Member of the Royal Irish Academy; Fellow of the Linnæan Society;</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, and of the Royal Society</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>of Arts of Berlin, &c. &c.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c002' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span class="blackletter">LONDON:</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='large'>PRINTED FOR THOMAS BOYS, 7, LUDGATE HILL,</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>By C. Green, Leicester Street, Leicester Square.</span></div> - <div>1821.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_i'>i</span><span class='xlarge'>PREFACE.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c005' /> -<div class='c006'>LONDON,</div> -<div class='c007'><span class='small'>COMPTON STREET, SOHO.</span></div> -<p class='c008'>The object of this Treatise is to exhibit the chemical -principles of the art of making good and wholesome -Bread, of Wheat, Oats, Rye, Barley, Rice, -Potatoes, and other farinaceous substances used for -this purpose in different parts of the world.</p> - -<p class='c009'>I have first taken a view of the chemical constitution -of the Alimentary Substances derived from the -vegetable kingdom, and have added an Historical -<span class='pageno' id='Page_ii'>ii</span>Sketch of the Art of Making Bread. I have elucidated -the chemical constitution of the substances of -which Bread is made among civilized nations, as well -as of various nutritive materials, besides Bread Corn, -which are used in different countries as substitutes -for Bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>I have described the chemical analysis of Bread -Flour, its immediate constituent parts, their proportions -in different kinds of grain, and the method of -separating them. I have pointed out the materials -more particularly fitted for the fabrication of Bread; -I have explained the reason why a variety of Alimentary -Farinaceous Seeds, in common use, cannot be -made into light and porous loaf-bread, although they -are well calculated, under other forms, of being converted -into highly nutritious food.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_iii'>iii</span>I have explained the chemical distinction which -exists between bread made with yeast, as well as -with leaven, and bread made without either of -these species of ferment; and, lastly, I have given -specific directions for making the different kinds of -Bread prepared from Wheat, Oats, Rye, Barley, -Rice, Maize, Buck-wheat, Potatoes, and other farinaceous -substances, as practised in various countries.</p> -<div class='c006'><span class='large'>FREDRICK ACCUM.</span></div> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span> - <h2 class='c010'>CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> -<hr class='c011' /> -<table class='table0' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='90%' /> -<col width='9%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c012'> </td> - <td class='c013'><span class='small'>PAGE</span></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>PREFACE</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_i'>i</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>CONTENTS</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS, CHIEFLY WITH REGARD TO THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION AND NUTRITIVE QUALITY OF THE SUBSTANCES OF FOOD DERIVED FROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ART OF MAKING BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>BREAD CORN</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_30'>30</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>THE BREAD-FRUIT</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>SAGO BREAD, and <i>SAGO</i></td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_41'>41</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>CASAVA BREAD, and <i>TAPIOCA</i></td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>PLANTAIN BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>BANANA BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>BREAD OF DRIED FISH</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_47'>47</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>BREAD MADE OF MOSS</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>BREAD MADE OF EARTH</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>———————</td> - <td class='c013'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><b>ANALYSIS OF BREAD FLOUR</b></td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>QUANTITY OF FLOUR OBTAINABLE FROM VARIOUS KINDS OF CEREAL AND LEGUMINOUS SEEDS EMPLOYED IN THE FABRICATION OF BREAD, AND DIFFERENT KINDS OF FLOUR MANUFACTURED FROM WHEAT</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_55'>55</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>REASON WHY OATS, PEASE, BEANS, RICE, MAIZE, MILLET, BUCKWHEAT, AND OTHER NUTRITIVE GRAINS CANNOT BE MADE INTO LIGHT AND POROUS BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_58'>58</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>THEORY OF THE PANIFICATION OF BREAD FLOUR</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_61'>61</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>———————</td> - <td class='c013'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><b>UNLEAVENED BREAD</b></td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>OATMEAL CAKES</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>MIXED OATMEAL AND PEASE BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>UNLEAVENED MAIZE BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>UNLEAVENED BEAN-FLOUR BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_71'>71</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>UNLEAVENED BUCKWHEAT BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_71'>71</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>UNLEAVENED ACORN BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>SEA BISCUIT</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_73'>73</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>———————</td> - <td class='c013'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><b>LEAVENED BREAD</b></td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>LEAVENED RYE BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>HUNGARIAN RYE BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_85'>85</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>———————</td> - <td class='c013'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><b>BREAD MADE WITH YEAST</b></td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_88'>88</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>METHOD OF MAKING WHEATEN BREAD, AS PRACTISED BY THE LONDON BAKERS</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>QUANTITY OF BREAD OBTAINABLE FROM A GIVEN QUANTITY OF WHEATEN FLOUR</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>HOME-MADE WHEATEN BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_100'>100</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>TO MAKE PAN-BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_102'>102</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>BROWN WHEATEN BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>MIXED WHEATEN BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_104'>104</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>ROLLS</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>FRENCH BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>MUFFINS AND CRUMPETS</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>BARLEY BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>MIXED BARLEY BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_111'>111</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>RYE BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_112'>112</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>TURNIP BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>RICE BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_116'>116</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>POTATOE BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_121'>121</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>POTATOE ROLLS</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_124'>124</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>APPLE BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_125'>125</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>DOMESTIC OVEN FOR BAKING BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_126'>126</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>POPULAR ERRORS CONCERNING THE QUALITY OF BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_133'>133</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>LAWS PROHIBITING THE ADULTERATION OF BREAD AND BREAD FLOUR</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_149'>149</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>ECONOMICAL APPLICATION OF YEAST</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>ECONOMICAL PREPARATION OF YEAST</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_165'>165</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>ECONOMICAL METHOD OF MAKING YEAST, RECOMMENDED BY DR. LETTSOM</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_165'>165</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>POTATOE YEAST</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_166'>166</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>METHOD OF PRESERVING YEAST</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_167'>167</a></td> - </tr> -</table> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>A</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xlarge'>TREATISE</span></div> - <div class='c000'>ON THE ART OF MAKING</div> - <div class='c000'><span class="blackletter"><span class='xlarge'>Good and Wholesome Bread</span></span>.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c011' /> -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c010'>PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.</h2> -</div> -<p class='c008'>To most animals nature has designed a -limited range of aliment, when compared to -the extensive choice allotted to man. If -we look into the history of the human race, -inhabiting the different parts of the globe, -as far as we are acquainted with it, we -find, that man appears to be designed -by nature to eat of all substances that are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>capable of nourishing him: fruits, grains, -roots, herbs, flesh, fish, reptiles, and fowls, -all contribute to his sustenance. He can -even subsist on every variety of these substances, -under every mode of preparation, -dried, preserved in salt, hardened in smoke, -pickled in vegetable acids, &c.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The Author of Nature has so constructed -our organs of digestion, that we can accommodate -ourselves to every species of aliment; -no kind of food injures us; we are -capable of being habituated to every species, -and of converting into nutriment almost -every production of nature.</p> - -<p class='c009'>When we enquire more minutely into the -chemical constitution of the different alimentary -materials, which promote the growth, -support the strength, and renew the waste -of our body, we find that animal substances -are not suited to form the whole of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>our daily food; and that, in fact, if long -and extensively used, their stimulating -effects at length exhausts and debilitates -the system, which it at first invigorated and -supported. Those, accordingly, who have -lived for any great length of time on a diet -composed entirely of animal matter, become -oppressed, heavy, and indolent, the -tone and excitability of their frame are impaired, -they are affected with indigestion, -the breathing is hurried on the smallest exercise, -the gums become spongy, the breath -is fœtid, and the limbs swell. We recognize -in this description the approach of -scurvy, a disease familiar to sailors, to the -inhabitants of besieged towns, and, in -general, to all who are wholly deprived of -a just proportion of vegetable aliment.</p> - -<p class='c009'>On the other hand, vegetable food being -less stimulating is also less nourishing; besides, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>this kind of aliment is, upon the -whole, of more difficult assimilation than the -food derived from the animal kingdom. -Hence it is, perhaps, that nature has provided -a greater extent of digestive organs -for animals wholly herbivorous. It is insufficient -to raise the human system to all the -strength and vigour of which it is susceptible. -Flatulency of the stomach, muscular -and nervous debility, and a long series of -disorders, are not unfrequently the consequences -of this too sparing diet. Some -Eastern nations, indeed, live almost entirely -on vegetable substances; but these, it is remarked, -are seldom so robust, so active, or -so brave, as men who live on a mixed diet -of animal and vegetable food. Few, at -least, in the countries of Europe can be -sufficiently nourished by vegetable food -alone; and even those nations, and individuals, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>who are said to live exclusively -on vegetables, because they do not eat the -flesh of animals, generally make use of milk -at least, of eggs, and butter and cheese.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Food composed of animal and vegetable -materials is, in truth, that which is best -suited to the nature and condition of man. -The proportions in which these should be -used it is not easy to determine, but generally -the quantity of vegetables should exceed -that of animal food. “On this head,” -says Dr. Fothergill, “I have only one short -caution to give. Those who think it necessary -to pay any attention to their health, at -table, should take care that the quantity of -bread, of meat, and of pudding, and of -greens, should not compose, each of them, -a meal, as if some only were thrown in to -make weight, but carefully to observe that -the sum of, altogether, do not exceed due -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>bounds or incroach upon the first feeling -of satiety.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>All the products of the vegetable kingdom, -used as aliment, are not equally nutritious. -When we contemplate with a chemical -eye the nutritive principles contained -in vegetable substances, we soon perceive -that they are but few in number, namely, -starch, gluten, mucilage, jelly, fixed oil, -sugar, and acids; and the different vegetable -parts of them are nutritious, wholesome, -and digestible, according to the nature -and proportion of their principles contained -in them. The starch and gluten appear the -most nutritious, and together with mucilage -at the same time, the most abundant ingredients -contained in those vegetables from -which man derives his subsistence. Hence, -from time immemorial, and in all parts of -the earth, man has used farinaceous seeds -<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>as part of his food, for they contain the -above-mentioned materials in the greatest -abundance. Of these the most nutritive -are the seeds of the <i>Cerealia</i>, under which -title are commonly comprehended the <i>Gramineæ</i>, -or <i>Culminiferous</i> plants. Whilst -the seeds of the <i>Gramineæ</i> supply the -most important part of food furnished by -the vegetable kingdom, in almost every -part of the world, their leaves and young -shoots support that class of animals hence -called graminivorous, whose flesh is most -generally eaten.</p> - -<p class='c009'>These vegetables are distributed so universally -over the face of the earth, and have -become to such a degree the object of culture, -that they are very generally made into -bread, or are employed instead of it; and, -upon the whole, it appears that they are -nutritive merely in the proportion to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>quantity of farinaceous matter contained in -them; but this substance exists in different -combinations in different cereal and leguminous -seeds. It is combined with gluten -in wheat, with a saccharine matter in oats, -and in many leguminous seeds, such as -Harricot beans and pease, and with viscous -mucilage in rye and Windsor beans.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Next to the <i>Cerealia</i> and <i>Leguminosæ</i> -may be ranged the oily farinaceous seeds, -such as almonds, walnuts, filberts, &c. -These abound in starch and mucilage. -The use of chocolate, which is prepared -from the chocolate nut, growing in the -West Indies, ground into a paste, with or -without sugar, is in itself a nutritious substance, -and to those with whom it agrees, -it may be considered as a wholesome nutritious -aliment. Yet the vegetable farina, -in this state of existence, though highly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>nutritious, and to many palates very -agreeable, is more difficult of digestion, -and does not, upon the whole, afford a -very wholesome alimentary substance. -When too freely used, those kinds of seeds -are sure to disagree, more especially if -from age the oil has become rancid. They -must be considered rather as a delicacy -than as fitted to form a portion of our daily -food, and with some particular stomachs -they never agree.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Of the alimentary farinaceous roots, the -potatoe, boiled or roasted, is one of the -most useful, and perhaps after the <i>Cerealia</i>, -one of the most wholesome and most nutritious -vegetables in common use; its -nourishing powers, there can be no doubt, -depend upon the amylaceous fecula of -which it is chiefly composed. The Jerusalem -artichoke deserves likewise to be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>noticed here, as being a highly alimentary -root, chiefly composed of farinaceous -matter. Of the fruits rich in farinaceous -and mucilaginous matter, few are indigenous. -The chesnut, when roasted, affords -an alimentary food, but in the East and -West Indies the bread fruit, bananas, and -the fruit of the plantain tree, are the substitutes -for bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Scarcely any of the various alimentary -substances employed by man are consumed -in the raw and crude state in which they -are presented to us by nature. Almost all -of them are previously subjected to some -kind of preparation, or change, by which -for the most part they are rendered more -wholesome and more digestible, and sometimes -more nutritive. Accordingly, the -observations we have made on the properties -of different vegetable aliments, are to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>be considered as applied to them in the -state in which they are commonly used -among us.</p> - -<p class='c009'>When in the preparation of bread a -baking heat is applied to the flour dough, -a complete change is produced in the constitution -of the mass. The new substance -of bread differs materially from flour, it no -longer forms a tenacious mass with water, -nor can starch and gluten be any more separated -from it.</p> - -<p class='c009'>By the application of heat to vegetables -the more volatile and watery parts are in -some cases dissipated. The different principles, -according to their peculiar properties, -are extracted, softened, dissolved, or -coagulated; but most commonly they are -changed into new combinations, so as to -be no longer distinguishable by the forms -and chemical properties which they originally -possessed.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>In like manner the leguminous seeds, -and farinaceous roots are greatly altered -by the chemical action of heat. The raw -potatoe is ill-flavoured, extremely indigestible, -and even unwholesome. By roasting, -or boiling, it becomes farinaceous, -sweet, and agreeable to the taste, wholesome, -digestible, and highly nutritious. -Little is lost, and nothing is added to the -potatoe by this process, yet its properties -are greatly changed; its principles, in -short, have suffered very remarkable chemical -changes.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Even in the simple boiling of the various -leguminous seeds, pot-herbs, and esculent -roots, the effect does not seem confined to -the mere softening of the fibres, the solution -of some, and coagulation of other of -their juices and principles; not only their -texture, but their flavour, and other sensible -<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>qualities have undergone a change, -by which their alimentary properties have -been improved; the farinaceous matter by -boiling is rendered soluble, the vegetable -fibre softened. Saccharine matter is often -formed, mucilage and jelly extracted and -combined, and the product is rendered -more palatable, wholesome, and nourishing. -And, although every country has its -own favourite articles of food, and modes -of preparing them, and there is perhaps no -subject in regard to which local prejudices -are so strong, yet there can be no reason -why the farinaceous matter of cereal seeds -should always be consumed in the state of -bread; many of them are not less agreeable, -and not less wholesome in other -forms of food.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In Scotland nine-tenths of those in the -more humble walks of life live upon barleybroth, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>and there are not more healthy people -to be found any where.—<i>Cullen’s Materia -Medica</i>, v. I. p. 287.</p> - -<p class='c009'>It is chiefly to save the trouble of dressing -any other kind of food, and that bread, -from its portability and convenience of always -being ready, has become the principal -sustenance, but it is far from being the most -economical method of using farinaceous -grain. There can be no doubt that the -same quantity of farinaceous matter made -into bread might, in other forms, be used to -a much greater advantage; for the great -art of preparing good and wholesome food -is to convert the alimentary matter into such -a substance as to fill up the stomach and -alimentary canal without overcharging it -with more nutritive matter than is requisite -for the support of the animal, and this may -be done either by bread, or by converting -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>the mealy substance of which it is composed -into other forms, of which there is a great -variety.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Persons who have travelled much on the -continent are well aware that our neighbours -have the art of throwing much more -variety and gratification of the palate into -the article of subsistence which has been -emphatically called the staff of life, than we -possess. The French and Germans convert -the farinaceous flour of vegetables into -a variety of excellent articles of food, and -not serving, like our own, as a mere companion -to pair off with so many mouthfuls -of meat.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In speaking thus of the use of bread, I -do not mean to deny that bread is highly -alimentary, its nourishing powers are undoubtedly -very great.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The finest bread, says an eminent physician -(Dr. Buchan), is not always the best -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>adapted for answering the purposes of nutrition. -Household bread, which is made -by grinding the whole grain, and only separating -the coarse bran, is, without doubt, the -most wholesome.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The people of South Britain generally -prefer bread made of the finest wheat flour, -while those of the Northern countries eat a -mixture of flour and oatmeal, or rye bread. -The common people of Scotland also eat a -mixed bread, but more frequently bread -made of oatmeal only.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In Germany the common bread is made -of rye. The flour of millet is made in -France, Spain, and Italy, into wholesome -and nourishing pastry and puddings. -The American and West Indian labourer -thinks no bread so strengthening as that -which is made of Indian corn.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The inhabitants of Westphalia, who are -a hardy and robust people, capable of enduring -<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>the greatest fatigues, live on a coarse -brown rye bread, which still retains the -opprobrious name once given to it by a -French traveller, “<i>Bon pour Nicole</i>—good -for his horse Nichol.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>The great advantage of eating pure and -genuine bread must be obvious; but bread -is often spoiled to please the eye. I have -elsewhere<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c014'><sup>[1]</sup></a> shewn, that in the making of -bread, more especially in London, various -ingredients are occasionally mingled with -the dough. The baker is obliged to suit the -caprice of his customers, to have his bread -light and porous, and of a pure white colour. -It is impossible to produce this sort of bread -from flour alone, unless it be of the finest -quality. The best flour, however, being -mostly used by the biscuit bakers and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>pastry cooks, it is only from the inferior -sorts that bread is made; and it becomes -necessary, in order to have it of that light -and porous quality, and of a fine white, to -mix alum with the dough. Without this -ingredient the flour used by the London -bakers would not yield so white a bread -as that sold in this metropolis, and herein -consists the fraud, that the baker is enabled -by the use of this ingredient to produce, -from bad materials, bread that is light, -white, and porous, but of which the quality -does not correspond to the appearance, and -thus to impose upon the public.</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f1'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. </span>Adulterations of Food and Culinary Poisons, -2nd Edit. 1820, p. 130.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>In the following pages I have enumerated -the methods by which all the different kinds -of farinaceous substances are made into -good and wholesome bread, and are used -in different countries as articles of daily -sustenance.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span><span class='c017'><span class="blackletter">Art of making Bread.</span></span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c002' /> -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c010'>HISTORICAL SKETCH<br /> <br />OF<br /> <br /><span class='xxlarge'>THE ART OF MAKING BREAD.</span></h2> -</div> -<p class='c008'>Nothing appears so easy at first sight, -as to grind corn, or other farinaceous substances, -to knead the flour with water into -dough, and to convert it, by baking, into -porous bread. But, simple as these operations -may now appear to us, the art of -making loaf-bread was by no means one of -the earliest among human inventions.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>For, however essential this species of -food may be considered among us as an -article of primary subsistence, it is perfectly -certain, that men had long existed -in a state of civilization, before bread was -known among them.</p> - -<p class='c009'>It is evident that every species of corn -must have been originally the spontaneous -production of the earth; but as the grain, -previous to cultivation, would grow but -scantily, its importance as food might long -escape observation, and mankind would -naturally derive a more obvious, though -less nutritive subsistence, from acorns, -berries, and other fruits which were within -their reach. Ages elapsed ere Ceres, according -to the Grecian mythology, descended -from heaven to teach mankind the -use of agriculture.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In the early ages of society, according -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>to some historians, men were satisfied with -parching their corn for immediate use as -food. The next advance appears to have -been, to pulverize the grain in a mortar -or handmill, and to form it, by the addition -of water or milk, into a kind of porridge; -or to make the bruised grain into -dough, which was rendered eatable by -baking on embers.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Even after the method of grinding corn -into meal, and separating the bran by sifting, -had become known, it was long before -the art of fermenting the dough, in order -to produce bread full of eyes and of a soft -consistence, was discovered.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Like most other operations of primary -importance, the origin of the art of making -bread is lost in the darkness of ages past.</p> - -<p class='c009'>We are, however, certain that the Jews -practised this art in the time of Moses; for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>we find in the Book of Exodus, chap. xii. -v. 18, a prohibition to make use of <i>leavened</i>, -that is, fermented bread, during the -celebration of the Passover. But it does -not appear that <i>loaf-bread</i> was known to -Abraham, for in his history we read frequently -of cakes, but not of fermented -bread. It is, therefore, very probable, that -the art of making fermented bread took its -rise in the East, and that the Jews learned -it from the Egyptians.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The Greeks attribute the art of making -bread to the god Pan.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Bakers were unknown in Rome till the -year of the city 850, or about 200 years -before the Christian era. The Roman -bakers, according to Pliny, came from -Greece with the Macedonian army. Before -this period, the Romans were often -distinguished by the appellation of <i>eaters -of pap</i>.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>At the time of Augustus, there were upwards -of 300 baking houses in Rome, almost -the whole of which were occupied by -Greeks. The bakers enjoyed in ancient -Rome great privileges. The public granaries -were entrusted to their care; they -formed a corporation, or kind of college, -from which neither they nor their children -were permitted to withdraw. They were -exempted from guardianships and public -services, which might interfere with their -occupation. They were eligible to become -Senators; and those who married the -daughters of bakers, became members of -the college.</p> - -<p class='c009'>From the establishment of bakers in -Rome, the art of making loaf, or fermented -bread, spread amongst the ancient Gauls; -but its progress in the northern countries -of Europe was slow, and in some northern -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>districts, the luxury of eating fermented, or -loaf-bread, is at this day not in general -use. Some of the modern Italians consume -the greatest part of their bread-flour in the -state of <i>macaroni</i> and <i>vermicelli</i>, and in -other forms of <i>polenta</i>, or soft pudding; -and even at present millions of people -neither sow nor reap, but content themselves -with enjoying the spontaneous productions -of the earth.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Bread Corn</span>,</h3> - -<p class='c019'>Properly so called, of which loaf-bread -is chiefly made among cultivated nations, -comprehends the seeds of the whole tribe -of (<i>cerealia</i>), or gramineous plants; for -they all contain a farinaceous substance, -of a similar nature, and chiefly composed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>of starch. Those of the <i>cerealia</i> in common -use are the following:</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='28%' /> -<col width='71%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Wheat</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Triticum hybernum.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Barley</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Hordeum vulgare.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Rye</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Secale cereale.</i></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c009'>With us, wheat is chiefly employed for -the fabrication of bread. It is, in fact, the -only grain of which light porous bread can -be made; but rye and barley are also used -as bread-corn. The farina of the other <i>cerealia</i> -afford also a nutritive and wholesome -bread; though their flour is not so susceptible -of the panary fermentation, it -cannot be made into the white texture of -the wheaten loaf. The bread formed -from them is consequently much inferior to -that prepared from wheat. The following -seeds are chiefly employed to make a species -of bread:</p> - -<table class='table2' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='24%' /> -<col width='75%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr><td class='c022' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Oats</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Avena Sativa.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Maize</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Zea Mays.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Rice</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Oriza Sativa.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Millet</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Panicum milliaceum.</i></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c009'>Oats are used in the north of Europe for -making a kind of bread, called oatmeal-cake, -and particularly by the inhabitants -of Scotland. Maize is frequently employed -as bread-corn in North America.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Rice nourishes more human beings than -all the other seeds together, used as food; -and it is by many considered the most nutritive -of all sorts of grain. A very ridiculous -prejudice has existed with respect -to rice, namely, that it is prejudicial to the -sight, by causing diseases of the eye; but -no authority can warrant this assertion: -on the contrary, the opinion of the ablest -men (Cullen’s Mat. Med. v. i. p. 229) may -be quoted in favour of rice being a very -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>healthy food: and the experience of all -Asia and America may be adduced with -sufficient weight to have answered this objection, -if it had been supported by any -thing more than vulgar prejudice, unsupported -by facts. This grain is peculiarly -calculated to diminish the evils of a scanty -harvest, an inconvenience which must occasionally -affect all countries, particularly -those which are very populous. It is the -most fitted of all food to be of use in relieving -general distress in a bad season<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c014'><sup>[2]</sup></a>, -because it comes from a part of the world -where provisions are cheap and abundant; -it is light, easy of carriage, keeps well for -a long time, and contains a great deal of -wholesome food within a small compass. -Indeed, it has been ascertained that one -<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>part of rice contains as much food and -useful nourishment as six of wheat.</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f2'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. </span>Reports of the Society for bettering the Condition -of the Poor, Vol. I. p. 137.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Next to the <i>cerealia</i>, the seeds of <i>leguminous -plants</i> may be regarded as substitutes -for bread corn. Their ripe seeds -afford the greatest quantity of alimentary -matter. Their meal has a sweetish taste, -but they cannot be made into light and -porous bread, without the addition of a -portion of wheaten flour. Their meal, however, -though it forms but a coarse and -indifferent bread, neither very palatable -nor very digestible, except by the most -robust stomachs, is yet highly nutritive.</p> - -<p class='c009'>It is remarked by Dr. Cullen, that “on -certain farms of this country, upon which -the leguminous seeds are produced in great -abundance, the labouring servants are -much fed upon that kind of grain; but if -such servants are removed to a farm upon -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>which the <i>leguminous seeds</i> are not in such -plenty, and therefore they are fed with the -<i>cerealia</i>, they soon find a decay of strength; -and it is common for servants, in making -such removals, to insist on their being provided -daily, or weekly, with a certain quantity -of the leguminous meal.” We are -not, however, to conclude from this observation, -that pease-meal bread, is really -more nutritive than wheaten bread, or than -the meal of the other <i>cerealia</i>. We are -rather disposed to regard it as an example -of the effect of habit.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The <i>leguminous seeds</i> employed in the -fabrication of bread, are</p> - -<table class='table3' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='44%' /> -<col width='55%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Pease</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Pisum Sativum.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Beans</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Vicia faba.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Kidney Beans</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Phaseolus vulgaris.</i></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c009'>The whole of this tribe afford a much -<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>more agreeable, though not a more nutritive -aliment, when their seeds are used -green, young, and tender, and simply -boiled, than when fully ripened, and their -flour baked.</p> - -<p class='c009'>It is remarked, that all the substances -of which bread is made, as well as the substitutes -for it, when chemically considered, -are chiefly composed of one and the same -identical material; namely, the farinaceous -matter of the seeds, roots, fruits, or other -products of vegetables, of different climates -and soils; and that <i>starch</i>, or the amylaceous -fecula, forms the most valuable part -of all the materials used for making bread, -and its substitutes.</p> - -<p class='c009'>This substance forms by far the most -abundant, the most nourishing, and the -most easy to be procured aliment, obtainable -from the vegetable kingdom.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>“Whilst immense tribes of creatures -devour the amylaceous fecula in the grain, -as nature produces it, man knows how to -give it different forms, from the most simple -boiling to the most complicated delicacies -of the arts of the confectioner and -pastry-cook.</p> - -<p class='c009'>“It is singular that man should waste -so valuable a substance for the purpose of -hair-powder, a kind of custom perhaps ridiculous, -in which modern nations imitate, -without being aware of it, those people -whom they term barbarous, and by which -custom they lavish away a portion of the -subsistence of a great number of families.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>This nutritive aliment, we find, exists in -various combinations, in the roots, seeds, -in the stems, and fruits of plants. Many -roots abounding in the amylaceous fecula, -yields a palatable and highly nutritious -aliment.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>Hence the potatoe is a substance largely -employed as a substitute for bread. Its -nutritious qualities are fully ascertained -by the experience of all Europe; it makes -a considerable portion of the food of the -poor; and in Ireland in particular, millions -of people exist, who, from sufficient evidence, -we are pretty certain live for years -together almost wholly on this root and -water, without any other seasoning than a -little salt. It contains much amylaceous -fecula, and when mixed with wheaten flour, -may be formed into good and palatable -bread. Other substances, besides the -grains before mentioned, are in different -parts of the world substituted for bread. -These are the following:</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">The Bread-Fruit.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>The Bread-fruit Tree (<i>Artocarpus incisa</i>) -affords the inhabitants of the South Pacific -Ocean a substance resembling bread. They -only climb the tree to gather the fruit, -which is of a round shape, from five to six -inches in diameter; it grows on boughs -like apples, and, when quite ripe, is of a -yellowish colour. The bread-fruit has a -tough reticulated rind; there is neither -seed nor stone in the inside of it. The -eatable part, which lies between the skin -and the core, is as white as snow, and of -the consistence of new bread. The fruit -is roasted on embers, or baked in an oven, -which scorches the rind and turns it black; -this is rasped off, and there remains a thin -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>white crust, while the inside is soft and -white, like crumbs of fine loaf-bread. It -is eaten new, for if it is kept longer than -twenty-four hours, it becomes harsh and -unpalatable. It is also boiled, by which -means the interior is rendered white, like -a boiled potatoe. They make three dishes -of it, by putting either water or the milk -of the cocoa-nut to it, then beating it into -a paste with a stone pestle, and afterwards -mixing it with banana paste, which has -been suffered to become sour.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The bread-fruit remains in season eight -months in the year, during which time the -natives eat no other sort of food of the -bread kind; and the deficiency of the other -four months of the year, is made up chiefly -with cocoa-nuts, bananas, plantains, bread -nuts (<i>brosimum alicastrum</i>), and other farinaceous -fruits.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Sago Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>The Sago-Tree (<i>Cycas Circinalis</i>), which -grows spontaneously in the East Indies, -and particularly on the Coast of Malabar, -furnishes to numerous Indian tribes their -bread. In the Islands of Banda and Amboyna, -they saw the body of the tree into -small pieces, and, after bruising and beating -them in a mortar, pour water upon the -fragments; this is left for some hours undisturbed, -to suffer the pithy farinaceous -matter to subside. The water is then -poured off, and the meal, being properly -dried, is formed into cakes, or fermented -and made into bread, which, it is said, eats -nearly as well as wheaten bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The Hottentots make a kind of bread of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>another species of sago-tree (<i>Cycas Resoluta</i>). -The pith, or medulla, which abounds -in the trunk of this little palm, is collected -and tied up in dressed calf’s or sheep’s -skin, and then buried in the ground for -several weeks, which renders it mellow -and tender. It is then kneaded with water -into dough, and made into small loaves or -cakes, which are baked under embers. -Other Hottentots, not quite so nice, merely -dry and roast the farinaceous pith, and -afterwards make it into a kind of frumety -or porridge.</p> -<h3 class='c018'>SAGO.</h3> - -<p class='c019'>The same meal, or medulla, of the sago-tree, -reduced into grain, by passing it -whilst still moist through a kind of sieve, -produces the <i>sago</i> of commerce, which receives -its brown colour by being heated on -hot stones.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Casava Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>In the Caribbee Islands they make bread -of a very poisonous root (<i>Jatropa Maniat</i>), -rendered wholesome by the extraction of -its acrid juice, which the Indians use for -poisoning their arrows. A tea-spoonful -of the juice is sufficient to poison a man.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The root of the maniat, after being -crashed, scraped clean, and grated in a -tub, is enclosed in a sack of rushes, of very -loose texture, which is suspended upon a -stick placed upon two wooden forks. To -the bottom of this sack a heavy vessel is -suspended, which, by drawing the sack, -presses the grated root and receives the -juice that flows out of it. When the starch -is well exhausted of its juice, it is exposed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>to smoke in order to dry it; and when well -dried it is passed through a sieve. In this -state it is termed Casava. It is baked -into cakes, by spreading it on hot plates of -iron or earth, turning it on both sides, in -order to give it a good reddish colour.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">TAPIOCA.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>The article of commerce, called <i>tapioca</i>, -is the finest part of the farinaceous pith of -the casava. It is separately collected and -formed into small tears, by straining the -mass while still moist, to form it into small -irregular lumps.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Plantain Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>The Plantain Tree (<i>Musa Paradisiaca</i>), -which is a native of the East Indies and -other parts of the Asiatic Continent, furnishes -the inhabitants with a species of -bread. The fruit of the plantain-tree is -about a foot long, and from an inch and a -half to two inches in diameter. It is at -first green, but when ripe of a pale yellow. -It has a tough skin, and within is a soft -pulp of a sweet flavour. The fruit is generally -cut before it is ripe; the green skin -is peeled off, and the heart is roasted in a -clear coal fire for a few minutes, and frequently -turned; it is then scraped and -served up as bread. This tree is cultivated -on an extensive scale in Jamaica. Without -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>this fruit, Dr. Wright says, the Islands -would be scarcely inhabitable, as no species -of provisions could supply its place. Even -flour and bread itself would be less agreeable -to the labouring Negro.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Banana Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>The fruit of the Banana Tree (<i>Musa -Sapientum</i>), differs from the preceding, -being shorter, straighter, and rounder. It -is about four or five inches long, of the -shape of a cucumber, and of a highly grateful -flavour. Bananas grow in bunches -that weigh twelve pounds and upwards. -This fruit yields a softer pulp than the -plantain-tree, and of a more luscious taste. -It is never eaten green, but when ripe is a -very pleasant food, either raw or fried in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>slices like fritters. It is relished by all -ranks of people in the West Indies. When -the natives of the West Indies undertake -a voyage, they take the ripe fruit of the -banana and make provisions of the paste; -and, having squeezed it through a sieve, -form the mass into loaves, which are dried -in the sun or baked on hot ashes, after -being previously wrapped up in leaves.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Bread of Dried Fish.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>The Laplanders, who have no corn of -their own, make a kind of bread of the -inner soft bark of a pine tree, either mixed -with the coarsest barley meal, or with dried -fish beaten into powder. The bark is collected -when the sap is rising, it is afterwards -dried in the sun, or over a slow -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>fire, and then mixed with the coarsest barley -meal, or dried fish beaten into powder. -The poorer people grind the chaff, and -even some of the straw along with the -barley.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Another kind of bread is made of dried -fish and the root of the water dragon -(<i>Calla palustris</i>), the root is taken up in the -spring, before the leaves shoot out. It is -dried, pounded, and boiled, till it becomes -thick, like flummery, and after standing -three or four days to lose its bitterness it -is mixed with the powder of dried fish -and the inner bark of the pine tree, and then -made into a stiff paste, and baked over -embers.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Bread made of Moss.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>Some species of the tribe of Lichen, contain -a considerable portion of starch, as the -<i>Lichen Rangiferinus</i>, or rein-deer moss, -which affords food to the stags and other -fallow cattle of the North of Europe. The -Icelanders form the lichen islandicus into -bread, which is found to be extremely nutritious. -The moss is collected in the summer, -and, when dry, ground into powder, -of which bread and gruel, or pottage, are -made. It is sometimes also put whole into -broth, or is boiled in whey, till it be converted -into a jelly. In general, it is either -previously steeped for some hours in warm -water, or the water of the first boiling is -rejected, in order to remove a part of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>bitter extractive matter, which, if left, produces -a disagreeable taste, and is apt to -prove purgative.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Bread made of Earth.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>The strangest substitute for bread that -has ever been employed, is a sort of white -earth. The poor in the Lordship of Moscoa -in Upper Lusania, have been frequently -compelled to make use of this earth as a -substitute for bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The earth is dug out of a pit where saltpetre -had formerly been worked; when -exposed to the rays of the sun it splits and -cracks, and small globules issue from it -like meal, which ferments when mixed with -flour. On this earth, baked into bread, -many persons have subsisted a considerable -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>time. A similar earth is met with near -Genomu, in Catalonia.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In the western parts of Luisania too, the -inhabitants have a most extraordinary custom -of eating a white earth, mixed with -clay and salt.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The rowers also, who ply on the river -Mississippi, frequently drink large quantities -of muddy water, which cannot fail to -leave in the stomach a considerable quantity -of earth. But it cannot be doubted, -that a large quantity of earthy substances -taken into the stomach would prove deleterious -to health.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span> - <h2 class='c010'><span class="blackletter">Analysis of Bread Flour.</span></h2> -</div> -<p class='c008'>On examining bread corn, for instance -wheat, we perceive an outside coating, -which after the grain has been soaked in -water, may readily be peeled off. This -forms the bran of the flour. Immediately -under it, is that part of the grain which -affords the coarsest flour, it is soft to the -touch, and not easily reduced to an impalpable -powder, and of a sweetish taste. -This constitutes about one half of the grain. -Underneath this substance lies what is -called by millers, the kernel or heart of the -wheat, namely, a hard mealy substance, -almost transparent. This part of the grain -is capable of being speedily reduced to an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>impalpable powder, it ferments more -readily than the outer layers, and it is -this which produces the finest and best -kind of wheaten flour. Such is the mechanical -constitution of the grain. When -chemically examined we find that the flour -of wheat, rye, and barley, is composed of -three ingredients, or immediate constituent -parts, which may be separated by simple -processes, viz. starch, gluten, and saccharine -mucilage. The proportion of these -differ materially in different kinds of corn. -The method of separating them is as follows:</p> - -<p class='c009'>Make any quantity of wheaten flour into -a stiff paste with cold water, and let it be -kneaded and wrought in the hands under -water; or put the flour into a coarse linen -bag, and knead it between the hands whilst -a small rill of cold water is suffered to pass -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>over it. The water will carry away the -starch in the form of a white powder, and -the dough become more and more elastic, -in proportion as the water carries off the -starch; continue kneading the mass till the -water runs off from the kneaded dough -colourless. It will also be observed, that in -proportion as the water carries off the -starch, the paste in the bag assumes a more -grey colour, less brilliant, as it were -semi-transparent, and of a softer consistence, -but, at the same time, more tenaceous, -more viscid, more gluey, and more -elastic.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Thus the flour is separated into three -substances, by a method incapable of decomposing -or altering any of its immediate -constituent parts. The starch is precipitated -in a white powder at the bottom of -the water, from which it may readily be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>separated by suffering it to subside, and -the supernatant liquid, contains in solution -the saccharine mucilage; this may -be obtained in the form of a syrup, by -evaporating slowly in a warm place the -clear decanted fluid; and the third substance, -the gluten, remains in the bag, in -the state of a soft, cohesive, and elastic -substance.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In a similar manner the analysis of any -species of bread corn may be effected.</p> - -<p class='c023'>QUANTITY OF FLOUR OBTAINABLE FROM VARIOUS -KINDS OF CEREAL AND LEGUMINOUS -SEEDS EMPLOYED IN THE FABRICATION OF -BREAD, AND DIFFERENT KINDS OF FLOUR -MANUFACTURED FROM WHEAT.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The Board of Agriculture, in order to -ascertain what each of the various sorts of -grain employed as substitutes for bread-corn -<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>would produce, when ground into -flour, with only the broad bran taken out, -caused a bushel of each of the undermentioned -sorts of seeds to be ground for their -inspection: the weight of the grain, as -well as the bran and the flour, was as -follows:</p> -<table class='table4' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='36%' /> -<col width='14%' /> -<col width='24%' /> -<col width='24%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c020'> </td> - <td class='c024'> </td> - <td class='c024'>Weight</td> - <td class='c025'>Weight</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'> </td> - <td class='c024'>Weighed.</td> - <td class='c024'>of Flour.</td> - <td class='c025'>of Bran.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'><i>One Bushel of</i></td> - <td class='c024'><i>lb.</i></td> - <td class='c024'><i>lb.</i> <i>oz.</i></td> - <td class='c025'><i>lb.</i> <i>oz.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Barley</td> - <td class='c024'>46</td> - <td class='c024'>38 10½</td> - <td class='c025'>5 10½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Buckwheat</td> - <td class='c024'>46¼</td> - <td class='c024'>38 9</td> - <td class='c025'>5 5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Rye</td> - <td class='c024'>54</td> - <td class='c024'>43 0</td> - <td class='c025'>9 5½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Maize</td> - <td class='c024'>53</td> - <td class='c024'>44 0</td> - <td class='c025'>8 10½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Rice</td> - <td class='c024'>61¼</td> - <td class='c024'>60 5</td> - <td class='c025'>0 0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Oats</td> - <td class='c024'>38¼</td> - <td class='c024'>23 5</td> - <td class='c025'>13 10½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Beans</td> - <td class='c024'>57¾</td> - <td class='c024'>43 5½</td> - <td class='c025'>12 5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Pease</td> - <td class='c024'>61¾</td> - <td class='c024'>47 0</td> - <td class='c025'>12 5</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p class='c008'>A bushel of wheat, upon an average, -weighs sixty-one pounds; when ground, -the meal weighs 60¾ lbs.; this on being -<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>dressed, produces 46¾ lbs. of flour of the -sort called <i>seconds</i>, which alone is used for -the making of bread in London, and -throughout the greater part of this -country; and of pollard and bran 12¾ lbs., -which quantity, when bolted, produces -3 lbs. of fine flour; this when sifted produces -in good second flour 1¼ lb.</p> -<table class='table5' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='71%' /> -<col width='14%' /> -<col width='14%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c012'> </td> - <td class='c024'> </td> - <td class='c013'>lbs.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>The whole quantity of bread-flour obtained from the bushel of wheat, weighs</td> - <td class='c024'> </td> - <td class='c013'>48</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'> </td> - <td class='c024'>lbs.</td> - <td class='c013'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Fine pollard</td> - <td class='c024'>4¼</td> - <td class='c013'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Coarse pollard</td> - <td class='c024'>4</td> - <td class='c013'>11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Bran</td> - <td class='c024'>2¾</td> - <td class='c013'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'> </td> - <td class='c024'> </td> - <td class='c013'>—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>The whole together</td> - <td class='c024'> </td> - <td class='c013'>59</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>To which add the loss of weight in manufacturing the bushel of wheat</td> - <td class='c024'> </td> - <td class='c013'>2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'> </td> - <td class='c024'> </td> - <td class='c013'>—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Produces the original weight</td> - <td class='c024'> </td> - <td class='c013'>61</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p class='c026'><span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>REASON WHY OATS, PEASE, BEANS, RICE, MAIZE, -MILLET, BUCKWHEAT, AND OTHER NUTRITIVE -GRAINS CANNOT BE MADE INTO LIGHT -AND POROUS BREAD.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Every person is acquainted with the -difference there is between light well fermented -bread, and that which is sodden, -heavy, and badly risen, and the decided -preference given to the former over the -latter, as the most palatable, and easy of -digestion.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The only substances for making <i>loaf -bread</i>, by which term is meant, bread which -is light, white, and porous, is the flour of -wheat; and it is to the larger quantity of -gluten, that wheat flour owes the property -of being converted into loaf-bread. The -average quantity of gluten contained in -wheat flour, amounts to about one-fifth of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>the whole weight of the meal; but it varies -in quantity in different kinds of wheat, according -to the soil and season in which the -corn has been reared, culture, and various -other circumstances. Wheat kept in damp -storehouses affords scarcely any gluten, -and hence, in proportion as the flour of -wheat is altered and deteriorated, which -happens, as it is known, when it is kept too -much compressed, without being occasionally -stirred up and aired in hot and close -granaries; in a word, as it undergoes a -chemical change, its property of making -good bread is diminished; and chemical -analysis shows the quantity of gluten has -become lessened under such circumstances; -and when it is greatly diminished -the meal forms no longer a tenaceous -ductile dough. The spoiled flour produces -a kind of bread which is heavy, harsh, and -difficult of digestion.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>The greater the proportion of gluten, -the easier the panification of bread-flour is -effected, and the better is the bread. The -wheat of the South of Europe generally -contains a larger quantity of gluten, and is -therefore more excellent for the manufacture -of Maccaroni, Vermicelli, and other -alimentary substances, requiring a glutenous -paste.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Sir H. Davy found the flour of the wheat -of this country to consist of from twenty -to twenty-four per cent. of gluten. Barley -contains six, and rye five per cent. of gluten.</p> - -<p class='c009'>We may now understand why potatoes, -rice, beans, pease, buckwheat, millet, oats, -and other nutritive cereal grains, abounding -in starch, cannot be made into light -and porous bread, although they are well -calculated for being made into wholesome -puddings, and why they only form crude, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>heavy, insipid cakes, when made into dough -and baked, and not light porous loaf-bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In further confirmation of this statement -it may be remarked, that if gluten of -wheat, or only a portion of wheaten flour -be incorporated by kneading with the before-named -kinds of flour, a fermentable -cohesive paste is produced, from which -perfect bread may be made.</p> -<h3 class='c018'>THEORY OF THE PANIFICATION OF BREAD FLOUR.</h3> - -<p class='c019'>Bread, when chemically examined, is -very different from flour; it no longer forms -with water a tenaceous ductile mass, nor -can starch, gluten, and saccharine mucilage -be separated from it.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The chemical changes that take place in -the panification of bread-flour, are by no -<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>means well understood. The saccharine -mucilage, it appears, commences the fermentative -chemical action that takes place -in the dough, for without this substance, a -mixture of flour, yeast, and water, cannot -be made into true bread. The fermenting -process when once commenced, is kept up -by the gluten, forming the body of the -paste through which the fecula and saccharine -matter are diffused; and when the -slight fermentation which it suffers, from -changes in the saccharine matter, and supported -by the presence of the gluten, -has commenced, the paste becomes spongy -and porous, from the disengagement of -carbonic acid gas, while it still retains in -some measure its elasticity; hence the -lightness and porosity of well-baked -wheaten bread; and hence bread, possessing -these qualities, cannot be prepared -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>from the flour of oats, barley, rye, or rice, -or from any of the nutritive roots, as in all -of these the quantity of gluten is considerably -less, or entirely wanting, and no gluey -elastic dough can be formed. The starch, -which was merely diffused through the -gluey dough, combines, during the baking, -with a portion of water, into a stiff jelly, -which renders the bread more digestible, -and the gluten wholly disappears. A portion -of carbonic acid gas, which becomes -disengaged during the fermenting process, -enlarges the bulk of the dough, which is -thus rendered light, porous, and full of -eyes, or cavities, in consequence of the extraction -of the air bubbles, in the viscid -glutenous matter; and the porosity of the -bread is in proportion to the extent to -which the rising of the dough is suffered to -proceed.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>Some chemists persuade themselves -that the fermentation of the flour dough -differs materially from the fermentation of -saccharine substances; namely, that the -vinous, acetous, and putrefactive stages of -the fermenting process take place simultaneously -in the dough. They imagine the -vinous fermentation to take place in the -saccharine mucilage, the acetous in the -starch, and the putrefactive in the gluten -at the same time, and from the modification -of each by the others, they consider that -peculiar action to originate which converts -paste into bread. Against this opinion, -however, the following objections may be -urged. In the first place, the quantity of -saccharine mucilage is so extremely small -as to produce no sensible effect alone on the -whole mass, and what little there is probably -passes speedily into the acetous -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>fermentation. Secondly, the temperature -that is required for bread-making is considerably -lower than that at which starch -dissolves in water, and where this is the -case no alteration will take place, even in -a long course of time: this is clearly shown -by the usual process of starch-making, in -which the bruised wheat is fermented for -several days in large vats, in order to destroy -the gluten, after which the starch is -procured by simple deposition from the -washings of the residue; and thirdly, no -vestige whatever of the products evolved -during the putrefactive fermentation of -gluten, can be traced in any stage of the -panification of bread flour.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span> - <h2 class='c010'><span class="blackletter">Unleavened Bread.</span></h2> -</div> -<p class='c008'>Bread prepared by baking from the -meal of farinaceous seeds kneaded with -water into a dough and baked, is divided -into three sorts, namely;—1. Unleavened -bread; 2. Leavened bread; and, 3. Bread -made with yeast.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Unleavened bread contains all the component -parts of the flour but little altered. -The meal is simply mixed with water, and -baked into cakes. It is heavy, dry, friable, -and not porous. The oatmeal bread of -Scotland, is unleavened bread; as also sea -biscuit, and all other kinds of biscuit.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The bread that is eaten by the Jews -during the passover is unleavened. The -usage of which was introduced in commemoration -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>of their hasty departure from -Egypt, [Exodus, chap. 12, v. 14 to 17.] -when they had not leisure to bake leavened -bread, but took the dough before it was -fermented and baked unleavened cakes.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In Roman catholic countries it is still -used, and prepared with the finest wheaten -flour, moistened with water, and pressed -between two plates, graven like wafer -moulds, being first rubbed with wax to prevent -the paste from sticking, and when dry -it is used. Unleavened bread is hardly less -nutritious than loaf or fermented bread, -but it is generally speaking neither so -wholesome nor so digestible.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">To make Oatmeal Cakes.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>To a peck of oatmeal add a few table-spoonsful -of salt; knead the mixture into a -stiff paste, with warm water, roll it out into -thin cakes, and bake it in an oven or on -embers.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In some cottages oatmeal bread undergoes -a partial fermentation, whereby it is rendered -lighter; but the generality of the -people in the more humble walks of life, -where oatmeal bread is eaten, merely soften -their oatmeal with water, and having added -to it a little salt, bake it into cakes. To -strangers oatmeal bread has a dry, harsh, -unpleasant taste, but the cottagers of -Scotland, in particular, most commonly -prefer it to wheaten bread.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Mixed Oatmeal and Pease Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>To a peck of pease flour, and a like -quantity of oatmeal, previously mixed by -passing the flour through a sieve, add three -or four ounces of salt, knead it into a -stiff mass with warm water, roll it out into -thin cakes, and bake them in an oven. In -some parts of Lancashire and Scotland, -this kind of bread is made into flattened -rolls, and the cottagers usually bake them -in an iron pot.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In Norway they make unleavened bread -of oatmeal and barley, which keeps thirty -or forty years, and is considered the better -for being old, so that at the baptism of a -child, bread is sometimes used which has -been baked perhaps at the baptism of its -great grandfather.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Unleavened Maize Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>The bread made of maize flour, which is -in common use in North America, is -unleavened bread. The maize flour is -kneaded with a little salt and water into a -stiff mass; which, after being rolled out -into thin cakes, is usually baked on a hot -broad iron hoe.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Another kind of unleavened <i>maize cakes</i>, -which is a North American bread, called -<i>Hoe cake</i>, is made in the following manner.<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c014'><sup>[3]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c009'>Take maize, boil it with a small proportion -of kidney beans, until it becomes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>almost a pulp, and bake it over embers -into a cake.</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f3'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. </span>This and several other of the directions here -given, for making various species of bread, are taken -from Edlin’s excellent Treatise on bread making, a -small work, long ago out of print.</p> -</div> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Unleavened Bean-Flour Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Take a quarter of a peck of bean-flour -and one ounce of salt, mix it into a thick -batter with water, pour a sufficient quantity -to make a cake into an iron kettle, and -bake it over the fire, taking care to turn it -frequently.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Unleavened Buckwheat Bread.</span><a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c014'><sup>[4]</sup></a></h3> - -<div class='footnote c027' id='f4'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. </span>From the Reports of the Board of Agriculture.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Take a gallon of water, set it over a fire, -and when it boils, let a peck of the flour of -buckwheat be mixed with it, little by little, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>and keep the mixture constantly stirred, to -prevent any lumps being formed till a thick -batter is made. Then add two or three -ounces of salt, set it over the fire again, -and allow it to boil an hour and a half, pour -the proper proportion for a cake into an -iron kettle and bake it.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Unleavened Acorn Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Take acorns, fully ripe, deprive them of -their covers and beat them into a paste, let -them lay in water for a night, and then press -the water from them, which deprives the -acorns entirely of their astringency. Then -dry and powder the mass for use. When -wanted, knead it up into a dough with -water, and roll it out into thin cakes, which -may be baked over embers.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>Bread made after this method is by no -means disagreeable, and even to this day, -it is said to be made use of in some -countries.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Sea Biscuit.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>The process of biscuit-baking for the -British navy is as follows, and it is equally -simple and ingenious. The meal, and -every other article, being supplied with -much certainty and simplicity, large lumps -of dough, consisting merely of flour and -water, are mixed up together; and as the -quantity is so immense as to preclude, by -any common process, a possibility of kneading -it, a man manages, or, as it is termed, -rides a machine, which is called a horse. -This machine is a long roller, apparently -<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>about four or five inches in diameter, and -about seven or eight feet in length. It has -a play to a certain extension, by means of -a staple in the wall, to which is inserted a -kind of eye, making its action like the -machine by which they cut chaff for horses. -The lump of dough being placed exactly -in the centre of a raised platform, the man -sits upon the end of the machine, and -literally rides up and down throughout its -whole circular direction, till the dough is -equally indented; and this is repeated till -it is sufficiently kneaded; at which times, -by the different positions of the lines, large -or small circles are described, according as -they are near to or distant from the wall.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The dough in this state is handed over -to a second workman, who slices it with a -prodigious knife; and it is then in a proper -state for the use of those bakers who attend -<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>the oven. These are five in number; and -their different departments are as well -calculated for expedition and correctness, -as the making of pins, or other mechanical -employments. On each side of a large -table, where the dough is laid, stands a -workman; at a small table near the oven -stands another; a fourth stands by the side -of the oven, to receive the bread; and a -fifth to supply the peel. By this arrangement -the oven is as regularly filled and -the whole exercise performed in as exact -time, as a military evolution. The man on -the further side of the large table, moulds -the dough, having previously formed it -into small pieces till it has the appearance -of muffins, although rather thinner, and -which he does two together, with each -hand; and, as fast as he accomplishes this -task, he delivers his work over to the man -<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>on the other side of the table, who stamps -them with a docker on both sides with a -mark. As he rids himself of this work, he -throws the biscuits on the smaller table -next the oven, where stands the third -workman, whose business is merely to separate -the different pieces into two, and -place them immediately under the hand -of him who supplies the oven, whose work -of throwing, or rather chucking, the bread -upon the peel, must be so exact, that if he -looked round for a single moment, it is -impossible he should perform it correctly. -The fifth receives the biscuit on the peel, -and arranges it in the oven; in which duty -he is so very expert, that though the -different pieces are thrown at the rate of -seventy in a minute, the peel is always -disengaged in time to receive them separately.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>As the oven stands open during the -whole time of filling it, the biscuits first -thrown in would be first baked, were there -not some counteraction to such an inconvenience. -The remedy lies in the ingenuity -of the man who forms the pieces of dough, -and who, by imperceptible degrees, proportionably -diminishes their size, till the -loss of that time, which is taken up during -the filling of the oven, has no more effect -to the disadvantage of one of the biscuits -than to another.</p> - -<p class='c009'>So much critical exactness and neat -activity occur in the exercise of this labour, -that it is difficult to decide whether the -palm of excellence is due to the moulder, -the marker, the splitter, the chucker, or the -depositor; all of them, like the wheels of a -machine, seeming to be actuated by the -same principle. The business is to deposit -<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>in the oven seventy biscuits in a minute; -and this is accomplished with the regularity -of a clock; the clack of the peel, during its -motion in the oven, operating like the -pendulum.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The biscuits thus baked, are dried in lofts -over the oven till they are perfectly dry, to -prevent them getting mouldy when stored -for use.</p> - -<p class='c009'>One-hundred and twelve pounds of -flour produce one hundred and two pounds -of perfectly dry biscuits.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span> - <h2 class='c010'><span class="blackletter">Leavened Bread,</span></h2> -</div> -<p class='c008'>Or bread made with a portion of fermented -sour dough, obtained by keeping -some bread dough till the acetous fermentation -takes place, when it swells, rarifies, -and acquires a taste somewhat sour, -and rather disagreeable. This fermented -dough is well worked up with some fresh -dough, which is, by that mixture and moderate -heat, disposed to ferment; and by -this fermentation the dough is attenuated -and divided, carbonic acid is extricated, -which being incapable of disengaging itself -from the tenaceous and solid dough, forms it -into small cavities, and raises and swells it; -hence, the small quantity of fermented -<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>dough which disposes the rest of the mass -to ferment is called <i>leaven</i>.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Most of the bread used by the people in -the lower walks of life in France, Germany, -Holland, and other European countries, is -made in this manner.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Leavened bread, therefore, differs from -unleavened bread, in being fermented by -means of <i>leaven</i>, which is nothing more -than a piece of dough kept in a warm place, -till it undergoes a process of fermentation, -swelling, becoming spongy, and full of air -bubbles, and at length disengaging an -acidulous vapour, and contracting a sour -taste. Leaven must, therefore, be considered -as dough which has fermented and -become sour, but which is still in its -progress towards greater acidity.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The addition of leaven, or this species -of ferment to fresh dough, produces an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>important change in the bread, for when a -small portion of leaven is intimately mixed -with a large proportion of fresh dough, it -gradually causes the whole mass to ferment -throughout, a quantity of carbonic acid gas -is extracted from the flour, but remaining -entangled by the tenacity of the mass in -which it is expanded by heat, this raises -the dough, and as soon as the mass has -acquired a due increase of bulk from the -carbonic acid gas which endeavours to -escape, it is judged to be sufficiently fermented -and fit for the oven, the heat of -which, by driving off the water, checks the -fermentation, and forms a bread full of -small cavities, entirely different from the -heavy, compact, viscous masses, made by -baking unfermented dough.</p> - -<p class='c009'>A great deal of nicety is required in -conducting this operation, for if it is continued -<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>too long, the bread will be sour, and -if too short a time has been allowed for -the dough to ferment and rise, it will be -heavy.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Bread raised by leaven is usually made -of a mixture of wheat and rye, not very -accurately cleared of the bran. It is distinguished -by the name of <i>rye bread</i>; and -the mixture of these two kinds of grain is -called bread-corn, in many parts of the -kingdom, where it is raised on one and the -same piece of ground, and passes through -all the processes of reaping, thrashing, -grinding, &c. A mixture of one-hundred -pounds of equal parts of wheat and rye -flour, produce from one-hundred and fifty-four -to one-hundred and fifty-six pounds -of leavened bread.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Leavened Rye Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>Take a piece of dough, of about a pound -weight, and keep it for use—it will keep -several days very well. Mix this dough -with some warm water, and knead it up -with a portion of flour to ferment; then -take half a bushel of flour, and divide it -into four parts; mix a quarter of the flour -with the leaven, and a sufficient quantity of -water to make it into dough, and knead it -well. Let this remain in a corner of your -trough, covered with flannel, until it -ferments and rises properly; then dilute it -with more water, and add another quarter -of the flour, and let it remain and rise. -Do the same with the other two quarters -of the flour, one quarter after another, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>taking particular care never to mix more -flour till the last has risen properly. When -finished, add six ounces of salt; then knead -it again, and divide it into eight loaves, -making them broad, and not so thick and -high as is usually done, by which means -they will be better baked. Let them -remain to rise, in order to overcome the -pressure of the hand in forming them; then -put them in the oven, and reserve a piece -of dough for the next baking. The dough -thus kept, may with proper care, be prevented -from spoiling, by mixing from time -to time small quantities of fresh flour with -it.</p> - -<p class='c009'>It requires some attention to be able to -determine the exact quantity of leaven -necessary for the proper fermentation of -the dough. When it is deficient in quantity, -the process of fermentation is interrupted, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>and the bread thus prepared is solid and -heavy, and if too much leaven be used, -it communicates to the bread a disagreeable -sour taste.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Hungarian Rye Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Two large handfuls of hops are boiled in -four quarts of water: this is poured upon -as much wheaten bread as it will moisten, -and to this are added four or five pounds of -leaven. When the mass is warm, the -several ingredients are worked together till -well mixed. It is then deposited in a warm -place for twenty-four hours, and afterwards -divided into small pieces, about the size of -a hen’s egg, which are dried by being -placed on a board, and exposed to a dry -air, but not to the sun; when dry, they are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>laid up for use, and may be kept half a -year. The ferment, thus prepared, is -applied in the following manner: for baking -six large loaves, six good handfuls of these -balls are dissolved in seven or eight quarts -of warm water; this water is poured through -a sieve into one end of the bread trough, -and after it three quarts of warm water; -the remaining mass being well pressed out. -The liquor is mixed up with flour, sufficient -to form a mass of the size of a large loaf; -this is strewed over with flour: the sieve, -with its contents, is put upon it, and the -whole is covered up warm, and left till it -has risen enough, and its surface has begun -to crack; this forms the leaven. Fifteen -quarts of warm water, in which six handfuls -of salt has been dissolved, are then poured -upon it through the sieve; the necessary -quantity of flour is added, and mixed and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>kneaded with the leaven: this is covered up -warm, and left for about half an hour. It -is then formed into loaves, which are kept -for another half-hour in a warm room; and -after that they are put into the oven, where -they remain two or three hours, according -to their size.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span> - <h2 class='c010'><span class="blackletter">Bread made with Yeast.</span></h2> -</div> -<p class='c008'>The principal improvement that has been -made in the art of fabricating bread, consists -in the substitution of yeast, (or the -froth that rises to the surface during the -fermentation of malt liquors,) instead of -common flour dough, in a state of acescency, -called <i>leaven</i>, to rise the bread -dough, made of flour and water, before it -is baked. This substance very materially -improves the bread. Yeast makes the -dough rise more effectually than ordinary -<i>leaven</i>, and the bread thus produced is -much lighter, and free from that sour taste -which may often be perceived in bread -raised with leaven; because too much has -been added to the paste, or because the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>dough has been allowed to advance too far -in the process of fermentation before it was -baked.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The discovery of the application of yeast, -to improve the panification of bread flour, -was made and first secretly adopted by the -bakers of Paris; but when the practice was -discovered, the College of Physicians there, -in 1688, declared it prejudicial to health, -and it was not till after a long time that -the bakers succeeded in convincing the -people, that bread made with yeast was superior -to bread made with sour dough or -leaven.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The bread used in this metropolis and in -most other large towns in England, is -made of wheaten flour, water, yeast, and -salt. The average proportion are two -pints by weight, of water, to three of flour, -but the proportions vary considerably with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>the diversity of climate, years, season, -age, and grinding of the wheat. There are -some kinds of wheat flour that require precisely -three-fourths of their weight of -water. That flour is always the best -which combines with the greatest possible -quantity of water. Bakers and pastry-cooks -judge of the quality of flour from the -characters of the dough. The best flour -forms instantly by the addition of water -a very gluey elastic paste, whereas bad -flour produces a dough that cannot be -elongated without breaking.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The flour, in this case, being seldom mixed -up oftener than twice, that is, the yeast -previously diluted with water, is added -to a part of the flour, and well kneaded; -in a short time, swells and rises in the -baking trough, and is called by the bakers, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span><i>setting the sponge</i>. The remainder of the -flour is afterwards added, with a sufficient -quantity of warm water to make it into a -stiff dough, and then allowed to ferment. It -is of essential consequence that the whole -of the yeast should be intimately mixed -with the two-thirds of the quantity of the -flour put into the kneading trough, in order -that the fermentation of the dough may -commence in every part of the mass at the -same time. The dough is then covered up, -and the water which is mixed with the yeast -being warm, speedily extricates air in an -elastic state, and as it is now by kneading, -diffused through every part of the dough, -every particle must become raised, and the -viscidity of the mass retains it, when it is -again well kneaded and made up into -loaves, and put into the oven. The heat -<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>converts the water also into an elastic -vapour, and the loaf swells more and more, -till at last it is perfectly porous.</p> - -<p class='c009'>During the baking, a still greater quantity -of gazeous matter is extricated by the -increased heat; and as the crust of the -bread becomes formed, the air is prevented -from escaping, the water is dissipated, the -loaf rendered somewhat dry and solid, and -between every particle of bread there is a -particle of air, as appears from the spongy -appearance of the bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>It is curious that new flour does not -afford bread of so good a quality as that -which has been kept some months. The -flour of grain too, which has suffered -incipient germination, is much inferior in -the quality of bread prepared from it: and -from this principally appears to arise the -injury which wheat sustains from a wet -<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>harvest. Various methods have been employed -to remedy the imperfections of bread -from inferior flour, such as washing the -grain with hot water if it is musty, proposed -by Mr. Hatchet;<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c014'><sup>[5]</sup></a> drying and heating it -even to a certain extent; adding various -substances, such as magnesia, &c. Some -experiments on this subject have been given -by Mr. E. Davy. See a Treatise on Adulterations -of Food, Second Edition, p.137.</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f5'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. </span>See a Treatise on Adulterations of Food and -Culinary Poisons, Second Edition, p. 143.</p> -</div> -<h3 class='c018'>METHOD OF MAKING WHEATEN BREAD, AS PRACTISED BY THE LONDON BAKERS.</h3> - -<p class='c019'>To make a sack of flour into bread, the -baker pours the flour into the kneading -trough, and sifts it through a fine wire -sieve, which makes it lie very light, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>serves to separate any impurities with -which the flour may be mixed. Two ounces -of alum are then dissolved in about a quart -of boiling water, and the solution (technically -called liquor,) is poured into <i>the -seasoning-tub</i>. Four or five pounds of salt -are likewise put into the tub, and a pailful -of hot water. When this mixture has -cooled to the temperature of about 84°, -from three to four pints of yeast are added; -the whole is mixed, strained through the -seasoning sieve, emptied into a hole made -in the mass of the flour, and mixed up with -the requisite portion of it to the consistence -of a thick batter. Some dry flour is then -sprinkled over the top, and it is covered -up with sacks or cloths. This operation is -called setting <i>quarter sponge</i>.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In this situation it is left three or four -hours. It gradually swells and breaks -<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>through the dry flour scattered on its surface. -An additional quantity, (about one -pailful,) of warm (liquor) water, in which -one ounce of alum is dissolved, is now -added, and the dough is made up into a -paste as before; the whole is then covered -up. In this situation it is left for four or -five hours. This is called <i>setting half -sponge</i>.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The whole is then intimately kneaded -with more water, (about two pails full,) for -upwards of an hour. The dough is cut into -pieces with a knife, and penned to one side -of the trough; some dry flour is sprinkled -over it, and it is left to <i>prove</i> in this state -for about four hours. It is then kneaded -again for half an hour. The dough is now -taken out of the trough, put on the lid, -cut into pieces, and weighed, in order to -furnish the requisite quantity for each loaf.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>The operation of moulding is peculiar, -and can only be learnt by practice; it consists -in cutting the mass of dough destined -for a loaf, into two equal portions: they -are kneaded either round or long, and -one placed in a hollow made in the other, -and the union is completed by a turn of the -knuckles on the centre of the upper piece.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The loaves are left in the oven about two -hours and a half, or three hours, when -taken out of the oven, they are turned -with their bottom side upwards to prevent -them from splitting. They are then -covered up with a blanket to cool slowly.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span> - <h3 class='c018'>QUANTITY OF BREAD OBTAINABLE FROM A GIVEN QUANTITY OF WHEATEN FLOUR.</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>A sack of flour, weighing two hundred -and eighty pounds, is made with five -pounds of salt, and from three to four -pints of yeast, into dough, with the requisite -quantity of water, which varies -according to the quality of the flour.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The older the flour, provided the wheat -has been sound, and the flour well preserved, -the greater will be the quantity of water -required to convert it into a stiff dough, -and the greater the produce of bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The quantity of flour for a quartern loaf -is reckoned at an average, three pounds -and a half, which produces, if the flour be -of the best quality, five pounds avoirdupoise -<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>of dough. The quartern loaf produced -from this quantity of flour weighs four -pounds, five ounces and a half, and hence -the dough loses, during baking, eleven -ounces and a half.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The quantity of bread obtainable from -the same quantity of flour is, however, -much influenced by the manner in which -the dough is fermented, and the skilful -regulation of the heat employed for baking -the bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>A variation of temperature also makes a -considerable difference to the baker’s profit -or loss. In summer, a sack of flour will -yield a quartern loaf more than in winter; -and the sifting it, before it is wetted, if it -does not make it produce more bread, certainly -causes the loaves to be larger.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The loss of weight occasioned by the -heat is proportional to the extent of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>surface of the loaf, and to the length of -time it remains in the oven. Hence the -smaller the surface, or the nearer the figure -of the loaf approaches to a globe, the -smaller is the loss of weight sustained in -baking; and the longer the loaf continues -in the oven the greater is the loss.</p> - -<p class='c009'>A loaf that weighed just four pounds -when taken out of the oven, after the usual -baking, was put in again, and after ten -minutes was found to have lost two ounces, -and in ten minutes more it lost another -ounce. The longer bread is kept the lighter -it is, unless it be kept in a damp place, or -wrapt round with a wet cloth, which is -an excellent method of preserving bread -fresh and free from mould, for a long time.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Home-made Wheaten Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>Take a bushel of wheaten flour, and put -two third parts of it in one heap into a -trough or tub; then dilute two pints of yeast -with three or four pints of warm water, and -add to this mixture from eight to ten ounces -of salt. Make a hole in the middle of the -heap of flour, pour the mixture of yeast, -salt, and water into it, and knead the whole -into an uniform stiff dough, with such an -additional quantity of water as is requisite -for that purpose, and suffer the dough to -rise in a warm place.</p> - -<p class='c009'>When the dough has risen, and just -begins again to subside, add to it gradually -the remaining one third part of -the flour; knead it again thoroughly, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>taking care to add gradually so much warm -water as is sufficient to form the whole into -a stiff tenaceous dough, and continue the -kneading. At first the mass is very adhesive -and clings to the fingers, but it -becomes less so the longer the kneading is -continued; and when the fist, on being -withdrawn, leaves its perfect impression -in the dough, none of it adhering to the -fingers, the kneading may be discontinued. -The dough may be then divided into loaf -pieces, (of about 5lb. in weight). Knead -each piece once more separately, and having -made it up in the proper form, put it in a -warm place, cover it up with a blanket to -promote the last rising; and when this has -taken place, put it into the oven. When -the loaves are withdrawn they should be -covered up with a blanket to cool as slowly -as possible.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">To make Pan Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>Mix up the flour, salt, and yeast, (See -page <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>), with the requisite portion of -warm water, into a moderately stiff paste; -but instead of causing part of the flour to -ferment, (or setting the sponge), as stated -in the preceding process, suffer the whole -mass to rise at once. Then divide it into -earthenware pans, or sheet iron moulds, -and bake the loaves till nearly done, in a -quick oven; at that time remove them out -of the pans, or moulds, and set them on tins -for a few minutes, in order that the crust -may become brown, and when done wrap -them up in flannel, and rasp them when -cold.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Bread made in this manner is much -<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>more spongy or honeycombed, than bread -made in the common way. It is essential -that the dough be not so stiff, as when -intended for common bread, moulded by -the hand.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Brown Wheaten Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Suppose a Winchester bushel of good -wheat weighs fifty-nine pounds, let it be -sent to the mill and ground; including the -bran, the meal will weigh fifty-eight pounds, -for not more than a pound will be lost in -grinding.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Mix it up with water, yeast, and salt, like -the dough of common bread, (See page <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>); -the mass, before it is put into the oven, -will weigh about eighty-eight pounds.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Divide it into eighteen loaves, and put -<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>them into the oven; when thoroughly baked, -and after they are drawn out and left two -hours to cool, they will weigh seventy-four -pounds and a half.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Mixed Wheaten Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Take a peck of wheaten flour, the same -quantity of oatmeal, and half a peck of -boiled potatoes, skinned and mashed; let -the mass be kneaded into a dough, with a -proper quantity of yeast, salt, and warm -milk; make the dough into loaves, and -put them into the oven to bake.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The bread, thus prepared, rises well in the -oven, is of a light brown colour, and by no -means of an unpleasant flavour; it tastes so -little of the oatmeal, as to be taken, by those -who are unacquainted with its composition, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>for barley or rye bread. It is sufficiently -moist, and, if put in a proper place, keeps -well for a week.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Rolls, French Bread, Muffins and Crumpets.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>The dough of which rolls are made by -the generality of the London bakers, is -suffered to <i>prove</i>, that is to rise more, than -dough intended to be made into loaf-bread. -It is, therefore, left in the kneading trough, -whilst the loaves made of the same dough -are in the oven. During this period it rises -more, and the fermentation is further -promoted, by placing the rolls, when -moulded, in a warm place, to cause the -dough to expand as much as possible. -When this has taken place, they are put in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>the oven to be baked, which is effected in -about twenty or thirty minutes. When -taken out of the oven they are slightly -brushed over with a buttered brush, which -gives the top crust a shining appearance, -they are then covered up with flannel to cool -gradually.</p> - -<p class='c009'>I have witnessed at a baker’s, who has the -reputation for making excellent rolls, forty-eight -pounds of dough moulded into one -hundred (penny) rolls; they weighed, when -drawn out of the oven, twenty-six pounds.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The bread called in this metropolis French -rolls, and French bread, is made precisely -in the same manner, namely, from common -bread dough, but of a less stiff consistence; -they are suffered to rise to a -greater extent than dough intended for -loaf-bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>Some bakers make rolls and French -bread of a superior kind, for private -families, in the following manner:</p> - -<p class='c009'>Put a peck of flour into the kneading -trough, and sift it through a wire sieve, -then rub in three quarters of a pound of -butter, and, when it is intimately blended -with the flour, mix up with it two quarts of -warm milk, a quarter of a pound of salt, -and a pint of yeast; let these be mixed -with the flour, and a sufficient quantity of -warm water to knead it into a dough; suffer -it to stand two hours to prove, and then -mould it into rolls, which are to be placed -on tins, and set for an hour near the fire -or in the proving closet. They are then -put into a brisk oven for about twenty -minutes, and when drawn, the crust is -rasped.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>The cakes, called in this metropolis, -<i>muffins</i> and <i>crumpets</i>, are baked, not in an -oven, but on a hot iron plate.</p> - -<p class='c009'>For muffins, wheaten flour is made with -water, or milk, into a batter or dough. -To a quarter of a peck of flour is usually -added three quarters of a pint of yeast, -four ounces of salt, and so much water (or -milk) slightly warmed, as is sufficient to -form a dough of rather a soft consistence. -Small portions of the dough are then put -into holes, previously made in a layer of -flour, about two inches thick, placed on a -board, and the whole is covered up with a -blanket and suffered to stand near a fire, to -cause the muffin dough to rise. When -this has been effected, the small cakes will -exhibit a semi-globular shape. They are -then carefully transferred on the heated -iron plate to be baked, and when the bottom -<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>of the muffin begins to acquire a brown -colour, they are turned and baked on the -opposite side.</p> - -<p class='c009'><i>Crumpets</i> are made of a batter composed -of flour, water (or milk), and a small quantity -of yeast. To one pound of the best -wheaten flour is usually added three table-spoonsful -of yeast. A portion of the liquid -paste, after having been suffered to rise, is -poured on a heated iron plate, and quickly -baked, like pancakes in a frying pan.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Barley Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Barley, next to wheat, is the most -profitable of the farinaceous grains, and -when mixed with a small proportion of -wheat flour, may be made into bread. -Barley bread is not spongy, and feels -heavier in the hand than wheaten bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>To remedy this defect in part, it is -always best to set the <i>sponge</i> with wheat -flour only, for barley flour does not readily -ferment with yeast, and adding the barley -flour, when the dough is intended to be -made. Bread made in this way requires -to be kept a longer time in the oven than -wheaten bread, and the heat of the oven -should also be somewhat greater; but -barley bread is sometimes made without -the addition of wheaten flour.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Suppose a bushel of barley to weigh -fifty-two pounds and a half to be made -into bread; let it be sent to the mill, and -have the bran taken out, which, with what -is lost in grinding and dressing, will probably -reduce it to forty-four pounds. If -the meal be kneaded into dough, with -water, yeast, and salt, suffered to rise, -and then divided into eight loaves, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>thoroughly baked, they will weigh about -sixty pounds, after drawn out of the oven, -and left two hours to cool.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Barley bread is eaten by many of the -farmers and labourers in husbandry, also by -the miners in Devonshire and Cornwall.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Mixed Barley Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Take four bushels of wheat ground to -form one sort of flour, extracting only a -very small quantity of the coarser bran.<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c014'><sup>[6]</sup></a> -Add to it three bushels and a half of barley -flour, mix up the flour into a dough in the -usual manner, with salt, yeast, and warm -water, (See page <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>), let it be divided into -loaves, and put them into the oven made -<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>hotter than it would be for baking wheaten -bread. Let them remain in the oven three -hours and a half. In Yorkshire, bread made -from a mixture of these grains is esteemed -more wholesome to those who are used to -it, than bread made from wheat alone.</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f6'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. </span>From the Reports of the Board of Agriculture.</p> -</div> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Rye Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Rye is a grain whose cultivation is not -much encouraged in this kingdom, but in -the northern parts of Europe it is in very -extensive use as a nourishing food for -mankind. When made into bread alone, -it is of a dark brown colour, and sweetish -taste, and if eat by people unaccustomed -to its use, it is found to have a laxative -effect. In some parts of this kingdom, -a mixture of rye and wheat is reckoned an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>excellent bread. In Yorkshire, bread -made from a mixture of these two grains -is esteemed.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The following method of making household -rye bread, has been recommended by -the board of agriculture.<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c014'><sup>[7]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f7'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. </span>Account of Experiments tried by the Board of -Agriculture, p. 12.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Suppose a bushel of rye to weigh sixty -pounds, add to it a fourth part, or fifteen -pounds of rice; this when ground -has only the broad bran taken out, which -seldom exceeds four and a half or five -pounds for that quantity; it is thus directed -to be prepared for household rye bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Take fourteen pounds of the mixed flour, -a sufficient quantity of yeast, salt, and -warm water, and let it be made in a -dough, and baked in the usual way. It -<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>will produce twenty-two pounds weight of -bread, which is a surplus of three pounds -and a half in fourteen pounds, over and -above what is usually produced in the -common process of converting household -wheat flour into bread.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Turnip Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>A very good turnip bread may be made -by the following process: Let the turnips -be pared and boiled. When they are soft -enough, for being mashed, the greater part -of the water should be pressed out of them, -and they should be mixed with an equal -quantity in weight of wheat flour. The -dough may then be made in the usual -manner, with yeast, salt, and warm water. -It will rise well in the trough, and after -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>being kneaded, it may be formed into -loaves, and put into the oven. It requires -to be baked rather longer than ordinary -bread, and when taken from the oven is -equally light and white, rather sweeter, -with a slight but not disagreeable taste of -the turnip. After it has been allowed to -stand twelve hours, this taste is scarcely -perceptible, and the smell is totally lost, -and after an interval of twenty-four hours, -it cannot be known that it has turnips in its -composition, although it has still a peculiar -sweetish taste, but by no means -unpalatable. It keeps for upwards of a -week.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Rice Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>Rice, though one of the roughest and -driest of farinaceous vegetables, is converted -by the Americans into a very -pleasant fermented bread. The process is -as follows: The grain is first washed by -pouring water upon it, then stirring it, and -changing the water until it be sufficiently -cleansed. The water is afterwards drawn off, -and the rice, being sufficiently drained, -is put, while yet damp, into a mortar, and -beaten to powder; it is now completely -dried, and passed through a common hair -sieve. The flour, thus obtained, is generally -kneaded with a small proportion of -Indian corn meal, and boiled into a thickish -consistence; or sometimes it is mixed with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>boiled potatoes, and a small quantity of -leaven, or yeast, is added to the mass. -When it has fermented, sufficiently, the -dough is put into pans, and placed in an -oven. The bread made by this process is -light and wholesome, pleasing to the eye, -and agreeable to the taste. But rice flour -will make excellent bread, without the -addition of either potatoes, or any kind of -meal. Let a sufficient quantity of the flour -be put into a kneading trough; and at the -same time let a due proportion of water -be boiled in a cauldron, into which throw -a few handfuls of rice in grain, and boil it -till it break. This forms a thick and viscous -substance, which is poured upon the -flour, and the whole kneaded with a -mixture of salt and yeast; the dough is -then covered with warm clothes, and left -to rise. In the process of fermentation, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>this dough, firm at first, becomes liquid as -soup, and seems quite incapable of being -wrought by the hand. To obviate this -inconvenience, the oven is heated while the -dough is rising; and when it has attained -a proper temperature, a tinned box is -taken, furnished with a handle long enough -to reach to the end of the oven; a little -water is poured into this box, which is then -filled with dough, and covered with cabbage -leaves and a leaf of paper. The box -is thus committed to the oven, and suddenly -reversed. The heat of the oven prevents -the dough from spreading, and keeps -it in the form which the box has given it. -This bread is both beautiful and good; -but when it becomes a little stale, loses -much of its excellence. It comes out of the -oven of a fine yellow colour, like pastry -which has yolks of eggs in it. Other -<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>methods of making rice bread are the -following:</p> - -<p class='c009'>1. Boil a quarter of a pound of rice till -it is quite soft; then put it on the back -part of a sieve to drain, and when it is -cool, mix it up with three quarters of a -pound of wheaten flour, a spoonful of -yeast, and two ounces of salt. Let it stand -for three hours, then knead it well, and roll -it in about a handful of wheaten flour, so -as to make the outside dry enough to put it -in the oven. About an hour and a quarter -will bake it, and it will produce one pound -fourteen ounces of very good white bread, -but it should not be cut till it is two days -old. Another way is the following:</p> - -<p class='c009'>2. Take half a peck of rice flour, and -one peck of wheaten flour, mix them together -and knead the dough up with a -sufficient quantity of salt, yeast, and warm -<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>water, as stated in page 97. Suffer it to -ferment, divide it into eight loaves, and -bake them.</p> - -<p class='c009'>3. Take a peck of rice, boil it over night -till it becomes soft, then put it in a pan, and -the next morning it will be found to have -swelled prodigiously. A peck of potatoes -should now be boiled, skinned, and mashed -into a fine pulp, and while hot, be well -kneaded up with the rice, and a peck of -wheaten flour; a sufficient quantity of -yeast and salt must now be added, and -the dough left in the kneading trough to -prove or ferment; and when well risen it -may be divided into loaves and baked in -the usual way.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Potatoe Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>Potatoes, mixed in various quantities, -with flour, make a wholesome, nutritive, -and pleasant bread. Various methods are -employed for preparing the potatoes.</p> - -<p class='c009'>1. Pare a peck of potatoes, put them -into a proper quantity of water, and boil -them till they are reduced to a pulp, then -beat them up into a smooth mass with the -water they boiled in, and knead the mass, -with two pecks of wheaten flour, with a -sufficient quantity of yeast and salt, into a -dough; cover it up, and allow it to ferment -like common wheaten bread, then -make it up into loaves and bake them. -Another method is the following:</p> - -<p class='c009'>2. Take twelve pounds of the most mealy -<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>sort of peeled potatoes, boil and press -them through a fine wire sieve, in such a -manner as to reduce the roots, as nearly as -possible, to a state of dry flour. Mix it up -with twenty pounds of wheaten flour; and -of this mixture make, and set the dough in -the same manner as if the whole were -wheaten flour. See page <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</p> - -<p class='c009'>3. Take three pounds of potatoes, boil, -skin, and mash them, and whilst warm, -bruise them with a spoon, and put them -into a dish before the fire, to let the moisture -evaporate, stirring them frequently, -that no part grows hard; when dry, rub -them as fine as possible and add nine -pounds of wheaten flour, and with a sufficient -quantity of yeast and salt, knead it -up as other dough; lay it a little while -before the fire to ferment, and then divide -<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>it into loaves and bake them in a very hot -oven. Another method is the following:</p> - -<p class='c009'>4. Boil and peel the potatoes as for eating, -reduce them without any water to a -fine meal or stiff paste. Add to two parts -by weight of the paste, one part of potatoe -starch, and half a part of wheaten flour, -and having added to it salt and yeast, -suffer it to ferment; mould the dough -into loaves, and bake them in the usual -manner.</p> - -<p class='c009'>M. Parmentier found, from a variety of -experiments, that good bread might be -made from a mixture of raw potatoe-pulp -and wheaten meal, with the addition of -yeast and salt; and Dr. Darwin asserts, -that if eight pounds of good raw potatoes be -grated into cold water, and after stirring -the mixture the starch be left to subside, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>and when collected, mixed with eight -pounds of boiled potatoes, the mass will -make as good bread as that from the best -wheaten flour.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Potatoe Rolls.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Bruise four pounds of boiled and skinned -potatoes, with as much milk as will just -produce a mass, which readily may be -squeezed through a cullender, add this -mass to wheaten flour paste of a middling -stiffness, obtained from six pounds of -wheaten flour; put it before a fire to rise, -make it into rolls, and bake them in a -quick oven. The rolls thus made will be -more porous and light than common rolls.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Apple Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>M. Duduit de Maizieres, a French officer -of the king’s household, has invented and -practised with great success, a method -of making bread of common apples, very -far superior to potatoe bread. After having -boiled one third of peeled apples, he -bruised them, while quite warm, into two-thirds -of flour, including the proper quantity -of yeast, and kneaded the whole without -water, the juice of the fruit being quite -sufficient. When this mixture had acquired -the consistency of paste, he put it into a -vessel, in which he allowed it to rise for -about twelve hours. By this process he -obtained a very excellent bread, full of eyes, -and extremely palatable and light.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Domestic Oven for Baking Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>The <a href='#oven'>figure on the title page</a> exhibits a -convenient culinary oven for families who -bake their own bread. It is usually erected -on one side of the kitchen fire-place, and -heated by a flue that passes from the fire-grate -under the bottom of the oven. Although -this is in many respects a convenient -and neat way of heating the oven, yet the -manner of managing the fire renders it -only economical in families where a large -fire is always kept up in the kitchen-grate. -In small families it is far more economical -to heat the oven by means of a separate -fire-place built underneath it. A fire-place -six inches wide, nine inches long, -and six inches deep, is sufficient to heat an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>oven eighteen inches wide, twenty-four -inches long, and from twelve to fifteen -inches high, which is a convenient size for -the baking of bread. The grate should be -placed at least twelve inches below the -bottom of the oven when the fuel employed -is pit-coal; and, in order to prevent the -fire from operating with too much violence -upon any part of the oven, the brick-work -should be sloped outwards and upwards on -every side, from the top of the burning -fuel, to the ends and sides of the bottom of -the oven, that the whole may be exposed -to the direct rays of the fire. If the fire-place -be built in this manner, and properly -managed, it is almost incredible how small -a quantity of fuel will answer for heating -the oven, and keeping it hot. In this small -fire-place there is always a very strong -draft of air passing into it, and this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>circumstance, which is unavoidable, renders -it necessary to keep the fire-place -door constantly closed, and to leave but a -small opening, for the passage of the air, -through the ash-pit. If these precautions -are neglected, the fuel will be consumed -very rapidly, the bottom of the oven will -be burnt, and the oven get chilled as -soon as the fire-place ceases to be filled -with burning fuel. In an oven of this -description, I have baked two loaves, each -weighing five pounds, and fifteen rolls -weighing two pounds, by means of half a -peck (ten pounds) of coal.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The figures on the plate facing the titlepage[See <a href='#TNs'>Note</a>] -exhibit an oven to be heated with pit-coal -for baking bread, now generally -employed in this metropolis.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The oven from which this design has been -made, is eight feet wide, and seven deep. -The fire-place, called by the bakers, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>furnace, for heating the oven, is placed -at the side, and enters the oven diagonally; -it is furnished with a grate, ash holes, and -iron door, similar to a common fire-place -for heating a boiler, but having a partition -to separate it from the oven, and to allow -the fire to enter into the oven; it, therefore, -forms a canal, by which the flame is directed -into the oven. Over the fire-place or furnace -is erected, and lets into the brick-work, a -boiler furnished with a pipe, to supply warm -water as occasion may require.</p> - -<p class='c009'>When the oven is required to be heated, -the boiler is filled with water, and the fire -being kindled in the furnace, the flame passes -into the oven, and the smoke escapes into -the chimney.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The sides of the oven are nearly straight, -and turned as sharp as possible at the -shoulder, for this form has been found -<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>better calculated to retain the heat than any -other.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The flues to carry off the smoke is over -the entrance door, as shown by the dotted -line <i>a</i> of the figure here exhibited, exhibiting -the plan of the oven.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id003'> -<img src='images/i130.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>A piece of cast iron covers the space -before the door of the oven, exactly level -with its floor; the opening underneath is -applied to no particular use, but is generally -made a receptacle for coal.</p> - -<p class='c009'><i>Fig. 1</i>, is an <i>elevation</i> of the oven. -The mouth is closed with a cast iron door, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>in which is a small sight-hole with a slide -valve. To heat the oven, the door is thrown -back, and a <i>blower</i> is applied to the mouth, -so contrived, as not only to cover the mouth -of the oven completely, but to enclose also -the throat of the chimney; by this contrivance -the draft is quickly so much increased, -that the oven becomes speedily -heated, and if at anytime it is too hot, it is only -necessary to throw open the door of the fire -place, and to put up the <i>blower</i> for a few -minutes; the current of cool air which is thus -made to pass through it, soon lowers the -heat to the temperature required. In the -<i>blower</i> is also an opening of the same kind -as that in the oven door, which may be -opened and shut at pleasure; the course of -the flue is described by the dotted lines -at (<i>b</i>).</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span><i>Fig. 2</i>, is the <i>blower</i> before mentioned for -regulating the heat of the oven.</p> - -<p class='c009'><i>Fig. 3</i>, is a transverse section from <i>A</i> -to <i>B</i> on the plan, looking towards the -opening, the fire-place entering the oven at -<i>c</i>, the crown of the oven is turned with the -bricks on end, and in building the oven -instead of centering the arch, the whole -space is filled with sand, which is well trod -down and shaped to the shape which it is -intended the crown of the oven shall be of. -When the upper work is finished, the sand -is dug out at the mouth of the oven.</p> - -<p class='c009'><i>Fig. 4</i>, is a longitudinal section of the -oven from <i>C</i> to <i>D</i>. In this sketch the -situation of the flue is evident, and the sectional -line of the <i>blower</i>, fig. 2, when in its -place, is shown by the dotted line <i>d</i>, the -open space <i>a</i>, under the oven, has been -before spoken of.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Popular Errors concerning the Quality of Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>The great advantage of eating pure and -genuine bread must be obvious. Every -part of the wheat, which may be called -flour, was not only intended to be eaten by -man, but it really makes the best bread. -The delusion, however, by which so many -persons are misled to think that even the -whole flour is not good enough, obliges -them to pay much dearer for their bread -than they need, to gratify a perverted and -fanciful appetite. Had it not been for the -custom of eating whiter bread than the -whole of the <i>flour</i> can make, the miller and -baker would not have employed their art to -render the bread as white as possible, and -to make the consumer pay for the artificial -<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>whiteness. The average quantity of flour, -from an unvaried series of experiments, -made from age to age, through the course -of many hundred years, appears to be three-fourth -parts in weight of the whole grain -of wheat, taking all wheats together, being -more in the finer sorts, and less in the -coarser; and the bread made from this -flour has always been deemed the standard -of the food of bread corn. But, by insensible -degrees, the manufacture of bread -became separated into two distinct employments.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In consequence of this alteration, the -baker, having no further connexion with -the market for corn, became dependant -solely on the mealman for supplying him -with flour, who, not considering himself -amenable to the then existing assize laws, -made different kinds of flour, some extremely -<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>fine and white, while others were -very coarse and unpalatable. These artificial -whites, when made into bread, were -so pleasing to the eye and taste, that, in -the course of a few years, they got into -such general use that the people refused -any longer to purchase the bread made of -the whole of the grain.</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Our forefathers<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c014'><sup>[8]</sup></a> never <i>refined</i> so -much: they never preyed so much on each -other; nor, I presume, made so many laws -necessary for their restraint, as we do.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f8'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. </span>The great advantage of eating pure and genuine -bread, comprehending the heart of the wheat with all -its flour. Shewing how this may be a means of promoting -health and plenty, preserving infants from the -grave, by destroying the temptation to the use of alum -and other ingredients in our present wheaten bread. -By an advocate for the trade. London, 1773. See -also Important considerations upon the act of the -thirty-first of George II. relative to the assize of bread. -London: T. Becket, Strand, 1768.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>“In looking back, for some hundred years, -it appears that they adopted a certain plan, -supposing that nature had given nothing -in vain, and that every part of the wheat -which may be called flour, was not only -intended to be eaten by <i>men</i>, but that it -really made the best bread, as that might -be called the <i>best</i>, which is best adapted to -general use, and in itself so fine, as to -contain no parts of the coat, or husks of -grain.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“The inference which I mean to draw -from what is premised, is to remind my -fellow citizens of the unfortunate delusion -of thinking that even the <i>whole flour</i> of the -wheat is not good enough for <i>them</i>; that -part of it must be taken away, and given -to <i>birds</i> or <i>beasts</i>.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“By this delusion, supposing a certain -quantity of wheat appropriated to their use, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>(and this is the view they should see it in,) -they lose one third part of the flour, and -consequently have so much the less bread -to supply their wants.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Is it not then monstrous to hear them -complain? Is it not absurd to talk of -poverty, and yet pay a <i>seventh</i> or <i>eighth -part</i> more than they need, to gratify a -fantastic appetite? Had it not been from -the custom of eating whiter bread than -the whole flour of the wheat will make, -should we have thus imposed on ourselves? -Would the miller or baker employ all his -art to make the bread as <i>white</i> as possible, -and oblige us to pay for this <i>artificial</i> -whiteness? They tell the consumer, the -<i>whiter it is</i>, the <i>finer</i>; and the finer, the -more nutritive. Thus we become <i>dupes</i> so -far as to overlook the essential good properties -of genuine bread, made of all the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>flour of the wheat, and likewise the difference -in the price.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“We are taught to favour a gross delusion -at the suggestion of interested persons, -against our own substantial welfare. It is -the interest of every one to be <i>honest</i>, and -say nothing contrary to his real sentiments, -as it is the duty of those who have knowledge, -to inform such as are ignorant. Those -who have never eaten bread of all the flour -in a pure state, with the native taste of -wheat, and the moisture which it preserves, -can know nothing of the comparative -excellence of it with respect to the whitened -city bread which they have been accustomed -to eat all their lives.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“The dictates of the understanding will -ever yield to the pleasures of the imagination: -and the provident will be attentive -to take the advantage of the extravagant. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>Thus it happens that the poor have been -bewildered, and deprived of the object they -sought.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“The event depends on the good sense of -masters and mistresses of families, and -their right understanding of what they -mean to eat, <i>that is</i>, of what parts of the -wheat the bread they consume is made. -If they are satisfied that the bread is more -pure than what they used to eat, and -<i>sufficiently fine</i>, we may presume, if they -are in their right minds, they will prefer it -for domestic use. Every family of fourteen -or fifteen persons, consuming at the rate of -one pound each, in a day, pays near 16<i>s.</i> a -week: if they can save 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> or 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> it -is an object: to a poor man who spends 5<i>s.</i> -in bread, if he can save eight or ten pence, -it may purchase two or three pounds of -animal substance towards making one feast -in a week.”</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>“In regard to the patriotic miller, he -does not pretend to consult our good in -preference to his own; on the contrary, -he reasons very deeply, as if it were best -for us to live on the essence of a leg of -mutton, brought within the compass of a -pint, than feed on such porterly food as -the mutton prepared in the ordinary way of -roasting or boiling. He maintains, that -the finer the bread, though the quantity be -smaller, the more nutritive.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>The wheaten bread, of the London -baker, is acknowledged to be whitened by -a mixture of alum, which serves to keep -the loaf in better shape, renders it the -whiter, and causes it to imbibe the more -water to increase the quantity of the -bread. Thus he consults his interest, -without regard to the consumer: the -whiter it is, the more adulterated; and, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>as constant experience proves, such bread, -after it is two days old, becomes dry and -husky.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“If bread, made in a private family, of -the same flour as the baker uses, will not -be so white, we must suppose that there is -an art of whitening; and that this would -be no secret, if it were not pernicious.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“The bread recommended, made of all -the flour of the wheat, retains all the good -properties of bread; it is eatable at the -distance of eight or ten days: is it not on -this account the most eligible?”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Take a loaf of the wheaten London -bread, made by the baker in his usual way; -let the same baker make another with all -the flour of the wheat, without any attempt -to whiten or otherwise adulterate it. -Let him keep both in the same temperature -of air, and produce a specimen of each at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>any reasonable distance of time, and it -will be easily seen what the difference is. -This arises not only from <i>mixtures</i>, but the -<i>peculiar manner of raising the sponge</i>.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“In regard to the difference of consuming -new bread of the first day, and -that which has been made for three, four, -or five days, it is computed to be at least a -fourth part. If our present wheaten bread -cannot be eaten with pleasure beyond the -second day, it is not wonderful to discover -at last that we are lighting our candle at -both ends.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“That the vitiated bread agrees with -some people, whether by the force of habit, -or the mixtures it contains, is not disputed; -but in general it is very hurtful.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Great numbers of our fellow-subjects -eat their bread much coarser than the -Londoners: are they weaker? they are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>generally stronger. Some part of the advantage -must be carried to this account.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Let us have time to subdue our prejudices, -and we shall find that bread of all -the flour of the wheat, for the general use, -is better both in quality and price than the -present wheaten bread.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“In regard to the <i>London baker</i>, ask -him of what parts of the wheat his bread is -made, and he frankly acknowledges he -cannot tell; and how should he? He can -buy only what is to be sold; and the -quality is not ascertained with any such -precision as to enable him to answer the -question. He, <i>poor man</i> does the best he -can, not to give a sweet wholesome aliment, -but something which is <i>white</i>. He -knows that bread made of a proper proportion -of the wheat, not only differs in -colour, but is moister at the end of eight -<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>days than <i>his</i> the third day; he likewise -knows that it is sweeter, and has the -native grateful flavour of the wheat, as the -God of Nature hath given it, and not as it -hath been adulterated.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“If the parliament had required us to eat -plum-cake, seed-cake, or sugar-cake, we -should have known that plums, seed, and -sugar, constituted the difference; but from -the moment the law made distinctions in -the division of the flour for three different -kinds of bread for common use, we were -exposed to the mercy of the miller to -give the baker what he pleased, and call -it by what name he pleased; we could -only judge whether the bread pleased us or -not. The miller and the baker divide and -subdivide; and instead of flour for bread, -and the bran that remained, according to -ancient practice, whereby the beggar as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>well as the prince was pleased, <i>bread</i> -became a mystery, and we no longer knew -what we were eating.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Our misfortune, in regard to bread, is, -that we eat it too fine; we decline the use -of barley in bread, having hardly enough -for beer. Oats and pease are rejected: -at length we reject even <i>wheaten flour</i>,—unless -we are supplied with the finest -parts only!—What will befall us in the -end?”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“<i>Custom</i> often makes a law more forcible -than <i>Law-givers</i>, and we have now to -contend with <i>custom</i>.—The first consideration -should be, that the <i>flour</i> which -represents <i>three-fourths of the wheat</i>, shall -be really such, and brought to market in -sacks, marked <i>Standard</i>: the value of it -may be more easily ascertained, than that -of which is made the wheaten bread we now -eat.”</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>“The baker may be a little the more -reluctant to come into this salutary proposal, -as knowing that if he is to decline -the use of alum, flour that is in any degree -musty, or made of wheat that has grown -or vegetated before gathered in, as sometimes -happens, he cannot work it up so -advantageously in the bread now proposed -to be made, as in the wheaten bread.—Be -this as it may, as soon as the baker finds -this <i>standard</i> flour is vendable in bread, he -will buy it; and knowing what part of the -wheat it ought to be, he will work it into -bread with so much the more satisfaction; -and being sensible that we mean to eat -<i>genuine</i> bread, he will cease to <i>whiten</i> it by -any hurtful art. We shall all understand -what we eat, and the trade will be familiar -to us; we shall be so much happier as we -become so much the more honest, and more -healthy than we were before. Such is the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>serious light in which I see the subject -before me.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Every occupation hath its mystery; and -the professors are gratified in thinking -themselves wiser than the rest of the world -in their own way. Every professed <i>cook</i> -of the first rate can melt down a large ham -into the contents of half a pint. The -confectioner uses bitter almonds, which -are poisonous; the oilman colours his -pickles with <i>copper</i>, to render them green; -and the baker uses alum to <i>whiten</i> his -bread, and make his flour imbibe the -more water, by which he makes the more -bread out of the same quantity of flour. -This, and other <i>occasional</i> mixtures of the -flour of different grains, renders his bread -husky, dry, and disagreeable the third -day.—Are we the <i>better</i> for any such -mysteries?”</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>“Whether the wheat be all of one kind, -or <i>married</i>, which is the phrase for mixing -of wheats of different kinds, it will be easy -for people of condition, by experiment, -or by the comparison with genuine bread -made in their families, to know whether -justice be done; though we may easily -discover that the baker for the <i>public</i>, is -generally a better master of his trade than -most housewives are. The <i>mystery</i> may -be thus developed; our health and pleasure -promoted; and our bread be as much -cheaper than it is now, as the gain on the -<i>flour</i> will make it, by using <i>all</i> that the -wheat produces.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Every one may try by grinding and -bolting his own grain, and baking his own -bread, and the manufacturers of bread may -find nearly as good account in bread of all -<i>the flour</i>, which can be so easily ascertained; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>as they do in the wheaten, which is -involved in difficulties.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“The public have administered to their -own delusion, their eyes are shut to their -own advantage. If the wealthy will adopt -the use of the bread in question, the labouring -part of our fellow-subjects will certainly -follow the example; and as to <i>paupers</i>, they -will gladly comply.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Common sense, in all ages, has -achieved wonders.”</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Laws prohibiting the Adulteration of Bread and Bread Flour.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>The adulteration of bread and bread -flour is forbidden by law, as is obvious -from the following acts of parliament:</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>“No person shall put into any corn,<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c014'><sup>[9]</sup></a> -meal, or flour, which shall be ground, -dressed, bolted, or manufactured for sale, -any ingredient or mixture whatsoever, -whereby the same may be adulterated, -or shall sell any flour of one sort of grain -as for the flour of another, but shall only -sell the real genuine meal or flour of the -grain the same shall import to be, under -the penalty of five pounds for every such -offence.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f9'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 883.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“If any person have cause to suspect -that any miller<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c014'><sup>[10]</sup></a> who grinds, dresses, or -bolts any grain for toll or reward, or manufactures -any flour for sale, or that any -baker mixes up with his flour any mixture -or ingredient, not the genuine produce of -the grain, so that the purity of the meal -in any wise be adulterated, and reports the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>same on oath to a magistrate, then, in that -case, such magistrate, or a peace-officer -duly authorized by him, shall enter the -premises of such suspected person, and -search or examine whether such mixture -or ingredient, not the genuine produce of -the grain, is in the possession of such -miller, mealman, or baker; and such meal -and flour as shall be deemed to have been -adulterated may be seized, together with -the base mixtures; and if seized by a -peace-officer, it is to be carried before a -magistrate, but if seized by the magistrate, -he may immediately dispose of it as he -shall think fit. And the person on whose -premises such mixture or ingredient shall -be found, and adjudged to be intended to -be used in adulterating the flour, shall forfeit -a sum not exceeding ten pounds, and -have his name, offence, and place of abode -<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>published in some newspaper that is printed -or circulated near his place of abode, unless -he shall make it appear, to the satisfaction -of the magistrate, that the same -was not lodged there with the intention of -adulterating the flour, but for some other -lawful purpose.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f10'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 888.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“That if any person shall wilfully obstruct<a id='r11' /><a href='#f11' class='c014'><sup>[11]</sup></a> -or hinder any search being made -for such mixtures as are designed to adulterate -the meal or flour, or shall oppose -their being carried away, such person shall -forfeit a sum not exceeding five pounds, -nor less than forty shillings.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f11'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 889.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“And that the good design of these regulations -may be more effectually accomplished, -it shall be lawful for the several -wardmote<a id='r12' /><a href='#f12' class='c014'><sup>[12]</sup></a> inquests of the city of London, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>or any magistrate<a id='r13' /><a href='#f13' class='c014'><sup>[13]</sup></a> or peace-officer authorized -by a warrant from such magistrate, -without the jurisdiction of the city of London, -to enter into any bake-house or shop, -at all seasonable times, to search for and -weigh all the bread therein; and if any of -the loaves are found wanting in the goodness -of the stuff of which they should be -made, or deficient in the due baking or -working thereof, or shall be wanting in the -weight, or shall not be truly marked, such -persons may seize such bread; and, if a -magistrate is not present, it shall be taken -before one, who may dispose of it as he -shall think fit.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f12'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. </span>37 Geo. 3. c. 98. sec. 22.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f13'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 890.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“That if any person shall wilfully<a id='r14' /><a href='#f14' class='c014'><sup>[14]</sup></a> obstruct -or hinder any such search, or prevent -the carrying the same away, he shall, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>on conviction before a magistrate, be fined -a sum not exceeding five pounds, nor less -than twenty shillings.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f14'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 890.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“That it shall be lawful for any magistrate<a id='r15' /><a href='#f15' class='c014'><sup>[15]</sup></a>, -or peace-officer, authorised by a -warrant, and accompanied by one or more -master bakers, to enter, at seasonable -times, any shop or bake-house within the -city of London, or within ten miles of the -Royal Exchange, to search and examine -whether any alum, or other ingredients, -shall have been mixed up with, or put into, -any meal, flour, dough, or bread, in the -possession of any such baker, and also to -search for alum, or any other ingredients, -which may be intended to be used for the -purpose of adulterating the bread; and if, -on enquiry, they find any alum, or other -unlawful ingredients, or that any flour, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>meal, dough, or bread, contains any preparation -of alum, such shall be immediately -seized, and carried before some magistrate -within whose jurisdiction the baker lives, -and who shall dispose of it as he shall think -fit. And if the magistrate is satisfied that -such pernicious ingredients were put into -the bread with the consent or privity of the -baker, or if he acknowledges it himself, or -one or two credible witnesses certify, on -oath, that they know he uses alum, such -baker shall forfeit any sum of money not -exceeding twenty pounds, or be committed -to, and kept at hard labour in, the house of -correction, or some other prison, for six -calendar months, unless he can prove, to -the satisfaction of the magistrate, that the -alum, or other ingredients, were designed -for some lawful purpose. And further, the -magistrate is expressly required to cause -<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>the offender’s name, place of abode, and -offence, to be published in some newspaper -which shall be printed or published in or -near the city of London, or the liberties -thereof.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f15'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. </span>38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 14 and 15.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“That if any person or persons shall wilfully -obstruct<a id='r16' /><a href='#f16' class='c014'><sup>[16]</sup></a> or hinder such search or -seizure, as above described, he or they -shall, for every offence, forfeit and pay any -sum not exceeding ten pounds, nor less -than five, at the discretion of the magistrate -before whom the offender or the offenders -shall be convicted.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f16'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. </span>38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 16.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“That where any baker<a id='r17' /><a href='#f17' class='c014'><sup>[17]</sup></a> shall make a -complaint before a magistrate, and make it -appear that any offence he was charged -with, and paid the penalty of, was occasioned -<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>by the wilful neglect or default of -his journeyman, or other servant, the magistrate -shall issue his warrant for apprehending -the party, and if, on examining -into the matter, it appears that such was -the case, such journeyman, or other servant, -shall be directed immediately to pay -to his master a reasonable recompence in -money, and, on non-payment thereof, he -shall be committed to the house of correction, -or some other prison, and kept to -hard labour, for any time not exceeding -one calendar month, unless payment be -sooner made.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f17'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 891. and 38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 17.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“And, for the better and more easy recovery -of the several penalties<a id='r18' /><a href='#f18' class='c014'><sup>[18]</sup></a> incurred -by disobedience to the several acts, all -offences may be heard and determined in a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>summary way, by the Lord Mayor, or any -other magistrate or magistrates, within -their several jurisdictions, who shall summon -the offenders before them, and if they -do not appear, or offer a reasonable excuse, -they may cause them to be apprehended; -and when the matter is enquired into, and -the party convicted, if he does not pay the -penalty within twenty-four hours, such magistrate -shall issue a warrant of distress -and sale on the goods of the offender; and, -should the goods of the party be removed -into another jurisdiction, the magistrate -thereof is to back the warrant, and the distress, -if not redeemed within five days, is -to be appraised and sold, and all expences -thereby incurred are to be deducted thereout. -And if the offender is possessed of -no goods or chattels that can be seized, -then he shall be committed to the house of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>correction, or some other prison, for one -calendar month, unless payment be sooner -made.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f18'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 892. and 38 Geo. 3. c. 55. -sec. 19.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“That if information<a id='r19' /><a href='#f19' class='c014'><sup>[19]</sup></a>, on oath, is offered -to any magistrate, that any one within -his jurisdiction is likely to offer or give -material evidence in behalf of the prosecutor -of any offender, and refuses voluntarily -to come forward, such magistrate -shall issue a summons to cause him to appear, -and if he still refuses, to grant a warrant -to compel his attendance, and then if -he refuses to be examined, he may be committed -to some public prison for fourteen -days.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f19'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 894.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>That no certiorari<a id='r20' /><a href='#f20' class='c014'><sup>[20]</sup></a>, letters of advocation, -or of suspension, shall be granted, to -remove any conviction or other proceedings -<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>had therein; but if any person is -punished, and he thinks himself aggrieved -by the judgment of a magistrate, he may -appeal to the next quarter sessions, and, in -such case, the execution of the judgment -shall be suspended, upon his entering into -a recognisance, with two sufficient sureties, -in double the sum such person shall be adjudged -to forfeit, to prosecute the appeal, -and abide the determination of the justices -at the said quarter sessions; and if he -makes good his appeal, he shall be discharged -the conviction, and reasonable -costs awarded him, which shall be paid by -the person who lodged the information.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f20'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r20'>20</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 895.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“That no person shall be convicted<a id='r21' /><a href='#f21' class='c014'><sup>[21]</sup></a> of -any offence under these acts, unless the -prosecution shall be commenced against -<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>him within fourteen days after the offence -is committed, except in cases of perjury<a id='r22' /><a href='#f22' class='c014'><sup>[22]</sup></a>; -and no person who shall be prosecuted to -conviction for any offence done or committed -against these acts, shall be liable to -be prosecuted for the same offence under -any other law.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f21'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r21'>21</a>. </span>37 Geo. 3. c. 98. sec. 28.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f22'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r22'>22</a>. </span>38 Geo 3. c. 55. sec. 20.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“That all penalties, when recovered in -pursuance of these regulations, shall be -disposed of in the manner following: that -is to say, one<a id='r23' /><a href='#f23' class='c014'><sup>[23]</sup></a> moiety thereof to be paid -to the informer, and the other moiety to the -poor of the parish where such offence shall -be committed; and, in case there is no informer, -then the whole sum shall be given -to the poor of the parish, or applied in such -a way as the magistrate, in his discretion, -shall think fit.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f23'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r23'>23</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 897.</p> -</div> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Economical Application of Yeast.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>It frequently happens, in the summer -season, that the brewers, in order to render -their beer less liable to spoil, use more hops -than usual; the consequence of which is, -that the yeast becomes very bitter, and gives -a disagreeable flavour to the bread. To -obviate this inconvenience, Mr. Stone has -recommended the following method of raising -a bushel of flour with only a tea-spoonful -of yeast.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Suppose a bushel of flour be put it into -the kneading trough, then take about three -quarters of a pint of warm water, and one -tea-spoonful of yeast. Stir it in till it is -thoroughly mixed with the water; and -make a hole in the middle of the flour, large -<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>enough to contain two gallons of water. -Pour in the yeast and add some of the -flour until it is a thick liquid paste; strew -some of the dry flour over it, and let it stand -an hour. Then take a quart more of warm -water, and pour it in: in about an hour -it will be seen that the small quantity of -yeast has raised the mixture so, that it will -break through the dry flour placed over it; -and when the warm water has been added, -take a stick and stir in more flour until it -is as thick as before; then shake again -some dry flour over it, and leave it for two -hours more, the mass will rise and break -through the dry flour again; you may then -add three quarts or a gallon of water, and -stir in the flour, and make it into a soft -paste, taking care to cover it with dry flour -again, and in about three or four hours -more the dough may be mixed up, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>covered up warm; and in four or five hours -more it may be made up into loaves, and -put in the oven; and in this manner may -be produced as light a bread as though a -pint of yeast had been used. It does -not take above a quarter of an hour -more than the usual way of baking, for -there is no time lost but that of adding the -water at three or four times. The author -of this method assures us that he constantly -bakes in this way. In the morning, about -six or seven o’clock, he puts the flour in -the trough, and mixes up the spoonful of -yeast with the warm water; in an hour’s -time he adds more flour, in two hours, -again more, and about noon makes up the -dough, and about six in the evening it is put -into the oven: he has always good bread.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Economical Preparation of Yeast.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>The following economical method of -making yeast is recommended by Dr. Lettsom.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Thicken two quarts of water with four -ounces of fine flour, boil it for half an hour, -then sweeten it with three ounces of brown -sugar; when almost cold, pour it with four -spoonfuls of baker’s yeast into an earthen -jug, deep enough for the fermentation to -go on without running over; place it for a -day near the fire, then pour off the thin -liquor from the top, shake the remainder, -and close it up for use, first straining it -through a sieve. To preserve it sweet, -set it in a cool cellar, or hang it some depth -<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>in a well. Keep always some of this to make -the next quantity of yeast that is wanted. -Mr. I. Kerby recommends the following -method of obtaining yeast from potatoes.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Potatoe Yeast.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Boil potatoes of the mealy sort, till they -are thoroughly soft, skin and mash them -very smooth, and put as much hot water on -them as will make a mash of the consistency -of common beer yeast, but not thicker. -Add to every pound of potatoes, two ounces -of treacle, and when just warm, stir in for -every pound of potatoes, two large spoonfuls -of yeast. Keep it warm till it has -done fermenting, and in twenty-four hours -it will be fit for use. A pound of potatoes -will make near a quart of yeast, which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>has been found to answer the purpose so -well, as not to be able to distinguish the -bread made with it, from bread made with -brewer’s yeast.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Method of Preserving Yeast.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>When yeast is plentiful, take a quantity -and work it well with a whisk until it becomes -thin; then procure a large wooden -dish or platter, clean and dry, and with a -soft brush lay a thin layer of yeast on the -dish, and turn the top downwards to keep -out the dust, but not the air, which is to -dry it. When the first coat is dry, lay on -another, and let that dry, and so continue -till the quantity is sufficient; by this means -it may soon be made two or three inches -<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>thick, when it may be preserved in dry tin -canisters or stopped bottles, for a long -time, good. When used for baking, cut a -piece off and dissolve it in warm water, -when it will be fit for use.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>FINIS.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='small'>C. GREEN, LEICESTER STREET,</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>LEICESTER SQUARE.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>NOTICE.</div> - <div class='c000'><i>The Public are respectfully informed, that a new Edition,</i></div> - <div><i>considerably enlarged (price 9s.), has lately been published</i>,</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>OF</span></div> - <div class='c000'>ACCUM’S</div> - <div class='c000'><span class="blackletter">Treatise on Adulterations of Food,</span></div> - <div class='c000'>AND CULINARY POISONS;</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>Exhibiting the fraudulent Sophistications of Bread, Beer, Wine,</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Spirituous Liquors, Tea, Coffee, Cream, Confectionary,</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Vinegar, Mustard, Pepper, Cheese, Olive Oil,</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Pickles, and other Articles employed in</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Domestic Economy; and Method</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>of detecting them.</span></div> - <div class='c000'>(<i>Copied from the British Review, No. XXIX. p. 171.</i>)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum seems determined that even the outside of his -book shall awaken our fears. The cover of our copy bears a -death’s head emblazoned upon a pall, and, underneath, the motto -“there is death in the pot.” The pall is supported by the -point of a dart. Four other darts support the four corners of the -device. Twelve serpents, with forked tongues and tails entwined, -form a terrific wreath around; while the middle is occupied -with a large cobweb, delineated with much attention to detail, in -the centre of which a spider, full as large as a moderate sized -hazel nut, and so frightful that more than one young lady of our -acquaintance would think it necessary to scream at the sight of -it, holds in its envenomed fangs an ill-fated fly, which is sinking -under the loss of blood, and buzzing in the agonies of death.</p> - -<p class='c009'>We are by no means desirous to raise or maintain a popular -clamour; but Mr. Accum certainly advances some weighty -charges, and his work comes with an advantage in bearing a -name not unknown to the scientific world. Of the adulterations -specified, some are deleterious, and others merely fraudulent. -Accordingly, we shall offer a few extracts, both from the original -matter of Mr. Accum, and from his citations drawn from previous -authors.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“Among the number of substances used in domestic economy which are now -very generally found sophisticated, may be distinguished,—tea, coffee, bread, -beer, wine, spirituous liquors, salad oil, pepper, vinegar, mustard, cream, and -other articles of subsistence. Indeed it would be difficult to mention a single -article of food which is not to be met with in an adulterated state. And there -are some substances which are scarcely ever to be procured genuine.” (P. 3.)</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>But we pass on from the general statements at the beginning of -the work to particulars.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Water, by standing in leaden reservoirs, acquires a highly -deleterious property.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In some particular cases, the consequences have been most -fatal.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“‘A gentleman was the father of a numerous offspring, having had one and -twenty children, of whom eight died young, and thirteen survived their parents. -During their infancy, and indeed <i>until they had quitted the place of their usual -residence, they were all remarkably unhealthy</i>, being particularly subject to -disorders of the stomach and bowels. The father, during many years, was paralytic; -the mother, for a long time was subject to cholics and bilious obstructions.’” -(P. 78, 79.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>These effects were traced to a leaden pump, in the cylinder of -which there were found several perforations, while the cistern -“was reduced to the thinness of common brown paper, and was -full of holes like a sieve.” (P. 79.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>We now come to the adulteration of wine; to many of our -readers, probably, a far more interesting concern than that of -water.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“All persons moderately conversant with the subject are aware, that a portion -of alum is added to young and meagre red wines, for the purpose of brightening -the colour; that Brazil-wood, or the husks of elderberries and bilberries, -are employed to impart a deep rich purple tint to red port of a pale, feint colour; -that gypsom is used to render cloudy white wines transparent; that an additional -astringency is imparted to immature red wines by means of oak-wood -sawdust, and the husks of filberts, and that a mixture of spoiled foreign and -home-made wines is converted into the wretched compound frequently sold in -this town by the name of <i>genuine old Port</i>.... A <i>nutty</i> flavour is produced -by bitter almonds; fictitious Port wine is flavoured with a tincture drawn from -the seeds of raisins, and the ingredients employed to form the <i>bouquet</i> of high-flavoured -wines, are sweet brier, orris-root, clary, cherry-laurel-water, and -elder flowers. The flavouring ingredients used by manufacturers, may all be -purchased by those dealers in wine who are initiated in the mysteries of the -trade. And even a manuscript receipt-book for preparing them, and the -whole mystery of managing all sorts of wines, may be obtained on payment of -a considerable fee.” (P. 95, 97.)</p> - -<p class='c028'>“The particular and separate department in this factitious wine-trade, called -<i>crusting</i>, consists in lining the interior surface of empty wine bottles, in part, -with a red crust of super-tartrate of potash, by suffering a saturated, hot solution -of this salt, coloured with a decoction of Brazil-wood, to chrystallize -within them.” (P. 101, 102.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>But the crusting is not confined to the bottle.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“A correspondent operation is performed on the wooden cask; the whole -interior of which is stained artificially with a chrystalline crust of super-tartrate -of potash, artfully affixed in a manner precisely similar to that before stated. -Thus the wine-merchant, after bottling off a pipe of wine, is enabled to impose -on the understanding of his customers, by taking to pieces the cask, and exhibiting -the beautiful dark-coloured and fine chrystalline crust, as an indubitable -proof of the age of the wine; a practice by no means uncommon to flatter -<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>the vanity of those who pride themselves in their acute discrimination of wines.” -(P. 103, 104)</p> - -<p class='c009'>This our readers will excuse, for it is pleasing to read of impositions -which are practised on the sagacious. But, says Mr. -Accum,</p> - -<p class='c028'>“Several well-authenticated facts have convinced me, that the adulteration -of wine with substances deleterious to health is certainly practised oftener than -is, perhaps, suspected.” (P. 104, 105.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>Presently follows the story of the passengers by the coach, -who dined at Newark. Half a bottle of port made them all ill, -one dangerously. Part of the other half caused the death of an -inhabitant of the place, on whom an inquest was held, and a -verdict returned, of—<i>Died by poison</i>.</p> - -<p class='c009'>A gentleman having been taken severely ill on two successive -days, after drinking each day a pint of Madeira from the same -bottle, his apothecary ordered that it should be examined.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“‘The bottle happened to slip out of the hand of the servant, disclosed a -row of shot wedged forcibly into the angular bent-up circumference of it. On -examining the beads of shot, they crumbled into dust, the outer crust (defended -by a coat of black lead with which the shot is glazed) being alone unacted on, -whilst the remainder of the metal was dissolved. The wine, therefore, had -become contaminated with <i>lead and arsenic</i>, the shot being a compound of -these metals, which no doubt had produced the mischief.’” (P. 113, 114.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>For detecting the presence of lead or any other deleterious -metal in wine, Mr. Accum recommends the <i>wine test</i>.</p> - -<p class='c009'>We now come to that part of the subject, which, as <i>some persons</i> -have thought, <i>is merely the business of ale-drinkers</i>, and -their brethren, the porter-drinkers.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“The fraud of imparting to porter and ale an intoxicating quality by narcotic -substances, appears to have flourished during the period of the late French -war. For, if we examine the importation lists of drugs, it will be noticed that -the quantities of cocculus indicus imported in a given time prior to that period, -will bear no comparison with the quantity imported in the same space of time -during the war, although an additional duty was laid upon this commodity. -Such has been the amount brought into this country in five years, that it far exceeds -the quantity imported during twelve years anterior to the above epoch. -The price of this drug has risen within these ten years from two shillings to -seven shillings the pound.... It was at the period to which we have alluded -that the preparation of an extract of cocculus indicus first appeared, as a new -saleable commodity, in the price-currents of <i>brewers’ druggists</i>. It was at the -same time also that a Mr. Jackson, of notorious memory, fell upon the idea of -brewing beer from various drugs, without any malt and hops. This chemist -did not turn brewer himself, but he struck out the more profitable trade of -teaching his mystery to the brewers for a handsome fee. From that time forward, -written directions and receipt books, for using the chemical preparations -to be substituted for malt and hops, were respectively sold. And many adepts -soon afterwards appeared every where to instruct brewers in the nefarious -practice first pointed out by Mr. Jackson. From that time, also, the fraternity -of brewers’ chemists took its rise. They made it their chief business to send</p> -<p class='c028'><span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>travellers all over the country with lists and samples exhibiting the price and -quality of the articles manufactured by them for the use of brewers only. Their -trade spread far and wide, but it was amongst the country brewers chiefly that -they found the most customers. And it is among them up to the present day, -as I am assured by some of these operators, on whose veracity I can rely, that -the greatest quantities of unlawful ingredients are sold.” (P. 157-160.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>Part of these evils the porter-drinkers bring upon themselves.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“One of the qualities of good porter, is, that it should bear a <i>fine frothy -head</i>, as it is technically termed: because professed judges of this beverage, -would not pronounce the liquor excellent, although it possessed all other good -qualities of porter, without this requisite.—To impart to porter this property of -frothing when poured from one vessel into another, or to produce what is also -termed a <i>cauliflower head</i>, the mixture called <i>beer-heading</i>, composed of common -green vitriol (sulphate of iron) alum and salt, is added. This addition to -the beer is generally made by the publicans.” (P. 182, 183.) It is added in a -note:—”’Alum gives likewise a smack of age to beer, and is penetrating to -the palate.’—<i>S. Child on Brewing</i>, p. 18.” “The great London brewers, it -appears, believe that the publicans alone adulterate the beer.” (P. 211.)</p> - -<p class='c028'>“Capsicum and grains of paradise, two highly acrid substances, are employed -to give a pungent taste to weak insipid beer. Of late, a concentrated -tincture of these articles, to be used for a similar purpose, and possessing a -powerful effect, has appeared in the price-currents of brewers’ druggists. -Ginger root, coriander seed, and orange peels, are employed as flavouring -substances chiefly by the ale brewers.” (P. 184, 185.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>We find the following articles, in a list of illegal ingredients, -seized at various breweries and brewers’ druggists.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“Multum, 84 lbs.; cocculus indicus, 12 lbs.; colouring, 4 galls; honey, about -180 lbs.; hartshorn shavings, 14 lbs.; Spanish juice, 46 lbs.; orange powder, -17 lbs.; ginger, 56 lbs.; grains of paradise, 44 lbs.; quassia, 10 lbs.; liquorice, -64 lbs.; carraway seeds, 40 lbs.; multum, 26 lbs.” “Capsicum, 88 lbs.; copperas, -310 lbs.; colouring and drugs, 84 lbs.; mixed drugs, 240 lbs.; coriander seed, -2 lbs.; beer colouring, 24 gallons.” (P. 186-189.) [The list which includes -these articles is copied from the minutes of the committee of the House of -Commons.]</p> - -<p class='c009'>Some of the substances above enumerated may be thought -comparatively harmless. But others are absolutely poisonous.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“To increase the intoxicating quality of beer, the deleterious <i>vegetable</i> substance, -called <i>cocculus indicus</i>, and the extract of this poisonous berry, technically -called <i>black extract</i>, or by some, <i>hard multum</i>, are employed. Opium, -tobacco, nux vomica, and extracts of poppies, have also been used.—This fraud -constitutes by far the most censurable offence committed by unprincipled brewers. -And it is a lamentable reflection to behold so great a number of brewers -prosecuted, and convicted of this crime. Nor is it less deplorable to find the -names of druggists, eminent in trade, implicated in the fraud, by selling the unlawful -ingredients to brewers for fraudulent purposes.” (P. 205, 206.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>Then follows a list of thirty-four convictions of brewers, for -receiving or using illegal ingredients.—We perfectly agree with -the following observations.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“That a minute portion of an unwholesome ingredient, daily taken in beer, -cannot fail to be productive of mischief, admits of no doubt: and there is reason -to believe that a small quantity of a narcotic substance (and cocculus indicus is</p> -<p class='c028'><span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>a powerful narcotic), daily taken into the stomach, together with an intoxicating -liquor, is highly more efficacious than it would be without the liquor. The -effect may be gradual; and a strong constitution, especially if it be assisted -with constant and hard labour, may counteract the destructive consequences -perhaps for many years. But it never fails to show its baneful effects at last.” -(P. 209, 210.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>We now come to the business of another small portion of the -community, namely, the <i>tea-drinkers</i>. Perhaps the following -descriptions will assist them in forming a diagnosis.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“All the samples of spurious green tea (nineteen in number) which I have -examined, were coloured with carbonate of copper, (a poisonous substance), -and not by means of verdigrise, or copperas.” (P. 240.) “Mr. Twining -asserts, that ‘the leaves of spurious tea are boiled in a copper, with copperas -and sheep’s dung.’” (P. 240. Note.) “Tea rendered poisonous by carbonate -of copper, speedily imparts to liquid ammonia, a fine sapphire blue tinge. It is -only necessary to shake up in a stopped vial, for a few minutes, a tea-spoonful -of the suspected leaves, with about two table-spoonsful of liquid ammonia, -diluted with half its bulk of water. The supernatant liquid will exhibit a fine -blue colour, if the minutest quantity of copper be present. Green tea, coloured -with carbonate of copper, when thrown into water impregnated with sulphuretted -hydrogen gas, immediately acquires a black colour. Genuine green tea, -suffers no change from the action of these tests.” (P. 241.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>The following extracts may perhaps prove interesting to -<i>brandy-drinkers</i>.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“‘It is a custom among retailing distillers, which I have not taken notice of -in this directory, to put one third or one fourth part of proof molasses brandy, -proportionably, to what rum they dispose of; which cannot be distinguished, -but by an extraordinary palate, and does not at all lessen the body or proof of -the goods; but makes them about two shillings a gallon cheaper; and must be -well mixed and incorporated together in your retailing cask. But you should -keep some of the best rum, not adulterated, to please your customers, whose -judgment and palate must be humoured.—When you are to draw a sample of -goods to show a person that has judgment in the proof, do not draw your goods -into a phial to be tasted, or make experiment of the strength thereof that way, -because the proof will not hold except the goods be exceedingly strong. But -draw the pattern of goods either into a glass from the cock, to run very small, -or rather draw off a small quantity into a little pewter pot, and pour it into your -glass, extending your pot as high above the glass as you can without wasting -it, which makes the goods carry a better head abundantly, than if the same -goods were to be put and tried in a phial.—You must be so prudent as to make -a distinction of the persons you have to deal with. What goods you sell to -gentlemen for their own use, who require a great deal of attendance, and as -much for time of payment, you must take a considerably greater price than of -others; what goods you sell to persons where you believe there is a manifest, -or at least some hazard of your money, you may safely sell for more than common -profit; what goods you sell to the poor, especially medicinally, (as many -of your goods are sanative), be as compassionate as the cases require.—All -brandies, whether French, Spanish, or English, being proof goods, will -admit of one pint of <i>liquor</i>‘ (<i>water</i>) ‘to each gallon, to be made up and incorporated -therewith in your cask, for retail, or selling smaller quantities. And -all persons that insist upon having proof goods, which not one in twenty understand, -you must supply out of what goods are not so reduced, though at a -higher price.’” (P. 267-270.)</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>Some of the adulterations of spirituous liquors are exceedingly -pernicious.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“Another method of fining spirituous liquors, consists in adding to it, first, a -solution of sub-acetate of lead, and then a solution of alum. This practice is -highly dangerous, because part of the sulphate of lead produced, remains dissolved -in the liquor, which it thus renders poisonous.” (P. 284.) “The -cordial called shrub frequently exhibits vestiges of copper.” (P. 285.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>Gloucester Cheese has been found contaminated with red lead. -The article used in colouring cheese is anotto. In one instance, -the anotto, being inferior, had been coloured with vermilion; -and the vermilion adulterated by a druggist, (who little thought -that it would ever enter into the composition of cheese,) with red -lead. The account of the whole transaction as given by Mr. -Accum, is worth reading, but too long to be extracted.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Cayenne pepper, “is sometimes adulterated with red lead, to -prevent its becoming bleached on exposure to light.” (P. 305.) -Pickles “are sometimes intentionally coloured by means of copper.” -(P. 306.) “Mrs. E. Raffald directs, ‘to render pickles -green, boil them with halfpence, or allow them to stand twenty-four -hours in copper or brass pans.’” (P. 309.) “Vinegar is -sometimes largely adulterated with sulphuric acid, to give it -more acidity.” (P. 311.) “Red sugar drops are usually -coloured with the inferior kind of vermilion. This pigment is -generally adulterated with red lead. Other kinds of sweetmeats -are sometimes rendered poisonous by being coloured with preparations -of copper.” (P. 315, 316.) “The foreign conserves -... are frequently impregnated with copper.” (P. 317.) -“Quantities” of catsup “are daily to be met with, which on a -chemical examination, are found to abound with copper.” (P. -319.) “The quantity of copper which we have more than once -detected in this sauce, used for seasoning, and which, on account -of its cheapness, is much resorted to by people in the lower -walks of life, has exceeded the proportion of lead to be met with -in other articles employed in domestic economy.” (P. 320.) -“The leaves of the cherry-laurel, <i>prunus laurocerasus</i>, a -poisonous plant,” are used to flavour custards, <i>blanc-mange</i>, and -other delicacies of the table. (P. 324.) An instance is given -of the dangerous consequences of this practice. (P. 325, 326.) -“The water distilled from cherry-laurel leaves is frequently -mixed with brandy and other spirituous liquors.” (P. 327.) Several -samples of anchovy sauce “have been found contaminated -with lead.” (P. 328.) It is not unusual to employ, in preparing -this sauce, “a certain quantity of Venetian red, added for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>the purpose of colouring it, which, if genuine, is an innocent -colouring substance. But instances have occurred of this pigment -having been adulterated with orange lead, which is nothing -else than a better kind of minimum or red oxid of lead.” (P, -328, 329.) In lozenges, “the adulterating ingredient is usually -pipe-clay, of which a liberal portion is substituted for sugar.” -(P. 330.) Dr. T. Lloyd says, “‘I was informed,’” (at a -<i>respectable</i> chemist’s shop in the city) “‘that there were two -kinds of ginger lozenges kept for sale, the one at three-pence -the once, and the other at six-pence; and that the article furnished -to me by mistake was the cheaper commodity. The -latter were distinguished by the epithet <i>verum</i>, they being composed -of sugar and ginger only. But the former were manufactured -partly of white Cornish clay, with a portion of sugar -only, with ginger and Guinea pepper. I was likewise informed, -that of Tolu lozenges, peppermint lozenges, and ginger pearls, -and several other sorts or lozenges, two kinds were kept; that -the <i>reduced</i> prices, as they were called, were manufactured for -those very clever persons in their own conceit, who are fond of -haggling, and insist on buying better bargains than other people, -shutting their eyes to the defects of an article, so that they -can enjoy the delight of getting it cheap: and, secondly, for -those persons, who being but bad paymasters, yet as the manufacturer, -for his own credit’s sake, cannot charge more than the -usual price of the article, he thinks himself therefore authorized -to adulterate it in value, to make up for the risk he runs, and -the long credit he must give.’” (P. 332, 333.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>Well—there is then some honesty left in the world. What a -pleasure it is to have to deal with a <i>respectable</i> man. But we -return to the practices of the <i>knaves</i>.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Olive oil “is sometimes contaminated with lead.” (P. 334.) -The dealers in this commodity assert that lead or pewter “prevents -the oil from becoming rancid. And hence some retailers -often suffer a pewter measure to remain immersed in the oil.” -(P. 336.) “The beverage called soda water is frequently contaminated -both with copper and lead.” (P. 351.) Mr. Johnston, -of Greek Street, Soho, was the first who pointed out the danger -to the public. “Many kinds of viands are frequently impregnated -with copper, in consequence of the employment of cooking -utensels made of that metal. By the use of such vessels in -dressing food, we are daily liable to be poisoned.” (P. 352.) -“Mr. Thiery, who wrote a thesis on the noxious quality of copper, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>observes that ‘our food receives its quantity of poison, in -the kitchen by the use of copper pans and dishes. The brewer -mingles poison in our beer, by boiling it in copper vessels. -The sugar-baker employs copper pans. The pastry-cook bakes -our tarts in copper moulds. The confectioner uses copper vessels. -The oilman boils his pickles in copper or brass vessels, -and verdigrise is plentifully formed by the action of the vinegar -upon the metal.’” (P. 353, 354.) Moreover, “various kinds -of food, used in domestic economy, are liable to become impregnated -with lead.” (P. 359.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum, speaking on the subject of Beer, says,</p> - -<p class='c028'>“It will be noticed that some of the sophistications are comparatively harmless, -whilst others are affected by substances deleterious to health.” (P. 185.)</p> - -<p class='c028'>We think, however, that the candour of Mr. Accum leads him to make too -much allowance for this consideration throughout. Surely, though many articles -of food be not absolutely poisonous, a diet consisting of drugs and chemical -compounds and articles never intended by nature to be eaten or drunk, articles -for which, presented simple, the hungriest stomach would feel no appetite or -inclination, cannot be wholesome. Brick and mortar are not poison; yet we -cannot, like the dragon of Wantley, swallow a church, and pick our teeth with -the steeple. Many can eat oysters, but few could manage the oyster-knife. -Even the Welshman of King Arthur’s court, fond as he was of toasted cheese, -would inevitably have been choked by the mouse that ran down his throat to -eat it, had he not “pulled him out by the tail.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>We could give farther extracts; but must refer the reader to -the work itself, which contains much interesting matter, besides -what we have selected. THE MONEY THAT IS OFTEN -LAID OUT IN THE PURCHASE OF COOKERY BOOKS, -WHICH TEACH THE ART OF EXCITING DISEASE AND -PAIN BY DUBIOUS COMBINATIONS AND CULINARY -POISONS, MIGHT, WE THINK, BE MUCH BETTER EXPENDED -UPON A BOOK LIKE THE PRESENT; EVERY -PAGE OF WHICH GIVES WARNING OF SOME DANGER, -OF WHICH WE OUGHT ALL TO BE AWARE.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>A</div> - <div class='c000'><span class="blackletter"><span class='xxlarge'>Treatise on Adulterated Provisions.</span></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xlarge'><span class='sc'>By</span> FREDRICK ACCUM.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c002' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>THERE IS DEATH IN THE POT.</div> - <div class='c000'>II. KINGS—CHAP. VI. VERSE XI.</div> - <div class='c000'>(<i>From Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, No. XXXV. Page 542.</i>)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum, it appears, is -one of those very good-natured -friends, who is quite resolved -not to allow us to be cheated -and poisoned as our fathers -were before us, and our children -will be after us, without -cackling to us of our danger, -and opening our eyes to -abysses of fraud and imposition, -of the very existence of -which we had until now the -good fortune to be entirely ignorant. -His book is a perfect -death’s head, a memento mori, -the perusal of any single chapter -of which is enough to throw -any man into the blue devils -for a fortnight. Mr. Accum -puts us something in mind of -an officious blockhead, who, -instead of comforting his dying -friend, is continually jogging -him on the elbow with such -cheering assurances as the following. -“I am sorry there is -no hope; my dear fellow, you -must kick the bucket soon. -Your liver is diseased, your -lungs gone, your bowels as impenetrable -as marble, your legs -swelled like door-posts, your -face as yellow as a guinea, and -the doctor just now assured me -you could not live a week.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum’s work is evidently -written in the same spirit -of dark and melancholy anticipation, -which pervades Dr. -Robison’s celebrated “Proofs -of a Conspiracy, &c. against -all the crowned heads of Europe.” -The conspiracy disclosed -by Mr. Accum is certainly -of a still more dreadful -nature, and is even more widely -ramified than that which excited -so much horror in the worthy -professor. It is a conspiracy -of brewers, bakers, grocers, -wine-merchants, confectioners, -apothecaries, and cooks, against -the lives of all and every one of -his majesty’s liege subjects. -It is easy to see that Mr. -Accum’s nerves are considerably -agitated, that—</p> - -<p class='c028'>“Sad forebodings shake him as he writes.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>Not only at the festive board is -he haunted by chimeras dire -of danger—not only does he -tremble over the tureen—and -faint over the flesh-pot: but -even in his chintz night-gown, -and red morocco slippers, he is -not secure. An imaginary -sexton is continually jogging -his elbow as he writes, a death’s -head and cross bones rise on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>his library table; and at the -end of his sofa he beholds a -visionary tomb-stone of the best -granite—</p> - -<p class='c009'>ON WHICH ARE INSCRIBED THE DREADFUL WORDS—</p> - -<div class='figcenter id004'> -<img src='images/i010.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><i>Hic Jacet</i>,<br /><span class='large'>FREDRICK ACCUM</span>,<br />Operative Chemist,<br /><span class='xsmall'>OLD COMPTON STREET,</span><br /><i>SOHO</i>.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Since we read his book, our -appetite has visibly decreased. -At the Celtic club, yesterday, -we dined almost entirely on -roast beef; Mr. Oman’s London-particular -Madeira lost all -its relish, and we turned pale -in the act of eating a custard, -when we recollected the dreadful -punishment inflicted on -custard-eaters, in page 326 of -the present work. We beg to -assure our friends, therefore, -that at the present moment -they may invite us to dinner -with the greatest impunity.—Our -diet is at present quite similar -to that of Parnel’s hermit,</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Our food the fruits, our drink the crystal well;”</p> -<p class='c016'>though we trust a few days will -recover us from our panic, and -enable us to resume our former -habits of life. Those of our -friends, therefore, who have -any intention of pasturing us, -had better not lose the present -opportunity of doing so. So -favourable a combination of -circumstances must have been -quite unhoped for on their part, -and most probably will never -occur again.<a id='r24' /><a href='#f24' class='c014'><sup>[24]</sup></a> V. S.</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f24'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r24'>24</a>. </span>To save some trouble, we may announce that we are already engaged to -dinner, on the 23d, 27th, and 28th of this month, and to evening parties, on the -22d, 23d, 26th, 28th, and 29th, and 3d of March.</p> -</div> -<p class='c009'>Since, by the publication of -Mr. Accum’s book, an end has -been for ever put to our former -blessed state of ignorance, let -us arm ourselves with philosophy, -and boldly venture to look -our danger in the face; or, as -the poet beautifully expresses -it, in language singularly applicable,</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c029'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>“Come, Christopher, and leave all meaner things,</div> - <div class='line'>To low ambition and the pride of kings;</div> - <div class='line'>Let us, since life can little else supply;</div> - <div class='line'>Than just to swallow poison and to die;</div> - <div class='line'>Expatiate free o’er all this dreadful field,</div> - <div class='line'>Try what the brewer, what the baker yield;</div> - <div class='line'>Explore the druggists’ shop, the butchers’ stall;</div> - <div class='line'>Expose their roguery, and—damn them all!”</div> - <div class='c007'><span class='sc'>Pope.</span></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Melancholy as the details are, -there is something almost ludicrous, -we think, in the very -extent to which the deceptions -are carried. So inextricably -are we all immersed in this -mighty labyrinth of fraud, that -even the venders of poison -themselves are forced, by a -sort of retributive justice, to -swallow it in their turn.—Thus -the apothecary, who sells -the poisonous ingredients to -the brewer, chuckles over his -roguery, and swallows his own -drugs in his daily copious exhibitions -of Brown stout. The -brewer in his turn, is poisoned -by the baker, the wine-merchant, -and the grocer. And, -whenever the baker’s stomach -fails him, he meets his <i>coup -de grace</i> in the adulterated -drugs of his friend the apothecary, -whose health he has been -gradually contributing to undermine, -by feeding him every -morning on chalk and alum, in -the shape of hot rolls.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Our readers will now, we -think, be able to form a general -idea of the perils to which they -are exposed by every meal.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum’s details on the -adulteration of wine are extremely -ample, and so interesting, -that we regret our limits -prevent our making more copious -extracts, and oblige us to -refer our readers for farther information -to the work itself.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Having thus laid open to our -view the arcana of the cellar, -Mr. Accum next treats us with -an expose of the secrets of the -brew-house. Verily, the wine-merchant -and brewer are <i>par -nobile fratrum</i>; and after the -following disclosures, it will -henceforth be a matter of the -greatest indifference to us, whether -we drink Perry or Champaigne, -Hermitage or Brown -stout. <i>Latet anguis in poculo</i>, -there is disease and death in -them all, and one is only preferable -to the other, because it -will poison us at about one-tenth -of the expense.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“Malt liquors, and particularly -porter, the favourite beverage of the -inhabitants of London and of other -large towns, is amongst those articles, -in the manufacture of which the greatest -frauds are frequently committed.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“The practice of adulterating beer -appears to be of early date. To shew -that they have augmented in our own -days, we shall exhibit an abstract from -documents laid lately before Parliament.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“Mr. Accum not only amply proves, -that unwholesome ingredients are used -by fraudulent brewers, and that very -deleterious substances are also vended -both to brewers and publicans for -adulterating beer, but that the ingredients -mixed up in the brewer’s enchanting -cauldron are placed above -all competition, even with the potent -charms of Macbeth’s witches:</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c029'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>‘Root of hemlock, digg’d i’ the dark,</div> - <div class='line in2'>* * * *</div> - <div class='line in2'>* * * *</div> - <div class='line'>For a charm of pow’rful trouble.</div> - <div class='line'>Like a hell-broth boil and bubble;</div> - <div class='line'>Double, double, toil and trouble,</div> - <div class='line'>Fire burn, and cauldron bubble.’</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum very properly -gives us a list of those miscreants -who have been convicted -of adulterating their porter -with poisonous ingredients, and -want of room alone prevents us -from damning them to everlasting -fame, by inserting their -names along with that of the -Rev. Sennacherib Terrot, in the -imperishable pages of this miscellany.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum gives us a long -dissertation on counterfeit tea, -and another on spurious coffee; -but as these are impositions by -which we are little affected, we -shall not allow them to detain -us. The leaves of the sloe-thorn -are substituted for the former, -and roasted horse beans for the -latter. These frauds, it appears, -are carried to a very -great extent.</p> - -<p class='c009'>We must now draw our extracts -to a close; but we can -assure our readers, that we have -not yet introduced them to one -tythe of the poisonous articles -in common use, detected by -Mr. Accum. We shall give -the titles of a few to satisfy -the curious:—Poisonous confectionary, -poisonous pickles, -poisonous cayenne pepper, poisonous -custards, poisonous anchovy -sauce, poisonous lozenges, -poisonous lemon acid, poisonous -mushrooms, poisonous ketchup, -and poisonous soda water! -Read this, and wonder -how you live!</p> - -<p class='c009'>While we thus suffer under -accumulated miseries brought -upon us by the unprincipled -avarice and cupidity of others, -it is surely incumbent on us -not wantonly to increase the -catalogue by any negligence or -follies of our own. Will it be -believed, that in the cookery -book, which forms the prevailing -oracle of the kitchens in -this part of the island, there is -an express injunction to “<i>boil -greens with halfpence</i> in order -to improve their <i>colour</i>?”—That -our puddings are frequently -seasoned with laurel leaves, -and our sweetmeats almost uniformly -prepared in copper vessels? -Why are we thus compelled -to swallow a supererogatorary -quantity of poison which -may so easily be avoided? -And why are we constantly -made to run the risk of our -lives by participating in custards, -trifles, and blancmanges, -seasoned by a most deadly poison -extracted from the <i>prunus -lauro-cerasus</i>? Verily, while -our present detestable system -of cookery remains, we may -exclaim with the sacred historian, -that there is indeed -“Death in the Pot.”</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span><span class='xxlarge'><span class="blackletter">A Treatise on Adulterations of Food,</span></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xlarge'>AND CULINARY POISONS,</span></div> - <div class='c000'>Exhibiting the Fraudulent Sophistications of Bread, Beer, Wine,</div> - <div>Spirituous Liquors, &c. and Methods of detecting them.</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='large'><span class='sc'>By</span> FREDRICK ACCUM.</span></div> - <div class='c000'>(<i>From the Edinburgh Review, No. LXV. Page 131.</i>)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>It is curious to see how vice varies its forms, and maintains -its substance, in all conditions of society;—and how certainly -those changes, or improvements as we call them, which diminish -one class of offences, aggravate or give birth to another.—In -rude and simple communities, most crimes take the shape of -violence and outrage—in polished and refined ones, of Fraud. -Men sin from their animal propensities in the first case, and from -their intellectual depravation in the second. The one state of -things is prolific of murders, batteries, rapines, and burnings—the -other of forgeries, swindlings, defamations, and seductions. -The sum of evil is probably pretty much the same in both—though -probably greatest in the civilized and enlightened stages; -the sharpening of the intellect, and the spread of knowledge, -giving prodigious force and activity to all criminal propensities.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Among the offences which are peculiar to a refined and enlightened -society, and owe their birth, indeed, to its science and -refinement, are those skilful and dexterous adulterations of the -manifold objects of its luxurious consumption, to which their -value and variety, and the delicacy of their preparation, hold -out so many temptations; while the very skill and knowledge -which are requisite in their formation, furnish such facilities for -their sophistication. The very industry and busy activity of -such a society, exposes it more and more to such impostures;—and -by the division of labour which takes place, and confines -every man to his own separate task, brings him into a complete -dependence on the industry of others for a supply of the most -necessary articles.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The honesty of the dealer, and of the original manufacturer, is -the only security to the public for the genuineness of the article -in which he deals. The consumer can in general know nothing -of their component parts; he must take them as he finds them; -and, even if he is dissatisfied, he has in general no effectual -means of redress.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>It will be found, that as crimes of violence decrease with the -progress of society, frauds are multiplied; and there springs up -in every prosperous country a race of degenerate traders and -manufacturers, whose business is to cheat and to deceive; who -pervert their talents to the most dishonest purposes, prefering -the illicit gains thus acquired to the fair profits of honorable -dealing; and counter-working, by their sinister arts, the general -improvement of society.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In almost every branch of manufacture, there are fraudulent -dealers, who are instigated by the thirst of gain, to debase the -articles which they vend to the public, and to exact a high price -for what is comparatively cheap and worthless. After pointing -out various deceptions of this nature, Mr. Accum, the ingenious -author of the work before us, proceeds in his account of those -frauds, in the following terms.</p> - -<p class='c028'>‘Soap used in house-keeping is frequently adulterated with a considerable -portion of fine white clay, brought from St. Stephen’s in Cornwall. In the manufacture -of printing paper, a large quantity of plaster of Paris is added to the -paper stuff, to increase the weight of the manufactured article. The selvage of -cloth is often dyed with a permanent colour, and artfully stitched to the edge of -cloth dyed with a fugitive dye. The frauds committed in the tanning of skins, -and in the manufacture of cutlery, and jewellery, exceed belief.’ pp. 27-29.</p> - -<p class='c009'>What is infinitely worse, however, than any of those frauds, -sophistications, we are informed, are carried on to an equal extent -in all the essential articles of subsistence or comfort. So -long as our dishonest dealers do not intermeddle with these -things, their deceptions are comparatively harmless; the evil in -all such cases amounting only to so much pecuniary damage. -But when they begin to tamper with food, or with articles connected -with the table, their frauds are most pernicious: in all -cases the nutritive quality of the food is injured, by the artificial -ingredients intermixed with it; and when these ingredients, as -frequently happens, are of a poisonous quality, they endanger -the health and even the life of all to whom they are vended. -We cannot conceive any thing more diabolical than those -contrivances; and we consider their authors in a far worse light -than ordinary felons, who, being known, can be duly guarded -against. But those fraudulent dealers conceal themselves under -the fair show of a reputable traffic—they contrive in this manner -to escape the infamy which justly belongs to them—and, under -the disguise of wealth, credit, and character, to lurk in the bosom -of society, wounding the hand that cherishes them, and scattering -around them poison and death.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>It is chiefly for the purpose of laying open the dishonest -artifices of this class of dealers, that Mr. Accum has published -the present very interesting and popular work; and he gives a -most fearful view of the various and extensive frauds which are -daily practised on the unsuspecting public.</p> - -<p class='c028'>‘Among the number of substances used in domestic economy, which are now -very generally found sophisticated, may be distinguished—tea, coffee, bread, -beer, wine, spirituous liquors, salad oil, pepper, vinegar, mustard, cream, and -other articles of subsistence.—Indeed, it would be difficult to mention a single -article of food which is not to be met with in an adulterated state; and there are -some substances which are scarcely ever to be procured genuine.—Some of these -spurious compounds are comparatively harmless when used as food; and as, in -these cases, merely substances of inferior value are substituted for more costly -and genuine ingredients, the sophistication, though it may affect our purse, does -not injure our health. Of this kind are the manufacture of factitious pepper, -the adulterations of mustard, vinegar, cream, &c. Others, however, are highly -deleterious; and to this class belong the adulterations of beer, wines, spirituous -liquors, pickles, salad oil, and many others.’ pp. 2-4.</p> - -<p class='c009'>There are, it appears, particular chemists who make it their -sole employment to supply the unprincipled brewer of porter and -ale with drugs, and other deleterious preparations; while others -perform the same office to the wine and spirit merchant, as well -as to the grocer and oilman—and these illicit pursuits have -assumed all the order and method of a regular trade.</p> - -<p class='c028'>‘The eager and insatiable thirst for gain’ (Mr. Accum justly observes), -which seems to be a leading characteristic of the times, calls into action every -human faculty, and gives an irresistible impulse to the power of invention; -and where lucre becomes the reigning principle, the possible sacrifice of a -fellow-creature’s life is a secondary consideration.’</p> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum having exhibited this general view of his subject, -proceeds to enter into an examination of the articles most commonly -counterfeited, and to explain the nature of the ingredients -used in sophisticating them. He commences with a dissertation -on the qualities of good water, in which he briefly points out the -dangerous sophistications to which it is liable, from the administration -of foreign ingredients.</p> - -<p class='c009'>But in the case of water, the adulteration is purely accidental, -which cannot be said of the other articles specified by Mr. Accum. -In the making of Bread, more especially in London, various -ingredients are occasionally mingled with the dough. To suit -the caprice of his customers, the baker is obliged to have his -bread light and porous, and of a pure white. It is impossible to -produce this sort of bread from flour alone, unless it be of the -finest quality. The best flour, however, being mostly used by -the biscuit-bakers and pastry-cooks, it is only from the inferior -<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>sorts that bread is made; and it becomes necessary, in order to -have it of that light and porous quality, and of a fine white, to -mix alum with the dough. Without this ingredient, the flour -used by the London bakers would not yield so white a bread as -that sold in the metropolis.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Wine appears to be a subject for the most extensive and -pernicious frauds.</p> - -<p class='c028'>‘All persons (Mr. Accum observes) moderately conversant with the subject, -are aware, that a portion of alum is added to young and meagre red wines, for -the purpose of brightening their colour; that Brazil wood, or the husks of elderberries -and bilberries, which are imported from Germany, under the fallacious -name of <i>berry-dye</i>, are employed to impart a deep rich purple tint to red port of -a pale colour; that gypsum is used to render cloudy white wines transparent; -that an additional astringency is imparted to immature red wines by means of -oak-wood and sawdust, and the husks of filberts; and that a mixture of spoiled -foreign and home-made wines is converted into the wretched compound frequently -sold in the metropolis by the name <i>genuine old Port</i>.’</p> - -<p class='c009'>Other expedients are resorted to, in order to give flavour to -insipid wines. For this purpose bitter almonds are occasionally -employed; factitious port wine is also flavoured with a tincture -drawn from the seeds of raisins; and other ingredients are frequently -used, such as sweet brier, orris root, clary, cherry-laurel -water, and elder flowers.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In London, the sophistication of wine is carried to an enormous -extent, as well as the art of manufacturing spurious wine, which -has become a regular trade, in which a large capital is invested; -and it is well known that many thousand pipes of spoiled cider -are annually sent to the metropolis for the purpose of being converted -into an imitation of port wine.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Innumerable are the tricks practised to deceive the unwary, by -giving to weak, thin, and spoiled wines, all the characteristic -marks of age, and also of flavour and strength. In carrying on -these illicit occupations, the division of labour has been -completely established; each has his own task assigned him -in the confederate work of iniquity; and thus they acquire -dexterity for the execution of their mischievous purposes. To -one class is allotted the task of <i>crusting</i>, which consists in lining -the interior surface of empty wine bottles with a red crust. -This is accomplished by suffering a saturated hot solution of -super-tartrate of potash, coloured red with a decoction of Brazil -wood to chrystallize within them. A similar operation is frequently -performed on the wooden cask which is to hold the -wine, and which, in the same manner as the bottle, is artificially -stained with a red crust; and on some occasions, the lower extremities -<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>of the corks in wine bottles are also stained red, in -order to give them the appearance of having been long in contact -with the wine. It is the business of a particular class of wine-coopers, -by means of an astringent extract mixed with home-made -and foreign wines, to produce ‘genuine old port,’ or to give an -artificial flavour and colour to weak wine; while the mellowing -and restoring of spoiled white wines is the occupation of another -class called refiners of wine. Other deceptions are practised by -fraudulent dealers, which are still more culpable. The most -dangerous of these is where wine is adulterated by an admixture -of lead.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum justly observes, that the ‘merchant or dealer who -practises this dangerous sophistication, adds the crime of murder -to that of fraud, and deliberately scatters the seeds of disease -and death among those customers who contribute to his emolument.’</p> - -<p class='c009'>Spirituous liquors, which in this country form one of the chief -articles of consumption, are subjects of equally extensive fraud -with wine. The deceptions which are practised by the dealers -in this article, are chiefly confined to fraudulent imitations of the -peculiar flavour of different sorts of spirits; and as this flavour -constitutes, along with the strength, the value of the spirit, the -profit of the dealer consists in imitating this quality at a cheaper -rate than it is produced in the genuine spirit. The flavour of -French brandy is imitated, by distilling British molasses spirit -over wine lees; previous to which, however, the spirit is deprived -of its peculiar disagreeable flavour, by rectification over fresh-burnt -charcoal and quicklime. This operation is performed by -those who are called brewers’ druggists, and forms the article in -the <i>prices-current</i> called <i>Spirit Flavour</i>. Wine lees are -imported into this country for the purpose, and they pay the -same duty as foreign wines. Another method of imitating the -flavour of brandy, which is adopted by brandy merchants, is by -means of a spirit obtained from raisin wine, after it has begun -to become somewhat sour. ‘Oak sawdust,’ (Mr. Accum -observes), ‘and a spirituous tincture of raisin stones, are likewise -used to impart to new brandy and rum a <i>ripe taste</i>, resembling -brandy or rum long kept in oaken casks, and a somewhat oily -consistence, so as to form a durable froth at its surface, when -strongly agitated in a vial. The colouring substances are burnt -sugar, or molasses; the latter gives to imitative brandy a luscious -taste, and fulness in the mouth.’ Gin, which is sold in small -<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>quantities to those who judge of the strength by the taste, is -made up for sale by fraudulent dealers with water and sugar; -and this admixture rendering the liquor turbid, several expedients -are resorted to, in order to clarify it; some of which are harmless, -while others are criminal. A mixture of alum with subcarbonate -of potash, is sometimes employed for this purpose; but more -frequently, in place of this, a solution of subacetate of lead, and -then a solution of alum,—a practice reprobated by Mr. Accum -as highly dangerous, owing to the admixture of the lead with -the spirit, which thereby becomes poisonous. After this operation, -it is usual to give a false appearance of strength to the -spirit by mixing with it grains of paradise, guinea pepper, -capsicum, and other acrid and aromatic substances.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In the manufacture of malt liquors, a wide field is opened for -the operations of fraud. The immense quantity of the article -consumed, presents an irresistible temptation to the unprincipled -dealer; while the vegetable substances with which beer is -adulterated, are in all cases difficult to be detected, and are frequently -beyond the reach of chemical analysis. There is, accordingly, -no article which is the subject of such varied and extensive -frauds. These are committed in the first instance by the brewer, -during the process of manufacture, and afterwards by the dealer, -who deteriorates, by fraudulent intermixtures, the liquor which -he sells to the consumer. ‘The intoxicating qualities of porter -(he continues) are to be ascribed to the various drugs intermixed -with it;’ and, as some sorts of porter are more heady than others, -the difference arises, according to this author, ‘from the greater -or less quantity of stupifying ingredients’ contained in it. These -consist of various substances, some of which are highly deleterious. -Thus, the extract disguised under the name of <i>black -extract</i>, and ostensibly destined for the use of tanners and -dyers, is obtained by boiling the berries of the <i>cocculus indicus</i> -in water, and converting, by a subsequent evaporation, this -decoction into a stiff black tenacious mass, possessing in a high -degree the narcotic and intoxicating quality of the poisonous -berry from which it is prepared. Quassia is another substance -employed in place of hops, to give the beer a bitter taste; and -the shavings of this wood are sold in a half torrified and ground -state, in order to prevent its being recognised.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Not only is the use of all these deleterious substances strictly -prohibited to the brewer under severe penalties, but all druggists -<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>or grocers convicted of supplying him with any of them, -or who have them in their possession, are liable to severe penalties; -and Mr. Accum gives a list of twenty-nine convictions for -this offence, from the year 1812 to 1819. From the year 1813 -to 1819, the number of brewers prosecuted and convicted of -using illegal ingredients in their breweries, amounts to thirty-four. -Numerous seizures have also been made during the same -period at various breweries, and in the warehouses of brewers’-druggists, -of illegal ingredients, to be used in the brewing of -beer, some of them highly deleterious.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Malt liquors, after they are delivered by the brewer to the -retail-dealer, are still destined to undergo various mutations -before they reach the consumer. It is a common practice with -the retailers of beer, though it be contrary to law, to mix table-beer -with strong beer; and, to disguise this fraud, recourse is -had to various expedients. It is a well known property of genuine -beer, that when poured from one vessel into another, it -bears a strong white froth, without which professed judges would -not pronounce the liquor good. This property is lost, however, -when table-beer is mixed with strong beer; and to restore it, a -mixture of what is called <i>beer-heading</i> is added, composed of -common green vitriol, alum, and salt. To give a pungent taste -to weak insipid beer, capsicum and grains of paradise, two -highly acrid substances, are employed; and, of date, a concentrated -tincture of these articles has appeared for sale in the -prices-current of brewers’-druggists. To bring beer forward, -as it is technically called, or to make it hard, a portion of sulphuric -acid is mixed with it, which, in an instant, produces an -imitation of the age of eighteen months; and stale, half-spoiled, -or sour beer, is converted into mild beer, by the simple admixture -of an alkali or an alkaline earth; oyster-shell powder, and -subcarbonate of potash, or soda, being usually employed for -that purpose. In order to show that these deceptions are not -imaginary, Mr. Accum refers to the frequent convictions of -brewers for those fraudulent practices, and to the seizures -which have been made at different breweries of illegal ingredients—a -list of which, and of the proprietors of the breweries -where they were seized, he has extracted from the Minutes of -the Committee of the House of Commons, appointed to Inquire -into the Price and Quality of Beer. It may be observed, -that while some of the sophistications of beer appear to be perfectly -harmless, other substances are frequently employed for this -purpose which are highly deleterious, and which must gradually -undermine the health of those by whom they are used.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>Many other of the most ordinary articles of consumption -are mentioned by our author as being the object of the most -disgusting and pernicious frauds. Tea, it is well known, from -the numerous convictions which have lately taken place, has -been counterfeited to an enormous extent; and copper, in one -form or another, is the chief ingredient made use of for effecting -the imitation.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The practice of adulterating coffee, has also been carried on -for a long time, and to a considerable extent, while black and -white pepper, Cayenne pepper, mustard, pickles of all sorts, -have been all of them debased by an admixture of baser, and, -in many cases, poisonous ingredients. Ground pepper is frequently -sophisticated by an admixture from the sweepings of the pepper -warehouses. These sweepings are purchased in the market -under the initials P. D., signifying pepper dust. ‘An inferior -sort of this vile refuse (Mr. Accum observes), or the sweepings -of P. D., is distinguished among venders by the abbreviation -of D. P. D., denoting dust, or dirt of pepper dust.’</p> - -<p class='c009'>Of those various frauds so ably exposed in Mr. Accum’s -work, and which are so much the more dangerous, as they are -committed under the disguise of an honourable trade, it is impossible -to speak in terms of too strong reprobation; and in -the first impulse of our indignation, we were inclined to avenge -such iniquitous practices by some signal punishment. We naturally -reflect, that such offences, in whatever light they are -viewed, are of a far deeper dye than many of those for which -our sanguinary code awards the penalty of death—and we wonder -that the punishment hitherto inflicted, has been limited to -a fine. If we turn our view, however, from the moral turpitude -of the act, to a calm consideration of that important question, -namely,—What is the most effectual method of protecting -the community from those frauds?—we will then see strong -reasons for preferring the lighter punishment. We do not find -from experience, that offences are prevented by severe punishments. -On the contrary, the crime of forgery, under the most -unrelenting execution of the severe law against it, has grown -more frequent. As those, therefore, by whom the offence of -adulterating articles of provision is committed, are generally -creditable and wealthy individuals, the infliction of a heavy fine, -accompanied by public disgrace, seems a very suitable punishment: -and if it be duly and reasonably applied, there is little -doubt that it will be found effectual to check, and finally to root -out, those disgraceful frauds.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span><span class='xlarge'>POISONING OF FOOD.</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xxlarge'><span class="blackletter">A Treatise on Adulterations of Food,</span></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xlarge'>AND CULINARY POISONS;</span></div> - <div class='c000'><i>Exhibiting the Fraudulent Sophistications of Bread, Beer, Wine,</i></div> - <div><i>Spirituous Liquors, Tea, Coffee, Cheese, Pepper, Mustard, &c. &c.</i></div> - <div><i>And methods of detecting them.</i></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='large'><span class='sc'>By</span> FREDRICK ACCUM.</span></div> - <div class='c000'>(<i>From the Literary Gazette, No. CLVI. 1820.</i>)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>One has laughed at the whimsical -description of the cheats -in Humphrey Clinker, but it is -really impossible to laugh at -Mr. Accum’s exposition. It is -too serious for a joke to see -that in almost every thing which -we eat or drink, we are condemned -to swallow swindling, -if not poison—that all the items -of metropolitan, and many of -country consumption, are deteriorated, -deprived of nutritious -properties, or rendered -obnoxious to humanity by the -vile arts and merciless sophistications -of their sellers. So -general seems the corruption, -and so fatal the tendency of -most of the corrupting materials, -that we can no longer -wonder at the prevalence of -painful disorders, and the -briefness of existence (on an -average) in spite of the great -increase of medical knowledge, -and the amazing improvement -in the healing science, which -distinguish our era. No skill -can prevent the effects of daily -poisoning; and no man can -prolong his life beyond a short -standard, where every meal -ought to have its counteracting -medicine.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum acts the part of -Dionysius with us; only the -horse-hair by which he suspends -the sword over our heads -allows the point gradually to -enter the flesh, and we do not -escape, like Damocles, with -the simple fright: yet it is -but justice to acknowledge, -that in almost every case he -furnishes us with tests whereby -we can ascertain the nature -of our danger; and no man -could do more towards enabling -us to mitigate or escape from -it.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Advising our readers to abstain -from perusing the annexed -synopsis till after they have -dined, that they may have one -more meal in comfort ere they -die, we proceed to the various -heads under which the author -ranges his dread array.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Devoted to disease by baker, -brewer, grocer, &c. the physician -is called to our assistance; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>but here again the pernicious -system of fraud, as it -has given the blow, steps in to -defeat the remedy.</p> - -<p class='c009'>It is so horribly pleasant to -reflect how we are in this way -be-swindled, be-trayed, be-drugged, -and be-devilled, that -we are almost angry with Mr. -Accum for the great service he -has done the community by -opening our eyes, at the risk -of shutting our mouths for ever.</p> - -<p class='c009'>His account of water is so -fearful, that we see there is no -wisdom in the well; and if we -then fly to wine, we find, from -his analysis, that there is no -truth in that liquid: bread -turns out to be a crutch to -help us onward to the grave, -instead of the staff of life; in -porter there is no support, in -cordials no consolation; in almost -every thing poison, and -in scarcely any medicine, cure.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The work contains a great -many excellent observations on -the various sorts of water, and -the modes of conveying and -preserving them for use: it appears -generally that leaden -pipes and cisterns, and copper -vessels are highly dangerous.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Good heavens! we think we -hear it exclaimed, is there no -end to these infamous doings? -does nothing pure or unpoisoned -come to our tables, except -butcher’s meat, which has been -rendered far less nutritive than -formerly, by new methods of -feeding? Why, we must answer, -hardly any thing: for our author -proceeds to shew that <i>cheese</i> -(Gloucester he mentions) has -been contaminated with red -lead, a deadly poison mixed -with the colouring anotto, when -that article was scarce: that -<i>pepper</i> is adulterated with factitious -pepper-corns “made up -of oil-cakes (the residue of -lint-seed, from which the oil -has been pressed), common -clay, and a portion of Cayenne -pepper, formed in a mass, and -granulated by being first pressed -through a sieve, and then -rolled in a cask;” and further, -that “ground pepper is very -often sophisticated by adding -to a portion of genuine pepper, -a quantity of pepper dust, or -the sweepings from the pepper -warehouses, mixed with a little -Cayenne pepper. The sweepings -are known, and purchased -in the market, under the name -of P.D. signifying pepper dust. -An inferior sort of this vile -refuse, or the sweepings of P.D. -is distinguished among vendors -by the abbreviation D.P.D, -denoting, dust (dirt) of pepper -dust.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>As we read on, we learn -the method of manufacturing -adulterated vinegar, adulterated -cream, adulterated lozenges, -adulterated mustard, adulterated -lemon acid, poisonous -Cayenne, poisonous pickles, -poisonous confectionary, poisonous -<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>catsup, poisonous custards, -poisonous anchovy sauce, -poisonous olive oil, poisonous -soda water; and, if not done to -our hands, of rendering poisonous -all sorts of food by the -use of copper and leaden vessels. -Suffice it to record, that -our pickles are made green by -copper; our vinegar rendered -sharp by sulphuric acid; our -cream composed of rice powder -or arrow root in bad milk; our -comfits mixed of sugar, starch, -and clay, and coloured with -preparations of copper and -lead; our catsup often formed -of the dregs of distilled vinegar -with a decoction of the -outer green husk of the walnut, -and seasoned with all-spice, -cayenne, pimento, onions, and -common salt—or if founded on -mushrooms, done with those in -a putrefactive state remaining -unsold at market; our mustard -a compound of mustard, wheaten -flour, cayenne, bay salt, -raddish seed, turmeric, and -pease flour; and our citric acid, -our lemonade, and our punch, -to refresh or to exhilarate, -usually cheap tartareous acid -modified for the occasion.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Against all these, and many -other impositions, Mr. Accum -furnishes us with easy and -certain tests: his work, besides, -contains many curious documents -and useful recipes; and -it is replete with intelligence, -and often guides to the right -while it exposes the wrong.</p> -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><i>Other Works lately published by <span class='large'>FREDRICK ACCUM.</span></i></div> - <div><span class='large'>DESCRIPTION</span></div> - <div>OF</div> - <div>THE PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING</div> - <div><span class='large'>COAL GAS,</span></div> - <div>For the Lighting of Streets, Houses, and Public Buildings,</div> - <div>WITH ELEVATIONS, SECTIONS, AND PLANS,</div> - <div>Of the most improved Sorts of Apparatus now employed at the</div> - <div><span class="blackletter">Gas Works in London,</span></div> - <div>And the principal Provincial Towns of Great Britain.</div> - <div><i>Price 15s.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='large'>CHEMICAL AMUSEMENT,</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>Comprising a Series of curious and instructive Experiments in Chemistry, which</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>are easily performed, and unattended by Danger.</span></div> - <div class='c000'><i>The Fourth Edition. Price 9s.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span><span class='large'><i>This Day is published</i>,</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='large'>A TREATISE</span></div> - <div class='c000'>ON THE</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xxlarge'><span class="blackletter">Art of Brewing,</span></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>Exhibiting the London practice of Brewing Porter, Brown Stout, Ale, Table</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Beer, and various other kinds of Malt Liquors.</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xlarge'><span class='sc'>By</span> FREDRICK ACCUM.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><i>By the same Author</i>,</div> - <div class='c003'>A TREATISE</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='large'>ON THE ART OF MAKING WINE</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xxlarge'><span class="blackletter">From Native Fruits;</span></span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Elucidating the Chemical Principles upon which the Art of Wine-making depends. -The Fruits best adapted for Home-made Wines, and the Methods of -preparing them.</p> -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>A MANUAL OF ANALYTICAL MINERALOGY,</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Intended to facilitate the practical Analysis of Minerals, by pointing out to the -Student concise Directions for performing the Analysis of Metallic Ores, -Earths, and other Minerals. <i>Second Edition. 2 Vols. Price 15s.</i></p> -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='sc'>A SYSTEM of THEORETICAL and PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY</span>,</div> - <div class='c000'><i>In Two Vols. with Plates. Second Edition. Price 15s.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>ELEMENTS OF CHRYSTALLOGRAPHY,</div> - <div class='c000'><i>After the Method of Haüy with Plates and Graphic Designs</i>,</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'><span class='small'>Exhibiting the Forms of Crystals, their Geometrical Structure, and general -Laws, according to which the immense variety of actually existing Crystals -are produced. <i>Price 15s.</i></span></p> -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>A DESCRIPTION OF THE CHEMICAL APPARATUS AND</div> - <div>INSTRUMENTS,</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>WITH FIFTEEN QUARTO COPPER-PLATES.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='sc'>A PRACTICAL ESSAY on CHEMICAL RE-AGENTS or TESTS</span>,</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Exhibiting the general Nature of Chemical Re-Agents or Tests—the Effects -which they produce upon different Bodies—the Uses to which they may be -supplied, and the Art of applying them successfully.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><i>Second Edition. Illustrated by a Series of Experiments. Price 9s.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<p class='c009'> </p> -<p class='c008'><a id='TNs'></a></p> -<div class='tnbox'> - - <ul class='ul_1'> - <li>Transcriber’s Notes: - <ul class='ul_2'> - <li>The references to figures 1 through 4 on pages 130 and 132 do not exist in any - edition of the book. This has been confirmed by the Project Manager. - </li> - <li>Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected. - </li> - <li>Typographical errors were silently corrected. - </li> - <li>Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant - form was found in this book. - </li> - </ul> - </li> - </ul> - -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A treatise on the art of making good -wholesome bread of wheat, oats, rye,, by Frederick Accum - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ART OF MAKING GOOD WHOLESOME BREAD *** - -***** This file should be named 60424-h.htm or 60424-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/4/2/60424/ - -Produced by deaurider, Barry Abrahamsen, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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