diff options
| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-27 12:03:31 -0800 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-27 12:03:31 -0800 |
| commit | a8f02138551afb19e518216b6c04fcd87fd81827 (patch) | |
| tree | f65a614141459400fee23b6188f9b9473cb174cd /old/60424-h/60424-h.htm | |
| parent | 6ec89f4c0788315ae17087441bc55f936a3c231d (diff) | |
Diffstat (limited to 'old/60424-h/60424-h.htm')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/60424-h/60424-h.htm | 6013 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 6013 deletions
diff --git a/old/60424-h/60424-h.htm b/old/60424-h/60424-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index c2fac35..0000000 --- a/old/60424-h/60424-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6013 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> - <title>A Treatise on the Art of Making Good and Wholesome Bread of Wheat, Oats, Rye, Barley, and Other Farinaceous Grain, by Fredrick Accum--A Project Gutenberg eBook</title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css"> - body { margin-left: 8%; margin-right: 10%; } - h1 { text-align: center; font-weight: normal; font-size: 1.4em; } - h2 { text-align: center; font-weight: normal; font-size: 1.2em; } - h3 { text-align: center; font-weight: normal; font-size: 1.2em; } - .pageno { right: 1%; font-size: x-small; background-color: inherit; color: silver; - text-indent: 0em; text-align: right; position: absolute; - border: thin solid silver; padding: .1em .2em; font-style: normal; - font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; } - p { text-indent: 0; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; text-align: justify; } - sup { vertical-align: top; font-size: 0.6em; } - .sc { font-variant: small-caps; } - .large { font-size: large; } - .xlarge { font-size: x-large; } - .xxlarge { font-size: xx-large; } - .small { font-size: small; } - .xsmall { font-size: x-small; } - .lg-container-b { text-align: center; } - @media handheld { .lg-container-b { clear: both; } } - .linegroup { display: inline-block; text-align: left; } - @media handheld { .linegroup { display: block; margin-left: 1.5em; } } - .linegroup .group { margin: 1em auto; } - .linegroup .line { text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em; } - div.linegroup > :first-child { margin-top: 0; } - .linegroup .in2 { padding-left: 4.0em; } - ul.ul_1 {padding-left: 0; margin-left: 2.78%; margin-top: .5em; - margin-bottom: .5em; list-style-type: disc; } - ul.ul_2 {padding-left: 0; margin-left: 6.94%; margin-top: .5em; - margin-bottom: .5em; list-style-type: circle; } - div.footnote {margin-left: 2.5em; } - div.footnote > :first-child { margin-top: 1em; } - div.footnote .label { display: inline-block; width: 0em; text-indent: -2.5em; - text-align: right; } - div.pbb { page-break-before: always; } - hr.pb { border: none; border-bottom: thin solid; margin-bottom: 1em; } - @media handheld { hr.pb { display: none; } } - .chapter { clear: both; page-break-before: always; } - .figcenter { clear: both; max-width: 100%; margin: 2em auto; text-align: center; } - div.figcenter p { text-align: center; text-indent: 0; } - .figcenter img { max-width: 100%; height: auto; } - .id001 { width:503px; } - .id002 { width:400px; } - .id003 { width:200px; } - .id004 { width:250px; } - @media handheld { .id001 { margin-left:19%; width:62%; } } - @media handheld { .id002 { margin-left:25%; width:50%; } } - @media handheld { .id003 { margin-left:37%; width:25%; } } - @media handheld { .id004 { margin-left:34%; width:31%; } } - .ic001 { width:100%; } - .ig001 { width:100%; } - .table0 { margin: auto; margin-top: 2em; margin-left: 4%; margin-right: 5%; - width: 91%; } - .table1 { margin: auto; margin-left: 27%; margin-right: 27%; width: 46%; } - .table2 { margin: auto; margin-left: 22%; margin-right: 23%; width: 55%; } - .table3 { margin: auto; margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 13%; width: 75%; } - .table4 { margin: auto; margin-top: 2em; margin-left: 16%; margin-right: 16%; - width: 68%; } - .table5 { margin: auto; margin-top: 2em; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; - width: 70%; } - .nf-center { text-align: center; } - .nf-center-c0 { text-align: left; margin: 0.5em 0; } - .c000 { margin-top: 1em; } - .c001 { page-break-before: always; margin-top: 4em; } - .c002 { border: none; border-bottom: thin solid; margin-top: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 45%; width: 10%; margin-right: 45%; } - .c003 { margin-top: 2em; } - .c004 { margin-top: 4em; } - .c005 { border: none; border-bottom: thin solid; margin-top: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 42%; width: 15%; margin-right: 43%; } - .c006 { margin-top: 2em; text-align: right; } - .c007 { text-align: right; } - .c008 { margin-top: 2em; text-indent: 1em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; } - .c009 { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; } - .c010 { page-break-before:auto; margin-top: 4em; } - .c011 { border: none; border-bottom: thin solid; margin-top: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 45%; width: 10%; margin-right: 45%; - margin-top: 2em; } - .c012 { vertical-align: top; text-align: left; text-indent: -1em; - padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; } - .c013 { vertical-align: top; text-align: right; } - .c014 { text-decoration: none; } - .c015 { font-size: 85%; } - .c016 { margin-top: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; } - .c017 { font-size: 3em; } - .c018 { page-break-before: always; margin-top: 2em; } - .c019 { margin-top: 1em; text-indent: 1em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; } - .c020 { vertical-align: top; text-align: left; padding-right: 1em; } - .c021 { vertical-align: top; text-align: left; } - .c022 { text-align: center; } - .c023 { margin-left: 2.78%; text-indent: -2.78%; margin-top: 0.5em; - margin-bottom: 0.5em; } - .c024 { vertical-align: top; text-align: center; padding-right: 1em; } - .c025 { vertical-align: top; text-align: center; } - .c026 { margin-left: 2.78%; text-indent: -2.78%; margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 0.5em; } - .c027 { margin-top: 1em; font-size: 85%; } - .c028 { margin-left: 5.56%; margin-right: 5.56%; font-size: 85%; text-indent: 1em; - margin-top: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; } - .c029 { margin-left: 1.39%; font-size: 85%; } - body {width:80%; margin:auto; } - .tnbox {background-color:#E3E4FA;border:1px solid silver;padding: 0.5em; - margin:2em 10% 0 10%; } - h2 {font-weight: bold } - .blackletter {font-family: "Lucida Blackletter", Gothic, serif; } - </style> - </head> - <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A treatise on the art of making good -wholesome bread of wheat, oats, rye,, by Frederick Accum - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A treatise on the art of making good wholesome bread of wheat, oats, rye, barley and other farinaceous grains - -Author: Frederick Accum - -Release Date: October 4, 2019 [EBook #60424] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ART OF MAKING GOOD WHOLESOME BREAD *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Barry Abrahamsen, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/cover.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><span class='small'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c000' /> -</div> -<div> - <h1 class='c001'><span class='large'>A TREATISE</span><br /> <br /><span class='small'>ON THE ART OF</span><br /> <br /><span class='large'>MAKING GOOD AND WHOLESOME</span> <br /> <br /><span class='xxlarge'><b>BREAD</b></span><br /> <br /><span class='small'>OF</span><br /> <br /><span class='large'><b>WHEAT, OATS, RYE, BARLEY,</b></span> <br /> <br /><span class='small'>AND</span><br /> <br /><span class='large'>OTHER FARINACEOUS GRAIN</span></h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c000'> - <div>EXHIBITING</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>THE ALIMENTARY PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF BREAD CORN, AND OF THE</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>VARIOUS SUBSTITUTES USED FOR BREAD, IN</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div id='oven' class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/oven.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span class='large'><span class='sc'>By</span> FREDRICK ACCUM,</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='large'><i>OPERATIVE CHEMIST</i>,</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>Lecturer on Practical Chemistry, on Mineralogy, and on Chemistry applied to the Arts and</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Manufactures; Member of the Royal Irish Academy; Fellow of the Linnæan Society;</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, and of the Royal Society</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>of Arts of Berlin, &c. &c.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c002' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span class="blackletter">LONDON:</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='large'>PRINTED FOR THOMAS BOYS, 7, LUDGATE HILL,</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>By C. Green, Leicester Street, Leicester Square.</span></div> - <div>1821.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_i'>i</span><span class='xlarge'>PREFACE.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c005' /> -<div class='c006'>LONDON,</div> -<div class='c007'><span class='small'>COMPTON STREET, SOHO.</span></div> -<p class='c008'>The object of this Treatise is to exhibit the chemical -principles of the art of making good and wholesome -Bread, of Wheat, Oats, Rye, Barley, Rice, -Potatoes, and other farinaceous substances used for -this purpose in different parts of the world.</p> - -<p class='c009'>I have first taken a view of the chemical constitution -of the Alimentary Substances derived from the -vegetable kingdom, and have added an Historical -<span class='pageno' id='Page_ii'>ii</span>Sketch of the Art of Making Bread. I have elucidated -the chemical constitution of the substances of -which Bread is made among civilized nations, as well -as of various nutritive materials, besides Bread Corn, -which are used in different countries as substitutes -for Bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>I have described the chemical analysis of Bread -Flour, its immediate constituent parts, their proportions -in different kinds of grain, and the method of -separating them. I have pointed out the materials -more particularly fitted for the fabrication of Bread; -I have explained the reason why a variety of Alimentary -Farinaceous Seeds, in common use, cannot be -made into light and porous loaf-bread, although they -are well calculated, under other forms, of being converted -into highly nutritious food.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_iii'>iii</span>I have explained the chemical distinction which -exists between bread made with yeast, as well as -with leaven, and bread made without either of -these species of ferment; and, lastly, I have given -specific directions for making the different kinds of -Bread prepared from Wheat, Oats, Rye, Barley, -Rice, Maize, Buck-wheat, Potatoes, and other farinaceous -substances, as practised in various countries.</p> -<div class='c006'><span class='large'>FREDRICK ACCUM.</span></div> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span> - <h2 class='c010'>CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> -<hr class='c011' /> -<table class='table0' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='90%' /> -<col width='9%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c012'> </td> - <td class='c013'><span class='small'>PAGE</span></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>PREFACE</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_i'>i</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>CONTENTS</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS, CHIEFLY WITH REGARD TO THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION AND NUTRITIVE QUALITY OF THE SUBSTANCES OF FOOD DERIVED FROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ART OF MAKING BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>BREAD CORN</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_30'>30</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>THE BREAD-FRUIT</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>SAGO BREAD, and <i>SAGO</i></td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_41'>41</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>CASAVA BREAD, and <i>TAPIOCA</i></td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>PLANTAIN BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>BANANA BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>BREAD OF DRIED FISH</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_47'>47</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>BREAD MADE OF MOSS</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>BREAD MADE OF EARTH</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>———————</td> - <td class='c013'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><b>ANALYSIS OF BREAD FLOUR</b></td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>QUANTITY OF FLOUR OBTAINABLE FROM VARIOUS KINDS OF CEREAL AND LEGUMINOUS SEEDS EMPLOYED IN THE FABRICATION OF BREAD, AND DIFFERENT KINDS OF FLOUR MANUFACTURED FROM WHEAT</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_55'>55</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>REASON WHY OATS, PEASE, BEANS, RICE, MAIZE, MILLET, BUCKWHEAT, AND OTHER NUTRITIVE GRAINS CANNOT BE MADE INTO LIGHT AND POROUS BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_58'>58</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>THEORY OF THE PANIFICATION OF BREAD FLOUR</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_61'>61</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>———————</td> - <td class='c013'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><b>UNLEAVENED BREAD</b></td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>OATMEAL CAKES</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>MIXED OATMEAL AND PEASE BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>UNLEAVENED MAIZE BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>UNLEAVENED BEAN-FLOUR BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_71'>71</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>UNLEAVENED BUCKWHEAT BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_71'>71</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>UNLEAVENED ACORN BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>SEA BISCUIT</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_73'>73</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>———————</td> - <td class='c013'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><b>LEAVENED BREAD</b></td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>LEAVENED RYE BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>HUNGARIAN RYE BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_85'>85</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>———————</td> - <td class='c013'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><b>BREAD MADE WITH YEAST</b></td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_88'>88</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>METHOD OF MAKING WHEATEN BREAD, AS PRACTISED BY THE LONDON BAKERS</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>QUANTITY OF BREAD OBTAINABLE FROM A GIVEN QUANTITY OF WHEATEN FLOUR</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>HOME-MADE WHEATEN BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_100'>100</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>TO MAKE PAN-BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_102'>102</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>BROWN WHEATEN BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>MIXED WHEATEN BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_104'>104</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>ROLLS</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>FRENCH BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>MUFFINS AND CRUMPETS</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>BARLEY BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>MIXED BARLEY BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_111'>111</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>RYE BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_112'>112</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>TURNIP BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>RICE BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_116'>116</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>POTATOE BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_121'>121</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>POTATOE ROLLS</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_124'>124</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>APPLE BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_125'>125</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>DOMESTIC OVEN FOR BAKING BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_126'>126</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>POPULAR ERRORS CONCERNING THE QUALITY OF BREAD</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_133'>133</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>LAWS PROHIBITING THE ADULTERATION OF BREAD AND BREAD FLOUR</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_149'>149</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>ECONOMICAL APPLICATION OF YEAST</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>ECONOMICAL PREPARATION OF YEAST</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_165'>165</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>ECONOMICAL METHOD OF MAKING YEAST, RECOMMENDED BY DR. LETTSOM</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_165'>165</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>POTATOE YEAST</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_166'>166</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>METHOD OF PRESERVING YEAST</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_167'>167</a></td> - </tr> -</table> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>A</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xlarge'>TREATISE</span></div> - <div class='c000'>ON THE ART OF MAKING</div> - <div class='c000'><span class="blackletter"><span class='xlarge'>Good and Wholesome Bread</span></span>.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c011' /> -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c010'>PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.</h2> -</div> -<p class='c008'>To most animals nature has designed a -limited range of aliment, when compared to -the extensive choice allotted to man. If -we look into the history of the human race, -inhabiting the different parts of the globe, -as far as we are acquainted with it, we -find, that man appears to be designed -by nature to eat of all substances that are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>capable of nourishing him: fruits, grains, -roots, herbs, flesh, fish, reptiles, and fowls, -all contribute to his sustenance. He can -even subsist on every variety of these substances, -under every mode of preparation, -dried, preserved in salt, hardened in smoke, -pickled in vegetable acids, &c.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The Author of Nature has so constructed -our organs of digestion, that we can accommodate -ourselves to every species of aliment; -no kind of food injures us; we are -capable of being habituated to every species, -and of converting into nutriment almost -every production of nature.</p> - -<p class='c009'>When we enquire more minutely into the -chemical constitution of the different alimentary -materials, which promote the growth, -support the strength, and renew the waste -of our body, we find that animal substances -are not suited to form the whole of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>our daily food; and that, in fact, if long -and extensively used, their stimulating -effects at length exhausts and debilitates -the system, which it at first invigorated and -supported. Those, accordingly, who have -lived for any great length of time on a diet -composed entirely of animal matter, become -oppressed, heavy, and indolent, the -tone and excitability of their frame are impaired, -they are affected with indigestion, -the breathing is hurried on the smallest exercise, -the gums become spongy, the breath -is fœtid, and the limbs swell. We recognize -in this description the approach of -scurvy, a disease familiar to sailors, to the -inhabitants of besieged towns, and, in -general, to all who are wholly deprived of -a just proportion of vegetable aliment.</p> - -<p class='c009'>On the other hand, vegetable food being -less stimulating is also less nourishing; besides, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>this kind of aliment is, upon the -whole, of more difficult assimilation than the -food derived from the animal kingdom. -Hence it is, perhaps, that nature has provided -a greater extent of digestive organs -for animals wholly herbivorous. It is insufficient -to raise the human system to all the -strength and vigour of which it is susceptible. -Flatulency of the stomach, muscular -and nervous debility, and a long series of -disorders, are not unfrequently the consequences -of this too sparing diet. Some -Eastern nations, indeed, live almost entirely -on vegetable substances; but these, it is remarked, -are seldom so robust, so active, or -so brave, as men who live on a mixed diet -of animal and vegetable food. Few, at -least, in the countries of Europe can be -sufficiently nourished by vegetable food -alone; and even those nations, and individuals, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>who are said to live exclusively -on vegetables, because they do not eat the -flesh of animals, generally make use of milk -at least, of eggs, and butter and cheese.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Food composed of animal and vegetable -materials is, in truth, that which is best -suited to the nature and condition of man. -The proportions in which these should be -used it is not easy to determine, but generally -the quantity of vegetables should exceed -that of animal food. “On this head,” -says Dr. Fothergill, “I have only one short -caution to give. Those who think it necessary -to pay any attention to their health, at -table, should take care that the quantity of -bread, of meat, and of pudding, and of -greens, should not compose, each of them, -a meal, as if some only were thrown in to -make weight, but carefully to observe that -the sum of, altogether, do not exceed due -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>bounds or incroach upon the first feeling -of satiety.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>All the products of the vegetable kingdom, -used as aliment, are not equally nutritious. -When we contemplate with a chemical -eye the nutritive principles contained -in vegetable substances, we soon perceive -that they are but few in number, namely, -starch, gluten, mucilage, jelly, fixed oil, -sugar, and acids; and the different vegetable -parts of them are nutritious, wholesome, -and digestible, according to the nature -and proportion of their principles contained -in them. The starch and gluten appear the -most nutritious, and together with mucilage -at the same time, the most abundant ingredients -contained in those vegetables from -which man derives his subsistence. Hence, -from time immemorial, and in all parts of -the earth, man has used farinaceous seeds -<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>as part of his food, for they contain the -above-mentioned materials in the greatest -abundance. Of these the most nutritive -are the seeds of the <i>Cerealia</i>, under which -title are commonly comprehended the <i>Gramineæ</i>, -or <i>Culminiferous</i> plants. Whilst -the seeds of the <i>Gramineæ</i> supply the -most important part of food furnished by -the vegetable kingdom, in almost every -part of the world, their leaves and young -shoots support that class of animals hence -called graminivorous, whose flesh is most -generally eaten.</p> - -<p class='c009'>These vegetables are distributed so universally -over the face of the earth, and have -become to such a degree the object of culture, -that they are very generally made into -bread, or are employed instead of it; and, -upon the whole, it appears that they are -nutritive merely in the proportion to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>quantity of farinaceous matter contained in -them; but this substance exists in different -combinations in different cereal and leguminous -seeds. It is combined with gluten -in wheat, with a saccharine matter in oats, -and in many leguminous seeds, such as -Harricot beans and pease, and with viscous -mucilage in rye and Windsor beans.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Next to the <i>Cerealia</i> and <i>Leguminosæ</i> -may be ranged the oily farinaceous seeds, -such as almonds, walnuts, filberts, &c. -These abound in starch and mucilage. -The use of chocolate, which is prepared -from the chocolate nut, growing in the -West Indies, ground into a paste, with or -without sugar, is in itself a nutritious substance, -and to those with whom it agrees, -it may be considered as a wholesome nutritious -aliment. Yet the vegetable farina, -in this state of existence, though highly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>nutritious, and to many palates very -agreeable, is more difficult of digestion, -and does not, upon the whole, afford a -very wholesome alimentary substance. -When too freely used, those kinds of seeds -are sure to disagree, more especially if -from age the oil has become rancid. They -must be considered rather as a delicacy -than as fitted to form a portion of our daily -food, and with some particular stomachs -they never agree.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Of the alimentary farinaceous roots, the -potatoe, boiled or roasted, is one of the -most useful, and perhaps after the <i>Cerealia</i>, -one of the most wholesome and most nutritious -vegetables in common use; its -nourishing powers, there can be no doubt, -depend upon the amylaceous fecula of -which it is chiefly composed. The Jerusalem -artichoke deserves likewise to be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>noticed here, as being a highly alimentary -root, chiefly composed of farinaceous -matter. Of the fruits rich in farinaceous -and mucilaginous matter, few are indigenous. -The chesnut, when roasted, affords -an alimentary food, but in the East and -West Indies the bread fruit, bananas, and -the fruit of the plantain tree, are the substitutes -for bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Scarcely any of the various alimentary -substances employed by man are consumed -in the raw and crude state in which they -are presented to us by nature. Almost all -of them are previously subjected to some -kind of preparation, or change, by which -for the most part they are rendered more -wholesome and more digestible, and sometimes -more nutritive. Accordingly, the -observations we have made on the properties -of different vegetable aliments, are to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>be considered as applied to them in the -state in which they are commonly used -among us.</p> - -<p class='c009'>When in the preparation of bread a -baking heat is applied to the flour dough, -a complete change is produced in the constitution -of the mass. The new substance -of bread differs materially from flour, it no -longer forms a tenacious mass with water, -nor can starch and gluten be any more separated -from it.</p> - -<p class='c009'>By the application of heat to vegetables -the more volatile and watery parts are in -some cases dissipated. The different principles, -according to their peculiar properties, -are extracted, softened, dissolved, or -coagulated; but most commonly they are -changed into new combinations, so as to -be no longer distinguishable by the forms -and chemical properties which they originally -possessed.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>In like manner the leguminous seeds, -and farinaceous roots are greatly altered -by the chemical action of heat. The raw -potatoe is ill-flavoured, extremely indigestible, -and even unwholesome. By roasting, -or boiling, it becomes farinaceous, -sweet, and agreeable to the taste, wholesome, -digestible, and highly nutritious. -Little is lost, and nothing is added to the -potatoe by this process, yet its properties -are greatly changed; its principles, in -short, have suffered very remarkable chemical -changes.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Even in the simple boiling of the various -leguminous seeds, pot-herbs, and esculent -roots, the effect does not seem confined to -the mere softening of the fibres, the solution -of some, and coagulation of other of -their juices and principles; not only their -texture, but their flavour, and other sensible -<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>qualities have undergone a change, -by which their alimentary properties have -been improved; the farinaceous matter by -boiling is rendered soluble, the vegetable -fibre softened. Saccharine matter is often -formed, mucilage and jelly extracted and -combined, and the product is rendered -more palatable, wholesome, and nourishing. -And, although every country has its -own favourite articles of food, and modes -of preparing them, and there is perhaps no -subject in regard to which local prejudices -are so strong, yet there can be no reason -why the farinaceous matter of cereal seeds -should always be consumed in the state of -bread; many of them are not less agreeable, -and not less wholesome in other -forms of food.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In Scotland nine-tenths of those in the -more humble walks of life live upon barleybroth, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>and there are not more healthy people -to be found any where.—<i>Cullen’s Materia -Medica</i>, v. I. p. 287.</p> - -<p class='c009'>It is chiefly to save the trouble of dressing -any other kind of food, and that bread, -from its portability and convenience of always -being ready, has become the principal -sustenance, but it is far from being the most -economical method of using farinaceous -grain. There can be no doubt that the -same quantity of farinaceous matter made -into bread might, in other forms, be used to -a much greater advantage; for the great -art of preparing good and wholesome food -is to convert the alimentary matter into such -a substance as to fill up the stomach and -alimentary canal without overcharging it -with more nutritive matter than is requisite -for the support of the animal, and this may -be done either by bread, or by converting -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>the mealy substance of which it is composed -into other forms, of which there is a great -variety.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Persons who have travelled much on the -continent are well aware that our neighbours -have the art of throwing much more -variety and gratification of the palate into -the article of subsistence which has been -emphatically called the staff of life, than we -possess. The French and Germans convert -the farinaceous flour of vegetables into -a variety of excellent articles of food, and -not serving, like our own, as a mere companion -to pair off with so many mouthfuls -of meat.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In speaking thus of the use of bread, I -do not mean to deny that bread is highly -alimentary, its nourishing powers are undoubtedly -very great.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The finest bread, says an eminent physician -(Dr. Buchan), is not always the best -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>adapted for answering the purposes of nutrition. -Household bread, which is made -by grinding the whole grain, and only separating -the coarse bran, is, without doubt, the -most wholesome.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The people of South Britain generally -prefer bread made of the finest wheat flour, -while those of the Northern countries eat a -mixture of flour and oatmeal, or rye bread. -The common people of Scotland also eat a -mixed bread, but more frequently bread -made of oatmeal only.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In Germany the common bread is made -of rye. The flour of millet is made in -France, Spain, and Italy, into wholesome -and nourishing pastry and puddings. -The American and West Indian labourer -thinks no bread so strengthening as that -which is made of Indian corn.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The inhabitants of Westphalia, who are -a hardy and robust people, capable of enduring -<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>the greatest fatigues, live on a coarse -brown rye bread, which still retains the -opprobrious name once given to it by a -French traveller, “<i>Bon pour Nicole</i>—good -for his horse Nichol.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>The great advantage of eating pure and -genuine bread must be obvious; but bread -is often spoiled to please the eye. I have -elsewhere<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c014'><sup>[1]</sup></a> shewn, that in the making of -bread, more especially in London, various -ingredients are occasionally mingled with -the dough. The baker is obliged to suit the -caprice of his customers, to have his bread -light and porous, and of a pure white colour. -It is impossible to produce this sort of bread -from flour alone, unless it be of the finest -quality. The best flour, however, being -mostly used by the biscuit bakers and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>pastry cooks, it is only from the inferior -sorts that bread is made; and it becomes -necessary, in order to have it of that light -and porous quality, and of a fine white, to -mix alum with the dough. Without this -ingredient the flour used by the London -bakers would not yield so white a bread -as that sold in this metropolis, and herein -consists the fraud, that the baker is enabled -by the use of this ingredient to produce, -from bad materials, bread that is light, -white, and porous, but of which the quality -does not correspond to the appearance, and -thus to impose upon the public.</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f1'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. </span>Adulterations of Food and Culinary Poisons, -2nd Edit. 1820, p. 130.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>In the following pages I have enumerated -the methods by which all the different kinds -of farinaceous substances are made into -good and wholesome bread, and are used -in different countries as articles of daily -sustenance.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span><span class='c017'><span class="blackletter">Art of making Bread.</span></span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c002' /> -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c010'>HISTORICAL SKETCH<br /> <br />OF<br /> <br /><span class='xxlarge'>THE ART OF MAKING BREAD.</span></h2> -</div> -<p class='c008'>Nothing appears so easy at first sight, -as to grind corn, or other farinaceous substances, -to knead the flour with water into -dough, and to convert it, by baking, into -porous bread. But, simple as these operations -may now appear to us, the art of -making loaf-bread was by no means one of -the earliest among human inventions.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>For, however essential this species of -food may be considered among us as an -article of primary subsistence, it is perfectly -certain, that men had long existed -in a state of civilization, before bread was -known among them.</p> - -<p class='c009'>It is evident that every species of corn -must have been originally the spontaneous -production of the earth; but as the grain, -previous to cultivation, would grow but -scantily, its importance as food might long -escape observation, and mankind would -naturally derive a more obvious, though -less nutritive subsistence, from acorns, -berries, and other fruits which were within -their reach. Ages elapsed ere Ceres, according -to the Grecian mythology, descended -from heaven to teach mankind the -use of agriculture.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In the early ages of society, according -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>to some historians, men were satisfied with -parching their corn for immediate use as -food. The next advance appears to have -been, to pulverize the grain in a mortar -or handmill, and to form it, by the addition -of water or milk, into a kind of porridge; -or to make the bruised grain into -dough, which was rendered eatable by -baking on embers.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Even after the method of grinding corn -into meal, and separating the bran by sifting, -had become known, it was long before -the art of fermenting the dough, in order -to produce bread full of eyes and of a soft -consistence, was discovered.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Like most other operations of primary -importance, the origin of the art of making -bread is lost in the darkness of ages past.</p> - -<p class='c009'>We are, however, certain that the Jews -practised this art in the time of Moses; for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>we find in the Book of Exodus, chap. xii. -v. 18, a prohibition to make use of <i>leavened</i>, -that is, fermented bread, during the -celebration of the Passover. But it does -not appear that <i>loaf-bread</i> was known to -Abraham, for in his history we read frequently -of cakes, but not of fermented -bread. It is, therefore, very probable, that -the art of making fermented bread took its -rise in the East, and that the Jews learned -it from the Egyptians.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The Greeks attribute the art of making -bread to the god Pan.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Bakers were unknown in Rome till the -year of the city 850, or about 200 years -before the Christian era. The Roman -bakers, according to Pliny, came from -Greece with the Macedonian army. Before -this period, the Romans were often -distinguished by the appellation of <i>eaters -of pap</i>.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>At the time of Augustus, there were upwards -of 300 baking houses in Rome, almost -the whole of which were occupied by -Greeks. The bakers enjoyed in ancient -Rome great privileges. The public granaries -were entrusted to their care; they -formed a corporation, or kind of college, -from which neither they nor their children -were permitted to withdraw. They were -exempted from guardianships and public -services, which might interfere with their -occupation. They were eligible to become -Senators; and those who married the -daughters of bakers, became members of -the college.</p> - -<p class='c009'>From the establishment of bakers in -Rome, the art of making loaf, or fermented -bread, spread amongst the ancient Gauls; -but its progress in the northern countries -of Europe was slow, and in some northern -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>districts, the luxury of eating fermented, or -loaf-bread, is at this day not in general -use. Some of the modern Italians consume -the greatest part of their bread-flour in the -state of <i>macaroni</i> and <i>vermicelli</i>, and in -other forms of <i>polenta</i>, or soft pudding; -and even at present millions of people -neither sow nor reap, but content themselves -with enjoying the spontaneous productions -of the earth.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Bread Corn</span>,</h3> - -<p class='c019'>Properly so called, of which loaf-bread -is chiefly made among cultivated nations, -comprehends the seeds of the whole tribe -of (<i>cerealia</i>), or gramineous plants; for -they all contain a farinaceous substance, -of a similar nature, and chiefly composed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>of starch. Those of the <i>cerealia</i> in common -use are the following:</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='28%' /> -<col width='71%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Wheat</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Triticum hybernum.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Barley</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Hordeum vulgare.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Rye</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Secale cereale.</i></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c009'>With us, wheat is chiefly employed for -the fabrication of bread. It is, in fact, the -only grain of which light porous bread can -be made; but rye and barley are also used -as bread-corn. The farina of the other <i>cerealia</i> -afford also a nutritive and wholesome -bread; though their flour is not so susceptible -of the panary fermentation, it -cannot be made into the white texture of -the wheaten loaf. The bread formed -from them is consequently much inferior to -that prepared from wheat. The following -seeds are chiefly employed to make a species -of bread:</p> - -<table class='table2' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='24%' /> -<col width='75%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr><td class='c022' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Oats</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Avena Sativa.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Maize</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Zea Mays.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Rice</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Oriza Sativa.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Millet</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Panicum milliaceum.</i></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c009'>Oats are used in the north of Europe for -making a kind of bread, called oatmeal-cake, -and particularly by the inhabitants -of Scotland. Maize is frequently employed -as bread-corn in North America.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Rice nourishes more human beings than -all the other seeds together, used as food; -and it is by many considered the most nutritive -of all sorts of grain. A very ridiculous -prejudice has existed with respect -to rice, namely, that it is prejudicial to the -sight, by causing diseases of the eye; but -no authority can warrant this assertion: -on the contrary, the opinion of the ablest -men (Cullen’s Mat. Med. v. i. p. 229) may -be quoted in favour of rice being a very -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>healthy food: and the experience of all -Asia and America may be adduced with -sufficient weight to have answered this objection, -if it had been supported by any -thing more than vulgar prejudice, unsupported -by facts. This grain is peculiarly -calculated to diminish the evils of a scanty -harvest, an inconvenience which must occasionally -affect all countries, particularly -those which are very populous. It is the -most fitted of all food to be of use in relieving -general distress in a bad season<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c014'><sup>[2]</sup></a>, -because it comes from a part of the world -where provisions are cheap and abundant; -it is light, easy of carriage, keeps well for -a long time, and contains a great deal of -wholesome food within a small compass. -Indeed, it has been ascertained that one -<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>part of rice contains as much food and -useful nourishment as six of wheat.</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f2'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. </span>Reports of the Society for bettering the Condition -of the Poor, Vol. I. p. 137.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Next to the <i>cerealia</i>, the seeds of <i>leguminous -plants</i> may be regarded as substitutes -for bread corn. Their ripe seeds -afford the greatest quantity of alimentary -matter. Their meal has a sweetish taste, -but they cannot be made into light and -porous bread, without the addition of a -portion of wheaten flour. Their meal, however, -though it forms but a coarse and -indifferent bread, neither very palatable -nor very digestible, except by the most -robust stomachs, is yet highly nutritive.</p> - -<p class='c009'>It is remarked by Dr. Cullen, that “on -certain farms of this country, upon which -the leguminous seeds are produced in great -abundance, the labouring servants are -much fed upon that kind of grain; but if -such servants are removed to a farm upon -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>which the <i>leguminous seeds</i> are not in such -plenty, and therefore they are fed with the -<i>cerealia</i>, they soon find a decay of strength; -and it is common for servants, in making -such removals, to insist on their being provided -daily, or weekly, with a certain quantity -of the leguminous meal.” We are -not, however, to conclude from this observation, -that pease-meal bread, is really -more nutritive than wheaten bread, or than -the meal of the other <i>cerealia</i>. We are -rather disposed to regard it as an example -of the effect of habit.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The <i>leguminous seeds</i> employed in the -fabrication of bread, are</p> - -<table class='table3' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='44%' /> -<col width='55%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Pease</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Pisum Sativum.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Beans</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Vicia faba.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Kidney Beans</td> - <td class='c021'><i>Phaseolus vulgaris.</i></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c009'>The whole of this tribe afford a much -<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>more agreeable, though not a more nutritive -aliment, when their seeds are used -green, young, and tender, and simply -boiled, than when fully ripened, and their -flour baked.</p> - -<p class='c009'>It is remarked, that all the substances -of which bread is made, as well as the substitutes -for it, when chemically considered, -are chiefly composed of one and the same -identical material; namely, the farinaceous -matter of the seeds, roots, fruits, or other -products of vegetables, of different climates -and soils; and that <i>starch</i>, or the amylaceous -fecula, forms the most valuable part -of all the materials used for making bread, -and its substitutes.</p> - -<p class='c009'>This substance forms by far the most -abundant, the most nourishing, and the -most easy to be procured aliment, obtainable -from the vegetable kingdom.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>“Whilst immense tribes of creatures -devour the amylaceous fecula in the grain, -as nature produces it, man knows how to -give it different forms, from the most simple -boiling to the most complicated delicacies -of the arts of the confectioner and -pastry-cook.</p> - -<p class='c009'>“It is singular that man should waste -so valuable a substance for the purpose of -hair-powder, a kind of custom perhaps ridiculous, -in which modern nations imitate, -without being aware of it, those people -whom they term barbarous, and by which -custom they lavish away a portion of the -subsistence of a great number of families.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>This nutritive aliment, we find, exists in -various combinations, in the roots, seeds, -in the stems, and fruits of plants. Many -roots abounding in the amylaceous fecula, -yields a palatable and highly nutritious -aliment.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>Hence the potatoe is a substance largely -employed as a substitute for bread. Its -nutritious qualities are fully ascertained -by the experience of all Europe; it makes -a considerable portion of the food of the -poor; and in Ireland in particular, millions -of people exist, who, from sufficient evidence, -we are pretty certain live for years -together almost wholly on this root and -water, without any other seasoning than a -little salt. It contains much amylaceous -fecula, and when mixed with wheaten flour, -may be formed into good and palatable -bread. Other substances, besides the -grains before mentioned, are in different -parts of the world substituted for bread. -These are the following:</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">The Bread-Fruit.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>The Bread-fruit Tree (<i>Artocarpus incisa</i>) -affords the inhabitants of the South Pacific -Ocean a substance resembling bread. They -only climb the tree to gather the fruit, -which is of a round shape, from five to six -inches in diameter; it grows on boughs -like apples, and, when quite ripe, is of a -yellowish colour. The bread-fruit has a -tough reticulated rind; there is neither -seed nor stone in the inside of it. The -eatable part, which lies between the skin -and the core, is as white as snow, and of -the consistence of new bread. The fruit -is roasted on embers, or baked in an oven, -which scorches the rind and turns it black; -this is rasped off, and there remains a thin -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>white crust, while the inside is soft and -white, like crumbs of fine loaf-bread. It -is eaten new, for if it is kept longer than -twenty-four hours, it becomes harsh and -unpalatable. It is also boiled, by which -means the interior is rendered white, like -a boiled potatoe. They make three dishes -of it, by putting either water or the milk -of the cocoa-nut to it, then beating it into -a paste with a stone pestle, and afterwards -mixing it with banana paste, which has -been suffered to become sour.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The bread-fruit remains in season eight -months in the year, during which time the -natives eat no other sort of food of the -bread kind; and the deficiency of the other -four months of the year, is made up chiefly -with cocoa-nuts, bananas, plantains, bread -nuts (<i>brosimum alicastrum</i>), and other farinaceous -fruits.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Sago Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>The Sago-Tree (<i>Cycas Circinalis</i>), which -grows spontaneously in the East Indies, -and particularly on the Coast of Malabar, -furnishes to numerous Indian tribes their -bread. In the Islands of Banda and Amboyna, -they saw the body of the tree into -small pieces, and, after bruising and beating -them in a mortar, pour water upon the -fragments; this is left for some hours undisturbed, -to suffer the pithy farinaceous -matter to subside. The water is then -poured off, and the meal, being properly -dried, is formed into cakes, or fermented -and made into bread, which, it is said, eats -nearly as well as wheaten bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The Hottentots make a kind of bread of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>another species of sago-tree (<i>Cycas Resoluta</i>). -The pith, or medulla, which abounds -in the trunk of this little palm, is collected -and tied up in dressed calf’s or sheep’s -skin, and then buried in the ground for -several weeks, which renders it mellow -and tender. It is then kneaded with water -into dough, and made into small loaves or -cakes, which are baked under embers. -Other Hottentots, not quite so nice, merely -dry and roast the farinaceous pith, and -afterwards make it into a kind of frumety -or porridge.</p> -<h3 class='c018'>SAGO.</h3> - -<p class='c019'>The same meal, or medulla, of the sago-tree, -reduced into grain, by passing it -whilst still moist through a kind of sieve, -produces the <i>sago</i> of commerce, which receives -its brown colour by being heated on -hot stones.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Casava Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>In the Caribbee Islands they make bread -of a very poisonous root (<i>Jatropa Maniat</i>), -rendered wholesome by the extraction of -its acrid juice, which the Indians use for -poisoning their arrows. A tea-spoonful -of the juice is sufficient to poison a man.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The root of the maniat, after being -crashed, scraped clean, and grated in a -tub, is enclosed in a sack of rushes, of very -loose texture, which is suspended upon a -stick placed upon two wooden forks. To -the bottom of this sack a heavy vessel is -suspended, which, by drawing the sack, -presses the grated root and receives the -juice that flows out of it. When the starch -is well exhausted of its juice, it is exposed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>to smoke in order to dry it; and when well -dried it is passed through a sieve. In this -state it is termed Casava. It is baked -into cakes, by spreading it on hot plates of -iron or earth, turning it on both sides, in -order to give it a good reddish colour.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">TAPIOCA.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>The article of commerce, called <i>tapioca</i>, -is the finest part of the farinaceous pith of -the casava. It is separately collected and -formed into small tears, by straining the -mass while still moist, to form it into small -irregular lumps.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Plantain Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>The Plantain Tree (<i>Musa Paradisiaca</i>), -which is a native of the East Indies and -other parts of the Asiatic Continent, furnishes -the inhabitants with a species of -bread. The fruit of the plantain-tree is -about a foot long, and from an inch and a -half to two inches in diameter. It is at -first green, but when ripe of a pale yellow. -It has a tough skin, and within is a soft -pulp of a sweet flavour. The fruit is generally -cut before it is ripe; the green skin -is peeled off, and the heart is roasted in a -clear coal fire for a few minutes, and frequently -turned; it is then scraped and -served up as bread. This tree is cultivated -on an extensive scale in Jamaica. Without -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>this fruit, Dr. Wright says, the Islands -would be scarcely inhabitable, as no species -of provisions could supply its place. Even -flour and bread itself would be less agreeable -to the labouring Negro.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Banana Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>The fruit of the Banana Tree (<i>Musa -Sapientum</i>), differs from the preceding, -being shorter, straighter, and rounder. It -is about four or five inches long, of the -shape of a cucumber, and of a highly grateful -flavour. Bananas grow in bunches -that weigh twelve pounds and upwards. -This fruit yields a softer pulp than the -plantain-tree, and of a more luscious taste. -It is never eaten green, but when ripe is a -very pleasant food, either raw or fried in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>slices like fritters. It is relished by all -ranks of people in the West Indies. When -the natives of the West Indies undertake -a voyage, they take the ripe fruit of the -banana and make provisions of the paste; -and, having squeezed it through a sieve, -form the mass into loaves, which are dried -in the sun or baked on hot ashes, after -being previously wrapped up in leaves.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Bread of Dried Fish.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>The Laplanders, who have no corn of -their own, make a kind of bread of the -inner soft bark of a pine tree, either mixed -with the coarsest barley meal, or with dried -fish beaten into powder. The bark is collected -when the sap is rising, it is afterwards -dried in the sun, or over a slow -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>fire, and then mixed with the coarsest barley -meal, or dried fish beaten into powder. -The poorer people grind the chaff, and -even some of the straw along with the -barley.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Another kind of bread is made of dried -fish and the root of the water dragon -(<i>Calla palustris</i>), the root is taken up in the -spring, before the leaves shoot out. It is -dried, pounded, and boiled, till it becomes -thick, like flummery, and after standing -three or four days to lose its bitterness it -is mixed with the powder of dried fish -and the inner bark of the pine tree, and then -made into a stiff paste, and baked over -embers.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Bread made of Moss.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>Some species of the tribe of Lichen, contain -a considerable portion of starch, as the -<i>Lichen Rangiferinus</i>, or rein-deer moss, -which affords food to the stags and other -fallow cattle of the North of Europe. The -Icelanders form the lichen islandicus into -bread, which is found to be extremely nutritious. -The moss is collected in the summer, -and, when dry, ground into powder, -of which bread and gruel, or pottage, are -made. It is sometimes also put whole into -broth, or is boiled in whey, till it be converted -into a jelly. In general, it is either -previously steeped for some hours in warm -water, or the water of the first boiling is -rejected, in order to remove a part of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>bitter extractive matter, which, if left, produces -a disagreeable taste, and is apt to -prove purgative.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Bread made of Earth.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>The strangest substitute for bread that -has ever been employed, is a sort of white -earth. The poor in the Lordship of Moscoa -in Upper Lusania, have been frequently -compelled to make use of this earth as a -substitute for bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The earth is dug out of a pit where saltpetre -had formerly been worked; when -exposed to the rays of the sun it splits and -cracks, and small globules issue from it -like meal, which ferments when mixed with -flour. On this earth, baked into bread, -many persons have subsisted a considerable -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>time. A similar earth is met with near -Genomu, in Catalonia.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In the western parts of Luisania too, the -inhabitants have a most extraordinary custom -of eating a white earth, mixed with -clay and salt.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The rowers also, who ply on the river -Mississippi, frequently drink large quantities -of muddy water, which cannot fail to -leave in the stomach a considerable quantity -of earth. But it cannot be doubted, -that a large quantity of earthy substances -taken into the stomach would prove deleterious -to health.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span> - <h2 class='c010'><span class="blackletter">Analysis of Bread Flour.</span></h2> -</div> -<p class='c008'>On examining bread corn, for instance -wheat, we perceive an outside coating, -which after the grain has been soaked in -water, may readily be peeled off. This -forms the bran of the flour. Immediately -under it, is that part of the grain which -affords the coarsest flour, it is soft to the -touch, and not easily reduced to an impalpable -powder, and of a sweetish taste. -This constitutes about one half of the grain. -Underneath this substance lies what is -called by millers, the kernel or heart of the -wheat, namely, a hard mealy substance, -almost transparent. This part of the grain -is capable of being speedily reduced to an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>impalpable powder, it ferments more -readily than the outer layers, and it is -this which produces the finest and best -kind of wheaten flour. Such is the mechanical -constitution of the grain. When -chemically examined we find that the flour -of wheat, rye, and barley, is composed of -three ingredients, or immediate constituent -parts, which may be separated by simple -processes, viz. starch, gluten, and saccharine -mucilage. The proportion of these -differ materially in different kinds of corn. -The method of separating them is as follows:</p> - -<p class='c009'>Make any quantity of wheaten flour into -a stiff paste with cold water, and let it be -kneaded and wrought in the hands under -water; or put the flour into a coarse linen -bag, and knead it between the hands whilst -a small rill of cold water is suffered to pass -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>over it. The water will carry away the -starch in the form of a white powder, and -the dough become more and more elastic, -in proportion as the water carries off the -starch; continue kneading the mass till the -water runs off from the kneaded dough -colourless. It will also be observed, that in -proportion as the water carries off the -starch, the paste in the bag assumes a more -grey colour, less brilliant, as it were -semi-transparent, and of a softer consistence, -but, at the same time, more tenaceous, -more viscid, more gluey, and more -elastic.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Thus the flour is separated into three -substances, by a method incapable of decomposing -or altering any of its immediate -constituent parts. The starch is precipitated -in a white powder at the bottom of -the water, from which it may readily be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>separated by suffering it to subside, and -the supernatant liquid, contains in solution -the saccharine mucilage; this may -be obtained in the form of a syrup, by -evaporating slowly in a warm place the -clear decanted fluid; and the third substance, -the gluten, remains in the bag, in -the state of a soft, cohesive, and elastic -substance.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In a similar manner the analysis of any -species of bread corn may be effected.</p> - -<p class='c023'>QUANTITY OF FLOUR OBTAINABLE FROM VARIOUS -KINDS OF CEREAL AND LEGUMINOUS -SEEDS EMPLOYED IN THE FABRICATION OF -BREAD, AND DIFFERENT KINDS OF FLOUR -MANUFACTURED FROM WHEAT.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The Board of Agriculture, in order to -ascertain what each of the various sorts of -grain employed as substitutes for bread-corn -<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>would produce, when ground into -flour, with only the broad bran taken out, -caused a bushel of each of the undermentioned -sorts of seeds to be ground for their -inspection: the weight of the grain, as -well as the bran and the flour, was as -follows:</p> -<table class='table4' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='36%' /> -<col width='14%' /> -<col width='24%' /> -<col width='24%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c020'> </td> - <td class='c024'> </td> - <td class='c024'>Weight</td> - <td class='c025'>Weight</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'> </td> - <td class='c024'>Weighed.</td> - <td class='c024'>of Flour.</td> - <td class='c025'>of Bran.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'><i>One Bushel of</i></td> - <td class='c024'><i>lb.</i></td> - <td class='c024'><i>lb.</i> <i>oz.</i></td> - <td class='c025'><i>lb.</i> <i>oz.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Barley</td> - <td class='c024'>46</td> - <td class='c024'>38 10½</td> - <td class='c025'>5 10½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Buckwheat</td> - <td class='c024'>46¼</td> - <td class='c024'>38 9</td> - <td class='c025'>5 5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Rye</td> - <td class='c024'>54</td> - <td class='c024'>43 0</td> - <td class='c025'>9 5½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Maize</td> - <td class='c024'>53</td> - <td class='c024'>44 0</td> - <td class='c025'>8 10½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Rice</td> - <td class='c024'>61¼</td> - <td class='c024'>60 5</td> - <td class='c025'>0 0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Oats</td> - <td class='c024'>38¼</td> - <td class='c024'>23 5</td> - <td class='c025'>13 10½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Beans</td> - <td class='c024'>57¾</td> - <td class='c024'>43 5½</td> - <td class='c025'>12 5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Pease</td> - <td class='c024'>61¾</td> - <td class='c024'>47 0</td> - <td class='c025'>12 5</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p class='c008'>A bushel of wheat, upon an average, -weighs sixty-one pounds; when ground, -the meal weighs 60¾ lbs.; this on being -<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>dressed, produces 46¾ lbs. of flour of the -sort called <i>seconds</i>, which alone is used for -the making of bread in London, and -throughout the greater part of this -country; and of pollard and bran 12¾ lbs., -which quantity, when bolted, produces -3 lbs. of fine flour; this when sifted produces -in good second flour 1¼ lb.</p> -<table class='table5' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='71%' /> -<col width='14%' /> -<col width='14%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c012'> </td> - <td class='c024'> </td> - <td class='c013'>lbs.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>The whole quantity of bread-flour obtained from the bushel of wheat, weighs</td> - <td class='c024'> </td> - <td class='c013'>48</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'> </td> - <td class='c024'>lbs.</td> - <td class='c013'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Fine pollard</td> - <td class='c024'>4¼</td> - <td class='c013'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Coarse pollard</td> - <td class='c024'>4</td> - <td class='c013'>11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Bran</td> - <td class='c024'>2¾</td> - <td class='c013'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'> </td> - <td class='c024'> </td> - <td class='c013'>—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>The whole together</td> - <td class='c024'> </td> - <td class='c013'>59</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>To which add the loss of weight in manufacturing the bushel of wheat</td> - <td class='c024'> </td> - <td class='c013'>2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'> </td> - <td class='c024'> </td> - <td class='c013'>—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Produces the original weight</td> - <td class='c024'> </td> - <td class='c013'>61</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p class='c026'><span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>REASON WHY OATS, PEASE, BEANS, RICE, MAIZE, -MILLET, BUCKWHEAT, AND OTHER NUTRITIVE -GRAINS CANNOT BE MADE INTO LIGHT -AND POROUS BREAD.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Every person is acquainted with the -difference there is between light well fermented -bread, and that which is sodden, -heavy, and badly risen, and the decided -preference given to the former over the -latter, as the most palatable, and easy of -digestion.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The only substances for making <i>loaf -bread</i>, by which term is meant, bread which -is light, white, and porous, is the flour of -wheat; and it is to the larger quantity of -gluten, that wheat flour owes the property -of being converted into loaf-bread. The -average quantity of gluten contained in -wheat flour, amounts to about one-fifth of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>the whole weight of the meal; but it varies -in quantity in different kinds of wheat, according -to the soil and season in which the -corn has been reared, culture, and various -other circumstances. Wheat kept in damp -storehouses affords scarcely any gluten, -and hence, in proportion as the flour of -wheat is altered and deteriorated, which -happens, as it is known, when it is kept too -much compressed, without being occasionally -stirred up and aired in hot and close -granaries; in a word, as it undergoes a -chemical change, its property of making -good bread is diminished; and chemical -analysis shows the quantity of gluten has -become lessened under such circumstances; -and when it is greatly diminished -the meal forms no longer a tenaceous -ductile dough. The spoiled flour produces -a kind of bread which is heavy, harsh, and -difficult of digestion.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>The greater the proportion of gluten, -the easier the panification of bread-flour is -effected, and the better is the bread. The -wheat of the South of Europe generally -contains a larger quantity of gluten, and is -therefore more excellent for the manufacture -of Maccaroni, Vermicelli, and other -alimentary substances, requiring a glutenous -paste.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Sir H. Davy found the flour of the wheat -of this country to consist of from twenty -to twenty-four per cent. of gluten. Barley -contains six, and rye five per cent. of gluten.</p> - -<p class='c009'>We may now understand why potatoes, -rice, beans, pease, buckwheat, millet, oats, -and other nutritive cereal grains, abounding -in starch, cannot be made into light -and porous bread, although they are well -calculated for being made into wholesome -puddings, and why they only form crude, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>heavy, insipid cakes, when made into dough -and baked, and not light porous loaf-bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In further confirmation of this statement -it may be remarked, that if gluten of -wheat, or only a portion of wheaten flour -be incorporated by kneading with the before-named -kinds of flour, a fermentable -cohesive paste is produced, from which -perfect bread may be made.</p> -<h3 class='c018'>THEORY OF THE PANIFICATION OF BREAD FLOUR.</h3> - -<p class='c019'>Bread, when chemically examined, is -very different from flour; it no longer forms -with water a tenaceous ductile mass, nor -can starch, gluten, and saccharine mucilage -be separated from it.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The chemical changes that take place in -the panification of bread-flour, are by no -<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>means well understood. The saccharine -mucilage, it appears, commences the fermentative -chemical action that takes place -in the dough, for without this substance, a -mixture of flour, yeast, and water, cannot -be made into true bread. The fermenting -process when once commenced, is kept up -by the gluten, forming the body of the -paste through which the fecula and saccharine -matter are diffused; and when the -slight fermentation which it suffers, from -changes in the saccharine matter, and supported -by the presence of the gluten, -has commenced, the paste becomes spongy -and porous, from the disengagement of -carbonic acid gas, while it still retains in -some measure its elasticity; hence the -lightness and porosity of well-baked -wheaten bread; and hence bread, possessing -these qualities, cannot be prepared -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>from the flour of oats, barley, rye, or rice, -or from any of the nutritive roots, as in all -of these the quantity of gluten is considerably -less, or entirely wanting, and no gluey -elastic dough can be formed. The starch, -which was merely diffused through the -gluey dough, combines, during the baking, -with a portion of water, into a stiff jelly, -which renders the bread more digestible, -and the gluten wholly disappears. A portion -of carbonic acid gas, which becomes -disengaged during the fermenting process, -enlarges the bulk of the dough, which is -thus rendered light, porous, and full of -eyes, or cavities, in consequence of the extraction -of the air bubbles, in the viscid -glutenous matter; and the porosity of the -bread is in proportion to the extent to -which the rising of the dough is suffered to -proceed.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>Some chemists persuade themselves -that the fermentation of the flour dough -differs materially from the fermentation of -saccharine substances; namely, that the -vinous, acetous, and putrefactive stages of -the fermenting process take place simultaneously -in the dough. They imagine the -vinous fermentation to take place in the -saccharine mucilage, the acetous in the -starch, and the putrefactive in the gluten -at the same time, and from the modification -of each by the others, they consider that -peculiar action to originate which converts -paste into bread. Against this opinion, -however, the following objections may be -urged. In the first place, the quantity of -saccharine mucilage is so extremely small -as to produce no sensible effect alone on the -whole mass, and what little there is probably -passes speedily into the acetous -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>fermentation. Secondly, the temperature -that is required for bread-making is considerably -lower than that at which starch -dissolves in water, and where this is the -case no alteration will take place, even in -a long course of time: this is clearly shown -by the usual process of starch-making, in -which the bruised wheat is fermented for -several days in large vats, in order to destroy -the gluten, after which the starch is -procured by simple deposition from the -washings of the residue; and thirdly, no -vestige whatever of the products evolved -during the putrefactive fermentation of -gluten, can be traced in any stage of the -panification of bread flour.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span> - <h2 class='c010'><span class="blackletter">Unleavened Bread.</span></h2> -</div> -<p class='c008'>Bread prepared by baking from the -meal of farinaceous seeds kneaded with -water into a dough and baked, is divided -into three sorts, namely;—1. Unleavened -bread; 2. Leavened bread; and, 3. Bread -made with yeast.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Unleavened bread contains all the component -parts of the flour but little altered. -The meal is simply mixed with water, and -baked into cakes. It is heavy, dry, friable, -and not porous. The oatmeal bread of -Scotland, is unleavened bread; as also sea -biscuit, and all other kinds of biscuit.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The bread that is eaten by the Jews -during the passover is unleavened. The -usage of which was introduced in commemoration -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>of their hasty departure from -Egypt, [Exodus, chap. 12, v. 14 to 17.] -when they had not leisure to bake leavened -bread, but took the dough before it was -fermented and baked unleavened cakes.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In Roman catholic countries it is still -used, and prepared with the finest wheaten -flour, moistened with water, and pressed -between two plates, graven like wafer -moulds, being first rubbed with wax to prevent -the paste from sticking, and when dry -it is used. Unleavened bread is hardly less -nutritious than loaf or fermented bread, -but it is generally speaking neither so -wholesome nor so digestible.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">To make Oatmeal Cakes.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>To a peck of oatmeal add a few table-spoonsful -of salt; knead the mixture into a -stiff paste, with warm water, roll it out into -thin cakes, and bake it in an oven or on -embers.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In some cottages oatmeal bread undergoes -a partial fermentation, whereby it is rendered -lighter; but the generality of the -people in the more humble walks of life, -where oatmeal bread is eaten, merely soften -their oatmeal with water, and having added -to it a little salt, bake it into cakes. To -strangers oatmeal bread has a dry, harsh, -unpleasant taste, but the cottagers of -Scotland, in particular, most commonly -prefer it to wheaten bread.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Mixed Oatmeal and Pease Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>To a peck of pease flour, and a like -quantity of oatmeal, previously mixed by -passing the flour through a sieve, add three -or four ounces of salt, knead it into a -stiff mass with warm water, roll it out into -thin cakes, and bake them in an oven. In -some parts of Lancashire and Scotland, -this kind of bread is made into flattened -rolls, and the cottagers usually bake them -in an iron pot.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In Norway they make unleavened bread -of oatmeal and barley, which keeps thirty -or forty years, and is considered the better -for being old, so that at the baptism of a -child, bread is sometimes used which has -been baked perhaps at the baptism of its -great grandfather.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Unleavened Maize Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>The bread made of maize flour, which is -in common use in North America, is -unleavened bread. The maize flour is -kneaded with a little salt and water into a -stiff mass; which, after being rolled out -into thin cakes, is usually baked on a hot -broad iron hoe.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Another kind of unleavened <i>maize cakes</i>, -which is a North American bread, called -<i>Hoe cake</i>, is made in the following manner.<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c014'><sup>[3]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c009'>Take maize, boil it with a small proportion -of kidney beans, until it becomes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>almost a pulp, and bake it over embers -into a cake.</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f3'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. </span>This and several other of the directions here -given, for making various species of bread, are taken -from Edlin’s excellent Treatise on bread making, a -small work, long ago out of print.</p> -</div> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Unleavened Bean-Flour Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Take a quarter of a peck of bean-flour -and one ounce of salt, mix it into a thick -batter with water, pour a sufficient quantity -to make a cake into an iron kettle, and -bake it over the fire, taking care to turn it -frequently.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Unleavened Buckwheat Bread.</span><a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c014'><sup>[4]</sup></a></h3> - -<div class='footnote c027' id='f4'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. </span>From the Reports of the Board of Agriculture.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Take a gallon of water, set it over a fire, -and when it boils, let a peck of the flour of -buckwheat be mixed with it, little by little, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>and keep the mixture constantly stirred, to -prevent any lumps being formed till a thick -batter is made. Then add two or three -ounces of salt, set it over the fire again, -and allow it to boil an hour and a half, pour -the proper proportion for a cake into an -iron kettle and bake it.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Unleavened Acorn Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Take acorns, fully ripe, deprive them of -their covers and beat them into a paste, let -them lay in water for a night, and then press -the water from them, which deprives the -acorns entirely of their astringency. Then -dry and powder the mass for use. When -wanted, knead it up into a dough with -water, and roll it out into thin cakes, which -may be baked over embers.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>Bread made after this method is by no -means disagreeable, and even to this day, -it is said to be made use of in some -countries.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Sea Biscuit.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>The process of biscuit-baking for the -British navy is as follows, and it is equally -simple and ingenious. The meal, and -every other article, being supplied with -much certainty and simplicity, large lumps -of dough, consisting merely of flour and -water, are mixed up together; and as the -quantity is so immense as to preclude, by -any common process, a possibility of kneading -it, a man manages, or, as it is termed, -rides a machine, which is called a horse. -This machine is a long roller, apparently -<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>about four or five inches in diameter, and -about seven or eight feet in length. It has -a play to a certain extension, by means of -a staple in the wall, to which is inserted a -kind of eye, making its action like the -machine by which they cut chaff for horses. -The lump of dough being placed exactly -in the centre of a raised platform, the man -sits upon the end of the machine, and -literally rides up and down throughout its -whole circular direction, till the dough is -equally indented; and this is repeated till -it is sufficiently kneaded; at which times, -by the different positions of the lines, large -or small circles are described, according as -they are near to or distant from the wall.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The dough in this state is handed over -to a second workman, who slices it with a -prodigious knife; and it is then in a proper -state for the use of those bakers who attend -<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>the oven. These are five in number; and -their different departments are as well -calculated for expedition and correctness, -as the making of pins, or other mechanical -employments. On each side of a large -table, where the dough is laid, stands a -workman; at a small table near the oven -stands another; a fourth stands by the side -of the oven, to receive the bread; and a -fifth to supply the peel. By this arrangement -the oven is as regularly filled and -the whole exercise performed in as exact -time, as a military evolution. The man on -the further side of the large table, moulds -the dough, having previously formed it -into small pieces till it has the appearance -of muffins, although rather thinner, and -which he does two together, with each -hand; and, as fast as he accomplishes this -task, he delivers his work over to the man -<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>on the other side of the table, who stamps -them with a docker on both sides with a -mark. As he rids himself of this work, he -throws the biscuits on the smaller table -next the oven, where stands the third -workman, whose business is merely to separate -the different pieces into two, and -place them immediately under the hand -of him who supplies the oven, whose work -of throwing, or rather chucking, the bread -upon the peel, must be so exact, that if he -looked round for a single moment, it is -impossible he should perform it correctly. -The fifth receives the biscuit on the peel, -and arranges it in the oven; in which duty -he is so very expert, that though the -different pieces are thrown at the rate of -seventy in a minute, the peel is always -disengaged in time to receive them separately.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>As the oven stands open during the -whole time of filling it, the biscuits first -thrown in would be first baked, were there -not some counteraction to such an inconvenience. -The remedy lies in the ingenuity -of the man who forms the pieces of dough, -and who, by imperceptible degrees, proportionably -diminishes their size, till the -loss of that time, which is taken up during -the filling of the oven, has no more effect -to the disadvantage of one of the biscuits -than to another.</p> - -<p class='c009'>So much critical exactness and neat -activity occur in the exercise of this labour, -that it is difficult to decide whether the -palm of excellence is due to the moulder, -the marker, the splitter, the chucker, or the -depositor; all of them, like the wheels of a -machine, seeming to be actuated by the -same principle. The business is to deposit -<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>in the oven seventy biscuits in a minute; -and this is accomplished with the regularity -of a clock; the clack of the peel, during its -motion in the oven, operating like the -pendulum.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The biscuits thus baked, are dried in lofts -over the oven till they are perfectly dry, to -prevent them getting mouldy when stored -for use.</p> - -<p class='c009'>One-hundred and twelve pounds of -flour produce one hundred and two pounds -of perfectly dry biscuits.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span> - <h2 class='c010'><span class="blackletter">Leavened Bread,</span></h2> -</div> -<p class='c008'>Or bread made with a portion of fermented -sour dough, obtained by keeping -some bread dough till the acetous fermentation -takes place, when it swells, rarifies, -and acquires a taste somewhat sour, -and rather disagreeable. This fermented -dough is well worked up with some fresh -dough, which is, by that mixture and moderate -heat, disposed to ferment; and by -this fermentation the dough is attenuated -and divided, carbonic acid is extricated, -which being incapable of disengaging itself -from the tenaceous and solid dough, forms it -into small cavities, and raises and swells it; -hence, the small quantity of fermented -<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>dough which disposes the rest of the mass -to ferment is called <i>leaven</i>.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Most of the bread used by the people in -the lower walks of life in France, Germany, -Holland, and other European countries, is -made in this manner.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Leavened bread, therefore, differs from -unleavened bread, in being fermented by -means of <i>leaven</i>, which is nothing more -than a piece of dough kept in a warm place, -till it undergoes a process of fermentation, -swelling, becoming spongy, and full of air -bubbles, and at length disengaging an -acidulous vapour, and contracting a sour -taste. Leaven must, therefore, be considered -as dough which has fermented and -become sour, but which is still in its -progress towards greater acidity.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The addition of leaven, or this species -of ferment to fresh dough, produces an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>important change in the bread, for when a -small portion of leaven is intimately mixed -with a large proportion of fresh dough, it -gradually causes the whole mass to ferment -throughout, a quantity of carbonic acid gas -is extracted from the flour, but remaining -entangled by the tenacity of the mass in -which it is expanded by heat, this raises -the dough, and as soon as the mass has -acquired a due increase of bulk from the -carbonic acid gas which endeavours to -escape, it is judged to be sufficiently fermented -and fit for the oven, the heat of -which, by driving off the water, checks the -fermentation, and forms a bread full of -small cavities, entirely different from the -heavy, compact, viscous masses, made by -baking unfermented dough.</p> - -<p class='c009'>A great deal of nicety is required in -conducting this operation, for if it is continued -<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>too long, the bread will be sour, and -if too short a time has been allowed for -the dough to ferment and rise, it will be -heavy.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Bread raised by leaven is usually made -of a mixture of wheat and rye, not very -accurately cleared of the bran. It is distinguished -by the name of <i>rye bread</i>; and -the mixture of these two kinds of grain is -called bread-corn, in many parts of the -kingdom, where it is raised on one and the -same piece of ground, and passes through -all the processes of reaping, thrashing, -grinding, &c. A mixture of one-hundred -pounds of equal parts of wheat and rye -flour, produce from one-hundred and fifty-four -to one-hundred and fifty-six pounds -of leavened bread.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Leavened Rye Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>Take a piece of dough, of about a pound -weight, and keep it for use—it will keep -several days very well. Mix this dough -with some warm water, and knead it up -with a portion of flour to ferment; then -take half a bushel of flour, and divide it -into four parts; mix a quarter of the flour -with the leaven, and a sufficient quantity of -water to make it into dough, and knead it -well. Let this remain in a corner of your -trough, covered with flannel, until it -ferments and rises properly; then dilute it -with more water, and add another quarter -of the flour, and let it remain and rise. -Do the same with the other two quarters -of the flour, one quarter after another, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>taking particular care never to mix more -flour till the last has risen properly. When -finished, add six ounces of salt; then knead -it again, and divide it into eight loaves, -making them broad, and not so thick and -high as is usually done, by which means -they will be better baked. Let them -remain to rise, in order to overcome the -pressure of the hand in forming them; then -put them in the oven, and reserve a piece -of dough for the next baking. The dough -thus kept, may with proper care, be prevented -from spoiling, by mixing from time -to time small quantities of fresh flour with -it.</p> - -<p class='c009'>It requires some attention to be able to -determine the exact quantity of leaven -necessary for the proper fermentation of -the dough. When it is deficient in quantity, -the process of fermentation is interrupted, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>and the bread thus prepared is solid and -heavy, and if too much leaven be used, -it communicates to the bread a disagreeable -sour taste.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Hungarian Rye Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Two large handfuls of hops are boiled in -four quarts of water: this is poured upon -as much wheaten bread as it will moisten, -and to this are added four or five pounds of -leaven. When the mass is warm, the -several ingredients are worked together till -well mixed. It is then deposited in a warm -place for twenty-four hours, and afterwards -divided into small pieces, about the size of -a hen’s egg, which are dried by being -placed on a board, and exposed to a dry -air, but not to the sun; when dry, they are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>laid up for use, and may be kept half a -year. The ferment, thus prepared, is -applied in the following manner: for baking -six large loaves, six good handfuls of these -balls are dissolved in seven or eight quarts -of warm water; this water is poured through -a sieve into one end of the bread trough, -and after it three quarts of warm water; -the remaining mass being well pressed out. -The liquor is mixed up with flour, sufficient -to form a mass of the size of a large loaf; -this is strewed over with flour: the sieve, -with its contents, is put upon it, and the -whole is covered up warm, and left till it -has risen enough, and its surface has begun -to crack; this forms the leaven. Fifteen -quarts of warm water, in which six handfuls -of salt has been dissolved, are then poured -upon it through the sieve; the necessary -quantity of flour is added, and mixed and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>kneaded with the leaven: this is covered up -warm, and left for about half an hour. It -is then formed into loaves, which are kept -for another half-hour in a warm room; and -after that they are put into the oven, where -they remain two or three hours, according -to their size.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span> - <h2 class='c010'><span class="blackletter">Bread made with Yeast.</span></h2> -</div> -<p class='c008'>The principal improvement that has been -made in the art of fabricating bread, consists -in the substitution of yeast, (or the -froth that rises to the surface during the -fermentation of malt liquors,) instead of -common flour dough, in a state of acescency, -called <i>leaven</i>, to rise the bread -dough, made of flour and water, before it -is baked. This substance very materially -improves the bread. Yeast makes the -dough rise more effectually than ordinary -<i>leaven</i>, and the bread thus produced is -much lighter, and free from that sour taste -which may often be perceived in bread -raised with leaven; because too much has -been added to the paste, or because the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>dough has been allowed to advance too far -in the process of fermentation before it was -baked.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The discovery of the application of yeast, -to improve the panification of bread flour, -was made and first secretly adopted by the -bakers of Paris; but when the practice was -discovered, the College of Physicians there, -in 1688, declared it prejudicial to health, -and it was not till after a long time that -the bakers succeeded in convincing the -people, that bread made with yeast was superior -to bread made with sour dough or -leaven.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The bread used in this metropolis and in -most other large towns in England, is -made of wheaten flour, water, yeast, and -salt. The average proportion are two -pints by weight, of water, to three of flour, -but the proportions vary considerably with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>the diversity of climate, years, season, -age, and grinding of the wheat. There are -some kinds of wheat flour that require precisely -three-fourths of their weight of -water. That flour is always the best -which combines with the greatest possible -quantity of water. Bakers and pastry-cooks -judge of the quality of flour from the -characters of the dough. The best flour -forms instantly by the addition of water -a very gluey elastic paste, whereas bad -flour produces a dough that cannot be -elongated without breaking.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The flour, in this case, being seldom mixed -up oftener than twice, that is, the yeast -previously diluted with water, is added -to a part of the flour, and well kneaded; -in a short time, swells and rises in the -baking trough, and is called by the bakers, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span><i>setting the sponge</i>. The remainder of the -flour is afterwards added, with a sufficient -quantity of warm water to make it into a -stiff dough, and then allowed to ferment. It -is of essential consequence that the whole -of the yeast should be intimately mixed -with the two-thirds of the quantity of the -flour put into the kneading trough, in order -that the fermentation of the dough may -commence in every part of the mass at the -same time. The dough is then covered up, -and the water which is mixed with the yeast -being warm, speedily extricates air in an -elastic state, and as it is now by kneading, -diffused through every part of the dough, -every particle must become raised, and the -viscidity of the mass retains it, when it is -again well kneaded and made up into -loaves, and put into the oven. The heat -<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>converts the water also into an elastic -vapour, and the loaf swells more and more, -till at last it is perfectly porous.</p> - -<p class='c009'>During the baking, a still greater quantity -of gazeous matter is extricated by the -increased heat; and as the crust of the -bread becomes formed, the air is prevented -from escaping, the water is dissipated, the -loaf rendered somewhat dry and solid, and -between every particle of bread there is a -particle of air, as appears from the spongy -appearance of the bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>It is curious that new flour does not -afford bread of so good a quality as that -which has been kept some months. The -flour of grain too, which has suffered -incipient germination, is much inferior in -the quality of bread prepared from it: and -from this principally appears to arise the -injury which wheat sustains from a wet -<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>harvest. Various methods have been employed -to remedy the imperfections of bread -from inferior flour, such as washing the -grain with hot water if it is musty, proposed -by Mr. Hatchet;<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c014'><sup>[5]</sup></a> drying and heating it -even to a certain extent; adding various -substances, such as magnesia, &c. Some -experiments on this subject have been given -by Mr. E. Davy. See a Treatise on Adulterations -of Food, Second Edition, p.137.</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f5'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. </span>See a Treatise on Adulterations of Food and -Culinary Poisons, Second Edition, p. 143.</p> -</div> -<h3 class='c018'>METHOD OF MAKING WHEATEN BREAD, AS PRACTISED BY THE LONDON BAKERS.</h3> - -<p class='c019'>To make a sack of flour into bread, the -baker pours the flour into the kneading -trough, and sifts it through a fine wire -sieve, which makes it lie very light, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>serves to separate any impurities with -which the flour may be mixed. Two ounces -of alum are then dissolved in about a quart -of boiling water, and the solution (technically -called liquor,) is poured into <i>the -seasoning-tub</i>. Four or five pounds of salt -are likewise put into the tub, and a pailful -of hot water. When this mixture has -cooled to the temperature of about 84°, -from three to four pints of yeast are added; -the whole is mixed, strained through the -seasoning sieve, emptied into a hole made -in the mass of the flour, and mixed up with -the requisite portion of it to the consistence -of a thick batter. Some dry flour is then -sprinkled over the top, and it is covered -up with sacks or cloths. This operation is -called setting <i>quarter sponge</i>.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In this situation it is left three or four -hours. It gradually swells and breaks -<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>through the dry flour scattered on its surface. -An additional quantity, (about one -pailful,) of warm (liquor) water, in which -one ounce of alum is dissolved, is now -added, and the dough is made up into a -paste as before; the whole is then covered -up. In this situation it is left for four or -five hours. This is called <i>setting half -sponge</i>.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The whole is then intimately kneaded -with more water, (about two pails full,) for -upwards of an hour. The dough is cut into -pieces with a knife, and penned to one side -of the trough; some dry flour is sprinkled -over it, and it is left to <i>prove</i> in this state -for about four hours. It is then kneaded -again for half an hour. The dough is now -taken out of the trough, put on the lid, -cut into pieces, and weighed, in order to -furnish the requisite quantity for each loaf.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>The operation of moulding is peculiar, -and can only be learnt by practice; it consists -in cutting the mass of dough destined -for a loaf, into two equal portions: they -are kneaded either round or long, and -one placed in a hollow made in the other, -and the union is completed by a turn of the -knuckles on the centre of the upper piece.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The loaves are left in the oven about two -hours and a half, or three hours, when -taken out of the oven, they are turned -with their bottom side upwards to prevent -them from splitting. They are then -covered up with a blanket to cool slowly.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span> - <h3 class='c018'>QUANTITY OF BREAD OBTAINABLE FROM A GIVEN QUANTITY OF WHEATEN FLOUR.</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>A sack of flour, weighing two hundred -and eighty pounds, is made with five -pounds of salt, and from three to four -pints of yeast, into dough, with the requisite -quantity of water, which varies -according to the quality of the flour.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The older the flour, provided the wheat -has been sound, and the flour well preserved, -the greater will be the quantity of water -required to convert it into a stiff dough, -and the greater the produce of bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The quantity of flour for a quartern loaf -is reckoned at an average, three pounds -and a half, which produces, if the flour be -of the best quality, five pounds avoirdupoise -<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>of dough. The quartern loaf produced -from this quantity of flour weighs four -pounds, five ounces and a half, and hence -the dough loses, during baking, eleven -ounces and a half.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The quantity of bread obtainable from -the same quantity of flour is, however, -much influenced by the manner in which -the dough is fermented, and the skilful -regulation of the heat employed for baking -the bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>A variation of temperature also makes a -considerable difference to the baker’s profit -or loss. In summer, a sack of flour will -yield a quartern loaf more than in winter; -and the sifting it, before it is wetted, if it -does not make it produce more bread, certainly -causes the loaves to be larger.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The loss of weight occasioned by the -heat is proportional to the extent of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>surface of the loaf, and to the length of -time it remains in the oven. Hence the -smaller the surface, or the nearer the figure -of the loaf approaches to a globe, the -smaller is the loss of weight sustained in -baking; and the longer the loaf continues -in the oven the greater is the loss.</p> - -<p class='c009'>A loaf that weighed just four pounds -when taken out of the oven, after the usual -baking, was put in again, and after ten -minutes was found to have lost two ounces, -and in ten minutes more it lost another -ounce. The longer bread is kept the lighter -it is, unless it be kept in a damp place, or -wrapt round with a wet cloth, which is -an excellent method of preserving bread -fresh and free from mould, for a long time.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Home-made Wheaten Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>Take a bushel of wheaten flour, and put -two third parts of it in one heap into a -trough or tub; then dilute two pints of yeast -with three or four pints of warm water, and -add to this mixture from eight to ten ounces -of salt. Make a hole in the middle of the -heap of flour, pour the mixture of yeast, -salt, and water into it, and knead the whole -into an uniform stiff dough, with such an -additional quantity of water as is requisite -for that purpose, and suffer the dough to -rise in a warm place.</p> - -<p class='c009'>When the dough has risen, and just -begins again to subside, add to it gradually -the remaining one third part of -the flour; knead it again thoroughly, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>taking care to add gradually so much warm -water as is sufficient to form the whole into -a stiff tenaceous dough, and continue the -kneading. At first the mass is very adhesive -and clings to the fingers, but it -becomes less so the longer the kneading is -continued; and when the fist, on being -withdrawn, leaves its perfect impression -in the dough, none of it adhering to the -fingers, the kneading may be discontinued. -The dough may be then divided into loaf -pieces, (of about 5lb. in weight). Knead -each piece once more separately, and having -made it up in the proper form, put it in a -warm place, cover it up with a blanket to -promote the last rising; and when this has -taken place, put it into the oven. When -the loaves are withdrawn they should be -covered up with a blanket to cool as slowly -as possible.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">To make Pan Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>Mix up the flour, salt, and yeast, (See -page <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>), with the requisite portion of -warm water, into a moderately stiff paste; -but instead of causing part of the flour to -ferment, (or setting the sponge), as stated -in the preceding process, suffer the whole -mass to rise at once. Then divide it into -earthenware pans, or sheet iron moulds, -and bake the loaves till nearly done, in a -quick oven; at that time remove them out -of the pans, or moulds, and set them on tins -for a few minutes, in order that the crust -may become brown, and when done wrap -them up in flannel, and rasp them when -cold.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Bread made in this manner is much -<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>more spongy or honeycombed, than bread -made in the common way. It is essential -that the dough be not so stiff, as when -intended for common bread, moulded by -the hand.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Brown Wheaten Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Suppose a Winchester bushel of good -wheat weighs fifty-nine pounds, let it be -sent to the mill and ground; including the -bran, the meal will weigh fifty-eight pounds, -for not more than a pound will be lost in -grinding.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Mix it up with water, yeast, and salt, like -the dough of common bread, (See page <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>); -the mass, before it is put into the oven, -will weigh about eighty-eight pounds.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Divide it into eighteen loaves, and put -<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>them into the oven; when thoroughly baked, -and after they are drawn out and left two -hours to cool, they will weigh seventy-four -pounds and a half.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Mixed Wheaten Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Take a peck of wheaten flour, the same -quantity of oatmeal, and half a peck of -boiled potatoes, skinned and mashed; let -the mass be kneaded into a dough, with a -proper quantity of yeast, salt, and warm -milk; make the dough into loaves, and -put them into the oven to bake.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The bread, thus prepared, rises well in the -oven, is of a light brown colour, and by no -means of an unpleasant flavour; it tastes so -little of the oatmeal, as to be taken, by those -who are unacquainted with its composition, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>for barley or rye bread. It is sufficiently -moist, and, if put in a proper place, keeps -well for a week.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Rolls, French Bread, Muffins and Crumpets.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>The dough of which rolls are made by -the generality of the London bakers, is -suffered to <i>prove</i>, that is to rise more, than -dough intended to be made into loaf-bread. -It is, therefore, left in the kneading trough, -whilst the loaves made of the same dough -are in the oven. During this period it rises -more, and the fermentation is further -promoted, by placing the rolls, when -moulded, in a warm place, to cause the -dough to expand as much as possible. -When this has taken place, they are put in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>the oven to be baked, which is effected in -about twenty or thirty minutes. When -taken out of the oven they are slightly -brushed over with a buttered brush, which -gives the top crust a shining appearance, -they are then covered up with flannel to cool -gradually.</p> - -<p class='c009'>I have witnessed at a baker’s, who has the -reputation for making excellent rolls, forty-eight -pounds of dough moulded into one -hundred (penny) rolls; they weighed, when -drawn out of the oven, twenty-six pounds.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The bread called in this metropolis French -rolls, and French bread, is made precisely -in the same manner, namely, from common -bread dough, but of a less stiff consistence; -they are suffered to rise to a -greater extent than dough intended for -loaf-bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>Some bakers make rolls and French -bread of a superior kind, for private -families, in the following manner:</p> - -<p class='c009'>Put a peck of flour into the kneading -trough, and sift it through a wire sieve, -then rub in three quarters of a pound of -butter, and, when it is intimately blended -with the flour, mix up with it two quarts of -warm milk, a quarter of a pound of salt, -and a pint of yeast; let these be mixed -with the flour, and a sufficient quantity of -warm water to knead it into a dough; suffer -it to stand two hours to prove, and then -mould it into rolls, which are to be placed -on tins, and set for an hour near the fire -or in the proving closet. They are then -put into a brisk oven for about twenty -minutes, and when drawn, the crust is -rasped.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>The cakes, called in this metropolis, -<i>muffins</i> and <i>crumpets</i>, are baked, not in an -oven, but on a hot iron plate.</p> - -<p class='c009'>For muffins, wheaten flour is made with -water, or milk, into a batter or dough. -To a quarter of a peck of flour is usually -added three quarters of a pint of yeast, -four ounces of salt, and so much water (or -milk) slightly warmed, as is sufficient to -form a dough of rather a soft consistence. -Small portions of the dough are then put -into holes, previously made in a layer of -flour, about two inches thick, placed on a -board, and the whole is covered up with a -blanket and suffered to stand near a fire, to -cause the muffin dough to rise. When -this has been effected, the small cakes will -exhibit a semi-globular shape. They are -then carefully transferred on the heated -iron plate to be baked, and when the bottom -<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>of the muffin begins to acquire a brown -colour, they are turned and baked on the -opposite side.</p> - -<p class='c009'><i>Crumpets</i> are made of a batter composed -of flour, water (or milk), and a small quantity -of yeast. To one pound of the best -wheaten flour is usually added three table-spoonsful -of yeast. A portion of the liquid -paste, after having been suffered to rise, is -poured on a heated iron plate, and quickly -baked, like pancakes in a frying pan.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Barley Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Barley, next to wheat, is the most -profitable of the farinaceous grains, and -when mixed with a small proportion of -wheat flour, may be made into bread. -Barley bread is not spongy, and feels -heavier in the hand than wheaten bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>To remedy this defect in part, it is -always best to set the <i>sponge</i> with wheat -flour only, for barley flour does not readily -ferment with yeast, and adding the barley -flour, when the dough is intended to be -made. Bread made in this way requires -to be kept a longer time in the oven than -wheaten bread, and the heat of the oven -should also be somewhat greater; but -barley bread is sometimes made without -the addition of wheaten flour.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Suppose a bushel of barley to weigh -fifty-two pounds and a half to be made -into bread; let it be sent to the mill, and -have the bran taken out, which, with what -is lost in grinding and dressing, will probably -reduce it to forty-four pounds. If -the meal be kneaded into dough, with -water, yeast, and salt, suffered to rise, -and then divided into eight loaves, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>thoroughly baked, they will weigh about -sixty pounds, after drawn out of the oven, -and left two hours to cool.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Barley bread is eaten by many of the -farmers and labourers in husbandry, also by -the miners in Devonshire and Cornwall.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Mixed Barley Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Take four bushels of wheat ground to -form one sort of flour, extracting only a -very small quantity of the coarser bran.<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c014'><sup>[6]</sup></a> -Add to it three bushels and a half of barley -flour, mix up the flour into a dough in the -usual manner, with salt, yeast, and warm -water, (See page <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>), let it be divided into -loaves, and put them into the oven made -<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>hotter than it would be for baking wheaten -bread. Let them remain in the oven three -hours and a half. In Yorkshire, bread made -from a mixture of these grains is esteemed -more wholesome to those who are used to -it, than bread made from wheat alone.</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f6'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. </span>From the Reports of the Board of Agriculture.</p> -</div> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Rye Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Rye is a grain whose cultivation is not -much encouraged in this kingdom, but in -the northern parts of Europe it is in very -extensive use as a nourishing food for -mankind. When made into bread alone, -it is of a dark brown colour, and sweetish -taste, and if eat by people unaccustomed -to its use, it is found to have a laxative -effect. In some parts of this kingdom, -a mixture of rye and wheat is reckoned an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>excellent bread. In Yorkshire, bread -made from a mixture of these two grains -is esteemed.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The following method of making household -rye bread, has been recommended by -the board of agriculture.<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c014'><sup>[7]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f7'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. </span>Account of Experiments tried by the Board of -Agriculture, p. 12.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Suppose a bushel of rye to weigh sixty -pounds, add to it a fourth part, or fifteen -pounds of rice; this when ground -has only the broad bran taken out, which -seldom exceeds four and a half or five -pounds for that quantity; it is thus directed -to be prepared for household rye bread.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Take fourteen pounds of the mixed flour, -a sufficient quantity of yeast, salt, and -warm water, and let it be made in a -dough, and baked in the usual way. It -<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>will produce twenty-two pounds weight of -bread, which is a surplus of three pounds -and a half in fourteen pounds, over and -above what is usually produced in the -common process of converting household -wheat flour into bread.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Turnip Bread.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>A very good turnip bread may be made -by the following process: Let the turnips -be pared and boiled. When they are soft -enough, for being mashed, the greater part -of the water should be pressed out of them, -and they should be mixed with an equal -quantity in weight of wheat flour. The -dough may then be made in the usual -manner, with yeast, salt, and warm water. -It will rise well in the trough, and after -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>being kneaded, it may be formed into -loaves, and put into the oven. It requires -to be baked rather longer than ordinary -bread, and when taken from the oven is -equally light and white, rather sweeter, -with a slight but not disagreeable taste of -the turnip. After it has been allowed to -stand twelve hours, this taste is scarcely -perceptible, and the smell is totally lost, -and after an interval of twenty-four hours, -it cannot be known that it has turnips in its -composition, although it has still a peculiar -sweetish taste, but by no means -unpalatable. It keeps for upwards of a -week.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Rice Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>Rice, though one of the roughest and -driest of farinaceous vegetables, is converted -by the Americans into a very -pleasant fermented bread. The process is -as follows: The grain is first washed by -pouring water upon it, then stirring it, and -changing the water until it be sufficiently -cleansed. The water is afterwards drawn off, -and the rice, being sufficiently drained, -is put, while yet damp, into a mortar, and -beaten to powder; it is now completely -dried, and passed through a common hair -sieve. The flour, thus obtained, is generally -kneaded with a small proportion of -Indian corn meal, and boiled into a thickish -consistence; or sometimes it is mixed with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>boiled potatoes, and a small quantity of -leaven, or yeast, is added to the mass. -When it has fermented, sufficiently, the -dough is put into pans, and placed in an -oven. The bread made by this process is -light and wholesome, pleasing to the eye, -and agreeable to the taste. But rice flour -will make excellent bread, without the -addition of either potatoes, or any kind of -meal. Let a sufficient quantity of the flour -be put into a kneading trough; and at the -same time let a due proportion of water -be boiled in a cauldron, into which throw -a few handfuls of rice in grain, and boil it -till it break. This forms a thick and viscous -substance, which is poured upon the -flour, and the whole kneaded with a -mixture of salt and yeast; the dough is -then covered with warm clothes, and left -to rise. In the process of fermentation, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>this dough, firm at first, becomes liquid as -soup, and seems quite incapable of being -wrought by the hand. To obviate this -inconvenience, the oven is heated while the -dough is rising; and when it has attained -a proper temperature, a tinned box is -taken, furnished with a handle long enough -to reach to the end of the oven; a little -water is poured into this box, which is then -filled with dough, and covered with cabbage -leaves and a leaf of paper. The box -is thus committed to the oven, and suddenly -reversed. The heat of the oven prevents -the dough from spreading, and keeps -it in the form which the box has given it. -This bread is both beautiful and good; -but when it becomes a little stale, loses -much of its excellence. It comes out of the -oven of a fine yellow colour, like pastry -which has yolks of eggs in it. Other -<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>methods of making rice bread are the -following:</p> - -<p class='c009'>1. Boil a quarter of a pound of rice till -it is quite soft; then put it on the back -part of a sieve to drain, and when it is -cool, mix it up with three quarters of a -pound of wheaten flour, a spoonful of -yeast, and two ounces of salt. Let it stand -for three hours, then knead it well, and roll -it in about a handful of wheaten flour, so -as to make the outside dry enough to put it -in the oven. About an hour and a quarter -will bake it, and it will produce one pound -fourteen ounces of very good white bread, -but it should not be cut till it is two days -old. Another way is the following:</p> - -<p class='c009'>2. Take half a peck of rice flour, and -one peck of wheaten flour, mix them together -and knead the dough up with a -sufficient quantity of salt, yeast, and warm -<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>water, as stated in page 97. Suffer it to -ferment, divide it into eight loaves, and -bake them.</p> - -<p class='c009'>3. Take a peck of rice, boil it over night -till it becomes soft, then put it in a pan, and -the next morning it will be found to have -swelled prodigiously. A peck of potatoes -should now be boiled, skinned, and mashed -into a fine pulp, and while hot, be well -kneaded up with the rice, and a peck of -wheaten flour; a sufficient quantity of -yeast and salt must now be added, and -the dough left in the kneading trough to -prove or ferment; and when well risen it -may be divided into loaves and baked in -the usual way.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Potatoe Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>Potatoes, mixed in various quantities, -with flour, make a wholesome, nutritive, -and pleasant bread. Various methods are -employed for preparing the potatoes.</p> - -<p class='c009'>1. Pare a peck of potatoes, put them -into a proper quantity of water, and boil -them till they are reduced to a pulp, then -beat them up into a smooth mass with the -water they boiled in, and knead the mass, -with two pecks of wheaten flour, with a -sufficient quantity of yeast and salt, into a -dough; cover it up, and allow it to ferment -like common wheaten bread, then -make it up into loaves and bake them. -Another method is the following:</p> - -<p class='c009'>2. Take twelve pounds of the most mealy -<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>sort of peeled potatoes, boil and press -them through a fine wire sieve, in such a -manner as to reduce the roots, as nearly as -possible, to a state of dry flour. Mix it up -with twenty pounds of wheaten flour; and -of this mixture make, and set the dough in -the same manner as if the whole were -wheaten flour. See page <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</p> - -<p class='c009'>3. Take three pounds of potatoes, boil, -skin, and mash them, and whilst warm, -bruise them with a spoon, and put them -into a dish before the fire, to let the moisture -evaporate, stirring them frequently, -that no part grows hard; when dry, rub -them as fine as possible and add nine -pounds of wheaten flour, and with a sufficient -quantity of yeast and salt, knead it -up as other dough; lay it a little while -before the fire to ferment, and then divide -<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>it into loaves and bake them in a very hot -oven. Another method is the following:</p> - -<p class='c009'>4. Boil and peel the potatoes as for eating, -reduce them without any water to a -fine meal or stiff paste. Add to two parts -by weight of the paste, one part of potatoe -starch, and half a part of wheaten flour, -and having added to it salt and yeast, -suffer it to ferment; mould the dough -into loaves, and bake them in the usual -manner.</p> - -<p class='c009'>M. Parmentier found, from a variety of -experiments, that good bread might be -made from a mixture of raw potatoe-pulp -and wheaten meal, with the addition of -yeast and salt; and Dr. Darwin asserts, -that if eight pounds of good raw potatoes be -grated into cold water, and after stirring -the mixture the starch be left to subside, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>and when collected, mixed with eight -pounds of boiled potatoes, the mass will -make as good bread as that from the best -wheaten flour.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Potatoe Rolls.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Bruise four pounds of boiled and skinned -potatoes, with as much milk as will just -produce a mass, which readily may be -squeezed through a cullender, add this -mass to wheaten flour paste of a middling -stiffness, obtained from six pounds of -wheaten flour; put it before a fire to rise, -make it into rolls, and bake them in a -quick oven. The rolls thus made will be -more porous and light than common rolls.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Apple Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>M. Duduit de Maizieres, a French officer -of the king’s household, has invented and -practised with great success, a method -of making bread of common apples, very -far superior to potatoe bread. After having -boiled one third of peeled apples, he -bruised them, while quite warm, into two-thirds -of flour, including the proper quantity -of yeast, and kneaded the whole without -water, the juice of the fruit being quite -sufficient. When this mixture had acquired -the consistency of paste, he put it into a -vessel, in which he allowed it to rise for -about twelve hours. By this process he -obtained a very excellent bread, full of eyes, -and extremely palatable and light.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Domestic Oven for Baking Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>The <a href='#oven'>figure on the title page</a> exhibits a -convenient culinary oven for families who -bake their own bread. It is usually erected -on one side of the kitchen fire-place, and -heated by a flue that passes from the fire-grate -under the bottom of the oven. Although -this is in many respects a convenient -and neat way of heating the oven, yet the -manner of managing the fire renders it -only economical in families where a large -fire is always kept up in the kitchen-grate. -In small families it is far more economical -to heat the oven by means of a separate -fire-place built underneath it. A fire-place -six inches wide, nine inches long, -and six inches deep, is sufficient to heat an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>oven eighteen inches wide, twenty-four -inches long, and from twelve to fifteen -inches high, which is a convenient size for -the baking of bread. The grate should be -placed at least twelve inches below the -bottom of the oven when the fuel employed -is pit-coal; and, in order to prevent the -fire from operating with too much violence -upon any part of the oven, the brick-work -should be sloped outwards and upwards on -every side, from the top of the burning -fuel, to the ends and sides of the bottom of -the oven, that the whole may be exposed -to the direct rays of the fire. If the fire-place -be built in this manner, and properly -managed, it is almost incredible how small -a quantity of fuel will answer for heating -the oven, and keeping it hot. In this small -fire-place there is always a very strong -draft of air passing into it, and this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>circumstance, which is unavoidable, renders -it necessary to keep the fire-place -door constantly closed, and to leave but a -small opening, for the passage of the air, -through the ash-pit. If these precautions -are neglected, the fuel will be consumed -very rapidly, the bottom of the oven will -be burnt, and the oven get chilled as -soon as the fire-place ceases to be filled -with burning fuel. In an oven of this -description, I have baked two loaves, each -weighing five pounds, and fifteen rolls -weighing two pounds, by means of half a -peck (ten pounds) of coal.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The figures on the plate facing the titlepage[See <a href='#TNs'>Note</a>] -exhibit an oven to be heated with pit-coal -for baking bread, now generally -employed in this metropolis.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The oven from which this design has been -made, is eight feet wide, and seven deep. -The fire-place, called by the bakers, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>furnace, for heating the oven, is placed -at the side, and enters the oven diagonally; -it is furnished with a grate, ash holes, and -iron door, similar to a common fire-place -for heating a boiler, but having a partition -to separate it from the oven, and to allow -the fire to enter into the oven; it, therefore, -forms a canal, by which the flame is directed -into the oven. Over the fire-place or furnace -is erected, and lets into the brick-work, a -boiler furnished with a pipe, to supply warm -water as occasion may require.</p> - -<p class='c009'>When the oven is required to be heated, -the boiler is filled with water, and the fire -being kindled in the furnace, the flame passes -into the oven, and the smoke escapes into -the chimney.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The sides of the oven are nearly straight, -and turned as sharp as possible at the -shoulder, for this form has been found -<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>better calculated to retain the heat than any -other.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The flues to carry off the smoke is over -the entrance door, as shown by the dotted -line <i>a</i> of the figure here exhibited, exhibiting -the plan of the oven.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id003'> -<img src='images/i130.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>A piece of cast iron covers the space -before the door of the oven, exactly level -with its floor; the opening underneath is -applied to no particular use, but is generally -made a receptacle for coal.</p> - -<p class='c009'><i>Fig. 1</i>, is an <i>elevation</i> of the oven. -The mouth is closed with a cast iron door, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>in which is a small sight-hole with a slide -valve. To heat the oven, the door is thrown -back, and a <i>blower</i> is applied to the mouth, -so contrived, as not only to cover the mouth -of the oven completely, but to enclose also -the throat of the chimney; by this contrivance -the draft is quickly so much increased, -that the oven becomes speedily -heated, and if at anytime it is too hot, it is only -necessary to throw open the door of the fire -place, and to put up the <i>blower</i> for a few -minutes; the current of cool air which is thus -made to pass through it, soon lowers the -heat to the temperature required. In the -<i>blower</i> is also an opening of the same kind -as that in the oven door, which may be -opened and shut at pleasure; the course of -the flue is described by the dotted lines -at (<i>b</i>).</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span><i>Fig. 2</i>, is the <i>blower</i> before mentioned for -regulating the heat of the oven.</p> - -<p class='c009'><i>Fig. 3</i>, is a transverse section from <i>A</i> -to <i>B</i> on the plan, looking towards the -opening, the fire-place entering the oven at -<i>c</i>, the crown of the oven is turned with the -bricks on end, and in building the oven -instead of centering the arch, the whole -space is filled with sand, which is well trod -down and shaped to the shape which it is -intended the crown of the oven shall be of. -When the upper work is finished, the sand -is dug out at the mouth of the oven.</p> - -<p class='c009'><i>Fig. 4</i>, is a longitudinal section of the -oven from <i>C</i> to <i>D</i>. In this sketch the -situation of the flue is evident, and the sectional -line of the <i>blower</i>, fig. 2, when in its -place, is shown by the dotted line <i>d</i>, the -open space <i>a</i>, under the oven, has been -before spoken of.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Popular Errors concerning the Quality of Bread.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>The great advantage of eating pure and -genuine bread must be obvious. Every -part of the wheat, which may be called -flour, was not only intended to be eaten by -man, but it really makes the best bread. -The delusion, however, by which so many -persons are misled to think that even the -whole flour is not good enough, obliges -them to pay much dearer for their bread -than they need, to gratify a perverted and -fanciful appetite. Had it not been for the -custom of eating whiter bread than the -whole of the <i>flour</i> can make, the miller and -baker would not have employed their art to -render the bread as white as possible, and -to make the consumer pay for the artificial -<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>whiteness. The average quantity of flour, -from an unvaried series of experiments, -made from age to age, through the course -of many hundred years, appears to be three-fourth -parts in weight of the whole grain -of wheat, taking all wheats together, being -more in the finer sorts, and less in the -coarser; and the bread made from this -flour has always been deemed the standard -of the food of bread corn. But, by insensible -degrees, the manufacture of bread -became separated into two distinct employments.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In consequence of this alteration, the -baker, having no further connexion with -the market for corn, became dependant -solely on the mealman for supplying him -with flour, who, not considering himself -amenable to the then existing assize laws, -made different kinds of flour, some extremely -<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>fine and white, while others were -very coarse and unpalatable. These artificial -whites, when made into bread, were -so pleasing to the eye and taste, that, in -the course of a few years, they got into -such general use that the people refused -any longer to purchase the bread made of -the whole of the grain.</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Our forefathers<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c014'><sup>[8]</sup></a> never <i>refined</i> so -much: they never preyed so much on each -other; nor, I presume, made so many laws -necessary for their restraint, as we do.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f8'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. </span>The great advantage of eating pure and genuine -bread, comprehending the heart of the wheat with all -its flour. Shewing how this may be a means of promoting -health and plenty, preserving infants from the -grave, by destroying the temptation to the use of alum -and other ingredients in our present wheaten bread. -By an advocate for the trade. London, 1773. See -also Important considerations upon the act of the -thirty-first of George II. relative to the assize of bread. -London: T. Becket, Strand, 1768.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>“In looking back, for some hundred years, -it appears that they adopted a certain plan, -supposing that nature had given nothing -in vain, and that every part of the wheat -which may be called flour, was not only -intended to be eaten by <i>men</i>, but that it -really made the best bread, as that might -be called the <i>best</i>, which is best adapted to -general use, and in itself so fine, as to -contain no parts of the coat, or husks of -grain.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“The inference which I mean to draw -from what is premised, is to remind my -fellow citizens of the unfortunate delusion -of thinking that even the <i>whole flour</i> of the -wheat is not good enough for <i>them</i>; that -part of it must be taken away, and given -to <i>birds</i> or <i>beasts</i>.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“By this delusion, supposing a certain -quantity of wheat appropriated to their use, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>(and this is the view they should see it in,) -they lose one third part of the flour, and -consequently have so much the less bread -to supply their wants.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Is it not then monstrous to hear them -complain? Is it not absurd to talk of -poverty, and yet pay a <i>seventh</i> or <i>eighth -part</i> more than they need, to gratify a -fantastic appetite? Had it not been from -the custom of eating whiter bread than -the whole flour of the wheat will make, -should we have thus imposed on ourselves? -Would the miller or baker employ all his -art to make the bread as <i>white</i> as possible, -and oblige us to pay for this <i>artificial</i> -whiteness? They tell the consumer, the -<i>whiter it is</i>, the <i>finer</i>; and the finer, the -more nutritive. Thus we become <i>dupes</i> so -far as to overlook the essential good properties -of genuine bread, made of all the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>flour of the wheat, and likewise the difference -in the price.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“We are taught to favour a gross delusion -at the suggestion of interested persons, -against our own substantial welfare. It is -the interest of every one to be <i>honest</i>, and -say nothing contrary to his real sentiments, -as it is the duty of those who have knowledge, -to inform such as are ignorant. Those -who have never eaten bread of all the flour -in a pure state, with the native taste of -wheat, and the moisture which it preserves, -can know nothing of the comparative -excellence of it with respect to the whitened -city bread which they have been accustomed -to eat all their lives.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“The dictates of the understanding will -ever yield to the pleasures of the imagination: -and the provident will be attentive -to take the advantage of the extravagant. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>Thus it happens that the poor have been -bewildered, and deprived of the object they -sought.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“The event depends on the good sense of -masters and mistresses of families, and -their right understanding of what they -mean to eat, <i>that is</i>, of what parts of the -wheat the bread they consume is made. -If they are satisfied that the bread is more -pure than what they used to eat, and -<i>sufficiently fine</i>, we may presume, if they -are in their right minds, they will prefer it -for domestic use. Every family of fourteen -or fifteen persons, consuming at the rate of -one pound each, in a day, pays near 16<i>s.</i> a -week: if they can save 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> or 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> it -is an object: to a poor man who spends 5<i>s.</i> -in bread, if he can save eight or ten pence, -it may purchase two or three pounds of -animal substance towards making one feast -in a week.”</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>“In regard to the patriotic miller, he -does not pretend to consult our good in -preference to his own; on the contrary, -he reasons very deeply, as if it were best -for us to live on the essence of a leg of -mutton, brought within the compass of a -pint, than feed on such porterly food as -the mutton prepared in the ordinary way of -roasting or boiling. He maintains, that -the finer the bread, though the quantity be -smaller, the more nutritive.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>The wheaten bread, of the London -baker, is acknowledged to be whitened by -a mixture of alum, which serves to keep -the loaf in better shape, renders it the -whiter, and causes it to imbibe the more -water to increase the quantity of the -bread. Thus he consults his interest, -without regard to the consumer: the -whiter it is, the more adulterated; and, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>as constant experience proves, such bread, -after it is two days old, becomes dry and -husky.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“If bread, made in a private family, of -the same flour as the baker uses, will not -be so white, we must suppose that there is -an art of whitening; and that this would -be no secret, if it were not pernicious.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“The bread recommended, made of all -the flour of the wheat, retains all the good -properties of bread; it is eatable at the -distance of eight or ten days: is it not on -this account the most eligible?”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Take a loaf of the wheaten London -bread, made by the baker in his usual way; -let the same baker make another with all -the flour of the wheat, without any attempt -to whiten or otherwise adulterate it. -Let him keep both in the same temperature -of air, and produce a specimen of each at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>any reasonable distance of time, and it -will be easily seen what the difference is. -This arises not only from <i>mixtures</i>, but the -<i>peculiar manner of raising the sponge</i>.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“In regard to the difference of consuming -new bread of the first day, and -that which has been made for three, four, -or five days, it is computed to be at least a -fourth part. If our present wheaten bread -cannot be eaten with pleasure beyond the -second day, it is not wonderful to discover -at last that we are lighting our candle at -both ends.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“That the vitiated bread agrees with -some people, whether by the force of habit, -or the mixtures it contains, is not disputed; -but in general it is very hurtful.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Great numbers of our fellow-subjects -eat their bread much coarser than the -Londoners: are they weaker? they are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>generally stronger. Some part of the advantage -must be carried to this account.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Let us have time to subdue our prejudices, -and we shall find that bread of all -the flour of the wheat, for the general use, -is better both in quality and price than the -present wheaten bread.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“In regard to the <i>London baker</i>, ask -him of what parts of the wheat his bread is -made, and he frankly acknowledges he -cannot tell; and how should he? He can -buy only what is to be sold; and the -quality is not ascertained with any such -precision as to enable him to answer the -question. He, <i>poor man</i> does the best he -can, not to give a sweet wholesome aliment, -but something which is <i>white</i>. He -knows that bread made of a proper proportion -of the wheat, not only differs in -colour, but is moister at the end of eight -<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>days than <i>his</i> the third day; he likewise -knows that it is sweeter, and has the -native grateful flavour of the wheat, as the -God of Nature hath given it, and not as it -hath been adulterated.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“If the parliament had required us to eat -plum-cake, seed-cake, or sugar-cake, we -should have known that plums, seed, and -sugar, constituted the difference; but from -the moment the law made distinctions in -the division of the flour for three different -kinds of bread for common use, we were -exposed to the mercy of the miller to -give the baker what he pleased, and call -it by what name he pleased; we could -only judge whether the bread pleased us or -not. The miller and the baker divide and -subdivide; and instead of flour for bread, -and the bran that remained, according to -ancient practice, whereby the beggar as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>well as the prince was pleased, <i>bread</i> -became a mystery, and we no longer knew -what we were eating.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Our misfortune, in regard to bread, is, -that we eat it too fine; we decline the use -of barley in bread, having hardly enough -for beer. Oats and pease are rejected: -at length we reject even <i>wheaten flour</i>,—unless -we are supplied with the finest -parts only!—What will befall us in the -end?”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“<i>Custom</i> often makes a law more forcible -than <i>Law-givers</i>, and we have now to -contend with <i>custom</i>.—The first consideration -should be, that the <i>flour</i> which -represents <i>three-fourths of the wheat</i>, shall -be really such, and brought to market in -sacks, marked <i>Standard</i>: the value of it -may be more easily ascertained, than that -of which is made the wheaten bread we now -eat.”</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>“The baker may be a little the more -reluctant to come into this salutary proposal, -as knowing that if he is to decline -the use of alum, flour that is in any degree -musty, or made of wheat that has grown -or vegetated before gathered in, as sometimes -happens, he cannot work it up so -advantageously in the bread now proposed -to be made, as in the wheaten bread.—Be -this as it may, as soon as the baker finds -this <i>standard</i> flour is vendable in bread, he -will buy it; and knowing what part of the -wheat it ought to be, he will work it into -bread with so much the more satisfaction; -and being sensible that we mean to eat -<i>genuine</i> bread, he will cease to <i>whiten</i> it by -any hurtful art. We shall all understand -what we eat, and the trade will be familiar -to us; we shall be so much happier as we -become so much the more honest, and more -healthy than we were before. Such is the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>serious light in which I see the subject -before me.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Every occupation hath its mystery; and -the professors are gratified in thinking -themselves wiser than the rest of the world -in their own way. Every professed <i>cook</i> -of the first rate can melt down a large ham -into the contents of half a pint. The -confectioner uses bitter almonds, which -are poisonous; the oilman colours his -pickles with <i>copper</i>, to render them green; -and the baker uses alum to <i>whiten</i> his -bread, and make his flour imbibe the -more water, by which he makes the more -bread out of the same quantity of flour. -This, and other <i>occasional</i> mixtures of the -flour of different grains, renders his bread -husky, dry, and disagreeable the third -day.—Are we the <i>better</i> for any such -mysteries?”</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>“Whether the wheat be all of one kind, -or <i>married</i>, which is the phrase for mixing -of wheats of different kinds, it will be easy -for people of condition, by experiment, -or by the comparison with genuine bread -made in their families, to know whether -justice be done; though we may easily -discover that the baker for the <i>public</i>, is -generally a better master of his trade than -most housewives are. The <i>mystery</i> may -be thus developed; our health and pleasure -promoted; and our bread be as much -cheaper than it is now, as the gain on the -<i>flour</i> will make it, by using <i>all</i> that the -wheat produces.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Every one may try by grinding and -bolting his own grain, and baking his own -bread, and the manufacturers of bread may -find nearly as good account in bread of all -<i>the flour</i>, which can be so easily ascertained; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>as they do in the wheaten, which is -involved in difficulties.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“The public have administered to their -own delusion, their eyes are shut to their -own advantage. If the wealthy will adopt -the use of the bread in question, the labouring -part of our fellow-subjects will certainly -follow the example; and as to <i>paupers</i>, they -will gladly comply.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Common sense, in all ages, has -achieved wonders.”</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Laws prohibiting the Adulteration of Bread and Bread Flour.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>The adulteration of bread and bread -flour is forbidden by law, as is obvious -from the following acts of parliament:</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>“No person shall put into any corn,<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c014'><sup>[9]</sup></a> -meal, or flour, which shall be ground, -dressed, bolted, or manufactured for sale, -any ingredient or mixture whatsoever, -whereby the same may be adulterated, -or shall sell any flour of one sort of grain -as for the flour of another, but shall only -sell the real genuine meal or flour of the -grain the same shall import to be, under -the penalty of five pounds for every such -offence.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f9'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 883.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“If any person have cause to suspect -that any miller<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c014'><sup>[10]</sup></a> who grinds, dresses, or -bolts any grain for toll or reward, or manufactures -any flour for sale, or that any -baker mixes up with his flour any mixture -or ingredient, not the genuine produce of -the grain, so that the purity of the meal -in any wise be adulterated, and reports the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>same on oath to a magistrate, then, in that -case, such magistrate, or a peace-officer -duly authorized by him, shall enter the -premises of such suspected person, and -search or examine whether such mixture -or ingredient, not the genuine produce of -the grain, is in the possession of such -miller, mealman, or baker; and such meal -and flour as shall be deemed to have been -adulterated may be seized, together with -the base mixtures; and if seized by a -peace-officer, it is to be carried before a -magistrate, but if seized by the magistrate, -he may immediately dispose of it as he -shall think fit. And the person on whose -premises such mixture or ingredient shall -be found, and adjudged to be intended to -be used in adulterating the flour, shall forfeit -a sum not exceeding ten pounds, and -have his name, offence, and place of abode -<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>published in some newspaper that is printed -or circulated near his place of abode, unless -he shall make it appear, to the satisfaction -of the magistrate, that the same -was not lodged there with the intention of -adulterating the flour, but for some other -lawful purpose.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f10'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 888.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“That if any person shall wilfully obstruct<a id='r11' /><a href='#f11' class='c014'><sup>[11]</sup></a> -or hinder any search being made -for such mixtures as are designed to adulterate -the meal or flour, or shall oppose -their being carried away, such person shall -forfeit a sum not exceeding five pounds, -nor less than forty shillings.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f11'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 889.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“And that the good design of these regulations -may be more effectually accomplished, -it shall be lawful for the several -wardmote<a id='r12' /><a href='#f12' class='c014'><sup>[12]</sup></a> inquests of the city of London, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>or any magistrate<a id='r13' /><a href='#f13' class='c014'><sup>[13]</sup></a> or peace-officer authorized -by a warrant from such magistrate, -without the jurisdiction of the city of London, -to enter into any bake-house or shop, -at all seasonable times, to search for and -weigh all the bread therein; and if any of -the loaves are found wanting in the goodness -of the stuff of which they should be -made, or deficient in the due baking or -working thereof, or shall be wanting in the -weight, or shall not be truly marked, such -persons may seize such bread; and, if a -magistrate is not present, it shall be taken -before one, who may dispose of it as he -shall think fit.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f12'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. </span>37 Geo. 3. c. 98. sec. 22.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f13'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 890.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“That if any person shall wilfully<a id='r14' /><a href='#f14' class='c014'><sup>[14]</sup></a> obstruct -or hinder any such search, or prevent -the carrying the same away, he shall, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>on conviction before a magistrate, be fined -a sum not exceeding five pounds, nor less -than twenty shillings.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f14'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 890.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“That it shall be lawful for any magistrate<a id='r15' /><a href='#f15' class='c014'><sup>[15]</sup></a>, -or peace-officer, authorised by a -warrant, and accompanied by one or more -master bakers, to enter, at seasonable -times, any shop or bake-house within the -city of London, or within ten miles of the -Royal Exchange, to search and examine -whether any alum, or other ingredients, -shall have been mixed up with, or put into, -any meal, flour, dough, or bread, in the -possession of any such baker, and also to -search for alum, or any other ingredients, -which may be intended to be used for the -purpose of adulterating the bread; and if, -on enquiry, they find any alum, or other -unlawful ingredients, or that any flour, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>meal, dough, or bread, contains any preparation -of alum, such shall be immediately -seized, and carried before some magistrate -within whose jurisdiction the baker lives, -and who shall dispose of it as he shall think -fit. And if the magistrate is satisfied that -such pernicious ingredients were put into -the bread with the consent or privity of the -baker, or if he acknowledges it himself, or -one or two credible witnesses certify, on -oath, that they know he uses alum, such -baker shall forfeit any sum of money not -exceeding twenty pounds, or be committed -to, and kept at hard labour in, the house of -correction, or some other prison, for six -calendar months, unless he can prove, to -the satisfaction of the magistrate, that the -alum, or other ingredients, were designed -for some lawful purpose. And further, the -magistrate is expressly required to cause -<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>the offender’s name, place of abode, and -offence, to be published in some newspaper -which shall be printed or published in or -near the city of London, or the liberties -thereof.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f15'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. </span>38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 14 and 15.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“That if any person or persons shall wilfully -obstruct<a id='r16' /><a href='#f16' class='c014'><sup>[16]</sup></a> or hinder such search or -seizure, as above described, he or they -shall, for every offence, forfeit and pay any -sum not exceeding ten pounds, nor less -than five, at the discretion of the magistrate -before whom the offender or the offenders -shall be convicted.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f16'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. </span>38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 16.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“That where any baker<a id='r17' /><a href='#f17' class='c014'><sup>[17]</sup></a> shall make a -complaint before a magistrate, and make it -appear that any offence he was charged -with, and paid the penalty of, was occasioned -<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>by the wilful neglect or default of -his journeyman, or other servant, the magistrate -shall issue his warrant for apprehending -the party, and if, on examining -into the matter, it appears that such was -the case, such journeyman, or other servant, -shall be directed immediately to pay -to his master a reasonable recompence in -money, and, on non-payment thereof, he -shall be committed to the house of correction, -or some other prison, and kept to -hard labour, for any time not exceeding -one calendar month, unless payment be -sooner made.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f17'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 891. and 38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 17.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“And, for the better and more easy recovery -of the several penalties<a id='r18' /><a href='#f18' class='c014'><sup>[18]</sup></a> incurred -by disobedience to the several acts, all -offences may be heard and determined in a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>summary way, by the Lord Mayor, or any -other magistrate or magistrates, within -their several jurisdictions, who shall summon -the offenders before them, and if they -do not appear, or offer a reasonable excuse, -they may cause them to be apprehended; -and when the matter is enquired into, and -the party convicted, if he does not pay the -penalty within twenty-four hours, such magistrate -shall issue a warrant of distress -and sale on the goods of the offender; and, -should the goods of the party be removed -into another jurisdiction, the magistrate -thereof is to back the warrant, and the distress, -if not redeemed within five days, is -to be appraised and sold, and all expences -thereby incurred are to be deducted thereout. -And if the offender is possessed of -no goods or chattels that can be seized, -then he shall be committed to the house of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>correction, or some other prison, for one -calendar month, unless payment be sooner -made.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f18'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 892. and 38 Geo. 3. c. 55. -sec. 19.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“That if information<a id='r19' /><a href='#f19' class='c014'><sup>[19]</sup></a>, on oath, is offered -to any magistrate, that any one within -his jurisdiction is likely to offer or give -material evidence in behalf of the prosecutor -of any offender, and refuses voluntarily -to come forward, such magistrate -shall issue a summons to cause him to appear, -and if he still refuses, to grant a warrant -to compel his attendance, and then if -he refuses to be examined, he may be committed -to some public prison for fourteen -days.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f19'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 894.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>That no certiorari<a id='r20' /><a href='#f20' class='c014'><sup>[20]</sup></a>, letters of advocation, -or of suspension, shall be granted, to -remove any conviction or other proceedings -<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>had therein; but if any person is -punished, and he thinks himself aggrieved -by the judgment of a magistrate, he may -appeal to the next quarter sessions, and, in -such case, the execution of the judgment -shall be suspended, upon his entering into -a recognisance, with two sufficient sureties, -in double the sum such person shall be adjudged -to forfeit, to prosecute the appeal, -and abide the determination of the justices -at the said quarter sessions; and if he -makes good his appeal, he shall be discharged -the conviction, and reasonable -costs awarded him, which shall be paid by -the person who lodged the information.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f20'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r20'>20</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 895.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“That no person shall be convicted<a id='r21' /><a href='#f21' class='c014'><sup>[21]</sup></a> of -any offence under these acts, unless the -prosecution shall be commenced against -<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>him within fourteen days after the offence -is committed, except in cases of perjury<a id='r22' /><a href='#f22' class='c014'><sup>[22]</sup></a>; -and no person who shall be prosecuted to -conviction for any offence done or committed -against these acts, shall be liable to -be prosecuted for the same offence under -any other law.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f21'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r21'>21</a>. </span>37 Geo. 3. c. 98. sec. 28.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f22'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r22'>22</a>. </span>38 Geo 3. c. 55. sec. 20.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>“That all penalties, when recovered in -pursuance of these regulations, shall be -disposed of in the manner following: that -is to say, one<a id='r23' /><a href='#f23' class='c014'><sup>[23]</sup></a> moiety thereof to be paid -to the informer, and the other moiety to the -poor of the parish where such offence shall -be committed; and, in case there is no informer, -then the whole sum shall be given -to the poor of the parish, or applied in such -a way as the magistrate, in his discretion, -shall think fit.”</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f23'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r23'>23</a>. </span>31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 897.</p> -</div> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Economical Application of Yeast.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>It frequently happens, in the summer -season, that the brewers, in order to render -their beer less liable to spoil, use more hops -than usual; the consequence of which is, -that the yeast becomes very bitter, and gives -a disagreeable flavour to the bread. To -obviate this inconvenience, Mr. Stone has -recommended the following method of raising -a bushel of flour with only a tea-spoonful -of yeast.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Suppose a bushel of flour be put it into -the kneading trough, then take about three -quarters of a pint of warm water, and one -tea-spoonful of yeast. Stir it in till it is -thoroughly mixed with the water; and -make a hole in the middle of the flour, large -<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>enough to contain two gallons of water. -Pour in the yeast and add some of the -flour until it is a thick liquid paste; strew -some of the dry flour over it, and let it stand -an hour. Then take a quart more of warm -water, and pour it in: in about an hour -it will be seen that the small quantity of -yeast has raised the mixture so, that it will -break through the dry flour placed over it; -and when the warm water has been added, -take a stick and stir in more flour until it -is as thick as before; then shake again -some dry flour over it, and leave it for two -hours more, the mass will rise and break -through the dry flour again; you may then -add three quarts or a gallon of water, and -stir in the flour, and make it into a soft -paste, taking care to cover it with dry flour -again, and in about three or four hours -more the dough may be mixed up, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>covered up warm; and in four or five hours -more it may be made up into loaves, and -put in the oven; and in this manner may -be produced as light a bread as though a -pint of yeast had been used. It does -not take above a quarter of an hour -more than the usual way of baking, for -there is no time lost but that of adding the -water at three or four times. The author -of this method assures us that he constantly -bakes in this way. In the morning, about -six or seven o’clock, he puts the flour in -the trough, and mixes up the spoonful of -yeast with the warm water; in an hour’s -time he adds more flour, in two hours, -again more, and about noon makes up the -dough, and about six in the evening it is put -into the oven: he has always good bread.</p> -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Economical Preparation of Yeast.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>The following economical method of -making yeast is recommended by Dr. Lettsom.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Thicken two quarts of water with four -ounces of fine flour, boil it for half an hour, -then sweeten it with three ounces of brown -sugar; when almost cold, pour it with four -spoonfuls of baker’s yeast into an earthen -jug, deep enough for the fermentation to -go on without running over; place it for a -day near the fire, then pour off the thin -liquor from the top, shake the remainder, -and close it up for use, first straining it -through a sieve. To preserve it sweet, -set it in a cool cellar, or hang it some depth -<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>in a well. Keep always some of this to make -the next quantity of yeast that is wanted. -Mr. I. Kerby recommends the following -method of obtaining yeast from potatoes.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Potatoe Yeast.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>Boil potatoes of the mealy sort, till they -are thoroughly soft, skin and mash them -very smooth, and put as much hot water on -them as will make a mash of the consistency -of common beer yeast, but not thicker. -Add to every pound of potatoes, two ounces -of treacle, and when just warm, stir in for -every pound of potatoes, two large spoonfuls -of yeast. Keep it warm till it has -done fermenting, and in twenty-four hours -it will be fit for use. A pound of potatoes -will make near a quart of yeast, which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>has been found to answer the purpose so -well, as not to be able to distinguish the -bread made with it, from bread made with -brewer’s yeast.</p> -<h3 class='c018'><span class="blackletter">Method of Preserving Yeast.</span></h3> - -<p class='c019'>When yeast is plentiful, take a quantity -and work it well with a whisk until it becomes -thin; then procure a large wooden -dish or platter, clean and dry, and with a -soft brush lay a thin layer of yeast on the -dish, and turn the top downwards to keep -out the dust, but not the air, which is to -dry it. When the first coat is dry, lay on -another, and let that dry, and so continue -till the quantity is sufficient; by this means -it may soon be made two or three inches -<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>thick, when it may be preserved in dry tin -canisters or stopped bottles, for a long -time, good. When used for baking, cut a -piece off and dissolve it in warm water, -when it will be fit for use.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>FINIS.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='small'>C. GREEN, LEICESTER STREET,</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>LEICESTER SQUARE.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>NOTICE.</div> - <div class='c000'><i>The Public are respectfully informed, that a new Edition,</i></div> - <div><i>considerably enlarged (price 9s.), has lately been published</i>,</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>OF</span></div> - <div class='c000'>ACCUM’S</div> - <div class='c000'><span class="blackletter">Treatise on Adulterations of Food,</span></div> - <div class='c000'>AND CULINARY POISONS;</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>Exhibiting the fraudulent Sophistications of Bread, Beer, Wine,</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Spirituous Liquors, Tea, Coffee, Cream, Confectionary,</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Vinegar, Mustard, Pepper, Cheese, Olive Oil,</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Pickles, and other Articles employed in</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Domestic Economy; and Method</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>of detecting them.</span></div> - <div class='c000'>(<i>Copied from the British Review, No. XXIX. p. 171.</i>)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum seems determined that even the outside of his -book shall awaken our fears. The cover of our copy bears a -death’s head emblazoned upon a pall, and, underneath, the motto -“there is death in the pot.” The pall is supported by the -point of a dart. Four other darts support the four corners of the -device. Twelve serpents, with forked tongues and tails entwined, -form a terrific wreath around; while the middle is occupied -with a large cobweb, delineated with much attention to detail, in -the centre of which a spider, full as large as a moderate sized -hazel nut, and so frightful that more than one young lady of our -acquaintance would think it necessary to scream at the sight of -it, holds in its envenomed fangs an ill-fated fly, which is sinking -under the loss of blood, and buzzing in the agonies of death.</p> - -<p class='c009'>We are by no means desirous to raise or maintain a popular -clamour; but Mr. Accum certainly advances some weighty -charges, and his work comes with an advantage in bearing a -name not unknown to the scientific world. Of the adulterations -specified, some are deleterious, and others merely fraudulent. -Accordingly, we shall offer a few extracts, both from the original -matter of Mr. Accum, and from his citations drawn from previous -authors.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“Among the number of substances used in domestic economy which are now -very generally found sophisticated, may be distinguished,—tea, coffee, bread, -beer, wine, spirituous liquors, salad oil, pepper, vinegar, mustard, cream, and -other articles of subsistence. Indeed it would be difficult to mention a single -article of food which is not to be met with in an adulterated state. And there -are some substances which are scarcely ever to be procured genuine.” (P. 3.)</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>But we pass on from the general statements at the beginning of -the work to particulars.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Water, by standing in leaden reservoirs, acquires a highly -deleterious property.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In some particular cases, the consequences have been most -fatal.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“‘A gentleman was the father of a numerous offspring, having had one and -twenty children, of whom eight died young, and thirteen survived their parents. -During their infancy, and indeed <i>until they had quitted the place of their usual -residence, they were all remarkably unhealthy</i>, being particularly subject to -disorders of the stomach and bowels. The father, during many years, was paralytic; -the mother, for a long time was subject to cholics and bilious obstructions.’” -(P. 78, 79.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>These effects were traced to a leaden pump, in the cylinder of -which there were found several perforations, while the cistern -“was reduced to the thinness of common brown paper, and was -full of holes like a sieve.” (P. 79.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>We now come to the adulteration of wine; to many of our -readers, probably, a far more interesting concern than that of -water.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“All persons moderately conversant with the subject are aware, that a portion -of alum is added to young and meagre red wines, for the purpose of brightening -the colour; that Brazil-wood, or the husks of elderberries and bilberries, -are employed to impart a deep rich purple tint to red port of a pale, feint colour; -that gypsom is used to render cloudy white wines transparent; that an additional -astringency is imparted to immature red wines by means of oak-wood -sawdust, and the husks of filberts, and that a mixture of spoiled foreign and -home-made wines is converted into the wretched compound frequently sold in -this town by the name of <i>genuine old Port</i>.... A <i>nutty</i> flavour is produced -by bitter almonds; fictitious Port wine is flavoured with a tincture drawn from -the seeds of raisins, and the ingredients employed to form the <i>bouquet</i> of high-flavoured -wines, are sweet brier, orris-root, clary, cherry-laurel-water, and -elder flowers. The flavouring ingredients used by manufacturers, may all be -purchased by those dealers in wine who are initiated in the mysteries of the -trade. And even a manuscript receipt-book for preparing them, and the -whole mystery of managing all sorts of wines, may be obtained on payment of -a considerable fee.” (P. 95, 97.)</p> - -<p class='c028'>“The particular and separate department in this factitious wine-trade, called -<i>crusting</i>, consists in lining the interior surface of empty wine bottles, in part, -with a red crust of super-tartrate of potash, by suffering a saturated, hot solution -of this salt, coloured with a decoction of Brazil-wood, to chrystallize -within them.” (P. 101, 102.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>But the crusting is not confined to the bottle.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“A correspondent operation is performed on the wooden cask; the whole -interior of which is stained artificially with a chrystalline crust of super-tartrate -of potash, artfully affixed in a manner precisely similar to that before stated. -Thus the wine-merchant, after bottling off a pipe of wine, is enabled to impose -on the understanding of his customers, by taking to pieces the cask, and exhibiting -the beautiful dark-coloured and fine chrystalline crust, as an indubitable -proof of the age of the wine; a practice by no means uncommon to flatter -<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>the vanity of those who pride themselves in their acute discrimination of wines.” -(P. 103, 104)</p> - -<p class='c009'>This our readers will excuse, for it is pleasing to read of impositions -which are practised on the sagacious. But, says Mr. -Accum,</p> - -<p class='c028'>“Several well-authenticated facts have convinced me, that the adulteration -of wine with substances deleterious to health is certainly practised oftener than -is, perhaps, suspected.” (P. 104, 105.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>Presently follows the story of the passengers by the coach, -who dined at Newark. Half a bottle of port made them all ill, -one dangerously. Part of the other half caused the death of an -inhabitant of the place, on whom an inquest was held, and a -verdict returned, of—<i>Died by poison</i>.</p> - -<p class='c009'>A gentleman having been taken severely ill on two successive -days, after drinking each day a pint of Madeira from the same -bottle, his apothecary ordered that it should be examined.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“‘The bottle happened to slip out of the hand of the servant, disclosed a -row of shot wedged forcibly into the angular bent-up circumference of it. On -examining the beads of shot, they crumbled into dust, the outer crust (defended -by a coat of black lead with which the shot is glazed) being alone unacted on, -whilst the remainder of the metal was dissolved. The wine, therefore, had -become contaminated with <i>lead and arsenic</i>, the shot being a compound of -these metals, which no doubt had produced the mischief.’” (P. 113, 114.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>For detecting the presence of lead or any other deleterious -metal in wine, Mr. Accum recommends the <i>wine test</i>.</p> - -<p class='c009'>We now come to that part of the subject, which, as <i>some persons</i> -have thought, <i>is merely the business of ale-drinkers</i>, and -their brethren, the porter-drinkers.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“The fraud of imparting to porter and ale an intoxicating quality by narcotic -substances, appears to have flourished during the period of the late French -war. For, if we examine the importation lists of drugs, it will be noticed that -the quantities of cocculus indicus imported in a given time prior to that period, -will bear no comparison with the quantity imported in the same space of time -during the war, although an additional duty was laid upon this commodity. -Such has been the amount brought into this country in five years, that it far exceeds -the quantity imported during twelve years anterior to the above epoch. -The price of this drug has risen within these ten years from two shillings to -seven shillings the pound.... It was at the period to which we have alluded -that the preparation of an extract of cocculus indicus first appeared, as a new -saleable commodity, in the price-currents of <i>brewers’ druggists</i>. It was at the -same time also that a Mr. Jackson, of notorious memory, fell upon the idea of -brewing beer from various drugs, without any malt and hops. This chemist -did not turn brewer himself, but he struck out the more profitable trade of -teaching his mystery to the brewers for a handsome fee. From that time forward, -written directions and receipt books, for using the chemical preparations -to be substituted for malt and hops, were respectively sold. And many adepts -soon afterwards appeared every where to instruct brewers in the nefarious -practice first pointed out by Mr. Jackson. From that time, also, the fraternity -of brewers’ chemists took its rise. They made it their chief business to send</p> -<p class='c028'><span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>travellers all over the country with lists and samples exhibiting the price and -quality of the articles manufactured by them for the use of brewers only. Their -trade spread far and wide, but it was amongst the country brewers chiefly that -they found the most customers. And it is among them up to the present day, -as I am assured by some of these operators, on whose veracity I can rely, that -the greatest quantities of unlawful ingredients are sold.” (P. 157-160.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>Part of these evils the porter-drinkers bring upon themselves.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“One of the qualities of good porter, is, that it should bear a <i>fine frothy -head</i>, as it is technically termed: because professed judges of this beverage, -would not pronounce the liquor excellent, although it possessed all other good -qualities of porter, without this requisite.—To impart to porter this property of -frothing when poured from one vessel into another, or to produce what is also -termed a <i>cauliflower head</i>, the mixture called <i>beer-heading</i>, composed of common -green vitriol (sulphate of iron) alum and salt, is added. This addition to -the beer is generally made by the publicans.” (P. 182, 183.) It is added in a -note:—”’Alum gives likewise a smack of age to beer, and is penetrating to -the palate.’—<i>S. Child on Brewing</i>, p. 18.” “The great London brewers, it -appears, believe that the publicans alone adulterate the beer.” (P. 211.)</p> - -<p class='c028'>“Capsicum and grains of paradise, two highly acrid substances, are employed -to give a pungent taste to weak insipid beer. Of late, a concentrated -tincture of these articles, to be used for a similar purpose, and possessing a -powerful effect, has appeared in the price-currents of brewers’ druggists. -Ginger root, coriander seed, and orange peels, are employed as flavouring -substances chiefly by the ale brewers.” (P. 184, 185.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>We find the following articles, in a list of illegal ingredients, -seized at various breweries and brewers’ druggists.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“Multum, 84 lbs.; cocculus indicus, 12 lbs.; colouring, 4 galls; honey, about -180 lbs.; hartshorn shavings, 14 lbs.; Spanish juice, 46 lbs.; orange powder, -17 lbs.; ginger, 56 lbs.; grains of paradise, 44 lbs.; quassia, 10 lbs.; liquorice, -64 lbs.; carraway seeds, 40 lbs.; multum, 26 lbs.” “Capsicum, 88 lbs.; copperas, -310 lbs.; colouring and drugs, 84 lbs.; mixed drugs, 240 lbs.; coriander seed, -2 lbs.; beer colouring, 24 gallons.” (P. 186-189.) [The list which includes -these articles is copied from the minutes of the committee of the House of -Commons.]</p> - -<p class='c009'>Some of the substances above enumerated may be thought -comparatively harmless. But others are absolutely poisonous.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“To increase the intoxicating quality of beer, the deleterious <i>vegetable</i> substance, -called <i>cocculus indicus</i>, and the extract of this poisonous berry, technically -called <i>black extract</i>, or by some, <i>hard multum</i>, are employed. Opium, -tobacco, nux vomica, and extracts of poppies, have also been used.—This fraud -constitutes by far the most censurable offence committed by unprincipled brewers. -And it is a lamentable reflection to behold so great a number of brewers -prosecuted, and convicted of this crime. Nor is it less deplorable to find the -names of druggists, eminent in trade, implicated in the fraud, by selling the unlawful -ingredients to brewers for fraudulent purposes.” (P. 205, 206.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>Then follows a list of thirty-four convictions of brewers, for -receiving or using illegal ingredients.—We perfectly agree with -the following observations.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“That a minute portion of an unwholesome ingredient, daily taken in beer, -cannot fail to be productive of mischief, admits of no doubt: and there is reason -to believe that a small quantity of a narcotic substance (and cocculus indicus is</p> -<p class='c028'><span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>a powerful narcotic), daily taken into the stomach, together with an intoxicating -liquor, is highly more efficacious than it would be without the liquor. The -effect may be gradual; and a strong constitution, especially if it be assisted -with constant and hard labour, may counteract the destructive consequences -perhaps for many years. But it never fails to show its baneful effects at last.” -(P. 209, 210.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>We now come to the business of another small portion of the -community, namely, the <i>tea-drinkers</i>. Perhaps the following -descriptions will assist them in forming a diagnosis.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“All the samples of spurious green tea (nineteen in number) which I have -examined, were coloured with carbonate of copper, (a poisonous substance), -and not by means of verdigrise, or copperas.” (P. 240.) “Mr. Twining -asserts, that ‘the leaves of spurious tea are boiled in a copper, with copperas -and sheep’s dung.’” (P. 240. Note.) “Tea rendered poisonous by carbonate -of copper, speedily imparts to liquid ammonia, a fine sapphire blue tinge. It is -only necessary to shake up in a stopped vial, for a few minutes, a tea-spoonful -of the suspected leaves, with about two table-spoonsful of liquid ammonia, -diluted with half its bulk of water. The supernatant liquid will exhibit a fine -blue colour, if the minutest quantity of copper be present. Green tea, coloured -with carbonate of copper, when thrown into water impregnated with sulphuretted -hydrogen gas, immediately acquires a black colour. Genuine green tea, -suffers no change from the action of these tests.” (P. 241.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>The following extracts may perhaps prove interesting to -<i>brandy-drinkers</i>.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“‘It is a custom among retailing distillers, which I have not taken notice of -in this directory, to put one third or one fourth part of proof molasses brandy, -proportionably, to what rum they dispose of; which cannot be distinguished, -but by an extraordinary palate, and does not at all lessen the body or proof of -the goods; but makes them about two shillings a gallon cheaper; and must be -well mixed and incorporated together in your retailing cask. But you should -keep some of the best rum, not adulterated, to please your customers, whose -judgment and palate must be humoured.—When you are to draw a sample of -goods to show a person that has judgment in the proof, do not draw your goods -into a phial to be tasted, or make experiment of the strength thereof that way, -because the proof will not hold except the goods be exceedingly strong. But -draw the pattern of goods either into a glass from the cock, to run very small, -or rather draw off a small quantity into a little pewter pot, and pour it into your -glass, extending your pot as high above the glass as you can without wasting -it, which makes the goods carry a better head abundantly, than if the same -goods were to be put and tried in a phial.—You must be so prudent as to make -a distinction of the persons you have to deal with. What goods you sell to -gentlemen for their own use, who require a great deal of attendance, and as -much for time of payment, you must take a considerably greater price than of -others; what goods you sell to persons where you believe there is a manifest, -or at least some hazard of your money, you may safely sell for more than common -profit; what goods you sell to the poor, especially medicinally, (as many -of your goods are sanative), be as compassionate as the cases require.—All -brandies, whether French, Spanish, or English, being proof goods, will -admit of one pint of <i>liquor</i>‘ (<i>water</i>) ‘to each gallon, to be made up and incorporated -therewith in your cask, for retail, or selling smaller quantities. And -all persons that insist upon having proof goods, which not one in twenty understand, -you must supply out of what goods are not so reduced, though at a -higher price.’” (P. 267-270.)</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>Some of the adulterations of spirituous liquors are exceedingly -pernicious.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“Another method of fining spirituous liquors, consists in adding to it, first, a -solution of sub-acetate of lead, and then a solution of alum. This practice is -highly dangerous, because part of the sulphate of lead produced, remains dissolved -in the liquor, which it thus renders poisonous.” (P. 284.) “The -cordial called shrub frequently exhibits vestiges of copper.” (P. 285.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>Gloucester Cheese has been found contaminated with red lead. -The article used in colouring cheese is anotto. In one instance, -the anotto, being inferior, had been coloured with vermilion; -and the vermilion adulterated by a druggist, (who little thought -that it would ever enter into the composition of cheese,) with red -lead. The account of the whole transaction as given by Mr. -Accum, is worth reading, but too long to be extracted.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Cayenne pepper, “is sometimes adulterated with red lead, to -prevent its becoming bleached on exposure to light.” (P. 305.) -Pickles “are sometimes intentionally coloured by means of copper.” -(P. 306.) “Mrs. E. Raffald directs, ‘to render pickles -green, boil them with halfpence, or allow them to stand twenty-four -hours in copper or brass pans.’” (P. 309.) “Vinegar is -sometimes largely adulterated with sulphuric acid, to give it -more acidity.” (P. 311.) “Red sugar drops are usually -coloured with the inferior kind of vermilion. This pigment is -generally adulterated with red lead. Other kinds of sweetmeats -are sometimes rendered poisonous by being coloured with preparations -of copper.” (P. 315, 316.) “The foreign conserves -... are frequently impregnated with copper.” (P. 317.) -“Quantities” of catsup “are daily to be met with, which on a -chemical examination, are found to abound with copper.” (P. -319.) “The quantity of copper which we have more than once -detected in this sauce, used for seasoning, and which, on account -of its cheapness, is much resorted to by people in the lower -walks of life, has exceeded the proportion of lead to be met with -in other articles employed in domestic economy.” (P. 320.) -“The leaves of the cherry-laurel, <i>prunus laurocerasus</i>, a -poisonous plant,” are used to flavour custards, <i>blanc-mange</i>, and -other delicacies of the table. (P. 324.) An instance is given -of the dangerous consequences of this practice. (P. 325, 326.) -“The water distilled from cherry-laurel leaves is frequently -mixed with brandy and other spirituous liquors.” (P. 327.) Several -samples of anchovy sauce “have been found contaminated -with lead.” (P. 328.) It is not unusual to employ, in preparing -this sauce, “a certain quantity of Venetian red, added for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>the purpose of colouring it, which, if genuine, is an innocent -colouring substance. But instances have occurred of this pigment -having been adulterated with orange lead, which is nothing -else than a better kind of minimum or red oxid of lead.” (P, -328, 329.) In lozenges, “the adulterating ingredient is usually -pipe-clay, of which a liberal portion is substituted for sugar.” -(P. 330.) Dr. T. Lloyd says, “‘I was informed,’” (at a -<i>respectable</i> chemist’s shop in the city) “‘that there were two -kinds of ginger lozenges kept for sale, the one at three-pence -the once, and the other at six-pence; and that the article furnished -to me by mistake was the cheaper commodity. The -latter were distinguished by the epithet <i>verum</i>, they being composed -of sugar and ginger only. But the former were manufactured -partly of white Cornish clay, with a portion of sugar -only, with ginger and Guinea pepper. I was likewise informed, -that of Tolu lozenges, peppermint lozenges, and ginger pearls, -and several other sorts or lozenges, two kinds were kept; that -the <i>reduced</i> prices, as they were called, were manufactured for -those very clever persons in their own conceit, who are fond of -haggling, and insist on buying better bargains than other people, -shutting their eyes to the defects of an article, so that they -can enjoy the delight of getting it cheap: and, secondly, for -those persons, who being but bad paymasters, yet as the manufacturer, -for his own credit’s sake, cannot charge more than the -usual price of the article, he thinks himself therefore authorized -to adulterate it in value, to make up for the risk he runs, and -the long credit he must give.’” (P. 332, 333.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>Well—there is then some honesty left in the world. What a -pleasure it is to have to deal with a <i>respectable</i> man. But we -return to the practices of the <i>knaves</i>.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Olive oil “is sometimes contaminated with lead.” (P. 334.) -The dealers in this commodity assert that lead or pewter “prevents -the oil from becoming rancid. And hence some retailers -often suffer a pewter measure to remain immersed in the oil.” -(P. 336.) “The beverage called soda water is frequently contaminated -both with copper and lead.” (P. 351.) Mr. Johnston, -of Greek Street, Soho, was the first who pointed out the danger -to the public. “Many kinds of viands are frequently impregnated -with copper, in consequence of the employment of cooking -utensels made of that metal. By the use of such vessels in -dressing food, we are daily liable to be poisoned.” (P. 352.) -“Mr. Thiery, who wrote a thesis on the noxious quality of copper, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>observes that ‘our food receives its quantity of poison, in -the kitchen by the use of copper pans and dishes. The brewer -mingles poison in our beer, by boiling it in copper vessels. -The sugar-baker employs copper pans. The pastry-cook bakes -our tarts in copper moulds. The confectioner uses copper vessels. -The oilman boils his pickles in copper or brass vessels, -and verdigrise is plentifully formed by the action of the vinegar -upon the metal.’” (P. 353, 354.) Moreover, “various kinds -of food, used in domestic economy, are liable to become impregnated -with lead.” (P. 359.)</p> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum, speaking on the subject of Beer, says,</p> - -<p class='c028'>“It will be noticed that some of the sophistications are comparatively harmless, -whilst others are affected by substances deleterious to health.” (P. 185.)</p> - -<p class='c028'>We think, however, that the candour of Mr. Accum leads him to make too -much allowance for this consideration throughout. Surely, though many articles -of food be not absolutely poisonous, a diet consisting of drugs and chemical -compounds and articles never intended by nature to be eaten or drunk, articles -for which, presented simple, the hungriest stomach would feel no appetite or -inclination, cannot be wholesome. Brick and mortar are not poison; yet we -cannot, like the dragon of Wantley, swallow a church, and pick our teeth with -the steeple. Many can eat oysters, but few could manage the oyster-knife. -Even the Welshman of King Arthur’s court, fond as he was of toasted cheese, -would inevitably have been choked by the mouse that ran down his throat to -eat it, had he not “pulled him out by the tail.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>We could give farther extracts; but must refer the reader to -the work itself, which contains much interesting matter, besides -what we have selected. THE MONEY THAT IS OFTEN -LAID OUT IN THE PURCHASE OF COOKERY BOOKS, -WHICH TEACH THE ART OF EXCITING DISEASE AND -PAIN BY DUBIOUS COMBINATIONS AND CULINARY -POISONS, MIGHT, WE THINK, BE MUCH BETTER EXPENDED -UPON A BOOK LIKE THE PRESENT; EVERY -PAGE OF WHICH GIVES WARNING OF SOME DANGER, -OF WHICH WE OUGHT ALL TO BE AWARE.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>A</div> - <div class='c000'><span class="blackletter"><span class='xxlarge'>Treatise on Adulterated Provisions.</span></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xlarge'><span class='sc'>By</span> FREDRICK ACCUM.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c002' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>THERE IS DEATH IN THE POT.</div> - <div class='c000'>II. KINGS—CHAP. VI. VERSE XI.</div> - <div class='c000'>(<i>From Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, No. XXXV. Page 542.</i>)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum, it appears, is -one of those very good-natured -friends, who is quite resolved -not to allow us to be cheated -and poisoned as our fathers -were before us, and our children -will be after us, without -cackling to us of our danger, -and opening our eyes to -abysses of fraud and imposition, -of the very existence of -which we had until now the -good fortune to be entirely ignorant. -His book is a perfect -death’s head, a memento mori, -the perusal of any single chapter -of which is enough to throw -any man into the blue devils -for a fortnight. Mr. Accum -puts us something in mind of -an officious blockhead, who, -instead of comforting his dying -friend, is continually jogging -him on the elbow with such -cheering assurances as the following. -“I am sorry there is -no hope; my dear fellow, you -must kick the bucket soon. -Your liver is diseased, your -lungs gone, your bowels as impenetrable -as marble, your legs -swelled like door-posts, your -face as yellow as a guinea, and -the doctor just now assured me -you could not live a week.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum’s work is evidently -written in the same spirit -of dark and melancholy anticipation, -which pervades Dr. -Robison’s celebrated “Proofs -of a Conspiracy, &c. against -all the crowned heads of Europe.” -The conspiracy disclosed -by Mr. Accum is certainly -of a still more dreadful -nature, and is even more widely -ramified than that which excited -so much horror in the worthy -professor. It is a conspiracy -of brewers, bakers, grocers, -wine-merchants, confectioners, -apothecaries, and cooks, against -the lives of all and every one of -his majesty’s liege subjects. -It is easy to see that Mr. -Accum’s nerves are considerably -agitated, that—</p> - -<p class='c028'>“Sad forebodings shake him as he writes.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>Not only at the festive board is -he haunted by chimeras dire -of danger—not only does he -tremble over the tureen—and -faint over the flesh-pot: but -even in his chintz night-gown, -and red morocco slippers, he is -not secure. An imaginary -sexton is continually jogging -his elbow as he writes, a death’s -head and cross bones rise on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>his library table; and at the -end of his sofa he beholds a -visionary tomb-stone of the best -granite—</p> - -<p class='c009'>ON WHICH ARE INSCRIBED THE DREADFUL WORDS—</p> - -<div class='figcenter id004'> -<img src='images/i010.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><i>Hic Jacet</i>,<br /><span class='large'>FREDRICK ACCUM</span>,<br />Operative Chemist,<br /><span class='xsmall'>OLD COMPTON STREET,</span><br /><i>SOHO</i>.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Since we read his book, our -appetite has visibly decreased. -At the Celtic club, yesterday, -we dined almost entirely on -roast beef; Mr. Oman’s London-particular -Madeira lost all -its relish, and we turned pale -in the act of eating a custard, -when we recollected the dreadful -punishment inflicted on -custard-eaters, in page 326 of -the present work. We beg to -assure our friends, therefore, -that at the present moment -they may invite us to dinner -with the greatest impunity.—Our -diet is at present quite similar -to that of Parnel’s hermit,</p> - -<p class='c009'>“Our food the fruits, our drink the crystal well;”</p> -<p class='c016'>though we trust a few days will -recover us from our panic, and -enable us to resume our former -habits of life. Those of our -friends, therefore, who have -any intention of pasturing us, -had better not lose the present -opportunity of doing so. So -favourable a combination of -circumstances must have been -quite unhoped for on their part, -and most probably will never -occur again.<a id='r24' /><a href='#f24' class='c014'><sup>[24]</sup></a> V. S.</p> - -<div class='footnote c015' id='f24'> -<p class='c016'><span class='label'><a href='#r24'>24</a>. </span>To save some trouble, we may announce that we are already engaged to -dinner, on the 23d, 27th, and 28th of this month, and to evening parties, on the -22d, 23d, 26th, 28th, and 29th, and 3d of March.</p> -</div> -<p class='c009'>Since, by the publication of -Mr. Accum’s book, an end has -been for ever put to our former -blessed state of ignorance, let -us arm ourselves with philosophy, -and boldly venture to look -our danger in the face; or, as -the poet beautifully expresses -it, in language singularly applicable,</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c029'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>“Come, Christopher, and leave all meaner things,</div> - <div class='line'>To low ambition and the pride of kings;</div> - <div class='line'>Let us, since life can little else supply;</div> - <div class='line'>Than just to swallow poison and to die;</div> - <div class='line'>Expatiate free o’er all this dreadful field,</div> - <div class='line'>Try what the brewer, what the baker yield;</div> - <div class='line'>Explore the druggists’ shop, the butchers’ stall;</div> - <div class='line'>Expose their roguery, and—damn them all!”</div> - <div class='c007'><span class='sc'>Pope.</span></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Melancholy as the details are, -there is something almost ludicrous, -we think, in the very -extent to which the deceptions -are carried. So inextricably -are we all immersed in this -mighty labyrinth of fraud, that -even the venders of poison -themselves are forced, by a -sort of retributive justice, to -swallow it in their turn.—Thus -the apothecary, who sells -the poisonous ingredients to -the brewer, chuckles over his -roguery, and swallows his own -drugs in his daily copious exhibitions -of Brown stout. The -brewer in his turn, is poisoned -by the baker, the wine-merchant, -and the grocer. And, -whenever the baker’s stomach -fails him, he meets his <i>coup -de grace</i> in the adulterated -drugs of his friend the apothecary, -whose health he has been -gradually contributing to undermine, -by feeding him every -morning on chalk and alum, in -the shape of hot rolls.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Our readers will now, we -think, be able to form a general -idea of the perils to which they -are exposed by every meal.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum’s details on the -adulteration of wine are extremely -ample, and so interesting, -that we regret our limits -prevent our making more copious -extracts, and oblige us to -refer our readers for farther information -to the work itself.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Having thus laid open to our -view the arcana of the cellar, -Mr. Accum next treats us with -an expose of the secrets of the -brew-house. Verily, the wine-merchant -and brewer are <i>par -nobile fratrum</i>; and after the -following disclosures, it will -henceforth be a matter of the -greatest indifference to us, whether -we drink Perry or Champaigne, -Hermitage or Brown -stout. <i>Latet anguis in poculo</i>, -there is disease and death in -them all, and one is only preferable -to the other, because it -will poison us at about one-tenth -of the expense.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“Malt liquors, and particularly -porter, the favourite beverage of the -inhabitants of London and of other -large towns, is amongst those articles, -in the manufacture of which the greatest -frauds are frequently committed.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“The practice of adulterating beer -appears to be of early date. To shew -that they have augmented in our own -days, we shall exhibit an abstract from -documents laid lately before Parliament.</p> - -<p class='c028'>“Mr. Accum not only amply proves, -that unwholesome ingredients are used -by fraudulent brewers, and that very -deleterious substances are also vended -both to brewers and publicans for -adulterating beer, but that the ingredients -mixed up in the brewer’s enchanting -cauldron are placed above -all competition, even with the potent -charms of Macbeth’s witches:</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c029'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>‘Root of hemlock, digg’d i’ the dark,</div> - <div class='line in2'>* * * *</div> - <div class='line in2'>* * * *</div> - <div class='line'>For a charm of pow’rful trouble.</div> - <div class='line'>Like a hell-broth boil and bubble;</div> - <div class='line'>Double, double, toil and trouble,</div> - <div class='line'>Fire burn, and cauldron bubble.’</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum very properly -gives us a list of those miscreants -who have been convicted -of adulterating their porter -with poisonous ingredients, and -want of room alone prevents us -from damning them to everlasting -fame, by inserting their -names along with that of the -Rev. Sennacherib Terrot, in the -imperishable pages of this miscellany.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum gives us a long -dissertation on counterfeit tea, -and another on spurious coffee; -but as these are impositions by -which we are little affected, we -shall not allow them to detain -us. The leaves of the sloe-thorn -are substituted for the former, -and roasted horse beans for the -latter. These frauds, it appears, -are carried to a very -great extent.</p> - -<p class='c009'>We must now draw our extracts -to a close; but we can -assure our readers, that we have -not yet introduced them to one -tythe of the poisonous articles -in common use, detected by -Mr. Accum. We shall give -the titles of a few to satisfy -the curious:—Poisonous confectionary, -poisonous pickles, -poisonous cayenne pepper, poisonous -custards, poisonous anchovy -sauce, poisonous lozenges, -poisonous lemon acid, poisonous -mushrooms, poisonous ketchup, -and poisonous soda water! -Read this, and wonder -how you live!</p> - -<p class='c009'>While we thus suffer under -accumulated miseries brought -upon us by the unprincipled -avarice and cupidity of others, -it is surely incumbent on us -not wantonly to increase the -catalogue by any negligence or -follies of our own. Will it be -believed, that in the cookery -book, which forms the prevailing -oracle of the kitchens in -this part of the island, there is -an express injunction to “<i>boil -greens with halfpence</i> in order -to improve their <i>colour</i>?”—That -our puddings are frequently -seasoned with laurel leaves, -and our sweetmeats almost uniformly -prepared in copper vessels? -Why are we thus compelled -to swallow a supererogatorary -quantity of poison which -may so easily be avoided? -And why are we constantly -made to run the risk of our -lives by participating in custards, -trifles, and blancmanges, -seasoned by a most deadly poison -extracted from the <i>prunus -lauro-cerasus</i>? Verily, while -our present detestable system -of cookery remains, we may -exclaim with the sacred historian, -that there is indeed -“Death in the Pot.”</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span><span class='xxlarge'><span class="blackletter">A Treatise on Adulterations of Food,</span></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xlarge'>AND CULINARY POISONS,</span></div> - <div class='c000'>Exhibiting the Fraudulent Sophistications of Bread, Beer, Wine,</div> - <div>Spirituous Liquors, &c. and Methods of detecting them.</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='large'><span class='sc'>By</span> FREDRICK ACCUM.</span></div> - <div class='c000'>(<i>From the Edinburgh Review, No. LXV. Page 131.</i>)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>It is curious to see how vice varies its forms, and maintains -its substance, in all conditions of society;—and how certainly -those changes, or improvements as we call them, which diminish -one class of offences, aggravate or give birth to another.—In -rude and simple communities, most crimes take the shape of -violence and outrage—in polished and refined ones, of Fraud. -Men sin from their animal propensities in the first case, and from -their intellectual depravation in the second. The one state of -things is prolific of murders, batteries, rapines, and burnings—the -other of forgeries, swindlings, defamations, and seductions. -The sum of evil is probably pretty much the same in both—though -probably greatest in the civilized and enlightened stages; -the sharpening of the intellect, and the spread of knowledge, -giving prodigious force and activity to all criminal propensities.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Among the offences which are peculiar to a refined and enlightened -society, and owe their birth, indeed, to its science and -refinement, are those skilful and dexterous adulterations of the -manifold objects of its luxurious consumption, to which their -value and variety, and the delicacy of their preparation, hold -out so many temptations; while the very skill and knowledge -which are requisite in their formation, furnish such facilities for -their sophistication. The very industry and busy activity of -such a society, exposes it more and more to such impostures;—and -by the division of labour which takes place, and confines -every man to his own separate task, brings him into a complete -dependence on the industry of others for a supply of the most -necessary articles.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The honesty of the dealer, and of the original manufacturer, is -the only security to the public for the genuineness of the article -in which he deals. The consumer can in general know nothing -of their component parts; he must take them as he finds them; -and, even if he is dissatisfied, he has in general no effectual -means of redress.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>It will be found, that as crimes of violence decrease with the -progress of society, frauds are multiplied; and there springs up -in every prosperous country a race of degenerate traders and -manufacturers, whose business is to cheat and to deceive; who -pervert their talents to the most dishonest purposes, prefering -the illicit gains thus acquired to the fair profits of honorable -dealing; and counter-working, by their sinister arts, the general -improvement of society.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In almost every branch of manufacture, there are fraudulent -dealers, who are instigated by the thirst of gain, to debase the -articles which they vend to the public, and to exact a high price -for what is comparatively cheap and worthless. After pointing -out various deceptions of this nature, Mr. Accum, the ingenious -author of the work before us, proceeds in his account of those -frauds, in the following terms.</p> - -<p class='c028'>‘Soap used in house-keeping is frequently adulterated with a considerable -portion of fine white clay, brought from St. Stephen’s in Cornwall. In the manufacture -of printing paper, a large quantity of plaster of Paris is added to the -paper stuff, to increase the weight of the manufactured article. The selvage of -cloth is often dyed with a permanent colour, and artfully stitched to the edge of -cloth dyed with a fugitive dye. The frauds committed in the tanning of skins, -and in the manufacture of cutlery, and jewellery, exceed belief.’ pp. 27-29.</p> - -<p class='c009'>What is infinitely worse, however, than any of those frauds, -sophistications, we are informed, are carried on to an equal extent -in all the essential articles of subsistence or comfort. So -long as our dishonest dealers do not intermeddle with these -things, their deceptions are comparatively harmless; the evil in -all such cases amounting only to so much pecuniary damage. -But when they begin to tamper with food, or with articles connected -with the table, their frauds are most pernicious: in all -cases the nutritive quality of the food is injured, by the artificial -ingredients intermixed with it; and when these ingredients, as -frequently happens, are of a poisonous quality, they endanger -the health and even the life of all to whom they are vended. -We cannot conceive any thing more diabolical than those -contrivances; and we consider their authors in a far worse light -than ordinary felons, who, being known, can be duly guarded -against. But those fraudulent dealers conceal themselves under -the fair show of a reputable traffic—they contrive in this manner -to escape the infamy which justly belongs to them—and, under -the disguise of wealth, credit, and character, to lurk in the bosom -of society, wounding the hand that cherishes them, and scattering -around them poison and death.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>It is chiefly for the purpose of laying open the dishonest -artifices of this class of dealers, that Mr. Accum has published -the present very interesting and popular work; and he gives a -most fearful view of the various and extensive frauds which are -daily practised on the unsuspecting public.</p> - -<p class='c028'>‘Among the number of substances used in domestic economy, which are now -very generally found sophisticated, may be distinguished—tea, coffee, bread, -beer, wine, spirituous liquors, salad oil, pepper, vinegar, mustard, cream, and -other articles of subsistence.—Indeed, it would be difficult to mention a single -article of food which is not to be met with in an adulterated state; and there are -some substances which are scarcely ever to be procured genuine.—Some of these -spurious compounds are comparatively harmless when used as food; and as, in -these cases, merely substances of inferior value are substituted for more costly -and genuine ingredients, the sophistication, though it may affect our purse, does -not injure our health. Of this kind are the manufacture of factitious pepper, -the adulterations of mustard, vinegar, cream, &c. Others, however, are highly -deleterious; and to this class belong the adulterations of beer, wines, spirituous -liquors, pickles, salad oil, and many others.’ pp. 2-4.</p> - -<p class='c009'>There are, it appears, particular chemists who make it their -sole employment to supply the unprincipled brewer of porter and -ale with drugs, and other deleterious preparations; while others -perform the same office to the wine and spirit merchant, as well -as to the grocer and oilman—and these illicit pursuits have -assumed all the order and method of a regular trade.</p> - -<p class='c028'>‘The eager and insatiable thirst for gain’ (Mr. Accum justly observes), -which seems to be a leading characteristic of the times, calls into action every -human faculty, and gives an irresistible impulse to the power of invention; -and where lucre becomes the reigning principle, the possible sacrifice of a -fellow-creature’s life is a secondary consideration.’</p> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum having exhibited this general view of his subject, -proceeds to enter into an examination of the articles most commonly -counterfeited, and to explain the nature of the ingredients -used in sophisticating them. He commences with a dissertation -on the qualities of good water, in which he briefly points out the -dangerous sophistications to which it is liable, from the administration -of foreign ingredients.</p> - -<p class='c009'>But in the case of water, the adulteration is purely accidental, -which cannot be said of the other articles specified by Mr. Accum. -In the making of Bread, more especially in London, various -ingredients are occasionally mingled with the dough. To suit -the caprice of his customers, the baker is obliged to have his -bread light and porous, and of a pure white. It is impossible to -produce this sort of bread from flour alone, unless it be of the -finest quality. The best flour, however, being mostly used by -the biscuit-bakers and pastry-cooks, it is only from the inferior -<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>sorts that bread is made; and it becomes necessary, in order to -have it of that light and porous quality, and of a fine white, to -mix alum with the dough. Without this ingredient, the flour -used by the London bakers would not yield so white a bread as -that sold in the metropolis.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Wine appears to be a subject for the most extensive and -pernicious frauds.</p> - -<p class='c028'>‘All persons (Mr. Accum observes) moderately conversant with the subject, -are aware, that a portion of alum is added to young and meagre red wines, for -the purpose of brightening their colour; that Brazil wood, or the husks of elderberries -and bilberries, which are imported from Germany, under the fallacious -name of <i>berry-dye</i>, are employed to impart a deep rich purple tint to red port of -a pale colour; that gypsum is used to render cloudy white wines transparent; -that an additional astringency is imparted to immature red wines by means of -oak-wood and sawdust, and the husks of filberts; and that a mixture of spoiled -foreign and home-made wines is converted into the wretched compound frequently -sold in the metropolis by the name <i>genuine old Port</i>.’</p> - -<p class='c009'>Other expedients are resorted to, in order to give flavour to -insipid wines. For this purpose bitter almonds are occasionally -employed; factitious port wine is also flavoured with a tincture -drawn from the seeds of raisins; and other ingredients are frequently -used, such as sweet brier, orris root, clary, cherry-laurel -water, and elder flowers.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In London, the sophistication of wine is carried to an enormous -extent, as well as the art of manufacturing spurious wine, which -has become a regular trade, in which a large capital is invested; -and it is well known that many thousand pipes of spoiled cider -are annually sent to the metropolis for the purpose of being converted -into an imitation of port wine.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Innumerable are the tricks practised to deceive the unwary, by -giving to weak, thin, and spoiled wines, all the characteristic -marks of age, and also of flavour and strength. In carrying on -these illicit occupations, the division of labour has been -completely established; each has his own task assigned him -in the confederate work of iniquity; and thus they acquire -dexterity for the execution of their mischievous purposes. To -one class is allotted the task of <i>crusting</i>, which consists in lining -the interior surface of empty wine bottles with a red crust. -This is accomplished by suffering a saturated hot solution of -super-tartrate of potash, coloured red with a decoction of Brazil -wood to chrystallize within them. A similar operation is frequently -performed on the wooden cask which is to hold the -wine, and which, in the same manner as the bottle, is artificially -stained with a red crust; and on some occasions, the lower extremities -<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>of the corks in wine bottles are also stained red, in -order to give them the appearance of having been long in contact -with the wine. It is the business of a particular class of wine-coopers, -by means of an astringent extract mixed with home-made -and foreign wines, to produce ‘genuine old port,’ or to give an -artificial flavour and colour to weak wine; while the mellowing -and restoring of spoiled white wines is the occupation of another -class called refiners of wine. Other deceptions are practised by -fraudulent dealers, which are still more culpable. The most -dangerous of these is where wine is adulterated by an admixture -of lead.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum justly observes, that the ‘merchant or dealer who -practises this dangerous sophistication, adds the crime of murder -to that of fraud, and deliberately scatters the seeds of disease -and death among those customers who contribute to his emolument.’</p> - -<p class='c009'>Spirituous liquors, which in this country form one of the chief -articles of consumption, are subjects of equally extensive fraud -with wine. The deceptions which are practised by the dealers -in this article, are chiefly confined to fraudulent imitations of the -peculiar flavour of different sorts of spirits; and as this flavour -constitutes, along with the strength, the value of the spirit, the -profit of the dealer consists in imitating this quality at a cheaper -rate than it is produced in the genuine spirit. The flavour of -French brandy is imitated, by distilling British molasses spirit -over wine lees; previous to which, however, the spirit is deprived -of its peculiar disagreeable flavour, by rectification over fresh-burnt -charcoal and quicklime. This operation is performed by -those who are called brewers’ druggists, and forms the article in -the <i>prices-current</i> called <i>Spirit Flavour</i>. Wine lees are -imported into this country for the purpose, and they pay the -same duty as foreign wines. Another method of imitating the -flavour of brandy, which is adopted by brandy merchants, is by -means of a spirit obtained from raisin wine, after it has begun -to become somewhat sour. ‘Oak sawdust,’ (Mr. Accum -observes), ‘and a spirituous tincture of raisin stones, are likewise -used to impart to new brandy and rum a <i>ripe taste</i>, resembling -brandy or rum long kept in oaken casks, and a somewhat oily -consistence, so as to form a durable froth at its surface, when -strongly agitated in a vial. The colouring substances are burnt -sugar, or molasses; the latter gives to imitative brandy a luscious -taste, and fulness in the mouth.’ Gin, which is sold in small -<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>quantities to those who judge of the strength by the taste, is -made up for sale by fraudulent dealers with water and sugar; -and this admixture rendering the liquor turbid, several expedients -are resorted to, in order to clarify it; some of which are harmless, -while others are criminal. A mixture of alum with subcarbonate -of potash, is sometimes employed for this purpose; but more -frequently, in place of this, a solution of subacetate of lead, and -then a solution of alum,—a practice reprobated by Mr. Accum -as highly dangerous, owing to the admixture of the lead with -the spirit, which thereby becomes poisonous. After this operation, -it is usual to give a false appearance of strength to the -spirit by mixing with it grains of paradise, guinea pepper, -capsicum, and other acrid and aromatic substances.</p> - -<p class='c009'>In the manufacture of malt liquors, a wide field is opened for -the operations of fraud. The immense quantity of the article -consumed, presents an irresistible temptation to the unprincipled -dealer; while the vegetable substances with which beer is -adulterated, are in all cases difficult to be detected, and are frequently -beyond the reach of chemical analysis. There is, accordingly, -no article which is the subject of such varied and extensive -frauds. These are committed in the first instance by the brewer, -during the process of manufacture, and afterwards by the dealer, -who deteriorates, by fraudulent intermixtures, the liquor which -he sells to the consumer. ‘The intoxicating qualities of porter -(he continues) are to be ascribed to the various drugs intermixed -with it;’ and, as some sorts of porter are more heady than others, -the difference arises, according to this author, ‘from the greater -or less quantity of stupifying ingredients’ contained in it. These -consist of various substances, some of which are highly deleterious. -Thus, the extract disguised under the name of <i>black -extract</i>, and ostensibly destined for the use of tanners and -dyers, is obtained by boiling the berries of the <i>cocculus indicus</i> -in water, and converting, by a subsequent evaporation, this -decoction into a stiff black tenacious mass, possessing in a high -degree the narcotic and intoxicating quality of the poisonous -berry from which it is prepared. Quassia is another substance -employed in place of hops, to give the beer a bitter taste; and -the shavings of this wood are sold in a half torrified and ground -state, in order to prevent its being recognised.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Not only is the use of all these deleterious substances strictly -prohibited to the brewer under severe penalties, but all druggists -<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>or grocers convicted of supplying him with any of them, -or who have them in their possession, are liable to severe penalties; -and Mr. Accum gives a list of twenty-nine convictions for -this offence, from the year 1812 to 1819. From the year 1813 -to 1819, the number of brewers prosecuted and convicted of -using illegal ingredients in their breweries, amounts to thirty-four. -Numerous seizures have also been made during the same -period at various breweries, and in the warehouses of brewers’-druggists, -of illegal ingredients, to be used in the brewing of -beer, some of them highly deleterious.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Malt liquors, after they are delivered by the brewer to the -retail-dealer, are still destined to undergo various mutations -before they reach the consumer. It is a common practice with -the retailers of beer, though it be contrary to law, to mix table-beer -with strong beer; and, to disguise this fraud, recourse is -had to various expedients. It is a well known property of genuine -beer, that when poured from one vessel into another, it -bears a strong white froth, without which professed judges would -not pronounce the liquor good. This property is lost, however, -when table-beer is mixed with strong beer; and to restore it, a -mixture of what is called <i>beer-heading</i> is added, composed of -common green vitriol, alum, and salt. To give a pungent taste -to weak insipid beer, capsicum and grains of paradise, two -highly acrid substances, are employed; and, of date, a concentrated -tincture of these articles has appeared for sale in the -prices-current of brewers’-druggists. To bring beer forward, -as it is technically called, or to make it hard, a portion of sulphuric -acid is mixed with it, which, in an instant, produces an -imitation of the age of eighteen months; and stale, half-spoiled, -or sour beer, is converted into mild beer, by the simple admixture -of an alkali or an alkaline earth; oyster-shell powder, and -subcarbonate of potash, or soda, being usually employed for -that purpose. In order to show that these deceptions are not -imaginary, Mr. Accum refers to the frequent convictions of -brewers for those fraudulent practices, and to the seizures -which have been made at different breweries of illegal ingredients—a -list of which, and of the proprietors of the breweries -where they were seized, he has extracted from the Minutes of -the Committee of the House of Commons, appointed to Inquire -into the Price and Quality of Beer. It may be observed, -that while some of the sophistications of beer appear to be perfectly -harmless, other substances are frequently employed for this -purpose which are highly deleterious, and which must gradually -undermine the health of those by whom they are used.</p> - -<p class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>Many other of the most ordinary articles of consumption -are mentioned by our author as being the object of the most -disgusting and pernicious frauds. Tea, it is well known, from -the numerous convictions which have lately taken place, has -been counterfeited to an enormous extent; and copper, in one -form or another, is the chief ingredient made use of for effecting -the imitation.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The practice of adulterating coffee, has also been carried on -for a long time, and to a considerable extent, while black and -white pepper, Cayenne pepper, mustard, pickles of all sorts, -have been all of them debased by an admixture of baser, and, -in many cases, poisonous ingredients. Ground pepper is frequently -sophisticated by an admixture from the sweepings of the pepper -warehouses. These sweepings are purchased in the market -under the initials P. D., signifying pepper dust. ‘An inferior -sort of this vile refuse (Mr. Accum observes), or the sweepings -of P. D., is distinguished among venders by the abbreviation -of D. P. D., denoting dust, or dirt of pepper dust.’</p> - -<p class='c009'>Of those various frauds so ably exposed in Mr. Accum’s -work, and which are so much the more dangerous, as they are -committed under the disguise of an honourable trade, it is impossible -to speak in terms of too strong reprobation; and in -the first impulse of our indignation, we were inclined to avenge -such iniquitous practices by some signal punishment. We naturally -reflect, that such offences, in whatever light they are -viewed, are of a far deeper dye than many of those for which -our sanguinary code awards the penalty of death—and we wonder -that the punishment hitherto inflicted, has been limited to -a fine. If we turn our view, however, from the moral turpitude -of the act, to a calm consideration of that important question, -namely,—What is the most effectual method of protecting -the community from those frauds?—we will then see strong -reasons for preferring the lighter punishment. We do not find -from experience, that offences are prevented by severe punishments. -On the contrary, the crime of forgery, under the most -unrelenting execution of the severe law against it, has grown -more frequent. As those, therefore, by whom the offence of -adulterating articles of provision is committed, are generally -creditable and wealthy individuals, the infliction of a heavy fine, -accompanied by public disgrace, seems a very suitable punishment: -and if it be duly and reasonably applied, there is little -doubt that it will be found effectual to check, and finally to root -out, those disgraceful frauds.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span><span class='xlarge'>POISONING OF FOOD.</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xxlarge'><span class="blackletter">A Treatise on Adulterations of Food,</span></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xlarge'>AND CULINARY POISONS;</span></div> - <div class='c000'><i>Exhibiting the Fraudulent Sophistications of Bread, Beer, Wine,</i></div> - <div><i>Spirituous Liquors, Tea, Coffee, Cheese, Pepper, Mustard, &c. &c.</i></div> - <div><i>And methods of detecting them.</i></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='large'><span class='sc'>By</span> FREDRICK ACCUM.</span></div> - <div class='c000'>(<i>From the Literary Gazette, No. CLVI. 1820.</i>)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>One has laughed at the whimsical -description of the cheats -in Humphrey Clinker, but it is -really impossible to laugh at -Mr. Accum’s exposition. It is -too serious for a joke to see -that in almost every thing which -we eat or drink, we are condemned -to swallow swindling, -if not poison—that all the items -of metropolitan, and many of -country consumption, are deteriorated, -deprived of nutritious -properties, or rendered -obnoxious to humanity by the -vile arts and merciless sophistications -of their sellers. So -general seems the corruption, -and so fatal the tendency of -most of the corrupting materials, -that we can no longer -wonder at the prevalence of -painful disorders, and the -briefness of existence (on an -average) in spite of the great -increase of medical knowledge, -and the amazing improvement -in the healing science, which -distinguish our era. No skill -can prevent the effects of daily -poisoning; and no man can -prolong his life beyond a short -standard, where every meal -ought to have its counteracting -medicine.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Mr. Accum acts the part of -Dionysius with us; only the -horse-hair by which he suspends -the sword over our heads -allows the point gradually to -enter the flesh, and we do not -escape, like Damocles, with -the simple fright: yet it is -but justice to acknowledge, -that in almost every case he -furnishes us with tests whereby -we can ascertain the nature -of our danger; and no man -could do more towards enabling -us to mitigate or escape from -it.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Advising our readers to abstain -from perusing the annexed -synopsis till after they have -dined, that they may have one -more meal in comfort ere they -die, we proceed to the various -heads under which the author -ranges his dread array.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Devoted to disease by baker, -brewer, grocer, &c. the physician -is called to our assistance; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>but here again the pernicious -system of fraud, as it -has given the blow, steps in to -defeat the remedy.</p> - -<p class='c009'>It is so horribly pleasant to -reflect how we are in this way -be-swindled, be-trayed, be-drugged, -and be-devilled, that -we are almost angry with Mr. -Accum for the great service he -has done the community by -opening our eyes, at the risk -of shutting our mouths for ever.</p> - -<p class='c009'>His account of water is so -fearful, that we see there is no -wisdom in the well; and if we -then fly to wine, we find, from -his analysis, that there is no -truth in that liquid: bread -turns out to be a crutch to -help us onward to the grave, -instead of the staff of life; in -porter there is no support, in -cordials no consolation; in almost -every thing poison, and -in scarcely any medicine, cure.</p> - -<p class='c009'>The work contains a great -many excellent observations on -the various sorts of water, and -the modes of conveying and -preserving them for use: it appears -generally that leaden -pipes and cisterns, and copper -vessels are highly dangerous.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Good heavens! we think we -hear it exclaimed, is there no -end to these infamous doings? -does nothing pure or unpoisoned -come to our tables, except -butcher’s meat, which has been -rendered far less nutritive than -formerly, by new methods of -feeding? Why, we must answer, -hardly any thing: for our author -proceeds to shew that <i>cheese</i> -(Gloucester he mentions) has -been contaminated with red -lead, a deadly poison mixed -with the colouring anotto, when -that article was scarce: that -<i>pepper</i> is adulterated with factitious -pepper-corns “made up -of oil-cakes (the residue of -lint-seed, from which the oil -has been pressed), common -clay, and a portion of Cayenne -pepper, formed in a mass, and -granulated by being first pressed -through a sieve, and then -rolled in a cask;” and further, -that “ground pepper is very -often sophisticated by adding -to a portion of genuine pepper, -a quantity of pepper dust, or -the sweepings from the pepper -warehouses, mixed with a little -Cayenne pepper. The sweepings -are known, and purchased -in the market, under the name -of P.D. signifying pepper dust. -An inferior sort of this vile -refuse, or the sweepings of P.D. -is distinguished among vendors -by the abbreviation D.P.D, -denoting, dust (dirt) of pepper -dust.”</p> - -<p class='c009'>As we read on, we learn -the method of manufacturing -adulterated vinegar, adulterated -cream, adulterated lozenges, -adulterated mustard, adulterated -lemon acid, poisonous -Cayenne, poisonous pickles, -poisonous confectionary, poisonous -<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>catsup, poisonous custards, -poisonous anchovy sauce, -poisonous olive oil, poisonous -soda water; and, if not done to -our hands, of rendering poisonous -all sorts of food by the -use of copper and leaden vessels. -Suffice it to record, that -our pickles are made green by -copper; our vinegar rendered -sharp by sulphuric acid; our -cream composed of rice powder -or arrow root in bad milk; our -comfits mixed of sugar, starch, -and clay, and coloured with -preparations of copper and -lead; our catsup often formed -of the dregs of distilled vinegar -with a decoction of the -outer green husk of the walnut, -and seasoned with all-spice, -cayenne, pimento, onions, and -common salt—or if founded on -mushrooms, done with those in -a putrefactive state remaining -unsold at market; our mustard -a compound of mustard, wheaten -flour, cayenne, bay salt, -raddish seed, turmeric, and -pease flour; and our citric acid, -our lemonade, and our punch, -to refresh or to exhilarate, -usually cheap tartareous acid -modified for the occasion.</p> - -<p class='c009'>Against all these, and many -other impositions, Mr. Accum -furnishes us with easy and -certain tests: his work, besides, -contains many curious documents -and useful recipes; and -it is replete with intelligence, -and often guides to the right -while it exposes the wrong.</p> -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><i>Other Works lately published by <span class='large'>FREDRICK ACCUM.</span></i></div> - <div><span class='large'>DESCRIPTION</span></div> - <div>OF</div> - <div>THE PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING</div> - <div><span class='large'>COAL GAS,</span></div> - <div>For the Lighting of Streets, Houses, and Public Buildings,</div> - <div>WITH ELEVATIONS, SECTIONS, AND PLANS,</div> - <div>Of the most improved Sorts of Apparatus now employed at the</div> - <div><span class="blackletter">Gas Works in London,</span></div> - <div>And the principal Provincial Towns of Great Britain.</div> - <div><i>Price 15s.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='large'>CHEMICAL AMUSEMENT,</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>Comprising a Series of curious and instructive Experiments in Chemistry, which</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>are easily performed, and unattended by Danger.</span></div> - <div class='c000'><i>The Fourth Edition. Price 9s.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span><span class='large'><i>This Day is published</i>,</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='large'>A TREATISE</span></div> - <div class='c000'>ON THE</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xxlarge'><span class="blackletter">Art of Brewing,</span></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>Exhibiting the London practice of Brewing Porter, Brown Stout, Ale, Table</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Beer, and various other kinds of Malt Liquors.</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xlarge'><span class='sc'>By</span> FREDRICK ACCUM.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><i>By the same Author</i>,</div> - <div class='c003'>A TREATISE</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='large'>ON THE ART OF MAKING WINE</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xxlarge'><span class="blackletter">From Native Fruits;</span></span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Elucidating the Chemical Principles upon which the Art of Wine-making depends. -The Fruits best adapted for Home-made Wines, and the Methods of -preparing them.</p> -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>A MANUAL OF ANALYTICAL MINERALOGY,</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Intended to facilitate the practical Analysis of Minerals, by pointing out to the -Student concise Directions for performing the Analysis of Metallic Ores, -Earths, and other Minerals. <i>Second Edition. 2 Vols. Price 15s.</i></p> -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='sc'>A SYSTEM of THEORETICAL and PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY</span>,</div> - <div class='c000'><i>In Two Vols. with Plates. Second Edition. Price 15s.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>ELEMENTS OF CHRYSTALLOGRAPHY,</div> - <div class='c000'><i>After the Method of Haüy with Plates and Graphic Designs</i>,</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'><span class='small'>Exhibiting the Forms of Crystals, their Geometrical Structure, and general -Laws, according to which the immense variety of actually existing Crystals -are produced. <i>Price 15s.</i></span></p> -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>A DESCRIPTION OF THE CHEMICAL APPARATUS AND</div> - <div>INSTRUMENTS,</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>WITH FIFTEEN QUARTO COPPER-PLATES.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c011' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='sc'>A PRACTICAL ESSAY on CHEMICAL RE-AGENTS or TESTS</span>,</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c009'>Exhibiting the general Nature of Chemical Re-Agents or Tests—the Effects -which they produce upon different Bodies—the Uses to which they may be -supplied, and the Art of applying them successfully.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><i>Second Edition. Illustrated by a Series of Experiments. Price 9s.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<p class='c009'> </p> -<p class='c008'><a id='TNs'></a></p> -<div class='tnbox'> - - <ul class='ul_1'> - <li>Transcriber’s Notes: - <ul class='ul_2'> - <li>The references to figures 1 through 4 on pages 130 and 132 do not exist in any - edition of the book. This has been confirmed by the Project Manager. - </li> - <li>Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected. - </li> - <li>Typographical errors were silently corrected. - </li> - <li>Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant - form was found in this book. - </li> - </ul> - </li> - </ul> - -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A treatise on the art of making good -wholesome bread of wheat, oats, rye,, by Frederick Accum - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ART OF MAKING GOOD WHOLESOME BREAD *** - -***** This file should be named 60424-h.htm or 60424-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/4/2/60424/ - -Produced by deaurider, Barry Abrahamsen, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - - - -</pre> - - </body> - <!-- created with ppgen.py 3.57c on 2019-10-04 18:35:06 GMT --> -</html> |