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If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: Jerusalem, the City of Herod and Saladin - -Author: Walter Besant - Edward Henry Palmer - -Release Date: September 19, 2019 [EBook #60319] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JERUSALEM, THE CITY OF HEROD *** - - - - -Produced by KD Weeks, Sonya Schermann and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - Transcriber’s Note: - -This version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects. -Italics are delimited with the ‘_’ character as _italic_. - -Footnotes have been moved to follow the paragraphs in which they are -referenced. - -The Appendix features several pages of column-wise text and comment with -some irregular indentation, which has not been retained. - -Minor errors, attributable to the printer, have been corrected. Please -see the transcriber’s note at the end of this text for details regarding -the handling of any textual issues encountered during its preparation. - -[Illustration: - - _From a Photograph by_ C. F. TYRWHITT DRAKE, - Esq.] [_Frontispiece._ - THE DOME OF THE ROCK. -] - - JERUSALEM, - - THE CITY OF HEROD AND SALADIN. - - BY - - WALTER BESANT, M.A., - - CHRIST’S COLLEGE. CAMBRIDGE. - - AUTHOR OF “STUDIES IN EARLY FRENCH POETRY,” ETC., ETC., ETC. - - AND - - E. H. PALMER, M.A., - - LORD ALMONER’S PROFESSOR OF ARABIC IN THE UNIVERSITY OF - CAMBRIDGE, AND FELLOW OF ST. JOHN’S COLLEGE. - - AUTHOR OF THE “DESERT OF THE EXODUS.” - ETC., ETC., ETC. - -[Illustration] - - LONDON: - RICHARD BENTLEY AND SON, - NEW BURLINGTON STREET, - =Publishers in Ordinary to Her Majesty.= - - 1871. - - [_The Right of Translation is reserved._] - - - - - LONDON - PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET - AND CHARING CROSS. - - - - - PREFACE. - - -Very few words are needed to introduce this volume. It is intended to -give a history of the city of Jerusalem from about the year 30 to the -present time. This period includes the siege and capture by Titus, the -last revolts of the Jews, the Christian occupation of three hundred -years, the Mohammedan conquest, the building by the Mohammedans of the -Dome of the Rock, the Crusades, the Christian kingdom, the reconquest of -the city, and a long period of Mohammedan occupation, during which no -event has happened except the yearly flocking of pilgrims to the Church -of the Sepulchre, and an occasional quarrel among the monks. - -There are here, surely, sufficient materials for the historian if only -he knows how to use them. - -For the modern period, that of the Christian kingdom, two sources of -information exist, one, the contemporary and later chronicles of the -Crusaders, written either in Latin or Langue d’Oil, and the other, the -Arabic historians themselves. I have written my own part of the book -from the former; to my colleague is due all that part (the Mohammedan -Conquest, the chapter on Saladin, &c.) which has been taken from Arabic -writers. Most of this has the great advantage of being entirely new, and -now for the first time introduced to English readers. For my own share -in the work, I claim no other novelty than the presentation of facts as -faithfully as I could gather them, at first hand, and from the earliest -writers. - -There is nothing sacred about the actors in this long story we have to -tell, and we have not thought it necessary to endeavour to invest them, -as is generally done by those who write on Jerusalem, with an appearance -of sanctity, because they fought for the City of Sacred Memories, or -because they bore the Cross upon their shoulders. We have, on the other -hand, endeavoured to show them as they were, men and women actuated by -mixed motives, sometimes base, sometimes noble, sometimes interested, -sometimes pure and lofty: but always men and women, never saints. The -Christians in the East were as the Christians in the West, certainly -never better, more often worse. If we have succeeded in making a plain -tale, divested of its customary pseudoreligious trappings, interesting -and useful, our design is satisfied. - -One word more. There may be found, owing to the double source from which -our pages are derived, certain small discrepancies in the narrative. We -have not cared to try and reconcile these. Let it be remembered that the -one narrative is Christian, the other Mohammedan. - - W. B. - - _October, 1871._ - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - INTRODUCTORY Page - 1 - - CHAPTER II. - THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM 19 - - CHAPTER III. - FROM TITUS TO OMAR 47 - - CHAPTER IV. - THE MOHAMMEDAN CONQUEST 66 - - CHAPTER V. - THE CHRISTIAN PILGRIMS 112 - - CHAPTER VI. - THE FIRST CRUSADE 141 - - CHAPTER VII. - KING GODFREY 190 - - CHAPTER VIII. - KING BALDWIN I. 211 - - CHAPTER IX. - KING BALDWIN II. 236 - - CHAPTER X. - KING FULKE 259 - - CHAPTER XI. - KING BALDWIN III. AND THE SECOND CRUSADE 269 - - CHAPTER XII. - KING AMAURY 298 - - CHAPTER XIII. - KING BALDWIN THE LEPER 335 - - CHAPTER XIV. - KING GUY DE LUSIGNAN 344 - - CHAPTER XV. - RICHARD CŒUR DE LION AND THE THIRD CRUSADE 362 - - CHAPTER XVI. - SALADIN 372 - - CHAPTER XVII. - THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMS 417 - - CHAPTER XVIII. - THE CHRONICLE OF SIX HUNDRED YEARS 443 - - CHAPTER XIX. - MODERN JERUSALEM 466 - - APPENDIX. - ON THE POSITION OF THE SACRED SITES 478 - - INDEX 489 - - JERUSALEM. - THE CITY OF HEROD AND SALADIN. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - INTRODUCTORY. - - -It is our object to write a book which may serve as a historical -account, complete so far as it goes, of the principal events with -which Jerusalem is concerned, from the time when its history, as -connected with the Bible, ceases, till the present; that is to say, -from the year A.D. 33 downwards. But it is difficult to take up the -thread of the story at this date, and we are forced either to go as -far back as Herod the Great, or to begin our narrative with the -events which preceded the siege of Jerusalem by Titus. No date seems -to us more ready to our hand than that of the death of Herod -Agrippa. Even then we may seem beginning to tell a thrice told tale. -The revolt of the Jews, their defeat of Cestius, the siege of Titus, -are surely, it may be objected, too well known to require telling -again. They are not well known, though they have been told again and -again, and told with ten times the force, the vigour, the -originality which we can put into these pages. But they are told -here again because our central figure is Jerusalem. We have to show -her first, in all her pride, the joy of the Jews, the visible mark -of their greatness; and then we have to follow her through two -thousand years of varying fortune, always before the eyes of the -world,—always the object of tender pity and reverence,—always the -centre of some conflict, the scene of some religious contention. -Frequent as were the sieges of the city in the olden days, they have -been more frequent since. Titus took Jerusalem, Barcochebas took it, -Julius Severus took it, Chosroes, Heraclius, Omar, the Charezmians, -Godfrey, Saladin, Frederick, all took it by turns,—all after hard -fighting, and with much slaughter. - -There is not a stone in the city but has been reddened with human -blood; not a spot but where some hand-to-hand conflict has taken -place; not an old wall but has echoed back the shrieks of despairing -women. Jew, Pagan, Christian, Mohammedan, each has had his turn of -triumph, occupation, and defeat; and were all those ancient -cemeteries outside the city emptied of their bones, it would be hard -to tell whether Jew, or Pagan, or Christian, or Mohammedan would -prevail. For Jerusalem has been the representative sacred place of -the world; there has been none other like unto it, or equal to it, -or shall be, while the world lasts; so long as men go on believing -that one spot in the world is more sacred than another, because -things of sacred interest have been done there, so long Jerusalem -will continue the Holy City. That this belief has been one of the -misfortunes of the human race, one of the foremost causes of -superstition, some of the pages which follow may perhaps help to -show. But, in our capacity as narrators only, let us agree to think -and talk of the city apart, as much as may be, from its sacred -associations, as well as from its ecclesiastical history. - -The fatal revolt of the Jews, which ended in the fall of their city -and the destruction of their Temple, was due, among many other -causes, to the teaching of Judas the Galilæan acting on minds -inflated with pride in the exaggerated glories of the past, looking -to national independence as the one thing needful, and wholly -ignorant of the power and resources of the mighty empire which held -them in subjection. Judas, himself in spirit a worthy descendant of -the Maccabæans, had taught that Jehovah was the only King of the -Jews, who were his chosen people; that submission to a foreign yoke -involved not only national degradation, but treason to the lawful -powers; that tribute, the badge and sign of slavery, ought to be -refused at any cost. “We have no Lord and master but God,” was the -cry of his party. With that cry he and his followers assembled to do -battle against the world: with that cry on their lips they died. But -the cry and its idea did not die; for from that time a fourth sect -was among the Jews, more powerful than all the rest put together, -containing the great mass of the people, who had no education to -give them common sense, and whose ignorance added fuel to the flames -of a religious enthusiasm almost without parallel in the history of -the world. The Pharisees and the Sadducees still continued for a -time in the high places; the Essenes still lived and died apart from -the world, the Shakers of their time, a small band with no power or -influence; but all around them was rising a tide destined to whelm -all beneath the waves of fanaticism. The followers of Judas became -the Zealots and the Sicarii of later times: they were those who -looked daily for the Messiah; whom false Christs led astray by -thousands; who thought no act too daring to be attempted in this -sacred cause, no life too valuable to be sacrificed: they were those -who let their countrymen die of starvation by thousands while they -maintained a hopeless struggle with Titus. - -When Herod Agrippa died, his son, who was only seventeen years of -age, was in Rome; and, as he was too young to be entrusted with the -conduct of the turbulent province of Judæa, Cuspius Fadus was sent -there as Governor. He found that Agrippa had allowed the robbers who -always infested the country east of Jordan to gain head. He put them -down with a strong arm, and turned his attention to things of -domestic importance. By the permission of Vitellius, the custody of -the sacred robes had been surrendered to the High Priest. Cuspius -Fadus ordered that they should be restored to the fortress of -Antonia. The Jews appealed to Cæsar, and, by the intercession of -young Agrippa, they carried their point, and retained the possession -of the robes. Under Fadus, one Theudas, whom Josephus calls a -magician, persuaded multitudes of the Jews to go with him to the -Jordan, which he pretended would open its waters to let him pass. -Cuspius Fadus sent out a troop of cavalry, who took Theudas alive, -cut off his head, and brought it to Jerusalem. Under Cuspius, too, -occurred a great famine in Judæa, which was relieved by the -generosity of Queen Helena of Adiabene, the proselyte.[1] - -Footnote 1: - - The story of Queen Helena is told by Josephus, ‘Antiq.’ xx. 2, 3, - 4, and in Milman, ‘Hist. of the Jews,’ ii. p. 200; and see also, - for the whole of this period, Williams’s ‘Holy City,’ vol. i. p. - 150 _et seq._ - -When Fadus either died or was recalled, Tiberius Alexander, a -renegade Jew, nephew of Philo, succeeded him for a short time. It is -not stated how long he continued in power. His only recorded act is -the crucifixion of two of the sons of Judas the Galilæan. In his -turn Tiberius was replaced by Ventidius Cumanus, and the first -symptoms of the approaching madness broke out. The fortress of -Antonia commanded the Temple area, and communicated with the Temple -itself by means of cloisters. On those days of public festivals when -the fanaticism of the people was most likely to break out and cause -mischief, a strong guard was always placed in Antonia, in full view -of the people, to overawe them with good behaviour. Most -unfortunately, on one occasion, immediately after the arrival of -Cumanus, one of the soldiers of the guard expressed his contempt for -the religious ceremonies by an indecent gesture. The rage of the -people knew no bounds; they declared that Cumanus had himself -ordered the affront to be committed. The governor bore their -reproaches with patience, only urging them not to disturb their -festival by riotous conduct. As, however, they still continued -clamouring, he ordered his whole garrison to proceed to Antonia. -Then a panic ensued. The mob, thinking they were about to be -attacked by the soldiers, turned and fled, trampling on each other -in the narrow passages. Many thousands perished in this way, without -a blow being struck. And while they were still mourning over this -disaster, another happened to them. Some of the very men who had -raised the first tumult, probably countrymen on their way home, fell -on and robbed Stephanus, a slave of the Emperor. Cumanus, obliged to -punish this, sent soldiers to bring in the chief men of the village. -One of the soldiers tore up a book of the Law with abuse and -scurrility. The Jews came to Cumanus, and represented that they -could not possibly endure such an insult to their God. Cumanus -appeased them for the time by beheading the soldier who had been -guilty of the offence. - -The animosities of the Samaritans and the Jews were the cause of the -next disturbances. The Galilæans always used the roads which passed -through the Samaritan territory in their journeys to and from the -Temple. Faction fights naturally often took place. In one of these, -of greater magnitude than the generality, a good many Galilæans were -killed: the Jews came to Cumanus and complained of what they were -pleased to call murder. Cumanus took the part of the Samaritans, and -actually went to their aid, after the Jews called in the assistance -of a robber chieftain, and helped them to defeat the Galilæans. It -is difficult to see what else they could do. Both parties appealed -to Cæsar. Cumanus was recalled: his military tribune was beheaded, -decision was given in favour of the Jews: all this, no doubt, was -done with a full knowledge of the dangerous and the turbulent nature -of the people, and with a view to preserving the peace. - -Claudius Felix was sent in place of Cumanus, a freedman, brother of -Pallas the favourite of the Emperor, magnificent, prodigal, -luxurious, and unscrupulous. He found the country in the worst state -possible, full of robbers, and impostors. These sprung up everyday, -and were everyday caught and destroyed; no doubt most of them men -whose wits were utterly gone in looking for the Messiah, until they -ended in believing themselves to be the Messiah. These poor -creatures, followed by a rabble more ignorant and more mad than -themselves, went up and down the distracted country, raising hopes -which were doomed to disappointment, and leading out the wild -countrymen to meet death and torture when they looked for glory and -victory. One of the impostors, an Egyptian, probably an Egyptian -Jew, brought a multitude up to the Mount of Olives, promising that -at his word the walls of the city should fall down, and they -themselves march in triumphant. He came, but instead of seeing the -walls fall down, he met the troops of Felix, who dispersed his -people, slaying four hundred of them. - -To Felix belongs the crime of introducing the Sicarii into the city -of Jerusalem. Wearied with the importunities of the high priest, -Jonathan, who exhorted him continually to govern better, or at all -events to govern differently, and reproached him with the fact that -it was through his own influence that Felix obtained his office, he -resolved to rid himself of a friend so troublesome, by the speediest -and surest method, that of assassination. The Sicarii were not, like -the hired bravoes of the middle ages, men who would commit any -murder for which they were paid. It appears, on the contrary, that -they held it a cardinal point of faith to murder those, and only -those, who seemed to stand in the way of their cause. Now their -cause was that of the sect which had grown out of Judas’s teaching, -the zealots. These Sicarii mingling with the crowd of those who went -up to worship, carrying daggers concealed under their garments, fell -upon Jonathan the High Priest, and murdered him.[2] This done they -went on slaying all those who were obnoxious to them, even in the -Temple itself. “And this,” says the historian, “seems to me the -reason why God, out of his hatred to the wickedness of these men, -rejected our city: and as for the Temple, he no longer esteemed it -sufficiently pure for him to inhabit therein, but brought the Romans -upon us, and threw a fire upon the city to purge it: and brought -upon us, our wives, and children, slavery,—as desirous to make us -wiser by our calamities.” And now the voice of discord was heard -even among the priests themselves, who had hitherto preserved a -certain sobriety. Between the chief priests and “the principal men -of the multitude of Jerusalem,” a feud broke out. Each side had its -followers: they cast, we are told, not only reproachful words, but -also stones at each other. And the chief priests, robbing the -threshingfloors and appropriating all the tithes to themselves, -caused many of the poorer priests to die of want. - -Footnote 2: - - Milman says, in the Temple itself, which does not appear from the - account of Josephus, who expressly says that, after this, they had - the boldness to murder men in the Temple itself. - -Then occurred the first outbreak in Cæsarea. This town was about -equally divided between the Syrians and the Jews, the former -claimed the pre-eminence on the ground that Herod the founder, -though himself a Jew, had built the splendid temples and statues -by which the city was evidently intended to be a Grecian city, -upon the site of Strato’s Tower; while the Jews argued that as the -founder was a Jew, the city was evidently Jewish, and ought not to -be ruled except by Jews. The dispute, as was always the case, came -to the arbitrament of arms, in which the Jews got the best of it. -Then Felix came himself, with a strong force, and brought them to -their senses. But as the dispute still went on, he sent -representatives on both sides to Nero the Emperor, who ruled in -favour of the Greeks or Syrians. Here, the decision of the Emperor -appears to have been just. Herod, the founder of Cæsarea, had -clearly not intended to found a city for the further propagation -of a sect to which he indeed belonged, regarding it, nevertheless, -with the toleration of a cultivated Roman, as only one sect out of -many. The Jews accepted the decision in their usual way: they only -became more turbulent. Agrippa’s own dispute with his own -countrymen was decided, however, in their favour, no doubt from -politic considerations. He had built an upper room in his palace, -where, lying on his couch, he could look over into the Temple and -watch the sacrifices. Some of the priests discovering this, made -out that it was an intrusion into the necessary privacy of their -religious ceremonies, and hastily ran up a wall to prevent being -overlooked. Festus, who had now succeeded Felix, ordered it to be -pulled down; but, most probably at the instigation of Agrippa, -whose popularity might be at stake, he gave permission to appeal -to Nero. Ismael, the high priest, went, accompanied by the keeper -of the Treasury. They carried their point: the wall was allowed to -stand, but Ismael was detained in Rome, and Agrippa appointed and -deprived three high priests in succession—Joseph, Annas, and Jesus -son of Dammai. The firm, strong hand of Festus was meantime -employed in putting down robbers, and regulating the disturbances -of the country. Unhappily for the Jews, while he was so engaged, -he was seized with some illness and died. Albinus succeeded him. -As for Albinus, Josephus tells us that there was no sort of -wickedness named but he had a hand in it. “Not only did he steal -and plunder every one’s substance, not only did he burden the -whole nation with taxes, but he permitted the relations of such as -were in prison for robbery to redeem them for money; and nobody -remained in the prisons as a malefactor but he who gave him -nothing.... The principal men among the seditious purchased leave -of Albinus to go on with their practices: and every one of these -wretches was encompassed with his own band of robbers. Those who -lost their goods were forced to hold their peace, when they had -reason to show great indignation at what they had suffered; those -who had escaped were forced to flatter him, that deserved to be -punished out of the fear they were in of suffering equally with -the others.” - -This, however, is a vague accusation, and is found in the ‘Wars of -the Jews,’ where Josephus is anxious to represent the revolt of the -people as caused by the bad government of the Romans. From the -‘Antiquities’ we learn that it was Albinus’s wish to keep the -country in peace, with which object he destroyed many of the -Sicarii. Unfortunately for himself, he formed a great friendship -with Ananias the high priest; and when Eleazar, son of Ananias, fell -into the hands of the Sicarii, he consented to release ten of his -own prisoners for his ransom. This was a fatal measure, because -henceforth the Sicarii, if one of their number fell into trouble, -and got taken by the Romans, caught a Jew and effected an exchange. -Thus the prisons were emptied. - -At this time the Temple was finished, and eighteen thousand workmen -found themselves suddenly out of employment. Terrified at the -prospect of this starving mob being added to their difficulties (for -the streets of Jerusalem were already filled with bands of armed -men, partisans of deposed high priests), the citizens asked Agrippa -to rebuild the Eastern Cloisters, the splendid piece of work which -had been built originally by Solomon along that east wall which -still stands overlooking the valley of the Kedron. But Agrippa, -whose interest in the turbulent city was very small, already -meditated departure to some safer quarter, and was spending all the -money he had to spare at Beyrout, where he built a theatre, and -collected a gallery of sculptures. But he conceded something to his -petitioners, and allowed them to pave the city with stone. - -Albinus disappears from the history, and Gessius Florus, who -exchanged a scourging with whips for a scourging with scorpions, -ruled in his place. Cestius Gallus, a man of equal rapacity with -himself, ruled in Syria. One cannot read Josephus without, in the -first place, suspecting that he wilfully exaggerates the wickedness -of the Roman rulers; that he does so in the case of Albinus is -clear, as we have shown from comparing the account given in the -‘Antiquities’ with that given in the ‘Wars.’ But even if he only -exaggerates, and making allowance for this, were men of special -inhumanity and rapacity chosen for those very qualities to rule the -country? And if not, if Gessius Florus and Albinus be fair specimens -of the officers by whom Rome ruled her provinces and colonies, by -what mysterious power was this vast empire kept from universal -revolt? - - “Upon what meat had this their Cæsar fed, - That he was grown so great?” - -The Jews, however, were not the people to brook ill-treatment; and -when they took arms against the Romans it was not as if their case -seemed to themselves hopeless. They had, it is true, the western -world against them; but they had the eastern world behind them, a -possible place of refuge. And though they armed against the whole -Roman Empire, it must be remembered that the forces at the command -of the Emperor were not overwhelming; that they were spread over -Africa, Egypt, Spain, Gaul, Britain, Greece, and Italy; that only a -certain number could be spared; and that the number of the Jews in -Syria amounted probably to several millions. When Cestius Gallus was -in Jerusalem at the time of the Passover he ordered the lambs which -were sacrificed to be counted. They came to two hundred and -fifty-five thousand six hundred. It was reckoned that this -represented a total of three millions present in Jerusalem and -camped round about it, assisting at the festival. Probably not more -than half, perhaps not more than a quarter of the whole number of -the people came up. However this may be, it is certain that -Palestine was very densely populated; that there were great numbers -of Jews in Alexandria, Asia Minor, and Italy; that at any signal -success those would have flocked to the standard of revolt; and that -had the nation been unanimous and obedient to one general, instead -of being divided into sects, parties, and factions, the armies of -Vespasian and Titus would have been wholly unable to cope with the -rebellion, and the independence of the Jews would have been -prevented only by putting forth all the power of the Roman Empire. -This was shown later on in the revolt of Barcochebas, a far more -serious revolt than this of the zealots, though not so well known, -because it was attended with no such signal result as the -destruction of the Temple, and because there was no Josephus in the -camp of the enemy taking notes of what went on. - -The object of Florus, we are told, was to drive the people to -revolt. This we do not believe. It could not have been the policy of -Florus to drive into revolt a dangerous and stubborn people, whose -character was well known at Rome, whom the Emperor had always been -anxious to conciliate. His object may have been, undoubtedly was, to -enrich himself as speedily as possible, knowing that revolt was -impending and inevitable, and anxious to secure himself a provision -in case of his own recall or banishment. Until that provision was -secured it would have been fatal for Florus that the revolt should -break out. - -The first disturbances took place at Cæsarea, when the Greeks, -exulting in Nero’s decision, were daily more and more insulting to -the Jews. The latter had a synagogue, round which was an open space -of ground which they wished to purchase. The owner refused to sell -it, and built mean shops upon it, leaving only a narrow passage -whereby the Jews could pass to their place of worship. One John, a -publican, went to Florus, and begged him to interfere, offering at -the same time a bribe of eight talents, an enormous sum, which shows -that this was more than an ordinary squabble. Florus went away, -leaving them to fight it out; and the Greeks added fresh matter of -wrath to the Jews by ostentatiously sacrificing birds in an earthen -vase as they passed to the synagogue. The significance of this act -was that the Greeks loved to tell how the Jews had been all expelled -from Egypt, on account of their being leprous. Arms were taken up, -and the Jews got the worst of the fray. They withdrew to a place -some miles from the town, and sent John to Florus to ask for -assistance. John ventured on a reminder about the eight talents, and -was rewarded by being thrown into prison. Then Florus went on to -Jerusalem, where the wildest tumults raged in consequence of this -affront to religion. Alarmed at the symptoms of revolt, he sent -messengers beforehand to take seventeen talents out of the sacred -treasury, on the ground that Cæsar wanted them. Then the people ran -to the Temple, and called upon Cæsar by name, as if he could hear -them, to rid them of this Florus. Some of them went about with -baskets begging money for him as for a man in a destitute and -miserable condition. - -The next day news came that Florus was advancing to the city, and -the people thought they had better go out and speak him fair. But he -was not disposed to receive their salutation, and so sent on Capito, -a centurion, with fifty soldiers, bidding them go back and not -pretend to receive him as if they were delighted to see him among -them again. And he rode into the city, the people being all -expectation of what would happen the next day. And in the morning -the tribunal of Florus was erected before the gates of his palace. -The high priest was summoned to attend, and ordered to give up those -who had led the tumult. He urged in extenuation that he did not know -the ringleaders, that the act of a few hot-headed youths ought not -to be visited on the whole city, and that, in short, he was very -sorry for the whole business, and hoped Florus would overlook it. -Florus gave orders to his soldiers to pillage the upper market; they -did so, scourging, pillaging, and murdering. Berenice, the sister of -Agrippa, came herself, barefoot, with shorn head and penitential -dress, before Florus, urging him to have pity. But the inexorable -Roman, bent on revenge, allowed the soldiers to go on. - -Next day he sent again for the high priest, and told him that as a -sign of the loyalty of the people, and their sorrow for the late -tumults, he should expect them to go forth and meet the two cohorts -who were advancing to Jerusalem with every sign of joy. The -seditious part of the citizens refused. Then the chief priests, with -dust upon their heads and rent garments, brought out the holy -vessels and the sacerdotal robes, with their harpers and harps, and -implored the people not to risk a collision with the Romans. They -yielded, and went out to welcome the cohorts. But the soldiers -preserved a gloomy silence. Then some of the more fiery Jews, -turning on the Romans, began to abuse Florus. The horsemen rode at -them and trampled them down, and a scene of the wildest uproar took -place at the gates as they pressed and jostled each other to get in. -Then the troops marched straight on Antonia, hoping to get both the -fortress and the Temple into their hands. They got into Antonia, -when the Jews cut down some part of the cloisters which connected -the fort with the Temple. Florus tried to join them, but his men -could not pass through the streets, which were crammed with Jews. -And next day Florus retired to Cæsarea, leaving only one cohort -behind, and the city boiling and seething with rage and madness. And -now, indeed, there was little hope of any reconciliation. Both -Florus and the Jews sent statements of their conduct to Cestius -Gallus, and begged for an investigation. And it must have been now, -if at all, that Florus became desirous of fanning the embers of -discontent into a flame and making that a war which had only -promised to be a disturbance. But nothing can be discovered to prove -that Josephus’s assertions as to his motives are based on fact. It -is easy, of course, to attribute motives, but hard to prove them. -Nothing advanced by Josephus proves more than that Florus was -rapacious and cruel, and the people discontented and turbulent. -Cestius sent Neapolitanus, one of his officers, to report on the -condition of the city. Agrippa joined him. The people came sixty -furlongs out of the town to meet them, crying and lamenting, calling -on Agrippa to help them in their miseries, and beseeching -Neapolitanus to hear their complaints against Florus. The latter -they took all round the city, showing him that it was perfectly -quiet, and that the people had risen, not against the Romans, but -against Florus. Then Neapolitanus went into the Temple to perform -such sacrifices as were allowed to strangers, and commending the -Jews for their fidelity, went back to Cestius. Agrippa came next. -Placing his sister Berenice, doubtless a favourite with the people, -in the gallery with him, he made a long harangue. He implored them -to consider the vast power of the Romans, and not, for the sake of a -quarrel with one governor, to bring upon themselves the ruin of -themselves, their families, and their nation. He pointed out that if -they would have patience the state of their country should be fairly -placed before the emperor’s consideration, and he pledged himself -that it would receive his best care. “Have pity,” he concluded, with -a burst of tears,—“have pity on your children and your wives, have -pity upon this your city and its holy walls, and spare the Temple; -preserve the holy house for yourselves.” - -The Jews, ever an impressionable race, yielded to the entreaties of -Agrippa and the tears of Berenice, and making up the tribute money, -paid it into the treasury. Then they began to repair the damage they -had done to Antonia. All looked well; but there was one thing yet -wanting to complete their submission, they were to obey Florus till -he should be removed. This condition they refused to comply with, -and when Agrippa urged it upon them, they threw stones at him and -reproached him with the uttermost bitterness. Then Agrippa went away -in despair, taking with him Berenice, and leaving the city to its -fate. - -The insurrection began, as it ended, with the taking of the stormy -fortress of Masada near the Dead Sea. Here the Roman garrison were -all slaughtered. Eleazar the son of Ananias the high priest began -the insurrection in Jerusalem, by passing a law that the sacrifices -of strangers were henceforth to be forbidden, and no imperial gifts -to be offered. The moderate party used all their influence, but in -vain, to prevent this. Agrippa sent a small army of three thousand -men to help the moderates. The insurgents seized the Temple: the -moderates, who included all the wealthy classes, occupied the upper -city, and hostilities commenced. A great accession of strength to -the insurgents was caused by the burning of the public archives, -where all debts were incurred, and consequently the power of the -rich was taken from them at one blow. - -Then appeared on the scene another leader, for a very brief -interval, Manahem, the youngest son of Judas the Galilæan. He came -dressed in royal robes and surrounded with guards, no doubt eager to -play the part of another Maccabæus. The insurgents took Antonia and -the royal palace, and drove the Roman garrison to the three strong -towns of Hippicus, Phasaelus, and Mariamne. Ananias, found hidden in -an aqueduct, was killed at once; and Manahem became so puffed up -with his success that he became intolerable. It was easy to get rid -of this mushroom king, who was deposed without any trouble by -Eleazar and tortured to death. And then the Roman garrison yielded, -Metilius, their commander, stipulating only for the lives of his -soldiers. This was granted; but no sooner had they laid down their -arms than the Jews fell upon them, vainly calling on the faith of a -treaty, and murdered them all except Metilius. Him they spared on -condition of his becoming a proselyte. - -On that very day and hour, while the Jews were plunging their -daggers in the hearts of the Romans, a great and terrible slaughter -of their own people was going on in Cæsarea, where the Syrians and -Greeks had risen upon the Jews, and massacred twenty thousand of -them in a single day. And in every Syrian city the same madness and -hatred seized the people, and the Jews were ruthlessly slaughtered -in all. No more provocation was needed; no more was possible. In -spite of all their turbulence, their ungovernable obstinacy, their -fanaticism and pride, which made the war inevitable, and in the then -state of mankind these very massacres inevitable,—one feels a -profound sympathy with the people who dared to fight and die, seeing -that it was hopeless to look for better things. The heads of the -people began the war with gloomy forebodings; the common masses with -the wildest enthusiasm, which became the mere intoxication of -success when they drove back Cestius from the walls of the city, on -the very eve of his anticipated victory—for Cestius hastened -southwards with an army of twenty thousand men, and besieged the -city. The people, divided amongst themselves, were on the point of -opening the gates to the Romans, when, to the surprise of everybody, -Cestius suddenly broke up his camp and began to retreat. Why he did -so, no one ever knew; possessed by a divine madness, Josephus -thinks, because God would take no pity on the city and the -Sanctuary. As the heavy armed Romans plodded on their way in serried -ranks, they were followed by a countless multitude, gathering in -numbers every hour, who assailed them with darts, with stones, and -with insults. The retreat became a flight, and Cestius brought back -his army with a quarter of its numbers killed, having allowed the -Roman arms to receive the most terrible disgrace they had ever -endured in the East. - -Vespasian was sent hastily with a force of three legions, besides -the cohorts of auxiliaries. A finer army had never been put into the -field, nor did any army have ever harder work before them. Of the -first campaign, that in Galilee, our limits will not allow us to -write. In the graphic pages of Josephus, himself the hero of -Jotapata, or in the still more graphic pages of Milman, may be read -how the Jews fought, step by step, bringing to their defence not -only the most dogged courage, but also the most ingenious devices; -how the blue waves of the Lake of Galilee were reddened with the -blood of those whom the Romans killed in their boats; how Vespasian -broke his word and sold as slaves those he had promised to pardon; -how Gamala fought and Gischala fell, and how for the sins of the -people, John was permitted by Heaven to escape and become the tyrant -of Jerusalem. - -The months passed on, and yet the Romans appeared not before the -walls of the city. This meantime was a prey to internal evils, which -when read appear almost incredible. The bold rough country folk who -followed John, who had fought in Galilee, and escaped the slaughter -of Vespasian, came up to the city filled with one idea, that of -resistance. In their eyes a Moderate, a Romanizer, was an enemy -worse than a Roman, for he was a traitor to the country. They found -themselves in a rich and luxurious town, filled with things of which -in their distant homes they had had no idea. And these things all -belonged to the Romanizers. They needed little permission to -pillage, less, to murder the men who had everything to lose, and -nothing to gain, by continuing the war. And then ensued a civil war, -the scenes of which surpass in horror those of any other page in -history. Through the streets ran the zealots dressed in fantastic -garb, which they had pillaged, some of them attired as women, -murdering all the rich and those who were obnoxious to their party. -It is vain to follow their course of plunder, murder, and sedition. -They invited the Idumæans to come to their assistance—a fierce and -warlike race, who had been all Judaized since the time of Hyrcanus. -These gladly came. By night, while a dreadful tempest raged -overhead, a sign of God’s wrath, and amid the shrieks of wounded men -and despairing women, the Idumæans attacked and gained possession of -the Temple, and when the day dawned eight thousand bodies lay piled -within the sacred area. Among them were those of Ananus, and Jesus -the son of Gamala, the high priests. Stripped naked, their corpses -were thrown out to the dogs, and it was forbidden even to bury them. -Simon Ben Gioras, who had first signalized himself in the defeat of -Cestius, came to the city to add one more to the factions. The -moderate party were stamped out and exterminated, and the city -divided between John and Simon, who fought incessantly till Titus’s -legions appeared before the walls. - - ------------------ - - NOTE.—The materials for this chapter were chiefly found in - Josephus and Milman’s ‘History of the Jews.’ In the chapters which - follow, it has not been thought necessary to name the authorities - for each chapter. References will be found occasionally, among - other books, to Williams’s ‘Holy City,’ and Lewin’s ‘Siege of - Jerusalem.’ - - - - - CHAPTER II. - THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM. - - Bella, sublimis, inclyta divitiis, - Olim fuisti celsa ædificiis, - Mœnibus clara, sed magis innumerum - Civium turmis. - - -The events at Rome which elevated Vespasian to the throne were the -principal reasons that the siege of Jerusalem was not actually -commenced till the early summer of the year 70, when, in April Titus -began his march from Cæsarea. His army consisted of four legions: -the 5th, under Sextus Cerealis; the 10th, under Lartius Lepidus; the -12th, that which had suffered defeat under Cestius, and was still in -disgrace, and the 15th. Besides this formidable force of regulars, -he had a very large number of auxiliaries. The exact number of his -troops is not easy to estimate. We may at once put aside, as clearly -below the mark, the estimate which puts Titus’s army at thirty -thousand; for if we agree in accepting Josephus’s statement[3] with -regard to Vespasian’s army in the year 67, it consisted of sixty -thousand, including the auxiliaries. The campaign in Galilee cost -him a few, but not many, killed in the sieges. We may deduct a small -number, too, but not many, for garrison work, for the conquest of -the country had been, after the usual Roman fashion, thorough and -complete. Not only were the people defeated, but they were -slaughtered. Not only was their spirit crushed, but their powers of -making even the feeblest resistance were taken away from them;[4] -and all those who were yet desirous of carrying on the war, those of -the fanatics who escaped the sword of Vespasian, had fled to -Jerusalem to fall by the sword of Titus. A very small garrison would -be required for Galilee and Samaria, and we may be very sure that -the large army which was with Vespasian in 67 nearly all followed -Titus in 70. The legions had been filled up, and new auxiliaries had -arrived.[5] Besides these, Josephus expressly says that the army of -Vespasian, and therefore that of Titus, was accompanied by -servants[6] “in vast numbers, who, because they had been trained up -in war with the rest, ought not to be distinguished from the -fighting men; for, as they were in their masters’ service in times -of peace, so did they undergo the like danger with them in time of -war, insomuch that they were inferior to none either in skill or in -strength, only they were subject to their masters.” - -Footnote 3: - - Let us take the opportunity of stating our opinion that Josephus’s - testimony may generally be relied upon. It was for a long time the - fashion to hold up his exaggerations to ridicule. Thus, when he - spoke of the height of the wall as being such as to make the head - reel, travellers remembered the fifty feet of wall or so at the - present day and laughed. But Captain Warren has found that the - wall was in parts as much as 200 feet high. Surely a man may be - excused for feeling giddy at looking down a depth of 200 feet. - Whenever Josephus speaks from personal knowledge, he appears to us - to be accurate and trustworthy. There is nothing on which he could - speak with greater authority, which would sooner have been - discovered, than a misstatement as regards the Roman army. - -Footnote 4: - - Milman gives a list of the losses of the Jews in this war compiled - from the numbers given by Josephus. It amounts to more than three - millions. Deductions must, of course, be made. - -Footnote 5: - - No argument ought to be founded on the supposed numbers of the - legions. The number _generally_ composing a legion in the time of - the Empire was 6000, and before the Empire, was 4000. But at - Pharsalia Cæsar’s legions were only 2000 each, while Pompey’s were - 7000. - -Footnote 6: - - It is very curious that these “servants” are not mentioned either - by Mr. Lewin or Mr. Fergusson. Mr. Williams puts down the number - of the legions at 10,000 each, perhaps including the servants. - -It is not easy to make any kind of estimate of the number of these -servants. Perhaps, however, we shall be within the mark if we put -down the whole number of forces under Titus’s command at something -like eighty thousand—an army which was greatly superior in numbers -to that of the besieged. It was also fully provided and equipped -with military engines, provisions and material of all kinds. It -marched, without meeting any enemy, from Cæsarea to Jerusalem, where -it arrived on the 11th of April.[7] - -The city, meanwhile, had been continuing those civil dissensions -which hastened its ruin. John, Simon Bar Gioras, and Eleazar, each -at the head of his own faction, made the streets run with blood. -John, whose followers numbered six thousand, held the Lower, New, -and Middle City; Simon, at the head of ten thousand Jews and five -thousand Idumeans, had the strong post of the Upper City, with a -portion of the third wall; Eleazar, with two thousand zealots, more -fanatic than the rest, had barricaded himself within the Temple -itself. There they admitted, it is true, unarmed worshippers, but -kept out the rest. The stores of the Temple provided them with -abundance of provisions, and while the rest of the soldiers were -starving, those who were within the Temple walls[8] were well fed -and in good case. This was, however, the only advantage which -Eleazar possessed over the rest. Their position, cooped up in a -narrow fortress—for such the Temple was—and exposed to a constant -shower of darts, stones, and missiles of all sorts, from John’s men, -was miserable enough. John and Simon fought with each other in the -lower ground, the valley of the Tyropœon, which lay between the -Temple and Mount Zion. Here were stored up supplies of corn -sufficient, it is said, for many years’ supply. But in the sallies -which John and Simon made upon each other all the buildings in this -part of the town were destroyed or set on fire, and all their corn -burned; so that famine had actually begun before the commencement of -the siege. - -Footnote 7: - - The dates of the siege are all taken from Professor Willis’s - ‘Journal,’ given in Williams’s ‘Holy City,’ vol. i. p. 478. - -Footnote 8: - - After Eleazar had succumbed to John. - -“And now,” to quote the words of the historian, “the people of the -city were like a great body torn in pieces. The aged men and the -women were in such distress by their internal calamities that they -wished for the Romans, and earnestly hoped for an external war, in -order to deliver them from their domestic miseries. The citizens -themselves were under a terrible consternation and fear; nor had -they any opportunity of taking counsel and of changing their -conduct; nor were there any hopes of coming to an agreement with -their enemies; nor could such as wished to do so flee away, for -guards were set at all places, and the chiefs of the robbers agreed -in killing those who were for peace with the Romans.” - -Day and night, he goes on to tell us, the wretched inhabitants were -harassed with the shouts of those who fought, and the lamentation of -those who mourned, until through the overwhelming fear, every one -for himself, relations ceased to care for each other, the living -ceased to mourn for the dead, and those who were not among the -defenders of the walls ceased to care for anything or to look for -anything except for speedy destruction; and this even before the -siege began. - -And yet, with the city in this miserable and wretched condition, -with the certain knowledge that the Romans were coming, the usual -crowds of Jews and Idumeans flocked to the city to keep the feast of -the Passover. Their profound faith was proof against every disaster. -That the Temple should actually fall, actually be destroyed, seems -never even to have entered into their heads; and there can be little -doubt that the rude, rough, country people, coming to keep the -Passover with their wives and children, were filled with a wild hope -that the God of Joshua was about to work some signal deliverance for -them. The population thus crowded into the city is estimated by -Tacitus at six hundred thousand; by Josephus at more than double -that number. There are reasons for believing the number at least as -great as that stated by Tacitus. A register of the buried had been -kept in the city, and the registrar of one gate, out of which the -dead were thrown, gave Josephus a note of his numbers. The historian -conversed with those who escaped. A list of the captives would be, -no doubt, made—the Romans were not in the habit of doing things -carelessly, even after a great victory—and they would be accessible -to Josephus. So far as these go we ought to allow Josephus’s right -to the consideration due to an eye-witness; and it seems to us -absolutely unwarranted by any historical or other arguments, to put -down, as has been done, the population of this city during the siege -at sixty or seventy thousand.[9] This was doubtless something like -the ordinary population; but it was swelled tenfold and twentyfold -by the crowds of those who came yearly to keep the feast. Again, the -argument based by Mr. Fergusson on the area of the city fails for -the simple reason that it is founded on wrong calculations[10] as to -the number of square yards. Moreover, it seems to assume the -besieged to have been all comfortably lodged; it ignores altogether -the estimate taken by Cestius; while, if the numbers adopted by Mr. -Fergusson be correct, the horrors of the siege must have been -grossly exaggerated, and the stories told by Josephus cannot be -accepted; and, for a last objection, it appears to be assumed, what -is manifestly incorrect, that every able-bodied man fought. For this -vast mass of poor helpless people were like a _brutum pecus_; they -took no part whatever in the fighting. Nothing is clearer than the -statement made by Josephus of the fighting men. They were -twenty-three thousand in all at the beginning: they did not invite -help, and probably would not allow it, from the population within -the walls. These, who very speedily found relief, in the thinning of -death, for their first lack of accommodation, sat crouching and -cowering in the houses, desperately hoping against hope, starving -from the very commencement, beginning to die in heaps almost before -the camp of the 10th Legion was pitched upon the Mount of Olives. -The numbers given by Josephus may not be correct within a great many -thousands; there is reason enough, however, to believe that, within -limits very much narrower than some of his readers are disposed to -believe, his numbers may be fairly depended on. After all, it -matters little enough what the numbers really were; and even if we -let them be what any one chooses to call them, there yet remains no -doubt that the sufferings of the people were very cruel, and that, -of all wretched and bloody sieges in the world’s history, few, if -any, have been more wretched or more bloody than the siege of -Jerusalem by Titus. - -Footnote 9: - - Fergusson’s Art. ‘Jerusalem,’ Biblical Dictionary. - -Footnote 10: - - Taking the shape of the city to be circular and 33 stadia in - circumference (it was more nearly circular than square), we find - its area to have been rather more than 3,500,000 square yards. - This, at 30 square yards to one person, gives about 120,000 for - the ordinary population. And there were extensive gardens and - numerous villas to the north and east which contained another - population altogether quite impossible to estimate. And it must - not be forgotten that Cestius (Joseph. ‘Bell. Jud.’ vi. ix. 3) - caused an estimate to be made, a very few years before the siege, - of the numbers actually present at the Passover, and that the - _official_ return was 2,560,500 persons. The whole question is - clearly stated by Mr. Williams (‘Holy City,’ vol. i. p. 481). And, - as he points out very justly, it is not a question how many would - be comfortably accommodated in Jerusalem, but how many were - actually _crammed_ into it. - -The people knew full well, of course, that the Romans were coming. -Fear was upon all, and expectation of things great and terrible. As -in all times of general excitement, signs were reported to have been -seen in the heavens, and portents, which, however, might be read -both ways, were observed. A star shaped like a sword, and a comet, -stood over the city for a whole year. A great light had shone on the -altar at the ninth hour of the night. A heifer, led up to be -sacrificed, brought forth a lamb in the midst of the Temple. The -eastern gate of the inner court, so heavy that it required twenty -men to move it, flew open of its own accord in the night. Chariots -and troops of soldiers in armour were seen running about in the -clouds, and surrounding cities. When the priests were one night busy -in their sacred offices, they felt the earth quaking beneath them, -and heard a cry, as of a great multitude, “Let us remove hence!” And -always up and down the city wandered Jesus, the son of Ananus, -crying, “Woe, woe to Jerusalem!” until the siege began in earnest, -when he ceased; for being on the wall, he cried, “Woe, woe to the -city again! and to the people, and to the holy House!” and then, as -he added, “Woe, woe to myself also!” a stone from one of the engines -smote him and he died. - -Titus posted the 10th Legion on the Mount of Olives, and the 12th -and 15th on Mount Scopus, the 5th remaining some little distance -behind. As the 10th were engaged in pitching their camp, the Jews, -whose leaders had hastily patched up a kind of peace, suddenly -sallied forth from the eastern gate, and marching across the valley -of the Kedron, charged the Romans before they had time to form in -battle. [Sidenote: April 11.] Titus himself brought a chosen body to -their relief, and the Jews were, with great difficulty, driven back. - -The next four days were spent in clearing the ground to the north of -the city, the only part where an attack could be made. “They[11] -threw down the hedges and walls which the people had made about -their gardens and groves of trees, and cut down the fruit-trees -which lay between them and the wall of the city.” - -Footnote 11: - - Joseph. ‘Bell. Jud.’ v. iii. 2. - -The Jews, furious at sight of this destruction, made a sally, -pretending at first to be outcasts from the city, and hiding their -weapons until they were close upon the enemy. On this occasion the -Romans were utterly routed, and fled, pursued by the Jews “as far as -Helen’s monument.” It was a gleam of sunshine, and nearly the only -gleam that fell to the lot of the besieged. Titus removed his camp -to the north side of the city, and, leaving the 10th still on the -Mount of Olives, placed the 5th on the west of the city, over -against the towers of Hippicus and Pharsaelus, and the 12th and 15th -on the north. A cordon of men, seven deep, was drawn round the north -and west of the city. This must have taken some twenty-five thousand -men to effect. - -[Sidenote: April 23.] - -On the morning of the Passover, John contrived—taking advantage of -the permission freely granted to all who chose to enter the Temple -unarmed—to send in his own men, choosing those whose features were -not known to Eleazar’s followers, with concealed weapons. Directly -they got into the Inner Temple, they made an attack on the men of -the opposite faction. A good many were slaughtered, and the rest, -finding it best to yield, made terms with their conquerors, -Eleazar’s life being spared. There now remained only two factions in -the city, Simon holding the strongest place—the Palace of Herod, -which commanded the Upper Town—and John the Temple Fortress, without -which the Lower Town could not be taken. - -It was determined to begin the assault with the north-western part -of the wall, that part of it where the valley turns in a -north-westerly direction and leaves a level space between the wall -and its own course. The engines used by the Romans were those always -employed in the conduct of a siege—the ballistæ, the towers, and the -battering rams. Then banks were constructed, on each of which was a -tower and a ram. In the construction of these last all the trees -round Jerusalem were cut down. Nor have they ever been replanted, -and a thousand years later on the siege of the city by the -Crusaders, only inferior in horror to that of Titus, nearly -miscarried for want of timber to construct the towers of assault. - -As soon as the banks were sufficiently advanced the battering rams -were mounted and the assault commenced. The Jews, terrified by the -thunder of the rams against the city, annoyed, too, by the stones -which came into the city from the ballistæ, joined their forces and -tried a sortie from a secret gate near Hippicus. Their object was to -destroy the machines by fire; and in this they well-nigh succeeded, -fighting with a desperation and courage which no Roman troops had -ever before experienced. Titus himself was in the conflict; he -killed twelve Jews with his own hands; but the Romans would have -given way had it not been for the reinforcement of some Alexandrian -troops who came up at the right moment and drove back the Jews. - -On the fifteenth day of the siege the biggest battering ram, -“Nikon,” the Conqueror, effected a breach in the outer wall. The -Jews, panic-stricken, forgot their wonted courage and took refuge -within the second wall. Titus became therefore master of Bezetha, in -the New Town; forming about a third of the city. - -As nothing is said about the population of this, which was probably -only a suburb and never actually filled with people till the siege -began, we may suppose that very early in the assault they hastened -out of reach of the ballistæ and arrows by fleeing to the inner -city. And by this time a fortnight of the siege had passed away and -already their numbers were grievously thinned by starvation. - -Between the palace of Herod and the Temple area there stretched the -second wall across the Tyropœon valley, which was filled, before the -faction fights of Simon and John, with houses of the lower sort of -people. This was the most densely populated part of the city. The -wall which defended it was not so strong as the rest of the -fortifications, and in five days, including an unsuccessful attempt -to storm the palace of Herod, a breach was effected and the Romans -poured into the town, Titus at their head. - -In hopes of detaching the people from the soldiers, Titus ordered -that no houses should be destroyed, no property pillaged, and the -lives of the people spared. It was an act of mercy which the fierce -passions of the Jews interpreted as a sign of weakness, and renewing -their contest, fighting hand to hand in the streets, from the -houses, from the walls, they beat the Romans back, and recaptured -their wall, filling the breach with their own bodies. The battle -lasted for four days more when Titus, entering again, threw down the -whole northern part of the wall and became master of the whole Lower -Town. - -Partly to give his troops rest, partly to exhibit his power before -the Jews, Titus gave orders that the paying of the troops should be -made the opportunity for a review of the whole army almost under the -walls of the city, and in full view of the besieged. The pageant -lasted four days, during which there was a grand march-past of the -splendid Roman troops, with burnished armour and weapons, and in -full uniform. - -“So the soldiers, according to custom, opened the cases where their -arms before lay covered, and marched with their breastplates on; as -did the horsemen lead the horses in their fine trappings.... The -whole of the old wall and the north side of the Temple were full of -spectators, and one might see the houses full of such as looked at -them; nor was there any part of the city which was not covered over -with their multitudes; nay, a great consternation seized upon the -hardiest of the Jews themselves, when they saw all the army in the -same place, together with the success of their arms and the good -order of the men.”[12] - -Footnote 12: - - Joseph. ‘Bell. Jud.’ v. ix. 1. - -The Jews saw and trembled. But they did not submit. There could be -no longer any hope. The multitude, pent up in limits too narrow for -one-tenth of their number, daily obtained more room by death, for -they died by thousands. The bodies were thrown out into the valleys, -where they lay rotting, a loathsome mass. Roaming bands of soldiers -went up and down the city looking for food. When they came upon a -man who looked fat and well-fed they tortured him till he told the -secret of his store: to be starving or to appear to be starving was -the only safety: and “now,” says Josephus, “all hope of escaping was -cut off from the Jews, together with their liberty of going out of -the city. Then did the famine widen its progress, and devoured the -people by whole houses and families; the upper rooms were full of -women and children that were dying by famine; and the lanes of the -city were full of the dead bodies of the aged; the children also and -the young men wandered about the market-places like shadows, all -swelled with the famine, and fell down dead wheresoever their misery -seized them. As for burying them, those that were sick themselves -were not able to do it; and those that were hearty and well, were -deterred from doing it by the great multitude of those dead bodies, -and by the uncertainty there was how soon they should die -themselves; for many died as they were burying others, and many went -to their coffins before that fatal hour was come! Nor was there any -lamentation made under these calamities, nor were heard any mournful -complaints; but the famine confounded all natural passions; for -those who were just going to die, looked upon those that were gone -to their rest before them with dry eyes and open mouths. A deep -silence also, and a kind of deadly night, had seized upon the city; -while yet the robbers were still more terrible than these miseries -were themselves; for they brake open those houses which were no -other than graves of dead bodies, and plundered them of what they -had; and carrying off the coverings of their bodies, went out -laughing, and tried the points of their swords on their dead bodies; -and, in order to prove what mettle they were made of, they thrust -some of those through that still lay alive upon the ground; but for -those that entreated them to lend them their right hand, and their -sword to despatch them, they were too proud to grant their requests, -and left them to be consumed by the famine. Now every one of these -died with their eyes fixed upon the Temple. Children pulled the very -morsels that their fathers were eating out of their very mouths, and -what was still more to be pitied, so did the mothers do as to their -infants; and when those that were most dear were perishing under -their hands, they were not ashamed to take from them the very last -drops that might preserve their lives; and while they ate after this -manner, yet were they not concealed in so doing; but the seditious -everywhere came upon them immediately, and snatched away from them -what they had gotten from others; for when they saw any house shut -up, this was to them a signal that the people within had gotten some -food; whereupon they broke open the doors, and ran in, and took -pieces of what they were eating, almost up out of their very -throats, and this by force: the old men, who held their food fast, -were beaten; and if the women hid what they had within their hands, -their hair was torn for so doing; nor was there any commiseration -shown either to the aged or to infants, but they lifted up children -from the ground as they hung upon the morsels they had gotten, and -shook them down upon the floor; but still were they more barbarously -cruel to those that had prevented their coming in, and had actually -swallowed down what they were going to seize upon, as if they had -been unjustly defrauded of their right. They also invented terrible -methods of torment to discover where any food was, and a man was -forced to bear what it is terrible even to hear, in order to make -him confess that he had but one loaf of bread, or that he might -discover a handful of barley-meal that was concealed; this was done -when these tormentors were not themselves hungry; for the thing had -been less barbarous had necessity forced them to it; but it was done -to keep their madness in exercise, and as making preparation of -provisions for themselves for the following days.” - -At night the miserable wretches would steal into the ravines, those -valleys where the dead bodies of their children, their wives, and -kin, were lying in putrefying masses, to gather roots which might -serve for food. The lot of these was pitiable indeed. If they -remained outside they were captured by the Romans, and crucified, -sometimes five hundred in a morning, in full view of the -battlements: if they went back laden with a few poor roots of the -earth, they were robbed by the soldiers at the gate, and sent home -again to their starving children, starving themselves, and unable to -help them. - -The cruelty of Titus, designed to terrify the Jews, only stimulated -them to fresh courage. Why, indeed, should they surrender? Death was -certain for all; it was better to die fighting, to kill one of the -enemy at least, than to die amid the jeers of the triumphant -soldiers. Besides, we must remember that they were defending their -sacred mountain, their Temple, the place to which every Jew’s heart -looked with pride and fondness, whither turned the eyes of those who -died with a sort of sad reproach. Simon and John were united in this -feeling alone—that it was the highest duty of a Jew to fight for his -country. The portraits of these two commanders have been drawn by an -enemy’s hand. We must remember that the prolonged resistance of the -Jews was a standing reproof to Josephus, who had been defeated, -captured, and taken into favour. No epithets, on his part, can be -too strong to hurl at John and Simon. It is impossible now to know -what were the real characters of these men, whether they were -religious patriots, or whether they were filled with the basest and -most selfish motives. One thing is quite certain and may be said of -both: if John hated Simon much, he loved the city more. Neither, at -the worst moment, hinted at a surrender of the town; neither tried -to curry favour for himself by compassing the fall of his adversary. - -And the Jews, though emaciated by hunger, reeling and fainting for -weakness, were yet full of courage and resource. While Titus was -spending seventeen days of arduous labour in getting ready his new -banks against the Temple, the Jews were busy burrowing beneath his -feet; and when the rams had been mounted and already were beginning -to play, a subterranean rumbling was heard, and the works of weeks -fell suddenly to the ground. - -“The Romans had much ado to finish their banks after labouring hard -for seventeen days continually. There were now four great banks -raised, one of which was at the tower of Antonia; this was raised by -the 5th Legion, over against the middle of that pool which was -called Struthius. Another was cast up by the 12th Legion, at the -distance of about twenty cubits from the other. But the labours of -the 10th legion, which lay a great way off these, were on the north -quarter, and at the pool called Amygdalon; as was that of the 15th -legion, about thirty cubits from it, and at the high priest’s -monument. And now, when the engines were brought, John had from -within undermined the space that was over-against the tower of -Antonia, as far as the banks themselves, and had supported the -ground over the mine with beams laid across one another, whereby the -Roman works stood upon an uncertain foundation. Then did he order -such materials to be brought in as were daubed over with pitch and -bitumen, and set them on fire; and as the cross beams that supported -the banks were burning, the ditch yielded on the sudden, and the -banks were shaken down, and fell into the ditch with a prodigious -noise. Now at the first there arose a very thick smoke and dust, as -the fire was choked with the fall of the bank; but as the suffocated -materials were now gradually consumed, a flame brake out; on which -sudden appearance of the flame a consternation fell upon the Romans, -and the shrewdness of the contrivance discouraged them; and indeed, -this accident coming upon them at a time when they thought they had -already gained their point, cooled their hopes for the time to come. -They also thought it would be to no purpose to take the pains to -extinguish the fire, since, if it were extinguished, the banks were -swallowed up already [and become useless] to them.” - -The other banks against the west wall were not more fortunate. For -Simon’s soldiers, with torches in their hands, rushed out suddenly -when the engines were beginning to shake the walls. They seized the -iron of the engines, which was red hot, and despite this held them -till the wood was consumed. The Romans retreated: the guards, who -would not desert their post, fell in numbers, and Titus found his -whole army wavering under the attacks of a half-starved and haggard -mob, whose courage arose from despair. And the engines had all been -burned, the labour of three weeks gone. Titus held a council to -decide what should next be done. It was resolved, on his own -suggestion, that a wall of circumvallation should be raised round -the city, and that a strict blockade, cutting off all communication -with the country, should be established, until starvation should -force a surrender. - -The wall, which was probably little more than a breastwork, though -strong and solid, was completed, together with thirteen external -redoubts, in three days,[13] every soldier giving his labour. No -attempt seems to have been made by the Jews to prevent or hinder the -work. Probably they were too weak to attempt any more sorties. A -strict watch was set by the Romans—up to this time the blockade does -not seem to have been complete—and no one was allowed to approach -the wall. And now the last feeble resource of the Jews, the furtive -gathering of roots under the city walls, was denied them; and the -sufferings of the besieged became too great for any historian to -relate. Titus himself, stoic though he was, and resolute to succeed -in spite of any suffering, called God to witness, with tears in his -eyes, that this was not his doing. - -Footnote 13: - - This alone is sufficient to prove the extent of Titus’s army. An - army of thirty thousand would be utterly unable to accomplish such - a work in three days. - -Even the obstinacy of the Jews gave way under these sufferings, and -more than one attempt was made to introduce the Romans. Matthias -opened a communication with the enemy. He was detected, and, with -three sons, was executed. One Judas, the son of Judas, who was in -command of a tower in the Upper City, concerted with ten of his men, -and invited the Romans to come up and take the tower. Had Titus at -once ordered a troop to mount, the Upper City might have been easily -taken. But he had been too often deceived by feints, and hesitated. -The plot was discovered, and Judas, with his ten fellows, was hurled -over the ramparts at the feet of the Romans. - -It was then that Josephus, whom of all men the besieged hated, was -wounded in the head, but not seriously, by a stone. The Jews made a -tremendous acclamation at seeing this, and sallied forth for a -sortie, in the excess of their joy. Josephus, senseless, was taken -up and conveyed away, but the next day reappeared and once more -offered the clemency of Titus to those who would come out. The -hatred which his countrymen bore to Josephus, as to an apostate, -natural enough, shows remarkably the love of justice which in all -times has distinguished the Jew. His father and mother were in the -city. They were not, till late in the siege, interfered with in any -way: and his father was set in prison at last, more, apparently, to -vex his son than with any idea of doing him an injury.[14] - -The miserable state of the city drove hundreds to desert. They came -down from the walls, or they made a pretended sortie and passed over -to the Romans; but here a worse fate accompanied them, in spite of -Josephus’s promises, for Josephus had not reckoned on the -expectation that the Jews, famishing and mad for food, would, as -proved the case, cause their own death by over-eating at first. And -a more terrible danger awaited them. It was rumoured about that the -deserters swallowed their gold before leaving the city, and the -auxiliaries in the Roman camp, Arabians and Syrians, seized the -suppliants, and fairly cut them open to find the gold. And though -Titus was incensed when he heard of it, and prohibited it strictly, -he could not wholly stop the practice, and the knowledge of this -cruelty getting into the city stopped many who would otherwise have -escaped: they remained to die. One of those who kept the register of -burials and paid the bearers of the dead, told Josephus that out of -his gate alone 115,880 bodies had been thrown since the siege began, -and many citizens, whose word could be depended on, estimated the -number who had died at 600,000. - -Footnote 14: - - Josephus narrates how his mother wept at the false report of his - death, and quotes with complacency her lamentation that she had - brought so distinguished a man into the world for so early a - death. - -Banks, meanwhile, were gradually rising against the fortress of -Antonia. The Romans had swept the country clear of trees for ninety -furlongs round to find timber for their construction: they took -twenty-one days to complete, and were four in number. The besieged -no longer made the same resistance. Their courage, says Josephus, -was no longer Jewish, “for they failed in what is peculiar to our -nation, in boldness, violence of assault, and running upon the enemy -all together ... but they now went out in a more languid manner than -before ... and they reproached one another for cowardice, and so -retired without doing anything.” The attacks of the enemy were, -however, courageously defended. For a whole day the Romans -endeavoured with rams to shake the wall, and with crows and picks to -undermine its foundations. Darkness made them withdraw, and during -the night the wall, which had been grievously shaken, fell of its -own accord. - -But even this calamity had been foreseen by the defenders, and, to -the astonishment and even dismay of Titus, a new wall was found -built up behind the old, and the Jews upon it, ready to defend it -with their old spirit. Titus exhorted his soldiers, who were getting -dejected at the renewal of the enemy’s obstinacy, and offered the -highest rewards to him who would first mount the wall. His -exhortation, like the rest of the speeches in Josephus, is written -after the grand historic style, and embodies all those sentiments -which a general ought to feel under the circumstances, together with -a verbosity and length quite sufficient to deprive it of all -hortatory effect. - -One Sabinus, with only eleven others, made the attempt. He alone -reached the top of the wall, and after a gallant fight was killed by -the Jews. His followers were also either killed or wounded. Two days -afterwards “twelve of the men who were in the front,” to give the -story in Josephus’s own words, “got together, and calling to them -the standard-bearer of the fifth legion and two others of a troop of -horse, and one trumpeter, went out noiselessly about the ninth hour -of the night through the ruins to the tower of Antonia. They found -the guards of the place asleep, cut their throats, got possession of -the wall, and ordered the trumpeter to sound his trumpet. Upon this -the rest of the guard got up suddenly and ran away before anybody -could see how many they were who had got into the tower.” Titus -heard the signal and came to the place. The Jews, in their haste to -escape, fell themselves into the mine which John had dug under the -banks; they rallied again, however, at the entrance of the Temple, -and the most determined fight, in a narrow and confined space, took -place there. The Temple was not to fall quite yet, and after a whole -day’s battle the Romans had to fall back, masters, however, of -Antonia. - -[Sidenote: July 17.] - -But on that very day the daily sacrifice failed for the first time, -and with it the spirit of the starving besieged. - -The end, now, was not far off. In seven days nearly the whole of -Antonia, excepting the south-east tower, was pulled down and a broad -way opened for the Roman army to march to the attack of the Temple. -Cloisters, as we have seen, united the fortress with the Temple, and -along these either on the flat roofs or along the galleries.[15] - -Footnote 15: - - Mr. Lewin makes this very clear. It seems to us to be made still - clearer by taking his graphic description and applying it to any - plan which follows the old traditions. - -And now many of the priests and higher classes deserted the falling -city and threw themselves upon the clemency of Titus. They were -received with kindness and sent to Gophna. John’s last resource was -to pretend they had all been murdered, and Titus was obliged to -parade them before the walls to satisfy the suspicions thus raised. - -An attempt was made to take the Temple by a night attack. This, -however, failed, and Titus foresaw the necessity of raising new -banks. Fighting went on daily in the cloisters, until the Jews set -fire to them, and occasional sorties were made by the besieged in -hopes to catch the enemy at unguarded moments. - -The banks were finished on the 1st of August. Titus ordered that -they should be brought and set over against the western wall of the -inner Temple. For six days the battering rams played against the -masonry of the inner Temple, for by this time the beautiful -cloisters which surrounded it, and ran from east to west, were all -destroyed, and the inner Temple, a fortress in itself, stood naked -and alone, the last refuge of John and his men. Had they yielded -this at least would have been spared. But it was not to be. With a -pertinacity which had no longer any hope in it the obstinate zealots -held out. On the north side the Romans undermined the gate, but -could not bring it down; they brought ladders and endeavoured to -tunnel the wall. The Jews allowed them to mount, and then killed -every one and captured their ensigns. And thus it was that Titus, -fearing perhaps that the spirit of his own troops would give way, -ordered the northern gate to be set on fire. This was done, and the -cloisters, not those of the outer court, but of the inner, were soon -destroyed. But Titus resolved still to save the Holy of Holies. - -[Sidenote: Aug. 9.] - -It was the day on which Nebuchadnezzar had burned the Temple of -Solomon. The Jews made another sortie, their last but one. They -could effect nothing, and retired after five hours’ fighting into -their stronghold, the desecrated Temple, on whose altar no more -sacrifices were now made, or ever would be made again. - -Titus retired to Antonia, resolving to take the place the next day; -but the Jews would not wait so long. They made a last sortie, which -was ineffectual. “The Romans put the Jews to flight, and proceeded -as far as the holy House itself. At which time one of the soldiers, -without staying for any orders, and without any concern or dread -upon him at so great an undertaking, and being hurried on by a -certain divine fury, snatched somewhat out of the materials that -were on fire, and being lifted up by another soldier, set fire to a -golden window, through which there was a passage to the rooms that -were round about the holy House, on the north side of it. As the -flames went upward the Jews made a great clamour, such as so mighty -an affliction required, and ran together to prevent it; and now they -spared not their lives any longer, nor suffered anything to restrain -their force, since that holy House was perishing, for whose sake it -was that they kept such a guard about it.”[16] - -Footnote 16: - - Joseph. vi. iv. 5. - -Titus, with all his staff, hastened to save what he could. He -exhorted the soldiers to spare the building. He stood in the Holy of -Holies itself, and beat back the soldiers who were pressing to the -work of destruction. But in vain: one of the soldiers threw a torch -upon the gateway of the sanctuary, and in a moment the fate of the -building was sealed. And while the flames mounted higher the carnage -of the poor wretches within went on. None was spared; ten thousand -were killed that were found there—children, old men, priests and -profane persons, all alike; six thousand fled to the roof of the -royal cloister, that glorious building which crowned the Temple wall -to the south, stretching from “Robinson’s Arch” to the valley of the -Kedron. The Romans fired that too, and the whole of the multitude -perished together. - -“One would have thought that the hill itself, on which the Temple -stood, was seething hot, full of fire in every part; that the blood -was larger in quantity than the fire; and those that were slain more -in number than those that slew them, for the ground nowhere appeared -visible for the dead bodies that lay on it; but the soldiers went -over heaps of these bodies as they ran from such as fled from -them.”[17] - -Footnote 17: - - Joseph. vi. v. 1. - -The really guilty among the Jews, the fighting men, had cut their -way through the Romans and fled to the upper city. A few priests -either hid themselves in secret chambers or crouched upon the top of -the wall. On the fifth day they surrendered, being starving. Titus -ordered them to execution. - -And so the Temple of Herod fell. - -The Roman army flocked into the ruins of the Temple which it had -cost them so many lives to take; sacrifices were offered, and Titus -was saluted as Imperator. An immense spoil was found there, not only -from the sacred vessels of gold, but from the treasury, in which -vast sums had been accumulated. The upper town, Zion, still held -out. Titus demanded a parley. Standing on that bridge, the ruined -stones of which were found by Captain Warren lying eighty feet below -the surface of the ground, he for the last time offered terms to the -insurgents. He explained that they could no longer entertain any -hope, even the slightest, of safety, and renewed his offers of -clemency to those who should yield. - -But the offers of Titus were supposed to be the effect of weakness. -Again the insurgents, now indeed possessed with a divine madness, -declined them. They demanded that they might be allowed to march out -with all their arms, and what would now be called the honours of -war. This proposition from a handful of starved soldiers surrounded -by the ruins of all that they held dear, with a triumphant army on -all sides, was too monstrous to be accepted even by the most clement -of conquerors, and Titus resolved with reluctance on the destruction -of the whole people. The royal family of Adiabene, descendants of -Queen Helena, had not left Jerusalem during the siege; on the -contrary, they had lent every aid in their power to the Jews. Now, -however, seeing that no hope was to be got from any but Titus, they -went over in a body to the Romans and prayed for mercy. Out of -consideration for their royal blood this was granted. But the Jews -revenged the fainthearted conduct of these royal proselytes by an -incursion into the lower New Town (on the Hill of Ophel), burning -their palace and sacking the rest of the town. The last part of the -siege, which Mr. Lewin finely calls the fifth act of a bloody -tragedy, was commenced by the usual methods of raising banks, all -attempts to carry the Upper City by assault being hopeless. These -were raised over against the Palace of Herod on the west, and at a -point probably opposite Robinson’s Arch in the east. And now, at the -last moment, no longer sustained by any hopes of miraculous -interference,—for if their God had allowed his Temple to fall, why -should he be expected to spare the citadel?—the Jews lost all -courage and began to desert in vast numbers. The Idumeans, finding -that Simon and John remained firm in their resolution of defence to -the last, sent five of their chiefs to open negotiations on their -own account. Simon and John discovered the plot; the five -commissioners were executed; care was taken to entrust the walls to -trusty guards, but thousands of the people managed to escape. The -Romans began by slaying the fugitives, but, tired of slaughter, -reserved them as prisoners to be sold for slaves. Those who were too -old or too worn out by suffering to be of any use they sent away to -wander about the mountains, and live or die. One priest obtained his -life by giving up to Titus the sacred vessels of the Temple, and -another by showing where the treasures were—the vestments of the -priests, and the vast stores of spices which had been used for -burning incense daily. - -[Sidenote: Sept. 8.] - -It took eighteen days to complete the siege-works. At last the banks -were ready to receive the battering-rams, and these were placed in -position. But little defence was made. Panic-stricken and cowering, -the hapless Jews awaited the breach in the wall, and the incoming of -the enemy. Simon and John, with what force they could collect, -abandoned the towers, and rushed to attempt an escape over Titus’s -wall of circumvallation at the south. It was hopeless. They were -beaten back; the leaders hid themselves in the subterranean chambers -with which Jerusalem was honeycombed, and the rest stood still to be -killed. The Romans, pouring into the town, began by slaying all -indiscriminately. Tiring of butchery they turned their thoughts to -plunder; but the houses were filled with dead and putrefying -corpses, so that they stood in horror at the sight, and went out -without touching anything. “But although they had this commiseration -for such as were destroyed in this manner, yet had they not the same -for those that were still alive; and they ran every one through whom -they met with, and obstructed the streets with dead bodies, and made -the whole city run with blood to such a degree, indeed, that the -fire of many of the houses was quenched with their men’s blood.” - -And then they set fire to the houses, and all was over. - -As for the prisoners who remained alive, they were destined to the -usual fate of slaves. To fight as gladiators; to afford sport among -the wild beasts in the theatres; and to work for life in the mines, -was their miserable lot. Woe, indeed, to the conquered in those old -wars, where defeat meant death, whose least cruel form was the -stroke of the headsman, or, worse than death, life, whose least -miserable portion was perpetual slavery in the mines. It would have -been well had Josephus, after narrating the scenes which he tells so -well, gone to visit these his miserable fellow-countrymen in -slavery, and described for us, if he could, the wretchedness of -their after-life, the unspeakable degradation and misery which the -Jew, more than any other man, would feel, in his condition of -slavery. Their history began with the slavery in Egypt: to these -unfortunate captives it would seem as if it was to end with slavery -in Egypt. - -The Romans, knowing that Jerusalem had a sort of subterranean city -of excavated chambers beneath it, proceeded to search for hiding -insurgents and for hidden wealth. The chambers were, like the -houses, often full of dead bodies. They found fugitives in some of -them; these they put to death. In others they found treasure; in -others they found corpses. - -Simon and John were not among the prisoners, nor were they among the -killed. John, several days after the capture of the city, came out -voluntarily from his hiding-place, and gave himself up to Titus. He -was reserved for the triumph. And then came the grand day of -rejoicing for the conquerors. Titus made a long and laudatory -oration to the army, adjudged promotions, coronets, necklaces, and -other prizes of valour, and with lavish hand distributed the spoils -among his soldiers. For three days the troops banqueted and -rejoiced. Then Titus broke up his camp, and departed for Cæsarea -with the 5th and 15th Legions, leaving the 10th, under Terentius -Rufus, to guard the city, and sending the 12th to the banks of the -Euphrates.[18] - -Footnote 18: - - Joseph. vii. v. 3. - -It was not till October that Simon gave himself up. To prevent being -killed at once, he emerged by night from his hiding-place dressed in -a long white robe, so that the astonished soldiers took him for a -ghost. “I am Simon, son of Gioras,” he cried. “Call hither your -general.” Terentius received him as a prisoner, and sent him to -Titus. - -One of the most important things in the conduct of a triumph at Rome -was the execution of the general of the vanquished army. Titus had -both generals to grace his procession. He assigned to Simon the post -of honour. At the foot of the Capitoline Hill the intrepid Jew was -led to the block, with a halter round his neck, and scourged -cruelly. He met his death with the same undaunted courage as he had -defended his city. John of Giscala remained a prisoner for life. - -No historian, except perhaps Milman, whose sympathies are ever with -the fallen cause, seems to us to have done justice, not only to the -bravery and heroism of the Jews, but also to the heroism of their -leaders. Their leaders have been described by an enemy and a -rival—that Josephus, son of Matthias, who, after making an heroic -resistance at Jotapata, obtained his life by pretending to be a -prophet, and continued in favour with the conquerors by exhorting -his fellow-countrymen to submission. That Simon and John were men -stained with blood, violent, headstrong, we know well; but it does -not seem to us that they were so bad and worthless as Josephus would -have us to believe. After the siege fairly began they united their -forces: we hear no more of the faction-fights. If their soldiers -committed excesses and cruelties, they were chiefly for food; and -everything was to give way to the preservation of the defenders. -Moreover, discipline was not thought of among the Jews, whose notion -of fighting was chiefly a blind and headlong rush. But we must again -recall the religious side of the defence. To the Jew his Temple was -more, far more, than Mecca can ever be to a Mohammedan. It had -traditions far higher and more divine. The awful presence of Jehovah -had filled the sanctuary as with a cloud. His angels had been seen -on the sacred hill. There, for generation after generation, the -sacrifice had been offered, the feast kept, the unsullied faith -maintained. The Temple was a standing monument to remind them by -whose aid they had escaped captivity; it taught them perpetually -that freedom was the noblest thing a man can have; it was the -glorious memorial of a glorious history; it was a reminder that -theirs was a nation set apart from the rest of the world. To defend -the Temple from outrage and pollution was indeed the bounden duty of -every Jew. And these Romans, what would they do with it? Had they -not the keys of the treasury where the vestments of the priests were -laid up? Had not one of their emperors ordered a statue of himself -to be set up, an impious idol, in the very Holy of Holies? - -A handful of men, they offered war to the mistress of the world. -True, the insurgents were rude and unlettered, who knew nothing of -Rome and her power. Even if they had known all that Rome could do, -it would have mattered nothing, for they were fighting for the -defence of all that made life sweet to them; and they were sustained -by false prophets, poor brainstruck visionaries, who saw the things -they wished to see, and foretold what they wished to happen. God -might interfere; the mighty arm which had protected them of old -might protect them again. The camp of the Romans might be destroyed -like the camp of the Assyrians; and because these things might -happen, it was a natural step, to an excited and imaginative people, -to prophesy that they would happen. But when the time passed by, -when none of these things came to pass, and the deluded multitude -hoped that submission would bring safety at least, the tenacity of -their leaders held them chained to a hopeless defence. Whether Simon -and John fought on with a stronger faith, and still in hope that the -arm of the Lord would be stretched out, or whether they fought on -with the desperate courage of soldiers who preferred death by battle -to death by execution, it is impossible now to say. - -It has been suggested by Josephus, as well as by modern writers, -that the courage of the Jews was shaken by predictions, omens, and -rumours; but if there were predictions of disaster, there were also -predictions of triumph. If Jesus, whom a few called Christ, had -prophesied the coming fall of the city, there were others who had -announced the fall of the enemy. Omens could be read either way. If -a sword-shaped comet hung in the sky, who could deny that the sword -impended over the heads of the Romans? And when the gate of the -Temple flew open, did it not announce the opening of the gates for -the triumph of the faithful? In that wild, unsettled time, when -there was nothing certain, nothing stable, the very faith of the -people would be intensified by these prophecies of disaster; their -courage would be strengthened by the gloomy foretellers of defeat; -and, as the Trojans fought none the worse because Cassandra was with -them, so the Jews fought none the worse because voices were -whispering among them about the prophecies of him whom some -recognised as the Messiah. - -Let us, at least, award them the meed of praise for a courage which -has never been equalled. Let us acknowledge that, in all the history -of the world, if there has been no siege more bloody and tragic, so -there has been no city more fiercely contested, more obstinately -defended; and though we may believe that the fall of Jerusalem had -been distinctly prophesied by our Lord, we must not therefore look -on the Jews as the blind and fated victims of prophecy. The city -fell, not in order to fulfil prophecy, but because the Jews were, as -they ever had been, a turbulent, self-willed race; because they were -undisciplined, because they loved freedom above everything else in -the world except their religion; and their religion was the ritual -and the Temple. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - FROM TITUS TO OMAR. - - “Wild Hours, that fly with hope and fear, - If all your office had to do - With old results that look like new, - If this were all your mission here, - - “To draw, to sheathe a useless sword, - To fool the crowd with glorious lies, - To cleave a creed in sects and cries, - To change the bearing of a word. - * * * * * * * - “Why then my scorn might well descend - On you and yours. I see in part - That all, as in some piece of art, - Is toil co-operant to an end.” - _In Memoriam._ - - -Its Temple destroyed, its people killed, led captive, or dispersed, -Jerusalem must have presented, for the next fifty years, at least, a -dreary and desolate appearance. At first its only inhabitants were -the Roman garrison, but gradually the Jews came dropping in, at -first, we may suppose, on sufferance and good behaviour. When the -Christians returned is not certain. Eusebius says that directly -after the destruction of Jerusalem, they assembled together and -chose Simeon as their bishop; but he does not say that they gathered -together in Jerusalem. All the traditions represent them as -returning very soon after the siege. As for the Jews, the -destruction of the Temple—that symbol of the law—only made them more -scrupulous in their obedience to the Law. The great school of -Gamaliel was set up at Jabneh, where lectures were delivered on all -the minutiæ of Rabbinical teaching, and the Jews were instructed how -to win the favour of Jehovah by carrying out to its last letter the -smallest details of the Law. And because this, minute as it was, did -not comprehend all the details of life, there arose a caste, -recruited from all tribes and families alike, which became more holy -than that of the priests and Levites—the caste of the Rabbis, the -students and interpreters of the Law. The Rabbi had, besides the -written law, the Tradition, _Masora_, or _Cabala_, which was -pretended to have been also given to Moses on Mount Sinai, and to -have been handed down in an unbroken line through the heads of the -Sanhedrim. The growth of the Rabbinical power does not date from the -destruction of the Temple; it had been slowly developing itself for -many centuries before that event. In the synagogues which were -scattered all over Palestine, and wherever the Jews could be got -together, the learned Rabbi, with his profound knowledge of the Law, -written and oral, had already, before the destruction of Jerusalem, -taken the place of the priests and their sacrifices; so that, in -spite of the fall of the Temple, the spiritual life of the Jews was -by no means crushed out of them. Rather was it deepened and -intensified, and their religious observances more and more invaded -the material life. The Rabbinical tribunals usurped entire rule over -the Jews. Like the Scotch elders, they had power to summon before -them persons accused of immorality, persons who neglected their -children, persons who violated details of the Law. They could also -impose on offenders punishment by scourging, by censure, by -interdict, by the _cherem_, or excommunication, which inflicted -civil death, but for which pardon might be obtained on repentance -and submission, and, lastly, by the fatal _shammata_, the final -curse, after which there was no pardon possible: “Let nothing good -come out of him; let his end be sudden; let all creatures become his -enemies; let the whirlwind crush him; let fever and every other -malady, and the edge of the sword, smite him; let his death be -unforeseen, and drive him into outer darkness.”[19] With this -machinery of internal government, the Jews were not only united -together and separated from the rest of the world, in each -particular town, not only did they maintain their nationality and -their religion, but, which was of much more importance to their -conquerors, they were able to act in concert with each other, to -demand redress together, to give help to each other, to rise in -revolt together. - -Footnote 19: - - Milman, ‘Hist. of the Jews,’ iii. 146. - -As for their treatment by the Romans, it is not certain that they -were at first persecuted at all. A tax of two drachms was levied by -Vespasian on every Jew for the rebuilding of the Temple of Jupiter -Capitolinus, and was exacted with the greatest rigour. He also -searched everywhere for descendants of the House of David, in order -to extinguish the royal line altogether; otherwise there is no -evidence to show that the Jews were ill-treated by the conquerors, -but rather the contrary, because the policy of the Romans was always -to treat the conquered nations with consideration and humanity, and -to extend to them the privilege of citizenship. But whether they -were persecuted or not, and whatever the cause, the whole of the -Jews in Egypt, Cyrene, Babylonia, and Judæa, rose in universal -revolt in the time of Trajan. Perhaps they had experienced some -affront to their religion; perhaps they had been persecuted with the -Christians; perhaps they expected the Messiah; perhaps their -fanatical and turbulent spirit was the cause of the rising; perhaps -the stories told in the Rabbinical accounts contain some truth. In -these it is related how the birthday of an Imperial Prince fell on -the 9th of August, the anniversary of the taking of Jerusalem, and -the Jews in Rome were wailing and lamenting while the rest of the -world was rejoicing. Also, on another occasion, while the Imperial -family were lamenting the death of a daughter, the Jews were -celebrating, with the customary semblance of joy, their Feast of -Lamps. Heavy persecution followed these unfortunate coincidences. - -The hostility of the Jews was manifested against the Greeks rather -than against the Romans. In Alexandria the Greeks massacred all the -Jews. In return the Jews, under Lucuas and Andrew, spread themselves -over the whole of Lower Egypt, and perpetrated ghastly atrocities. -The Roman Governor, meantime, could do nothing for want of troops. -In Cyprus the Jews are said to have killed two hundred and forty -thousand of their fellow-citizens. Hadrian came to their rescue, and -fairly swept the insurgents out of the island, where in memory of -these troubles no Jew has ever since been allowed to reside. Martius -Turbo quieted the insurrection in Cyrene, and then marched into -Egypt, where he found Lucuas at the head of an enormous army. -Mindful, as all Jewish insurgents, of his people’s traditions, and -no doubt hoping for another miracle, Lucuas tried to pass by way of -Suez into Palestine; but, no miracle being interposed, he and his -men were all cut to pieces. Then the Jews of Mesopotamia rose in -their turn, impatient of a change of masters which gave them the -cold and stern Roman, in place of their friends, and sometimes -coreligionists, the Parthians. The revolt was quelled by Lucius -Quietus, who was appointed to the government of Judæa; and when -Trajan died, and Hadrian ascended the throne, all the conquests in -the East beyond the Euphrates were abandoned: the Jews across that -river settled peacefully down with their old masters again; and -henceforward the tranquillity of these trans-Euphrates Jews -wonderfully contrasts with the turbulence and ferocity of their -Syrian brethren. But Hadrian resolved to suppress this troublesome -and turbulent Judaism altogether. He forbade circumcision, the -reading of the Law, the observance of the Sabbaths; and he resolved -to convert Jerusalem into a Roman colony. And then, because the Jews -could no longer endure their indignities, and because before the -dawn they ever looked for the darkest hour, the most cruel wrong, -there arose Barcochebas, the “Son of the Star,” and led away their -hearts, in the belief that he was indeed the Messiah. This, the -last, was the wildest and the most bloodthirsty of all the Jewish -revolts. - -The Messiah, the rumour ran forth among all Jews in all lands, had -come at last, and the prophecy of Balaam was fulfilled. The mission -of the pretender was recognised by no less a person than Akiba, the -greatest of living doctors, perhaps the greatest of all Jewish -doctors. He, when he saw Barcochebas, exclaimed loudly, “Behold the -Messiah!” “Akiba,” replied Rabbi Johannan Ben Torta, whose faith was -perhaps as strong, but whose imagination was not so active as his -learned brother’s, “the grass will be growing through your jaws -before the Messiah comes.” But Akiba’s authority prevailed. - -Rabbi Akiba, according to the story of the Rabbis, traced his -descent from Sisera, through a Jewish mother. He was originally a -poor shepherd boy, employed to tend the sheep belonging to a rich -Jew named Calva Sheva. He fell in love with his master’s daughter, -and was refused her hand on the ground of his poverty and lowness of -condition. He married her secretly, went away and studied the Law. -In course of time he came back to his master, followed, we are told, -like Abelard, by twelve thousand disciples: he was a second time -refused as a son-in-law. He went away again, but returned once more, -this time with twenty-four thousand disciples, upon which Calva -Sheva gave him his daughter and took him into favour. He is said to -have been one hundred and twenty years of age when Barcochebas -appeared. Probably he was at least well advanced in years. The -adherence of Akiba to the rebel leader was doubtless the main cause -of the hold which he obtained over his countrymen, for the authority -of Akiba was greater than that of any other living Jew. Other -pretenders had obtained followers, but not among the doctors learned -in the law, not among such Rabbis as Akiba. When the mischief was -done and, by the influence of Akiba, Barcochebas found himself at -the head of two hundred thousand warriors, mad with religious zeal, -Turnus Rufus, the new governor, seized and imprisoned the aged -rabbi.[20] He was brought out to trial. In the midst of the -questioning Akiba remembered that it was the time for prayer, and -with his usual calmness, in the presence of his judges, disregarding -and heedless of their questions, he proceeded with his devotions. He -was condemned to be flayed with iron hooks. - -Footnote 20: - - Other accounts say that he was taken prisoner in the taking of - Jerusalem. - -No one knows the origin and previous history of Barcochebas, nor how -the insurrection first began. All kinds of legends were related of -his prowess and personal strength. He was so strong that he would -catch the stones thrown from the catapults with his feet, and hurl -them back upon the enemy with force equal to that of the machines -which cast them; he could breathe flames; he would, at first, admit -into his ranks only those men who, to show their courage, endured to -have a finger cut off, but was dissuaded from this, and ordered -instead, and as a proof of strength, that no one should join his -ranks who could not himself tear up a cedar of Lebanon with his own -hands. - -The first policy of the Jews was to hide their strength, for the -insurrection was long in being prepared. They knew, and they alone, -all the secrets of the caves, subterranean passages, and hidden -communications with which their city and whole country were -honeycombed. They knew, too, where were the places best fitted for -strongholds, and secretly fortified them; so that when they appeared -suddenly and unexpectedly as the aggressors, they became masters -almost at one stroke of fifty strong places and nearly a thousand -villages. The first thing they did was to take Jerusalem, which -probably offered only the small resistance of a feeble garrison. -Here, no doubt, they set up an altar again, and, after a fashion, -rebuilt the Temple. Turnus Rufus, the Roman governor, whose troops -were few, slaughtered the unoffending people all over Judæa, but was -not strong enough to make head against the rebellion, which grew -daily stronger. Then Julius Severus, sent for by Hadrian in haste, -came with an overwhelming force, and, following the same plan as had -been adopted by Vespasian, attacked their strong places in detail. -Jerusalem was taken, the spirits of the insurgents being crushed by -the falling in of the vaults on Mount Zion, and Barcochebas himself -was slain. The rebels, in despair, changed his name to Bar Koziba, -the “Son of a Lie,” and fled to Bether, their last stronghold, where -they held out, under Rufus, the son of Barcochebas, for two years -more. A story is told of its defence which shows at least how the -hearts of the Jews were filled with the spirit of their old -histories.[21] Seeing the desperate state of things, Eliezer, the -Rabbi, enjoined the besieged to seek their last resource in prayer -to God. All day long he prayed, and all day long, while he prayed, -the battle went in favour of the Jews. Then a treacherous Samaritan -stole up to the Rabbi and whispered in his ear. The leader of the -insurgents[22] asked what he whispered. The Samaritan refused at -first to tell, and then, with assumed reluctance, pretended that it -was the answer to a secret message which Eliezer had sent to the -Romans proposing capitulation. The Jewish leader, infuriated with -this act of treason, ordered the Rabbi to be instantly executed. -This was done, and then, there being no longer any one to pray, the -tide of battle turned, and on the fatal 9th of August the fortress -of Bether was taken and the slaughter of the insurgents -accomplished. The horses of the Romans, we are told, were up to -their girths in blood. An immense number fell in this war; Dio -Cassius says five hundred and eighty thousand by the sword alone, -not including those who fell by famine, disease, and fire. The -fortress itself, when the last stand was made, whose position was -long unknown, has been identified beyond a doubt by Mr. George -Williams.[23] It appeared as if Hadrian’s purpose was achieved and -Judaism at last suppressed for ever. He turned Jerusalem into a -Roman colony, calling it Ælia Capitolina, forbade any Jew on pain of -death to appear even within sight of the city, and built a temple of -Jupiter on the site of the Temple. On the site of the sepulchre of -Christ, if indeed it was the site, was a temple to Venus, placed -there, Eusebius would have us believe, in mockery of the Christian -religion, and with a design to destroy the memory of the sepulchre. -Meantime the Christians, who had suffered greatly during the revolt -of Barcochebas, being tortured by the Jews and confounded with them -by the Romans, hastened to separate themselves as much as possible -from further possibility of confusion by electing a Gentile convert, -Marcus, to the bishopric of Jerusalem. To this period may be -referred the first springing up of that hatred of the Jews which -afterwards led to such great and terrible persecutions.[24] - -Footnote 21: - - Milman, iii. p. 122. See also Derenbourg, Hist. de la Palestine, - chap. xxiv. - -Footnote 22: - - Milman says Barcochebas, but though all is uncertainty, it appears - probable, as stated above, that he was dead already. - -Footnote 23: - - ‘Holy City,’ vol. i. p. 210. - -Footnote 24: - - An account of the Christian bishops, and of the controversies and - discussion which harassed the church, will be found in Williams’s - ‘Holy City.’ It may be as well to mention that throughout this - work we have studiously refrained from touching, except where it - was impossible to avoid doing so, on things ecclesiastical. - -The history of the next hundred years presents nothing remarkable. -The persecution of Diocletian raged throughout the East; the usual -stories of miracles are recorded; a library was founded in Jerusalem -by Bishop Alexander; and meantime the old name of the city was -forgotten entirely out of its own country. So much was this the -case, that a story is related of an Egyptian martyr who, on being -asked the name of his city, replied that it was Jerusalem, meaning -the heavenly Jerusalem. The judge had never heard of such a city, -and ordered him to be tortured in order to ascertain the truth. - -And now grew up the spirit of pilgrimage, and the superstition of -sacred places began, or rather was grafted into the new religion -from the old. Of the pilgrims of these early times we have to speak -in another place. At present they interest us only that they brought -about two events of the greatest importance to the history of the -world and the future of the Christian Church—the building of -Constantine’s church and the Invention of the Cross by Helena. Well -would it have been in the interest of humanity if the cave of -Christ’s sepulchre had never been discovered, and if the wood of the -Cross had still remained buried in the earth. - -The historians quarrel as much over the birthplace of Helena as that -of Homer. She was the daughter of a Breton king named Coël; she was -born in York; she was the daughter of an innkeeper at Drepanium, -near Nicomedia; she was a native of Dalmatia, of Dacia, of Tarsus, -of Edessa, of Treves. Whether she was ever married to Constantius -does not appear. If she was, he deserted her for Theodora, the -daughter-in-law of Maximian. But Constantius made his son, -Constantine, by Helena, his legal heir, and presented him to the -troops as his successor, and Constantine regarded his mother with -the greatest affection, surrounded her with every outward sign of -respect and dignity, granted her the title of _Augusta_, stamped her -name on coins, and gave her name to divers towns. Helena was at this -period a Christian, whether born in the new religion or a convert -does not appear; nor is it clear that she had anything to do with -the conversion of her son. This illustrious and Imperial convert, -stained with the blood of his father-in-law, whom he strangled with -his own hands, of his son, whom he sacrificed at the lying -representations of his wife, and of that wife herself, whom he -executed in revenge for the death of his son, was converted, we are -informed by some historians, through a perception of the beauty and -holiness of the teaching of Christ. Probably he saw in the Cross a -magical power by which he could defeat his enemies. It was after the -death of Crispus the Cæsar, Constantine’s son, that Helena, whose -heart was broken by the murder of her grandson, went to Jerusalem to -visit the sacred spots and witness the fulfilment of prophecy. On -her way she delivered captives, relieved the oppressed, rewarded old -soldiers, adorned Christian churches, and arrived in the Holy City -laden with the blessings of a grateful people. And here she -discovered the Cross in the following manner. Led by divine -intimation, she instructed her people where to dig for it, and after -removing the earth which the heathen had heaped round the spot, she -found the Sepulchre itself, and close beside it the three crosses -still lying together, and the tablet bearing the inscription which -Pilate ordered to be written. The true Cross was picked out from the -three by the method commonly pursued at this period, and always -attended with satisfactory results. A noble lady lay sick with an -incurable disease; all the crosses were brought to her bedside, and -at the application of one, that on which our Lord suffered, she was -immediately restored to perfect health. This is the account given by -the writers of the following century; but not one of the -contemporary writers relates the story, though Cyril, who was Bishop -of Jerusalem from the year 748, alludes to the finding of the Cross. -Eusebius preserves a total silence about it, a silence which to us -is conclusive. The following is his account of the discovery of the -Holy Sepulchre. (‘Life of Constantine,’ iii. 25.) - -“After these things the pious emperor ... judged it incumbent on him -to render the blessed locality of our Saviour’s resurrection an -object of attraction and veneration to all. He issued immediate -injunctions, therefore, for the erection in that spot of a house of -prayer. - -“It had been in time past the endeavour of impious men to consign to -the darkness of oblivion that divine monument of immortality to -which the radiant angel had descended from heaven and rolled away -the stone for those who still had stony hearts.... This sacred cave -certain impious and godless persons had thought to remove entirely -from the eyes of men. Accordingly they brought a quantity of earth -from a distance with much labour, and covered the entire spot; then, -having raised this to a moderate height, they paved it with stone, -concealing the holy cave beneath this massive mound. Then ... they -prepare on the foundation a truly dreadful sepulchre of souls, by -building a gloomy shrine of lifeless idols to the impure spirit whom -they call Venus.... These devices of impious men against the truth -had prevailed for a long time, nor had any one of the governors, or -military commanders, or even of the emperors themselves, ever yet -appeared with ability to destroy those daring impieties save only -our prince ... as soon as his commands were issued these engines of -deceit were cast down from their proud eminence to the very ground, -and the dwelling-place of error was overthrown and utterly -destroyed. - -“Nor did the emperor’s zeal stop here; but he gave further orders -that the materials of what was thus destroyed should be removed and -thrown from the spot as far as possible; and this command was -speedily executed. The emperor, however, was not satisfied with -having proceeded thus far: once more, fired with holy ardour, he -directed that the ground should be dug up to a considerable depth, -and the soil which had been polluted by the foul impurities of demon -worship transported to a far distant place.... But as soon as the -original surface of the ground, beneath the covering of earth, -appeared, immediately, and contrary to all expectation, the -venerable and hallowed monument of our Saviour’s resurrection was -discovered. Then, indeed, did this most holy cave present a faithful -similitude of return to life, in that, after lying buried in -darkness, it again emerged to light, and afforded to all who came to -witness the sight a clear and visible proof of the wonders of which -that spot had once been the scene.” - -In other words; in the time of Constantine a report existed that the -spot then occupied by a temple of Venus was the site of our Lord’s -burial-place: Constantine took down the temple, meaning to build the -church upon it: then, in removing the earth, supposed to be defiled -by the idol worship which had taken place upon it, they found to -their extreme astonishment the cave or tomb which is shown to this -day. Then came the building of the Basilica. - -“First of all,[25] he adorned the sacred cave itself, as the chief -part of the whole work, and the hallowed monument at which the -angel, radiant with light, had once declared to all that -regeneration which was first manifested in the Saviour’s person. -This monument, therefore, as the chief part of the whole, the -emperor’s zealous magnificence beautified with rare columns, and -profusely enriched with the most splendid decorations of every kind. - -Footnote 25: - - Euseb. ‘Life of Constantine,’ iii. ch. xxxiii. _et seq._ - -“The next object of his attention was a space of ground of great -extent, and open to the pure air of heaven. This he adorned with a -pavement of finely polished stone, and enclosed it on three sides -with porticoes of great length. At the side opposite to the -sepulchres, which was the eastern side, the church itself was -erected; a noble work, rising to a vast height, and of great extent, -both in length and breadth. The interior of this structure was -floored with marble slabs of various colours; while the external -surface of the walls, which shone with polished stone exactly fitted -together, exhibited a degree of splendour in no respect inferior to -that of marble. With regard to the roof, it was covered on the -outside with lead, as a protection against the rains of winter. But -the inner part of the roof, which was finished with sculptured -fretwork, extended in a series of connected compartments, like a -vast sea, over the whole church; and, being overlaid throughout with -the purest gold, caused the entire building to glitter, as it were, -with rays of light. Besides this were two porticoes on each side, -with upper and lower ranges of pillars, corresponding in length with -the church itself; and these had, also, their roofs ornamented with -gold. Of these porticoes, those which were exterior to the church -were supported by columns of great size, while those within these -rested on piles of stone beautifully adorned on the surface. Three -gates placed exactly east, were intended to receive those who -entered the church. - -“Opposite these gates the crowning part of the whole was the -hemisphere, which rose to the very summit of the church. This was -encircled by twelve columns (according to the number of the apostles -of our Saviour), having their capitals embellished with silver bowls -of great size, which the emperor himself presented as a splendid -offering to his god. - -“In the next place, he enclosed the atrium, which occupied the space -leading to the entrance in front of the church. This comprehended, -first, the court, then the porticoes on each side, and lastly the -gates of the court. After these, in the midst of the open -market-place, the entrance gates of the whole work, which were of -exquisite workmanship, afforded to passers-by on the outside a view -of the interior, which could not fail to excite astonishment.” - -According, therefore, to the account of Eusebius, Constantine built -_one_ church, and only one. This was not over the sepulchre at all, -but to the east of it, and separated from it by a space open to the -heavens, the sepulchre itself being set about with pillars. - -In the transport of enthusiasm which followed the conversion of -Constantine, the Jews probably found it convenient to keep as quiet -as possible. They held at this time exclusive possession of four -large towns in Galilee where they governed themselves, or rather -submitted to the government of the Rabbis. Attempts were made to -convert them. Sylvester succeeded, it is related, in converting a -number of them by a miracle. For a conference was held between the -Christians and Jews in the presence of the Emperor himself. One of -the Rabbis asked permission that an ox should be brought in. He -whispered in the ear of the animal the ineffable name of God, and -the beast fell dead. “Will you believe,” asked the Pope, “if I raise -him to life again?” They agreed. Sylvester adjured the ox, in the -name of Christ, and if Jesus was veritably the Messiah, to come to -life again. The beast rose and quietly went on feeding. Whereupon -the Jews all went out and were baptized. - -Stories of this kind were invented whenever it seemed well to -stimulate zeal or to promote conversions. The Jews were probably -only saved from a cruel persecution by the death of the zealous -convert. Already severe decrees had been issued. Constantine’s laws -enact that any Jew who endangers the life of a Christian convert -shall be buried alive; that no Christian shall be permitted to -become a Jew; that no Jew shall possess Christian slaves. But the -laws were little lightened in their favour by the successor of -Constantine, and the Jews made one or two local and feeble attempts -to rise in Judæa and in Alexandria. Here they had an opportunity of -plundering and slaying the Christians by joining the side of Arius. - -And then there came a joyful day, too short, indeed, for the Jews, -when Julian the Apostate mounted the throne. Julian addressed a -letter to the Patriarch, annulling the aggressive laws, and -promising great things for them on his return from the East. At the -same time he issued his celebrated edict ordering the rebuilding of -the Temple of Jerusalem; the care of the work being intrusted to his -favourite, Alypius. And now, it seemed, the restoration of the Jews -was to be accomplished in an unexpected manner, not foretold by -prophecy. The wealth of the people was showered upon the projected -work; Jews of all ages and both sexes streamed along the roads which -led to Jerusalem; and, amid hopes more eager than any the hapless -people had yet experienced, the work was begun. Hardly were the -foundations uncovered, the joyful Jews crowding round the workmen, -when flames of fire burst forth from underground accompanied by loud -explosions. The workmen fled in wild affright, and the labours were -at once suspended. Nor were they ever renewed. The anger of heaven -was manifested in the mysterious flames: not yet was to be the -rebuilding of the Temple. And then Julian died, cut off in early -manhood, and whatever hopes remained among the Jews were crushed by -this untimely event. - -As for the miracle of the flames, it has been accounted for by -supposing the foul gas in the subterranean passages to have caught -fire. Perhaps, it has been maliciously suggested, the flames were -designed by the Christians themselves, eager to prevent the -rebuilding of the Temple. In any case there seems no reason to doubt -the fact. - -And now for three hundred years the history of Jerusalem is purely -ecclesiastical. The disputes of the Christians, the quarrels among -the bishops over the supremacy of their sees, the bitter animosities -engendered by Arius, Pelagius, and other heretics, and leaders of -heterodox thought, made Palestine a battlefield of angry words, -which the disputants would gladly have turned into a battlefield of -swords. The history of their controversies does not belong to us, -and may be read in the pages of Dean Milman and the Rev. George -Williams. - -The Samaritans gave a good deal of trouble in the time of Justinian -by revolting and slaughtering the Christians in their quarter. They -were, however, quieted in the usual way, “by punishment,” and peace -reigned over all the country. Justinian built a magnificent church, -of which the Mosque El Aksa perhaps preserves some of the walls, at -least. It was so magnificent that in the delight of his heart, the -Emperor exclaimed, “I have surpassed thee, O Solomon!” All Syria -became a nest of monasteries, nunneries, and hermitages. In the -north Simeon Stylites and his followers perched themselves on -pillars, and soothed their sufferings with the adorations of those -who came to look at them. In Palestine were hundreds of monasteries, -while in every cave was a hermit, on every mountain-side the -desolate dwelling of some recluse, and the air was heavy with the -groans of those who tortured the flesh in order to save the soul. -Moreover, the country was a great storehouse of relics. To -manufacture them, or rather to find them, was a labour of love and -of profit for the people. It was not difficult, because bones of -saints were known always to emit a sweet and spice-like odour. They -were thus readily distinguished. No doubt the aid of history was -resorted to in order to determine whose bones they were. Nor was it -at all a matter to disturb the faith of the holder if another man -possessed the same relic of the same saint. Meantime, the wood of -the Cross was discovered to have a marvellous property. It -multiplied itself. If you cut a piece off to sell to a distinguished -pilgrim, or to send to a powerful prince for a consideration, this -invaluable relic, by a certain inherent _vis viva_, repaired itself -and became whole again, as it had been before. So that, if the -owners had chosen, a piece might have been cut off for every man in -the world, and yet the wood have been no smaller. But the holders of -the Cross were not so minded. So the time went on, and pleasant -days, with leisure for theological quarrelling, were enjoyed in the -Holy Land. The litanies of the Church were heard and said night and -day, and no part of the country but resounded with the psalms and -hymns of Christ, the intervals of the services being occupied by the -monks in the finding and sale of relics, and in bitter dissensions -between those who held views contrary to themselves. It was a land -given over to monks, with a corrupt and narrow-minded Church, daily -growing more corrupt and more narrow; and, when its fall took place, -the cup of its corruptions appears to have been full. King Chosroes, -the Persian conqueror, advanced into Syria, and the Jews, eager for -some revenge for all their miseries, gladly joined his victorious -arms. With him would be, without doubt, many of their own -countrymen, the brethren of the Captivity, and the Mesopotamian -Jews. Those in Tyre sent messengers to their countrymen in Damascus -and other places, urging them to rise and massacre the Christians. -The messengers were intercepted. The Christians in Tyre put the -leading Jews in prison and barred the gates. Then the insurgents -appeared outside and began to burn and waste the suburbs. For every -Christian church burned, the Christians beheaded a hundred -prisoners, and threw their heads over the wall. The Jews burned -twenty churches, and two thousand heads were thrown over.[26] Then -came the news that Chosroes was marching on Jerusalem, and all the -Jews flocked with eager anticipations to follow him. The city, -feebly defended, if at all, by its priestly inhabitants, was taken -at once: ninety thousand Christians are reported as having been -slaughtered; it matters little now whether the number is correct or -not—so large a number means nothing more definite than the -indication of a great massacre—the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, -_i.e._, what Eusebius calls, speaking of it as a whole, the Temple, -the Basilica with its porticoes and pillars, and the decorations of -the Sepulchre, were all destroyed: the churches built by Helena on -the Mount of Olives shared the same fate: the sacred vessels were -carried off by the conquerors: the wood of the true Cross was part -of the booty, and the Patriarch Zacharias was made prisoner, and -carried away with it. But the wife of Chosroes was a Christian. By -her intercession, Zacharias was well treated and the wood of the -Cross preserved. And immediately after the retreat of the Persians, -one Modestus, aided by gifts from John Eleemon of Alexandria, began -to repair and rebuild, as best he might, the ruined churches. -Fifteen years later Heraclius reconquered the provinces of Syria and -Egypt, regained the wood of the Cross, and in great triumph, though -clad in mean and humble dress, and as a pilgrim, entered Jerusalem -(Sept. 14, A.D. 629) bearing the wood upon his shoulder. The -restoration of the Cross was accompanied also by revenge taken upon -the Jews. Henceforth in the annals of Christendom every revival of -religious zeal is to be marked by the murdering and massacring of -Jews. - -Footnote 26: - - Milman, iii. 238. - -What little we have to say on the _vexata quæstio_ of the topography -of Jerusalem will be found further on (see Appendix); but on leaving -this, the second period of our history, one remark must be made, -which may help to explain the uncertainty which rests upon the sites -of the city. The destruction of the buildings, first under Titus, -and next under Chosroes, appears to have been thorough and complete. -Pillars may have remained standing with portions of walls; -foundations, of course, remained, these being covered up and buried -in the _débris_ of roofs, walls, and decorations. On these -foundations the Christians would rebuild, imitating, as far as -possible, the structures that had been destroyed; in many cases they -would have the very pillars to set up again, in all cases they would -have the same foundations. But there was no time between the -conquest by Heraclius and that by Omar to repair and restore the -whole, and perhaps nothing was actually built except a church over -the site of the Holy Sepulchre, formed of the materials which -remained of the Basilica of the Martyrium. This theory would partly -account for the silence about Justinian’s Basilica, and for the -apparent discrepancy between the statement made by Eusebius of -decorations only having been set round the Sepulchre itself, -contrasted with his admiration of the splendid Church of the -Martyrium. - -However all this may be, Jerusalem presents in history three totally -distinct and utterly unlike appearances. It has one under Herod; one -under Justinian; and one under Saladin. Under the first it possesses -one building splendid enough to excite the admiration of the whole -world; under the second it has its clustered churches as splendid as -the art of the time would admit; under the third it has its two -great buildings, the Dome of the Rock, and the Church of the -Sepulchre, standing over against each other, two enemies bound by -mutual expediency to peace. - -Only one of these buildings is ancient; but somewhere in the ruins -and rubbish in which the whole city is buried lie the foundations of -those which have been destroyed. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - THE MOHAMMEDAN CONQUEST. A.D. 632-1104. - - Πάψετε τὸ Χερουβικό, κἰ ἂς χαμηλώσουν τ’ Ἅγια! - Παπάδες πάρτε τὰ ἱερα, καὶ σεῖς κεριὰ σβυστῆτε, - Γιατὶ εἶναι θέλημα Θεοῦ ἡ Πόλι νὰ τουρκέψη. - -To the Arab wanderer on the barren and sun-stricken plains of the -Hejjáz the well-watered, fertile land of Syria had always been an -object of admiration and envy. As Mohammed the camel-driver sat on -the hill which overlooks Damascus, and gazed upon the rich verdure -of that garden of the East, his religious phrenzy, his visionary -schemes for the unity and regeneration of his race had well-nigh -yielded to the voluptuous fascination of the scene. But enthusiasm -and ambition triumphed: his eyes filled with tears, and exclaiming, -“Man can enter Paradise but once,” he turned sorrowfully back, and -in that moment changed the fortunes of the world. - -When Abu Bekr, Mohammed’s first successor, had quelled the -disturbances which threatened the Muslim power, and found himself -the acknowledged head of an immense confederation of restless and -enthusiastic warriors, thoughts of conquest naturally presented -themselves to his mind, and Syria was, as naturally, the first -quarter to which he turned. - -His resolution once taken, he addressed a circular-letter to the -petty chieftains of Arabia, in which, appealing to their national -prejudices and newly-awakened religious zeal, he exhorted them to -wrest the long-coveted Syria out of the infidels’ hands. His -proposal was hailed with satisfaction by all those to whom it was -addressed, and in a short space of time a considerable army was -assembled around Medinah, waiting for the caliph’s orders. Yezíd ibn -Abi Sufiyán was appointed commander-in-chief of the forces, and -received immediate orders to march. Nothing could have been more -moderate than the instructions which Abu Bekr delivered to his -general for the conduct of the war. He was to respect the lives of -women, children, and aged persons; to permit no wanton mischief or -destruction of property, and to adhere religiously to any covenant -or treaty which they might make with the opposite side. - -The Emperor Heraclius made immediate preparations for averting the -threatened invasion, but his hastily-collected and ill-organised -forces were defeated in the very first engagement, while the Arabs -scarcely suffered any loss. Encouraged by the success of their -countrymen the inhabitants of Mecca and of the Hejjáz flocked to Abu -Bekr’s standard, and another division, under ‘Άmer ibn el ‘Άs, the -future conqueror of Egypt, was despatched into Palestine. Abu -‘Obeidah ibn el Jerráh, of whom we shall hear more anon, was at the -same time sent to take the command in Syria; but, meeting with some -reverses, he was in turn superseded by Khálid ibn el Walíd, who was -recalled from Irák for that purpose. This warrior’s achievements -against “the Infidels” had, during Mohammed’s lifetime, earned for -him the title of “The drawn Sword of God,” and his name had already -become a terror to the Greeks. - -The important town of Bostra was the first to yield, being betrayed -by its governor Romanus, and the Saracens thus obtained a footing in -Syria, of which they were not slow to take advantage. - -The forces now marched upon Damascus, when a change took place in -the relative position of the generals. Abu Bekr shortly before his -decease, which happened in 634 A.D., had appointed ‘Omar ibn el -Khattáb his successor. The first act of the new caliph on assuming -the reins of government was to depose Khálid from the command of the -army in Syria, and to appoint Abu ‘Obeidah generalissimo in his -stead. ‘Omar’s letter containing these commands reached them outside -Damascus, and Abu ‘Obeidah, immediately upon receiving it, posted -himself with his division at the Báb el Jábieh; Khálid occupied the -eastern gate, and the two remaining chiefs Yezíd ibn Abi Sufiyán, -and ‘Άmer ibn el ‘Άs, having disposed their forces on the north and -south sides respectively, a strict blockade was commenced. - -For seventy days Damascus held out; when Khálid having forced his -position, the inhabitants retreated to the opposite side of the -city, and, finding further resistance impossible, admitted Abu -‘Obeidah peaceably within the walls; the two generals thus met in -the centre of the city. - -The conquest of Damascus was followed by the taking of Homs, after a -protracted siege; Hamath and Ma’arrah surrendered without a blow; -Laodicea, Jebeleh, Tarsus, Aleppo, Antioch, Cæsarea, Sebastiyeh, -Nablús, Lydda, and Jaffah, one after another fell into the hands of -the invaders. But it was at the battle of Yarmúk (A.D. 636) that the -Christian power in Syria experienced the most fatal blow. - -The Emperor Heraclius, driven to desperation by the continued -successes of the enemy, had determined upon making a great and final -effort for the preservation of his empire in the East. He had -accordingly raised an immense army from all parts of his dominions, -and despatched the main body to give battle to the Saracens; while -the remaining portion, which was still very considerable in point of -numbers, received instructions to defend the seaboard of Syria. - -On the approach of the Greek army the Arab generals, who were at -Homs (the ancient Emessa), retreated toward Yarmúk, where they would -be in a better position for receiving reinforcements from home, and -Mahan (or Manuel), the Greek general, followed them in hot pursuit. -At first their progress was opposed by the Christian Arabs, under -Jebaleh ibn Aihám; but this chief was defeated with little loss to -the Muslims, although some men of note, and amongst them Yezíd ibn -Abi Sufiyán were taken prisoners. Abu ‘Obeidah now sent a message to -the caliph, urging him to send them immediate reinforcements, and -another army of eight hundred men was quickly levied in Arabia, and -sent to the relief of the Syrian generals. When Mahan’s army reached -Yarmúk some negotiations were opened between the Greeks and -Christians. Khálid, who acted as _parlementaire_ on the occasion, -succeeded in obtaining the release of the prisoners; but, as they -were unable to come to terms, both sides began to prepare for the -battle which was to determine the fate of Syria. - -For several days the fighting continued with fluctuating fortune, -but at last an incident happened which decided the contest in favour -of the Mohammedans. A native of Homs who happened to be staying in -the neighbourhood of Yarmúk, had hospitably entertained some of the -Grecian officers; this kindness they requited by the violation of -his wife and the murder of his infant son. Maddened by his wrongs, -and unable to obtain redress from the Greek general, he went over to -the Mohammedans, and, having betrayed the Christians into an -ambuscade near the ford of the river, they were attacked and -completely routed by their enemies; more than forty thousand men -perishing by the sword or being whirled away by the resistless -stream and drowned. Thus the same licentious barbarity and -corruption which, more than Arab prowess, had contributed to the -success of the Muslim arms at the outset of the war, ultimately -resulted in the entire overthrow of the Christian power in the East. - -Nothing now remained to complete the triumph of the invaders but the -capture of Jerusalem itself; accordingly a little time after the -decisive battle of Yarmúk (A.D. 636), Abu ‘Obeidah prepared to march -upon the Holy City. Yezíd ibn abi Sufiyán was sent forward with a -detachment of five thousand men; Abu ‘Obeidah himself brought up the -main body a few days later, and was joined shortly after by the -division under ‘Άmer ibn el ‘Άs. Desiring to afford the inhabitants -every opportunity of coming to terms without further bloodshed, the -general, before actually commencing hostilities, halted at the ford -of the Jordan, and indited a letter to the Christian Patriarch and -people of Ælia, demanding their immediate submission, and requiring -them either to embrace the Mohammedan faith, or to pay the usual -tribute exacted from unbelievers. “If you refuse,” said he, “you -will have to contend with people who love the taste of death more -than you love wine and swine’s flesh, and rest assured that I will -come up against you, and will not depart until I have slain all the -able-bodied men among you, and carried off your women and children -captive.” - -To this message a decisive refusal was returned, and Abu ‘Obeidah, -in accordance with his threat, marched upon Jerusalem and besieged -the town. The Christians, after several unsuccessful sallies, -finding themselves reduced to great straits by the protracted siege, -made overtures for capitulation, but refused to treat with any but -the caliph himself. Having exacted a solemn oath from them that they -would hold to the proposed conditions in case of his sovereign’s -arrival, the general sent a message to ‘Omar, inviting him to leave -Medína, and receive in person the capitulation of the town. The -messengers from Abu ‘Obeidah’s camp were accompanied by some -representatives of the Christian community, and the latter were much -astonished at the stern simplicity and comparative retirement in -which the caliph was living, which but ill accorded with their -previously conceived ideas of the great monarch who had conquered -the whole of Arabia and Syria, and made even the Emperors of Greece -and Persia to tremble on their thrones. The meeting between the -caliph and his victorious general was still further calculated to -impress them. ‘Omar was mounted on a camel, and attired in simple -Bedawí costume—a sheepskin cloak, and coarse cotton shirt; Abu -‘Obeidah was mounted on a small she-camel, an ‘abba’ or mantle of -haircloth, folded over the saddle, and a rude halter of twisted hair -forming her only trappings; he wore his armour, and carried his bow -slung across his shoulder. Abu ‘Obeidah, dismounting from his beast, -approached the caliph in a respectful attitude; but the latter -dismounting almost at the same moment, stooped to kiss his general’s -feet, whereupon there ensued a contest of humility, which was only -put an end to by the two great men mutually consenting to embrace -after the usual fashion of Arab sheikhs when meeting upon equal -terms. A story of ‘Omar’s compensating a man for some grapes which -his followers had heedlessly plucked as they came in from their -thirsty ride, and several other instances of his great integrity and -unassuming manners, are related by the Arab historians. No doubt -these incidents were, to some extent, the offspring of “the pride -that apes humility;” yet the Muslim sovereign really seems to have -possessed some good and amiable qualities. - -‘Omar pitched his camp upon the Mount of Olives, where he was -immediately visited by a messenger from the Patriarch of Jerusalem, -who sent to welcome him and renew the offers of capitulation. This -patriarch was named Sophronius, and was a native of Damascus. He was -as remarkable for his zeal and erudition as for the purity of his -life, which presented a striking contrast to the prevailing -immorality of the age. The patriarch’s observation, upon first -setting eyes on ‘Omar, was anything but complimentary, though, -perhaps, justified by the meanness of the caliph’s attire: “Verily,” -said he, “this is the abomination of Desolation, spoken of by Daniel -the Prophet, standing in the Holy Place.” The commander of the -faithful was rather flattered by the remark, which the Arab -historians have construed into an admission on the part of -Sophronius that the conquest of ‘Omar was foretold in Holy Writ. The -armistice previously granted having been confirmed, and the personal -safety of the patriarch and his immediate followers being -guaranteed, that dignitary set out with a large company of -attendants for the caliph’s tent, and proceeded to confer with him -personally and to draw up the articles of peace. These terms, -exacted from Jerusalem in common with the other conquered cities, -were, in spite of ‘Omar’s boasted generosity and equity, extremely -hard and humiliating for the Christians. They ran as follows:— - -The Christians shall enjoy security both of person and property, the -safety of their churches shall be, moreover, guaranteed, and no -interference is to be permitted on the part of the Mohammedans with -any of their religious exercises, houses, or institutions; provided -only that such churches, or religious institutions, shall be open -night and day to the inspection of the Muslim authorities. All -strangers and others are to be permitted to leave the town if they -think fit, but any one electing to remain shall be subject to the -herein-mentioned stipulations. No payment shall be exacted from any -one until after the gathering in of his harvest. Mohammedans are to -be treated everywhere with the greatest respect; the Christians must -extend to them the rights of hospitality, rise to receive them, and -accord them the first place of honour in their assemblies. The -Christians are to build no new churches, convents, or other -religious edifices, either within or without the city, or in any -other part of the Muslim territory; they shall not teach their -children the Cor’án, but, on the other hand, no one shall be -prevented from embracing the Mohammedan religion. No public -exhibition of any kind of the Christian religion is to be permitted. -They shall not in any way imitate the Muslims, either in dress or -behaviour, nor make use of their language in writing or engraving, -nor adopt Muslim names or appellations. They shall not carry arms, -nor ride astride their animals, nor wear or publicly exhibit the -sign of the cross. They shall not make use of bells; nor strike the -_nákús_ (wooden gong) except with a suppressed sound; nor shall they -place their lamps in public places, nor raise their voices in -lamentation for the dead. They shall shave the front part of the -head and gird up their dress, and lastly, they shall never intrude -into any Muslim’s house on any pretext whatever. To these conditions -‘Omar added the following clause to be accepted by the Christians: -That no Christian should strike a Muslim, and that if they failed to -comply with any single one of the previous stipulations, they should -confess that their lives were justly forfeit, and that they were -deserving of the punishment inflicted upon rebellious subjects. - -When these terms had been agreed upon by both sides and the treaty -signed and sealed, ‘Omar requested the patriarch to lead him to the -Mosque (_Masjid_, or “place of adoration,”) of David. The patriarch -acceding to this request, ‘Omar, accompanied by four thousand -attendants, was conducted by him into the Holy City. They first -proceeded to the church of the Holy Sepulchre,[27] which the -patriarch pointed out as the site of David’s temple. “Thou liest,” -said ‘Omar, curtly, and was proceeding to leave the spot when the -hour of prayer arrived, and the caliph declared his intention of -retiring to perform his religious duties. The patriarch invited him -to pray where he stood, in the church itself. This ‘Omar refused to -do, and was next led to the church of Constantine, where a -_sejjádeh_, or prayer mat, was spread for him. Declining this -accommodation also, the caliph went outside the church, and prayed -alone upon the door-steps. When asked the reason for his objection -to pray within the church, he told the patriarch that he had -expressly avoided doing so, lest his countrymen should afterwards -make his act a precedent and an excuse for confiscating the -property. So anxious was he not to give the least occasion for the -exercise of injustice, that he called for pen and paper, and then -and there wrote a document, which he delivered to the patriarch, -forbidding Moslems to pray even upon the steps of the church, except -it were one at a time, and strictly prohibiting them from calling -the people to prayer at the spot, or in any way using it as one of -their own mosques. - -Footnote 27: - - In the original _El Camámah_, “dung;” which is explained a little - further on to be a designed corruption of the word _Caiyámah_, - “Anastasis.” These words are at the present day applied by the - Muslim and Christian population respectively to the church of the - Holy Sepulchre. - -This honourable observance of the stipulations contained in the -treaty, and careful provision against future aggression on the part -of his followers, cannot but excite our admiration for the man. In -spite of the great accession to our knowledge of the literature of -this period which has been made during the last century, we doubt if -the popular notions respecting the Saracen conquerors of Jerusalem -have been much modified, and many people still regard them as a -fierce and inhuman horde of barbarous savages, while the Crusaders -are judged only by the saintly figures that lie cross-legged upon -some old cathedral brasses, and are looked upon as the beau-ideals -of chivalry and gentle Christian virtue. But we shall have occasion -to recur to this subject further on. - -Leaving the church of Constantine they next visited that called -Sion, which the patriarch again pointed out as the Mosque of David, -and again ‘Omar gave him the lie. After this they proceeded to the -_Masjid of Jerusalem_, and halted at the gate called Báb Mohammed. -Now the dung in the mosque had settled on the steps of the door in -such quantities that it came out into the street in which the door -is situated, and nearly clung to the roofed archway of the -street.[28] Hereupon the patriarch said, “We shall never be able to -enter unless we crawl upon our hands and knees.” “Well,” replied the -caliph, “on our hands and knees be it.” So the patriarch led the -way, followed by ‘Omar and the rest of the party, and they crawled -along until they came out upon the courtyard of the Temple, where -they could stand upright. Then ‘Omar, having surveyed the place -attentively for some time, suddenly exclaimed: “By Him in whose -hands my soul is, this is the mosque of David, from which the -prophet told us that he ascended into heaven. He (upon whom be -peace) gave us a circumstantial account thereof, and especially -mentioned the fact that we had found upon the Sakhrah a quantity of -dung which the Christians had thrown there out of spite to the -children of Israel.”[29] With these words he stooped down and began -to brush off the dung with his sleeve, and his example being -followed by the other Mussulmans of the party, they soon cleared all -the dung away, and brought the Sakhrah to light. Having done so he -forbade them to pray there until three showers of rain had fallen -upon it. - -Footnote 28: - - This important passage has been but imperfectly understood; - Reynolds, in his translation of “Jelál ed dín,” makes absolute - nonsense of it, rendering the words:— - - “So he went with him to the _Mosques of_ the Holy City, until he - came at last near unto a gate, called the gate of Mohammed; and - _he drew down_ all the filth that was on the declivity of the - steps of the gate, until he came to a narrow passage, and he went - down a number of steps until _he almost hung upon the top of the - interior or upper surface_.... So ‘Omar went upon his hands, and - we went upon our hands and knees after him until we came to the - _central sewer_. And we stood here upright.” - - The word here rendered _mosques_ is in the singular, not in the - plural, and plainly refers to a spot well known as “the Temple - (Masjid) of Jerusalem.” The word rendered “he drew down” is - passive, and implies that the dirt had collected in such - quantities upon the raised platform as to run down the steps into - the street, where it had made a heap high enough to reach the - arched roof of the public way. Not to mention the difficulty of - four thousand men standing upright in a sewer, I may remark that - the word rendered “_central sewer_” is _sahn_, “an open court,” - the name applied at the present day to the platform upon which the - Cubbet es Sakhrah stands. Reynolds’s translation would imply that - the site of the Sakhrah was in a sewer below the level of the rest - of the city as it then stood! - -Footnote 29: - - It needed no prophetic inspiration to acquaint Mohammed with this - fact. The site of the Temple was not only well known to the - Christians, but was systematically defiled by them out of - abhorrence for the Jews. Eutychius expressly tells us that—“when - Helena, the mother of Constantine, had built churches at - Jerusalem, the site of the rock and its neighbourhood had been - laid waste, and so left. But the Christians heaped dirt on the - rock so that there was a large dunghill over it. And so the Romans - had neglected it, nor given it that honour which the Israelites - had been wont to pay it, and had not built a church above it, - because it had been said by our Lord Jesus Christ in the Holy - Gospel, ‘Behold, your house shall be left unto you desolate.’” - -Another account relates that, on conquering the city, ‘Omar sent for -Ka‘ab, a Jew who had been converted to Mohammedanism during the -prophet’s lifetime, and said to him, “Oh, Abu Ishák, dost thou know -the site of the Sakhrah?” “Yes,” replied Ka‘ab, “it is distant such -and such a number of cubits[30] from the wall which runs parallel to -the Wády Jehennum; it is at the present time used for a dunghill.” -Digging at the spot indicated, they found the Sakhrah as Ka‘ab had -described. Then ‘Omar asked Ka‘ab where he would advise him to place -the mosque? Ka‘ab answered, “I should place it behind the Sakhrah, -so that the two Kiblahs,[31] namely, that of Moses and that of -Mohammed, may be made identical.” “Ah,” said ‘Omar, “thou leanest -still to Jewish notions, I see; the best place for the mosque is in -front of it,” and he built it in front accordingly. - -Footnote 30: - - Reynolds, again misunderstanding the Arabic, renders this “one - cubit.” - -Footnote 31: - - The _Kiblah_ is a “point of adoration,” that is, the direction in - which Mecca lies. In the Mohammedan mosques it is indicated by a - small niche called a _mihráb_. - -Another version of this conversation is, that when Ka‘ab proposed to -set the praying-place behind the Sakhrah, ‘Omar reproved him, as has -just been stated, for his Jewish proclivities, and added, “Nay, but -we will place it in the _sudr_ (‘breast or forepart’), for the -prophet ordained that the Kiblah of our mosques should be in the -forepart. I am not ordered,” said he, “to turn to the Sakhrah, but -to the Ka‘abah.” Afterwards, when ‘Omar had completed the conquest -of Jerusalem, and cleared away the dirt from the Sakhrah, and the -Christians had entered into their engagements to pay tribute, the -Muslims changed the name of the great Christian church from -_Caiyámah_ (Anastasis), to _Camámah_ (dung), to remind them of their -indecent treatment of the holy place, and to further glorify the -Sakhrah itself. - -The mosque erected by ‘Omar is described by an early pilgrim who saw -it as a simple square building of timber, capable of holding three -thousand people, and constructed over the ruins of some more ancient -edifice. - -The annals of the Mohammedan Empire during the next forty-eight -years, although fraught with stirring events, bear but little on the -history of Jerusalem itself; and although the visit of ‘Omar had -impressed the followers of the Cor’án with the idea that they -possessed an equal interest in the Holy City with the adherents of -the Law and of the Gospel, still their devotion to the Temple of -Mecca and their prophet’s tomb at Medína was too deeply rooted to -leave them much reverence for the Masjid el Aksa. But political -exigencies did what religious enthusiasm had failed to accomplish, -and in 684 A.D., in the reign of ‘Abd el Melik, the ninth successor -of Mohammed, and the fifth caliph of the House of Omawíyah, events -happened which once more turned people’s attention to the City of -David. - -For eight years the Mussulman empire had been distracted by factions -and party quarrels. The inhabitants of the two holy cities, Mecca -and Medína, had risen against the authority of the legitimate -caliphs, and had proclaimed ‘Abdallah ibn Zobeir their spiritual and -temporal head. Yezíd and Mo‘áwíyeh had in vain attempted to suppress -the insurrection; the usurper had contrived to make his authority -acknowledged throughout Arabia and the African provinces, and had -established the seat of his government at Mecca itself. ‘Abd el -Melik trembled for his own rule; year after year crowds of pilgrims -would visit the Ka‘abah, and Ibn Zobeir’s religious and political -influence would thus become disseminated throughout the whole of -Islam. In order to avoid these consequences, and at the same time to -weaken his rival’s prestige, ‘Abd el Melik conceived the plan of -diverting men’s minds from the pilgrimage to Mecca, and inducing -them to make the pilgrimage to Jerusalem instead. This was an easier -task than might have been at first supposed. - -The frequent mention of Jerusalem in the Cor’án, its intimate -connection with those Scriptural events which Mohammed taught as -part and parcel of his own faith, and, lastly, the prophet’s -pretended night journey to Heaven from the Holy Rock of -Jerusalem—these were points which appealed directly to the -Mohammedan mind, and to all these considerations was added the charm -of novelty—novelty, too, with the sanction of antiquity—and we need -not, therefore, wonder that the caliph’s appeal to his subjects met -with a ready and enthusiastic response. - -Having determined upon this course he sent circular letters to every -part of his dominions, couched in the following terms:— - -“‘Abd el Melik desiring to build a dome over the Holy Rock of -Jerusalem, in order to shelter the Muslims from the inclemency of -the weather, and, moreover, wishing to restore the Masjid, requests -his subjects to acquaint him with their wishes on the matter, as he -would be sorry to undertake so important a matter without consulting -their opinion.” - -Letters of approval and congratulation flowed in upon the caliph -from all quarters, and he accordingly assembled a number of the most -skilled artisans, and set apart for the proposed work a sum of money -equivalent in amount to the whole revenue of Egypt for seven years. -For the safe custody of this immense treasure he built a small dome, -the same which exists at the present day to the east of the Cubbet -es Sakhrah, and is called Cubbet es Silsilah. This little dome he -himself designed, and personally gave the architect instructions as -to its minutest details. When finished, he was so pleased with the -general effect that he ordered the Cubbet es Sakhrah itself to be -built on precisely the same model. - -Having completed his treasure-house and filled it with wealth, he -appointed Rija ibn Haiyáh el Kendi controller thereof, with Yezíd -ibn Sallám, a native of Jerusalem, as his coadjutor. These two -persons were to make all disbursements necessary for the works, and -were enjoined to expend the entire amount upon them, regulating the -outlay as occasion might require. They commenced with the erection -of the Cubbeh, beginning on the east side and finishing at the west, -until the whole was so perfect that no one was able to suggest an -addition or an improvement. Similarly in the buildings in the fore -part of the Masjid,[32] that is, on the south side, they worked from -east to west, commencing with the wall by which is the Mehd ‘Aisa -(cradle of Jesus), and carrying it on to the spot now known as the -Jam‘i el Magháribeh. - -Footnote 32: - - See p. 83. - -On the completion of the work, Rijá and Yezíd addressed the -following letter to ‘Abd el Melik, who was then at Damascus:— - -“In accordance with the orders given by the Commander of the -Faithful, the building of the Dome of the Rock of Jerusalem and the -Masjid el Aksa is now so complete that nothing more can be desired. -After paying all the expenses of the building there still remains in -hand a hundred thousand dinárs of the sum originally deposited with -us; this amount the Commander of the Faithful will expend in such -manner as may seem good to him.” - -The caliph replied that they were at liberty to appropriate the sum -to themselves in consideration of their services in superintending -the financial department of the works. The two commissioners, -however, declined this proposition, and again offered to place it at -the caliph’s disposal, with the addition of the ornaments belonging -to their women and the surplus of their own private property. ‘Abd -el Melik, on receipt of their answer, bade them melt up the money in -question, and apply it to the ornamentation of the Cubbeh. This they -accordingly did, and the effect is said to have been so magnificent -that it was impossible for any to keep his eyes fixed on the dome, -owing to the quantity of gold with which it was ornamented. They -then prepared a covering of felt and leather, which they put upon it -in winter time to protect it from the wind and rain and snow. Rijá -and Yezíd also surrounded the Sakhrah itself with a latticed screen -of ebony, and hung brocaded curtains behind the screen between the -columns. It is said that in the days of ‘Abd el Melik a precious -pearl, the horn of Abraham’s ram, and the crown of the Khosroes, -were attached to the chain which is suspended in the centre of the -dome, but when the caliphate passed into the hands of the Beni -Háshem they removed these relics to the Ka‘abah. - -When the Masjid was quite completed and thrown open for public -service, no expense or trouble was spared to make it as attractive -as possible to the worshippers. Every morning a number of attendants -were employed in pounding saffron, and in making perfumed water with -which to sprinkle the mosque, as well as in preparing and burning -incense. Servants were also sent into the Hammám Suleimán -(“Solomon’s bath”) to cleanse it out thoroughly. Having done this -they used to go into the store-room in which the _Khalúk_[33] was -kept, and changing their clothes for fresh ones of various costly -stuffs, and putting jewelled girdles round their waists, and taking -the _Khalúk_ in their hands, they proceeded to dab it all over the -Sakhrah as far as they could reach; and when they could not reach -with their hands they washed their feet and stepped upon the Sakhrah -itself until they had dabbed it all over, and emptied the pots of -_Khalúk_. Then they brought censers of gold and silver filled with -_‘ud_ (perfumed aloes wood) and other costly kinds of incense, with -which they perfumed the entire place, first letting down the -curtains round all the pillars, and walking round them until the -incense filled the place between them and the dome, and then -fastening them up again so that the incense escaped and filled the -entire building, even penetrating into the neighbouring bazaar, so -that any one who passed that way could smell it. After this, -proclamation was made in the public market, “The Sakhrah is now open -for public worship,” and people would run in such crowds to pray -there, that two _reka‘as_ was as much as most men could accomplish, -and it was only a very few who could succeed in performing four. - -Footnote 33: - - A species of aromatic plant rather larger than saffron. - -So strongly was the building perfumed with the incense, that one who -had been into it could at once be detected by the odour, and people -used to say as they sniffed it, “Ah! So and so has been in the -Sakhrah.” So great, too, was the throng that people could not -perform their ablutions in the orthodox manner, but were obliged to -content themselves with washing the soles of their feet with water, -wiping them with green sprigs of myrtle, and drying them with their -pocket-handkerchiefs. The doors were all locked, ten chamberlains -were posted at each door, and the mosque was only opened twice a -week—namely, on Mondays and Fridays; on other days none but the -attendants were allowed access to the buildings. - -Ibn ‘Asákir, who visited Jerusalem early in the twelfth century of -the Christian era, tells us that there were 6000 planks of wood in -the Masjid used for roofing and flooring, exclusive of wooden -pillars. It also contained fifty doors, amongst which were:—Báb el -Cortobi (the gate of the Cordovan), Báb Dáud (the gate of David), -Báb Suleimán (the gate of Solomon), Báb Mohammed (the gate of -Mohammed), Báb Hettah (the gate of Remission[34]), Báb el Taubah -(the gate of Reconciliation), where God was reconciled to David -after his sin with Bathsheba, Báb er Rahmeh (the gate of Mercy), six -gates called Abwáb al Asbát (the gates of the tribes), Báb el Walíd -(the gate of Walíd), Báb el Háshimi̓ (the gate of the Háshem -Family), Báb el Khidhir (the gate of St. George or Elias), and Báb -es Sekínah (the gate of the Shekina). There were also 600 marble -pillars; seven mihrábs (or prayer niches); 385 chains for lamps, of -which 230 were in the Masjid el Aksa, and the rest in the Cubbet es -Sakhrah; the accumulative length of the chains was 4000 cubits, and -their weight 43,000 _ratals_ (Syrian measure). There were also 5000 -lamps, in addition to which they used to light 1000 wax candles -every Friday, and on the night of the middle of the months Rejeb, -Sha‘ban, and Ramadhán, as well as on the nights of the two great -festivals. There were fifteen domes, or oratories, exclusive of the -Cubbet es Sakhrah; and on the roof of the mosque itself were 7700 -strips of lead, and the weight of each strip was 70 Syrian ratals. -This was exclusive of the lead which was upon the Cubbet es Sakhrah. -There were four-and-twenty large cisterns in the Masjid, and four -minarets—three in a line on the west side of the Masjid, and one -over the Babel Esbát. - -Footnote 34: - - Cf. Cor’án, cap. ii. v. 55, “Enter the gate with adoration, and - say ‘Remission.’” - -All the above work was done in the days of ‘Abd el Melik ibn Merwán. -The same prince appointed three hundred perpetual attendants to the -mosque, slaves purchased with a fifth of the revenue; and whenever -one of these died, there was appointed in his stead either his son, -grandson, or some one of the family, and the office was made -hereditary so long as the generation lasted. There were also Jewish -servants employed in the Masjid, and these were exempted, on account -of their services, from payment of the capitation-tax; originally -they were ten in number, but, as their families sprung up, they -increased to twenty. Their business was to sweep out the Masjid all -the year round, and to clean out the lavatories round about it. -Besides these, there were ten Christian servants also attached to -the place in perpetuity, and transmitting the office to their -children; their business was to brush the mats, and to sweep out the -conduits and cisterns. A number of Jewish servants were also -employed in making glass lamps, candelabras, &c. (These and their -families were also exempted in perpetuity from tax, and the same -privilege was accorded to those who made the lamp-wicks.) - -Ibn ‘Asákir informs us that the length of the Masjid el Aksa was 755 -cubits, and the breadth 465 cubits, the standard employed being the -royal cubit. The author of the ‘Muthír el Gharám’ declares that he -found on the inner surface of the north wall of the Haram, over the -door, which is behind the Báb ed Dowaidáríyeh, a stone tablet, on -which the length of the Masjid was recorded as 784 cubits, and its -breadth as 455; it did not, however, state whether or no the -standard employed was the royal cubit. The same author informs us -that he himself measured the Masjid with a rope, and found that in -length it was 683 cubits on the east side, and 650 on the west; and -in breadth it was 438 cubits, exclusive of the breadth of the wall. - -‘Abdallah Yácút el Hamawí, a Christian Arab writer of the twelfth -century, tells us that the substructure of the Jewish Temple served -for the foundations of ‘Abd el Melik’s edifice, and that that -monarch built a wall of smaller stones upon the more massive ancient -blocks. The great substructures at the south-west angle are said to -be the work of ‘Abd el Melik, who is reported to have made them in -order to obtain a platform on which to erect the el Aksa.[35] - -Footnote 35: - - _Vide_ M. de Vogüé, p. 76. - -In order to understand the native accounts of the sacred area at -Jerusalem, it is essentially necessary to keep in mind the proper -application of the various names by which it is spoken of. When the -Masjid el Aksa is mentioned, that name is usually supposed to refer -to the well-known mosque on the south side of the Haram, but such is -not really the case. The latter building is called El Jámi el Aksa, -or simply El Aksa, and the substructures are called El Aksa el -Kadímeh (the ancient Aksa), while the title El Masjid el Aksa is -applied to the whole sanctuary. The word _jámi_ is exactly -equivalent in sense to the Greek συναγωγὴ, and is applied only to -the church or building in which the worshippers congregate. -_Masjid_, on the other hand, is a much more general term; it is -derived from the verb _sejada_, “to adore,” and is applied to any -spot, the sacred character of which would especially incite the -visitor to an act of devotion. Our word _mosque_ is a corruption of -_masjid_, but it is usually misapplied, as the building is never so -designated, although the whole area on which it stands may be so -spoken of. - -The Jám‘i el Aksa, Jám‘i el Magháribeh, &c., are _mosques_ in our -sense of the word, but the entire Haram is a _masjid_. This will -explain what is meant by saying that ‘Omar, after visiting the -churches of the Anastasis, Sion, &c., was taken to the “Masjid” of -Jerusalem; and will account for the statement of Ibn el ‘Asa’kir and -others, that the Masjid el Aksa measured over six hundred cubits in -length—that is, the length of the whole Haram area. The name Masjid -el Aksa is borrowed from the passage in the Cor’án (xvii. 1), where -allusion is made to the pretended ascent of Mohammed into heaven -from the Temple of Jerusalem: “Praise be unto Him who transported -His servant by night from El Masjid el Harám (_i.e._, ‘the Sacred -place of Adoration,’ at Mecca) to El Masjid el Aksa (_i.e._ ‘the -Remote place of Adoration’ at Jerusalem), the precincts of which we -have blessed,” &c. The title _El Aksa_, “the Remote,” according to -the Mohammedan doctors, is applied to the Temple of Jerusalem, -“either because of its distance from Mecca, or because it is in the -centre of the earth.” The title Haram, or “sanctuary,” it enjoys in -common with those of Mecca, Medina, and Hebron. - -As M. de Vogüé has pointed out, the Cubbet es Sakhrah, -notwithstanding its imposing proportions, is not, properly speaking, -a mosque, and is not constructed with a view to the celebration of -public prayers and services. It is only an oratory, one of the -numerous _cubbehs_ with which the Haram es Sheríf abounds—domed -edifices that mark the various spots to which traditions cling. The -form is, in fact, almost identical with that of an ordinary Muslim -_weli_, or saint’s tomb. El Jám‘i el Aksa is, on the other hand, a -mosque designed expressly for the accommodation of a large -congregation, assembled for public worship, and resembling in its -architectural details the celebrated mosques of Constantinople or -elsewhere. - -The erection of the Cubbet es Sakhrah, Jám‘i el Aksa, and the -restoration of the temple area by ‘Abd el Melik, are recorded in a -magnificent Cufic inscription in mosaic, running round the colonnade -of the first-mentioned building. The name of ‘Abd el Melik has been -purposely erased, and that of ‘Abdallah el Mamún fraudulently -substituted; but the shortsighted forger has omitted to erase the -date, as well as the name of the original founder, and the -inscription still remains a contemporary record of the munificence -of ‘Abd el Melik. The translation is as follows:— - -“In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate! There is no -god but God alone; He hath no partner; His is the kingdom, His the -praise. He giveth life and death, for He is the Almighty. In the -name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate! There is no god but -God alone; He hath no partner; Mohammed is the Apostle of God; pray -God for him. The servant of God ‘Abdallah, the Imám al Mamún [_read_ -‘Abd el Melik], Commander of the Faithful, built this dome in the -year 72 (A.D. 691). May God accept it at his hands, and be content -with him, Amen! The restoration is complete, and to God be the -praise. In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate! There -is no god but God alone; He hath no partner. Say He is the one God, -the Eternal; He neither begetteth nor is begotten, and there is no -one like Him. Mohammed is the Apostle of God; pray God for him. In -the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate! There is no god -but God, and Mohammed is the Apostle of God; pray God for him. -Verily, God and His angels pray for the Prophet. Oh ye who believe, -pray for him, and salute ye him with salutations of peace. In the -name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate! There is no god but -God alone; to Him be praise, who taketh not unto Himself a son, and -to whom none can be a partner in His kingdom, and whose patron no -lower creature can be; magnify ye Him. Mohammed is the Apostle of -God; God, and His angels, and apostles pray for him; and peace be -upon him, and the mercy of God. In the name of God, the Merciful, -the Compassionate! There is no god but God alone; He hath no -partner; His is the kingdom, and His the praise; He giveth life and -death, for He is Almighty. Verily, God and His angels pray for the -Prophet. Oh ye who believe, pray for him, and salute him with -salutations of peace. Oh! ye who have received the Scriptures, -exceed not the bounds in your religion, and speak not aught but -truth concerning God. Verily, Jesus Christ, the son of Mary, is the -Apostle of God, and His word which He cast over Mary, and a spirit -from Him. Then believe in God and His apostles, and do not say there -are three gods; forbear, and it will be better for you. God is but -One. Far be it from Him that He should have a son. To Him belongeth -whatsoever is in the heaven and in the earth, and God is a -sufficient protector. Christ doth not disdain to be a servant of -God, nor do the angels who are near the throne. Whosoever then -disdains His service, and is puffed up with pride, God shall gather -them all at the last day. O God, pray for Thy apostle Jesus, the son -of Mary; peace be upon me the day I am born, and the day I die, and -the day I am raised to life again. That is Jesus, the son of Mary, -concerning whom ye doubt. It is not for God to take unto Himself a -son; far be it from Him. If He decree a thing, He doth but say unto -it, Be, and it is. God is my Lord and yours. Serve Him, this is the -right way. God hath testified that there is no god but He, and the -angels, and beings endowed with knowledge (testify it), He executeth -righteousness. There is no God but He, the Mighty, the Wise. Verily, -the true religion in the sight of God is Islám. Say praise be to -God, who taketh not unto Himself a son; whose partner in the kingdom -none can he; whose patron no lowly creature can be. Magnify ye -Him!”[36] - -Footnote 36: - - This inscription, which is composed chiefly of Coranic texts, is - interesting both from a historical point of view, and as showing - the spirit in which Christianity was regarded by the Muslims of - these early times. It has never before been published in its - entirety. Its preservation during the subsequent Christian - occupation of the city may occasion some surprise, as the Latins - (by whom the Cubbet es Sakhrah was turned into a church) could not - but have been offended at quotations which so decidedly deny the - Divinity of Christ and the doctrine of the Trinity. It is - probable, however, that the Cúfic character, in which it is - written, was as unintelligible to the Christian natives of that - time, as it is now, even to most of the learned Muslims of the - present day. - -‘Abd el Melik died on the 8th of September, 705 A.D., and was -succeeded by his son Walíd. During that prince’s reign the eastern -portion of the Masjid fell into ruins; and as there were no funds in -the treasury available for the purpose of restoring it, Walíd -ordered the requisite amount to be levied from his subjects. - -On the death of Walíd, the caliphate passed into the hands of his -brother Suleimán, who was at Jerusalem when the messengers came to -him to announce his accession to the throne. - -He received them in the Masjid itself, sitting in one of the domes -in the open court—probably in that now called Cubbet Suleimán, which -is behind the Cubbet es Sakhrah, near the Báb ed Duweidáríyel. He -died at Jerusalem, after a short reign of three years, and was -succeeded (A.D. 717) by ‘Omar ibn Abd el ‘Aziz, surnamed El Mehdí. -It is related that this prince dismissed the Jews who had been -hitherto employed in lighting up the sanctuary, and put in their -places some of the slaves before-mentioned as having been purchased -by ‘Abd el Melik, at the price of a fifth of the treasury (El -Khums). One of these last came to the caliph, and begged him to -emancipate him. - -“I have no power to do so,” replied ‘Omar. “But look you, if you -choose to go of your own accord, I claim no right over a single hair -of your head.”[37] - -Footnote 37: - - The following extract from Reynolds’s ‘Temple of Jerusalem,’ - purporting to be a translation of this passage, will, I hope, - excuse me from again quoting or referring to that _valuable - work_:—“The Jews purveyed the furniture (necessaries) for the - temple, but when Omar-Rudh-Ullah-anhu-ibn—Abdul Azíz—ascended the - throne, he dismissed them, and placed therein some of the tribe of - Khims (of Arabia Felix). And then came to him a man of the family - of Khims, and said unto him, ‘Give me some present.’ But he said, - ‘How can I give thee? for if thou shouldst strain thine eyes in - staring, I have not a single one of thy dog’s hairs (to give).’” - - And this astounding display of ignorance was “published under the - auspices of the Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and - Ireland!”—E. H. P. - -In the reign of the second ‘Abbasside caliph, Abu Ja‘afer Mansúr -(A.D. 755), a severe earthquake shook Jerusalem; and the southern -portion of the Haram es Sheríf, standing as it did upon an -artificially-raised platform, suffered most severely from the shock. -In order to meet the expense of repairing the breaches thus made, -the caliph ordered the gold and silver plates, with which the -munificence of ‘Abd el Melik had covered the doors of the Masjid, to -be stripped off, converted into coin, and applied to the restoration -of the edifice. The part restored was not, however, destined to last -long; for during the reign of El Mehdí, his son and successor, the -mosque had again fallen into ruins, and was rebuilt by the caliph -upon a different plan, the width being increased at the expense of -the length. - -The foundation, by the Caliph Mansúr, of the imperial city of -Baghdád, upon the banks of the Tigris, and the removal of the -government from Damascus thither, was very prejudicial to the -interests of the Christian population of Syria, who were now treated -with great harshness, deprived of the privileges granted them by -former monarchs, and subjected to every form of extortion and -persecution. - -In 786 the celebrated Harún er Rashíd, familiar to us as the hero of -the ‘Arabian Nights,’ succeeded his father, El Hádí, in the -caliphate. - -This prince was illustrious alike for his military successes, and -his munificent patronage of learning and science; and although his -glory is sullied by one act of barbarity and jealous meanness—the -murder of his friend and minister, Ja‘afer el Barmaki, and the whole -of the Barmecide family—he seems to have well merited his title of -Er Rashíd, “the Orthodox,” or “Upright.” - -The cordial relations between the East and West, brought about by -his alliance with the Emperor Charlemagne, were productive of much -good to the Christian community in Syria and Palestine, and more -especially in Jerusalem, where churches were restored, and hospices -and other charitable institutions founded, by the munificence of the -Frank emperor. - -In the year 796 new and unexpected troubles came upon Palestine. A -civil war broke out between two of the border-tribes—the Beni Yoktán -and the Ismaelíyeh,—and the country was devastated by hordes of -savage Bedawín. The towns and villages of the west were either -sacked or destroyed, the roads were rendered impassable by hostile -bands, and those places which had not suffered from the incursions -of the barbarians were reduced to a state of protracted siege. Even -Jerusalem itself was threatened, and, but for the bravery of its -garrison, would have again been pillaged and destroyed. The -monasteries in the Jordan valley experienced the brunt of the Arabs’ -attack, and one after another was sacked; and, last of all, that of -Már Saba—which, from its position, had hitherto been deemed -impregnable—succumbed to a blockade, and many of the inmates -perished. - -On the death of Harún, his three sons contended fiercely for the -throne; the Mussulman empire was again involved in civil -dissensions, and Palestine, as usual, suffered most severely in the -wars. The churches and monasteries in and around Jerusalem were -again laid waste, and the great mass of the Christian population was -obliged to seek safety in flight. - -El Mamún having at last triumphed over his brothers, and established -himself firmly in the caliphate, applied his mind with great ardour -to the cultivation of literature, art, and science. It was at his -expense, and by his orders, that the works of the Greek philosophers -were translated into the Arabic language by ‘Abd el Messiah el -Kendí, who, although a Christian by birth and profession, enjoyed a -great reputation at the Court of Baghdád, where he was honoured with -the title of Feilsúf el Islam—“The Philosopher of Mohammedanism.” - -Since their establishment on the banks of the Tigris, the Abbasside -caliphs had departed widely from the ancient traditions of their -race; and the warlike ardour and stern simplicity, which had won so -vast an empire for ‘Omar and his contemporaries, presently gave way -to effeminate luxury and useless extravagance. But although this -change was gradually undermining their power, and tending to the -physical degeneracy of the race, it was not unproductive of good; -and the immense riches and careless liberality of the caliphs -attracted to the Court of Baghdád the learned men of the Eastern -world. The Arabs were not an inventive, but they were eminently an -acquisitive people, and, - - “Græcia capta ferum victorem cepit,” - -the nations conquered by their arms were made to yield up -intellectual as well as material spoils. They had neither art, -literature, nor science of themselves, and yet we are indebted to -them for all three; for what others produced and neglected, they -seized upon and made their own. Born in the black shapeless “tents -of Shem,” and nursed amidst monotonous scenery, the Arabs could -conceive no grander structure than the massive tetragonal Ka‘abah; -but Persia was made to supply them with the graceful forms and -harmonious colours suggested by the flower-gardens of Iran.[38] The -art of painting, cultivated with so much success in Persia even at -the present day, found but little favour with the iconoclast -followers of Mohammed; but its influence is seen in the perfection -to which mural decoration, writing, and illumination have been -brought by the professors of Islam. Caligraphy has been cultivated -in the East to an extent which can be scarcely conceived in this -country; and the rules which govern that science are, though more -precise, founded on æsthetic principles as correct as those of fine -art-criticism here. - -Footnote 38: - - Nearly all the technical terms used in Arab architecture are - Persian—an additional proof that the so-called Saracenic style is - of foreign and not native origin. - -A people whose hereditary occupation was war and plunder, and who -looked upon commerce as a degrading and slavish pursuit, were not -likely to make much progress, even in simple arithmetic; yet, when -it was no longer a mere question of dividing the spoils of a -caravan, but of administering the revenues and regulating the -frontiers of conquered countries, then the Saracens both appreciated -and employed the exact mathematical sciences of India. - -“The Arabs’ registers are the verses of their bards,” was the motto -of their Bedawín forefathers, but the rude lays of border-warfare -and pastoral life were soon found unsuited to their more refined -ideas; while even the cultivation of their own rich and complex -language was insufficient to satisfy their literary taste and -craving for intellectual exercise. Persia therefore was again called -in to their aid, and the rich treasures of historical and legendary -lore were ransacked and laid bare, while later on the philosophy and -speculative science of the Greeks were eagerly sought after and -studied. - -Jerusalem also profited by Mamún’s peaceful rule and æsthetic -tastes, and the Haram buildings were thoroughly restored. So -completely was this done that the Masjid may be almost said to owe -its present existence to El Mamún; for had it not been for his care -and munificence, it must have fallen into irreparable decay. I have -already mentioned the substitution of El Mamún’s name for that of -the original founder, ‘Abd el Melik, in the mosaic inscription upon -the colonnade of the Cubbetes Sakhrah; inscriptions, implying the -same wilful misstatement of facts, are found upon large copperplates -fastened over the doors of the last-named building. Upon these we -read, after the usual pious invocations and texts, the following -words: “Constructed by order of the servant of God, ‘Abdallah el -Mamún, Commander of the Faithful, whose life may God prolong! during -the government of the brother of the Commander of the Faithful, Er -Rashíd, whom God preserve! Executed by Sáleh ibn Yahyah, one of the -slaves of the Commander of the Faithful, in the month Rabí‘ el -Ákhir, in the year 216.” (May, A.D. 831.) It is inconceivable that -so liberal and intellectual a prince should have sanctioned such an -arrogant and transparent fiction; and we can only attribute the -misstatement to the servile adulation of the officials entrusted -with the carrying-out of the restorations. - -The Christian patriarch Thomas now sought for an opportunity to -restore the ruined Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and the occasion -was not long wanting. One of those great plagues of locusts, which -from time to time devastate Jerusalem, had just visited the city; -the crops entirely failed in consequence of their depredations, and -as a famine appeared imminent, every Mohammedan who could afford to -do so quitted the city, with his family and household effects, until -a more convenient season. Thus secured from interruption, the -patriarch proceeded to put his plan into execution, and, aided by -the contributions of a wealthy Egyptian named Bocam, set about -rebuilding the church. The Muslims, on their return, were astonished -and annoyed to find that the Christian temple had risen again from -its ruins with such magnificent proportions that the newly-restored -glories of their own Masjid were quite thrown into the shade. The -Patriarch Thomas and other ecclesiastical dignitaries were accused -of a contravention of the treaty under which they enjoyed their -immunities and privileges, and were thrown into prison pending the -inquiry. The principal charge against them, and one which embodied -the whole cause of complaint, was that the dome of the Church of the -Holy Sepulchre overtopped that of the Cubbet es Sakhrah. By a -miserable subterfuge, to which we have already referred, the -patriarch threw the onus of proof upon his accusers, and declared -that his dome had been restored exactly upon the original plan, and -that the dimensions of the former one had been rigidly observed. -This deliberate falsehood the Mohammedans were unable to disprove, -notwithstanding the direct evidence of their senses to the contrary, -and the prisoners were perforce set at liberty, and the charge -abandoned. Equity, either in its technical or ordinary sense, is not -a distinguishing characteristic of Muslim law-courts, but in this -case no one suffered by the omission but themselves. - -Mamún’s brother, El Mo‘tasim Billah, succeeded him upon the throne. -In the year 842 a fanatical chieftain, named Temím Abu Háreb, headed -a large army of desperadoes, and, after some temporary successes in -Syria, made himself master of Jerusalem. The churches and other -Christian edifices were only saved from destruction on the payment -of a large ransom by the patriarch; on receiving this, the -insurgents vacated the city, and were shortly afterwards entirely -defeated by the caliph’s forces. - -A wonderful story is told of the great earthquake which took place -in the year 846 A.D.: namely, that in the night, the guards of the -Cubbet es Sakhrah were suddenly astonished to find the dome itself -displaced, so that they could see the stars and feel the rain -splashing upon their faces. Then they heard a low voice saying -gently, “Put it straight again,” and gradually it settled down into -its ordinary state. - -The power of the caliphs was now upon the wane: the disorders -consequent upon the introduction of Turkish guards at Baghdád by El -Mo‘tassem first weakened their authority; but the revolt of the -Carmathians in 877, during the reign of El Mo‘tammed Billah, struck -the first fatal blow against the House of Abbas. The sect of the -Carmathians was founded by a certain Hamdán, surnamed Carmat. His -doctrines consisted in allegorising the text of the Cor’án and the -precepts of Islamism, and in substituting for their exterior -observance other and fanciful duties. Carmat was an inhabitant of -the neighbourhood of Basora, and his sect took its origin in that -place, and soon spread over the whole of Irak and Syria. Under a -chief, named Abu Táher, these fanatics defeated the Caliph el -Moktader Billah, and held possession of the whole of the Syrian -desert. With a force of more than a hundred and seven thousand men, -Abu Táher took Rakka, Baalbekk, Basra, and Cufa, and even threatened -the imperial city of Baghdád itself. The caliph made strenuous -exertions to suppress the rebellion, but his soldiers were defeated, -and his general taken captive and treated with the utmost -indignities. A strange story is told of this struggle, which -illustrates the fierce fanaticism and blind devotion of Abu Táher’s -followers. A subordinate officer from the Mussulman army penetrated -to the rebel camp, and warned the chief to betake himself to instant -flight. “Tell your master,” was the reply, “that in all his thirty -thousand troops he cannot boast three men like these.” As he spoke, -he bade three of his followers to put themselves to death; and -without a murmur, one stabbed himself to the heart, another drowned -himself in the waters of the Tigris, and a third flung himself from -a precipice and was dashed to pieces. Against such savages as these, -the luxurious squadrons of Baghdád could do nothing—they were -ignominiously defeated; and the Carmathians roamed whithersoever -they pleased, and devastated the country with fire and sword. In 929 -Mecca itself was pillaged, thirty thousand pilgrims slain, and the -black stone, the special object of adoration to the true believer, -was carried off. This circumstance caused another diversion in -favour of Jerusalem; the Ka‘abah was again deserted, and crowds of -devotees flocked from all parts of the Mohammedan world, to -prostrate themselves before the Holy Rock of David. For the -Christian inhabitants of Jerusalem the change was an unfortunate -one: Mussulman bigotry was again in the ascendant in the Holy City, -and we learn that in 937 the church of Constantine was destroyed, -and the churches of Calvary and the Resurrection once more ruined -and despoiled. - -A few years later the “black stone” was restored and the Ka‘abah and -Mecca were once more opened for the Mohammedan pilgrims. The -Carmathians themselves were suppressed, and their legions dispersed; -but the seeds of religious and political heresy were sown broadcast -throughout Islam, and were destined speedily to bring forth most -disastrous fruit. - -Since the conquests of ‘Omar and his generals, no successful attempt -had been made to recover the eastern provinces for the Grecian -Empire; but in the reign of the Caliph El Motí‘ al Illah, a movement -was made, which threatened to wrest the sceptre from the hands of -the Muslim princes, and restore the pristine glory of the Byzantine -arms. Nicephorus Phocas and his murderer, John Zimisces, having -successively married Theophania, the widow of Romanus, emperor of -Constantinople, though nominally regents, really held the supreme -command, and during a period of twelve years (A.D. 963-975) gained a -series of brilliant victories over the Saracens. The whole of Syria -was conquered, and Baghdád itself would have fallen, but for the -prompt measures and stern resolution of the Bowide lieutenant, who -compelled his imperial master to provide for the defence of the -capital. Satisfied, however, with the rich plunder they had already -obtained, the Greeks retired without attacking the town, and -returned in triumph to Constantinople, leaving Syria to bear the -brunt of the Muslim’s anger and revenge. - -A bloody persecution of the Christians was the result, and the -churches of the East were once more exposed to the assaults of -iconoclastic fanaticism. Jerusalem suffered severely in the -reaction; the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was destroyed; and the -patriarch, suspected of treasonous intercourse with the Greeks, was -taken prisoner and burnt alive. - -The establishment of independent dynasties in various parts of the -empire, by the revolts of the provincial governors, had been for -some time a source of danger to the Abbasside power, and ultimately -accomplished the downfall of the dynasty. - -The Aglabites in Africa, the Taherites in Khorassan, the house of -Bowíyeh in Persia, had, one by one, fallen off from their -allegiance, and the authority of the caliphs extended scarcely -beyond the walls of Baghdád; and even in the capital itself they -lingered on with fluctuating fortune, alternately the tools or -victims of rival factions. - -The alienation of Egypt—involving, as it nearly always did, that of -Syria as well—more immediately affected the fortunes of Jerusalem, -and therefore merits a rather more circumstantial account. - -In the year 868 Ahmed ibn Túlún, the son of a Turkish slave, who had -been appointed viceroy of Egypt by the Caliph el M‘otazz Billah, -rebelled against his master’s authority, and assumed the style and -title of Sultán, or independent sovereign. The kingdom remained in -his family about thirty years, when it was retaken by Mohammed ibn -Suleimán, general of the Caliph el Moktadhí Billah, and the -authority of the Abbassides was again established in Egypt. This -state of things, however, continued but for a short time, and in 936 -the government of Egypt was again usurped by a Turk named Ikhshíd, -who, after some opposition from the troops of the Er Rádhí Billah -(the last of the caliphs who enjoyed the authority or deserved the -name), obtained undisputed possession of Syria. He was nominally -succeeded by his sons, but the government remained in the hands of -his black slave, Káfúr, who ultimately contrived to seat himself -upon the throne. At his death the kingdom passed to ‘Alí el Ikshíd, -a nephew of the founder of the family; but, after a short reign of -one year, he was deposed (A.D. 970) by Jauher, the general of El -Mo‘ezz li dín Allah, fourth of the Fatemite caliphs. - -This dynasty (the Fatemite, or Ismáïlí) was the most formidable of -all who had resisted the authority of the caliphs of Baghdád; for it -was not as the insurgent possessors of a province that they asserted -their independence, but, as legitimate heirs, they disputed their -master’s title to the caliphate itself. - -The family traced its origin to Mohammed, through Fatimah, wife of -‘Alí ibn Abi Táleb, and daughter of the prophet; and on the strength -of this illustrious pedigree, they claimed to be the true successors -of the prophet, and rightful heirs to the supreme authority. Their -pretensions were combated with great obstinacy by the Abbasside -princes, but there seems good reason for believing that their claims -were well-grounded. The founder of the house was one ‘Obeid Allah, -who, at the head of a number of political and religious fanatics, -had succeeded in establishing himself in Irák and Yemen. After a -series of romantic adventures, he made himself master of Africa -(A.D. 910), where he assumed the title and authority of Caliph, and -gave himself out to be the Mehdí, or last of the Imáms, foretold by -Mohammed. At his death, which happened in A.D. 934, he was succeeded -by his son, Al Cáïm bi Amr Illah, who reigned until A.D. 946. His -son, El Mansúr Ismael, then came to the throne, and dying in 952, -the caliphate passed into the hands of El Mo‘ezz li dín Allah Abu -Temím Ma’ad. It was this prince who conquered Egypt and founded the -city of Cairo, which then became the seat of empire. He died in 969, -and was succeeded by his son El ‘Azíz billah Abu Mansúr Nizár. His -death happened in October, A.D. 996; and the caliphate then passed -to El Hakem bi Amr Illah, about whom it will be necessary to speak -more in detail. - -Hakem was born at Cairo on the 23rd of August, 985 A.D., and was -consequently only eleven years and five months old when he ascended -the throne. His father had assigned the guardianship of the young -prince, during his minority, to a white eunuch named Barjewán; but -the real power was vested in a certain Ibn ‘Ammár, who had -previously exercised the functions of Cádhi ul Codhát, or chief -magistrate, and whom Hakem had been obliged to appoint as his prime -minister. About the year 996, Hakem, or rather Ibn Ammár, had sent -Suleimán ibn Ja‘afer (better known as Abu Temím Ketámí) to be -governor-general of Syria. Manjutakín, the governor who had been -thus superseded, marched against Suleimán; but he was defeated near -Ascalon, and sent a prisoner to Cairo. Abu Temím was now invested -with the governor-generalship of Syria, and proceeded to Tiberias, -where he fixed his residence, and appointed his brother ‘Alí to -replace him at Damascus. At first the inhabitants of that city -refused to recognise his authority; but Abu Temím having written -them a threatening letter, they proffered their submission, and -asked pardon for having resisted. ‘Alí refused to listen to their -excuses, attacked the city, and put a number of the inhabitants to -death; but, on the arrival of Abu Temím himself, order was at last -restored. The governor-general then proceeded to occupy himself with -the reduction of the maritime ports of Syria, and dismissing Jaish -ibn Samsamah from the government of Tripoli, gave the post to his -own brother ‘Alí. Jaish at once returned to Egypt, where he made -common cause with Barjewán against Ibn ‘Ammár. The latter was not -idle, and in the meantime had laid a deep plot against the life of -his rival and his associates. Barjewán, however, obtained -information of the plot; open hostilities were commenced, and Ibn -‘Ammár was defeated, and compelled to seek safety in concealment. -Barjewán now succeeded to the duties and responsibilities of his -office, and appointed as his secretary one Fahd ibn Ibrahím, a -Christian, to whom he gave the title of Reis. At the same time he -wrote privately to the principal officers and inhabitants of -Damascus, inciting them to rise and attack Abu Temím. Abu Temím thus -found himself assailed at a moment when he least expected it; his -treasures were pillaged, all his immediate followers were killed, -and he himself was but too glad to escape by flight. While Damascus -was thus suddenly exposed to all the horrors of civil war, the other -provinces of Syria were agitated by diverse insurrections. In the -same year (A.D. 997) the Tyrians had revolted, and placed at their -head a fellah named Olaka; while Mofarrij ibn Daghfal ibn Jerráh had -also headed a party of insurgents, and was making raids in the -neighbourhood of Ramleh. The Greeks, under a general named Ducas, -were also, at the same time, laying siege to the castle of Apameus. -Meanwhile, Barjewán had committed the government of Syria to Jaish -ibn Samsamah, who at once repaired to Ramleh, where he found his -deposed predecessor Abu Temím, and sent him a prisoner to Egypt. -After this he despatched Husein—a great-grandson of Hamdan, the -founder of the Carmathian sect—to quell the insurrection at Tyre. -Olaka, being besieged both by land and sea, sought the aid of the -Greek emperor, who sent several vessels filled with troops to the -relief of the city. The Mussulman vessels encountered this squadron -before their arrival at Tyre; the Greeks were defeated, and put to -flight with considerable loss. Tyre, thus deprived of its last hope -of resistance, fell into the hands of Husein, who sacked the city, -and put the inhabitants to the sword. Olaka himself fled to Egypt, -where he was arrested and crucified. The new governor-general -(Jaish) marched against Mofarrij ibn Jerráh, put the latter to -flight, and shortly afterwards entered Damascus, where he was -received with every mark of submission and obedience. The complete -rout of the Grecian army followed shortly afterwards, and Jaish -having, by a _coup d’état_, massacred all the powerful chiefs at -Damascus whom he suspected of disaffection to his rule, established -himself firmly in the government of Syria. - -Barjewán now wielded the sovereign authority, Hakem remaining more -of a puppet in his hands than ever he had been in those of Ibn -‘Ammár. But the eunuch’s triumph was shortlived. Barjewán had -frequently applied to Hakem, during the infancy of the latter, the -contemptuous name of “The Lizard,” and this indignity rankled in the -young caliph’s breast. One morning (on the 15th of April, 999 A.D.) -he sent a message to his guardian, couched in the following words: -“The little lizard has become a huge dragon, and calls for thee!” -Barjewán hastened, all trembling, into the presence of Hakem, who -then and there ordered him to be beheaded. - -About the year 1000 Hakem began to exhibit those eccentricities of -character which ultimately betrayed him into such preposterous -fancies and pretensions. He began to promenade the city on horseback -every night, and on these occasions the inhabitants of Cairo vied -with each other in illuminations, banquets, and other festive -displays. As no limit was observed in these amusements, and a great -deal of licentiousness was the natural result, the caliph forbade -any woman to leave her house after nightfall, and prohibited the men -from keeping their shops open after dusk. During the next two years, -Hakem displayed an unbounded zeal for the Shiah sect, inflicting -indignities upon “the enemies of ‘Alí,” and even putting many -distinguished Sunnís to death. At the same time he commenced a -rigorous persecution of the Jews and Christians: the more eminent -persons of both religions were compelled either to embrace the -Mohammedan creed, or to submit to an entire confiscation of their -property—and, in many cases, to undergo a violent death; while the -common people were robbed and illtreated on all sides, and obliged -to wear a ridiculous uniform, to distinguish them from their Muslim -neighbours. - -Between the years 1004 and 1005, he became more extravagant and -ridiculous in his behaviour than before. He prohibited the sale of -certain vegetables, ordered that no one should enter the public -baths without drawers upon pain of death, and caused anathemas to be -written up, over the doors of all the mosques, against the first -three caliphs, and all those persons whom history mentions as having -been inimical to the family and succession of ‘Alí. About this time -he began to hold public assemblies, in which the peculiar doctrines -of the Fatemite or Batení sect were taught, and Muslims of all -classes and both sexes presented themselves in crowds for -initiation. - -The most ridiculous laws and ordinances were now promulgated: all -persons were forbidden to show themselves in the streets after -sunset; strict search was made for vessels containing wine, and -wherever found they were broken to pieces, and their contents poured -into the road; all the dogs in Cairo were slaughtered, because a cur -had barked at the caliph’s horse. - -In the year 1007—probably inspired by a revolt which had, at one -time, threatened the total extinction of his power—he began to -display some slight signs of moderation, and, amongst other things, -caused the anathemas against the enemies of ‘Alí to be defaced from -the mosques, and otherwise sought to conciliate his Sunni subjects. -The Christians, however, in no way profited by the change, and a -more rigorous persecution than ever was instituted against them. -Three years later, Hakem gave the order for the destruction of the -Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. The excuse alleged by the -Mohammedan authorities for this outrage was the caliph’s pious -horror at the disgraceful orgies and juggling imposture attending -the so-called descent of the Holy Fire at the Easter celebration: -“on which occasion,” as the Arab historian naïvely remarks, “the -most frightful and blasphemous enormities are committed before the -very eyes of the faithful. The Christians positively make a parade -of their misbelief, reading and reciting their books aloud, in a -manner too horrible to speak of, while they raise their crucifixes -over their heads till one’s hair absolutely stands on end!” - -The real cause, however, appears to have been the machinations of a -certain monk named John. This man had in vain endeavoured to induce -his patriarch (Zacharias) to consecrate him to the office of bishop, -but his superior had persistently refused to accede to his repeated -request. Impelled by ambition and revenge, John came to Egypt, -presented himself before Hakem at Jebel Mokattem (where the caliph -was in the habit of resorting to practise his superstitious and -profane ceremonies), and addressed to him a petition filled with the -grossest calumnies against the patriarch. “Thou art the king of the -country,” so the document ran; “but the Christians have a king more -powerful than thee, owing to the immense riches which he has -amassed,—one who sells bishoprics for gold, and conducts himself in -a manner highly displeasing to God.” Hakem, on reading these words, -at once commanded that all the churches throughout the kingdom -should be closed, and the patriarch himself arrested, and wrote to -the governor of Jerusalem in the following terms: “The Imam, the -Commander of the Faithful, orders you so to destroy the Church of El -Camámah,[39] that its earth shall become its heaven, and its length -its breadth.” The order was immediately put into execution; the -church was razed to the ground, and an attempt made—though -fortunately without success—to destroy the rock-hewn tomb itself, -which had been for so many years the special object of devotion to -myriads of Christian pilgrims. - -Footnote 39: - - See p. 71. - -In 1012 Hakem renewed the greater part of his absurd police -regulations. He forbade women to take any part in funeral -ceremonies, or to visit the tombs of their deceased relatives; the -edicts against wine and forbidden fruits were more rigidly enforced; -all the vines were destroyed, and their cultivation for the future -prohibited; immense quantities of raisins were burnt, and the -merchants forbidden to expose the fruit for sale; the same course -was taken with regard to honey and dates, and no compensation -whatever was allowed to the owners. - -In 1014 he ordered all the women of Cairo to confine themselves -rigorously to their houses, and forbade them even to appear at the -doors or windows, and shoemakers were forbidden to make shoes for -them. This state of constraint they were compelled to endure until -his death,—that is, for more than seven years and a half. - -It is related that, passing one day by certain baths, he heard a -noise inside, and on being informed that some women were there, in -contravention of his law, he ordered the doors and other approaches -to be walled up, and the entire number perished of starvation. - -But it would be tedious to detail the numerous acts of fanaticism -and folly of which he was guilty. Suffice it to say, that he -committed every extravagance which could shock the prejudices or -offend the scruples of his subjects. - -At last his folly reached its height, and he gave himself out to be -the Deity incarnate, and called upon all men to render him divine -honours. In these preposterous pretensions he was supported (perhaps -instigated in the first place) by certain Persian _Da‘ís_, or -emissaries of the Batení sect, of whom the principal were Mohammed -ibn Ismail ed Darazí and Hamza ibn Alí ibn Ahmed el Hadí. These -persons endeavoured to spread their doctrines in Cairo itself; but -although a certain number of persons, impelled either by fear or -love of gain, did acknowledge the divinity of the caliph and abjure -the Mussulman religion—yet the greater part of the populace shrank -from the profession of such impiety, and Hamza and Ed Darazí were -compelled to seek safety in flight. They chose Syria for the next -scene of their operations, and found ready believers in the -mountaineers of Lebanon and Hermon—men who still clung in secret to -the idolatrous sun-worship of their forefathers. - -Thus was the sect of the Druzes established in Syria: they take -their name from Ed Darazí, but they regard Hamza as the true founder -of their religion. And for eight hundred years a hardy and -intelligent race have acknowledged for their god one of the maddest -monsters that the world has ever produced! - -As for Hakem himself, his extravagant conduct could not long go -unpunished. In the year 1021 he was assassinated, by the orders of -his own sister, while engaged in one of his nocturnal ceremonies in -Jebel Mokattem, where he was in the habit of retiring “to worship -the planet Saturn, and hold converse with the devil.” - -It will not be out of place here to give some account of the tenets -of the Druzes.[40] This remarkable sect profess to recognise but one -God, without seeking to penetrate into the nature of His being and -attributes; to confess that He can neither be comprehended by the -senses, nor defined by language; to believe that the Deity has -manifested itself to mankind at different epochs under a human form, -without participating in any of the weaknesses and imperfections of -human nature; that the last of these avatars descended upon earth in -the person of El Hakem bi Amr Illah, in whom they ceased for all -time; that Hakem disappeared in the year 411 of the Hijrah (A.D. -1021), in order to put the faith of his worshippers to the test; and -that he will one day appear again, clothed in majesty and glory, to -extend his empire over the whole face of the globe, and to -consummate the happiness of those who faithfully believe in him. -They believe, moreover, that the Universal Intelligence is the first -of God’s creatures, and the immediate production of His omnipotence, -and that this intelligence was incarnate in the person of Hamza ibn -Ahmed during Hakem’s reign; that it is by his ministry that all -other creatures have been produced; that Hamza alone possesses the -knowledge of truth and of true religion, and that he communicates, -directly or indirectly, but in different proportions, to the other -ministers, and to the faithful themselves, that knowledge and grace -which he receives from the Deity, and of which he is the sole -channel; that he alone has immediate access to the presence of God, -and serves as the mediator to all other worshippers of the Supreme -Being; and that he will be, at the second advent, the instrument by -which all rewards and punishments are to be distributed, and the -kingdom of Hakem to be established upon earth. They hold that all -souls are created by this Universal Intelligence; that the number of -human beings is always the same, and that souls pass successively -into different bodies; that their condition during this -transmigration is progressive or the reverse, according to their -adherence in the previous state to the dogmas and precepts of their -religion, and their strict performance of the duties enjoined by the -seven commandments of Hamza. These are—Veracity; Charity; the -renunciation of their ancient faith; submission to the will of God; -to believe that all preceding religions are but types of the true -faith; that all their precepts and ceremonies are allegories; and -that their own religion abrogates all other creeds which have gone -before. Such are the doctrines taught in the religious works of the -Druzes themselves; the followers of the sect are known amongst -themselves by the name of Unitarians. The Druzes are accused of -worshipping a small idol in the form of a calf, and it is a -well-ascertained fact that they do make use of some such figure in -their religious ceremonies. It is, however, the symbol of Iblis, the -rival or enemy of Hakem, the calf (_‘ejl_) being opposed to the -Universal Intelligence (_‘aḳl_) just mentioned. - -Footnote 40: - - The following account of the Druzes, as well as that of the life - of Hakem, is abridged from the ‘Exposé de la Religion des Druzes,’ - by the celebrated Orientalist, Sylvestre de Sacy. - -Before his death, Hakem appears to have somewhat relaxed in his -persecutions of the Jews and Christians; the latter were allowed to -rebuild their churches, and many who had become apostates openly -renounced Mohammedanism, and were rebaptized into the Christian -community. - -The Church of the Holy Sepulchre thus destroyed must have been (see -p. 133) very speedily repaired, for we find, during the reign of El -Mostanser Billah, Hakem’s grandson, that the fabric was completely -restored, the permission of the caliph having been obtained by the -release of five thousand Muslim prisoners on the part of the Greek -emperor. - -In the year 1016 a fresh earthquake occurred, and the great cupola -over the Sakhrah fell down, though without much injury happening to -the foundations of the building. The walls at the south-west angle -of the Haram es Sheríf also suffered by the shock, and a Cufic -inscription tells us that the damage done in that quarter was -repaired by Ed Dháher li ‘Ezaz dín Alláh. The same prince also -restored the cupola itself, as we learn from another inscription, -engraved upon the wooden framework of the cupola, and repeated at -each of the four points of the compass. It runs as follows: “In the -name of God the Merciful, the Compassionate! ‘None repair the -mosques of God but such as believe in Him’ (Cor. c. v.) The Imám Abu -el Hasan ed Dháher li ‘Ezaz dín Allah, son of El Hakem bi Amr Illah, -Prince of the Faithful (the blessing of God be upon his noble -ancestry!), ordered the restoration of this blessed cupola. The work -was executed by the servant of God, the Emír, the confidant of the -Imáms, the prop of the empire, ‘Alí ibn Ahmed Ináhet Allah, in the -year 413 (A.D. 1022). May God perpetuate the glory and stability of -our lord the Commander of the Faithful, and make him to possess the -east and west of the earth! We praise God at the beginning and end -of all our works.” - -In 1034 fresh earthquakes devastated Syria and Egypt; some of the -walls of Jerusalem were destroyed, and a large portion of the Mihráb -Dá‘úd (that is, the building now called the Cala‘at Jálút) fell to -the ground. - -Again, in the year 1060, an accident happened in the Cubbet es -Sakhrah: the great candelabra suspended from the dome, and -containing five hundred candles, suddenly gave way, and fell with an -awful crash upon the Sakhrah, greatly to the consternation of the -worshippers assembled in the mosque, who looked upon it as -foreboding some great calamity to Islám. Their fears were not -unfounded, for the conquest of the Holy City by the Crusaders -followed not many years this incident. This period seems to have -been especially fertile in volcanic disturbances, for again, in the -year 1068, a fearful earthquake convulsed all Palestine. On this -occasion, the Sakhrah is said to have been rent asunder by the -shock, and the cleft miraculously reclosed. - -Another event of evil omen, but of doubtful authenticity, is related -by the Arab historians as having happened about the same period. The -sea, they declare, suddenly receded for the distance of a day’s -journey; but on the inhabitants of the neighbourhood taking -possession of the reclaimed land, it suddenly returned and -overwhelmed them, so that an immense destruction of life ensued. - -The conflict between the Abbasside and Fatimite caliphs had been -from time to time renewed; but fortune seemed at length to have -decided the struggle in favour of the latter family, and the name of -El Mostanser Billah was formally introduced into the Khotbah (or -Friday “bidding prayer”), in the sacred mosques of Mecca and -Jerusalem—a proceeding which was tantamount to recognising the -Fatimite monarch as the legitimate successor of the Prophet, and -sovereign of the whole Mussulman empire. But scarcely had they -attained the summit of their ambition when the fall came, and events -happened which resulted in the total overthrow of the Fatemite -dynasty, and the restoration, in name at least, of the authority of -the Abbasside caliphs. - -The nomad tribe of Turkomans had made themselves masters of -Khorassan, and determined upon the election of a king. Toghrul Beg, -a grandson of a noble chief named Seljuk, was chosen by lot for the -office, and in a short time extended his conquests over the whole of -Persia; and, being a rigid Mohammedan of the orthodox sect, -compelled the revolted lieutenants of the Abbasside caliphs to -return to their allegiance. For this service he was named Emir el -Omará (“Chief of chiefs”), and appointed the vicegerent and -protector of the caliph. His nephew, Alp Arslán, succeeded him, and, -after a brilliant career of conquest, left the sceptre to his son -Melik Shah (A.D. 1072). This prince, a worthy scion of the Seljukian -line, resolved upon the extension of the Fatemite dynasty, and the -establishment of his own authority in Syria and Egypt. His -lieutenant, Atsiz, a native of Kh’árezm, invaded the former country, -and took possession of Ramleh and Jerusalem—the latter after a -protracted siege. The names of the Abbasside caliph, and of the -Sultán Melik Shah, were now formally substituted for that of the -Egyptian caliph, El Mostanser Billah, in the Friday Khotba, at the -Masjid el Aksa. Five years later he besieged Damascus, and the -capital of Syria also fell before his troops: the inhabitants, -already reduced to the last extremities by famine, were punished for -their resistance by the resentful Emír, and the city being given up -to pillage, the most frightful scenes of carnage ensued. Emboldened -by this victory, he marched upon Egypt at the head of a large army -of Turkomans, Kurds, and Arabs, and laid siege to Cairo. Here, -however, he was repulsed with considerable loss, and compelled to -return to Syria, which he found already in a state of insurrection -against his authority. Those of his troops who had escaped slaughter -in Egypt were butchered by the insurgents as they passed Palestine; -and Atsiz, accompanied only by a small band of adherents, escaped -with difficulty to Damascus, where his brother had been left at the -head of affairs during his absence. Jerusalem had, in the meantime, -risen against the Turkish chief; but the insurrection was soon -quelled, and the Cadhí and other municipal officers, together with -three thousand of the inhabitants, were put to death. Atsiz was -shortly afterwards besieged in Damascus by the Egyptian forces, and -called in to his aid the Emír Tutush, a son of Alp Arslan. The -Egyptians fled without attempting to oppose the advancing army, and -Emír Tutush was welcomed by Atsiz at the city-gate. Jealous, -doubtless, of his subordinate’s previous victories and growing -influence, the prince commanded him to be seized and executed upon -the spot,—alleging, as an excuse for the barbarous act, that the -general had been wanting in respect, and had not awarded him the -reception to which his rank entitled him. The Emir Tutush now -assumed the post of governor-general of Syria, and assigned that of -Jerusalem and Palestine to a Turkish chief, named Urtuk ibn Eksek, -who remained in authority until A.D. 1091. Urtuk was succeeded by -his two sons, Elghází and Sukmán, who ruled Jerusalem until the -assassination of Tutush, at Damascus, in A.D. 1095. Taking advantage -of the disturbances which followed upon this event, the Fatimite -caliph of Egypt, El Most‘aíla Billah, sent his general, Afdhal el -Jemálí, with a large force, into Syria. Damascus yielded without a -blow in the month of July 1096, and Syria and Palestine remained for -some time afterwards in the hands of the Egyptian government. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - THE CHRISTIAN PILGRIMS. - - Dulce mihi cruciari; - Parva vis doloris est: - Malo mori quam fædari: - Major vis amoris est. - _Hymn attributed to St. Augustine._ - - -At what period in the history of Christianity began the practice of -going on pilgrimage it is difficult to decide. Probably the first -places held sacred were those of local martyrs and confessors to the -faith. Every part of the civilised world had these in abundance; -there was not a village where some saint had not fallen a victim to -persecution, not a town which could not boast of its roll of -martyrs. When the day of persecution was over, and stories of -miracles and wonderful cures at holy shrines began to grow, it was -natural that the minds of a credulous age should turn to the holiest -place of all, the city of Jerusalem. It had so turned even before -the Invention of the Holy Cross; for Helena herself was on a -pilgrimage when she made her discovery. But the story, noised -abroad, the building by Constantine of the church of the Martyrdom, -and the immediate fixing, without any hesitation, of all the sacred -sites recorded in the New Testament, were the causes of a vast -increase in the number of pilgrims who every year flocked to -Jerusalem. And then flames which burst from the foundations of the -Temple when Julian made his vain attempt to rebuild it were reported -throughout Christendom, and added to the general enthusiasm. For the -feeble faith of the nations had to be supported by miracles ever -new. Moreover, the dangers of the way were diminished; more -countries day by day became Christian; the Pagans, who had formerly -intercepted and killed the pilgrims on the road, were now themselves -in hiding; the Christians destroyed the old shrines and temples -wherever they found them; and all the roads were open to the pious -worshipper who only desired to pray at the sacred places. - -But the passion for pilgrimages grew to so great an extent, and was -accompanied by so many dangers to virtue and good manners, that -attempts were made from time to time to check it. Augustine teaches -that God is approached better by love than by long travel. Gregory -of Nyssa points out that pilgrimage of itself avails nothing; and -Jerome declares that heaven may be reached as easily from Britain as -from Jerusalem, that an innumerable throng of saints never saw the -city, and that the sacred places themselves have been polluted by -the images of idols. - -But this teaching was in vain. Going on pilgrimage served too many -ends, and gratified too many desires. Piety, no doubt, in greater or -less degree, had always something to do with a resolve to undertake -a long and painful journey. But there were other motives. The -curious man, by becoming a pilgrim, was enabled to see the world; -the lazy man to escape work; the adventurous man to find adventures; -the credulous and imaginative man to fill his mind with stories; the -vain man to gratify his vanity, and procure life-long honour at the -cost of some peril and fatigue; the sincere to wipe off his sins; -and all alike believed that they were doing an act meritorious in -itself and pleasing in the sight of heaven. - -The doctors of the Church protested, but in vain. Indeed, they often -went themselves. St. Porphyry, afterwards Bishop of Gaza, was one of -those who went. He had betaken himself to the Thebaid at the age of -twenty, to become a hermit. There, after five years of austerities, -he became seized with an irresistible desire to see Jerusalem. -Afflicted with a painful disorder, and hardly able to hold himself -upright, he managed to crawl across the deserts to the city; as soon -as he arrived there, he sent his companion back to Thessalonica, his -native place, with injunctions to sell all that he had and -distribute the proceeds among the faithful. And then he laid himself -down to die. Mark departed; what was his astonishment, on returning, -his mission accomplished, to find his friend restored to health? -Porphyry went no more to the Thebaid, probably but a dull place at -best, even for a hermit, and betaking himself to a handicraft, he -preached the Gospel and became a bishop. St. Jerome himself, in -spite of his protests, went to Palestine, accompanied by Eusebius of -Cremona. The voice of calumny had attacked Jerome in revenge for his -exposure of the sins and follies of the day, and he was pleased to -leave Rome. The two future saints landed at Antioch, and after -seeing Jerusalem went on to Bethlehem, and thence to the Thebaid, -where they solaced themselves with admiring the austerities of the -self-tormentors, the hermits there. Returning thence to Bethlehem, -they resolved on selling their property and forming a monastery in -that town. This they accomplished by the assistance of Paula and -Eudoxia, two noble ladies, mother and daughter, who followed them to -Palestine, and passed their lives like Jerome himself, under a rigid -rule of prayer and labour. Paula died in Bethlehem. Her daughter and -Jerome, less happy, were turned out of their peaceful retreat by a -band of Arabs, bribed, we are told, by the heretics in Jerusalem, -who burned and pillaged the monastic houses, dispersed the monks and -nuns, and drove the venerable Jerome, then past the age of seventy -years, to a bed from which he never rose again. - -The story of the pilgrimage of Paula is useful because it shows that -the multiplication of the sacred sites was not due entirely to the -invention of later times. At Cæsarea she saw the house of Cornelius -the centurion, turned into a church; and here, also, was the house -of Saint Philip, and the chambers of his four virgin daughters, -prophetesses; on Mount Zion she saw the column where our Lord was -scourged, still stained with His blood, and supporting the gallery -of a church; she saw, too, the place where the Holy Spirit descended -on the apostles; at Bethphage they showed her the sepulchre of -Lazarus, and the house of Mary and Martha; on Mount Ephraim she saw -the tombs of Joshua and Eleazar; at Shechem the well of Jacob, and -the tombs of the twelve patriarchs, and at Samaria the tombs of -Elisha and John the Baptist. Hither were brought those possessed -with devils, that they might be exorcised, and Paula herself was an -eye-witness of the miraculous cure effected. With regard to -miracles, indeed, Antoninus Martyr, to whose testimony on the site -of the church of the Holy Sepulchre we have referred in another -place,[41] relates many which he himself pretends to have seen. If -you bring oil near the true cross, he says, it will boil of its own -accord, and must be quickly removed, or it will all escape; at -certain times a star from heaven rests on the cross. He tells us, -too, that there is on Sinai an idol, fixed there by the infidels, in -white marble, which on days of ceremony changes colour and becomes -quite black. - -Footnote 41: - - See Appendix. - -The impending fall of the empire, and the invasion of the hordes of -barbarians, proved but a slight check to the swarms of pilgrims. For -the barbarians, finding that these unarmed men and women were -completely harmless, respected their helplessness and allowed them -to pass unmolested. When, as happened shortly after their settlement -in Italy and the West, they were gradually themselves brought within -the pale of the Christian faith, they made laws which enforced the -protection and privileges of pilgrims. These laws were not, it is -true, always obeyed. - -The route was carefully laid down for the pilgrims by numerous -Itineraries, the most important of which is that called the -Itinerary of the Bordeaux Pilgrim. The author starts from Bordeaux, -perhaps because it is his own city, perhaps because it was then the -most considerable town in the West of Europe. He passes through -France by Auch, Toulouse, Narbonne, thence to Beziers, Nîmes, and -Arles. At Arles he turns northwards, and passes through Avignon, -Orange, and Valence, when he again turns eastwards to Diez, Embrun -and Briançon; thence he crosses the Alps and stops at Susa. In Italy -he passes through the towns of Turin, Pavia, Milan (not because -Milan was on his way, but because it would be a pity to lose the -opportunity of seeing this splendid city), to Brescia, Verona, and -Aquileia, a town subsequently destroyed by Attila, at the head of -the Gulf of Trieste. Crossing the Italian Alps he arrives at the -frontiers of the empire of the East. His course lies next through -Illyria, Styria, and along the northern banks of the river Drave, -which he leaves after a time and follows the course of the Save, to -its confluence with the Danube at Belgrade. He now follows the -Danube until he comes to the great Roman road, which leads him to -Nissa. Thence, still by the road, to Philippopolis, Heraclia, and -Constantinople. Across Asia Minor he passes through Nicomedia, -Nicæa, across what is now Anatolia to Ancyra, thence to Tyana and -Tarsus. From Tarsus he goes to Iskanderoon, thence to Antioch, -Tortosa, Tripoli (along the Roman road which lay by the Syrian -sea-board), Beyrout, Sidon, Tyre, Acre, and Cæsarea. Here he leaves -the direct and shortest way to Jerusalem in order first to visit the -Jordan and other places. - -It is instructive to follow the route of the pilgrim, because this -was doubtless the road taken by the hundreds who every year flocked -to Jerusalem, and because, as we shall see, nearly the same road was -subsequently taken by the Crusaders. - -Palestine, during some centuries, enjoyed a period of profound -peace, during which the sword was sheathed, and no voice of war, -save that of a foray of Arabs, was heard in the land. Thither -retreated all those who, like Saint Jerome, were indisposed -altogether to quit the world, like the hermits of Egypt, but yet -sought to find some quiet spot where they could study and worship -undisturbed. Thither came the monks turned out of Africa by -Genseric; and when Belisarius in his turn overcame the barbarians, -thither were brought back the spoils of the Temple which Titus had -taken from Jerusalem. Nor was the repose of the country seriously -disturbed during the long interval between the revolt of Barcochebas -and the invasion of the Persians under Chosroes. But after Heraclius -had restored their city to the Christians, a worse enemy even than -Chosroes was at hand, and when Caliph Omar became the master of -Jerusalem, the quiet old days were gone for ever. - -The Mohammedans were better masters than the Persians; they -reverenced the name of Jesus, they spared the Church of the -Sepulchre, they even promised to protect the Christians. But -promises made by the caliph were not always observed by his fanatic -soldiers. The Christians were pillaged and robbed; they were -insulted and abused; they were forced to pay a heavy tribute; -forbidden to appear on horseback, or to wear arms; obliged to wear a -leathern girdle to denote their nation; nor were they even permitted -to elect their own bishops and clergy. - -The pilgrims did not, in consequence of these persecutions, become -fewer. To the other excitements which called them to the Holy Land -was now added the chance of martyrdom, and the records of the next -two centuries are filled with stories of their sufferings, which -appear to have been grossly exaggerated, at the hands of the Muslim -masters of the city. If the pilgrim returned safely to his home, -there was some comfort for his relations, deprived of the glory of -having a martyr in the family, in being able to relate how he had -been buffeted and spat upon. To this period belong the pilgrimages -of Arnulphus and Antoninus. That of the former is valuable, inasmuch -as not only his own account has been preserved, but even the map -which he drew up from memory. Bede made use of his narrative, which -was taken down by the abbot Adamnanus, who gave Arnulphus -hospitality when he was shipwrecked in the Hebrides on his return. - -So extensive was the desire to “pilgrimize,” so many people deserted -their towns and villages, leaving their work undone and their -families neglected, while disorders multiplied on the road, and -virtue was subjected to so many more temptations on the way to the -Holy Land than were encountered at home, that the Church, about the -ninth century, interfered, and assumed the power to grant or to -withhold the privilege of pilgrimage. The candidate had first to -satisfy the bishop of his diocese of his moral character, that he -went away with the full consent of his friends and relations, and -that he was actuated by no motives of curiosity, indolence, or a -desire to obtain in other lands a greater licence and freedom of -action. If these points were not answered satisfactorily, permission -was withheld; and if the applicant belonged to one of the monastic -orders he found it far more difficult to obtain the required -authority. For it had been only too well proved that in assuming the -pilgrim’s robe the monks were often only embracing an opportunity to -return to the world again. But when all was satisfactory, and the -bishop satisfied as to the personal piety of the applicant, the -Church dismissed him on his journey with a service and a -benediction. He was solemnly invested with the scrip and staff, he -put on the long woollen robe which formed the chief part of his -dress, the clergy and his own friends accompanied him to the -boundaries of his parish, and there, after giving him a letter or a -passport which ensured him hospitality so long as he was in -Christian countries, they sent him on his way. - -“In the name of God,” ran the commendatory letter, “we would have -your highness or holiness to know that the bearer of the present -letters, our brother, has asked our permission to go peaceably on -pilgrimage to Jerusalem, either for his own sins, or to pray for our -preservation. Thereupon, we have given him these present letters, in -which we salute you, and pray you, for the love of God and Saint -Peter, to receive him as your guest, to be useful to him in going -and coming back, so that he may return in safety to his house; and -as is your good custom, make him pass happy days. May God the -Eternal King protect you, and keep you in his kingdom!” - -Thus provided, the pilgrim found hostels open for him, and every -castle and monastery ready to receive him. Long and weary his -journey may have been, but it could not have been tedious to him -with eyes to see and observe, when every city was a sort of new -world, when a new country lay beyond every hill, and new manners and -customs were marked on every day. The perils and dangers of the way -were not until the Mohammedan conquest—nor indeed after it, until -the time of Hakem—very great. True, the woods harboured wild beasts, -but the pilgrims travelled in bands; and there were robbers, but -these did not rob those who had nothing. The principal dangers were -those of which they knew nothing, the diseases due to malaria, -exposure, sun-stroke, fatigue, and change of climate. These, and not -the Turks, were the chief enemies of pilgrims. And in spite of -these, known and unknown, dangers, there cannot be a doubt that the -pilgrimage to Syria was a long series of new and continually -changing wonders and surprises. The church which blessed the -pilgrim, also celebrated the act of pilgrimage, and a service has -been preserved which was performed on the Second Sunday after -Easter, in the cathedral of Rouen. Of this the following is an -abridgment:—In the nave of the church was erected a fort, -“castellum,” representing that house at Emmaus where the two -travellers entered and broke bread with Christ. At the appointed -time two priests, “of the second seats,” appointed for the day, came -forth from the vestry, singing the hymn which begins “Jesu, nostra -redemptio.” They were to be dressed in tunics, “et desuper cappis -transversum,” were to have long flowing hair and beards, and were -each to carry a staff and scrip. Singing this hymn, and slowly -marching down the right aisle, they came to the western porch, when -they put themselves at the head of the procession of choristers -waiting for them, and all began together to sing, “Nos tuo vultu -saties.” Then the priest for the day, robed in alb and surplice, -barefooted, carrying a cross on his right shoulder, advanced to meet -them, and “suddenly standing before them,” asked, “What manner of -communications are these that ye have one to another as ye walk, and -are sad?”[42] To which the two pilgrims replied, “Art thou only a -stranger in Jerusalem, and hast not known the things which are come -to pass there in these days?” - -Footnote 42: - - We take the words of the authorized version. - -“What things?” asked the priest. - -“Concerning Jesus of Nazareth,” they replied, with the words which -follow. - -“Oh, fools!” said the priest, “and slow of heart, to believe all -that the prophets have spoken.” - -And then, feigning to retire, the priest would there have left them, -but they held him back, and pointing to the “castellum,” entreated -him to enter, singing, “Abide with us, for it is towards evening, -and the day is far spent.” Then singing another hymn, they led him -to the “Fort of Emmaus,” when they entered and sat down at a table -already spread for supper. Here the priest brake bread sitting -between them, and being recognised by this act for the Lord, -“suddenly vanished out of their sight.” The pilgrims pretending to -be stupefied, arose and sung sorrowfully (_lamentabiliter_), -“Alleluia,” with the verse, “Did not our hearts burn within us, -while he talked with us by the way, and while he opened to us the -Scriptures?” - -Singing this twice they walked to the pulpit, where they sang the -verse, “Dic nobis Maria.” After this, another priest, dressed in a -dalmatic and surplice, with head muffled up like a woman, came to -them and sang, “Sepulcrum Christi Angelicos testes.” - -He then took up a cloth from one place, and a second from another -place, and threw them before the great door of the choir. “And then -let him sing, ‘Christ has risen,’ and let the choir chaunt the two -other verses which follow, and let the women and the pilgrims retire -within; and the memory of this act being thus recalled, let the -procession return to the choir, and the vespers be finished.” - -These ceremonies were not, of course, designed to meet the case of -pilgrimages undertaken by way of penance. These were of two kinds, -_minores peregrationes_, which were pilgrimages on foot to local -shrines, such as, later on, that of St. Thomas-à-Becket, for -instance; or _majores_, to Rome or Jerusalem. The latter, of which -Frotmond’s pilgrimage—which will be described further on—is an -example, were for murder, sacrilege, or for any other great crime. -One of the rules as regards a murderer was as follows:—“Let a chain -be made of the very sword with which the crime was committed, and -let the neck, arms, and body of the criminal be bound round with -this chain; thus let him be driven from his native country, and -wander whither the Pope shall direct him, till by long prayer he -obtain the Divine mercy.” - -The roads were crowded with these miserable wretches, limping along -to their shrines. Only the more distinguished, either in rank or -enormity of offence, were ordered to go to Palestine. The custom was -carried on to comparatively late times, and it was not till the -fourteenth century that a law was passed restraining the -practice—“better is it that these criminals should remain all -together in one place, and there work out the sentence imposed upon -them by the Church,”—so long was it before justice was taken out of -the hands of the Church. - -It could not have added greatly to the delights of travelling in -these days occasionally to meet bands of these wretches, toiling -painfully along, half naked, and dragging the weight of their -chains, while they implored the prayers and alms of the passers-by. - -But the triumph of the pilgrim (not the criminal) was in coming home -again. Bearing a palm branch in his hands, as a sign that he had -seen the sacred places, he narrated his adventures, and -gathered—those at least that were poor—alms in plenty. Arrived at -his native village, the palm branch was solemnly offered at the -altar, and the pilgrim returned to his home to spend the rest of his -life in telling of the miracles he had seen wrought. - -Not all, however, came home. So long as the pilgrim passed the rough -lands where his passport was recognised, all was easy enough. He got -food to eat, and a bed to sleep in. But he sometimes came to places, -if he went by way of Constantinople, where there were no -monasteries, and where his passport proved useless. The ferocious -Bulgarians, or the treacherous Croats, in theory friendly, and by -profession Christian, sometimes proved cut-throats and robbers. The -Mohammedans, though they acknowledged the harmlessness of the crowds -that flocked about the gates, could not avoid showing the contempt -they naturally felt for those who refused to think as they thought -themselves; when the pilgrims arrived at the city, they could not -enter without payment, and often they had no money to pay. And if -they were able to pay for admission, they were not exempt from the -insults of the Saracens, who sometimes pleased themselves with -interrupting the sacred office, trampling on the vessels of the -Eucharist, and even scourging the priests. - -But these persecutions belong to a somewhat later time than we have -yet arrived at. - -About the same time as the pilgrimage of Arnulf took place that of -Willibald. Willibald, afterwards Bishop of Eichstädt, was an -Englishman by birth. He was dedicated at an early age by his father -to the monastic life, and received a pious and careful education. -Arrived at the period of manhood, he persuaded his father, his -sister Walpurga, and his brother Wunebald, accompanied by a large -party of servants and followers, to undertake a pilgrimage to -Palestine. In Italy his father died, and his brother and sister left -him and returned to England. Willibald, with a few companions, went -on eastward. At Emessa they were detained, but not harmed, by the -Emir, but, released through the intercession of a Spanish merchant, -they proceeded to Jerusalem. Willibald visited the city no less than -four times. He was once, we are told, miraculously cured of -blindness by praying at the church where the Cross had been found. -Probably he had contracted an ophthalmia, of which he recovered in -Jerusalem. - -About the year 800, Charlemagne conceived the idea of sending a -special embassy to the Caliph Harûn er Raschíd. He sent three -ambassadors, two of whom died on the way. The third, Isaac the Jew, -returned after five years’ absence, bearing the presents of the -great Caliph, and accompanied by his envoys. The presents consisted -of an elephant, which caused huge surprise to the people, carved -ivory, incense, a clock, and the keys of the Church of the Holy -Sepulchre. Charlemagne sent, in return, white and green robes, and a -pack of his best hounds. He also astonished the caliph’s envoys by -the magnificence of his church ceremonials. Charlemagne established -a hostel at Jerusalem for the use of pilgrims, and continued to -cultivate friendly relations with Haroun. The latter, for his part, -inculcated a toleration far enough indeed from the spirit of his -creed, and ordered that the Christians should not be molested in the -exercise of their worship. - -One of the most singular histories of the time is that, already -alluded to, of the pilgrimage of Frotmond. At the death of their -father, Frotmond and his brothers proceeded to divide the property -which he left behind. A great-uncle, an ecclesiastic, in some way -interfered with the partition of the estates, and roused them to so -great a fury that they killed him. But immediately afterwards, -struck with horror at the crime they had committed, they betook -themselves to the court of King Lothaire, and professed their -penitence and resolution to perform any penance. In the midst of an -assembly of prelates the guilty brothers were bound with chains, -clothed with hair shirts, and with their bodies and hair covered -with ashes, were enjoined thus to visit the sacred places. They went -first to Rome, where Benedict III. received them and gave them -letters of recommendation. Thence they went by sea to Palestine, and -spent four years in Jerusalem, practising every kind of austerity -and mortification. Thence, because their penance was not hard -enough, they went to the Thebaïd in Egypt, where they remained two -years more among hermits the most rigid, and self-tormentors the -most cruel. They then wandered along the shores of the Mediterranean -to Carthage, where was the tomb of Saint Cyprian. After seven years -of suffering they returned to Rome, and begged for the pardon of the -Church. It was in vain. They had murdered a churchman; they were of -noble birth; and the example must be striking. And once more they -set off for a renewal of their weary travels in lands already -familiar to them. This time, after revisiting Jerusalem, they went -north to Galilee, and thence south to Sinai, where they remained for -three years. Again they returned to Rome, and again implored the -pardon of the Pope, again to be refused. And then, tired, we may -suppose, of sufferings which seemed useless, and fatigues without an -object, they bent their steps homewards. At Rennes the eldest -brother died, unforgiven. Frotmond turned his steps once more -towards Rome. But on the way he was met by an aged man. “Return,” -said he, “to the sanctuary which thou hast quitted. I order thee, in -the name of the Lord! It is there that absolution waits thee by the -mercy of God.” - -He turned back: the weight of his chains had bent him double, he -could not stand upright, the sores which the iron had caused were -putrefying, and the time of his deliverance from the earth seemed to -draw nigh. In the night the same old man appeared again, accompanied -by two fair youths. “Master,” said one, “it is time to restore -health to this pilgrim.” “Not yet,” replied the old man, “but when -the monks shall rise to chant the vigils.” At the hour of vigils -Frotmond crawled with the rest into the church. There he fell -asleep, and while he slept, the old man appeared again and tore off -the chains, which fell to the ground, and by the noise of their -falling awakened Frotmond. They placed him in a bed, and in three -days he was well and sound again, miraculously cured of his -festering sores; but he was not yet satisfied, and was preparing for -a third pilgrimage when he fell ill and died. The old man and the -dream, were they his disguise for a resolution to endure no more the -tyranny of the Church? or were they the invention of a later time, -and of some bolder spirit than the rest, who would not allow that to -Rome alone belonged the power of binding and of loosing? - -With the passion for pilgrimages grew up the desire to find and to -possess relics. These, towards the end of the tenth century, when a -general feeling that the end of the world was approaching caused the -building of new churches everywhere and the reconstruction of old -ones, were found in great abundance. “Thanks to certain revelations -and some signs,” says Raoul the Bald, “we succeeded in finding holy -relics, long hidden from human eyes. The saints themselves, by word -of God, appeared to the faithful and reclaimed an earthly -resurrection.” The revelations began at Sens-sur-Yonne, in Burgundy, -where they still show a goodly collection of holy bones, including -the finger with which Luke wrote his Gospel, and the chair in which -he sat while he was writing it. Archbishop Leuteric was so fortunate -as to find a piece of Moses’ rod; with this many miracles were -wrought. Almost every returning pilgrim had something which he had -either picked up, or bought, or been instructed in a vision of the -night to bring home with him. This treasure he deposited in the -parish church: pious people set it with pearls and precious stones, -or enclosed it in a golden casket: stories grew up about it, sick -people resorted to the place to be cured, and one more legend was -added to the innumerable fables of relics. It is useful to remember, -as regards the pilgrimages, the finding of relics, and the strange -heresies of the time, that it was a period of great religious -excitement, as well as of profound ignorance: nothing was too -wonderful to be believed; no one so wise as not to be credulous. No -one had actually seen a miracle with his own eyes, but everybody -knew of countless miracles seen by his neighbour’s eyes. Meantime, -the toleration granted to the Christians through the wisdom of Harûn -er Rashíd continued pretty well undisturbed for many years, and life -at least was tolerably safe, though insult might be probable and -even certain. - -Commerce, the great civiliser, had its own part, too, in keeping the -peace between Christian and infidel. - -On the fifteenth of every September there was held a kind of fair in -Jerusalem. Thither flocked merchants from Pisa, Venice, Genoa, and -Marseilles, eager to satisfy at once their desire for gain, and -their desire to obtain a reputation for piety. And for a short time -Jerusalem seems to have served as the chief emporium, whither the -East sent her treasures, to sell them to the West. - -The objects in demand at this fair were those which were luxuries to -the West; cloves, nutmegs, and mace from India; pepper, ginger, and -frankincense by way of Aden; silks from India and China; sugar from -Syria;[43] dates, cassia, and flax from Egypt; and from the same -country quicksilver, coral, and metals; glass from Tyre; almonds, -saffron, and mastic, with rich stuffs and weapons from Damascus; and -dyed stuffs from Jerusalem itself, when the Jews had a monopoly, for -which they paid a heavy tax, for dyeing.[44] - -Footnote 43: - - Albert of Aix speaks of the Crusaders first coming upon the - sugar-cane: “The people sucked sweet reeds which were found in - abundance in the meadows, called _zucra_.... This reed is grown - with the greatest care every year; at the time of harvest the - natives crush it in mortars, and collect the juice in vessels, - when they leave it till it hardens, and becomes white like snow or - salt.” - -Footnote 44: - - See Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions. M. de Guignes sur - l’état du commerce des François dans le Levant avant les - Croisades. - -Gold in the West was scarce, and the trade was carried on either by -exchange, or by means of silver. The chief traders were the -Italians, but the French, especially through the port of Marseilles, -were great merchants, and we find Guy de Lusignan, King of -Jerusalem, according to French traders singular privileges and -immunities, solely in reward for their assistance at Saint Jean -d’Acre. - -There can be no doubt that this trade had a great deal to do with -pilgrimages. The two motives which most of all persuade men -cheerfully to incur danger are religion and gain. When were the two -more closely allied than in those comparatively peaceful times when -Jerusalem was open both to worshippers and traders? With his money -bags tied to his girdle, the merchant could at once perform the -sacred rites which, as most believed, made him secure of heaven, and -could purchase those Eastern luxuries for which the princes of the -West were ready to pay so dearly. A state of things, however, so -favourable to the general welfare of the world could not be expected -to last very long. Luxury and sensuality destroyed the Abassides, -and their great kingdom fell to pieces. Then Nicephorus Phocas, -Emperor of Constantinople, saw in the weakness of the Mohammedans -the opportunity of the Christians. With wisdom worthy of Mohammed he -resolved on giving his invasion a religious character, and -endeavoured to persuade the clergy to proclaim a holy war. These, -however, refused to help him; religion and the slaughter of the -enemy were not to be confounded, and the great army of Nicephorus, -which might have been made irresistible, was disheartened for want -of that spirit which makes every soldier believe himself a possible -martyr. The Greek Emperor took Antioch, but was prevented by death -from following up his success, while the Patriarch of Jerusalem was -condemned to the flames on suspicion of having corresponded with the -Greeks. But before the taking of Antioch troubles had befallen the -Christians. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was greatly injured by -the fanatics, who took every opportunity of troubling their victims. -When it had been restored, the Patriarch was cast into prison on a -charge of having built his church higher than the Mosque of Omar. He -got off by a singular artifice. An old Mohammedan offered, for a -consideration, to show him a way of escape. His offer being -accepted, he simply told the Patriarch to deny the fact, and call on -them to prove it. The plan succeeded; the charge, though perfectly -true, could not be proved, and the Patriarch escaped.[45] - -Footnote 45: - - Williams’s ‘Holy City,’ vol. i. pp. 338, 339. - -At this period the massacre of an immense number of Mohammedan -pilgrims on their way to Mecca led to the substitution for thirty -years of Jerusalem for Mecca.[46] - -Footnote 46: - - See Chap. V. - -The city thus had two streams of pilgrims, one to the Holy Rock, the -Mosque of Omar, and the other to the Holy Cave, the Sepulchre of -Christ. Nicephorus being murdered, John Zimisces, his successor and -murderer, followed up his victories. He easily gained possession of -Damascus and Syria, and reduced to submission all the cities of -Palestine. He did not, however, enter Jerusalem, to which he sent a -garrison. Death[47] interrupted his victorious career, and Islam -once more began to recover its forces. The Fatemite Caliphs, who had -succeeded in establishing themselves in Egypt, made themselves -masters of Jerusalem, and though for a short time the Christians -were treated rather as allies and friends than as a conquered -people, the accession of Hakem was an event which renewed all former -troubles with more than their former weight. - -Footnote 47: - - After having murdered Nicephorus, he was himself poisoned by - Basil, his grand chamberlain, who succeeded him. In the Greek - empire murder seems to have formed the strongest title to the - crown. - -He ordered that Jews should wear blue robes and Christians black, -and in order to mark them yet more distinctively, that both should -wear black turbans. Christians, moreover, were at first ordered to -wear wooden stirrups, with crosses round their necks, while the Jews -were compelled to carry round pieces of wood, to signify the head of -the golden calf which they had worshipped in the desert. The -destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre by this madman has -been already alluded to.[48] For another account of the same -transaction and of the causes which led to it we are indebted to -Raoul the Bald (Glaber), who describes the excitement produced in -Europe by this act. “In the year 1009,” he says, though his date -appears to be wrong by one year, “the Church of the Sepulchre was -entirely destroyed by order of the prince of Babylon.... The devil -put it into the heads of the Jews to whisper calumnies about the -servants of the true religion. There were a considerable number of -Jews in Orleans, prouder, more envious, and more audacious than the -rest of their nation. They suborned a vagabond monk named Robert, -and sent him with secret letters, written in the Hebrew character, -and for better preservation enclosed in a stick, to the prince of -Babylon. Therein they told how, if the prince did not make haste to -destroy the shrine at which the Christians worshipped, they would -speedily take possession of his kingdom and deprive him of his -honours. On reading the letter, the prince fell into fury, and sent -to Jerusalem soldiers charged with the order to destroy the church -from roof to foundation. This order was but too well executed; and -his satellites even tried to break the interior of the Sacred -Sepulchre with their iron hammers, but all their efforts were -useless.... A short time after, it was known beyond a doubt that the -calamity must be imputed to the Jews, and when their secret was -divulged, all Christendom resolved with one accord to drive out the -Jews from their territory to the very last. They became thus the -object of universal execration. Some were driven out, some massacred -by the sword, some thrown into the sea, or given up to different -kinds of punishment. Others devoted themselves to voluntary deaths: -so that, after the just vengeance executed upon them, very few could -be seen in the Roman world.... These examples of justice were not -calculated to inspire a feeling of security in the mind of Robert -when he came back. He began by looking for his accomplices, of whom -there were still a small number in Orleans; with them he lived -familiarly. But he was denounced by a stranger, who had made the -journey with him, and knew perfectly well the object of his mission. -He is seized, scourged, and confesses his crime. The ministers of -the king take him without the city, and there, in the sight of all -the people, commit him to the flames. Nevertheless, the fugitive -Jews began to reappear in the cities, and there is no doubt that, -because some must always exist as a living testimony to their shame, -and the crime by which they shed the blood of Christ, God permitted -the animosity of the Christians to subside. However that may be by -the divine will, Maria, mother of the Emir, prince of Babylon, a -very Christian princess, ordered the church to be rebuilt with -square and polished stones the same year.... And there might have -been seen an innumerable crowd of Christians running in triumph to -Jerusalem from all parts of the world, and contending with one -another in their offerings for the restoration of the house of God.” - -Footnote 48: - - If there is any one fact in history which seems absolutely clear - and certain, it is this, that _the Church of the Holy Sepulchre - was destroyed by command of Hakem_. William of Tyre expressly - describes the reconstruction of the church. Raoul, as shown above, - tells how the news of the destruction was received. All the Arabic - historians record the event. - -It was an unlucky day for the Jews when Robert went on his embassy, -whatever that was, to the East. But a renewal of the religious -spirit in the West was always attended by a persecution of the Jews. -No story was too incredible to be believed of them, no violence and -cruelty too much for them. When the Crusades began, almost the first -to suffer were the hapless Jews, and we know how miserable was their -situation so long as the Crusading spirit lasted. Even when this was -dying out, when the Christians and the Saracens were often firm -friends, the Jews alone shared none of the benefits of toleration. -To be a descendant of that race by whom Christ was crucified, was to -be subjected to the very wantonness of cruelty and persecution. - -One of the principal sights in Jerusalem then, as now, though the -Latins have long since given it up, was the yearly appearance of the -holy fire. Odolric was witness, not only of this, but of another and -a more unusual miracle. For while the people were all waiting for -the fire to appear, a Saracen began to chant in mockery the _Kyrie -Eleison_, and snatching a taper from one of the pilgrims, he ran -away with it. “But immediately,” says Raoul, “he was seized by the -devil, and began to suffer unimaginable torments. The Christian who -had been robbed regained his taper, and the Saracen died immediately -after in the arms of his friends.” This example inspired a just -terror into the hearts of the infidels, and was for the Christians a -great subject of rejoicing. And at that very moment the holy fire -burst out from one of the same lamps, and ran from one to the other. -Bishop Odolric bought the lamp which was first lit for a pound of -gold, and hung it up in his church at Orleans, “where it cured an -infinite number of sick.” - -One can easily understand the growth of stories, such as that of the -stricken Saracen. An age like the tenth was little disposed to -question the truth of a miracle which proved their faith. Nor was it -likely to set against the one Saracen who died in torture after -insulting the Cross the tens of thousands who insulted it with -impunity. The series of miracles related by Raoul and others are -told in perfect good faith, and believed by those to whom they were -related as simply as they were believed by those who told them. And -we can very well understand how they helped, in a time when hardly -any other thing would have so helped, to maintain the faith of a -people, coarse, rough, unlettered, and imaginative. - -The destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the stories -spread abroad about the miraculous preservation of the cave, and -its rebuilding in 1010, all served to increase the ardour of -pilgrims. And there had been another cause already mentioned. -Throughout western Christendom a whisper ran that the end of the -world was approaching. A thousand years had nearly elapsed since -the Church of Christ was founded. The second advent of the founder -was to happen when this period was accomplished: the advent was to -take place in Palestine; happy those who could be present to -welcome their Lord. Therefore, of all conditions and ranks in -life, from the lowest to the highest, an innumerable multitude of -pilgrims thronged to Jerusalem. And so deep was the feeling that -the end of all things was at hand, that legal documents were drawn -up beginning with the words, “Appropinquante etenim mundi termino -et ruinis crebrescentibus jam certa signa manifestantur, -pertimescens tremendi judicii diem.” Among the best known pilgrims -of the last century before the Crusades is Fulke the Black, Count -of Anjou. He was accused, and justly, of numerous acts of -violence. But he had also violated the sanctity of a church, and -for this pardon was difficult to obtain. Troubled with phantoms -which appeared to him by night, the offspring of his own -disordered conscience, Fulke resolved to expiate his sins by a -pilgrimage. After being nearly shipwrecked on his voyage to -Syria—the tempest appeared to him a special mark of God’s -displeasure—he arrived safely in Jerusalem, and caused himself to -be scourged through the streets, crying aloud, “Lord, have mercy -on a faithless and perjured Christian; on a sinner wandering far -from his own country.” By a pious fraud he obtained admission to -the Church of the Holy Sepulchre: and we are told that, while -praying at the tomb, the stone miraculously became soft to his -teeth, and he bit off a portion of it and brought it triumphantly -away. Returned to his own country, Fulke built a church at Loches -in imitation of that at Jerusalem. Tormented still by his -conscience, he went a second time as a pilgrim to Palestine, and -returning safely again, he occupied himself for many years in -building monasteries and churches. But he could not rest in quiet, -and resolved for the good of his soul to make a third pilgrimage. -This he did, but died on his way home at Metz. A very different -pilgrim was Raymond of Plaisance. Born of poor parents, and -himself apprenticed to a shoemaker, Raymond’s mind was distracted -from the earliest age by the desire to see Palestine. He disguised -his anxiety for a time, but it became too strong for him, and he -fell ill and confessed his thoughts to his mother. She, a widow, -resolved to accompany him, and they set off together. They arrived -safely at Jerusalem, and wept before the sepulchre, conceiving, we -are told, a lively desire to end their days there and then. This -was not to be, however. They went on to Bethlehem, thence to -Jerusalem again, and thence homewards. On board the ship Raymond -was seized with an illness, and the sailors wanted to throw him -overboard, thinking, according to the usual sailors’ superstition, -that a sick man would bring disaster. His mother, however, -dissuaded them, and he quickly recovered. But the mother died -herself shortly after landing in Italy, and Raymond went on alone. -He was met at Plaisance by a procession of clergy and choristers, -and led to the cathedral, where he deposited his palm branch, sign -of successful pilgrimage, and then returned to his shoemaking, -married, and lived to a good old age—doubtless telling over and -over again the stories of his travels. - -And now began those vast pilgrimages when thousands went together, -“the armies of the Lord,” the real precursors of the Crusades. -Robert of Normandy (A.D. 1034), like Fulke the Black, anxious to -wipe out his sins, went accompanied by a great number of barons and -knights, all barefooted, all clothed with the penitential sackcloth, -all bearing the staff and purse. They went by Constantinople and -through Asia Minor. There Robert was seized with an illness, and -being unable to walk, was borne in a litter by Saracens. “Tell my -people,” said the duke, “that you have seen me borne to Paradise by -devils;” a speech which shows how far toleration had spread in those -days. Robert found a large number of pilgrims outside the city -unable to pay the entrance money. He paid for all, and after -signalizing himself by numerous acts of charity he returned, dying -on the way in Bithynia, regretting only that he had not died sooner, -at the sacred shrine itself. - -To die there, indeed, was, as we have seen in the case of Raymond, a -common prayer. The form of words is preserved: “Thou who hast died -for us, and art buried in this sacred place, take pity on our -misery, and withdraw us from this vale of tears.” And the Christians -preserved the story of one Lethbald, whose prayer was actually -answered, for he died suddenly in the sight of his companions, after -crying out three times aloud, “Glory to thee, O God!” - -Sometimes, but seldom, a sort of missionary spirit would seize a -pilgrim, and he would try to convert the infidels. Thus Saint -Macarius of Armenia, bishop of Antioch, learned Arabic and Hebrew, -and going to Jerusalem began to preach to the Jews and Saracens. Of -course he was beaten and thrown into prison. And we need not record -the miracles that happened to him therein. - -Richard, Abbot of Saint Vitou, left Normandy at the head of seven -hundred pilgrims, with whom was Saint Gervinus. There are accounts -preserved of this pilgrimage, which offers little of interest except -the miracles which were wrought for Richard. - -Lietbert, in 1054, bishop of Cambray, headed a band of no fewer than -three thousand. They followed the road which the Crusaders were -afterwards to take, through Hungary and Bulgaria. Here many of his -men were disheartened and wished to return, but be persuaded them to -go on. They passed into Asia Minor, but only got as far as Laodicea, -where they heard that the Church of the Sepulchre was finally closed -to Christians. Most of the pilgrims set off on their way home. -Lietbert persevered, and embarked with a few for Jaffa. They were -shipwrecked on the isle of Cyprus. Again they took ship for Jaffa, -and again they failed, being landed again at Laodicea. After so many -disappointments, Lietbert lost courage, and went home again without -accomplishing his pilgrimage. - -The most important of all the pilgrimages, however, was that of the -Archbishop of Mayence, accompanied by the bishops of Utrecht, -Ramberg, and Ratisbon, and by seven thousand pilgrims of every rank. -They were not dressed, as was the wont of pilgrims, in sackcloth, -but wore their more costly robes; the bishops in dress of state and -cloth of gold, the knights with burnished arms and costly trappings. - -The army, for an army it was, too well equipped to escape without -attack, too small to ensure victory in case of attack, followed the -usual route across Asia Minor from Constantinople. It was not, -however, till they were near Ramleh, almost within sight of -Jerusalem, that the pilgrims were actually attacked, and then not by -the Saracens, but by a large troop of Arabs, whom they attempted at -first to repel by blows with their fists. Many were wounded, -including the Bishop of Utrecht. They drove off the enemy for the -moment with stones, and retired to a ruined fort, which was -fortunately near the spot, where they cowered behind the falling -walls. The Arabs came on with shrill cries; the Christians, nearly -unarmed, rushed out and tore their swords and bucklers from them. -But they were obliged to fall back, and the Arabs getting -reinforced, encamped round the fort to the number of twelve -thousand, and resolved to starve out the enemy. - -The Christians held a hasty council. “Let us,” urged a priest, -“sacrifice our gold, which is all that the infidels want; having -that, they will let us go free.” This advice was adopted, and on a -parley being held, the chief of the Arabs, with a small body of -seventeen men, consented to enter the fort and come to terms. The -Bishop of Mayence, who was the stateliest and handsomest man among -the Christians, was chosen to speak with him. He proposed, in return -for freedom and safety, to hand over to the Arabs all the treasure -in the hands of the Christians. “It is not for you,” replied the -Arab, “to make terms with your conquerors!” And taking off his -turban, as we are told, as a modern Bedawí would do with his -head-dress under similar circumstances, he threw it, like a halter, -round the neck of the bishop. The Christian prelate was not prepared -for a reception so rude, and fairly knocked him down with a blow -from his fist, upon which the knights set upon the whole eighteen -Arabs, and bound them tightly. The news of the detention of their -chief quickly spreading outside, the Arab army commenced a furious -attack, which would have been fatal to the Christians but for a -stratagem which procured them some little delay. For the Christians, -holding swords to the throats of their prisoners, promised to fight -with their heads if the attack was continued; and the chieftain’s -son, in alarm for his father, hastened from rank to rank, imploring -the men to desist. And at this juncture arrived the Emir of Ramleh -with troops, at sight of whom the Arabs turned and fled. The Arab -chieftain remained a prisoner. “You have delivered us,” said the -emir, “from our greatest enemies.” And so, with congratulations and -in friendship, they marched to Jerusalem, which they entered in a -kind of triumph by torchlight, with the sound of cymbals and -trumpets. They were received by the Patriarch Sophronimus, and made -the round, next day, of the sacred places, still bearing the marks -of the destruction wrought by Hakem fifty years before. - -And now approached the period of the first Crusade. All these -pilgrimages were like preparatory and tentative expeditions; the -final provocations were yet to come which should rouse the -Christians to unanimous action. - -In the year 1077 the city had been taken, after holding out till the -defenders were in danger of starvation, by Atsiz the Kharesmian, and -transferred from the Fatemite Caliph of Egypt to the Abbaside -Khalif. After the defeat of Atsiz at Gaza, a rebellion was attempted -in Jerusalem, which resulted in the massacre of three thousand of -the people. Atsiz called in Tutush, brother of Melek Shah, to his -assistance. Tutush came, but instead of helping Atsiz, he arrested -and executed him, and proceeded to make himself master of Syria. A -Turk, named Ostok, was made Governor of Jerusalem, and fresh -persecutions began for the Christians. The Turks had now conquered -the whole of Asia Minor. Too few in numbers to occupy the whole -country, they held the towns by garrison, the effeminate Greeks -having fallen an easy prey to them. But before this event, the -Emperor Michael Ducas, foreseeing the conquest of his country unless -the Mohammedans were driven back, had written to Pope Gregory VIII., -imploring the assistance of the Western Christians, and offering to -throw down the barriers which separated the two Churches. Gregory -quickly matured a complete plan of united action on the part of all -the Christians. The price of the assistance of Western Europe was to -be the submission of the Eastern Church. The conquest of Palestine -was to be the triumph of Rome. Gerbert had entertained a similar -dream; but Gregory did more than dream. He exhorted the Christians -to unite in the Holy War, and obtained fifty thousand promises: he -was himself to head the Crusade. But other schemes intervened, and -Gregory died without doing anything. - -Victor III. did more than Gregory: he not only exhorted, but -persuaded. The Tuscans, Venetians, and Genoese fitted out a fleet, -fully manned and equipped, and sent it against the Mohammedans, who -were now impeding the navigation of the Mediterranean. A signal -triumph was obtained, and the conquerors returned laden with spoils -from the towns they had captured and burned. This was the first -united effort of the Christians against the Saracens, and perhaps -the most successful of any. - -All, then, was ripe for the Crusade. The sword had been already -drawn; the idea was not a new one; letters, imploring help, had been -received from the Emperor of the Greeks; three popes had preached a -holy war; the sufferings of the Christians went on increasing. -Moreover, the wickedness of the Western Church was very great. -William of Tyre declares that virtue and piety were obliged to hide -themselves; there was no longer any charity, any reverence for rank, -any hesitation at plunging whole countries in war; there was no -longer any security for property; the monasteries themselves were -not safe against robbers; the very churches were pillaged and the -sacred vessels stolen; the right of sanctuary was violated; the -highways were covered with armed brigands; chastity, economy, -temperance, were regarded as things “stupid and worthless;” the -bishops were as dumb dogs who could not bark; and the priests were -no better than the people. - -The description of William of Tyre is vague, though heavily charged; -but there can be no doubt that the times were exceptionally evil. -Crimes common enough in an age distinguished above all by absence of -self-restraint and abandonment to unbridled rage, would be naturally -magnified by a historian who saw in them a reason for the infidel’s -persecution of pilgrims, and an argument for the taking of the -Cross. Yet, making allowance for every kind of exaggeration, it is -clear enough that Gregory had great mischiefs to contend with, and -that the awakening of the world’s conscience by any means whatever -could not but produce a salutary effect. The immediate effect of the -Crusades was the substitution of higher for lower motives, the -sudden cessation of war, the shaming of the clergy into something -like purity of life, the absorption into the armies of the Cross of -the “men of violence,” and some temporary alleviation to the -sufferings of the poor. - -The hour and the man were both at hand. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - THE FIRST CRUSADE. - - “The sound - As of the assault of an imperial city, - The shock of crags shot from strange engin’ry, - The clash of wheels, and clang of armed hoofs, - * * * and now more loud - The mingled battle cry. Ha! hear I not - Ἐν τόυτῳ νίκη. Allah-illah-Allah!” - _Shelley._ - - -Peter the Hermit, the preacher and main cause of the first Crusade, -was born about the year 1050, of a noble family of Picardy. He was -at first, like all men of gentle birth of his time, a soldier, and -fought in some at least of the wars that were going on around him. -For some cause—no one knows why—perhaps disgusted with the world, -perhaps struck with repentance for a criminal or dissolute life—he -withdrew from his fellow-men, and became a hermit. But it would seem -that his turbulent and unquiet spirit could not stand the monotony, -though it might support the austerities, of a hermit’s life, and he -resolved about the year 1093 to go as a pilgrim to Palestine. He -found the pilgrims miserable indeed. As most of them had been robbed -or exorbitantly charged on the road, there was not one in a hundred -who, on arriving before Jerusalem, found himself able to pay the fee -demanded for admittance within the gates. The hapless Christians, -starving and helpless, lay outside the walls, dependent on the small -supplies which their brethren within could send them. Many of them -died; many more turned away without having been able to enter the -city; famine, thirst, nakedness, and the sword of the infidel, -constantly thinned their ranks, which were as constantly renewed. -Even if they got within the walls, they were not much safer: the -monasteries could do little for them, though they did what they -could; in the streets they were insulted, mocked, spat upon, and -sometimes beaten. And in the very churches, and during the -celebration of services, they were liable, as we have seen, to the -attacks of a fanatic crowd, who would sometimes break in upon them, -and outrage the most sacred ceremonies. - -Among all the indignant and pious crowd of worshippers none was more -indignant or more devout than Peter. He paid a visit to Simeon, the -aged patriarch, and wept with him over the misfortunes of the -Christians. “When,” said Simeon, “the cup of our sufferings is full, -God will send the Christians of the West to the help of the Holy -City.” Peter pressed him to write urgent letters to the sovereign -powers of Europe: he himself promised to exhort the people to arm -for the recovery of Jerusalem and to testify to the statements of -Simeon. - -And then, to the fiery imagination of the Hermit, strange voices -began to whisper, and strange forms began to be seen. “Arise, -Peter,” cried our Lord Himself to him, when he was worshipping at -the Holy Sepulchre, “Arise, Peter. Hasten to announce the -tribulations of my people. It is time that my servants were -succoured and my sacred places delivered.” Peter arose and departed -to obey what he believed to be a divine command. The pope Urban, who -certainly saw in this an opportunity for strengthening himself -against the anti-pope, received him with ardour, real or assumed, -and authorized him to preach the Crusade over the whole of Europe. -He crossed the Alps, and began first to preach in France. His -appearance was mean and unprepossessing, his stature low; he rode on -a mule, bare-headed and bare-footed, dressed in a gown of the -coarsest stuff and with a long rope for a girdle. The fame of his -austerity, the purity of his life, the great purpose he had on hand, -went before him. The irresistible eloquence of his words moved to -their deepest depths the hearts of the people. He preached in -country and in town; on the public roads and in the pulpits of -churches; he reminded his hearers of the profanation of the holy -places; he spoke of the pilgrims, and narrated his own sufferings; -he read the letters of the venerable Simeon; and finally he told -them how from the very recesses of the Holy Sepulchre the voice of -Jesus Himself had called aloud to him, bidding him go forth and -summon the people to the recovery of Jerusalem. And as he spoke, the -souls of those that heard were moved. With tears, with repentant -sobs, with loud cries of anger and sorrow, they vowed to lead better -lives, and dedicated themselves for the future to the service of -God; women who had sinned, men who had led women astray, robbers who -lived by plunder, murderers rich with the rewards of crime, priests -burdened with the heavy guilt of long years of hypocrisy—all came -alike to confess their sins, to vow amendment, to promise penance by -taking the Cross. Peter was reverenced as a saint: such homage as -never man had before was his; they tried to get the smallest rag of -his garment; they crowded to look upon him, or, if it might be, to -touch him. Never in the history of the world has eloquent man had -such an audience, or has oratory produced such an effect. And in the -midst of this agitation, confined as yet, be it observed, to France, -whose soil has ever been favourable to the birth of new ideas, came -letters from the emperor Alexis Comnenus, urging on the princes of -the West the duty of coming to his help. The leader of the infidels -was at his very gates. Were Constantinople to fall, Christendom -itself might fall. He might survive the loss of his empire: he could -never survive the shame of seeing it pass under the laws of -Mohammed. And if more were wanted to urge on the enthusiasm of the -people, Constantinople was rich beyond all other cities of the -world; her riches should be freely lavished upon her defenders; her -daughters were fairer than the daughters of the West; their love -should be the reward of those who fought against the Infidels. - -The pope received the letters, and held a council, first at -Plaisance, then at Clermont (1094). His speech at the latter council -has been variously given; four or five reports of it remain, all -evidently written long after the real speech had been delivered; all -meant to contain what the pope ought to have said; and all, as -appears to us, singularly cold and artificial. The council began by -renewing the Peace of God; by placing under the protection of the -Church all widows, orphans, merchants, and labourers; by proclaiming -the inviolability of the sanctuary; and by decreeing that crosses -erected by the wayside should be a refuge against violence. And at -its tenth sitting, the council passed to what was its real business, -the consideration of Peter’s exhortations and the reading of the -letters of the patriarch Simeon and the emperor Alexis. Peter spoke -first, narrating, as usual, the sufferings of the pilgrims. Urban -followed him. And when he had finished, with one accord the voices -of the assembled council shouted, “Dieu le veut! Dieu le veut!” -“Yes,” answered the pontiff, “God wills it, indeed! Behold how our -Lord fulfils his own words, that where two or three are gathered -together in his name He will be in the midst. He it is who has -inspired these words. Let them be for you your only war-cry.” -Adhémar, Bishop of Puy, begged to be the first to take the vow of -the Crusade. Other bishops followed. Raymond, Count of Toulouse, -first of the laity, swore to conduct his men to Palestine, and then -the knights and barons followed in rapid succession. Urban declined -himself to lead the host, but appointed Bishop Adhémar as his -deputy. Meantime he promised all Crusaders a full and complete -remission of their sins. He promised their goods and their families -the protection of Saint Peter and the Church; he placed under -anathema all who should do violence to the soldiers of the Cross; -and he threatened with excommunication all who should fail to -perform their oaths. As if the madness of enthusiasm was not -sufficiently kindled already, the pope himself went to Rouen, to -Angers, to Tours, and to Nismes, called councils, harangued the -people, and enjoined on the bishops the duty of proclaiming the -Crusade; and the next year was spent in preaching, exhorting, in -maintaining the enthusiasm already kindled, and in preparing for the -war. The kings of Europe, for their part, had good reasons for -holding aloof, and so took no part in the Crusade: the king of -France, because he was under excommunication; the emperor of -Germany, because he was also under excommunication; William Rufus, -because he was an unbeliever and a scoffer. But for the rank and -file, the First Crusade, which was instigated by a Frenchman, was -mainly recruited from France. - -Here, indeed, the delirium of enthusiasm grew daily in intensity. -During the winter of 1095-96 nothing but the sound of preparation -was heard throughout the length and breadth of the land. It was not -enough that knights and men-at-arms should take upon them the vows -of the Cross; it behoved every man who could carry a pike or wield a -sword to join the army of deliverance. Artisans left their work, -merchants their shops, labourers their tools, and the very robbers -and brigands came out from their hiding-places, with the intention -of atoning for their past sins by fighting in the army of the Lord. -All industry, save that of the forging of weapons, ceased; for six -whole months there was no crime; for six months an uninterrupted -Peace of God, concluded by tacit consent, while the _croisés_ -crowded the churches to implore the divine protection and blessing, -to consecrate their arms, and to renew their vows. In order to -procure horses, armour, and arms, the price of which went up -enormously, the knights sold their lands at prices far below their -real value; the lands were in many cases bought up by far-seeing -abbots and attached to monasteries, so that the Church, at least, -might be enriched, whatever happened. No sacrifice, however, -appeared too great in the enthusiasm of departure; no loss too heavy -to weigh for one moment against the obligation of the sacred oath. -And strange signs and wonders began to appear in the heavens. Stars -were seen to fall upon the earth: these were the kings and chiefs of -the Saracens; unearthly flames were visible at night: these -betokened the conflagration of the Mohammedan strong places; -blood-red clouds, stained with the blood of the Infidel, hovered -over the east; a sword-shaped comet, denoting the sword of the Lord, -was in the south; and in the sky were seen, not once, but many -times, the towers of a mighty city and the legions of a mighty host. - -With the first warm days of early spring the impatience of the -people was no longer to be restrained. Refusing to wait while the -chiefs of the Crusade organised their forces, laid down the line of -their march, and matured their plans, they flocked in thousands to -the banks of the Meuse and the Moselle, clamouring for immediate -departure. Most of them were on foot, but those who by any means -could raise the price of a horse came mounted. Some travelled in -carts drawn by oxen. Their arms were such as they could afford to -buy. Every one, however, brandished a weapon of some kind; it was -either a spear, or an axe, or sword, or even a heavy hammer. Wives, -daughters, children, old men, dragged themselves along with the -exultant host, nothing doubting that they too would be permitted to -share the triumph, to witness the victory. From the far corners of -France, from Brittany, from the islands, from the Pyrenees, came -troops of men whose language could not be understood, and who had -but one sign, that of the Cross, to signify their brotherhood. Whole -villages came _en masse_, accompanied by their priests, bringing -with them their children, their cattle, their stores of provision, -their household utensils, their all; while the poorest came with -nothing at all, trusting that miracles, similar to those which -protected the Israelites in the Desert, would protect them also—that -manna would drop from heaven, and the rocks would open to supply -them with water. And such was their ignorance, that as the walls of -town after town became visible on their march, they pressed forward, -eagerly demanding if that was Jerusalem. - -Who should be the leader of the horde of peasants, robbers, and -workmen who came together in the spring of 1096 on the banks of the -Meuse? Among all this vast host there were found but nine knights: -Gaultier Sans Avoir—Walter the Penniless—and eight others. But there -was with them, better than an army of knights, the great preacher of -the Crusade, the holy hermit and worker of miracles, Peter. To him -was due the glory of the movement: to him should be given the honour -of leading the first, and, it was believed, the successful army. By -common acclamation they elected Peter their leader. He, no less -credulous than his followers, accepted the charge; confident of -victory, and mounted on his mule—the mule which had borne him from -town to town to preach the war—clothed in his monastic garb, with -sandals on his feet and a cross in his hand, he led the way. - -Under his command were a hundred thousand men, bearing arms, such as -they were, and an innumerable throng of women, old men, and -children. He divided this enormous host into two parts, keeping the -larger under his own orders, and sending on the smaller as an -advance-guard, under the knight Walter. - -Walter started first. Marching down the banks of the Rhine, he -experienced no difficulties with the Germans. These, slow to follow -the example of the fiery French, and, moreover, not yet stimulated -by the preaching of a Peter, still sympathised with the object of -the army, which they doubtless thought was but a larger and a -fiercer band of pilgrims, like many that had gone before, and -assisted those who were too poor to buy provisions, to the best of -their power. Passing, therefore, safely through Germany, the -disorderly host, among whom all sorts of iniquities were already -rife, entered Hungary. The Hungarians, by this time christianised, -had yet no kind of enthusiasm for the objects of the Crusaders or -desire to aid them; but their King, Coloman, gave them guides -through his vast marshes and across his rivers, and permitted them -to purchase what they wanted at the public market-places; and by -great fortune no accident happened to them, save the beating of a -few laggards after the crossing of the river Maros. Judging it idle -to avenge an insult which it cost little to endure, Walter pushed on -till he reached Belgrade, the frontier town of the Bulgarians. These -were even a ruder people than the Hungarian Christians; they refused -to recognise the Crusaders as their brethren: subjects of the Greek -crown, they refused any submission but that which was extorted by -arms, and living in the midst of inaccessible forests, they -preserved a wild and savage independence which made them the terror -of the pilgrims, whom they maltreated, and the Greeks, who tried to -reduce them to submission. - -Here the first troubles began. The Governor of Belgrade refusing -them permission to buy provisions, the army found themselves reduced -to the greatest straits for want of food; and seeing no other way -for help, they left the camp and dispersed about the country, -driving in the cattle, and laying hands on everything they could -find. The Bulgarians armed in haste, and slaughtered vast numbers of -the marauders, burning alive a hundred and forty who had taken -refuge in a chapel. Walter broke up his camp in haste, and pressing -on, left those to their own fate who refused to obey his order to -follow. What that fate was may easily be surmised. With diminished -forces, starving and dejected, he pushed on through the forests till -he found himself before Nissa, when the governor, taking pity on the -destitute condition of the pilgrims, gave them food, clothes, and -arms. These misfortunes fell upon them, it will be observed, in -Christian lands, and long before they saw the Saracens. Thence the -humbled Crusaders, seeing in these disasters a just punishment for -their sins—they were at least always ready to repent—proceeded, with -no other enemy than famine, through Philippopolis and Adrianople to -Constantinople itself. Here the emperor, Alexis Comnenus, gave them -permission to encamp outside the town, to buy and sell, and to wait -for the arrival of Peter and the second army. - -But if the first expedition was disastrous the second was far worse. -Peter seems to have followed at first a somewhat different route to -that of his advanced guard. He went through Lorraine, Franconia, -Bavaria, and Austria, and entered Hungary, some months after Walter, -with an army of forty thousand men. Permission was readily granted -to march through the country, on the condition of the maintenance of -order and the purchase of provisions; nor was it till they arrived -at Semlin, the place where their comrades had been beaten, that any -disturbance arose. Here they unfortunately saw suspended the arms -and armour which had been stripped from the stragglers of Walter’s -army. The soldiers, incensed beyond control, rushed upon the little -town, and, with the loss of a hundred men, massacred every Hungarian -in the place. Then they sat down to enjoy themselves for five days. -The people of Belgrade, panic-stricken on hearing of the fate of -Semlin, fled all with one accord, headed by their governor, and -hurriedly carrying away everything portable; and Peter, before the -King of Hungary had time to collect an army to avenge the taking of -his city, managed to transport everything to the other side of the -Danube, and pitched his camp under the deserted walls of Belgrade. -There the army, laden with spoils of all kinds, waited to collect -their treasures, which they carried with them on their march to -Nissa. They stopped here one night, obtaining, as Walter had done, -permission to buy and sell, and giving hostages for good conduct. -All went well; the camp was raised, the hostages returned, and the -army on its march again, when an unhappy quarrel arose between some -of the stragglers, consisting of about a hundred Germans, and the -townspeople. The Germans set fire to seven mills and certain -buildings outside the town. Having done this mischief they rejoined -their comrades; but the indignant Bulgarians, furious at this return -for their hospitality, rushed after them, arms in hand. They -attacked the rear-guard, killed those who resisted, and returned to -the town, driving before them the women and children, and loaded -with the spoil which remained from the sacking of Semlin. Peter and -the main body hastened back on receiving news of the disaster, and -tried once more to accommodate matters. But in the midst of his -interview with the governor, and when all seemed to promise well, a -fresh outbreak took place, and a second battle began, far worse than -the first. The Crusaders were wholly routed and fled in all -directions, while the carnage was indiscriminate and fearful. In the -evening the unhappy Peter found himself on an adjoining height with -five hundred men. The scattered fugitives gradually rallied, but -one-fourth of his fighting men were killed on this disastrous day, -and the army lost all their baggage, their treasures, and their -stores; while of the women and children by far the greater number -were either killed or taken captive. Starving and destitute, they -straggled on through the forests, dreading the further vengeance of -the Bulgarians, until they entered Thrace. Here deputies from the -emperor met them, with reproaches for their disorderly conduct, and -promises that, should they conduct themselves with order, his -clemency would not be wanting. - -Arrived at Constantinople, and having rejoined Walter, Peter lost no -time in obtaining an audience from the emperor. Alexis heard him -patiently, and was even moved by his eloquence; but he advised him, -above all things, to wait for the arrival of the princes who were to -follow. Advice was the last thing these wild hordes would listen to; -and, eager to be in the country of the Infidels—to get for -themselves the glory of the conquest—they crossed the Dardanelles, -and pitched their camp at a place called Gemlik or Ghio. - -The first effervescence of zeal in Europe had not yet, however, -worked off its violence. A monk named Gotschalk, emulating the -honours of Peter, had raised, by dint of preaching, an army of -twenty thousand Germans, sworn to the capture of the Holy Land. -Setting out as leader of this band, he followed the same road as his -predecessors and met with the same disasters. It was in early autumn -that they passed through Hungary. The harvest was beginning, and the -Germans pillaged and murdered wherever they went. King Coloman -attacked them, but with little success. He then tried deceit, and, -persuading the Germans to lay down their arms and to join the -Hungarians as brothers, he fell on them, and massacred every one. Of -all this vast host only one or two escaped through the forests to -their own country to tell the tale. - -One more turbulent band followed, to meet the same fate; but this -was the worst—the most undisciplined of all. Headed by a priest -named Volkmar, and a Count Emicon, they straggled without order or -discipline, filled with the wildest superstitions. Before their army -was led sometimes a she-goat, sometimes a goose, which they imagined -to be filled with the Holy Spirit; and as all sins were to be -expiated by the recovery of the Holy Land, there was a growing -feeling that there was no longer any need of avoiding sin. -Consequently, the wildest licence was indulged in, and this, which -called itself “the army of the Lord,” was a horde of the most -abandoned criminals. Their greatest crime was the slaughter of the -Jews along the banks of the Rhine and Moselle. “Why,” they asked, -“should we, who march against the Infidels, leave behind us the -enemies of our Lord?” The bishops of the sees through which they -passed vainly interposed their entreaties. In Cologne and Mayence -every Jew was murdered; some of the miserable people tied stones -round their own necks, and leaped into the river; some killed their -wives and children, and set fire to their houses, perishing in the -flames; the mothers killed the infants at their breasts, and the -Christians themselves fled in all directions at the approach of an -army as terrible to its friends as to its foes. - -But their course was of short duration. At the town of Altenburg, on -the confines of Hungary, which they attempted to storm, they were -seized with a sudden panic and fled in all directions, being -slaughtered like sheep. Emicon got together a small band, whom he -led home again; a few others were led by their chiefs southwards, -and joined the princes of the Crusade in Italy. None of them, -according to William of Tyre, found their way to Peter the Hermit. -Once across the Dardanelles, Peter’s troops, who amounted, it is -said, in spite of all their losses, to no fewer than a hundred -thousand fighting men, fixed a camp on the shores of the Gulf of -Nicomedia, and began to ravage the country in all directions. The -division of the booty soon caused quarrels, and a number of Italians -and Germans, deserting the camp, went up the country in a body, and -took possession of a small fortress in the neighbourhood of Nicæa, -whose garrison they massacred. Then they were in their turn -besieged, and, with the exception of their leader, Renaud, or -Rinaldo, who embraced the Mahometan faith, were slaughtered to a -man. The news of this disaster roused the Christians, not to a sense -of their danger (which they could not yet comprehend), but to a -vehement desire for revenge. They made the luckless Walter lead them -against Nicæa, and issued forth from their camp _en masse_, a -disordered, shouting multitude, crying for vengeance against the -Turks. But their end was at hand. The Sultan of Nicæa placed half -his army in ambuscade in the forest, keeping the other half in the -plain; the Christians were attacked in the front and in the rear, -and, cooped up together in confusion, badly armed, offered very -slight resistance. Walter himself fell, one of the first; the -carnage was terrific, and of all the hundred thousand whom Peter and -Walter had brought across the Dardanelles, but three thousand -escaped. These fled to a fortress by the sea-shore. The bones of -their comrades, whitened by the eastern sun, long stood as a -monument of the disaster, pointing skeleton fingers on the road to -Jerusalem—the road of death and defeat. - -Only three thousand, out of all these hordes, certainly a quarter of -a million in number, which flocked after Peter on his mule! We can -hardly believe that all were killed. Some of the women and children -at least might be spared, and without doubt their blood yet flows in -the veins of many Hungarian and Bulgarian families. But this was -only the first instalment of slaughter. There remained the mighty -armies which were even then upon the road. As for Peter, whose -courage was as easily daunted as his enthusiasm was easily roused, -he fled in dismay and misery back to Constantinople, having lost all -authority, even over the few men who remained with him. He inveighed -against their disorders and their crimes, and he declared that these -were the causes of their defeat. He might have added that his own -weakness, the vanity which led him to accept the _rôle_, offered him -by an ignorant crowd, of general as well as preacher, was no less a -cause of disaster than the disorder which it was his business to -check and combat day by day. His disappointment was such as would be -enough to kill a really proud and strong man; but Peter was not a -strong man; in the hour of danger he bent like the reed to the -storm; the violence of the tempest once past, however, like the -reed, he lifted up his head again. He could preach endurance, but he -could not himself endure; his faith required constant stimulants, -his courage the fresh fire of continual success. Peter lifted up his -head again when he saw the splendid array of Godfrey and Raymond; -but his old authority with the chiefs was gone. Like a worn-out -tool, he had served his purpose and was cast aside. He had no more -voice in their councils—no more power over their enthusiasm. He -lapsed into utter insignificance, save once, when we find him -actually trying to desert the army at Antioch and endeavouring to -run away; and once, later on, when he received the brief ovation -from the native Christians in the hour of final triumph at -Jerusalem. He returned, it may be added, in safety to France when -the war was over, and spent sixteen years more in honourable -obscurity, the head of a monastery. Never in the world’s history, -with the exception of Mohammed alone, has one man produced an effect -so great and so immediate; and seldom has one man wielded an -instrument so potent as Peter, when he set forth at the head of an -army which wanted only discipline to make it invincible. - -But now _vexilla regis prodeunt_; armies of a different character -are assembling in the west. Foremost among them is that headed by -Godfrey de Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine. Of him, and of his brother -Baldwin, who accompanied him, we shall have to speak again. A word -on the other chiefs of the First Crusade. - -With the army of Godfrey were joined the troops of Robert Duke of -Normandy and Count Robert of Flanders. - -Robert, who had pledged his duchy for five years to his brother for -ten thousands marks, we all know. He was strong, brave, and -generous. But he had no other good quality. Had his prudence, his -wisdom in council, been equal to his courage, or had his character -for temperance and self-restraint been better, he would probably -have obtained the crown of Jerusalem before Godfrey. As it was, he -went out for the purpose of fighting; he fought well; and came home -again, no richer than when he went. He was joined in Syria by the -Saxon prince, Edgar Atheling, the lawful heir to the English crown; -but the chroniclers are silent as to the prowess of the English -contingent. - -The other leaders who followed separately were Hugh Vermandois, Hugh -le Grand, the brother to the king of France, and Stephen, Count of -Blois, a scholar and a poet. He it was who married Adela, daughter -of William the Conqueror, and was the father of our King Stephen. -Both of these chiefs left the Crusade at Antioch and went home -disgusted at their sufferings and ill-success; but, after the taking -of the city, popular opinion forced them to go out again. - -Count Raymond, of Toulouse, who led his own army by an independent -route, is perhaps the most difficult character to understand. He was -not pious; he was cold and calculating; he was old and rich; he had -already gained distinction by fighting against the Moors; he loved -money. Why did he go? It is impossible to say, except that he had -vague ambitions of kingdoms in the East more splendid than any in -the West. He alienated a great part of his territory to get treasure -for the war, and he was by far the richest of the princes. The men -he led, the Provençaux, were much less ignorant, less superstitious, -and less smitten with the divine fury of the rest. Provence, which -in two more centuries was to be itself the scene of a crusade as -bloody as any in Palestine, was already touched with the heresy -which was destined to break out in full violence before very many -years. The Provençaux loved music, dancing, good cheer; but they -were indifferent to the Church. They could plunder better than they -could pray, and they were more often gathered round the provisions -than the pulpits. It is singular, therefore, that the most signal -miracle which attended the progress of the Christian arms should -have been wrought among the Provençaux. It was so, however: Peter -Bartholomeus, who found the Holy Lance, was a priest of Provence. -Adhémar, Bishop of Puy, himself a Provençal, the most clear-headed, -most prudent, and most thoughtful of the army, treated the story of -Peter, it is true, with disdain; nor did Raymond believe it; as was -evident when, on there appearing, shortly afterwards, symptoms that -another miracle, of which he saw no use, was about to happen, he -suppressed it with a strong hand. At the same time, he did not -disdain to make use of the Holy Lance, and the “miracle” most -certainly contributed very largely, as we shall see, to the success -of the Christians. - -The two remaining great chiefs were Bohemond and Tancred. Bohemond, -who was a whole cubit taller than the tallest man in the army, was -the son of that Norman, Robert Guiscard, who, with a band of some -thirty knights, managed to wrest the whole of Calabria, Apulia, and -Sicily from the Greeks. On his father’s death he had quarrelled with -his brother Roger over the inheritance, and was actually besieging -him in the town of Amalfi, when the news of the Crusades reached -him. The number of those engaged, the rank of the leaders, the large -share taken by the Normans, inspired him with the hope that here, at -last, was the chance of humiliating, and even conquering, his enemy -the Emperor of Constantinople. Perhaps, too, some noble impulse -actuated him. However that may be, he began himself to preach a -crusade to his own army, and with so much success—for he preached of -glory and plunder, as well as of religion—that he found himself in a -few days at the head of ten thousand horse and twenty thousand foot. -With these he joined the other chiefs at Constantinople. His life -was a long series of battles. He was crafty and sagacious; hence his -name of Guiscard—the wise one; quite indifferent to the main object -of the Crusaders—in fact, he did not go on with them to Jerusalem -itself—and anxious only to do the Greeks a mischief and himself some -good. - -With him went his cousin Tancred, the hero of the “Jerusalem -Delivered.” The history of the First Crusade contains all his -history. After the conquest of Jerusalem, and after displaying -extraordinary activity and bravery, he was made Prince of Galilee, -and his cousin was Prince of Antioch. Tancred is a hero of romance. -Apart from his fighting he has no character; in every battle he is -foremost, but when the battle is over we hear nothing about him. He -appears however to have had a great deal of his cousin’s prudence, -and united with the bravery of the lion some, at least, of the -cunning of the fox. He died about the year 1113. - -Hugh, Count of Vermandois, who was one of the chiefs of the army -brought by Robert of Normandy, was the third son of Henry I. of -France. He was called Le Grand, not on account of any mental or -physical superiority, but because by marriage he was the head of the -Vermandois house. He was one of the first to desert the Crusade, -terrified by the misfortunes which overtook the expedition; but, -like Stephen of Blois, he was obliged by the force of popular -opinion to go back again as a Crusader. The second time he was -wounded by the Turks near Nicæa, and only got as far as Tarsus in -Cilicia, where he died. Like Robert of Normandy, he joined to great -bravery and an extreme generosity a certain weakness of character, -which marred all his finer qualities. - -Robert of Flanders seems to have been a fighting man pure and -simple—by the Saracens called “St. George,” and by his own side the -“Sword and Lance of the Christians.” He, no more fighting remaining -to be done, returned quietly to his own states, with the comfortable -conviction that he had atoned for his former sins by his conduct in -the Holy War. He enjoyed ten years more fighting at home, and then -got drowned in the River Marne; an honest single-minded knight, who -found himself in perfect accord with the spirit of his age. - -With these principal barons and chiefs were a crowd of poorer -princes, each with his train of knights and men-at-arms. The money -for the necessary equipments had been raised in various ways: some -had sold their lands, others their seigneurial rights; some had -pawned their states; while one or two, despising these direct and -obvious means of raising funds, had found a royal road to money by -pillaging the villages and towns around them. - -It was not till eight months after the Council of Clermont[49] that -Godfrey’s army, consisting of ten thousand knights and eighty -thousand foot, was able to begin its march. Fortunately, a good -harvest had just been gathered in, and food of all kinds was -abundant and cheap. The army, moreover, was well-disciplined, and no -excesses were committed on its way through Germany. It followed -pretty nearly the same line as that taken by Walter and Peter, and -must have been troubled along the whole route by news of the -extravagances and disasters of those who had preceded them. Arriving -on the frontiers of Hungary, Godfrey sent deputies to King Coloman, -asking permission to march peaceably, buying whatever he had need -of, through his dominions. Hostages, consisting of his brother -Baldwin and his family, were given for the good behaviour of the -troops, and permission was granted; the King of Hungary following -close on the track of the army, in case any breach of faith should -be attempted. But none took place, and at Semlin, when the last -Crusader had crossed the river into Bulgarian territory, King -Coloman personally, and with many expressions of friendship and -goodwill, delivered over the hostages, and parted. Getting through -the land of the Bulgarians as quickly as might be, Godfrey pushed on -as far as Philippopolis. There he learned that Count Hugh, who had -been shipwrecked, sailing in advance of his army, on the shores of -Epirus, was held a prisoner by Alexis Comnenus, very probably as a -sort of hostage for the good behaviour of the very host whose help -he had implored. Godfrey sent imperatively to demand the release of -the Count, and being put off with an evasive reply, gave his troops -liberty to ravage and plunder along the road—a privilege which they -fully appreciated. This practical kind of reply convinced Alexis -that the barbarians were not, at least, awed by the greatness of his -fame. He hastened to give way, and assured Godfrey that his prisoner -should be released directly the army arrived at Constantinople. - -Footnote 49: - - August, 1096. - -Meantime, the other armies were all on their way, converging to -Constantinople. The route followed by them is not at all times -clear. Some appear to have marched through Italy, Dalmatia, and -across Thessaly, while a few went by sea; and though the first -armies of Peter and Walter carried off a vast number of pilgrims, -there can be no doubt that these armies were followed by a great -number of priests, monks, women, and persons unable to fight. - -Alexis, on hearing of Bohemond’s speedy arrival, was greatly -alarmed—as, indeed, he had reason to be. With his usual duplicity, -he sent ambassadors to flatter his formidable visitor, while he -ordered his frontier troops to harass him on his march; and Bohemond -had alternately to receive the assurances of the Emperor’s -friendship, and to fight his troops. No wonder that he wrote to -Godfrey at Constantinople to be on his guard, as he had to do “with -the most ferocious wild beast and the most wicked man alive.” But, -in spite of his hatred, the fierce Norman found himself constrained -to put off his resentment in the presence of Greek politeness; and -the rich gifts with which Alexis loaded him, if they did not quiet -his suspicions, at least allayed his wrath. Alexis got rid of his -unwelcome visitors as speedily as he could. After going through the -ceremony of adopting Godfrey as his son, and putting the empire -under his protection, he received the homage of the princes, one -after the other, with the exception alone of Tancred. And then he -sent them all across the straits, to meet whatever fortune awaited -them on the other side. - -The story of the First Crusade is an oft-told tale. But it is a tale -which bears telling often. There is nothing in history which may be -compared with this extraordinary rising of whole peoples. The -numbers which came from Western Europe cannot, of course, be even -approximately stated. Probably, counting the women, children, and -camp-followers, their number would not be less than a million. Of -these, far more than a half, probably two-thirds, came from the -provinces of France. The Germans were but slightly affected by the -universal enthusiasm—the English not at all. Edgar Atheling brought -a band of his countrymen to join Robert of Normandy; but these were -probably those who had compromised themselves in former attempts to -raise Northumbria and other parts of England. The Italians came from -the south, but not from the north; and nearly the whole of Spain was -occupied by the caliphate of Cordova. That all these soldiers were -fired with the same ardour, were led by the same disinterested hope, -is not to be supposed; but it is certain from every account, whether -Christian or Arabic, that the main object of their enterprise was a -motive power strong enough, of itself, to enable them to endure -hardships and privations almost incredible, and to combat with -forces numerically, at least, ten times their superior. - -The way to the Holy Land lay through a hostile country. Asia Minor, -overrun by the Mohammedans since twenty years, was garrisoned rather -than settled. Numerous as were the followers of the Crescent, they -had not been able to do more, in their rapid march of conquest, than -to take strongholds and towns, and keep them. There were even some -towns which had never surrendered, while of those which belonged to -them, many were held by insufficient forces, and contained an -element of weakness in the large number of Christian inhabitants. -And the first of these towns which came in their way was the town of -Nicæa. - -The miserable remnant of Peter’s army, on the arrival of their -friends, made haste to show them the places of their own disasters. -These fugitives had lived hidden in the forest, and now, on seeing -the _brassard_ of the Cross, emerged—barefooted, ragged, unarmed, -cowed—to tell the story of their sufferings. They took the soldiers -to see the plain where their great army had been massacred—there -were the piles of bones, the plain white with them; they took them -to the camp where the women and children had been left. These were -gone, but the remains were left of the old men and those who had -tried to defend them. Their bodies lay in the moat which had been -cut round the camp. In the centre, like a pillar of reproach, stood -the white stones which had served for the altar of the camp. - -Filled with wrath at the sight of these melancholy objects, the -soldiers cried out to be led against their enemy; and the whole -army, preceded by four thousand pioneers to clear the way, was -marched in good order towards Nicæa, where the enemy awaited them. -The Crusaders—they spoke nineteen different languages—were accoutred -with some attempt at similarity. The barons and knights wore a coat -of chain-armour, while a helmet, set with silver for the princes, of -steel for knights, and of iron for the rest, protected their heads. -Round bucklers were carried by the knights, long shields by the -foot-soldiers; besides the lance, the sword, the arrow, they carried -the mace and battleaxe, the sling, and the terrible crossbow; while, -for a rallying-point for the soldiers, every prince bore painted on -his standard those birds, animals, and towns, which subsequently -became coats-of-arms, and gave birth to the science of Heraldry. - -The total number of the gigantic host amounted, it is said, to one -hundred thousand knights and five hundred thousand foot-soldiers. -But this is evidently an exaggeration. If it is not, the losses by -battle, famine, and disease were proportionately greater than those -of any wars recorded in history. - -The first operation was the siege of Nicæa—Nicæa, the city of the -great Council—and the avenging of the slaughtered army of Peter. -Nicæa stood on the low shores of a lake. It was provided with -vessels of all kinds, by which it could receive men and provisions, -and was therefore practically impregnable. But the Mohammedans, -fully advertised of the approach of their enemies, had made -preparations to receive them; and with an immense army, all mounted, -charged the array of the Christians on the moment of their arrival -in the plains, and while they were occupied in putting up their -tents. Victory, such as it was, remained with the Crusaders, but -cost them the lives of more than two thousand of their men. The -siege of Nicæa, undertaken after this battle, made slow progress. -While the Christians wasted their strength in vain efforts to -demolish the walls and cross the moats, the garrison, constantly -reinforced during the night by means of the lake, held out unshaken -for some weeks. Finding out the means by which their strength was -recruited, Godfrey, by immense exertions, transported overland from -the neighbouring sea a number of light craft, which he launched on -the lake, and succeeded in accomplishing a perfect blockade of the -town. The Nicæans, terrified at the success of this manœuvre, and by -the fate of their most important town, were ready to surrender at -discretion, when the cunning of Alexis Comnenus—who had despatched a -small force, nominally for the assistance of the Crusaders, but -really for the purpose of watching after his own interests—succeeded -in inducing the town to surrender to him alone; and the Christians, -after all their labour, had the mortification of seeing the Greek -flag flying over the citadel, instead of their own. From his own -point of view, the Emperor was evidently right. The Crusaders had -sworn to protect his empire; he claimed sovereignty over all these -lands; his object was neither to revenge the death of a horde of -invaders, nor to devastate the towns, nor to destroy the country—but -to recover and preserve. Nicæa, at least, was almost within his -reach; and though he could not expect that his authority would be -recognised in the south of Asia Minor, or in Syria, he had reason to -hope that here at any rate, so near to Constantinople, and so -recently after the oaths of the princes, it would be recognised. - -So, certainly, thought the princes; for, in spite of the unrepressed -indignation of the army, they refrained from pillaging the town and -murdering the infidels, and gave the word to march. - -It was now early summer; the soldiers had not yet experienced the -power of an Asiatic sun; no provision was made against the dangers -of famine and thirst, and their way led through a land parched with -heat, devastated by wars, over rocky passes, across pathless plains. -The Crusaders neither knew the country, nor made any preparations, -beyond carrying provisions for two or three days. They were, -moreover, encumbered with their camp-followers, their baggage, and -the weight of their arms. - -They were divided, principally for convenience of forage, into two -_corps d’armée_, of which one was commanded by Godfrey, Raymond, -Robert of Flanders, and the Count of Vermandois, while the other was -led by the three Norman chiefs, Robert, Tancred, and Bohemond. For -seven days all went well, the armies having completely lost sight of -each other, but confident, after their recent successes, that there -would be no more enemies at hand to combat. They were mistaken. -Tancred’s division, on the evening of the 30th of June, pitched -their camp in a valley called by William of Tyre the valley of -Gorgona. It was protected on one side by a river, on the other by a -marsh filled with reeds. The night was passed in perfect security, -but at daybreak the enemy was upon them. Bohemond took the command. -Placing the women and the sick in the midst, he divided the cavalry -into three brigades, and prepared to dispute the passage of the -river. The Saracens discharged their arrows into the thick ranks of -the Crusaders, whose wounded horses confused and disordered them. -Unable to endure these attacks with patience, the Christians crossed -the river and charged their enemies; but the Saracens, mounted on -lighter horses, made way for them to pass, and renewed the discharge -of their arrows. Another band, taking advantage of the knights -having crossed the river, forded it at a higher point, and attacked -the camp itself. Then the slaughter of the sick and wounded, and -even of the women, save those whose beauty was sufficient to ransom -their lives, began. On the other side of the stream the knights -fought every one for himself. Tancred, nearly killed in the _mêlée_, -was saved by Bohemond; Robert of Normandy performed prodigies; the -camp was retaken, and the women rescued. But the day was not won. -Nor would it have been won, but for the arrival of Godfrey, to whom -Bohemond, early in the day, had sent a messenger. He brought up the -whole of his army, and the Saracens, retreating to the hills, found -themselves attacked on all sides. They fled in utter disorder, -leaving twenty-three thousand dead on the field, and the whole of -their camp and baggage in the hands of the Christians. These had -lost four thousand, besides the number of followers killed in the -camp. The booty was immense, and the soldiers pleased themselves by -dressing in the long silk robes of the Mussulmans, while they -refurnished themselves with arms from those they found upon the -dead. Conscious, however, of the danger they had escaped, they were -careful to acknowledge that they would not have carried the day, had -it not been for St. George and St. Demetrius, who had been plainly -visible to many fighting on their side; and the respect which they -conceived for the Saracens’ prowess taught them, at least, a -salutary lesson of caution. - -While they were rejoicing, the enemy was acting. The defeated Turks, -retreating southwards, by the way which the Christians must follow, -devastated and destroyed every thing as they traversed the country, -procuring one auxiliary at least in the shape of famine. They had -two more—thirst and heat. - -The Crusaders, once more on the march, resolved not to separate -again, and formed henceforth but one army. But they journeyed -through a desert and desolate country; there was no food but the -roots of plants; their horses died for want of water and forage; the -knights had to walk on foot, or to ride oxen and asses; every beast -was converted into a beast of burden, until the time came when the -beasts themselves perished by the way, and all the baggage was -abandoned. Their path led through Phrygia, a wild and sterile -country, with no fountains or rivers; the road was strewn as they -went along by the bodies of those who died of sunstroke or of -thirst; women, overcome by fatigue and want of water, lay down and -were delivered of children, and there died, mothers and infants; in -one terrible day five hundred died on the march; the falcons and -hawks, which the knights had been unable to leave behind, fell dead -from their perches; the hounds deserted their masters, and went away -to seek for water; the horses themselves, in which the hope of the -soldier was placed, lay down and died. At last they came to a river; -even this timely relief was fatal, for three hundred killed -themselves by drinking too much. They rested, after this disastrous -march, at Antiocheia, the former capital of Pisidia. Here Raymond -fell ill, but happily recovered, and Godfrey was dangerously wounded -in a conflict with a bear. To account for the discomfiture of the -prince, it is recorded that the bear was the biggest and most -ferocious bear ever seen. - -During their stay at Antiocheia, Tancred and Baldwin—the former with -a detachment of Italians, the latter with one of Flemings—were sent -to explore the country, to bring help to the Christians, and report -on the means of obtaining provisions. They went first to Iconium; -finding no enemies, they went southwards, and Tancred, leading the -way, made an easy conquest of Tarsus, promising to spare the lives -of the garrison. Baldwin arrived the next day, and on perceiving the -flag of Tancred on the towers, insisted, on the ground that his own -force was superior in numbers, on taking it down and replacing it by -his own. A violent quarrel arose, the first of the many which were -to disgrace the history of the Crusades. Neither would give way. -They agreed at last to refer the dispute to the inhabitants. These, -at first, gave the preference to Tancred; but at last, yielding to -the threats of Baldwin, transferred their allegiance to him, and -threw Tancred’s flag over the ramparts. Tancred withdrew, indignant, -and marched with all his men to Adana, an important place some -twenty miles from Tarsus. This he found in the possession of a -Burgundian adventurer, who had got a company of pilgrims to follow -him, and seized the place. History does not deign, unfortunately, to -notice the exploits of the _viri obscuri_, but it is clear enough, -that while the great princes were seizing states and cities, bands -of armed soldiers, separated from the great army, were overrunning -the country, taking possession of small forts and towns, where they -lived at their own will and pleasure, till the Turks came and killed -them all. The Burgundian was courteous to Tancred, and helped him -with provisions on his way to Malmistra, a large and important -place, before which he pitched his camp. - -But a terrible calamity had happened at Tarsus. Baldwin got into the -town, and, jealous of his newly-acquired possession, ordered the -gates to be carefully closed and guarded. In the evening, a troop of -three hundred Crusaders, sent by Bohemond to reinforce Tancred, -arrived at the town, and asked for admission. Baldwin refused. They -pleaded the extremity of fatigue and hunger, to which a long march -had reduced them. Baldwin still refused. His own men urged him to -admit them. Baldwin refused again. In the morning they were all -found dead, killed in the night by the Turks, who took advantage of -their sleep and exhaustion. At this spectacle the grief and rage of -the soldiers were turned against the cause of their comrades’ death. -Baldwin took refuge in a tower, but presently came out, and, -lamenting the disaster of which he alone was the cause, pointed his -soldiers to the towers where the garrison of the Turks (prisoners, -but under promise of safety) were shut up. The Christians massacred -every one. - -Here they were joined by a fleet of pirates, who, after having been -for ten years the terror of the Mediterranean, were desirous of -expiating their crimes by taking part in the Crusade. Their leader, -Guymer, was a Boulogne man, and readily brought his men as a -reinforcement to the troops of Baldwin, his seigneur. Baldwin left a -garrison in Tarsus, and set out to rejoin Tancred. But the death of -the three hundred could not so easily be forgotten. Tancred and his -army, maddened at the intelligence of Baldwin’s approach, clamoured -for revenge, and Tancred, without much reluctance, gave the order to -attack Baldwin’s camp. A sanguinary battle followed, in which -Tancred’s forces, inferior in numbers, were worsted, and obliged to -withdraw. The night brought reflection, and the next morning was -occupied in reconciliation and promises of friendship. Malmistra was -taken, and all the Mohammedans slaughtered, and after a few more -exploits, Tancred returned to the army. Baldwin, however, whose -ardour for the recovery of Jerusalem had yielded by this time to his -ambition, only saw, in the disordered state of the country, the -splendid opportunities which it presented to one who had the courage -to seize them. Perhaps the sight of the successful Burgundian of -Adana helped him to form projects of his own; perhaps the remarks of -an Armenian named Pancrates, who was always whispering in his ear of -the triumphs to be won by an independent line of action. He returned -to Godfrey, indeed, but only to try his powers of seduction among -the soldiers, whom he incited to follow him by magnificent promises. -The princes were alarmed at the first news of his intended -defection; at a council hastily assembled, it was resolved to -prohibit any Crusader, whatever his rank, from leaving the army. -Baldwin, however, the very night on which this resolution was -carried, secretly marched out of the camp, at the head of some -twelve hundred foot-soldiers and two hundred knights, accompanied by -his Armenian friend. His exploits, until he was summoned back to -Jerusalem, hardly concern us here. After taking one or two small -towns, and quarrelling with Pancrates, whom he left behind, he -pushed on to Edessa, which, by a series of lucky escapes, he entered -with only a hundred knights, to become its king. Here he must for -the present be left. - -Meantime, the great army of the Crusaders was pressing on. For the -moment it was unmolested. Both Christian and Saracen had begun to -conceive a respect for each other’s prowess. The latter found that -his innumerable troops of light cavalry were of little use against -the heavily-armed and disciplined masses of the Crusaders: while -these, harassed by the perpetual renewal of armies which seemed only -destroyed to spring again from the earth, and convinced now that the -recovery of the Holy City would be no holiday ramble in a sunny -land, marched with better discipline and more circumspection. But -the Saracens, unable to raise another army in time, fled before -them, leaving towns and villages unoccupied. The Christians burnt -the mosques, and plundered the country. Even the passes of Mount -Taurus were left unguarded, and the Christian army passed through -defiles and valleys, where a very small force might have barred the -passage for the whole army. They suffered, however, from their -constant enemies, heat and thirst. On one mountain, called the -“Mountain of the Devil,” the army had to pass along a path so narrow -that the horses were led, and the men could not walk two abreast. -Here, wearied with the ascent, faint with thirst, hundreds sank, -unable to proceed, or fell over the precipices. It was the last of -the cruel trials through which they were to pass before they reached -the land of their pilgrimage. From the summit of the last pass, they -beheld, stretched out at their feet, the fair land of Syria. Covered -with ruins, as it was—those ruins which exist to the present day—and -devastated by so many successive wars, nothing had been able to ruin -the fertility of the soil; and after the arid plains through which -they had passed, no wonder the worn and weary soldiers rejoiced and -thanked God aloud, when they saw at last the very country to which -they were journeying. The ordeal of thirst and heat had been passed -through, and their numbers were yet strong. Nothing now remained, as -they fondly thought, but to press on, and fight the enemy before the -very walls of Jerusalem. - -The successes of Tancred cleared the way for the advance of the main -army. Nothing interposed to stop them; provisions were plentiful, -and their march was unimpeded by any enemy. Count Robert of Flanders -led the advance corps. At Artasia, a town about a day’s march from -Antioch, the gates were thrown open to them; and though the garrison -of Antioch threw out flying squadrons of cavalry, they were not able -to check the advance of the army, which swarmed along the roads, in -numbers reduced, indeed, by one half, from the six hundred thousand -who gathered before Nicæa, but still irresistible. The old bridge of -stone which crossed the Orontes was stormed, and the Crusaders were -fairly in Syria, and before Antioch. - -The present governor of this great and important town was Baghi -Seyan, one of the Seljukian princes. He had with him a force of -about twenty-five thousand, foot and horse; he was defended by a -double wall of stone, strengthened by towers; he was plentifully -supplied with provisions; he had sent messengers for assistance to -all quarters, and might reasonably hope to be relieved; and he had -expelled from the town all useless mouths, including the native -Christians. Moreover, it was next to impossible for the Crusaders to -establish a complete line round the city, and cut him off from -supplies and reinforcements. - -It was late in the autumn when the Christian army sat down before -the first place. For the first two or three weeks the country was -scoured for provisions, and the soldiers, improvident and reckless, -lived in a luxury and abundance which they had never before -experienced. But even Syria, fertile and rich, could not long -suffice for the daily wants of a wasteful army of three hundred -thousand men. Food began to grow scarce; foraging parties brought in -little or nothing, though they scoured the whole country; bands of -Turks, mounted on fleet and hardy horses, intercepted straggling -parties, and robbed them of their cattle; the fleet brought them -very small supplies; Baldwin had as yet sent nothing from Edessa, -and famine once more made its appearance in the camp. The rains of -winter fell, and their tents were destroyed. The poor lived on what -they could find, bark and roots; the rich had to spend all their -money in buying food; and all the horses died. Worse still, there -was defection among the very leaders; Robert of Normandy went to -Laodicea, and was persuaded with great difficulty to come back. -Peter the Hermit fairly ran away, and was brought back a prisoner to -the army which his own voice had raised. And when Bohemond and -Tancred went out, with as large a force as could be spared, to -procure provisions, they were attacked by superior numbers, and -obliged to return empty-handed. Bishop Adhémar, seeing in the sins -of the camp a just cause for the punishments that were falling upon -it, enjoined a three days’ fast, and public prayers. The former was -superfluous, inasmuch as the whole camp was fasting. But he did -more. He caused all women to be sent away, and all games of chance -to be entirely prohibited. The distress continued, but hope and -confidence were revived; and when, early in the year 1098, supplies -were brought in, the army regained most of its old _bravoure_. A -victory gained over a reinforcement of twenty-five thousand Turks -aided in reviving the spirit of the soldiers: it was in this action -that Godfrey is reported to have cut a Turk completely through the -body, so that his horse galloped off with the legs and lower part of -the trunk still in the saddle. The camp of the enemy was taken, and -for a time there was once more abundance. But the siege was not yet -over. For eight months it lingered on, defended with the obstinacy -that the Turks always displayed when brought to bay within stone -walls. It was not till June that the town, not the citadel, was -taken, by the treachery of one Pyrrhus, an Armenian renegade. He -offered secretly to put the town, which was in his charge, into the -hands of Bohemond. The Norman chief, always anxious to promote his -own interests, proposed, at the council of the Crusaders, to take -the town on condition that it should be given to him. Raymond of -Toulouse alone objected—his objection was overruled; and on the -night of the 2nd of June, Pyrrhus admitted the Christians. They made -themselves masters, under cover of the darkness, of ten of the -towers round the walls; and opening the gates to their own men, made -an easy conquest of the town in the morning, slaughtering every -Mussulman they could find. Baghi Seyan fled, and, being abandoned by -his guards, was murdered by some Syrian woodcutters, who brought his -head to the camp. And then, once more, untaught by their previous -sufferings, the Crusaders for a few days gave themselves up to the -enjoyment of their booty. But the citadel was not taken, and the -host of Kerboga was within a short march of the town. He came with -the largest army that the Christians had yet encountered. Robert of -Flanders defended the bridge for a whole day with five hundred men, -but was obliged to retire, and the Christians were in their turn the -besieged. - -And then, again, famine set in. The seashore was guarded by the -Turks, and supplies could not be procured from the fleet; the -horses, and all the beasts of burden, were slaughtered and eaten; -some of the knights who were fainthearted managed to let themselves -down by ropes from the walls, and made their way to Stephen of -Blois, who had long since separated from the main army, and was now -lying at Alexandretta. They brought such accounts of the misery of -the army, that Stephen abandoned the cause as hopeless, and set sail -with his men for Cilicia. Here he found Alexis himself, with a large -army, consisting chiefly of those who had arrived too late to join -the army of Godfrey. The newcomers heard with dismay the accounts -given by Stephen; they gave themselves up to lamentation and -despair; they blasphemed the God who had permitted His soldiers to -be destroyed, and for some days would actually permit no prayers to -be offered up in their camp. Alexis broke up his camp, and returned -to Constantinople. And when the news arrived in Antioch, the -Crusaders, too wretched to fight or to hope, shut themselves up in -the houses, and refused to come out. Bohemond set fire to the town, -and so compelled them to show themselves, but could not make them -fight. - -Where human eloquence failed, one of those miracles, common enough -in the ages of credulity, the result of overheated imaginations and -excited brains, succeeded. A vision of the night came to one Peter -Bartholomæus, a monk, of two men in shining raiment. One of them, -St. Andrew himself, took the monk into the air, and brought him to -the Church of St. Peter, and set him at the south side of the altar. -He then showed him the head of a lance. “This,” he said, “was the -lance which opened the side of Our Lord. See where I bury it. Get -twelve men to dig in the spot till they find it.” But in the morning -Peter was afraid to tell his vision. This was before the taking of -Antioch. But after the town was taken, the vision came again, and in -his dream Peter saw once more the apostle, and received his -reproaches for neglect of his commands. Peter remonstrated that he -was poor and of no account; and then he saw that the apostle’s -companion was none other than the Blessed Lord himself, and the -humble monk was privileged to fall and kiss His feet. - -We are not of those who believe that men are found so base as to -contrive a story of this kind. There is little doubt in our minds -that this poor Peter, starving as he was, full of fervour and -enthusiasm, dreamed his dream, not once but twice, and went at last, -brimful of pious gratitude, to Adhémar with his tale. Adhémar heard -him with incredulity and coldness. But Raymond saw in this incident -a means which might be turned to good account. He sent twelve men to -the church, and from morning till night they dug in vain. But at -length Peter himself, leaping into the hole they had made, called -aloud on God to redeem his promise, and produced a rusty spear-head. -Adhémar acquiesced with the best grace in his power; the lance was -exhibited to the people the next morning, and the enthusiasm of the -army, famished, and ragged, and dismounted, once more beat as high -as when they sewed the red Cross badge upon their shoulders, and -shouted “Dieu le veut.” - -They had been besieged three weeks; all their horses, except three -hundred, were killed. Their ranks were grievously thinned, but they -went out to meet the enemy with such confidence that the only orders -given related to the distribution of the plunder. As they took their -places in the plain, Adhémar raised their spirits by the -announcement of another miracle. Saint George, Saint Maurice, and -Saint Demetrius, had themselves been distinctly seen to join the -army, and were in their midst. The Christians fought as only -religious enthusiasts can fight—as the Mohammedans fought when the -Caliph Omar led his conquering bands northwards, with the delights -of heaven for those who fell, and the joys of earth for those who -survived. The Turks were routed with enormous slaughter. Their camp, -rich and luxurious, fell into the hands of the conquerors;[50] -plenty took the place of starvation; the common soldiers amused -themselves with decking their persons with the silken robes they -found in the huts; the cattle were driven to the town in long -processions; and once more, forgetful of all but the present, the -Christians revelled and feasted. - -Footnote 50: - - Among the spoils taken by the Christians one of the chroniclers - reports a mass of manuscripts, “on which were traced the - sacrilegious rites of the Mahometans in execrable characters,” - doubtless Arabic. Probably among these manuscripts were many of - the greatest importance. Nothing is said about their fate, but of - course they were all destroyed. - -The rejoicings had hardly ceased when it was found that another -enemy had to be encountered. Battle was to be expected: famine had -already twice been experienced: this time it was pestilence, caused, -no doubt, by the crowding together of so large an army and the -absence of sanitary measures. The first to fall was the wise and -good Adhémar, most sensible of all the chiefs. His was a dire loss -to the Crusaders. Better could they have spared even the fiery -Tancred, or the crafty Bohemond. The Crusaders, terrified and -awe-stricken, clamoured to be led to Jerusalem, but needs must that -they remained till the heats of summer passed, and health came again -with the early winter breezes, in their camp at Antioch. - -It was not till November that they set out on their march to -Jerusalem. The time had been consumed in small expeditions, the -capture of unimportant places, and the quarrels of the princes over -the destination of Antioch, which Bohemond claimed for himself. -Their rival claims were still unsettled, when the voice of the -people made itself heard, and very shame made them, for a time at -least, act in concert, and the advance corps, led by Bohemond, -Robert of Normandy, and Raymond of Toulouse, began their southward -march with the siege of Marra, an important place, which they took, -after three or four weeks, by assault. Fresh disputes arose about -the newly-acquired town, but the common soldiers, furious at these -never-ending delays, ended them by the simple expedient of pulling -down the walls. It was the middle of January, however, before they -resumed their march. From Marah to Capharda, thence along the -Orontes, when the small towns were placed in their hands, to Hums, -when they turned westward to the sea, and sat down before the castle -of Arca till they should be joined by the main body, which was still -at Antioch. It came up in April, and the army of the Crusaders, -united again, were ready to resume their march when they were -interrupted by more disputes. In an ill-timed hour, Bohemond, the -incredulous Norman, accused Raymond of conniving with Peter to -deceive the army by palming off upon them an old rusty lance-head as -the sacred spear which had pierced the side of the Lord. Arnold, -chaplain to Duke Robert of Normandy, was brought forward to support -the charge. He rested his argument chiefly on the fact that Adhémar -had disbelieved the miracle: but he contended as well that the -spear-head could not possibly be in Antioch. He was confuted in the -manner customary to the time. One bold monk swore that Adhémar, -after death, for his contumacy in refusing to believe in the -miracle, had been punished by having one side of his beard burned in -the flames of hell, and was not permitted a full enjoyment of heaven -till the beard should grow again. Another quoted a prophecy of Saint -Peter, alleged to be in a Syrian gospel, that the invention of the -lance was to be a sign of the deliverance of the Christians; a third -had spoken personally with Saint Mark himself; while the Virgin Mary -had appeared by night to a fourth to corroborate the story. Arnold -pretended to give way before testimony so overwhelming, and was -ready to retract his opinion publicly, when Peter, crazed with -enthusiasm, offered to submit his case to the ordeal of fire. This -method was too congenial to the fierce and eager spirits of the -Crusaders to be refused. Raymond d’Agiles, who was a witness, thus -tells the story. - -“Peter’s proposition appeared to us reasonable, and after enjoining -a fast on Peter, we agreed to kindle the fire on Good Friday itself. - -“On the day appointed, the pile was prepared after noon; the princes -and the people assembled to the number of forty thousand; the -priests coming barefooted and dressed in their sacerdotal robes. The -pile was made with dry branches of olive-trees, fourteen feet long, -and four feet high, divided into two heaps, with a narrow path, a -foot wide, between each. As soon as the wood began to burn, I -myself, Raymond,[51] pronounced these words, ‘If the Lord himself -has spoken to this man face to face, and if Saint Andrew has shown -him the lance of the Lord, let him pass through the fire without -receiving any hurt: or, if not, let him be burnt with the lance -which he carries in his hand.’ And all bending the knee, replied, -‘Amen.’ - -Footnote 51: - - He was chaplain to Count Raymond of Toulouse. - -“Then Peter, dressed in a single robe, kneeling before the bishop of -Albaric, called God to witness that he had seen Jesus on the cross -face to face, and that he had heard from the mouth of the Saviour, -and that of the apostles, Peter and Andrew, the words reported to -the princes: he added that nothing of what he had said in the name -of the saints and in the name of the Lord had been invented by -himself, and declared that if there was found any falsehood in his -story, he consented to suffer from the flames. And for the other -sins that he had committed against God and his neighbours, he prayed -that God would pardon him, and that the bishop, all the other -priests, and the people would implore the mercy of God for him. This -said, the bishop gave him the lance. - -“Peter knelt again, and making the sign of the cross he reached the -flames without appearing afraid. He remained one moment in the midst -of the fire, and then came out by the grace of God.... After Peter -had gone through the fire, and although the flames were still -raging, the people gathered up the brands, the ashes, and the -charcoal, with such ardour that in a few moments nothing was left. -The Lord in the end performed great miracles by means of these -sacred relics. Peter came out of the flames without even his gown -being burned, and the light veil which covered the lance-head -escaped uninjured. He made immediately the sign of the cross, and -cried with a loud voice, ‘God help!’ to the crowd, who pressed upon -him to be certain that it was really he. Then, in their eagerness, -and because everybody wanted to touch him, and to have even some -little piece of his dress, they trampled him under their feet, cut -off pieces of his flesh, broke his back-bone, and broke his ribs. He -was only saved from being killed there and then by Raymond Pelot, a -knight, who hastily called a number of soldiers and rescued him. - -“When he was brought into our tent, we dressed his wounds, and asked -him why he had stopped so long in the fire. ‘Because,’ he said, ‘the -Lord appeared to me in the midst of the flames, and taking me by the -hand, said, ‘Since thou hast doubted of the holy lance, which the -blessed Andrew showed to thee, thou shalt not go out from this sound -and safe. Nevertheless, thou shalt not see hell.’ After these words -He sent me on. ‘See now the marks of fire on my body.’ And, in fact, -there were certain burnings in the legs, small in number, though the -wounds were great.” - -Peter Bartholomew died the day after—of the fire, said Bohemond, the -doubter, who continued in his disbelief, in spite of the ordeal; of -the injuries he had received in the crowd, said Raymond of Toulouse. -But the authority of the lance was established, and it was to do -good service in the battles to come. The faith of the Crusaders was -kept up by many other visions and miracles. One that had the -greatest effect was a vision seen by Anselm. To him appeared by -night Angelram, the young son of the Count of Saint Paul, who had -been killed at Marra. “Know,” said the phantom, “that those who -fight for Christ die not.” “And whence this glory that surrounds -you?” Then Angelram showed in the heavens a palace of crystal and -diamonds. “It is there,” he said, “that I have borrowed my -splendour. There is my dwelling-place. One finer still is preparing -for you, into which you will soon enter.” The next day Anselm, after -telling of this apparition, confessed and received the sacraments, -though full of health, and going into battle, was struck by a stone -in the forehead, and died immediately. - -On their way to Tripoli,[52] where they first saw the sugar-cane, -the impatience of the soldiers manifested itself so strongly that -the chiefs could not venture to sit down before the place, but -pushed on, after making a sort of treaty with its governor. Here -messengers arrived from Alexis, entreating them to wait for him, and -promising to bring an army in July. But the time was gone by for -negotiation and delay, and taking the sea-shore route, by which they -ensured the protection of the fleet, they marched southwards to -Beirout. Sidon, and Tyre, and Acre, were passed without much -opposition, and the Crusaders arrived at Cæsarea, which is within -sixty miles of Jerusalem. By marches quick rather than forced, for -the enthusiasm of the army was once more at its height, they reached -Lydda, where the church of Saint George lay in ruins, having -recently been destroyed by the Turks, and thence to Ramleh. Here an -embassy from Bethlehem waited for them with prayers to protect their -town. Tancred, with a hundred knights only, rode off with them. The -people received them with psalms of joy, and took them to see the -Church of the Nativity. But they would not stay. Bethlehem is but -four miles from Jerusalem, and Tancred rode on in advance, eager to -be the first to see the city. He ascended the mount of Olives -unmolested, and there found a hermit who pointed out to him the -sacred sites. The little troop rode back in triumph to tell the -Crusaders that the city was almost within their grasp. The soldiers, -rough and rude as they were, and stained with every vice, were yet -open to the influences of this, the very goal of their hopes. From a -rising ground they beheld at last the walls of the Holy City. “And -when they heard the name of Jerusalem, the Christians could not -prevent themselves, in the fervour of their devotion, from shedding -tears; they fell on their faces to the ground, glorifying and -adoring God, who, in His goodness, had heard the prayers of His -people and had granted them, according to their desires, to arrive -at this most sacred place, the object of all their hopes.” - -Footnote 52: - - While they were considering which road was the easiest for their - march to Jerusalem, the Crusaders received a deputation from a - Christian people, said to be sixty thousand in number, living in - the mountains of Lebanus. They offered their services as guides, - and pointed out that there were three roads: the first by way of - Damascus, level and plain, and always abounding in provisions; the - second over Mount Lebanon, safe from any enemy, and also full of - provisions, but difficult for beasts of burden; and the third by - the sea-shore, abounding in defiles, where “fifty Mussulmans would - be able, if they pleased, to stop the whole of mankind.” “But,” - said these Christians, “if you are of a verity that nation which - is to overcome Jerusalem, you must pass along the sea-shore, - however difficult that road may appear, _according to the Gospel - of St. Peter_. Your way, such as you have made it, and such as you - must make it, is all laid down in that Gospel which we possess.” - - What was this Gospel? or is it only one of the credulous stories - of Raymond d’Agiles? - -The army which sat down before Jerusalem numbered about twenty -thousand fighting men, and an equal number of camp followers, old -men, women, and children. This was the miserable remnant of that -magnificent army of six hundred thousand, with which Godfrey had -taken Nicæa and punished the massacre of Walter and his rabble. -Where were all the rest? The road was strewn with their bones. -Across the thirsty deserts of Asia Minor, on the plain of Dorylæum, -and on the slopes and passes of Taurus, the Crusaders’ bodies lay -unburied, while before and within Antioch, the city of disasters, -thousands upon thousands were thrown into the river or lay in -unhallowed soil. But they were not all killed. Many had returned -home, among whom were Hugh le Grand and Stephen of Blois; many had -left the main body and gone off in free-handed expeditions of their -own, to join Baldwin and others. Thus we have heard of Wolf, the -Burgundian conqueror of Adana. Presently we find that Guymer the -pirate of Boulogne, who joined Baldwin at Tarsus, must have left him -again, and returned to his piratical ways, for we find him in prison -at Tripoli; he was delivered up by the governor of Tripoli to the -Christians, after which he appears no more. Then some had been taken -prisoners, and purchased their lives by apostacy, like Rinaldo the -Italian. And those of the captive women who were yet young were -dragging out their lives in the Turkish harems. Probably the boys, -too, were spared, and those who were young enough to forget their -Christian blood brought up to be soldiers of the Crescent. - -The neighbourhood of Jerusalem was covered with light brushwood, but -there were no trees; there had been grass in plenty, but it was -dried up by the summer sun; there were wells and cisterns, but they -had all been closed,—“the fountains were sealed.” Only the pool of -Siloam was accessible to the Crusaders; this was intermittent and -irregular, and its supply, when it did flow, was miserably -inadequate for a host of forty thousand. Moreover, its waters were -brackish and disagreeable. And the camp was full of sick, wounded, -and helpless. - -On the west, east, and south sides of the city no attack was -possible, on account of the valleys by which it was naturally -protected. The Crusaders pitched their camp in the north. First in -the post of danger, as usual, was the camp of Godfrey, Duke of -Lorraine. His position extended westwards from the valley of -Jehoshaphat, along the north wall. Next to him came the Count of -Flanders; next, Robert of Normandy, near whom was Edgar Atheling -with his English; at the north-west angle was Tancred; and lastly, -the camp of the Count of Toulouse extended along the west as far as -the Jaffa Gate. Later on, however, Raymond moved a portion of his -camp to that part of Mount Sion stretching south of the modern wall. -But the only place where an attacking party could hope for success -was on the north. Bohemond was not with the army. He cared less -about taking the city than wreaking his vengeance upon the Greek -emperor. Meantime, within the city was an army of forty thousand -men. Provisions for a long siege had been conveyed into the town; -the zeal of the defenders had been raised by the exhortations of the -Imams; the walls were strengthened and the moats deepened. -Communication and relief were possible from the east, where only -scattered bands of the Christians barred the way. - -Immediately before the arrival of the Crusaders, the Mohammedans -deliberated whether they should slaughter all the Christians in cold -blood, or only fine them and expel them from the city. It was -decided to adopt the latter plan; and the Crusaders were greeted on -their arrival not only by the flying squadrons of the enemy’s -cavalry, but also by exiled Christians telling their piteous tales. -Their houses had been pillaged, their wives kept as hostages; -immense sums were required for their ransom; the churches were -desecrated; and, even worse still, the Infidels were contemplating -the entire destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. This -last charge, at least, was not true. But it added fuel to a fire -which was already beyond any control, and the chiefs gave a ready -permission to their men to carry the town, if they could, by -assault. They had neither ladders nor machines, but, covering -themselves with their bucklers, rushed against the walls and tried -to tear them down with pikes and hammers. Boiling oil and pitch, the -best weapons for the besieged, were poured upon their heads, with -huge stones and enormous beams. In spite of heavy losses, they -managed to tear down and carry a portion of the outer wall, and the -besieged retired to their inner works, which were impregnable, at -least to hammers and pikes. One ladder, and only one, was found. -Tancred, with his usual hardihood, was the first to place his foot -on the ladder, but he was forcibly held back by his knights, who -would not allow him to rush upon certain death. Two or three gained -the wall, and were thrown from it dead. Night put an end to the -fight, and the Christians, dejected and beaten back, retired to -their camp. Heaven would work no miracles for them, and it was clear -that the city must be taken according to the ordinary methods of -warfare. Machines were necessary, but there was no wood. Chance -threw into their possession a cavern, forgotten by the Saracens, -filled with a store of timber, which went some way. There were still -some beams in the houses and churches round Jerusalem not yet -burned. All these were brought into the camp, but still there was -not enough. Then a Syrian Christian bethought him of a wood six -miles off, on the road to Samaria, whither he led the Crusaders. The -trees were small, and not of the best kind, but such as they were -they had to suffice, and all hands were employed in the construction -of towers and engines of assault. They worked with the energy of men -who have but one hope. For, in the midst of a Syrian summer, with a -burning sun over their heads, they had no water. The nearest wells, -except the intermittent spring of Siloam, were six or seven miles -away. To bring the water into the camp, strong detachments were -daily sent out; the country was scoured for miles in every direction -for water; hundreds perished in casual encounters with the enemy, -while wandering in search of wells; and the water, when it was -procured, was often so muddy and impure that the very horses refused -to drink it. As for those who worked in the camp, they dug up the -ground and sucked the moist earth; they cut pieces of turf and laid -them at their hearts to appease the devouring heat; in the morning -they licked the dew from the grass; they abstained from eating till -they were compelled by faintness; they drank the blood of their -beasts. Never, not even in Antioch, not even in Phrygia, had their -sufferings been so terrible, or so protracted. And, as the days went -on, as the sun grew fiercer, the dews more scanty—as the miracle, -still expected, delayed to come—some lay despairing in their tents, -some worked on in a despairing energy, and some threw themselves -down at the foot of the walls to die, or to be killed by the -besieged, crying, “Fall, oh walls of Jerusalem, upon us! Sacred dust -of the city, at least cover our bones!” - -These trials were to have an end. In the midst of their greatest -distress, the news came that a Genoese fleet had arrived off Joppa, -loaded with munitions and provisions. A detachment of three hundred -men was sent off at once to receive them. They fought their way to -Joppa. Here they found that the Christian ships had been abandoned -to a superior Egyptian fleet, but not till after all the stores and -provisions had been landed. With the fleet was a large number of -Genoese artificers and carpenters, whose arrival in the camp was -almost as timely as that of the wine and food. - -The hopes of the Crusaders, always as sanguine as they were easily -dejected, revived again. This unexpected reinforcement—was it not a -miracle? and might there not be others yet to follow? Gaston of -Béarn superintended the construction of the machines. In the -carriage of their timber, as they had no carts or wheels, they -employed their Saracen prisoners. Putting fifty or sixty of them in -line, they made them carry beams “which four oxen could not drag.” -Raymond of Toulouse, who alone had not spent all he had brought with -him, found the money to pay those few who were exempted from -gratuitous service. A regular service for the carriage of water was -organised, and some alleviation thus afforded to the sufferings -caused by thirst. - -Three great towers were made, higher than the walls. Each of these -was divided into three stages; the lowest for the workmen, and the -two higher for the soldiers. The front and sides exposed to the -enemy were cased with plates of iron, or defended by wet hides; the -back part was of wood. On the top was a sort of drawbridge, which -could be lowered so as to afford a passage to the wall. - -All being ready, it was determined to preface the attack by a -processional march round the city. After a fast of three days and -solemn services, the Crusaders solemnly went in procession, -barefooted and bareheaded, round the city. They were preceded by -their priests in white surplices, carrying the images of saints, and -chanting psalms; their banners were displayed, the clarions blew. As -the Israelites marched round Jericho, the Crusaders marched round -Jerusalem, and doubtless many longing eyes, though more in doubt -than in hope, were turned upon the walls to see if they, too, would -fall. They did not. The besieged crowded upon them, holding crosses, -which they insulted, and discharging their arrows at the procession. -But the hearts of the rough soldiers were moved to the utmost, not -by the taunts of their enemies, but by the sight of the sacred -spots, and the memory of the things which had taken place there: -there was Calvary; here Gethsemane, where Christ prayed and wept; -here the place where He ascended; here the spot on which He stood -while He wept over the city. They, too, could see it lying at their -feet, with the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and the Great Mosque in -the midst of the place where had been the Temple of the Lord. These -places cried aloud to them for deliverance. Or, if they looked -behind them, to the east, they saw the banks of the river across -which Joshua had passed, and the Dead Sea which lay above the Cities -of the Plain. - -Arnold, chaplain to Duke Robert of Normandy—an eloquent man, but of -dissolute morals—harangued them. His discourse had been preserved -after the manner of historians; that is, we are told what he ought -to have said; very likely, in substance, what he did say. God, he -told them, would pardon them all sins in recompense for their -recovery of the holy places. And he made the chiefs themselves, who -had sinned by quarrelling and dissension, embrace in presence of the -whole army, and thereby set the example of perfect union. Then they -renewed, for the last time, their oaths of fidelity to the Cross. -Peter the Hermit, who was with them, harangued them also. And in the -evening the soldiers returned to the camp to confess their sins, to -receive the Eucharist, and to spend the night in prayer. - -Godfrey alone was active. He perceived that the Saracens had -constructed on the wall opposite to the position of his great tower, -works which would perhaps render it useless. He therefore took it -down, and transported it, with very great labour, and in a single -night, to a spot which he considered the weakest in the north wall. -Here it was re-erected to the dismay of the besieged. - -At break of day on Thursday, July 14th, 1099, the attack began. The -towers were moved against the walls, the mangonels hurled their -stones into the city, and the battering-rams were brought into play. -All day long the attack was carried on, but to little effect, and at -nightfall, when the Crusaders returned to their camp, the tower of -Raymond was in ruins; those of Tancred and Godfrey were so damaged -that they could not be moved; and the princes were seen beating -their hands in despair, and crying that God had abandoned them. -“Miserable men that we are!” cried Robert of Normandy; “God judges -us unworthy to enter into the Holy City, and worship at the tomb of -His Son.” - -The next day was Friday, the day of the Crucifixion. At daybreak the -battle began again. It went well for the Crusaders; the wall was -broken in many places, and the besieged with all their endeavours -could not set fire to the towers. In the middle of the day they -brought out two magicians—witches, it is said, though one hardly -believes it. They made their incantations on the walls, attended by -their maidens.[53] These were all destroyed at once by stones from -the mangonels. But the day went on, and the final assault could not -be delivered for the courage and ferocity of the Saracens. And then, -the usual miracle happened. Godfrey and Raymond, shouting that -heaven had come to their rescue, pointed to the Mount of Olives, -where stood a man, “miles splendidus et refulgens,” one clothed in -bright and glittering armour, waving his shield as a signal for the -advance. Who could it be but Saint George himself? In the midst of a -shower of arrows, Greek fire, and stones, the tower of Godfrey was -pushed against the wall; the drawbridge fell; Godfrey himself was -among the first to leap upon the wall. And then the rumour ran, that -not only Saint George, but Bishop Adhémar—dead Bishop Adhémar -himself—was in the ranks, and fighting against the Infidel. The -supreme moment was arrived! A whisper went through the troops that -it was now three o’clock; the time, as well as the day, when our -Lord died, on the very spot where they were fighting. Even the women -and children joined in the attack, and mingled their cries with the -shouts of the soldiers. The Saracens gave way, and Jerusalem was -taken. - -Footnote 53: - - Robert of Normandy might have remembered that a similar plan had - been adopted by his father against Hereward in Ely. - -The city was taken, and the massacre of its defenders began. The -Christians ran through the streets, slaughtering as they went. At -first they spared none, neither man, woman, nor child, putting all -alike to the sword; but when resistance had ceased, and rage was -partly appeased, they began to bethink them of pillage, and tortured -those who remained alive to make them discover their gold. As for -the Jews within the city, they had fled to their synagogue, which -the Christians set on fire, and so burned them all. The chroniclers -relate with savage joy, how the streets were encumbered with heads -and mangled bodies, and how in the Haram Area, the sacred enclosure -of the Temple, the knights rode in blood up to the knees of their -horses. Here upwards of ten thousand were slaughtered, while the -whole number of killed amounted, according to various estimates, to -forty, seventy, and even a hundred thousand. An Arabic historian, -not to be outdone in miracles by the Christians, reports that at the -moment when the city fell, a sudden eclipse took place, and the -stars appeared in the day. Fugitives brought the news to Damascus -and Baghdad. It was then the month of Ramadan, but the general -trouble was such that the very fast was neglected. No greater -misfortune, except, perhaps, the loss of Mecca, could have happened -to Islamism. The people went in masses to the mosques; the poets -made their verses of lamentation: “We have mingled our blood with -our tears. No refuge remains against the woes that overpower us.... -How can ye close your eyes, children of Islam, in the midst of -troubles which would rouse the deepest sleeper? Will the chiefs of -the Arabs resign themselves to such evils? and will the warriors of -Persia submit to such disgrace? Would to God, since they will not -fight for their religion, that they would fight for the safety of -their neighbours! And if they give up the rewards of heaven, will -they not be induced to fight by the hope of booty?”[54] - -Footnote 54: - - From a poem by Mozaffer el Abiwardí. - -Evening fell, and the clamour ceased, for there were no more enemies -to kill, save a few whose lives had been promised by Tancred. Then -from their hiding-places in the city came out the Christians who -still remained in it. They had but one thought, to seek out and -welcome Peter the Hermit, whom they proclaimed as their liberator. -At the sight of these Christians, a sudden revulsion of feeling -seized the soldiers. They remembered that the city they had taken -was the city of the Lord, and this impulsive soldiery, sheathing -swords reeking with blood, followed Godfrey to the Church of the -Holy Sepulchre, where they passed the night in tears, and prayers, -and services. - -In the morning the carnage began again. Those who had escaped the -first fury were the women and children. It was now resolved to spare -none. Even the three hundred to whom Tancred had promised life were -slaughtered in spite of him. Raymond alone managed to save the lives -of those who capitulated to him from the tower of David. It took a -week to kill the Saracens, and to take away their dead bodies. Every -Crusader had a right to the first house he took possession of, and -the city found itself absolutely cleared of its old inhabitants, and -in the hands of a new population. The true Cross, which had been -hidden by the Christians during the siege, was brought forth again, -and carried in joyful procession round the city, and for ten days -the soldiers gave themselves up to murder, plunder—and prayers! - -And the First Crusade was finished. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOM. KING GODFREY. - A.D. 1099-1100. - - Signor, ceste cité vous l’avez conquesté; - Or faut élire un roi dont elle soit gardée, - Et la terre environ des païens recensée. - _Romans de Godefroi._ - - -For seven days after the conquest of the city and the massacre of -the inhabitants the Crusaders, very naturally, abandoned themselves -to rest, feasting, and services of thanksgiving. On the eighth day a -council was held to determine the future mode of holding and -governing their newly-acquired possessions. At the outset a -remonstrance was presented by the priests, jealous as usual of their -supremacy, against secular matters being permitted to take the lead -of things ecclesiastical, and demanding that, before aught else was -done, a Patriarch should be first elected. But the Christians were a -long way from Rome. The conduct of their priests on the journey had -not been such as to inspire the laity with respect for their valour, -prudence, or morality, and the chiefs dismissed the remonstrance -with contempt. - -Robert of Flanders, in this important council, was the first to -speak. He called upon his peers, setting aside all jealousies and -ambitions, to elect from their own body one who might be found to -unite the best valour of a knight with the best virtue of a -Christian. And in a noble speech which has been preserved—if, -indeed, it was not written long after the time—he disclaimed, for -his own part, any desire to canvass their votes, or to become the -king of Jerusalem. “I entreat you to receive my counsel as I give it -you, with affection, frankness, and loyalty; and to elect for king -him who, by his own worth, will best be able to preserve and extend -this kingdom, to which are attached the honour of your arms, and the -cause of Jesus Christ.” - -Many had begun to think of offering the crown to Robert himself. But -this was not his wish; and among the rest their choice clearly lay -between Godfrey, Robert of Normandy, Raymond of Toulouse, and -Tancred. Of these, Tancred and Robert were men ambitious of glory -rather than of honours. The latter had thrown away the crown of -England once, and was going to throw it away again. With equal -readiness he threw away the crown of Jerusalem. Raymond, who had -sworn never to return to Europe, was old and unpopular, probably -from the absence of the princely munificence and affability that -distinguished Godfrey, perhaps also from lack of those personal -charms which his rival possessed. To be handsome as well as brave -was given to Godfrey, but if it had ever been given to Raymond, his -day of comeliness was past. A sort of committee of ten was -appointed, whose business it was to examine closely into the private -character of the chiefs, as well as into their prowess. History is -prudently silent as to the reports made on the characters of the -rest, but we know what was said about Godfrey. Though the Provençal -party invented calumnies against him, his own servants were explicit -and clear in their evidence. Nothing whatever could be set down -against him. Pure and unsullied in his private life, he came out of -this ordeal with no other accusation against him, by those who were -with him at all hours of the day and night, but one, and that the -most singular complaint ever brought against a prince by his -servants. They stated that in all the private acts of the duke, the -one which they found most vexatious (_absonum_) was that when he -went into a church he could not be got out of it, even after the -celebration of service; but he was used to stay behind and inquire -of the priests and those who seemed to have any knowledge of the -matter, about the meaning and history of each picture and image: his -companions, being otherwise minded, were affected with continual -tedium and even disgust at this conduct, which was certainly -thoughtless, because the meals, cooked, of course, in readiness for -a certain hour, were often, owing to this exasperating delay, served -up cold and tasteless. There is a touch of humour in the grave way -in which this charge is brought forward by the historian, who -evidently enjoys the picture of Godfrey’s followers standing by and -waiting, while their faces grow longer as they think of the roast, -which is certain to be either cold or overdone. - -No one was astonished, and most men rejoiced, when the electors -declared that their choice had fallen upon Godfrey. They conducted -him in solemn procession to the Church of the Sepulchre with hymns -and psalms. Here he took an oath to respect the laws of justice, but -when the coronation should have taken place, Godfrey put away the -crown. He would not wear a crown of gold when his Lord had worn a -crown of thorns. Nor would he take the title of king. Of this, he -said he was not worthy. Let them call him the Baron of the Holy -Sepulchre. He never wore the crown, but the voice of posterity has -always given him the name of king. - -Godfrey of Lorraine, born at Boulogne in the year 1058, or -thereabouts, was the son of Count Eustace, and the nephew of the -Duke of Lorraine. His brother Baldwin, who came with him as far as -Asia Minor, but separated then from the Crusaders and gained the -principality of Edessa, was the second son. Eustace, who afterwards -became Count of Boulogne, was the third. And his sister, Matilda, -was the wife of our king Stephen. - -The story of Godfrey, who is the real hero of the First Crusade, is -made up of facts, visions, and legends. Let us tell them altogether. - -At an early age he was once playing with his two brothers, when his -father entered the room. At that moment the children were all hiding -in the folds of their mother’s dress. Count Eustace, seeing the -dress shaken, asked who was behind it, “There,” replied the Lady -Ida, in the spirit of prophecy, “are three great princes. The first -shall be a duke, the second a king, and the third a count,” a -prediction which was afterwards exactly fulfilled. Unfortunately, no -record exists of this prophecy till nearly a hundred years after it -was made. Godfrey was adopted by his uncle, the Duke of Lorraine, -and, at the age of sixteen, joined the fortunes of the emperor Henry -IV. He fought in all the campaigns of that unquiet sovereign; he it -was who, at the battle of Malsen, carried the Imperial banner, and -signalized himself by killing Rudolph of Swabia with his own hand. -He was present when, after three years’ siege, Henry succeeded in -wresting Rome from Hildebrand in 1083, and in reward for his bravery -on that occasion, he received the duchy of Lorraine when it was -forfeited by the defection of Conrad. An illness, some time after, -caused him to vow a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and until the -Crusade started Godfrey had no rest or peace. - -During this period of expectation, a vision, related by Albert of -Aix, came to one of his servants. He saw, like Jacob, a ladder which -was all pure gold, ascending from earth to heaven. Godfrey, followed -by his servant Rothard, was mounting this ladder. Rothard had a lamp -in his hand; in the middle of the ascent the lamp went out suddenly. -Dismayed at this accident, Rothard came down the ladder, and -declined to relight his lamp or to climb up again. Godfrey, however, -undaunted, went on. Then the seer of the vision himself took the -lamp and followed his master; both arrived safely at the top, and -there, which was no other place than Heaven itself, they enjoyed the -favours of God. The ladder was of pure gold, to signify that -pilgrims must have pure hearts, and the gate to which it led was -Jerusalem, the gate of heaven. Rothard, whose light went out half -way, who came down in despair, was an image of those pilgrims who -take the Cross but come back again in despair; and he who saw the -vision and went up with Godfrey typified those Crusaders, a faithful -few, who endured unto the end. - -Stories are told to illustrate the prowess of this great and strong -man. On one occasion, when he was compelled to defend his rights to -some land by the ordeal of battle, his sword broke off short upon -the buckler of his adversary, leaving him not more than six inches -of steel. The knights present at the duel interposed in order to -stop a combat so unequal, but Godfrey himself insisted on going on. -His adversary pressed him with all his skill and strength, but -Godfrey, collecting all his force, sprang upon and literally felled -him to the ground. Then taking his sword from him, he broke it -across his knee, and called upon the president of the duel to make -such terms as would spare his enemy’s life. - -Again, a noble Arab, desirous of seeing so great a warrior, paid him -a visit, and asked him, as a special favour, to strike a camel with -his sword. Godfrey, at a single blow, struck off the head of the -beast. The Arab begged to speak apart with him, thinking it was the -effect of magic, and asked him if he would do the same thing with -another sword. “Lend me your own,” said Godfrey, and repeated the -feat with his guest’s own sword. - -At the time of his election, Godfrey was in the fulness of his -strength and vigour, about forty years of age. He was tall, but not -above the stature of ordinarily tall men; his countenance was -handsome and attractive; and his beard and hair were a reddish -brown. In manners he was courteous, and in living, simple and -unostentatious. The first king of Christian Jerusalem, the only one -of all the Crusaders whose life was pure, whose motives were -disinterested, whose end and aim was the glory of God, was also the -only king who came near the standard set up by Robert of Flanders, -as one who should be foremost in virtue as well as in arms. The -kingdom over which he ruled was a kingdom without frontiers, save -those which the sword had made. Right and left of the path of the -Crusaders, between Cæsarea and Jerusalem, the Saracens had fallen -back in terror of the advancing army. The space left free was all -that Godfrey could call his own. To the north, Bohemond held -Antioch, Baldwin, Edessa, and Tancred was soon to occupy Galilee. -Egypt threatened in the south, wild Bedawín in the east, and on the -north and north-west were gathering, disorganized as yet, but soon -to assume the form of armies, the fanatic Mohammedans, maddened by -their loss. It must be remembered that during the whole eighty years -of its existence the kingdom of Jerusalem was never for one single -moment free from war and war’s alarms. - -At this time the joy of the soldiers was increased by the -announcement made by a Christian inhabitant of Jerusalem that he had -buried in the city, before the Crusaders came, a cross which -contained a piece of the True Cross. This relic was dug up after a -solemn procession, and borne in state to the Church of the Holy -Sepulchre, where it was intrusted to the care of Arnold, who had -been appointed to act in the place of the patriarch. The appetite -for relics had grown _en mangeant_. Besides the holy lance, and this -piece of the True Cross, every knight, almost every common soldier, -had been enabled to enrich himself with something precious—a bone or -a piece of cloth, which had once belonged to a saint, a nail which -had helped to crucify him, or the axe which had beheaded him. And -there can be no doubt that the possession of these relics most -materially helped to inspire them with courage. - -While the princes were still deliberating over the choice of a king, -came the news that the Egyptian Caliph had assembled together a vast -army, which was even then marching across the desert under the -command of a renegade Armenian named Afdhal. He it was who had taken -Jerusalem from the Turks only eleven months before the siege by the -Crusaders. The army contained not only the flower of the Egyptian -troops, but also many thousands of Mohammedan warriors from Damascus -and Bagdad, eager to wipe out the disgrace of their defeats. - -Tancred, Count Eustace of Boulogne, and Robert of Flanders, sent -forward to reconnoitre, despatched a messenger to Jerusalem with the -news that this innumerable army was on its way, and would be, within -a few days, at the very gates of the city. The intelligence was -proclaimed by heralds through the city, and at daybreak the princes -went bare-footed to the Church of the Sepulchre, where they received -the Eucharist before setting out on their way to Ascalon. Peter the -Hermit remained in charge of the women and children, whom he led -round in solemn procession to the sacred sites, there to pray for -the triumph of the Christian arms. Even at this solemn moment, when -the fate of the newly-born kingdom trembled on the decision of a -single battle, the chiefs could not abstain from dissensions. At the -last moment, Robert of Normandy and Count Raymond declared that they -would not go with the army; the former because his vow was -accomplished, the latter because he was still sullen over the -decision of the electors. But by the entreaties of their soldiers -they were persuaded to yield. The Christian army collected in its -full force at Ramleh, attended by Arnold with the True Cross, whence -they came to the Wady Sorek. - -The battle took place on the plain of Philistia, that lovely and -fertile plain which was to be reddened with blood in a hundred -fights between the Christians and their foes. - -The Christian army had been followed into the plain by thousands of -the cattle which were grazing harmlessly over the country. The dust -raised by the march of the men and beasts hung in clouds over these -flocks and made the Egyptian army take them for countless squadrons -of cavalry. Hasty arrangements were made. Godfrey took two thousand -horse and three thousand foot to prevent a sortie of the inhabitants -of Ascalon; Raymond placed himself near the seashore, between the -fleet and the enemy; Tancred and the two Roberts directed the attack -on the centre and right wings. In the first rank of the enemy were -lines of African bowmen, black Ethiopians, terrible of visage, -uttering unearthly cries, and wielding, besides their bows, strange -and unnatural weapons, such as flails loaded with iron balls, with -which they beat upon the armour of the knights and strove to kill -the horses. The Christians charged into the thickest of these black -warriors, taking them probably for real devils, whom it was a duty -as well as a pleasure to destroy. A panic seized the Mohammedans; -Robert Courthose, always foremost in the _mêlée_, found himself in -the presence of Afdhal himself, and seized the grand standard. And -then the Egyptians all fled. Those who got to the seashore fell into -the hands of Raymond, who killed all, except some who tried to swim, -and were drowned in their endeavours to reach their fleet; some -rushed in the direction of Ascalon and climbed up into the trees, -where the Christians picked them off with arrows at their leisure; -and some, laying down their arms in despair, sat still and offered -no resistance, while the Christians came up and cut their throats. -Afdhal, who lost his sword in the rout, fled into Ascalon, and two -thousand of his men, crowding after him, were trampled under foot at -the gates. From the towers of Ascalon he beheld the total rout and -massacre of his splendid army and the sack of his camp. “Oh, -Mohammed,” cried the despairing renegade, “can it be true that the -power of the Crucified One is greater than thine?” Afdhal embarked -on board the Egyptian fleet and returned alone. No one has told what -was the loss sustained by the Mohammedans in this battle. They were -mown down, it is said, like the wheat in the field; and those who -escaped the sword perished in the desert. - -It is well observed by Michault, that this is the first battle won -by the Christians in which the saints took no part. Henceforth Saint -George appears no more. The enthusiasm of the soldiers was kindled -by religious zeal, but it is kept alive henceforth by success. When -success began to fail, religion could do nothing more for them. - -Raymond and Godfrey quarrelled immediately after the battle about -the right of conquest over Ascalon, which Raymond wished to take for -himself, and Godfrey claimed as his own. Raymond, in high dudgeon, -withdrew, and took off all his troops, like Achilles. Godfrey was -obliged to raise the siege of Ascalon, and followed him. On the way -Raymond attacked the town of Arsûf, but meeting with a more -determined resistance than he anticipated, he continued his march, -maliciously informing the garrison that they had no reason to be -afraid of King Godfrey. Consequently, when Godfrey arrived, they -were not afraid of him, and gave him so warm a reception that he was -obliged to give up the siege, and learning the trick that Raymond -had played him, flew into so mighty a passion, that he resolved to -terminate the quarrel according to European fashion. Tancred and the -two Roberts used all their efforts to appease the two princes, and a -reconciliation was effected between them. What is more important is, -that the reconciliation was loyal and sincere. Raymond gave up all -his schemes of ambition in Jerusalem; ceded all pretensions to the -tower of David, over which he had claimed rights of conquest, and so -long as he lived was a loyal supporter of the kingdom which he had -so nearly obtained for himself. But Ascalon remained untaken, a -thorn in the sides of the conquerors for many years to follow, and a -standing reminder of the necessity of concord. - -The army returned to Jerusalem singing hymns of triumph, and entered -the city with sound of clarion and display of their victorious -banners. The grand standard and the sword of Afdhal were deposited -in the Church of the Sepulchre; and a great service of thanksgiving -was held for their deliverance from the Egyptians. - -And then the princes began to think of going home again. They had -now been four years away. Their vow was fulfilled. Jerusalem was -freed from the yoke of the Mussulman, and they could no longer be -restrained. Three hundred knights and two thousand foot-soldiers -alone resolved to stay with Godfrey and share his fortunes. Among -them was Tancred, almost as great a Christian hero as Godfrey -himself. “Forget not,” those who remained cried with tears—these -knights were not ashamed to show their emotion—to those who went -away, “forget not your brethren whom you leave in exile; when you -get back to Europe, fill all Christians with the desire of visiting -those sacred places which we have delivered; exhort the warriors to -come and fight the infidels by our side.” - -So went back the Crusaders, bearing each a palm-branch from Jericho, -in proof of the accomplishment of their pilgrimage. It was but a -small and miserable remnant which returned of those mighty hosts -which, four years before, had left the West. There was not a noble -family of France but had lost its sons in the great war; there was -not a woman who had not some one near and dear to her lying dead -upon the plains of Syria; not even a monk who had not to mourn a -brother in the flesh or a brother of the convent. Great, then, must -have been the rejoicing over those who had been through all the -dangers of the campaign, and now returned bringing their sheaves -with them;—not of gold, for they had none; nor of rich raiment, for -they were in rags—but of glory, and honour, and of precious relics, -better in their simple eyes than any gold, and more priceless than -any jewels. With these and their palm-branches they enriched and -decorated their native churches, and the sight of them kept alive -the crusading ardour even when the first soldiers were all dead. - -Raymond of Toulouse went first to Constantinople, where Alexis -received him with honour, and gave him the principality of Laodicea. -Eustace of Boulogne went back to his patrimony, leaving his brothers -in Palestine. Robert of Flanders went home to be drowned in the -Marne. Robert of Normandy, to eat out his heart in Cardiff Castle. -Bohemond, Tancred, and Baldwin, with Raymond, remained in the East. - -The miserably small army left with King Godfrey would have -ill-sufficed to defend the city, had it not been for the continual -relays of pilgrims who arrived daily. These could all, at a pinch, -be turned into fighting men, and when their pilgrimage was finished -there were many who would remain and enter permanently into the -service of the king. And this seems to have been the principal way -in which the army was recruited. It was nearly always engaged in -fighting or making ready for fighting, and without constant -reinforcements must speedily have come to an end. A great many -Christians settled in the country by degrees, and, marrying either -with native Christians or others, produced a race of semi-Asiatics, -called _pullani_,[55] who seem to have united the vices of both -sides of their descent, and to have inherited none of the virtues. - -Footnote 55: - - Perhaps _fulání_, _anybodies_. So in modern Arabic the greatest - insult you can offer a man is to call him, _fulán ibn fulán_, so - and so, the son of so and so—_i.e._, a foundling or bastard. - -As for the people—not the Saracens, who, it must be remembered, were -always the conquerors, but not always the settlers—we have little -information about them. The hand of the Arab was against every man, -and every man’s against his. When the pilgrims, it will be -remembered, killed the sheikh at Ramleh, the Emir expressed his -gratitude at being rid of his worst enemy. But, as to the villagers, -the people who tilled the ground, the occupants of the soil, we know -nothing of what race they were. It was four hundred years since the -country had ceased to be Christian—it is hardly to be expected that -the villagers were anything but Mohammedan. William of Tyre -expressly calls them infidels, or Saracens, and they were certainly -hostile. No Christian could travel across the country unless as one -of a formidable party; and the labourers refused to cultivate the -ground, in hopes of starving the Christians out: even in the towns, -the walls were all so ruinous, and the defenders so few, that -thieves and murderers entered by night, and no one lay down to sleep -in safety. The country had been too quickly overrun, and places -which had surrendered in a panic, seeing the paucity of the numbers -opposed to them, began now to think how the yoke was to be shaken -off. - -It was at Christmas, 1099, that Baldwin of Edessa, Bohemond, and -Dagobert, or Daimbert, Archbishop of Pisa, came to Jerusalem with -upwards of twenty thousand pilgrims. These had suffered from cold -and the attacks of Arabs, but had received relief and help from -Tancred in Tiberias, and were welcomed by the king at the head of -all his people, before the gates of the city. Arrived there, they -chose a patriarch, electing Dagobert; and Arnold, who had never been -legally elected, was deposed. They stayed during the winter, and -gave the king their counsels as to the future constitution of his -realm. - -Godfrey employed the first six months of the year 1100 in regulating -ecclesiastical affairs, the clergy being, as usual, almost -incredibly greedy, and in concluding treaties with the governors of -Ascalon, Acre, Cæsarea, Damascus, and Aleppo. He was showing himself -as skilful in administration as he had been in war, and the -Christian kingdom would doubtless have been put upon a solid and -permanent footing, but for his sudden and premature death, which -took place on July the 18th, 1100. His end was caused by an -intermittent fever; finding that there was little hope, he caused -himself to be transported from Jaffa to Jerusalem, where he breathed -his last. He was buried in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, where -his epitaph might have been read up to the year 1808, when the -church was destroyed by fire. - -“Hic jacet inclitus dux Godefridus de Bouillon, qui totam istam -terram acquisivit cultui Christiano, cujus anima regnet cum -Christo.” And here, too, were laid up his sword, more trenchant than -Excalibur, and the knightly spurs with which he had won more honour -than King Arthur. - -The _Assises de Jerusalem_, that most curious and instructive code -of feudal law, does not belong properly to the reign of Godfrey. As -it now exists it was drawn up in the fourteenth century. But it -embodies, although it contains many additions and interpolations, -the code which Godfrey first began, and the following kings -finished. And it is based upon the idea which ruled Godfrey and his -peers. It may therefore fairly be considered in this place. - -It was highly necessary to have strict and clearly defined laws for -this new kingdom. Its subjects were either pious and fanatic -pilgrims, or unscrupulous and ambitious adventurers. Bishops and -vassals, among whom the conquered lands were freely distributed, -were disposed to set their suzerain at defiance, and to exalt -themselves into petty kings. The pilgrims were many of them -criminals of the worst kind, ready enough, when the old score was -wiped out by so many prayers at sacred places, to begin a new one. -They were of all countries, and spoke all languages. Their presence, -useful enough when the Egyptian army had to be defeated, was a -source of the greatest danger in time of peace. It is true that the -time of peace was never more than a few months in duration. - -The duties and rights of king, baron, and bourgeois were therefore -strictly and carefully laid down in Godfrey’s _Assises_. Every law -was written on parchment, in great letters, the first being -illuminated in gold, and all the others in vermilion; on every sheet -was the seal of the king; the whole was deposited in a great box in -the sacred church, and called the “Letters of the Sepulchre.” - -The duty of the king was to maintain the laws; to defend the church; -to care for widows and orphans; to watch over the safety of the -people; and to lead the army to war. The duty of the _seigneur_ -towards his people was exactly the same as that of the king; towards -the king it was to serve him in war and by counsel. The duty of a -subject to his lord was to defend and to revenge him; to protect the -honour of his wife and daughters; to be a hostage for him in case of -need; to give him his horse if he wanted one, or arms if he wanted -them; and to keep faith with him. There were three courts of -justice; the first presided over by the king, for the regulation of -all differences between the great vassals; the second, formed of the -principal inhabitants—a kind of jury—to maintain the laws among the -_bourgeoisie_; and the third, reserved for the Oriental Christians, -presided over by judges born in Syria. - -The king, the summit of this feudal pyramid, who was wont to offer -his crown at the Holy Sepulchre, “as a woman used to offer her male -child at the Temple,” had immediately under him his seneschal, who -acted as chief justice, chancellor of the exchequer, and prime -minister. The constable commanded the army in the name of or in the -absence of the king; he presided over the ordeal by battle, and -regulated its administration. Under his orders was the marshal, who -replaced him on occasion. The chamberlain’s duty was about the -person of the king. - -As regards the power and duties of the barons, it was ruled that -they were allowed, if they pleased, to give their fiefs to the -church; that the fiefs should always descend to the male heir; that -the baron or _seigneur_ should succeed to a fief alienated by the -failure on the part of the feudatory to perform his duties; that the -baron should be the guardian of heirs male and female. These, if -male, were to present themselves when the time came, saying, “I am -fully fifteen years of age,” upon which he was to invest them; while -maidens were to claim their fiefs at the age of twelve, on condition -that they took a husband to protect it. Nor was any woman who -remained without a husband to hold a fief until she was at least -sixty years of age. - -In the ordeal of battle, the formula of challenge was provided, and -only those were excused who had lost limbs, in battle or otherwise, -women, children, and men arrived at their sixtieth year. In a -criminal case death followed defeat; in a civil case, infamy. - -Slaves, peasants, and captives were, like cattle, subject only to -laws of buying and selling. A slave was reckoned worth a falcon; two -slaves were worth a charger; the master could do exactly as he -pleased with his own slaves. They were protected by the natural -kindness of humanity alone. In the days of its greatest prosperity -the different baronies and cities of the kingdom of Jerusalem could -be called upon to furnish in all three thousand seven hundred and -twenty-nine knights. But this was after the time of Godfrey, the -David of the new kingdom. - -Of course the _seigneurs_ and barons took their titles from the -places they held; thus we hear of the barony of Jaffa, of Galilee, -of Acre, and of Nablous; the seigneur of Kerak and of Arsûf. And -thus in the soil of Palestine was planted, like some strange exotic, -rare and new, the whole of the feudal system, with all its laws, its -ideas, and its limitations. - -The news of the recovery of Jerusalem, and the return of the -triumphant Crusaders, revived the flame of crusading enthusiasm, -which in the space of four years had somewhat subsided. Those who -had not followed the rest in taking the Cross reproached -themselves with apathy; those who had deserted the Cross were the -object of contempt and scorn. More signs appeared in heaven; -flames of fire in the east—probably at daybreak; passage of -insects and birds—emblematic of the swarms of pilgrims which were -to follow. Only when the preachers urged on their hearers to take -the Cross it was no longer in the minor key of plaint and -suffering; they had risen and left the waters of Babylon; they had -taken down their harps from the trees and tuned them afresh; they -sang, now, a song of triumph; and in place of suffering, sorrow, -and humiliation, they proclaimed victory, glory, and riches. It -seemed better to a European knight to be Baron of Samaria than -lord of a western state; imagination magnified the splendour of -Baldwin and Tancred; things far off assumed such colours as the -mind pleased; and letters read from the chiefs in Palestine spoke -only of spoils won in battle, of splendid victories, and of -conquered lands. Again the cry was raised of _Dieu le veut_, and -again the pilgrims, but this time in a very different spirit, -poured eastwards in countless thousands. - -The way was led by Hugh, Count of Vermandois and the unfortunate -Stephen of Blois, whose lives had been a mere burden to them since -their desertion of the Cross; the latter, who had little inclination -for fighting of any kind, and still less for more hardships in the -thirsty East, followed at the instigation of his wife Adela, -daughter of William the Conqueror. Neither of them ever returned. -William of Poitiers, like Stephen of Blois, a poet and scholar, -mortgaged his estates to William Rufus, the scoffer, who, of course, -was still lamentably insensible to the voice of the preacher—it must -have been just before his death; Humbert of Savoy, William of -Nevers, Harpin of Bourges, and Odo, Duke of Burgundy, followed his -example. In Italy the Bishop of Milan, armed with a bone of Saint -Ambrose, led an army of one hundred thousand pilgrims, while an -immense number of Germans followed the Marshal Conrad and Wolf of -Bavaria. Most of the knights professed religious zeal; but hoped, -their geographical knowledge being small, to win kingdoms and -duchies like those of Baldwin and Tancred. Humbert of Savoy, more -honest than the others, openly ordered prayers to be put up that he -might obtain a happy principality. It does not appear from history -that his petition was granted. - -The new army was by no means so well conducted as the old. Insolent -in their confidence, and ill-disciplined, they plundered and -pillaged wherever they came. They menaced Alexis Comnenus, and -threatened to take and destroy the city. Alexis, it is said, but it -is difficult to believe this, actually turned his wild beasts upon -the mob, and his favourite lion got killed in the encounter. After -prayers and presents, the Emperor persuaded his unruly guests to -depart and go across the straits. _Non defensoribus istis_ might -have been the constant ejaculation of the much abused and long -suffering monarch. - -Then they were joined by Conrad with his Germans and Hugh with his -French. Their numbers are stated at two hundred and sixty thousand, -among whom was a vast number of priests, monks, women, and children. -Raymond of Toulouse, who was in Constantinople, undertook -reluctantly to guide the army across Asia Minor, and brought with -him a few of his Provençaux and a body of five hundred Turcopoles -(these were light infantry, so called because they were the children -of Christian women by Turkish fathers), the contingent of the Greek -Emperor. - -But the army was too confident to keep to the old path. They would -go eastward and attack the Turks in their strongest place, even in -Khorassan itself. Raymond let them have their own way, doubtless -with misgiving and anxiety, and went with them. The town of Ancyra, -in Paphlagonia, was attacked and taken by assault. All the people -were put to death without exception. They went on farther, exulting -and jubilant. Presently they found themselves surrounded by the -enemy, who appeared suddenly, attacked them in clouds, and from all -quarters. They were in a desert where there was little water, what -there was being so rigorously watched over by the Turks that few -escaped who went to seek it. They were marching over dry brushwood; -the Turks set fire to it, and many perished in the flames or the -smoke. There was but one thing to do, to fight the enemy. They did -so, and though the victory seemed theirs, they had small cause to -triumph, for division after division of their army had been forced -to fly before the Turks. Still this might have been repaired. But in -the night Count Raymond left them, and fled with his soldiers in the -direction of Sinope. The news of this defection quickly spread. -Bishops, princes, and knights, seized with a sudden panic, left -baggage, tents and all, and fled away in hot haste. In the morning -the Turks prepared again for battle. There was no enemy. In the camp -was nothing but a shrieking, despairing multitude of monks, and -women, and children. The Turks killed remorselessly, sparing none -but those women who were young and beautiful. In their terror and -misery the poor creatures put on hastily their finest dresses, in -hopes by their beauty to win life at least, if life shameful, and -hopeless, and miserable. - -“Alas!” says Albert of Aix, “alas! what grief for these women so -tender and so noble, led into captivity by savages so impious and so -horrible! For these men had their heads shaven in front, at the -sides, and at the nape, the little hair left fell behind in -disorder, and in few plaits, upon their necks; their beards were -thick and unkempt, and everything, with their garments, gave them -the appearance of infernal and unclean spirits. There were no bounds -to the cries and lamentations of these delicate women; the camp -re-echoed with their groans; one had seen her husband perish, one -had been left behind by hers. Some were beheaded after serving to -gratify the lust of the Turks; some whose beauty had struck their -eyes were reserved for a wretched captivity. After having taken so -many women in the tents of the Christians, the Turks set off in -pursuit of the foot-soldiers, the knights, the priests, and the -monks; they struck them with the sword as a reaper cuts the wheat -with his sickle; they respected neither age nor rank, they spared -none but those whom they destined to be soldiers. The ground was -covered with immense riches abandoned by the fugitives. Here and -there were seen splendid dresses of various colours; horses and -mules lay about the plain; blood inundated the roads, and the number -of dead amounted to more than a hundred and sixty thousand.” - -As for the arm of St. Ambrose, that was lost too, and it doubtless -lies still upon the plain beyond Ancyra, waiting to work more -miracles. It is exasperating to find all the chroniclers, with the -exception of Albert of Aix, passing over with hardly a word of -sympathy the miserable fate of the helpless women, and pouring out -their regrets over this trumpery relic. - -There was another army still, headed by the Duke of Nevers. They -followed in the footsteps of their predecessors as far as Ancyra, -where they turned southwards. Their fate was the same as that of the -others: all were killed. The leader, who had fled to Germanicopolis, -took some Greek soldiers as guides. These stripped him, and left him -alone in the forest. He wandered about for some days, and at last -found his way to Antioch, as poor and naked as any beggar in his own -town. - -The third and last army, headed by the Count Hugh of Vermandois, met -with a similar end. Thirst, heat, and hunger destroyed their -strength, for the Turks had filled the wells, destroyed the crops, -and let the water out of the cisterns. On the river Halys they met -their end; William of Poitiers, like the Duke of Nevers, arrived -naked at Antioch. The luckless Count of Vermandois got as far as -Tarsus, where he died of his wounds, and poor Ida of Austria, who -came, as she thought, under the protection of the pilgrims, with all -her noble ladies, was never heard of any more. - -Of these three great hosts, only ten thousand managed to get to -Antioch. Every one of the ladies and women who were with them -perished; all the children, all the monks and priests. And of the -leaders, none went back to Europe except the Count of Blandrat, who -with the Bishop of Milan had headed the Lombards, the Duke of -Nevers, and William of Poitiers, the troubadour. - -These were the last waves of the first great storm. With the last of -these three great armies died away the crusading spirit proper—that -which Peter the Hermit had aroused. There could be no more any such -universal enthusiasm. Once and only once again would all Europe -thrill with rage and indignation. It had burned to wrest the city -from the infidels; it was to burn once more, but this time with a -feebler flame, and ineffectually, to wrest it a second time, when -the frail and turbulent kingdom of Jerusalem should be at an end. - -We have dwelt perhaps at too great length on the great Crusade which -really ended with the death of Godfrey. But the centre of its aims -was Jerusalem. The Christian kingdom, one of the most interesting -episodes in the history of the city, cannot be understood without -knowing some of the events which brought it about. - - THE KINGS OF JERUSALEM - - CHARLEMAGNE. - . - . - . - - Ida = Eustace de Bouillon, Cousin to Hugh de Rethel. - │ │ - ┌─────┴─────┬───────────┬───────────┐ │ - │ │ │ │ │ - K. Godfrey. K. Baldwin I. Eustace. Matilda = King Stephen │ - of England. │ - │ - K. Baldwin - du Bourg. - │ - ┌───────────────────┬────────────────────┬───────┘ - │ │ │ - K Fulke = Milicent. Alice = Bohemond II. Hodierne = Raymond - │ │ of Antioch. │ of Tripoli. - │ └─────────┐ └───────────┐ - │ │ │ - ├──────────────────────┐ Raymond = Constance = Renaud │ - │ │ of Poitou │ de Chatillon.│ - │ │ │ │ - │ │ └─────────┐ Raymond. - │ │ │ - K. Baldwin III. = Theodora K. Amaury = Agnes, Bohemond III. - of Constantinople. │ d. of Jocelyn II. - │ - ┌─────────────────────┬───┴───────────────┐ - │ │ │ - K. Baldwin William of = Sybille = K. Guy de │ - IV. Montferrat.│ Lusignan. │ - │ │ - │ ┌──────┘ - │ │ - │ Homfray = Isabelle = K. Conrad de Montferrat. - ┌────────────────┤ de Toron │ K. Henry of Champagne. - │ │ │ K. Amaury de Lusignan. - K. Baldwin V. Two children │ - died in infancy. │ - ┌───────┴─┐ - │ │ - │ │ - K. John de Brienne = Constance. Alice = Hugh de Lusignan. - │ - Yolante = K. Frederick II. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII. - KING BALDWIN I. A.D. 1100-1118. - - “Tell me,” said Don Quixote, “have you ever seen a more valorous - knight than I upon the whole face of the known earth?” - - -No sooner was the breath out of Godfrey’s body, than, according to -usual custom, the Christians began to quarrel as to who should -succeed him. Count Garnier de Gray, a cousin of Godfrey’s, took -possession promptly of the Tower of David and other fortified -places, and refused to give them up to the patriarch, Dagobert, who -claimed them as having been ceded to him by the late king. -Unfortunately, Count Garnier died suddenly at this juncture, and his -death was of course interpreted by the churchmen as a punishment for -his contumacy. Dagobert wrote immediately—the letter is preserved—to -Bohemond, urging him to assert his claims. Hardly was the epistle -sent off, when the news came that Bohemond was a prisoner. There -was, therefore, nothing to prevent Baldwin from stepping quietly -into the throne. - -Baldwin, the brother of Godfrey, had been originally destined for -the Church, and received a liberal education. When he abandoned the -robe for the sword is not certain, nor, indeed, do we know anything -at all about him until we see him in the Crusade following his -brother. He was a man of grave and majestic bearing. Taller by a -head than other men, he was also of great strength, extremely -active, and well skilled in all the arts of chivalry. His beard and -hair were black, his nose aquiline, and the upper lip slightly -projecting. He was fond of personal splendour and display. When he -rode out in the town of Edessa a golden buckler, with the device of -an eagle, was borne before him, and two horsemen rode in front -blowing trumpets. Following the Oriental custom, he had allowed his -beard to grow, and took his meals seated on carpets. He was not, -like his brother, personally pious, nor was he by any means -priestridden. His early education had been sufficient to deprive him -of any great respect for the cloth, and the facility with which he -fell into Oriental customs proves that his Christianity sat lightly -enough upon him. As yet, however, there were no declared infidels in -the East. His morals were dissolute, but he knew how to prevent -scandals arising, and none but those who were immediately about him -knew what was the private life of their grave and solemn king. At -the same time he does not appear to have been a hypocrite, or to -have claimed any merit at all for piety. The figure of Godfrey is -clouded with legends and miraculous stories. We hardly seem to see, -through the mist of years, the features of the short-lived David of -the new kingdom. But that of Baldwin, the new Solomon of Jerusalem, -stands out clear and distinct. This king, calm, cold of speech, -self-reliant, like Saul, a head taller than anybody else, who will -not be seen abroad without a mantle upon his shoulders, who lets his -beard grow, and looks out upon the world with those keen bright eyes -of his, and that strong projecting upper lip, is indeed a man, and -not a shadow of history. He is a clerk, and is not to be terrified, -knowing too much of the Church, into giving up his own to the -Church, as Godfrey did. His, too, is the sharp, clear-cut, aquiline -nose of the general, as well as the strong arm of a soldier, and the -Turks will not probably greatly prevail against him. And with -Godfrey, as we have said before, vanish for ever those shadowy -figures of saints and dead bishops who were wont to fight with the -army. King Baldwin believed in no saints’ help, either in battle or -in the world, and did not look for any. Jerusalem, henceforth, has -to get along without many miracles. For the appearance of saints and -other ghostly auxiliaries is like the appearance of fairies—they -come not, when men believe in them no more: - - “Their lives - Are based upon the fickle faith of men: - Not measured out against fate’s mortal knives - Like human gossamers; they perish when - They fade, and are forgot in worldly ken.” - -Baldwin did not hesitate one moment to exchange his rich and -luxurious principality of Edessa for the greater dignity, with all -its thorns and cares, of the crown of Jerusalem. He made over his -power to his cousin Baldwin Du Bourg, and himself, with a little -army of four hundred knights and one thousand foot, started on his -perilous journey, through a country swarming with enemies. He got on -very smoothly, despite the paucity of his numbers, until he reached -Beyrout. Five miles from that town was a narrow pass, with the sea -on one side and rocks on the other, too difficult to force if it -were held by even a hundred men. The trouble and anxiety into which -the army was thrown are well told by Foulcher, the king’s chaplain, -who was with him. The worthy chaplain was horribly frightened. “I -would much rather,” he tells us, “have been at Chartres or -Orleans.... Nowhere was there a place where we could find refuge, no -way was open to us to escape death, no passage was left by which we -could flee, no hope of safety remained if we stayed where we were. -Solomon himself would not have known which way to turn, and even -Samson would have been conquered. But God ... seeing the peril and -distress into which we had fallen for His service, and through love -of Him”—rather a daring assertion, considering that Baldwin had -deserted the Crusade, and gone off filibustering entirely on his own -account, and was now going to receive a crown for which he certainly -had not fought—“was touched with pity, and granted in His mercy such -an audacity of courage that our men put to flight those who were -pursuing them.... Some threw themselves from the top of scarped -rocks, others rushed to places which seemed to present a little -chance of safety, others were caught and perished by the edge of the -sword. You ought to have seen their ships flying through the waves, -as if we could seize them with our hands; and themselves in their -fright scaling the mountains and the rocks.” And no doubt it did the -excellent chaplain good to see them running away, just after defeat -and death appeared so imminent. - -In the morning Baldwin rode up to examine the pass, and found the -enemy gone. So the little army passed in safety, and went on their -way, laden with the spoils of the Turks. - -Arrived at Jerusalem, all the people, headed by the clergy, came out -to meet the king, singing hymns and bearing tapers. Only the -patriarch, Dagobert, chose to be absent and retired to Mount Zion, -pretending to be in fear for his personal safety. - -Baldwin did not immediately concern himself about the patriarch. -Satisfied with the homage of the barons and clergy, and conscious -that his crown could only be preserved by establishing respect for -his prowess among his own men, and fear among the Mohammedans, he -set out with a force of a hundred and fifty knights, and five -hundred foot, and appeared before the walls of Ascalon. Here, -however, he experienced a check, the garrison having been -reinforced. Raising the siege hastily, he ravaged the country round -the town, and then directed his march in a south-east direction, -taking possession of the cattle everywhere and destroying the crops. -At one place he found a large number of Arabs, robbers, we are told, -who had taken refuge in caverns. Baldwin kindled fires at the mouth -of the cave, hoping to drive them out by the smoke. Only two came. -The king spoke kindly to them, kept one, dressed up the other in a -magnificent mantle and sent him back. As soon as he was gone Baldwin -killed the one who was left. Presently the messenger returned with -ten more. Baldwin sent back one, as before, and killed the remaining -ten. This one returned with thirty; one was sent back and the rest -beheaded. The next time two hundred and thirty came out, and Baldwin -beheaded them all. Then more fire was made, and the miserable wives -and children were forced to come out. Some ransomed their lives, the -rest were beheaded. Baldwin, after this wholesale slaughter, thence -travelled down to the Dead Sea, to the great delight of his -chaplain, who describes the places he saw, everywhere inspiring -terror of his name, and driving the cattle before him. He returned -to Jerusalem laden with booty, three days before Christmas, having -succeeded in gaining the confidence of his new subjects. Dagobert, -the patriarch, deemed it wisest to cease his opposition to the king, -and the coronation of Baldwin took place at Bethlehem. Tancred at -first refused to recognise his old enemy as king, but giving way, -they were reconciled; moreover, he was no longer so much in -Baldwin’s way, because in his uncle, Bohemond’s, captivity he was -governing his principality of Antioch. The reconciliation, like that -between Raymond and Godfrey, was sincere and loyal. By several small -expeditions, such as that directed to the south, Baldwin established -a terror for his name which served him in good stead. For the -kingdom was in an unstable and dangerous condition; there were very -few men with whom to form an army, and had it not been for the -pilgrims who flocked to the city in thousands, it might have been -lost many times over. - -The Easter miracle of the Holy Fire served this year to revive the -enthusiasm which was beginning to flag. To the astonishment and -horror of the people it did not come as usual. For three days they -waited. Tears, prayers, and lamentations were uttered. Then a solemn -procession was enjoined, and king, clergy, and people marched -barefooted round the church, weeping and praying. Suddenly a bright -light filled the church. The flame had lit one of the lamps, it flew -from lamp to lamp, and when in the evening Baldwin sat at dinner in -the “Temple of Solomon,” _i.e._, the Jamí el Aksa, two lamps were -miraculously kindled there also. We can have very little doubt, -inasmuch as this impudent imposture is carried on to the present -day, avowedly as an imposture, that Baldwin and the clergy devised -the scheme as a means to arouse the flagging zeal of the pilgrims, -and especially of certain Genoese and Pisans, who had a large fleet -with them, the assistance of which he greatly desired. - -To bring about this fraud, a reconciliation had been effected -between Baldwin and the unworthy patriarch, Dagobert. For it was not -long after the return of Baldwin from his first expedition when he -discovered how Dagobert had endeavoured, by any means in his power, -to prevent his accession. Doubtless he was informed by Arnold,[56] -the late chaplain to the Duke Robert of Normandy. Arnold, a priest -of great ambition, was the heir to Bishop Odo of Bayeux, William the -Conqueror’s half-brother, who had left him great wealth. The object -dearest to his heart was the acquisition of the post of patriarch. -After the siege he performed the duties temporarily, as a sort of -vicar, but had been displaced on Dagobert’s appointment. His morals, -we are told by William of Tyre, were so notoriously bad as to be the -theme of rough verses among the soldiers. But William of Tyre, whose -favourite name for him is “that first-born of Satan,” writes from -the side of the Church as represented by Dagobert. The morals of the -patriarch himself, too, appear to have been at least doubtful, even -before his accession to his new dignity, as he is roundly accused of -appropriating to his own purposes moneys and presents destined for -the pope. But churchmen, when they talk of morality, always mean -chastity and nothing else. As soon as Baldwin was informed of -Dagobert’s opposition, he wrote a letter to Rome, accusing the -patriarch not only of opposing the election of the lawful and -hereditary king, but also of trying to procure his death on the -road, and of exciting discord among the chiefs of the Crusade. The -pope sent his own brother, Cardinal Maurice, to Jerusalem as his -legate, with authority to suspend the patriarch until he should be -able to purge himself of the charges brought against him. Maurice -called a court composed of bishops and abbots directly he arrived in -the city, and summoned the king to prove, and the patriarch to -disprove, his accusations. Baldwin had, meanwhile, found another -charge, no doubt invented by Arnold, as it bears all the marks of -private malice, to bring against Dagobert. He had, it was said, -purloined and concealed a piece of the wood of the Cross, in -addition to his other offences; the king himself must have known -well enough that in the eyes of the Church this offence would be far -more serious than any of the others. To procure the death of a man -would be venial indeed compared with the abstraction of a relic. -Dagobert had very little, it would appear, to say, and an -adjournment was granted, to give him time to call witnesses in his -own defence. - -Footnote 56: - - His name is also written Arnoulf and Arnoul. - -Came, meantime, the season of Easter, and that day, Good Friday, -when the Holy Oil was wont to be consecrated for the use of the -sick. In place of the patriarch, whom the king assumed to be -deposed, but who was really only suspended, the cardinal undertook -this duty, and was already on the Mount of Olives, the place -assigned to this ceremony, when the patriarch, humiliated beyond all -expression by this public degradation from his functions, went to -the king and implored him, with tears in his eyes, to reinstate him -for that day only. Baldwin refused. Dagobert urged him again not to -inflict this punishment upon him in the face of so many pilgrims. -But the king remained obdurate. Then the patriarch changed his line. -Instead of entreating, he bribed. He offered Baldwin three hundred -byzantines. The royal treasury was empty, the knights were -clamouring for their pay, and the patriarch obtained his request. - -After this some sort of peace was made up between the pope’s legate, -Cardinal Maurice, and the patriarch; a peace founded, it would seem, -on mutual interest, for we are told that they became so friendly -that they were accustomed to spend the day and night together in -retired places, secretly feasting, and drinking the wine of Gaza, no -doubt in happy ignorance that the eye of Arnold—that first-born of -Satan—was upon them, and that he was biding his time. - -In the spring, at the same time as the memorable miracle of the Holy -Fire, and the arrival of the Genoese and Pisan fleet, came -emissaries from the Mohammedan towns of Ascalon, Cæsarea, Ptolemais, -and Tyre, with presents and money, asking for permission to -cultivate their lands in peace. Baldwin took the money and promised -security till Pentecost. He also made a little more money by -accepting the ransom of certain prisoners whom he had taken at -Beyrout. With this capital of ready money he was able to pay his -knights, at least, in part, and to ensure their service for the next -campaign. He offered the Genoese, on condition of their granting him -their assistance with the fleet, to give up to them a third of the -booty in every town which he might take with their assistance, and -to name one of the principal streets in it, the street of the -Genoese. They agreed, and Baldwin made his preparations for an -attack on Cæsarea. The patriarch, bearing the wood of the true -Cross—all, that is, that he had not stolen—went with the army. When -they arrived before the town, the people of Cæsarea, rich merchants, -who desired nothing but to be left alone, and were a peaceful folk, -sent deputies, who asked the patriarch the following question: “You, -who are the doctors of the Christian law, why do you order your men -to kill and plunder us, who are made in the image of your God?” The -patriarch evaded the point. “We do not desire,” said he, softly, “to -plunder you. This city does not belong to you, but to Saint Peter. -We have no wish to kill you, but the Divine vengeance pursues those -who are armed against the law of God.” It will be observed that the -town was claimed, not for the Christian kingdom, but for the Church. -“It belonged to Saint Peter.” Dagobert’s idea seemed to have been -that the king was to be like Godfrey, only the Defender of the -Sepulchre. Baldwin, however, thought quite differently. The city was -taken with the usual form, and with the usual butchery. As some -miserable Saracens had been seen to swallow coins, the Christians -cut their prisoners in two to find the money, and burned their -bodies to ashes, looking for the gold when the fire was out. And -with a view to restoring his own to Saint Peter, they pillaged the -whole city and divided the spoils, when they had killed all the -inhabitants.[57] As for the Genoese, they found a relic in their -booty, precious indeed. It was no other than the Cup of the Holy -Grail, which they bore away in triumph. How its authenticity was -established does not appear, nor is there, so far as we know, any -subsequent account of its fate. The Christians selected an -archbishop. There was a poor and ignorant priest called Baldwin. He -had tattooed his forehead with the sign of the cross, and made money -by pretending that it was a miraculous sign. Everybody knew that he -was an impostor, but probably because the pilgrims insisted on -believing in his sanctity, and in order to conciliate this important -element of the population, he was chosen to be the archbishop. - -Footnote 57: - - They kept the women, and made them grind corn all day with the - handmills. - -The Egyptian Caliph, whose plan of operation seems to have been to -send constant reinforcements to Ascalon, and use that strong place -as a centre from which to harass the Christians, gave orders to try, -with the coming of spring, another incursion. Baldwin met the -advanced guard of the Egyptian troops near Ramleh. He had got -together three hundred knights and nine hundred foot. The Saracens -were ten times as numerous. The king, tying a white banner to his -lance, led the way, and performed prodigies of valour. And, as -usual, the Mohammedans were seized with a panic and fled. - -It was at this time that the wretched remains of the new armies of -pilgrims arrived in Palestine. Their numbers were not large, as we -have seen, but their arrival was the most opportune thing that could -have happened for Baldwin. For, having seen the sacred places, they -were preparing for their return home when the news arrived of the -coming into Palestine of another vast army of Egyptians. They were, -as usual, in the neighbourhood of Ascalon. Baldwin hastened to meet -them with a handful of knights, among whom was the unfortunate Count -of Blois and the Duke of Burgundy. They were all cut to pieces, -Baldwin, himself, escaping with the greatest difficulty, and almost -alone, to Ramleh. In the morning he found himself, with his little -band, in a place without any means of defence, and surrounded by an -enormous army, through which it was hopeless to think of cutting a -way. And then occurred one of the most singular instances of -gratitude on record. A stranger, a noble Mohammedan, was introduced -to the king. “I am,” he said, “one to whom you have shown yourself -generous. You took my wife prisoner. On the way she was seized with -the pains of labour. You made a tent for her on the wayside, laid -her in it, and left her provisions, water, and female slaves to help -her. So her life was saved. Now, I know the roads which are not -guarded. Come with me, but come alone, and I will take you safely -through the midst of our army.” - -Baldwin, who had really been guilty of this humanity to a poor -Mohammedan woman, was constrained to accept the generous offer. He -went away alone with his benefactor. The emir kept his word and -escorted him to a place of safety, where he left him. All his -companions at Ramleh were put to death before he had time to help -them. - -Meantime, the greatest consternation reigned in Jerusalem. The king -was reported to be a captive; the great bell tolled; soldiers and -knights gathered together; the gates were shut; and the priests and -women betook themselves to prayer. The king, however, at Jaffa, -collecting all the troops he could raise, prohibited any pilgrim -from leaving the country, and went forth once more with all his -force. Their war cry was, “Christ conquers, and Christ reigns, -Christ commands,” in place of the old “Dieu le veut,” and “Dieu -aide.” After a battle, which lasted a whole day—the spirit of the -Egyptians had been raised by their temporary success—victory -declared for the Christians, and the Mohammedans fled with a loss of -four thousand men: the smallness of their loss shows that the -victory was not one of the fights like that of Ascalon, where a -panic made the Mohammedans absolutely helpless. - -The story of this invasion is much confused, and told by the -chroniclers in different ways, only one of them relating the -gratitude of the Saracen. But we may fairly assume that another of -the periodical invasions took place, which was repelled, though with -difficulty, by the valour of Baldwin. The arms of the Christians -were not, however, always crowned with success, and an ill-omened -defeat took place at Harran, where Baldwin du Bourg and Jocelyn were -taken prisoners. Bohemond, who had been released, was there with -Tancred, and both escaped with great difficulty. It was evident that -the Christian strength lay chiefly in the terror inspired by a long -series of victories. Once defeated, the prestige of the conquerors -was gone. And when the Mohammedans managed to recover their old -self-confidence, the kingdom of Jerusalem was as good as lost, and -its destruction was only a matter of time. - -Baldwin’s chief difficulty was not in raising armies, for there were -always plenty of men to be got among the pilgrims, but in paying an -army when he had raised it. The pilgrims brought daily large sums in -offerings to the Church of the Sepulchre, to which the patriarch -acted officially as treasurer. To him the king went in his distress, -and demanded that some of the money should be put into his hands to -pay the soldiers with. Dagobert asked for a day’s delay, and then -brought the king two hundred marks, with a polite expression of -regret that he could do no more. Arnold, who was now Chancellor of -the Holy Sepulchre, laughed aloud at the meagreness of this -offering, and informed the king that immense treasures had been -bestowed upon the church, which were all concealed if not -appropriated by the patriarch. Baldwin thereupon urged again on the -patriarch the necessity of his contributing towards the support of -the army. Dagobert, relying on his friendship with the legate, -disdained to take any notice of the king’s representation, and -continued, with Cardinal Maurice, to use for his own festivals and -private luxuries the riches of the Church. One day, when Baldwin was -at his wits’ end for want of money, some one, probably Arnold, -brought him a report of the dissolute and selfish life led by -Dagobert. “Even at this moment,” he said, “the patriarch is feasting -and drinking.” The king took some of his officers with him, and -forcing his way into the patriarch’s private apartments, found him -and Maurice at a table spread with all the luxuries of the East. -Baldwin flew into a royal rage, and swore a royal oath. “By -heavens!” he cried, “you feast while we fast; you spend on your -gluttony the offerings of the faithful, and take no notice of our -distress. As there is a living God, you shall not touch another -single offering, you shall not fill your bellies with dainties even -once more, unless you pay my knights. By what right do you take the -gifts made to the Sepulchre by the pilgrims, and change them into -delicacies, while we, who have purchased the city with our blood, -who bear incessantly so many fatigues and combats, are deprived of -the fruits of their generosity? Drink with us of the cup that we -drink now, and shall continue to drink in these times of bitterness, -or prepare yourself to receive no more the goods which belong to the -church.” Upon which the patriarch, little used to have things set -forth in this plain and unmistakeable manner, allowed himself to -fall into wrath, and made use of the effective but well-worn text, -that those who serve the altar must live by the altar. But he -hardly, as yet, knew his man. The king, actually not afraid of a -priest, swore again, in the most solemn manner, and in spite of the -entreaties of the legate, Cardinal Maurice, that if the patriarch -refused to help him he would help himself. There was, indeed, little -doubt possible but that he would keep his word. Dagobert, therefore, -gave way, and promised to maintain thirty knights. But he soon got -into arrears, and, finally, after repeated quarrels with the king, -and after being publicly accused of peculation—very possibly he -stole right and left for the glory of the Church—he retired to -Antioch, hoping that Bohemond would take up his quarrel. In this he -was disappointed, for Bohemond had neither the power nor the -inclination. Dagobert never returned to the city. Affecting to -consider him deposed, the king put in his place a humble and pious -monk of great ignorance, named Ebremer. He, however, was speedily -displaced, and on the deposition of Dagobert, Arnold was, at last, -promoted to the see. He died a year or two afterwards, and in his -death William of Tyre sees a plainly marked indication of the Divine -displeasure. By others it was read differently. - -The career of Bohemond was drawing to an end. Shut up in Antioch, -and attacked both by Greeks and Saracens, he could hardly defend -himself. But his spirit was as strong as ever. Causing a rumour to -be spread that he was dead, he was carried in a coffin on board a -ship, and escaped thus through the Greek fleet. Arrived in Italy he -went to the pope, and with all his rough and strong eloquence he -pleaded his cause, which he represented as that of the Christians -against the Greek emperor, the most flagrant of criminals. He went -thence to France, with the pope’s express authority, to raise men -for another Crusade, this time against Alexis. King Philip gave him -his daughter, Constance, in marriage; the princes and knights -enrolled themselves in his army; he crossed over to Spain, and -thence to Italy, finding everywhere the same success, and awakening -the same enthusiasm. His army assembled. He led them first to the -city of Durazzo, which he attacked, but without success; the city -held out; his troops, who discovered that they had enlisted under -his banner solely to advance his personal interest and to gratify -his blind and unreasoning hatred against the Emperor of -Constantinople, deserted him; and the proud Norman had to return to -Tarento no richer, except by Antioch, for all his conquests and -ambitions. A treaty was concluded with the emperor, which gave him -this city. He was preparing to break the conditions of the agreement -when a fever seized him, and he died, greatly to the relief of -Alexis. - -About the same time died gallant old Raymond of Toulouse, still -fighting at Tripoli. He was besieging the town with only four -hundred men at his back, and with that heroic self-confidence which -never deserted the first Crusaders, when either some smoke from -Greek fire affected him, or he fell from the roof of a house, and so -came to an end. - -Tancred, the bravest, if not the best, of all, was to follow within -a very few years, and Baldwin found himself for the last six years -of his reign without a single one of the old princes, except his -cousin, Baldwin du Bourg, to quarrel with, to help, or to look to -for help. And, still more to complicate matters, the crusade, which -the ambition of Bohemond had directed against the Greek Empire for -his own purposes, had alienated the sympathies, such as they were, -and the assistance of the Greek Empire, and deprived the Christian -Kingdom of every hope from that quarter. Then Tancred and Baldwin du -Bourg, as soon as the latter got his release from captivity, began -to quarrel, and, turn by turn, called in the assistance of the -Saracens. They were persuaded to desist by the exhortations of the -king, who told Tancred plainly that unless he ceased to make war -against Christians, all the Christians in the East would make common -cause against him. The only resources left to the king were those -derived from the constant influx of pilgrims, and therefore of -fighting men, and the assistance he derived from the annual visit of -the Genoese and Pisan fleets; these came, actuated solely by the -desire for merchandise and plunder. In return for concessions and -the chance of booty, they fought the Egyptian fleets, and -co-operated with Baldwin in his operations against sea-side places. -Thus, in 1104, after an unsuccessful attempt upon the town, Baldwin -took advantage of the presence of sixty-six Genoese galleys to lay -siege to Acre. He invited them to assist him in his enterprise, -first, for the love of Christ, and secondly, in the hope of reaping -a golden harvest out of victory. The Genoese consented, on the -condition of receiving a third of the revenue, and perpetual rights -which would be obtained by the capture of the place, and of a street -being entirely given up to themselves, where they might exercise -their own laws and justice. These conditions, exorbitant as they -were, were accepted, and siege was laid in due form, Baldwin -investing the place by land and the Genoese by sea. The time was -almost gone by for unconditional surrender and capture by assault, -and the Christians fought with machines and rams for twenty days -before the enemy capitulated. And it was then only on honourable -terms. The inhabitants were to take out their wives, families, and -whatever they could carry. Those who preferred to remain behind were -to be allowed to continue in the peaceful occupation of their homes, -on condition of paying an annual tribute to the king. It will be -seen that a short space of five years had already materially altered -the relative positions of Christians and Mohammedans. The conditions -were ill kept, for a large number of the Saracens were massacred by -the unruly sailors, and Baldwin seems to have been powerless to -interfere. This was, however, a most important position, and threw -open a convenient harbour for the Genoese. - -Year after year an army came from Egypt and attempted an invasion of -Palestine, using Ascalon as the basis of operations and the depôt of -supplies. But every year the attack grew more feeble and the rout of -the Egyptians more easy. - -The next important place attacked by the help of the Genoese was -Tripoli. After the death of Count Raymond, his affairs in the East -were conducted by his nephew, William of Cerdagne, until Bertram, -Raymond’s son, should arrive. He came in 1109, and immediately began -to quarrel with his cousin, who called in the aid of Tancred. -Baldwin, however, interfered and substituted a settlement of all the -disputed points between them. By his arrangement William kept all -the places he had himself conquered, and Bertram had the rest. -Moreover, if either died without heirs, Bertram was to have all. A -short time after, William was accidentally killed by an arrow in -trying to settle a quarrel among his men at arms, and tranquillity -among the princes was assured. Operations, meantime, had been going -on against the little town of Biblios, which succumbed, after a show -of resistance, on the same terms as those obtained by the people of -Acre. The strong places which still held out were Tripoli, Tyre, -Sidon, Beyrout, and Ascalon. Baldwin’s plan was to take them in -detail, and always by the aid of the Genoese fleet. He joined his -forces to those of Bertram, and the siege of Tripoli was vigorously -taken in hand. - -It illustrates the untrustworthy character of the materials from -which a history of this kingdom has to be drawn that Albert of Aix, -one of the most careful of the chroniclers, absolutely passes over -the capture of this important place in silence. The inhabitants -defended themselves as well as they were able, but seeing no hope of -assistance they capitulated on conditions of safety. These were -granted, but pending the negotiations, the savage Genoese sailors, -getting over the wall by means of ladders and ropes, began to -slaughter the people. “Every Saracen,” says Foulcher de Chartres, -who has a touch of humour, “who fell into their hands, experienced -no worse misfortune than to lose his head; and although this was -done without the knowledge of the chiefs, the heads thus lost could -not be afterwards put on again.” All the chronicles but one agree in -preserving silence over a barbarism almost worse than the breaking -of a treaty. It was this: the Christians found in Tripoli a splendid -library. It had been collected in the course of many peaceful years -by the family of Ibn-Ammar, who were the hereditary princes, under -the Caliph of Cairo, of the place. It consisted of a hundred -thousand volumes, and a wretched priest blundering into the place, -and finding this enormous mass of books written in “execrable,” -because unknown characters, called in the assistance of soldiers as -ignorant as himself, and destroyed them all. The Tripolitans had, -many years before, placed themselves under the protection of the -Egyptian Caliph. They looked now for his help. In the midst of the -siege a ship managed to put in with a message from the sovereign. He -promised them no assistance, and encouraged them to no resistance. -Only he recollected that there was in the city a beautiful female -slave whom he desired to be sent to him, and asked for some wood of -the apricot tree to make him lutes. After this, the people -capitulated. - -The next place to fall was Beyrout, and through the same assistance. -But in this case the place was carried by assault, and a terrible -carnage ensued, stayed only by the order of the king. And after the -victory and the conquest of Sarepta, the Genoese retired, carrying -with them very many of Baldwin’s best auxiliaries, and left him with -his usually small force, barely enough for purposes of defence. But -fortune favoured him again. The fame of the Crusades had taken a -long time to travel northwards, but in time it had reached to Norway -and kindled the enthusiasm even of the Scandinavians. Hardly had the -Genoese left the shores of Palestine, when Sigard, son or brother of -King Magnus of Norway, arrived at Jaffa with ten thousand -Norwegians, among whom were a large number of English. He was a -young man, says Foulcher, of singular beauty, and was welcomed by -Baldwin with all the charm of manner which made him the friend of -all whom he desired to please. The sturdy Norsemen, who desired -nothing so much as to fight with the Saracens, met the king’s wishes -half way. They were ready to go wherever he pleased, provided it led -to fighting, and without any other pay than their provisions. These -were better allies than the greedy Genoese, and Baldwin joyfully led -them to Sidon, where for a little while they had fighting enough. -The Sidonians seeing no hope of escape, endeavoured, says William of -Tyre, to compass their own deliverance by the assassination of the -king. Baldwin had a Saracen servant who professed extreme attachment -to his person. He had apostatized to the Christian faith, and -received the king’s own name at the font of baptism. To him the -chiefs of Sidon made overtures. They offered him boundless wealth in -their city, if he would contrive to assassinate the king. Baldwin -the servant agreed to commit the deed, and would have done it, had -it not been that certain Christians in the city, getting to know of -the plot, conveyed information of it by means of an arrow which they -fired into the camp. The king called a council. The unfortunate -servant was “examined,” which probably meant tortured, confessed his -guilty intentions, and was promptly hanged. This appears to be the -first mention of an attempted assassination, a method which the -Saracens, by means of the celebrated Ismaelite sect, the -“Assassins,” introduced much later on. The story bears the impress -of improbability. Moreover, immediately afterwards, we are told, -that Baldwin granted the city easy terms of capitulation, with -permission for the inhabitants to stay where they were, provided -only they paid tribute. The conditions were faithfully observed, the -Norwegians being either less bloodthirsty or more amenable to -discipline—probably both—than the Genoese. They went away after -this, and Baldwin, having made an unsuccessful attempt on Tyre, -which was too strong for his diminished forces, retired to Acre. In -the same year died Tancred, who recommended his young wife, Cecilia, -to marry Pons, the son of Bertram, who was already dead, as soon as -he should be of age. Roger, the son of his sister, was to hold all -his states in trust for young Bohemond, and Pons. - -During these contests on the seaboard, the Saracens inland had -been quietly composing their differences and arranging for a -combined assault upon the common enemy. In 1112 they had essayed -an expedition against Edessa, but received a check serious enough -to make them fall back in disorder. Next year, with a far larger -force, they formed a sort of encampment south of the Lake of -Tiberias, and overran the country, pillaging and burning as far as -they dared. Baldwin hastily sent for Roger of Antioch and the -Count of Tripoli, to come to his assistance. Meantime, with a -small army, of about five thousand in all, he marched to meet -them. With his usual impetuosity he charged into a small advance -troop of cavalry which the Turks threw out as a trap. These turned -and fled. Baldwin pursued, but fell into an ambuscade, whence he -escaped with the greatest difficulty, leaving his banner, that -white streamer which he bore at the head of his troops in every -battle, behind him. The patriarch, now that same Arnold, “Satan’s -eldest son,” who was with him, had too a narrow escape. In this -disastrous day the Christians lost about twelve hundred men. Next -morning came the king’s auxiliaries, and the Christian army, -leaving their camp and baggage, retreated into the mountains, -where they waited for reinforcements. This was the most serious -check yet given to the victorious career of the Christians. The -people of Ascalon, as usual, ready to take advantage of every -opportunity, sallied forth and invested Jerusalem, now almost -entirely without troops. But they do not seem to have attempted a -regular siege, or, at least, were unsuccessful, and, after -ravaging the country for miles round, they retreated to their own -city. Probably their experience of Baldwin’s vigour was greater -than their confidence in the success of their coreligionists, and -they thought certain plunder was better than the dubious chances -of a protracted siege. - -Fortunately, it was now late in the summer. With the autumn came the -first shiploads of pilgrims, and consequently reinforcements for -Baldwin. The Saracens, satisfied with their victory, and fearing -reprisals, judged it prudent to retire, and accordingly fell back on -Damascus, where their general-in-chief, Maudúd, was murdered. It was -well for the Christian kingdom that they went away when they did. -For a universal panic had seized on all the cities, and it wanted -but an unsuccessful engagement to put an end to the Christian power -altogether. More misfortunes fell upon them. There was a terrible -famine at Edessa and in Antioch; and an earthquake was felt through -the whole of Syria, from north to south. Whole cities of Cilicia -were thrown into ruins. Thirteen towns fell in Edessa; and in -Antioch many churches were destroyed. In the famine which devastated -Edessa, Baldwin du Bourg looked for aid from Count Jocelyn, but was -disappointed. Moreover, when he sent deputies to Antioch, these were -insulted by Jocelyn’s knights, who taunted them with the apathy and -indolence of their lord. Baldwin du Bourg determined on revenge. -Pretending to be sick he sent for Jocelyn, who came without -suspicion, and was received by the other in bed. Then, reproaching -him in the bitterest terms for ingratitude, he ordered him to be -thrown into prison, loaded with chains, and deprived him of all his -possessions. As soon as Jocelyn was free he went to join the king at -Jerusalem, and seems, like an honest knight and good fellow, as he -was, to have entirely forgiven his ill-treatment. Certainly he -deserved it. - -The next year saw another defeat of the Saracens. The Emir was -accused of complicity in the murder of Maudúd, and a vast army was -gathered together, against Damascus in the first instance, and the -Christians in the second. Baldwin entered into alliance with the -Emir, and though the Caliph’s army avoided a battle, so formidable a -coalition sufficed to drive back the invaders. Nevertheless, the -Christians looked with horror on an alliance so unnatural. Count -Roger of Antioch at the same time dispersed the Turkish army in -alliance with Toghtegin, and, for a time at least, Palestine was -free from enemies on the north and east. - -Baldwin was not, however, disposed to sit down in peace and rest. He -employed what little leisure he could get in populating his city of -Jerusalem by persuading the Christians across the Jordan to give up -their pastures and meadows, and come under his protection. He -founded the stronghold of Montreal, in Moab, on the site of the old -city of Diban, and he made a second journey to the east and south of -his kingdom, with twelve hundred horse and four hundred foot, -penetrating as far, we are told, as the Red Sea, probably to -Petra—Albert of Aix says Horeb, “where he built in eighteen days a -new castle.” These affairs being settled, and there being every -appearance of tranquillity in all directions, he turned his thoughts -to the conquest of Egypt, and actually set off to accomplish this -with an army of one hundred and sixteen knights and four hundred -foot soldiers. They penetrated as far as Pharamia, near the ancient -Pelusium, which the inhabitants abandoned in a panic. They found -here food and drink in plenty, and rested for two whole days. On the -third, certain of the more prudent came to Baldwin: “We are few in -number,” they said; “our arrival is known in all the country; it is -only three days’ march from here to Cairo. Let us therefore take -counsel how best to get out of the place.” - -The king, seeing the wisdom of this advice, ordered the walls to be -thrown down, and all the houses of the town to be set on fire. But -whether it was the heat of the day, or the effect of over-exertion, -he felt in the evening violent pains, which increased hourly. To be -sick in the East was then to be on the point of death, and, -despairing of recovery, he sent for his chiefs, and acquainted them -with the certainty of his end. All burst into tears and -lamentations, quite selfishly, it would seem, and on their own -accounts, “for no one had any hope, from that moment, of ever seeing -Jerusalem again.” Then the king raised himself and spoke to them, -despite his sufferings. “Why, my brothers and companions in arms, -should the death of a single man strike down your hearts and oppress -you with feebleness in this land of pilgrimage, and in the midst of -our enemies? Remember, in the name of God, that there are many among -you whose strength is as great or greater than mine. Quit -yourselves, then, like men, and devise the means of returning sword -in hand, and maintaining the kingdom of Jerusalem according to your -oaths.” And then, as if for a last prayer, he implored them not to -bury his body in the land of the stranger, but to take it to -Jerusalem, and lay it beside his brother Godfrey. His soldiers burst -into tears. How could they carry, in the heat of summer, his body so -far? But the king sent for Odo, his cook. “Know,” he said, “that I -am about to die. If you have loved me in health, preserve your -fidelity in death. Open my body as soon as the breath is out of it, -fill me with salt and spice, and bear me to Jerusalem, to be buried -in the forms of the Church.” - -They bore him along, still living. On the third day of the week the -end came, and Baldwin died. With his last breath he named his -brother Eustace as his successor, but if he would not take the -crown, he gave them liberty to choose any other. Odo the cook -executed his wishes; his bowels were buried at Al Arish, and the -little army, in sadness and with misgivings of evil, returned to -Jerusalem, bringing with them the king who had so often led them to -victory. - -It was on Palm Sunday when they arrived. They met, in the valley of -Jehoshaphat, the people of the city all dressed in festival garb, -and singing psalms of joy, to celebrate the feast. Joy was turned -into mourning, and the procession of clergy which was descending the -Mount of Olives met, “by express order of God, and an inconceivable -chance,” the little troop which bore back the remains of the king. -They buried him beside his brother: Baldwin du Bourg, the Count of -Edessa, being the chief mourner, as he was his nearest relation.[58] - -Footnote 58: - - The epitaph on his tomb described him as - - Judæ alter Machabæus - Spes patriæ, vigor ecclesiæ. - - It was obviously not written by the Patriarch Dagobert. - -So died the greatest of the Christian kings, the strongest as well -as the wisest. His faults were those of the age; he was, however, -before the age; not so cruel, not so ignorant, not so superstitious, -not so bigoted. He was among the first to recognise the fact that a -man may be an infidel and yet be worthy of friendship; he was also -the first to resist the extravagant pretensions of the Church, and -the greed of the Latin priests. He was, like his brother, the -defender by oath of the Holy Sepulchre, but he would not consent to -become a mere servant of the patriarch while he was styled the king -of the country. We have stated above that his chief fault was an -excessive love of women, and this he was wise enough to conceal. But -the charge is brought forward by his priestly biographers, who, -which is significant, do not advance against him a single definite -case to support it. William of Tyre wanted something, perhaps, to -allege against a man who dared beard a bishop at his own table, and -swear at his gluttony and luxury. In any case he had very little -leisure for indulgence in vice. He married three times, his first -wife being an Englishwoman, who died on her way out. His second was -the daughter of an Armenian prince, whom he divorced on the charge -of adultery. Dagobert maintained that she was innocent, probably -with a view to blacken the character of the king, but the divorced -queen, going to Constantinople, justified by her conduct there the -worst accusations that could be brought against her. The third time -he married the widow of Roger, Count of Sicily, Adelaide by name. -She brought whole shiploads of treasure with her; the marriage was -celebrated with every demonstration of joy, and the new queen’s -generosity caused rejoicing through all the land. But the year -before he died, and three years after the marriage, Baldwin had an -illness which led him to reflect on a marriage contracted while his -divorced wife was still living, and he sent her back. It was an -unlucky wedding for the country, because the Normans in Sicily could -not forgive this treatment of one of their blood, and thus another -powerful ally was lost to the kingdom. As for Adelaide, she returned -to Sicily filled with shame and rage, and died the same year as her -husband. - -In that year, too, died Alexis Comnenus, Pascal, the pope, and -Arnold, the patriarch. Foulcher of Chartres is careful to tell us -that he saw himself that very year a red light in the heavens at -dead of night. It certainly portended something, most probably -something disastrous. “Quite uncertain as to what the event might -prove, we left it in all humility, and unanimously, to the will of -the Lord. Some of us, nevertheless, saw in the prodigy a presage of -the deaths of those great persons who died that same year.” Which -doubtless it was. - - - - - CHAPTER IX. - KING BALDWIN II. A.D. 1118-1181. - - Veramente è costui nato all’impero - Si del regnar del commandar sa l’arti; - E non minor che duce è cavaliere. - -As the soldiers bearing the body of King Baldwin entered the city at -one gate, his cousin, Baldwin du Bourg, Count of Edessa, came in at -another. He was in time to be present at the funeral. Immediately -afterwards a council was held to determine on his successor. On the -one hand, by the laws of succession, and in accordance with the -king’s own request, Eustace, his brother, should have been the heir. -But Eustace was in France. It would have been many months before he -could be brought to Palestine, and the state of affairs brooked no -delay. While the minds of the electing council were still uncertain -what to do, Jocelyn stood up and spoke: “We have here,” he said, -“the Count of Edessa, a just man, and one who fears God, the cousin -of the late king, valiant in battle, and worthy of praise on all -points; no country could furnish us a better king; it were better to -choose him at once than wait for chances full of peril.” - -Jocelyn was the old enemy of Baldwin; he was supposed, but unjustly, -to bear him a grudge for the ill-treatment he had received at the -count’s hands; his advice, therefore, bore the more weight, as it -seemed entirely disinterested. Arnold, the patriarch, seconded him, -and Baldwin was chosen king unanimously. Whether Jocelyn’s advice -was altogether disinterested may be doubted. At all events he -received from the new king the investiture of the principality of -Edessa, as a reward for his services. Baldwin was crowned, like his -predecessor, in Bethlehem, on Ascension Day. - -The new king, the date of whose birth is uncertain, was the son of -Count Hugh of Rethel and his wife Milicent. He was the cousin of -Godfrey, with whom he started for Palestine. He had two brothers, -one of whom was the Archbishop of Rheims, and the other succeeded -his father, but dying without children, the archbishop gave up his -episcopate, and married, in order to continue the family. Baldwin -himself was above the ordinary stature, wonderfully active, skilful -in horsemanship, and of great strength and bravery. His hair, we are -told, was thin and fair, and already streaked with grey. He was -married to an Armenian princess, by whom he had several daughters, -but no sons. He wore a long Oriental beard, but though he conformed -in many respects to Eastern habits, he had not forgotten his early -piety, and scrupulously obeyed the rules of the church, insomuch -that we are told that his knees were covered with callosities, the -result of many prayers and penances. He was already well-advanced in -years. - -Count Eustace, hearing in France of his brother’s death, set off at -once to take possession of the kingdom which was his by right of -succession. But on arriving in Apulia, he heard the news of -Baldwin’s succession, and immediately turned back, content to spend -the rest of his days in obscurity, rather than disturb the peace of -Palestine by an unseemly rivalry. - -The first year of the king’s reign was marked by the customary -invasion of the kingdom from Egypt and the dispersion, this time -without a battle, of the invaders. The next was a year of calamity. -For Count Roger of Aleppo, with his little army, was utterly -defeated by the Turks, the Count himself being slain, and a large -number of his knights taken prisoner and treated with the greatest -cruelty. Nor was this all. Ilgazi, the Prince of Aleppo, who had -defeated Roger, died, and was succeeded by his much abler nephew, -Balak, who made an incursion into the territory of Edessa, and -captured Count Jocelyn with his nephew, Galeran, and sixty knights. -Thus the two most important out-lying provinces were deprived of -their rulers. Moreover, the whole country was afflicted with -countless swarms of locusts and rats, which devoured every green -thing, so that the Christians were threatened with famine. Baldwin -called together a general council at Nablous, and the patriarch -preached to the people on the sinfulness of their lives, pointing -out that their afflictions were due to their own crimes and -excesses, and calling on them to amend and lead better lives. After -confession and protestations of repentance, the king and his army -moved northwards to Antioch and defeated the Turks in their turn. - -Certain small changes in the internal administration, only of -importance as pointing to the decadence of the old ferocity against -the Saracens, were introduced by the king in Jerusalem. For, besides -remitting the old heavy dues on exportation and importation, so far -as the Latins were concerned, Baldwin granted a sort of free trade -to all Syrians, Greeks, “and even Saracens,” to bring provisions of -all kinds into the city for sale without fear of exaction. His wise -idea was to increase the population of the city, and therefore its -strength, by making it the most privileged town in his realm, and -the central market of Palestine. - -But in 1124 a misfortune fell upon him which might have been fatal -to his kingdom. For, after Jocelyn’s capture, he led his forces into -Edessa, and there, marching one night in February, without taking -proper precautions, his men being allowed to disperse in various -directions, he fell into an ambuscade, and was made prisoner himself -by Balak, who sent him in irons to the fortress of Khortbert. - -And now the country was without a ruler. In this emergency, the -barons assembled at Acre and elected as Regent, Eustace Garnier, the -Baron of Sidon and Cæsarea, who proved worthy of their confidence. -The story of the king’s captivity is like a chapter of a romance. -For while he was in fetters with Jocelyn at Khortbert, certain -Armenians, fifty in number, swore a solemn oath to one another that -the king should be released. Disguising themselves as monks,[59] and -hiding daggers under their long robes, they went to the citadel, and -putting on a melancholy and injured air, they pretended to have been -attacked and robbed on the road, and demanded to be admitted to the -governor of the castle, in order to have redress. They were allowed -to enter, and directly they got within the walls they drew out their -weapons, slaughtered every Saracen, made themselves masters of the -place, and released the king from his fetters. But not from his -prison, for the Turks, furious at the intelligence, which spread -quickly enough, gathered together from all quarters, resolved to bar -their escape till Balak could send reinforcements strong enough to -retake the place. After a hurried council, it was resolved within -the fort that Jocelyn should attempt the perilous task of escaping. -Three men were deputed to go with him, two to accompany him on his -road, and one to return to the king with the news that he had safely -got through the enemy. Jocelyn took a solemn oath that he would lose -no time in raising an army of assistance, and swore, besides, that -he would neither shave his heard, nor drink wine, till the king was -released. He then slipped out under cover of the darkness, and the -king, resolved to defend the castle till the last, set to work on -his fortifications. - -Footnote 59: - - This is William of Tyre’s account. He says that, according to - others, they were disguised as merchants. - -That night Balak had a fearful dream. He thought that he met the -terrible Jocelyn, alone and unprotected, and that the Christian -knight, hurling him to the ground, tore out both his eyes. Awaking -with fright, he sent off messengers in hot haste to behead Jocelyn -at once. They arrived too late. The castle was taken and the bird -was flown. But the flight of the count was full of dangers. He got -safely enough to the banks of the Euphrates, but here an unforeseen -difficulty met him, for he could not swim. How to cross the river? -They had two leathern bottles. These, inflated, they tied round -Jocelyn’s body, and the other two men, who could swim, steering by -the right and left, managed to get him across the water. Then they -went on, bare-footed, hungry, and thirsty, till Jocelyn could travel -no farther, and, covering himself with branches, in order to conceal -himself, he lay down to sleep. One of the attendants, meantime, was -sent off to find some inhabitant of the country, and either beg, -buy, or rob provisions of some kind. He met an Armenian peasant -loaded with grapes and wild figs, whom he brought along to his -master. The peasant knew him. “Hail, Lord Jocelyn!” he cried, at -sight of the ragged knight. “At these words,” says Foulcher, “which -the count would fain not have heard, he replied, all in alarm but -nevertheless with mildness, ‘I am not he whom you name; may the Lord -help him wherever he be,’ - -“‘Seek not,’ said the peasant, ‘to conceal thyself. Fear nothing, -and tell me what evil has befallen thee.’ - -“‘Whoever thou art,’ said the count, ‘have pity on me; do not, I -pray, make known my misfortune to my enemies; lead me into some -place where I may be in safety.... I am a fugitive and a -wanderer.... Tell me what property thou hast in this place, and what -is its value; and I will give thee property of far more worth in my -own dominion.’ - -“‘Seigneur, I ask nothing,’ replied the other. ‘I will lead thee -safe and sound where thou wishest to go; once thou didst deprive -thyself of bread to make me eat. It is now my turn. I have a wife, -an only daughter of tender years, an ass, two brothers, and two -oxen. I will go with thee and carry everything away. I have also a -pig, which I will bring here immediately.’ - -“‘Nay, my brother,’ said the count, ‘a whole pig may not be eaten in -a single meal, and we must not excite suspicions.’” - -The peasant went away, and presently returned with all his -family—though, curiously enough, Foulcher says nothing at all about -his wife. Perhaps she was left behind, like Creusa. The count mounts -the ass, takes the child in his arms, and they start. On the road -the child began to cry, and “to torment the count with its wailing.” -He did not know how to appease it; “for Jocelyn had never learned -the art of soothing infants by caresses;” he began at first to think -of throwing away the baby, or of leaving it by the wayside, and so -getting rid of a travelling companion who might bring them all to -grief; but “perceiving that this project did not please the peasant, -and fearing to afflict him,” he continued, with the greatest -consideration, to endure “this new trouble,” till they arrived at -his castle at Turbessel, where there was great rejoicing. Can there -be a quainter figure than this of the count mounted on the ass, -carrying the squalling baby, and divided between rage at its screams -and gratitude to the peasant, his deliverer? - -Meantime, the king was not prospering. Balak, in a rage that one of -his enemies had escaped him, hastened himself to the castle of -Khortbert with so large an army as to deprive Baldwin of any hope of -success. The fort was built on a chalk hill easy to cut into. Balak -sent sappers, who made excavations under the principal tower, and -then filling the cavern with wood, he set fire to it. When the wood -was consumed the chalk was softened and the tower came down with a -crash. Then Baldwin, against his will, surrendered unconditionally. -Life was granted to him, to Galeran, and to the king’s nephew. But -the poor faithful Armenians, the cause of Jocelyn’s escape and the -massacre of the garrison, were treated with the most cruel -inhumanity. All were murdered, most by tortures of the most horrid -description, of which sawing in halves and roasting alive, being -buried alive, and being set up naked as marks for children to fire -arrows at, are given as a few specimens. Jocelyn, who had been -hastily collecting an army, gave up the design of a rescue in -despair, and went to Jerusalem. - -And then the Egyptians made a formidable incursion. This time things -looked desperate indeed. A rigorous fast was ordered. Even the babes -at the breast were denied their mothers’ milk, and the very cattle -were driven off their pastures, as if the sight of the sufferings of -these helpless creatures would incline the Lord to pity. At least, -it inclined the Christians to fury. They issued from Jerusalem to -the sound of the great bell, under Eustace Garnier, the Regent, to -the number of three thousand combatants only. With them was carried -the wood of the true Cross, the Holy Lance, and a vase containing -some of the milk of the Blessed Virgin. Again the Christians were -victorious, and the army of the enemy fled in panic behind the walls -of Ascalon. But the Christians could only act on the defensive. -There was not only no chance of extending their dominions, but even -only a slender one of keeping them. Relief came, in the shape of a -great Venetian fleet. - -The Venetians had held serious counsel as to whether they should go -on with their old traffic with the Mohammedans, by which they had -enriched themselves, or should imitate the example of their rivals, -the Genoese, and make money out of the Christians in Palestine. They -decided on the latter course, and fitted out a strong and well-armed -fleet. On the way they fought two victorious battles, one with their -rivals, the Genoese, returning laden with the proceeds of the -season’s trade, whom they stripped, and one with the Egyptian fleet, -which they cut to pieces. This accomplished, they arrived off -Palestine, and offered to make terms for assistance in the year’s -campaign. Their terms, like those of the Genoese, were hard. They -were to have, if a town was taken, a church, a street, an oven, and -a tribunal of their own. Of course these were acceded to. To find -money to pay the knights, the Regent had to take all the vessels and -ornaments of the churches and melt them down. - -Of all the towns on the coast between Antioch and Ascalon, only two -remained in the hands of the Mohammedans. But these two were of the -greatest importance. For while Tyre remained a Saracen city it could -be made the centre of operations against the principality of Antioch -on the north and the Kingdom of Palestine on the south; while if -Ascalon were taken the Egyptians would be deprived of their means of -attack, and would be obliged to invade the country through the -desert. Opinions were so much divided on the matter that it was -decided to refer the decision to lot, and a child, an orphan, was -selected to take from the altar one of two pieces of paper, -containing the names of the two towns. The lot fell on Tyre, and -Eustace Garnier marched northwards, with all the troops that he -could raise. - -About this point William of Tyre, who has been gradually passing -from the vague hearsay history of events, which happened while he -was a child, to a clear and detailed narrative of events of which he -was either a spectator or a contemporary, becomes more and more -interesting. We cannot afford the space, nor does it fall within the -limits of this volume, to give more than the leading incidents in -the fortunes of the provinces of the Christian kingdom. We cannot, -therefore, linger over the details of this siege, of the greatest -importance to the safety of the Christians. The town belonged to the -Caliph of Egypt, who held two-thirds of it, and to the Emir, or -King, of Damascus, who owned the rest. The Christian army, -demoralized by the absence of the king, and disheartened by the -reverses which of late had attended their efforts, began badly. They -murmured at the hardships and continual fighting they had to -undergo, nor would they have persisted in the siege but for two -things, the presence of the Venetians, which stimulated their -ardour, and the joyful news that the formidable Balak was dead. He -was killed by Jocelyn himself, who ran him through with his sword -and then cut off his head without knowing who was his adversary. -Thus Balak’s dream, says the Christian historian, was in a manner -fulfilled, though the Arabs, not having a dream to accomplish, tell -the story of his death in another way. - -The people of Ascalon, “like unquiet wasps, always occupied with the -desire of doing mischief,” seeing that the whole army was away at -Tyre, and hoping to catch Jerusalem unguarded, appeared suddenly -within a few miles of the city, in great force. After ravaging and -pillaging for a time, they were seized with a sudden panic, and all -fled back to their town, without any enemy in sight. - -The siege of Tyre was concluded on the 29th of June, 1124, on the -conditions which had now become customary. The Tyrians could go away -if they pleased. Those who chose to stay could do so without fear. -And the historian tells how, when the treaty of surrender was -concluded, Tyrians and Christians visited each other’s camp, and -admired the siege artillery on the one hand, and the walls and -strength of the town on the other. We are therefore approaching the -period of what may be called friendly warfare. Godfrey thought an -infidel was one with whom no dealings were to be held, to whom no -mercy was to be shown. Baldwin, taught by his Armenian wife, and by -his experience in Edessa, went so far as to shock the Christians by -an alliance with the Damascenes. His successor could not prevent his -men, even if he tried, from friendly intercourse with the enemy. - -The changes which had been wrought by time are graphically put forth -by our friend Foulcher de Chartres: “Consider,” he says, “how the -West has been turned into the East; how he who was of the West has -become of the East; he who was Roman or Frank has become here a -Galilæan or an inhabitant of Palestine; he who was a citizen of -Rheims or of Chartres is become a citizen of Tyre or of Antioch. We -have already forgotten the places of our birth; they are even by -this time either unknown to most of us, or at least never spoken of. -Some of us hold lands and houses by hereditary right; one has -married a woman who is not of his own country—a Syrian, an Armenian, -or even a Saracen who has abjured her faith; another has with him -his son-in-law, or his father-in-law; this one is surrounded by his -nephews and his grandchildren; one cultivates vines, another the -fields; they all talk different languages, and yet succeed in -understanding one another.... The stranger has become the native, -the pilgrim the resident; day by day our relations come from the -West and stay with us. Those who were poor at home God has made rich -here; those who at home had nothing but a farm here have a city. Why -should he who finds the East so fortunate return again to the West?” -The plenty and sunshine of Palestine, where every Frank was a sort -of aristocrat by right of colour, no doubt gave charms to a life -which otherwise was one of constant fighting and struggle. Palestine -was to France in this century what America was to Europe in the -sixteenth, the land of prosperity, plenty, and danger. How the -country got peopled is told by another writer, Jacques de Vitry, in -too glowing colours. - -“The Holy Land flourished like a garden of delight. The deserts were -changed into fat and fertile meadows, harvests raised their heads -where once had been the dwelling-places of serpents and dragons. -Hither the Lord, who had once abandoned this land, gathered together -His children. Men of every tribe and every nation came there by the -inspiration of heaven, and doubled the population. They came in -crowds from beyond the sea, especially from Genoa, Venice, and Pisa. -But the greatest force of the realm was from France and Germany. The -Italians are more courageous at sea, the French and Germans on land, -... those of Italy are sober in their meals, polished in their -discourse, circumspect in their resolutions, prompt to execute them; -full of forethought, submitting with difficulty to others; defending -their liberty above all; making their own laws, and trusting for -their execution to chiefs whom themselves have elected. They are -very necessary for the Holy Land, not only for fighting, but for the -transport of pilgrims and provisions. As they are sober, they live -longer in the East than other nations of the West. The Germans, the -Franks, the Bretons, the English, and others beyond the Alps are -less deceitful, less circumspect, but more impetuous; less sober, -more prodigal; less discreet, less prudent, more devout, more -charitable, more courageous; therefore they are considered more -useful for the defence of the Holy Land, especially the Bretons, and -more formidable against the Saracens.” - -But evil came of prosperity. As for the bishops and clergy, they -took all, and gave nothing. To them, we are told, it was as if -Christ’s command had not been “Feed my sheep,” but “Shear my sheep.” -The regular orders, infected with wealth, lost their piety with -their poverty, their discipline with their adversity; they fought, -quarrelled, and gave occasion for every kind of scandal. As for the -laity, they were as bad. A generation dissolute, corrupt, and -careless had sprung from the first Crusaders.[60] Their mothers had -been Armenians, Greeks, or Syrians. They succeeded to the -possessions, but not to the manners of their fathers; all the world -knows, says the historian, how they were lapped in delights, soft, -effeminate, more accustomed to baths than to fighting, given over to -debauchery and impurity, going dressed as softly as women, cowardly, -lazy, and pusillanimous before the enemies of Christ, despised by -the Saracens, and preferring rather to have peace at any price than -to defend their own possessions. No doubt the climate of Syria -rapidly produced a degeneracy in the courage and strength of the -Latin race, but the writer’s style is too full of adjectives. He -screams like an angry woman when he declaims against the age, which -was probably no worse than its predecessors, and the heat of his -invective deprives it of most of its force. - -Footnote 60: - - They were called Pullani, see p. 200. - -It was in Baldwin’s reign that the Knights Templars were founded, -and the Hospitallers became a military order. - -From very early times an order, known as that of St. Lazarus, had -existed, dedicated to the service of lepers and of pilgrims. They -had a hospital, at first, in Acre; they were protected by the late -emperors, their brethren accompanied the army of Heraclius as a sort -of ambulance corps; they obtained permission to establish themselves -in Bethlehem, Jerusalem, and Nazareth, and they had a settlement at -Cyprus. After the first Crusade they divided into three classes, the -knights, or fighting brothers; the physicians, or medical brothers; -and the priests, who administered the last rites of the church to -dying men. These establishments spread over France, Italy, and -Germany; they became rich. The knights appear to have disappeared -gradually; they spent their money in sending pilgrims out in ships, -and in paying the ransoms of those who were taken prisoner. - -The origin of the Knights Hospitallers, originally only the Brothers -of St. John, took place just before the first Crusade. The order was -founded by a certain citizen of Amalfi, Gerard by name. There are -many stories about his life. By some he is confounded with that -Gerard d’Avesnes, who, a hostage in the hand of the Emir of Arsûf, -was bound by him to a piece of timber in the place against which the -machines were chiefly directed, in hopes that the sight might induce -Godfrey to desist. But Godfrey persisted, and Gerard, though pierced -with arrows, eventually recovered. Probably, however, this was -another Gerard. The order began with a monastery near the Church of -the Sepulchre, and in 1113 received a charter from the Pope. Their -immediate object, like that of the Brothers of St. Lazarus, was to -help the wounded; their bread and meat were of the coarsest, they -did not disdain the most menial offices; and, in spite of their -voluntary hardships, and the repulsive duties of their office, they -rapidly grew, and became wealthy. Raymond Dupuy, grand master in -1118, modified the existing statutes of this order, and made every -brother take the oath to fight, in addition to his other duties. -Henceforth it was a military order, divided into languages, having -commandories for every language, and lands in every country. Its -habit consisted of a black robe, with a mantle to which was sewn a -hood; on the left shoulder was an eight-pointed cross; and later, -for the knights, a coat of arms was added. And this habit was so -honourable that he who fled was judged unworthy to wear it. Those -who entered the order out of Palestine might wear the cross without -the mantle. Riches presently corrupted the early discipline, and -pope after pope addressed them on the subject of the laxity of their -morals. Their history, however, does not belong to us. How they -fought at Rhodes, and how they held Malta, belong to another -history. It is the only one of the military orders not yet extinct. - -It was in the year 1118 that the proud and aristocratic order of -Knights Templars was first instituted. Nine knights, nobly born, -consecrated themselves, by a solemn vow, to protect pilgrims on the -roads, and to labour for the safety and welfare of the Church. Their -leaders were Hugh de Payens and Geoffrey de St. Aldemar. They had no -church or place of residence, and the king assigned to them the -building south of the Dome of the Rock, now called the Jámi‘ el -Aksa. It was then called the Palace of Solomon, or the Royal Palace, -and William of Tyre is careful to distinguish between it and the -Dome of the Rock, which he calls the Temple of the Lord. The canons -of the Temple also allowed the knights to make use of their own -ground, that is, of the Haram Area. For nine years they wore no -distinctive habit, and had no worldly possessions. But at the -Council of Troyes, where they were represented by deputies, their -cause was taken up by the Church, and they obtained permission to -wear a white mantle with a red cross. Then, for some reason or -other, they became the most popular of all the orders, and the -richest. Their wealth quickly introduced pride and luxury, and -William of Tyre complains that even in his time, writing only some -fifty years after their foundation, there were 300 knights, without -serving brothers, “whose number was infinite,” that, though they had -kept the rules of their first profession, they had forgotten the -duty of humility, had withdrawn themselves from the authority of the -Patriarch of Jerusalem, and were already rendering themselves -extremely obnoxious to the Church by depriving it of its tithes and -first-fruits. Here we see the first appearance of that hostility to -the Church which afterwards caused the fall of the Templars. The -reception of a new knight was a kind of initiation. The chapter -assembled by night with closed doors, the candidate waiting without. -Two brothers were sent out, three times in succession, to ask him if -he wished to enter the brotherhood. The candidate replied to each -interrogatory, and then, to signify the poverty of his condition, -and the modest nature of his wants, he was to ask three times for -bread and water. After this he was introduced in due form, and after -the customary ceremonies and questions, was made to take the oath of -poverty, chastity, obedience, and devotion to the defence of -Palestine. The following is given as the formula, or part of it:—“I -swear to consecrate my speech, my strength, and my life, to defend -the belief in the unity of God and the mysteries of the faith; I -promise to be submissive and obedient to the grand master of the -order; when the Saracens invade the lands of the Christians, I will -pass over the seas to deliver my brethren; I will give the succour -of my arm to the Church and the kings against the infidel princes; -so long as my enemies shall be only three to one against me I will -fight them and will never take flight; alone I will combat them if -they are unbelievers.” - -Everything was done by threes, because three signifies the mystery -of the Trinity. Three times a year the knights were enumerated; -three times a week they heard mass and could eat meat; three times a -week they gave alms; while those who failed in their duty were -scourged three times in open chapter. - -In later times the simple ceremony of admission became complicated -by symbolical rites and ceremonies. The candidate was stripped of -all his clothes; poor, naked, and helpless, he was to stand without -the door and seek admission. This was not all. He yet had his -religion. He was required to spit upon the cross and deny his -Saviour. And then with nothing to help him, nothing to fall back -upon, he was to be rebaptized in the chapter of the order: to owe -everything to the Templars, to belong to them by the sacred kiss of -brotherhood, by the oaths of secrecy, by the memory of his -readmission into Christianity, by the glorious traditions of the -order, and lastly, as is more than probable, by that mysterious -teaching which put the order above the Church, and gave an inner and -a deeper meaning to doctrines which the vulgar accepted in their -literal sense. It is impossible now to say whether the Templars were -Gnostic or not; probably they may have imbibed in the East not only -that contempt for the vulgar Christianity which undoubtedly belonged -to them, but also whatever there was left of Gnosticism floating -about in the minds and memories of men. In that strange time of -doubt and restlessness, the revolt against Rome took many forms. -There was the religion of the Troubadour, half a mocking denial, -half a jesting question; there was the angry protest of the -Provençal, that every man is a priest unto himself; there was the -strange and mysterious teaching of the Abbot Joachim; and there was, -besides, the secret creed, which owned no bishop and would obey no -pope, of these Knights Templars. - -But this was to come; we are still in the time when St. Bernard can -write of them, “O happy state of life, wherein one may wait for -death without fear, even wish for it, and receive it with firmness!” -This was when their banner _Beauséant_ was borne in the front of -every battle, with its humble legend, “Not unto us, O Lord, not unto -us, but unto Thy name give the glory.” - -In the thirteenth century, the Hospitallers had nine thousand -manors, and the Templars nineteen thousand. Each of these could -maintain a knight in Palestine. And yet they did nothing for the -deliverance of the country. - - Li frères, li mestre du Temple, - Qu’estoient rempli et ample - D’or, et d’argent, et de richesse, - Et qui menoient toute noblesse, - Où sont ils? - -After the reconquest of Palestine, and until their final and cruel -suppression, they seem to have given up all thoughts of their first -vows, and to have become an aristocratic order, admission into which -was a privilege, which involved no duties, demanded no sacrifices, -and conferred great power and distinction. To be a Templar was for a -younger son of a noble house to become a sort of fellow of a -college, only a college far more magnificent and splendid than -anything which remains to us. - -The Teutonic order was founded later, during the Crusade of -Frederick Barbarossa. It was at first called the Order of St. -George. After a stay of some time at Jerusalem, the knights, who -were always Germans, went to Acre. And thence, receiving the -provinces of Livonia, Culm, and all they could get of Prussia, they -removed to Europe, where they founded Königsberg in honour of Louis -IX. of France, and did good service against the pagans of Prussia. -The order did not remain a Roman Catholic one, as was decided after -the Reformation, and to gain admission into it it was necessary to -prove sixteen quarterings of nobility. - -History, about this time, occupied chiefly in relating how the Turks -on the north, and the Egyptians on the south, made incursion after -incursion, to be beaten back, each time with more difficulty, -becomes somewhat monotonous. King Baldwin II., when the enemy found -that his capture did not affect the success of the Christian arms, -and agreed to accept a ransom for him, directly he got out of prison -assembled his army and laid siege to Aleppo. Here he was assisted by -the Mohammedans themselves, but in spite of his auxiliaries, was -compelled to raise the siege, and returned to Jerusalem, where he -was welcomed by his people. If he was unfortunate in attack, he was -at least fortunate in repelling invasion, and beat back the Turks -near Antioch, and again near Damascus. The Turks were only -formidable when they were united; when, as often happened, their -forces were divided by internal dissensions among the emirs and -princes, the Christians were at rest, and when these discords were -appeased an invasion followed. With the Egyptians the invasion was -annual, but every year growing weaker. Still, though always beaten -back, the Mohammedan troops came again and again, and the crown of -Jerusalem was ever a crown of thorns. Among those who came at this -time to Palestine was young Bohemond, son of that turbulent Norman -who gave Alexis so much trouble. Baldwin gladly resigned into his -hands the principality of Antioch, which after the death of Count -Roger had been under his own care. Bohemond was young, brave, and -handsome. Great things were expected of him. Baldwin gave him his -daughter Alice to wife, and for a little while all went well, -through the young prince’s activity and prudence. But he was killed -in Cilicia, leaving no heir but an infant girl. After this a very -curious story is told. - -The princess Alice, widow of young Bohemond, resolved, if possible, -to keep for herself, by any means, the possessions of her late -husband. In order to effect this, as she knew very well that her -daughter would become the king’s ward and heiress of all, she -resolved to try for the help of the Christians’ greatest enemy, -Zanghi. She sent a messenger to the Turk, to open negotiations with -him. As a symbol of her good faith, the messenger was provided with -a white palfrey, shod with silver, with silver bit, and harness -mounted all in silver, and covered with a white cloth. On the way -the messenger was arrested and brought to the king, who was -travelling in haste to Antioch. He confessed his errand and was -executed. But Alice closed the gates of the city, afraid to meet her -father. These were opened by some of the inhabitants, who did not -choose to participate in this open treason to the Christian cause, -and Alice retreated to the citadel. Finally the king was prevailed -on to pardon her, and she received the towns which had been already -settled on her by the marriage deeds, of Laodicea and Gebail. But -she was going to cause more trouble yet. - -Another son-in-law of the king was Fulke, who succeeded him. He came -to Palestine as a pilgrim, bewailing the death of his wife -Ermentrade. Here he maintained in his pay a hundred men-at-arms for -a whole year, in the king’s service. Baldwin, who had no sons, -offered him his daughter Milicent, and the succession to the crown. -Fulke, then thirty-eight years of age, gratefully accepted the -offer, and consoled himself for his bereavement. - -Baldwin the Second died in the year 1131. He had ruled Edessa for -eighteen years, and Jerusalem for twelve, during which time he had -spent seven years in captivity. He was lamented by his subjects, -though his reign had not been fortunate or successful. Still, by -dint of sheer courage, the boundaries of the realm had not been -contracted. What was really the fatal thing about his reign was that -the Mohammedans knew now by repeated trials that the Christians were -not invincible. It was a knowledge which every year deepened, and -every petty victory strengthened. The prestige of their arms once -gone, the power of the Christians was sure to follow. - -Religious as Baldwin was, his piety did not prevent him from -asserting the rights of the crown over those claimed by every -successive patriarch, and many quarrels happened between him and the -prelates, who tried perpetually to extend their temporal power. -During one of these, the patriarch fell ill. Baldwin went to see -him. “I am,” said the revengeful priest, “as you would wish to see -me, Sir King,” implying that Baldwin wished his death, even if he -had not compassed it. William of Tyre, a priest to the backbone, -relates this incident without a word of comment. It must be -remembered that the position of the Latin clergy in Palestine was -not by any means so good as that which they enjoyed in Europe. Their -lands were not so large in proportion, and their dignity and -authority less. On the other hand, they were neither so nobly born, -nor so well bred, nor so learned as their clerical brethren of the -West. Thus it is reported that a Flemish pilgrim was once raised to -the patriarchal seat, simply because, at the imposture of the Holy -Fire, his taper was the first to light, and it will be remembered -how, after the deposition of Dagobert, Ebremer, a simple and -perfectly ignorant monk, was put into his place. And when the pope -refused to confirm the appointment, they made him archbishop of -another diocese by way of compensation. - -We have seen, so far, the growth of this little kingdom, created in -a single campaign, sustained by the valour of kings whose crown was -an iron helmet, whose throne was seldom anything but a camp-stool in -a tent, or the saddle of a horse, whose hands grasped no sceptre but -a sword, who lived hardly, and died in harness. We have next to see -its decline and fall. - -Legends of Baldwin’s prowess grew up as the years ran on. As a -specimen of the stories which gathered about his name we subjoin the -following translation, almost literal, from a French romance of the -fourteenth century. It treats of a visit made by Baldwin with two -Mohammedan princes, secretly Christian, to the Old Man of the -Mountains: - - “Now,” said the Prince,[61] “great marvels have I here;” - And summoning from those who waited near - One of his own Assassins, bade him go - Up to the highest tower, and leap below. - Strange was it when the soldier ran - Joyous, and quick, and smiling, as a man - Who looks for great reward, and through the air - Leaped fearless down. And far below him there - King Baldwin noted how his lifeless bones, - Mangled and shattered, lay about the stones. - When leapt the first man marvelled much the king, - More when five others, as ’twere some light thing, - At his command leaped down from that tall height. - “Sir,” said the Prince, “no man, of all my might, - But blindly hastens where I point the way, - Nor is there one so mad to disobey.” - “Now by Mahound,” the Caliph cried, “not I: - Far be it from me your power to deny. - For, as it seems, the greatest man on earth, - A very god, a greater far in worth - Than Mahomet himself art thou; for none - Can do, or shall do, what thyself hast done.” - “Thou speakest truth,” the Prince replied, “and lo! - As yet thou knowest not all, for I can show - The fairest place that ever yet was found.” - And so he led, by many a mazy round - And secret passage, to an orchard fair, - Planted with herbs and fruit trees: hidden there, - Deep in a corner, was a golden gate. - This to the Prince flew open wide, and straight - Great brightness shone upon them, and behind - Upwards long flights of silver stairs did wind. - Two hundred steps they mounted: then, behold, - There lay the garden as the Prince had told. - Ah! what a garden! all sweet hues that be, - Azure, and gold, and red, were here to see: - All flowers that God has made were blooming here, - While sparkled three fresh fountains bright and clear— - With claret one; with mead all honey-sweet - The second ran; while at their thirsty feet - The third poured white wine. On a dais high - Was set a golden table, and thereby - Sat Ivorine, the fairest maid of earth. - Round her, each one a jewel of great worth, - Two hundred damsels waited on her word, - Or sang as never Baldwin yet had heard - The maids of Europe sing: and here and there - Minstrels with golden harps made music fair; - Ever they danced and sang: such joy had they, - So light seemed every heart, each maid so gay; - So sweet the songs they sang, so bright their eyes, - That this fair garden seemed like Paradise. - But Lady Ivorine smiled not, and sat - Downcast and sad, though still content to wait - Her knight—the flower of knighthood—who some day - Would surely come and bear her far away. - Baldwin bethought him of the maiden fair, - Whose fame had gone abroad, and everywhere - Looked, till his eyes fell upon one who seemed - Fairer than mind had pictured, brain had dreamed. - She sat upon a golden seat, alone, - In priceless robes; upon her head a crown, - Well worth a county: there, row over row, - Full many a sapphire shone with richest glow, - And many a pearl and many a gem beside - Glittered therein the gold beneath to hide. - Her robe was broidered: three long years and more - Toiled on it he who wrought it; and thrown o’er - A costly mantle lay: from far ’twas brought - In some sweet isle beyond the ocean wrought. - Full seven years a Moslem lady bent - Above her loom, and still her labour spent, - While slowly grew the robe; for buckle light, - A rich carbuncle glowed, which day and night - Shone like the sun of heaven clear and bright. - * * * * * - And when Lord Baldwin saw this damsel fair, - So mazed he was, he nearly fainted there. - “Baldwin,” said Poliban, “look not so pale, - If ’tis for doubt or fear your spirits fail.” - “Nay,” said Lord Baldwin, “but a sudden pain, - Yet see I what would make me well again.” - Then the Prince led them all, these nobles three, - And to his daughter brought them courteously. - “Fair daughter,” said he, “is there none of these, - Great princes all and brave, that can you please?” - “Yea, sire,” the maid replied, “I see my lord, - The noblest knight is he who wears a sword. - These ten long years I sit, and hope, and wait, - For him, my husband, promised me by fate. - Now leaps my heart: the weary time is past, - My knight, my liege, my lord, is come at last.” - When Baldwin heard these words, joy and surprise - Held all his heart; but then, across his eyes, - Fell on him a sudden cloud of doubt, and fear - Ran through his chilled brain lest those praises dear - For a companion, not himself, were told. - And, for he could not silence longer hold, - For all the gold of Europe. “Can it be,” - He asked the maid, “that you have chosen me?” - She smiled upon him, “Baldwin, be my knight.” - “By heaven,” he cried, “mine is this jewel so bright.” - But then the Prince, her sire—who liked not well, - That on the poorest lord her favour fell— - Angry and wrath, cried, “Foolish daughter, know, - Your idle words like running water flow, - And matter nothing, until I have willed.” - “Father,” cried Ivorine, “I am your child; - And yet, alas! through my words must you die. - Yes; for know well that God who dwells on high - Hates those who own him not: and so hates you. - That lying demon whom you hold for true, - And so teach others, has deceived your heart. - But as for me, ah! let me take my part - With those who trust in Christ, and place my faith - In that sweet pardon won us by his death. - Father, renounce thy superstitions vain; - And leave this place, or die, if you remain.” - “Fool!” cried the Prince, “I curse thee from this day.” - Then to the Caliph: “Slay my daughter, slay. - Strike quickly, lest some evil chance to you. - My daughter kill.” - His sword the Caliph drew, - And struck—but not fair Ivorine. The blade - Smote down the wrathful Prince, and spared the maid. - “Right well,” cried Poliban, “hast thou obeyed.” - -Footnote 61: - - Le Vieux de la Montagne. - - - - - CHAPTER X. - KING FULKE. A.D. 1131-1144. - - “I have touched the highest point of all my greatness, - And from that full meridian of my glory, - I haste now to my setting.” - _King Lear._ - - -Fulke, Count of Anjou, born about the year 1092, was thirty-nine -years of age at the time when his father-in-law died, and he became, -with his wife Milicent, the successor to the throne. He was a man of -affable and generous disposition, patient and prudent rather than -impetuous, and of great experience and judgment in military -operations. He was of small stature—all the previous kings had been -tall men—and had red hair; “in spite of which,” says William of -Tyre, who regarded red-haired men with suspicion, “the Lord found -him, like David, after his own heart.” The principal defect in him -was that he had no memory. He forgot faces, persons, and promises. -He would entertain a man one day in the most friendly spirit -possible, making all kinds of offers of assistance, and giving him -to understand that he was entirely devoted to his interests. The -next day he would meet him and ask people who he was, having -meanwhile quite forgotten all about him. This was sometimes -extremely embarrassing, and “many men who reckoned on their familiar -relations with the king fell into confusion, reflecting that they -themselves, who wanted to show as protectors and patrons to other -people, required a patron with the king.” - -The domestic relations of Fulke were somewhat complicated, but they -bear a certain special interest for English readers.[62] His father, -Fulke, the Count of Touraine and Anjou, was married three times, and -had one child from each marriage. His third wife, Bertrade, the -mother of King Fulke, ran away from him, and became the mistress of -King Philip of France, by whom she had three children. One of them -was that Cæcilia who married Tancred, and, after his death, Count -Pons. Fulke, by means of his mother’s influence, making a wealthy -marriage, was the father of that Geoffrey Plantagenet who married -Matilda of England, and produced the Plantagenet line. His daughter -Matilda was also betrothed to William, the son of Henry I., and, on -the drowning of that prince, she went into a convent, where she -remained. Another daughter, Sybille, married Thierry, Count of -Flanders. By his second wife, Milicent, Fulke had two sons, Baldwin -and Amaury, both of whom became, in turn, Kings of Jerusalem. - -Footnote 62: - - See Genealogical Table, p. 268. - -In the first year of King Fulke’s reign died that stout old warrior, -Jocelyn of Edessa. His end was worthy of his life. In the preceding -year he had been besieging a fort or castle near Aleppo, and had -ordered a certain town to be undermined. While he was personally -superintending the works, the tower suddenly fell and buried the old -count beneath its ruins. They extricated him, but his legs and limbs -were broken, and he never walked again. He retained, however, his -power of speech and his lofty courage, and when, next year, the news -came that the Sultan of Iconium was besieging in force one of his -strong places, he sent for his son and ordered him to collect all -the men and knights he could, and march at once to the rescue. But -young Jocelyn, who was, like most of the Syrian-born Christians, -little better than a cur, refused flatly, alleging as an excuse the -disproportion of numbers. The old man, sorrowful at heart on account -of his son’s cowardice, and foreboding the troubles which would -surely come after his own death, ordered his litter to be prepared, -and was carried at the head of his own army to the relief of the -fort. The news reached the Saracens that old Jocelyn was coming -himself, and at the very mention of his name they broke up their -camp and fled. “And when he heard this, the count ordered those who -carried his litter to place it on the ground; then raising his hands -to heaven, with tears and sighs, he returned thanks to God, who had -visited him in his affliction, and had thus favoured him by -suffering him once more, and for the last time, to be formidable to -the enemies of Christ. And while he poured out his thanks to heaven, -he breathed his last.” There was now no one left of the old -crusading chiefs, and their spirit was dead. - -Most of them had married Armenians, and their sons were degenerate, -sensual, and cowardly. Young Jocelyn, for instance, though married -to the most beautiful and the best woman in the East, the Lady -Beatrice, was so given over to all kinds of licentious excesses and -luxuries that he was, says the historian, covered with infamy. His -daughter married Fulke’s son Amaury, and the evil life of Jocelyn -bore its fruits in the leprosy of his grandson, King Baldwin IV. - -Directly the Countess Alice of Antioch heard of her father’s death, -she began to plot and intrigue to break through the settlement made -in her daughter’s favour, and to get the town and principality for -herself. By means of gifts and promises, she drew over to her own -interests young Jocelyn of Edessa, and Pons, Count of Tripoli, and -the people of Antioch, alarmed for their future, sent hastily to the -king for assistance. Fulke went first to Beyrout, whence he intended -to proceed through the territories of the Count of Tripoli to -Antioch. But Pons, though his wife was the king’s own sister, -positively refused to allow him to pass. The king went by sea. Then -Pons followed him with a small army. Fulke, getting together some -troops at Antioch, went out to meet him, and an engagement took -place, in which Pons was defeated, and most of his knights taken -prisoners. After this the Count of Tripoli made his submission, and -was reconciled to the king, who confided the government of Antioch -to Renaud de Margat, and returned to his capital. But there was no -repose for a King of Jerusalem, and the news came that Zanghi, with -a large army, had passed the Euphrates, and was invading the -territory of Antioch. Once more the order for preparation was given, -and the king marched north. When he arrived at Sidon, he was met by -his sister Cæcilia, who told him how her husband was besieged in -Montferrand by the Saracens, and implored the king, with all a -woman’s tears and entreaties, to go first to his assistance. Zanghi -thought best to retire, and raising his camp, got back across the -Euphrates with all his plunder. But he only retired, “_pour mieux -sauter_”” and came back in overwhelming force. And then followed one -more, almost the last, of those splendid victories which seem to -have been won, unless the histories lie, against such fearful odds, -and entirely through the personal valour of each individual -Christian. The reputation of Fulke rose high by this victory, and he -had time to regulate some of his domestic matters. First it became -necessary to get a husband for little Constance of Antioch, in order -to save himself the trouble of perpetually interfering in the -troubles caused by Alice. He could think of no one so suitable as -Raymond of Poitiers. But there were difficulties in the way. Raymond -was in England at the court of Henry I. If deputies were sent -publicly, inviting him to Antioch, Alice would certainly use all her -influence with the Norman princes of Sicily, her late husband’s -cousins, to stop him on the way. A double deceit was therefore -practised. Alice was privately informed that Raymond was sent for to -marry her, not her daughter. Raymond was written to by a special -messenger, a Knight Hospitaller, named Gerard, and ordered to travel -to the East in disguise as a simple pilgrim. These precautions -proved successful. Alice, rejoiced at the prospect of another -gallant husband, ceased her intrigues. Raymond arrived safely in -Antioch, where Alice and the Patriarch were both waiting for him. -And then he was married without the least delay to Constance, a -little girl of eleven or twelve. The Countess Alice, who had been -deceived up to the very hour of the wedding, went away to Laodicea, -mad with rage and disappointment, and we hear no more of her. Fulke -had checkmated her. - -His next trouble was on account of her sister, his own wife, -Milicent. At a council held in Jerusalem, one Walter, Count of -Cæsarea, son-in-law to Hugh, Count of Jaffa, rose and accused his -father-in-law of the crime of _lèse-majesté_. The accusation was -prompted by the king himself, who had, or thought he had, good -reason to be jealous of his wife’s relations with Count Hugh. And -accordingly he hated Hugh. The barons heard the charge, and summoned -Hugh to answer it in person, and to defend his honour, _en champ -clos_, against his accuser. On the appointed day Walter of Cæsarea -appeared in arms, but Hugh did not come. Whether that he was guilty, -or whether that he was unwilling to risk his honour and life on the -chance of a single fight, is uncertain. He was accordingly judged -guilty in default, and the king marched against him. But Count Hugh -was not so easily put down. He hastened to Ascalon, and made an -alliance, to the horror of all good Christians, with those -hereditary enemies of the faith, the inhabitants of that town. They -joyfully joined him, and engaged to harass the country while he -defended Jaffa. And then Hugh drew up his bridges, shut his gates, -and sat down, announcing his determination to hold out to the last. -There was no one in the kingdom with so great a reputation as he for -personal bravery; no one so handsome, no one so strong, and no one -of better birth. Moreover, he was the cousin-german to the queen, -which gave him a reason, or at least a pretext, for visiting her -frequently and privately. - -But it could not be endured that civil war should rage so close to -the very capital of the realm, and negotiations were entered into -between the contending parties. Finally it was agreed that Hugh -should put away his unnatural alliance with the Saracens, and should -so far acknowledge the sentence of the barons by an exile of three -years. Hugh repaired to Jerusalem with the king, where he waited -till the preparations for his departure should be completed. One -day, while he was playing dice outside a shop in the street, a -Breton knight stabbed him with a sword, and Hugh fell apparently -dead. He was not dead, however, and was ultimately cured of his -wounds, but died in Sicily before the term of his exile was -completed. Everybody thought that King Fulke had ordered the -assassination, but the murderer stoutly declared, in the midst of -the keenest tortures, that he had no accomplices, and that he had -acted solely in what he thought obedience to the will of Heaven. -Fulke ordered his limbs to be broken and cut off one after the -other, all but his tongue, which was left free, in order that full -confession might be made. Queen Milicent’s resentment pursued those -who had compassed the exile of her lover. All who had been concerned -in it went in terror and peril, knowing, “furens quid fœmina -possit;” and even the king found it prudent to make the peace with -his wife, and henceforth, even if he should be jealous, to conceal -that passion as much as possible. But the count died in Sicily, and -the queen’s resentment died with him. - -There was not, however, very much more glory awaiting the much -troubled Fulke. Pons, Count of Tripoli, was taken prisoner by the -Damascenes, and being recognised by certain Syrians, living in -Lebanon, was put to death. Evidently the historian is wrong here, as -the time was quite gone by for putting illustrious prisoners to -death. There must have been some special reason for this barbarity. -However, his son Raymond believed the story, and in order to avenge -his death, marched a force to the mountains and brought back to -Tripoli, loaded with irons, all those whom he could catch, as -accessories to the death of his father. There, in presence of all -the people, the poor creatures, who appear to have done nothing at -all, were put to death with different kinds of tortures, all the -most cruel, “in just punishment of their enormous crimes.” - -And now the misfortunes of the Christian kingdom began fairly to set -in. The emperor John Comnenus, son of Alexis, was marching across -Asia Minor with the intention of renewing his father’s claims on -Antioch. Raymond sent hurriedly to the king for assistance. Fulke -went northwards again. He arrival in time to hear that Zanghi was -again on Christian soil, ravaging and pillaging. He went to meet -him, and the Christian army was completely and terribly defeated. -Fulke took refuge in the fortress of Montferrand. Raymond of Tripoli -was made prisoner. In this juncture an appeal was made to Jocelyn of -Edessa and Raymond of Antioch to come to their assistance, and the -Patriarch of Jerusalem was ordered to muster every man he could -find. - -It was the most critical moment in the history of the kingdom. -Fortunately John Comnenus was too wise to desire the destruction of -the Latin Christians, and he contented himself with the homage of -Raymond of Antioch, and came to their assistance. But the Franks -quarrelled with the Greeks, and were suspicious of their motives. -John retired in disgust with his allies; a year afterwards he came -back again; was insulted by the people of Antioch; was actually -refused permission to go as a pilgrim to Jerusalem, except in -disguise, and was killed by a poisoned arrow, very likely by a -Frank. Thus the Latins lost all hope of succour from Constantinople, -at a time when succour from some quarter was necessary to their very -existence, when the old ardour of crusading which had kept their -ranks full was dying out in Europe, and when their chiefs, the -children of the old princes, were spending their days in slothful -luxury, careless of glory, and anxious only for peace and feasting. - -Fulke’s own son-in-law, Thierry of Flanders, arriving at this time -with a large following, the king made use of his men to go across -the Jordan and clear away a nest of brigands which had been -established in a cavern on a mountain side. While they were occupied -in the regular siege of this place, the Turks took advantage of -their absence, and made a predatory incursion into the south of -Palestine, taking and plundering the little town of Tekoa. Robert, -Grand Master of the Templars, went in hot haste against them. They -fled at his approach; but the Christians, instead of keeping -together and following up the victory, dispersed all over the plain. -The Turks rallied, and forming small detachments, turned upon their -pursuers, and slaughtered them nearly all. Among those who were -killed was the famous Templar, Odo of Montfaucon. Fulke was sore -afflicted by the news of this disaster, but persevered in the siege, -and had at least the satisfaction of destroying his robbers. - -One more military expedition King Fulke was to make. Allied with the -Emir of Damascus, he laid siege to the town of Baucas, which Zanghi -had taken. The legate of the pope, Alberic of Ostia, was with the -army, and exhorted them to courage and perseverance. After an -obstinate resistance, the town capitulated on honourable terms. - -The legate had come from Rome to act as judge between the Patriarch -of Antioch and the bishops. It is not easy to make out how these -quarrels arose, nor is it edifying to relate the progress of -squabbles which were chiefly ecclesiastical. Alberic of Ostia had -been recalled, and a new legate, Peter, Archbishop of Lyons, sent -out in his stead. The charges against the patriarch were chiefly -that he refused to submit to Rome. William of Tyre gives the whole -story of the trial and consequent deposition of the patriarch. He -was taken to a monastery as a prisoner, and kept there for some -time, but succeeded in escaping to Rome, where he pleaded his own -cause, and was on the point of being reinstated, when he died of -poison. - -In the last year of King Fulke three important fortresses were -built, that of Kerak in Moab, that of Ibelin, and that on Tell es -Safiyeh. The fortress of Ibelin, about ten miles from Ascalon, was -on the traditional site of Gath. The citadel built on Tell es -Safiyeh, about eight miles from Ascalon, and called Blanchegarde, -was made the strongest place in Palestine, and played an important -part in the subsequent wars. - -One day in 1144, Fulke, walking with the queen in the neighbourhood -of Acre, put up a hare in the grass. Calling for a horse and a -lance, he rode after it; and the horse falling, brought him down -with such violence that he fractured his skull. He lingered four -days in a state of insensibility, and then died, leaving two sons, -of thirteen and seven years respectively, by his wife Milicent. - - GENEALOGY OF FULKE. - - FULKE LE RECHIN. - │ - ┌────────────────────┼───────────────┐ - │ │ │ - = Hildegarde = Hermengarde. │ - │ (his first wife). │ │ - │ │ │ -Hermengarde. Geoffrey Martell. │ - │ - ┌─────────────────┘ - │ - = Bertrade [= Philip K. - │ de Montford │ of France. - │ ┌────────┼────────┐ - Fulke K. of │ │ │ - Jerusalem. Florus. Philip. Cæcilia. - │ = Tancred. - │ = Pons of Tripoli. - │ │ - │ Raymond. - │ - ┌─────┴──────────────────────┐ - │ │ - Ermentrade = = Milicent of - │ Jerusalem. - │ │ - ┌──────┼─────────┬───────┐ ┌──┴─────┐ - │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Elie. │ Matilda.[63] Baldwin Amaury. - │ │ III. │ - Geoffrey Plantagenet Sybille │ -= Matilda of England. = Thierry C. of Flanders. │ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - Henry II. of England. &c. ┌──────────┬───┴───┐ - │ │ │ - Baldwin IV. Sybille. Isabelle. - -Footnote 63: - - Betrothed to the young prince William, son of Henry I. After his - death she went into a monastery. - - - - - CHAPTER XI. - KING BALDWIN III. AND THE SECOND GREAT CRUSADE. - A.D. 1144-1162. - - “Seigneurs, je m’en voiz outre mer, et je ne scais se je revendré. - Or venez avant: se je vous ai de riens mes fait, je le vous - desferai l’un par l’autre, si comme je ai accoutumé à tous ceulz - qui vinront riens demander ni à moy ni à ma gent.”—_Joinville._ - - -“Hitherto,” says William of Tyre, whom we have been principally -following, “hitherto the events I have described were related to me -by others. All that follows I have either seen with my own eyes or -have heard from those who actually were present. I hope, therefore, -with the assistance of God, to be able to relate the facts that I -have yet to put down with greater accuracy and facility.” - -He was a young man when Fulke died, and preserves in his history -that enthusiasm for his successor which one of his own age would -probably entertain, and which Baldwin’s early death, if not his -admirable qualities, prevented from dying out. He writes of him as -one might have written of Charles I., had he died five years after -he came to the throne, or of Louis XIV., had he finished his reign -thirty years earlier. - -Baldwin was only thirteen when with his mother, Milicent, as Queen -and Regent, he was crowned king. Like his great ancestors, the young -king grew up taller and stronger than the generality of mankind; his -features were firm and undaunted, and a light beard covered his lips -and chin; he was not “too fat like his brother, nor too thin like -his mother.” In short, Baldwin, when he grew up, was a tall and -handsome man. As for his mental qualities, his biographer exhausts -himself in praises. He was prompt to understand; eloquent and fluent -of speech; affable in manners; full of compassion and tenderness; -endowed with an excellent memory (in which he must have presented a -pleasing contrast to his father); tolerably well educated—“better, -that is, than his brother”—the biographer’s standard of education is -difficult to catch, because he afterwards tells us of Amaury that he -was educated, “but not so well as his brother:” he was fond of -having read to him the lives of great kings and the deeds of valiant -knights; he knew thoroughly the common law of the realm; his powers -of conversation were great and charming; he attached to himself the -affections of everybody high and low. “And,” says the worthy bishop, -“what is more rare in persons of his age, is that he showed all -sorts of respect for ecclesiastical institutions, and especially for -_the Prelates of the Churches_.” Where could a finer king be found? - -If he had a fault it was that he was fond of gaming and dice. As the -greater part of his life was spent on horseback, it was only -occasionally that he could indulge in this vice. Another fault he -had as a youth which he entirely renounced in later years. To the -credit of King Baldwin it is recorded that he was, after his -marriage, entirely blameless in respect of women. Now by this time -the morals of the Kingdom of Jerusalem were in an extremely bad way, -and the example of the young king could not fail of producing a -great and most beneficial effect. - -Queen Milicent was an ambitious woman, like her sister Alice, and -had no intention at all of being a puppet. She accordingly insisted -on being crowned together with her son. The kings of Jerusalem had -ceased to affect that proud humility which made Godfrey refuse to -wear a crown when his Lord had only worn thorns, and sent Baldwin I. -to Bethlehem to be crowned, as it were, out of sight of the city of -Christ’s sufferings. Now the ceremony was held in the very church of -the Holy Sepulchre, which was the cathedral of the Christian city. -In the king’s hands was placed the sword, with which to defend -justice and Holy Church: on his finger they put the ring of faith; -on his head the crown of honour; in his right hand the sceptre of -authority and the golden apple of sovereignty. - -Mother and son were crowned together, and the unhappy state, which -wanted the firm hand of a Godfrey, found itself ruled by a boy and a -woman. The barons began to take sides and form parties. There was no -leader in the councils, none to whom they could look to as the -common head, and if one advanced above the rest they regarded him -with suspicion and envy. Worst of all, they began to fight with each -other. In the north, Raymond of Antioch and young Jocelyn of Edessa -looked upon each other as enemies, and spent most of their time in -trying to devise means of mutual annoyance. Jocelyn, who ought to -have been occupied in organising means for the defence of his -dominions against the formidable Zanghi, when he was not harrying -Raymond, lay inactive at Tellbasher, where he indulged in his -favourite pleasures, hoping to spend the rest of his life in ignoble -ease, looking out upon the world with those goggle eyes of his, the -only feature, and that not a lovely one, recorded of this prince. - -But he was to be rudely shaken from his slumber. It was in the early -winter of 1144, the year of Baldwin’s accession, when news came to -him that Zanghi was before the walls of Edessa with an immense army. -Jocelyn, roused too late, sent everywhere for assistance. Raymond -would not help him; his own knights reproached him with his -indolence and apathy, and declared that they would not march to -certain death. Queen Milicent issued orders for the army to move -northwards, which were not obeyed; and Edessa was doomed. - -Zanghi, finding success almost certain, redoubled his efforts, and -sent for reinforcements in all directions. He even offered -favourable terms of surrender; but these were refused. Zanghi’s plan -of siege was the ordinary one, quietly to undermine the towers, -propping up the earth as it was removed with timber. When the proper -time arrived, the timber would be set fire to, and of course the -tower would fall. The Latin archbishop, who appears to have been in -command, would hear of no surrender, and exhorted the people daily, -holding forth the promise of the crown of martyrdom. But on the -twenty-second day of the siege the towers which had been undermined -fell with a crash, and the enemy poured in. The first thought of the -people was to fly for shelter to the citadel. Many were crushed or -trampled to death in the attempt, among whom was Archbishop Hugh, -who had been storing up gold, and now tried to carry it into the -citadel. The weight of his treasure helped to bear him down. The -enemy were before them at the gates of the citadel, and the -slaughter of the helpless people commenced, with all the horrors -usual after a siege. Islam was triumphant; Christendom in despair. - -But Zanghi died next year, being assassinated by his own slaves, and -a lively joy was diffused throughout Palestine. “A certain -Christian,” says William of Tyre, with admirable modesty, for, of -course, he was himself the accomplished poet, directly he heard of -this event, delivered himself of the following melodious -impromptu:[64] - - “Quam bonus eventus! fit sanguine sanguinolentus - Vir homicida, reus, nomine sanguineus.” - -Footnote 64: - - The chroniclers wrote his name Sanguin. - -King Baldwin won his spurs while yet a boy, first by a short and -successful expedition beyond the Jordan, and next by his Quixotic -attempt on the town of Bozrah, in the Hauran. It was an attempt -undertaken in haste and without reflection, and doomed from the -outset to failure. A certain Armenian, governor of the town, -influenced probably by some private motives of revenge, came to -Jerusalem and offered to put the town in the hands of the -Christians, if they wished to have it. There was still lingering, in -spite of the fall of Edessa, some remains of the old spirit of -conquest, and, regardless of the dangers which hovered round the -kingdom, and of the pressing necessity for consolidating all their -strength for purposes of defence, the Christians tumultuously -demanded to be led to the attack, and an army was called together. -Baldwin went with them. The troops assembled in the north and -started full of vainglorious confidence. On the second day they -found themselves surrounded with clouds of enemies, who assailed -them with showers of darts. The country was a desert; as the only -means of getting water the people had formed artificial cisterns, in -which the winter rains were stored. But they were filled with dead -bodies of locusts, and the water was too bad even for men parched -with thirst. The Christians struggled on. They arrived at Edrei. -Here, at least, they would get water. But at Edrei as well the water -was all stored in large cisterns. They let down buckets by ropes: -men hidden below cut the ropes. For four days they pressed on, -however, while the enemy was reinforced hourly, and by day and night -a continuous hail-storm of arrows and projectiles was showered into -the camp, so that neither man nor beast among the Christians escaped -without some wound. On the fourth day, they were cheered by the -sight of the town of Bozrah, and by the discovery of certain small -rills of water, which they fought for, and won at the cost of many -lives. But in the dead of night a messenger of very evil tidings -came into the camp. The wife of the Armenian had refused to be a -partner in her husband’s treachery: the enemy occupied the city in -force, and all hope was to be given over of taking it by storm. Then -the Christians despaired. Some of them advised the king to mount the -fleetest horse—that of John Gomain—in the camp, and make his way -back alone, so that at least _his_ life might have a chance of being -saved. But Baldwin, brave boy that he was, refused. He had not had -the stories of valiant knights read to him for nothing. He would -remain with his army and share their fate. At break of day the camp -was broken up and the retreat commenced. Orders were given to lay -the dead and the wounded, as they fell, on the beasts of burden, so -that the enemy might not know the havoc they were making, and then, -for Nûr-ed-dín was already on the alert, they started on their -disastrous and melancholy retreat. The heat was oppressive; there -was no water; clouds of dust hung over the little army; clouds of -Saracens rode round them firing arrows into their midst. And yet the -Christians moved on in good order. More wonderful still, there was -not a single dead body behind them. Were they, then, protected by -some unknown power? The Saracens hesitated. Thinking that their -arrows had no effect, and ignorant of the ghastly load under which -the camels were groaning, they tried another method. The whole -country was covered with dry bushes and grass. They set fire to it, -and the wind blew the flames and smoke directly upon the Christians. -And then the people turned to Archbishop Robert of Nazareth, who -bore the Holy Cross, “Pray for us, father, pray for us in the name -of the wood of the Cross that you hear in your hands, for we can no -longer bear our sufferings.” It was high time that Robert should -pray: the faces and hands of the army were blackened with smoke and -dust; “they were like blacksmiths working at the forge:” their -throats were dry with heat and thirst. - -The archbishop prayed, and at his prayer the wind shifted, and the -flames were blown towards the enemy. The Christians resolved to send -a messenger to the Saracens. They chose a knight who had been -suspected of treachery, but they had no other choice, because he -alone spoke the language of the enemy. They asked him if he would -faithfully perform his mission. “I am suspected,” he said, -“unjustly. I will go where you wish me. If I am guilty of the crime -you impute to me, may I never return—may I perish by the enemy’s -weapons!” He went, but before he had gone far the poor wretch fell -dead, pierced by a hundred arrows. - -Then the Christians pressed on. Arrived near Damascus, the Emir of -that city sent a messenger to them. If they would halt, he would -feed and entertain them all. Worn, thirsty, and wearied as they -were, they suspected his loyalty, and hurried on. In after times it -was related that a knight, whom none had seen before, appeared every -morning at the head of the army, guided them during the day by roads -unknown to the enemy, and disappeared at night. Doubtless, St. -George. We have said before that the time for saints’ help ended -with Godfrey. A saint appears again, it is true, but with how great -a change! the last time Saint George fought for the Christians, he -led them on to victory after victory. Now he shows them a way by -which, broken down and utterly beaten, they can escape with their -lives. - -There was great rejoicing in Jerusalem when the remnant of the army, -with the young king, came back. Those who had been wont to sing -psalms for the defeat of the enemy, sang them now for the safe -return of the defeated king. “This our son,” they chanted, “was -dead, and is alive again: he was lost, and is found.” - -After the death of Zanghi, who had repeopled the city of Edessa, the -ill-advised Jocelyn instigated the people to revolt against their -new masters. All the Turks in the place were put to death, and -Jocelyn, once more reinstated in the city of his father, sent -messengers in all directions, asking for help. No help came, for it -was impossible that any one should send help. Nûr-ed-dín came to the -town with ten thousand men before Jocelyn had held it for a week. He -vowed to exterminate the Christians, and these were too few in -number to make any resistance. They threw open the gates, and all -sallied forth together, with the resolution to fight their way -through the beleaguering army. Jocelyn got through, and, with a few -knights, reached Samosata in safety. The rest of the people were all -massacred. - -Some years after this, Jocelyn himself was taken prisoner, and spent -the rest of his life, nine years, in captivity, far enough removed -from any chance of indulging in those vices which had ruined him, -and perilled the realm. It was a fitting end to a career which might -have been glorious, if glory is a thing to desire; which might have -assured the safety of the Christian kingdom, if, which is a thing to -be questioned, the Christian kingdom was worth saving. - -And now hostilities on both sides seem to have been for a time -suspended, for the news reached the East how another Crusade had -been preached in the West, and gigantic armies were already moving -eastwards to protect the realm, and reconquer the places which had -been lost. Signs, too, were not wanting which, though they might be -interpreted to signify disaster, could yet be read the other way. A -comet, for instance; this might portend evil for the Saracens—Heaven -grant it was intended to strike terror into their hearts. But what -could be said of the lightning which struck, of all places in the -world, the very church of the Holy Sepulchre itself? Nothing but the -anger of God could be inferred from a manifestation so clear, and -the hearts of all were filled with terror and forebodings. - -The details of the second Crusade, as it is called, unhappily -resemble those of the first. It is not necessary that we should do -more than follow the leading incidents which preceded the arrival of -the soldiers—all who were left—in Palestine. - -It was exactly fifty years since Peter the Hermit went through -France, telling of the indignities offered to the pilgrims, and the -sufferings of the faithful. But in fifty years a vast change had -come over the West. Knowledge had taken the place of ignorance. No -fear, now, that the rude soldiery would ask as every fresh town rose -before their eyes, if that was Jerusalem. There was not a village -where some old Crusader had not returned to tell of the long march, -the frightful sufferings on the way, the obstinacy of the enemy, the -death of his friends. From sea to sea, in France at least, the East -seemed as well known as the West, for from every province some one -had gone forth to become a great man in Palestine. Fulke from Anjou, -Godfrey from Lorraine, Raymond from Toulouse, another Raymond from -Poitou, Robert from Normandy, another Robert from Flanders, Hugh le -Grand from Paris, Stephen from Blois, and fifty others, whose fame -was spread far and wide in their native places, so that men knew now -what lay before them. They went, if they went at all, to fight, and -defend, not to conquer. The city was Christian; but there was -plunder and glory to be got by fighting beyond the city. - -Bernard proclaimed the Crusade. He preached the necessity of going -to the assistance of a kingdom dear to all Christian eyes, tottering -to its fall. He called attention to the corruption of morals, which -he declared to be worse than any state of things ever known before; -he forbore from promising easy conquests and victories where all the -blood would be that of the infidel; on the contrary, he told the -people that the penances inflicted by God Himself for their sins -were the clash of arms, the fatigues and dangers of war, the hard -fighting and physical suffering of a campaign under the sun of -Syria; and, which is very significant, he appears to have invoked a -curse upon all who refused to obey the summons, and follow to the -Holy War. - -The first Crusaders set off with light and buoyant hearts; they were -marching, they thought, to certain conquest; the walls would fall -down before them: it was a privilege and a sacred pleasure to have -taken the sign of the Cross. The second army started with gloomy -forebodings of misery and suffering; they were going on a -penitential journey; they were about to encounter perils which they -knew to be terrible, an enemy whom they knew to be countless as the -sands of their own deserts, not because they wanted to fight, but -because Bernard, who could not err, told them that God Himself laid -this penance on their shoulders. Every step that brought Peter’s -rough and rude army nearer to Constantinople was a step of pleasure: -every step that the second army took was an addition to the -weariness and boredom of the whole thing. The most penitential of -all was the young king, Louis VII. of France, upon whose conscience -there lay the terrible crime of having burned the church at Vitry. -For in the church, which he had fired himself, were thirteen hundred -men, women, and children, who were all burned with it. The king -would fain have saved them, but could not, and when he saw their -blackened and half-burned bodies, his soul was sick within him for -remorse and sorrow. It was a calamity—for which, however, the king -was not, perhaps, wholly responsible—worse than that modern burning -of the women of Santiago. In Germany they began to expiate their -sins by murdering the Jews, a cheap and even profitable way of -purifying the troubled conscience, because they plundered as well as -murdered them. Bernard, to his infinite credit, stayed the hand of -persecution, and showed the people that this was not, hateful as a -Jew must always be to a Christian, the way pointed out by Heaven. -The preaching of Bernard was seconded by the exhortations of the -poets, who united in singing the praises of those who take the -Cross, and in denouncing those who refused. “Rise,” says one bard, - - “Rise, ye who love with loyal heart; - Awake, nor sleep the hours away: - Now doth the darksome night depart, - And now the lark leads in the day: - Hear how he sings with joyous strain - The morn of peace which God doth give - To those who heed nor scathe nor pain; - Who dare in peril still to live; - Who, night or day, no rest may take, - And bear the Cross for Christ’s own sake.” - -The Crusade consisted wholly of Germans and French. The former went -first, headed by Conrad, King of the Romans, who left his son Henry -in charge of his dominions. They got through the Greek emperor’s -dominions with some difficulty, being unruly and little amenable to -discipline, but were at last safely conveyed across the straits to -Asia Minor, where they waited the arrival of King Louis. - -In France an enormous army had been collected, by help of the old -cry of “Dieu le veut,” the magic of which had not yet died out; -there must have been men, not very old, who remembered the preaching -of Peter, and the frantic cries with which the Cross was demanded -after one of his fiery harangues. Bernard wrote to the pope, with -monkish exaggeration, that “the villages and the castles are -deserted, and one sees none but widows and orphans whose husbands -and fathers are yet living.” Most of them, alas! were to remain -widows and orphans indeed, for the husbands and fathers were never -destined to return. And, as in the First Crusade, many of those who -joined ruined themselves in procuring the arms and money necessary -for their outfit. The Church, as before, kindly came to their -assistance by buying the lands of them at a nominal value. - -The gravest mistake was that made at the very outset when the barons -were permitted to take with them their wives. Queen Eleanor, who -afterwards married our Henry II., went with her husband, accompanied -by a great number of ladies, and the presence of large numbers of -women in the camp caused grave disorder, and subsequently great -peril, both to the French and German armies. - -It was in the early winter of 1147 that the Crusaders crossed the -Hellespont. Without waiting for the French, the Germans, divided -into two bodies, had pushed on. They reckoned on the friendship of -the Greeks, but they were grievously disappointed. Extravagant -prices were demanded for the most inferior food; lime was put into -the bread, which killed many; the Turcopoles hovered about and cut -off the supplies; but, in spite of these obstacles, a portion of the -army, under the Bishop of Freisingen, managed to reach Syria. As for -the larger part, under Conrad, they were guided as far as Dorylæum, -where the first Crusaders had so hard a battle. Here the guides ran -away, and the Turks fell upon them. The army consisted of seventy -thousand horse, and a vast multitude of foot soldiers, of women, and -of children. About seven thousand horse escaped with King Conrad. -All the rest were slaughtered. No greater calamity had ever happened -to the Christian arms. Conrad got back to Nicæa, where Louis, who -had just arrived, was encamped. The French resolved to take the way -by the sea-shore. We need not follow through all the perils of their -march. They fought their way to Ephesus; thence, crossing the -Mæander, they came to a place called Satalia, at the western -extremity of Cilicia; and here Louis left them, and went by sea to -Antioch. The plague broke out among the troops: the Greeks refused -them any help, which they got from the very Turks whom they came to -fight, and finally, out of the hundreds of thousands who had left -the West a year before, a few thousands only struggled into Syria. -Of the women who went with them, their wives and mistresses, not one -got to Palestine, save only Queen Eleanor and her suite. - -Raymond of Antioch was the cousin of Eleanor. He welcomed Louis and -his queen to his little court, and immediately began to cast about -for some way of making their visit to Palestine serviceable to -himself. It was the way of all these Syrian knights and barons. -Every man looked to himself and to his own interests; no man cared -about the general interest. Jocelyn of Edessa, who was not yet put -into prison, Pons of Tripoli, Raymond of Antioch, all hoped to catch -the great kings of the West on their way to Jerusalem, and to turn -the Crusade into such channels as might advance their own interests. - -Suspecting nothing, Louis made a lengthened stay at Antioch, waiting -for the remains of his great army. Raymond, thinking the best means -of getting at the king was through his consort, employed every means -in his power to amuse Eleanor. She, who had no kind of sympathy with -the piety or remorse of her royal husband, preferred the feastings -and amusements of Antioch to anything else, and would gladly have -protracted them. But her own conduct and the levity of her manners -caused grievous scandal, and effectually prevented her from having -any influence over the king, who, when pressed to help Raymond, -coldly replied that, before anything else, he must visit the holy -places. Raymond, who had succeeded in pleasing the queen, if he had -not won her heart, by way of revenge, persuaded Eleanor to announce -her intention of getting divorced from the king on the ground of -consanguinity, while Raymond declared that he would keep her, by -force, if necessary, at his court. Louis took council of his -followers, and by their advice, carried off his queen by night, and -made the best of his way to Tripoli, where he was met by an emissary -of Queen Milicent, who was afraid he would be drawn into some -enterprise by the count, urging him to come straight on to -Jerusalem. - -In June, 1148, a great council of the assembled kings and chiefs was -held at Acre. At this meeting were present King Baldwin, Queen -Milicent, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, the barons of the kingdom, and -the Grand Masters of the two great orders of the Temple and St. -John, on behalf of the Christian kingdom; while the Crusaders were -represented by Kings Conrad and Louis, Otto Bishop of Freisingen, -brother of Conrad, Frederick (afterwards Barbarossa), his nephew, -the Marquis of Montferrat, Cardinal Guy of Florence, Count Thierry -of Flanders, and many other noble lords. Only it was remarked, by -those who were anxious for the future, that the Counts of Tripoli, -Edessa, and Antioch were not present, while it was ominous that -Eleanor of France did not take her seat with the other ladies who -were present at the council. - -There were several courses open to the Crusaders. They might retake -Edessa, and so establish again that formidable outpost as a bulwark -to the kingdom. They might strengthen the hands of Raymond, and so -make up for the loss of Edessa. They might take Ascalon, always a -thorn in the side of the realm; or they might strike out a new line -altogether, and win glory for themselves by an entirely new -conquest, an exploit of danger and honour. Most unfortunately, they -resolved upon the last, and determined on taking the city of -Damascus. Such a feat of arms commended itself naturally to the -rough fighting men. They despised Jocelyn; they resented the -treatment of Raymond; and therefore they could not be got to see -that to strengthen the hands of either of these was to strengthen -the power of the Christians, while to conquer new lands was to -increase their weakness and multiply the hatred and thirst of -revenge of their enemies. And with that want of foresight which -always distinguished the Crusaders, they followed up their -resolution by immediate action, and started on their new enterprise -with the eagerness of children, in spite of a burning July sun. The -King of Jerusalem marched first, because his men knew the roads. -Next came King Louis, with his French, and lastly, the Germans, -under Conrad. On the west side of Damascus lay its famous gardens, -and it was determined first to attack the city from this side. The -paths were narrow, and behind the bushes were men armed with spears, -which they poked through at the invaders as they passed. The brick -walls which hedged in the gardens were perforated, with a similar -object. There was thus a considerable amount of fighting to be done -in dislodging these hidden enemies before the Christians managed to -make themselves masters of the position. It was done at last, all -the leaders having performed the usual prodigies of strength and -valour—Conrad himself cut a gigantic Saracen right through the body, -so that his head, neck, shoulder, and left arm fell off together, a -clean sweep indeed—and the Damascenes gave themselves up for lost. -And then happened a very singular and inexplicable circumstance. The -Christians deliberately abandoned a position which had cost them so -much to win, and resolved to cross over the river to the other side, -where they were persuaded that the attack would be much easier. They -went across. They found themselves without water, without -provisions, and in a far worse position for the siege than before. -The Damascenes received reinforcements, closed up the approaches to -the gardens, and quietly waited the course of events. There was -nothing left but to retreat; and the Christians, breaking up their -camp in the middle of the night, retreated, or rather fled, in -disgrace and confusion. This was the end of the second Crusade. - -Why did they leave the gardens? Many answers, all pointing to -treachery, were given to the question. Some said that Thierry of -Flanders wanted the city, and because the chiefs would not promise -it to him, preferred seeing it remain in the hands of the enemy, and -so became a traitor. Others told how the Templars arranged the whole -matter for three great casks full of gold byzants, which, when they -were examined, turned out to be all copper. Raymond of Antioch, -according to a third story, managed the false counsels out of -revenge to the king. And so on. Talk everywhere, treachery -somewhere, that was clear, because treachery was in the Syrian air, -and because knights, and barons, and priests were all alike selfish -and interested, rogues and cheats—all but King Baldwin. “Whoever -were the traitors,” says the historian, “let them learn that sooner -or later they shall be rewarded according to their merits, unless -the Lord deign to extend them his mercy.” He evidently inclines to -the hope that mercy will not be extended to them. - -Disgusted with a people who would not be served, and wearied of -broken promises and faithless oaths, the chiefs of the Crusade made -haste to shake off the dust of their feet, and to leave the doomed -kingdom to its fate. Some of their men remained behind, a -reinforcement which enabled Baldwin to keep up his courage and show -a bold front to the enemy so long as his life lasted. - -Nûr-ed-dín, directly they were gone, invaded Antioch, and Raymond -was killed in one of the small skirmishes which took place. At this -time, too, Jocelyn of Edessa fell into the hands of the Turks, and -was put into prison. It was almost impossible for Baldwin to defend -Antioch alone. Nevertheless, he held it manfully, and it was not -till after his time that it was ceded to the Greeks, who in their -turn surrendered it to the Turks. Tripoli, the count of which town -was himself assassinated, remained the only bulwark of the kingdom. -The eyes of Palestine were turned again upon Europe. But from Europe -little help could now be expected. Louis, returning defeated and -inglorious, had been hailed as a conqueror. Medals were struck in -his honour, with the lying legend— - - Regi invicto ab Oriente reduci - Frementes lætitiâ cives. - -And, though he promised to lead another Crusade, his conscience was -appeased by his pilgrimage, and his love of praise was satisfied by -the honours he received. Therefore he went no more. Moreover, two -new methods of crusading were discovered, nearer home, and far more -profitable. In the north of Germany lay a large and fertile country, -inhabited wholly by pagans. Why not conquer that, and reduce so fair -a land to Christianity? And in Spain, so close at hand for pious -Frenchmen, were vast provinces, rich beyond measure, all in the -hands of those very Saracens whom they were asked to go all the way -to Palestine in order to fight. And then there died both Bernard and -Suger, the sagacious Suger, who saw the disgrace which had fallen on -the Christian arms, and wished to repair it by sending out another -army in place of that which Louis had madly thrown away. - -The boundaries of poor young Baldwin’s kingdom were greatly -contracted. Nothing now remained but what we may call Palestine -proper, with a dubious and tottering hold on a few outlying towns. -Fifty years had been sufficient to turn the sons of the rough and -straight-forward soldiers of Godfrey, whose chief fault seems to -have been their ungovernable fits of rage, into crafty and -double-faced Syrians, slothful and sensual, careless of aught but -their own interests, and brave only when glory, to which they still -clung, could be got out of it. Nor was the kingdom itself free from -discord and variance. Queen Milicent retained her authority, nor -could she be persuaded to give it up. It was the most monstrous -thing—it shows, however, how the feudal ideas had become -corrupted—that she should insist on holding part of the realm in her -own name. She did so, however, giving Baldwin Tyre as his principal -place, and retaining Jerusalem as her own. She had a following of -barons, who preferred, for many reasons, to be under the rule of a -woman. The reins of government were confided to her own cousin, one -Manasseh, and Baldwin had the mortification of finding himself in -times of peace, few enough, it is true, only the second man in a -country of which he was the nominal king. He claimed his rights; -these were refused. He besieged Manasseh in his castle; he even -besieged his mother in hers. The patriarch acted as mediator, and, -after long negotiations, a compromise was effected, by which -Milicent, more fortunate than her equally ambitious sister, Alice of -Antioch, received the city of Nablous to hold as her own for the -rest of her life. - -It was during these negotiations, or at their close, that the king -held a great council at Tripoli on the state of the kingdom. And it -was while the council was sitting that Count Raymond was -assassinated—no one knew at whose instigation, because the murderers -were instantly cut to pieces. - -The Turks made an attempt upon the kingdom of Jerusalem itself, and -while the knights were gone to defend Nablous, they encamped on the -Mount of Olives. Then the people of Jerusalem went out, as full of -courage as Gideon’s three hundred, and drove them off with great -slaughter. Their success—success was now so rare—raised the spirits -of all the Christians, and the king resolved to follow it up by -laying siege to that old enemy of Christendom, Ascalon, which was to -Jerusalem even as the mound which Diabolus raised up against the -city of Mansoul in Bunyan’s allegory. It was in 1153 that this -strong place, which ought to have been in the hands of the -Christians fifty years before, had it not been for the jealousy of -Count Raymond, fell at last. Baldwin marched against it with all the -forces he could command. A fleet watched the port from the sea, -while the siege was hurried on by land. Every ship that brought -pilgrims was ordered to proceed southwards, and the pilgrims were -pressed into the service. Nevertheless, the work went on slowly, and -after more than four months, reinforcements were received from -Egypt, and the besieged were as confident as ever. Accident gave the -Christians the town. They had a moveable tower, higher than the -walls, with which they were able to annoy the enemy almost with -impunity. One day, when it was laid alongside the wall, the besieged -threw a vast quantity of wood, on which they poured oil and sulphur, -between the ramparts and the town. This they set fire to; but, -unfortunately for themselves, without first considering which way -the wind was blowing. It was a strong east wind, and the flames were -blown towards the walls. They blazed all day and all night, and when -they ceased, at length, the stones were calcined, and that portion -of the wall about the fire fell down with a crash. The Christians -wanted nothing more. At daybreak the soldiers were awakened by -hearing the noise, and rushed towards the spot. They were too late. -The Templars were already crowding in at the breach, and, _in order -to get all the plunder for themselves_, these chivalrous knights had -stationed men to prevent the army from following them. - - Non habet eventus sordida præda bonos, - -remarks the historian. Their cupidity proved the death of a great -many of their body, for they were too few to carry everything before -them, as they had hoped. Forty Templars perished in this attack, and -the rest were not able to get in at all, for the people drove them -back, and in an incredibly short time, fortified the broken wall -with great beams of timber; and then, safe for a time behind their -rampart, they tied ropes to the corpses of the knights, and dangled -them up and down outside the wall, to the indignation of the -Christians. After deliberation, confession, and a grand mass, a -general assault was ordered, and for a whole day hand-to-hand -fighting was carried on. And then the city yielded, and obtained -fair terms. Provided they evacuated the town within three days, -their lives were to be spared. And at last, in delusive imitation of -the glories which were never to return again to the Christian arms, -the standard of the Cross floated from the towers of Ascalon, the -“Bride of Syria.” The unfortunate people, with their wives and -children, made what haste they could to get ready, and in two days -had all left their city, carrying with them all their portable -goods. The king honourably kept his word with them, and gave them -guides to conduct them to Egypt across the desert. All went well so -long as their guides were with them. But these left them after a -time, and gave them over to a certain Turk, who had been with them -in Ascalon—“valiant in war, but a perverse man, and without -loyalty”—on his promise to conduct them safely to Egypt. But on the -way he and his men fell on them, robbed them of all their treasures, -and went away—whither, history sayeth not—leaving them to wander -helplessly up and down the desert. And so the poor creatures all -perished. It is a pity that we cannot ascertain what became of the -admirable Turk who knew so well how to seize an opportunity. - -During the siege of Ascalon, the Lady Constance of Antioch, whom the -king had been anxious to see married for a long time, chose, to -everybody’s astonishment, a simple knight, one Renaud de Chatillon, -as her husband. The king, anxious above all that a man should be at -the head of Antioch, consented at once, and Renaud, of whom we shall -have more to say, wedded the fair widow. Although the king approved -of the marriage, it appeared that the Patriarch of Antioch did not, -and trusting to the sacredness of his person went about the city -spreading all sorts of stories about the fortunate young bridegroom. -Renaud dissembled his resentment, and invited him to the citadel, -and then, by way of giving the reverend bishop a lesson as to the -punishment due to calumniators, set him in the sun all day, with his -bald head covered with honey to attract the wasps. After this -diabolical audacity, as William of Tyre calls it, there was nothing -left for the patriarch but to pack up and get away to Jerusalem as -fast as he could. The king reprimanded Renaud, but too late, for the -mischief was done, and the head of the prelate already painfully -stung. - -Internal troubles occupied the king for the next year or two. These -were caused by the quarrels between the two military orders and the -Church of Jerusalem. We hear only one side of the story, which -throws the whole blame upon the knights. No doubt the clergy were -also in some way to blame. By special permission of the pope, no -interdict or excommunication could touch the Knights of St. John or -the Knights Templars. They were free from all episcopal -jurisdiction, and subject only to the pope. It pleased Raymond, -Grand Master of the Hospitallers, for no reason given by the -chronicler, to raise up all sorts of troubles against the Patriarch -of Jerusalem and the prelates of the Church, on the subject of -parochial jurisdiction and the tithes. The way they showed their -enmity is very suggestive of many things. “All those whom the -bishops had excommunicated, or interdicted, were freely welcomed by -the Hospitallers, and admitted to the celebration of the divine -offices. If they were ill, the brothers gave them the viaticum and -extreme unction, and those who died received sepulture. If it -happened that for some enormous crime”—probably the withholding of -tithes—“the churches of the city were put under interdict, the -brothers, ringing all their bells, and making a great clamouring, -called the people to their own chapels, and _received the oblations -themselves_; and as for their priests, they took them without any -reference whatever to the bishops.” Obviously, therefore, the -quarrel was entirely an ecclesiastical squabble, due to the desire -of the Church to aggrandize and preserve its power. The knights, -_ecclesia in ecclesiâ_, a church within a church, would not -recognise in any way the authority of the patriarch. For this they -had a special charter from the pope. But they would not pay tithes, -and they were constantly acquiring new territories. We may have very -little doubt that it was the question of tithes on the knights’ -lands which caused all the quarrel. But it is very remarkable to -note the way in which the historian speaks of interdicts and -excommunications. In the West an interdict was a great and solemn -thing. In England only one interdict, at the memory of which the -people shuddered for many years to come, was ever laid upon the -country, while, though English kings have been excommunicated, it -has happened rarely. In Palestine the custom of debarring offenders, -whether towns or individuals, from the privileges of the Church, is -spoken of as quite a common practice. The thing, evidently, was -often happening. The patriarch was handy with his interdicts, and it -must have galled him to the very soul to find that the people cared -nothing for them, because they could get their consolations of the -Church just as well from the knights. - -One cannot, however, defend the manner in which the knights vexed -the heart of the patriarch in other ways. For whenever he went to -the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the knights, who had a great -building opposite (in what is now called the Muristàn), began to -ring all their bells at once, and made so great a noise that he -could not be heard. And once, though one can hardly believe this, -they went to the doors of the church and shot arrows at the people -who were praying. Probably they pretended to shoot them in order to -frighten the priests. Such a practical joke, and its effect in the -skurrying away of people and priests, would be quite in accordance -with the spirit of the times. - -The patriarch, though now nearly a hundred years of age, went -himself to Rome, but got no satisfaction. He had with him six -bishops and a band of lawyers to plead his cause; but he was badly -received by the pope and badly treated by the cardinals. And after -being put off from day to day, finding that he could get no redress, -he retired in shame and confusion, and probably patched up some sort -of peace with his enemies the knights. - -And now followed a sort of lull before the storm, three or four -years of actual peace and internal prosperity. Renaud de -Chatillon disgraced the cause of Christianity by an unprovoked -attack upon the Isle of Cyprus, which he overran from end to -end, murdering, pillaging, and committing every kind of outrage. -Nûr-ed-dín made himself master of Damascus, an event which more -than counter-balanced the loss of Ascalon. And Baldwin committed -the only crime which history can allege against him. For he had -given permission to certain Turcomans and Arabs to feed their -cattle on the slopes of Libanus. Here, for a time, they lived -peaceably, harming none and being harmed by none. But the king -was loaded with debts which he could not pay. Some one in an -evil hour suggested to him an attack upon this pastoral people. -Taking with him a few knights, the king went himself and overran -the country sword in hand. Some of them escaped by flight, -leaving their flocks and herds behind; some buried themselves in -the forests; some were made slaves; and some were mercilessly -slaughtered. The booty in cattle and horses was immense, and -Baldwin found, by this act of iniquity, a means of paying off, -at least, the most pressing of his creditors. But his subsequent -misfortunes were attributed to this perfidy, the worst which a -Christian king of Jerusalem had as yet displayed. - -Nûr-ed-dín laid siege to the castle of Banias, into which Count -Humphrey had introduced the knights of St. John on conditions of -their sharing in the defence. Baldwin went to its assistance. -Nûr-ed-dín raised the siege and retired. The king, seeing no use in -staying any longer, began his southward march. They encamped the -first night near the lake Huleh, where they lay without proper -guards, believing the enemy to be far enough away. The king’s own -body-guard had left him, and some of the barons had left the army -altogether, followed by their own men. In the morning the enemy fell -upon them all straggling about the country. Baldwin retreated to a -hilltop with half a dozen men, and gained in safety the fortress of -Safed. And then the historian adds a sentence which shows how -utterly rotten and corrupt was this kingdom, founded by the brave -arms of Godfrey and his knights. “There was very little slaughter, -because everybody, not only those who were renowned for their wisdom -and their experience in war, but also the simple soldiers, eager to -save their miserable lives, gave themselves up without resistance to -the enemy like vile slaves, feeling no horror for a shameful -servitude, and not dreading the ignominy which attaches to this -conduct.” - -Is it possible to imagine a knight of the First Crusade, or even a -simple soldier, preferring to surrender at once than to risk the -chance of life in the battle? And when the news came south, which -happened soon enough, instead of flying to arms, the men flew to the -altars, chanting the psalm “Domine, salvum fac regem.” - -Fortunately one of those little crusades, consisting of a fleet and -a few thousand men, arrived at this juncture, headed by Stephen, -Count of Perche. Baldwin welcomed them with delight, and made the -best use of them, defeating by their help the Saracens at every -point in the county of Tripoli and the principality of Antioch, and -lastly gave the Damascenes the most complete defeat they had ever -experienced. It must always be remembered that it was by such -windfalls and adventitious aids as these that the kingdom of -Jerusalem was maintained. The pilgrims who came to pray fought in -the intervals of prayer; a small percentage of them always remained -in the country and attached themselves to the fortunes of king or -baron. When the influx of pilgrims was great the new blood kept up -the stamina, physical as well as moral, of the Syrian Christians; -when the influx was small the king had to depend upon the _pullani_, -the Syrian born, the creoles of the country, who were weedy, false, -and cowardly, like those knights and soldiers who surrendered, -rather than strike a blow for their lives, to Nûr-ed-dín. - -In 1160 died Queen Milicent. Against her moral character, since the -scandal about Hugh of Jaffa, no word had been breathed. But she was -ambitious, crafty, and intriguing, like her sisters, not one of whom -lived happily with her husband. She founded a convent on the Mount -of Olives, in return for which the ecclesiastical biographers, as is -their wont, are loud in their praises of her. Her youngest sister -was made its first abbess. She died of some mysterious malady, for -which no cure could be found. Her memory failed, and her limbs were -already long dead when she breathed her last. No one was allowed to -go into the room where she lay save a very few, including her two -sisters, the Countess of Tripoli, widow of Raymond, and the Abbess -of Saint Lazarus of Bethany. Probably the disease she suffered from -was that which broke out in her grandson, Baldwin IV., leprosy. The -year before her death the king had contracted a splendid marriage, -advantageous from every point of view. He married Theodora, niece to -the Emperor of Constantinople. The new queen was only thirteen: she -was singularly beautiful, and brought, which was of more importance, -a large dowry in ready money. Baldwin was passionately fond of his -young bride, and from the moment of his marriage gave up all those -follies of which he had been guilty before. But he had a very short -period of this new and better life. Renaud de Chatillon, who had -made his peace with the emperor, by means of the most abject and -humiliating submissions, got into trouble again, and was taken -prisoner by the Mohammedans. Baldwin, affairs in the north falling -into confusion in consequence of this accident, went to aid in -driving back the enemy. Here he was seized with dysentery and fever, -diseases common enough in the Syrian climate. His physician, one -Barak, an Arab, gave him pills, of which he was to take some -immediately, the rest by degrees. But the pills did not help him, -and he grew worse and worse. They said he was poisoned. Some of the -pills were given to a dog, which died after taking them—the story -is, however, only told from hearsay, and is probably false. He was -brought to Beyrout, where he languished for a few days and then -died, in his thirty-third year, leaving no children. - -Great was the mourning of the people. Other kings had been more -powerful in war; none had been braver. Other kings had been more -successful; none had so well deserved success. And while his -predecessors, one and all, were strangers in the land, Baldwin III. -was born and brought up among them all; he knew them all by name, -and was courteous and affable to all. In those degenerate days he -was almost the only man in the kingdom whose word could be trusted; -moreover, he was young, handsome, bright, and generous. The only -faults he had were faults common to youth, while from those which -most degrade a man in other men’s eyes, gluttony and intemperance, -he was entirely free. Even the Saracens loved this free-handed -chivalrous prince, and mourned for him. When some one proposed to -Nûr-ed-dín to take advantage of the confusion in the country and -invade it, he refused, with that stately courtesy which -distinguished even the least of the Saracen princes. “Let us,” said -he, “have compassion and indulgence for a grief so just, since the -Christians have lost a prince such that the world possesses not his -equal.” - -The wiseacres remembered how, when he stood godfather to his -brother’s infant son, he gave him his own name, and on being asked -what else he would give him, “I will give him,” said the king, -with his ready laugh—it was his laugh which the people loved—“I -will give him the kingdom of Jerusalem.” The gossips had shaken -their heads over words so ominous, and now, with that melancholy -pleasure, almost a consolation, which comes of finding your own -prognostications of evil correct, they recalled the words of fate -and strengthened themselves in their superstition. - -Ill-omened or not, the words had come true. Baldwin was dead, his -brother was to succeed him, and his nephew was to come after. And -henceforth the days of the kingdom of Jerusalem are few, and full of -trouble. - -The kingdom of Jerusalem, like a Roman colony, was founded by men -alone. Those women who came with the Crusaders either died on the -way, unable to endure the fatigue, heat, and misery of the march, or -fell into the hands of the Turks, whose mistresses they became. The -Crusaders therefore had to find wives for themselves in the country. -They took them from the Syrian Christians or the Armenians, -occasionally, too, from Saracen women who were willing to be -baptized. Their children, subjected to the enervating influences of -the climate, and imbibing the Oriental ideas of their mothers, -generally preserved the courage of their fathers for one or two -generations, when they lost it and became wholly cowardly and -sensual and treacherous. But the kingdom was always being reinforced -by the arrival of new knights and men at arms, so that for all -practical purposes it was a kingdom of the West transplanted to the -East. All the manners and customs were purely European. Falconry and -hunting were the most favourite sports. They amused the Saracens, -when they came to have friendly relations with them, by tournaments -and riding at the quintain. Indoors they beguiled the time which was -not taken up by eating, drinking, or religious services, in chess, -dicing, and games of chance. They were all great gamblers, and -forgot in the chances of the dice all their misfortunes and -anxieties. Those who were rich enough entertained minstrels, and had -readers to read them the lives of illustrious warriors and kings. -Later on, but this was always done with the greatest secrecy, even -by Frederick II., who cared little enough what was said of him, they -learned to admire the performances of dancing girls. Richard of -Cornwall was so delighted with their voluptuous dances that he -carried a number of them to England. As for their manner of living -it was coarse and gross. They brought their Western appetites to the -East, and, ignorant of the necessity of light food and temperance in -a hot climate, they made huge meals of meat and drank vast -quantities of wine. This was probably the main cause of their -ungovernable temper, and the sudden outbursts of rage which -sometimes made them commit acts of such extraordinary folly. And -this was most certainly the cause why they all died young. And -though they imbibed every other Oriental habit readily—Oriental -voluptuousness, Oriental magnificence, Oriental dress—they never -learned the truth that Mohammed enforced so rigidly, that to -preserve life we must be temperate. Fever destroyed them, and -leprosy, that most miserable of all diseases, crept into their -blood, possibly through the eating of pork, of which they were -inordinately fond. - -For the rest, they swore enormous oaths, vying with each other in -finding strange and startling expressions; they were always -rebelling against the authority of the Church, and always ready to -be terrified by the threats of the priests and to repent with tears. -In religion they exercised a sort of fetish worship. For it was no -matter what odds were against them so long as the wood of the True -Cross was with them; it mattered little what manner of lives they -led so long as a priest would absolve them; there was no sin which -could not be expiated by the slaughter of the Mohammedans. Every -Crusader had a right to heaven; this, whatever else it was, was an -escape from the fires of hell. The devil, who was always roaming up -and down the world, appearing now in one form and now in another, -had no power over a soldier of the Cross. Everybody, for instance, -knows the story of the Picard knight. He had made a bargain with the -devil, to get revenge—this obtained, he could not get rid of his -infernal ally. He took the Cross and the devil ceased to torment -him. But when Jerusalem was taken, and he returned home, he found -the devil there already, awaiting him in his own castle. Therefore -he took the Cross again, went _outre mer_, stayed there, and was no -more troubled. And every Crusader was ready to swear that he had -never himself met any other devil than the black Ethiopians of the -Egyptian army. The saints, on the other hand, frequently appeared, -as we have seen. - -Such, in a few words, were the manners of the Christians over whom -ruled Baldwin III.; an unruly, ungodly set, superstitious to their -fingers’ ends, and only redeemed from utter savagery by their -unbounded loyalty to their chiefs, by their dauntless courage in -battle, and by whatever little gleams of light may have shone upon -them through the chinks and joints of the iron armour with which -they had covered, so to speak, and hidden the fair and shining limbs -of Christianity. - - - - - CHAPTER XII. - KING AMAURY. A.D. 1162-1173. - - “I had thought I had had men of some understanding - And wisdom, of my council; but I find none.” - _Henry VIII._ - - -At the death of King Baldwin the personal unpopularity of his -brother among the barons caused at first some hesitation as to his -election, but this was overruled by the influence of the clergy, and -Amaury was duly crowned in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. He was -at the time of his succession to the crown twenty-seven years of -age. He had been named by his brother first Count of Jaffa, and -afterwards, when the place was taken, Count of Ascalon. He was a man -somewhat above the middle height; like his brother he had an -aquiline nose, brown hair falling back from his forehead, and would -have been as handsome as Baldwin but for his premature corpulence. -He was inordinately fat, in spite of extreme temperance in eating -and drinking. As for his faults, they were many. He was morose and -taciturn, rarely speaking to any one, and never showing any desire -to cultivate friendships; he was avaricious, always trying to -accumulate treasure, a habit which he defended, honestly enough, on -the ground that it was the duty of a king to provide for -emergencies, a duty which he was the first King of Jerusalem to -recognise. At the same time, he was always ready with his money in -cases of necessity. He seldom laughed, and when he did, he seemed to -laugh all over, in a manner as undignified as it was ungraceful. He -had, too, a slight impediment in his speech, which prevented him -from speaking freely, and was probably the main cause of his -taciturnity. He was unchaste, and made no secret of his -incontinence. He was a violent enemy of what his biographer calls -the liberty of the Church—in other words, he insisted on the -property of the Church bearing the burden of taxation equally with -all other property. He had little education, but loved reading, -especially the reading of history, and was fond of asking questions -on curious and recondite questions. Thus, he once startled William -of Tyre by asking him if there was any proof, apart from revelation, -of the doctrine of a future world. The priest proved to him, by the -Socratic method, he says, that there was; but he confesses that he -was greatly exercised in spirit at the king’s asking such a -question. He was well versed in all questions of law, and in -military matters was generally a prudent leader, and always patient -of fatigue and suffering. “Being so fat,” we are told, “the rigours -of cold and heat did not trouble him”—a very odd result of -corpulence. He obeyed all the ordinances of the Church, and showed -his magnanimity by never taking the least notice of things said in -his disfavour, when they were reported to him. He loved not dice or -gambling, and had, indeed, but one sport of which he was really -fond, that of falconry. Evidently a gloomy kind of prince, with his -mind overwhelmed by all sorts of doubts and questions of morality -and religion, perplexed by the cares and anxieties of his position, -void of enthusiasm for the crown which he wore, but resolute to do -the best he could for his kingdom; more prudent and far-seeing than -any who had preceded him, but without the dash and vigour of his -ancestors, slow of thought, and consequently liable to ill-success -for want of promptness, a man something like our William III., who -had a few who admired and respected him, but who, to the many, was -unpopular and distasteful. - -He had married Agnes, the daughter of Jocelyn the younger, by whom -he had three children, Baldwin, afterwards king, Sybille and -Isabelle. On his accession it was discovered, one wonders why the -Church had not interfered earlier, that the marriage was unlawful, -because his own and his wife’s grandfather, Baldwin du Bourg, and -Jocelyn the elder, had been first cousins. He was therefore -compelled to get a divorce from Agnes, who married again, first Hugh -of Ibelin, a gallant fighting man, and afterwards Renaud of Sidon, -also a marriage within the limits, only this time the Church did not -think proper to interpose her authority. - -Like all the kings of Jerusalem, Amaury began his reign with an -expedition, by way of winning the spurs of gallantry. The -Egyptians—the Fatemite dynasty being now in its last stage of -decay—failed to pay the tribute which had been agreed upon after the -taking of Ascalon. Amaury led an army to Pelusium, which he took and -plundered, and returned home laden with spoils and glory. - -The Fatemite Caliphs, degenerate now, and sunk in sloth, left the -whole government of their rich empire to their viziers, who had -taken the title of sultan. Dhargam, the vizier at this time, had a -powerful rival named Shawer, whom he managed to turn out of his -government and banish from the kingdom. Shawer repaired to Damascus, -and representing to Nûr-ed-dín the weakened state of the kingdom, -urged him to send an army which should in the first instance place -himself in the seat of Dhargam, and in the next make Egypt a sort of -appanage to Damascus. The project was tempting. If Egypt could be -made even an ally of Damascus, or more properly speaking, of -Baghdad, to which Caliphate Nûr-ed-dín belonged, the way was clear -for united action against the Christian kingdom on three sides at -once. Nûr-ed-dín did not hesitate long. Deputing his ablest general, -Shírkoh, to lead his forces, he despatched a formidable army to -Egypt, to support the rebellious claims of Shawer. But Dhargam in -his turn was not idle. He sent messengers to King Amaury, offering -conditions, almost any which the king might dictate, in return for -assistance. But while the negotiations were pending, and Amaury was -making up his mind how to act, Shírkoh and his army were already in -Egypt. Dhargam led his troops to meet the enemy, and in a first -engagement entirely routed the Syrians. The next day, however, these -rallied, and the unfortunate Dhargam was killed by a chance arrow in -the battle. Shawer entered into Cairo in triumph, killed all -Dhargam’s relations—a summary and efficacious way of preventing any -possible future claims on the part of his descendants—and allowed -Shírkoh to establish himself in Pelusium, where the Syrians settled -down, and refused either to quit the kingdom, or to acknowledge the -authority of the caliph. Shawer found himself thus in the position -of one seeking to be delivered from his friends, and saw no way of -escape but by the intervention of the Christians. He sent -ambassadors to Amaury, making overtures similar to those proposed by -his late rival, even offering greater advantages if the previous -terms were not sufficiently liberal; but Amaury accepted them, and -marched with all his forces into Egypt. These allied forces of -Shawer and Amaury besieged Shírkoh in Pelusium, but were not strong -enough to get more than a conditional surrender, the Syrian general -being allowed to depart with all the honours of war, and to return -to Damascus. And at the same time Nûr-ed-dín received a defeat near -Tripoli, which raised the spirit of the Christians to the highest -point. Next year, however, he avenged himself by defeating young -Bohemond of Antioch, Raymond of Tripoli, the Greek governor of -Cilicia, and the Armenian prince Toros. It was a shameful rout. “No -one bethought him of his former courage, or of the deeds of his -ancestors; no one sought to avenge the insults of the enemy, or to -fight gloriously for the liberty and honour of his country. Each, on -the other hand, hastening to throw away his arms, endeavoured by -indecent supplications to preserve a life which it would have been a -thousand times better to sacrifice by fighting valiantly for his -country. Toros the Armenian got away by flight: Bohemond and the -rest were all taken prisoners, while they were shamefully running -away.” In the midst of the consternation produced by this disaster, -Thierry, Count of Flanders, who was continually coming into the -country like a _Deus ex machinâ_ in the midst of calamities, arrived -opportunely with a small following of knights. He could not, -however, prevent Nûr-ed-dín from taking the Castle of Banias, which -in the absence of its seigneur, Humphrey, who was away in Egypt, had -been consigned to the care of one Walter of Quesnet. Walter gave up -the place, which he was too weak to defend, and in these degraded -times was of course accused of having received bribes for the -purpose from Nûr-ed-dín. Perhaps he did. - -The king came back glorious with his Egyptian exploit, only to hear -of these reverses, and to march north in hopes of repairing them. He -could do no more than place the best men he had in the fortresses, -while Shírkoh gained possession of a stronghold named the Grotto of -Tyre, by treachery, as was alleged—at least the Christian governor -was hanged for it at Sidon. The fortress of Montreal, in Moab, fell -at the same time, and the king was so indignant that he hung up -twelve of the Templars who had been among the besieged, and had -consented to its capitulation. Nothing, in fact, can explain the -continual reverses of the Christians except the fact of their utter -demoralization and cowardice, and the dwindling away of that full -stream of pilgrim soldiers who had formerly flocked yearly to the -East. The Second Crusade, indeed, was productive of the greatest -harm in this respect to the Christian kingdom. It drained the West -of all the men who wished to become pilgrims; and the fact that so -few returned deterred effectually those who would otherwise have -wished to go. Other causes, of course, were at work. Of these, the -chief were the crusades against the Moors in Spain and the Pagans in -Germany, and the development of pilgrimages to local shrines and -saints. It was much easier and a great deal pleasanter, though not -so glorious, to ride across a friendly country to a saint not many -hundreds of miles away, than to journey in peril and privation along -the long and weary road which led to Jerusalem. - -But there was a lull in the incursions of Nûr-ed-dín. He and Shírkoh -had other and vaster projects on hand. They sent to the caliph at -Baghdad, and pointed out the manifest advantages which would accrue -from the extinction of the Fatemite power, the union of both -caliphates into one, and the possession of a country so rich and so -fertile as Egypt, the people of which were enervated by pleasure and -luxury, and absolutely unfitted for any kind of resistance. The -caliph listened. Surrounded as he was by every luxury that the heart -of man could desire, it mattered little to him whether another rich -country was added to his nominal rule or not. But it mattered -greatly that the divided allegiance of Islam should be made to run -again in one stream, and he consented to give all his influence -provided the war were made a religious war. To this Nûr-ed-dín and -his general eagerly assented, and the caliph wrote to all the -princes who owned his sway, commanding them to assist Shírkoh in his -intended invasion of Egypt. - -Amaury possessed prudence enough to know that if the Syrians -conquered Egypt his own position would be far worse than before; and -he collected his forces and marched southwards, in hopes of -intercepting the Syrian army in the desert. He missed them; but -Shawer, full of admiration for the good faith which seemed to him to -have actuated the Christians, welcomed them with every demonstration -of gratitude when they arrived in Egypt, and placed, to use the -phrase of the historian, all the treasures of the country at their -disposal. Amaury established his camp near Cairo, on the banks of -the Nile, and then held counsel what next to do. He determined to -make another attempt to intercept Shírkoh, and though he again -missed the main army, he came upon a small rear-guard, which he -either killed or made prisoners. From the prisoners he learned that -a great disaster had befallen the Turks on their way across the -desert, South of Moab there had arisen a frightful storm and -whirlwind, in which the sand was driven about like the waves of the -sea. To escape it, the troops dismounted and crouched behind the -beasts, covering their faces; they lost all their camels, most of -their provisions, and a vast number of their men. Amaury came back -again in good spirits at this intelligence, and thinking of -returning home again, the tempest having done the work of his own -sword. But he overrated the power of the Egyptians, and Shawer, -knowing how utterly unable his own forces were to cope with those of -Shírkoh, shattered as these were, implored the king to remain in -Egypt and help him to drive off the invader. He undertook to give -the Christians a sum of four hundred thousand gold pieces, half to -be paid on the spot, half when the work was done, provided that the -king undertook not to leave Egypt till the enemy had been driven -out. The terms were agreed to; the king gave his right hand, in -token of fidelity, and sent Hugh of Cæsarea, accompanied by a -Templar named Foucher, to receive the personal promise of the great -and mysterious caliph himself, whom no one had yet seen. - -The two knights, with Shawer, proceeded to the palace. They were -preceded by a number of trumpeters and swordsmen, and led through -dark passages where gates, at each of which were Ethiopian guards, -continually barred the way. Having passed through these, they found -themselves in an open place, surrounded by galleries with marble -columns, with panels of gold, and pavements of curious mosaic. -There, too, were basins of marble filled with pure and sparkling -water; the cries and calls of birds unknown to Europeans, of strange -shape and glorious plumage, saluted their ears; and going farther on -they found themselves in a menagerie of strange beasts, “such as the -painter might imagine, or the poet, with his lying license, might -invent, or the imagination of a sleeper could fancy in dreams of the -night.” - -Passing on still through more corridors, and along other passages, -they arrived at last in the palace itself, where were armed men, and -guards whose arms and martial bearing proclaimed the power, even as -the splendour of the place proclaimed the wealth, of the sovereign -who owned it. They were shown into an apartment one end of which was -hidden by curtains, embroidered with gold and precious stones. -Before the curtain Shawer, the sultan, prostrated himself twice, and -then took the sword which hung from his neck and humbly laid it on -the ground. At that moment the curtains drew apart, and disclosed -the caliph himself, seated on a golden throne, in robes more -splendid than those of kings, and surrounded by a small number of -his domestics and favourite eunuchs. Then the sultan advanced and -explained the object of this visit, and the reasons which had led to -the treaty with the Christians. The caliph replied in a few words -that he agreed to the treaty, and promised to interpret all the -conditions in the manner most favourable to the king. - -But Hugh demanded that the caliph should ratify the treaty by giving -his hand, after the manner of the Christians, a proposition which -was received with the greatest horror; nor was it till the sultan -had urged the point with vehemence that the caliph consented, -presenting his right hand covered with a handkerchief. Again the -sturdy Hugh expostulated. “Sir,” said he to the caliph, who had -never been addressed in such a manner before; “loyalty knows no -concealments. Let everything between princes be bare and open.... -Give me your uncovered hand, or I shall be constrained to think that -you have some secret design, and possess less sincerity than I wish -to experience from you.” The caliph yielded, smiling, and with a -good grace, while his courtiers were dumb with amazement, and -repeated, in the same words as Hugh, the oath to adhere to the -conditions in good faith, without fraud or evil intention. - -“The caliph was in the flower of youth, tall, and of handsome -appearance; he had an infinite number of wives, and was named El -‘Άdhid li dín illah. When he sent away the deputies, he gave them -presents whose abundance and value served at the same time to honour -him who gave them, and to rejoice those who received them from so -illustrious a prince.” - -The terms of alliance being thus agreed upon, Amaury proceeded with -his campaign. But Shírkoh was too wary to give him an opportunity of -fighting, and after playing with him a little, withdrew into the -desert, and the Christians occupied the city of Cairo, where they -were allowed to go everywhere, even into the palace of the caliph, a -mark of the highest favour. Shírkoh returned, and trusting to his -superiority of numbers, forced on a battle. He had with him—of -course the numbers must be taken with some reserve—twelve thousand -Turks and ten thousand Arabs, the latter armed with nothing but the -lance. The Christians had three hundred and sixty knights, a large -body of Turcopoles, and the Egyptian army, the numbers of which are -not given. - -The battle was fought at a place called Babain, “the two gates,” -about two leagues from Cairo, on the borders of the desert, where -sand-hills encroach steadily on the cultivated soil, and form -valleys between themselves, in which the Christians had to manœuvre. -No ground could have been worse for them. The battle went against -them. At the close of the day Hugh of Cæsarea had been taken -prisoner, the Bishop of Bethlehem, Eustace Collet, Jocelyn of -Samosata, and many other knights, were killed, the Christians, -fighting still, were scattered about the field, and the king found -himself on one of the sand-hills, master of the position for which -he had fought, but with a very few of his men round him. He raised -his banner to rally the Christians, and then began to consider how -best to get away from the field, for the only way was through a -narrow pass, threatened on either side by a hill on which the Turks -were crowded in force. They formed in close array, placing on the -outside those who were the best armed. But the Turks made no attack -upon them, probably from ignorance of the result of the day, or from -fatigue, and the Christians marched all through the night. It was -four days before they all came back to the camp, and it was then -found they had lost a hundred knights on the field. - -Shírkoh, whose losses had been very much greater, rallying his men, -marched northwards on Alexandria, which surrendered without striking -a blow. By Amaury’s advice, an Egyptian fleet was sent down the -river to intercept all supplies, and as Alexandria was without any -stores of corn and provisions, it was not long before Shírkoh, -starved out, left the city in the charge of his nephew, afterwards -the great and illustrious Saladin, with a thousand horse, while he -himself took up his old position near Cairo. Thereupon Amaury moved -north to invest Alexandria. The Egyptian fleet held the river and -commanded the port; the allied armies blocked up all the avenues of -approach; the orchards and gardens round the walls, which had been -the delight and pride of the Alexandrians, were ruthlessly -destroyed: fresh recruits poured in from all parts of Palestine, and -the besieged began to suffer from all kinds of privation. Saladin -sent messengers to his uncle, urging him to bring assistance. -Shírkoh, too weak to send any, thought it best to make favourable -terms while he could. Sending for his prisoner Hugh of Cæsarea, he -made proposals of peace. “Fortune,” he said, “has not been -favourable to me since I came into this country. Would to God I -could see my way out of it! You are noble, a friend of the king, and -weighty in counsel; be a mediator of peace between us. Say to the -king, ‘We are losing our time here; it passes without bringing any -profit to us, while there is plenty for us to do at home.’ And why -should the king lavish his strength upon these cowardly Egyptians, -to whom he is trying to secure the riches of the country? Let him -have back all the prisoners whom I hold in irons; let him raise the -siege, and give me back my men who are in his hands, and I will go -out of the country.” - -Hugh took the message, and gave the advice that the Saracen wished. -A council was held, and the terms were agreed to. The gates were -thrown open, provisions taken in, and besiegers and besieged mingled -on those friendly terms which were now common in the East. Saladin -went to the camp of Amaury, who received him as a friend, and the -Vizier Shawer entered into the city, and began the administration of -justice; that is to say, he hanged all those who were unlucky enough -to be in power when Shírkoh entered the city, and who had -surrendered a place they had no means whatever of holding. Examples -such as these, common enough in the Middle Ages, might have been -expected to bring civic distinctions into disrepute. Ambition, -however, was probably stronger than terror. - -All being finished, the king returned to Ascalon, not entirely -covered with glory, but not without credit. - -On his arrival he learned that a bride was waiting for him at -Tyre, Maria, niece of the Greek Emperor, who had been wooed and -won for him—the young lady’s wishes were not probably much -consulted in the matter—by the Archbishop of Cæsarea. He hastened -to Tyre, and on the 29th of the month, nine days after his arrival -at Ascalon, he was married in great state and ceremony. And now -there was peace in Palestine for a brief space. The young Count of -Nevers arrived in Jerusalem, with a numerous following, intending -to offer his arms to the king, and dedicate his life to fighting -the Mohammedans. But a sudden illness struck him down, and after -languishing a long time, he died. A secret embassy was also sent -to Amaury from Constantinople. The emperor had learned the feeble -and enervated state of Egypt, and ignorant that Nûr-ed-dín, a -greater than he, had his eyes upon the same country, sent to -expose his own ambition to Amaury, and to propose terms of common -action. The idea was not new to the long-sighted king, the most -clear-headed of all the kings of Jerusalem. He had had plenty of -opportunities, during his Egyptian campaign, of contrasting the -riches of Cairo with the poverty of Jerusalem, the fertility of -Egypt with the sterility of Palestine. Little as he cared about -the Church, of which he was the sworn defender, it could not but -occur to him to contrast Jerusalem with Mecca, and to consider -that while Mecca was the Holy City, Baghdad and Cairo were the -capitals of the sovereign caliphs. Why should not Cairo be to -Jerusalem what Baghdad was to Mecca? Why should not he, the caliph -of Christianity, sit in that gorgeous palace behind the -gold-embroidered curtains, dressed in robes of purple and satin, -with his guards, his life of indolence and ease, and—his seraglio? -For the customs of the East had struck the imaginations of these -descendants of the Crusaders. They, too, longed for the shady -gardens, the fountains, the sweet scent of roses—and the houris of -the world with whom the happy Turks anticipated the joys of -heaven. Many of them, in their castles far away in the country, -imitated, so far as they were able, the customs of their enemies; -notably young Jocelyn of Edessa. Some of them became renegades, -and going over to the Saracens, got riches, and therefore luxury, -at the point of the sword. All of them—except perhaps the Templars -and Hospitallers, who might do so in secret—openly maintained -friendly relations with the Mohammedans, and partook freely of -their hospitality. - -And now Amaury was guilty of an act of perfidy which brought about, -or rather accelerated, the final fall of the Christian kingdom. -Tormented by his own ambitious designs, and the thought of that rich -Empire of Egypt, which seemed to wait for the first hand strong -enough to seize it—without waiting for the Greek Emperor, perhaps, -however, acting in secret concert with him—he declared that Shawer -had been sending secret messages to Nûr-ed-dín, and had thereby -infringed the treaty of alliance. For this reason, as he alleged, he -proclaimed war against Egypt, and led his army against Pelusium. One -voice only was raised against the enterprise. Cruel, ambitious, -avaricious, and haughty as the Templars were, they were never -capable of deliberately breaking their word. The Grand Master of the -Order, Bertrand de Blanquefort, spoke loudly against the expedition. -He, for one, would not allow his knights to join an army which set -out to carry war into a kingdom friendly to their own, bound by acts -of solemn treaty, which had committed no offence, which had -continued loyal and true to its engagements. The Templars remained -behind at Jerusalem. The Hospitallers went with Amaury and his host, -one of the finest armies that the kingdom had ever produced. They -began by taking Pelusium, after a ten days’ march through the desert -along a road which they knew well by this time. The resistance made -by Pelusium was very short, lasting only three days, when the -Christians took the place, and slaughtered, at first, every man, -woman, and child who fell into their hands. - -The Vizier, Shawer, was thrown, at first, into the wildest terror. -In the disorganised state of his army there was absolutely nothing -to prevent the Christians from marching directly upon Cairo, and -gaining possession by a single assault of the whole realm of Egypt. -All seemed lost, and Shawer was already preparing for flight, when -it occurred to him to tempt the king, whose cupidity was notorious, -by the offer of money. - - Nullum numen abest, si sit prudentia. - -Everything is preserved, if only forethought remains. Shawer sent -his messengers. Amaury listened to them. At the same time, as a last -resource, Shawer sent couriers in hot haste to Nûr-ed-dín, exposing -the critical state of the kingdom. To keep the Christians from -advancing, he kept his messengers backwards and forwards, offering, -declining, renewing, increasing the advantages of his terms. Amaury -was to have a quarter of a million, half a million, a million, two -million pieces of gold, on condition that he would give him back his -son and nephew, and quit the kingdom. All this time, the -negotiations being entirely secret, the king was pretending to -advance, but very slowly, and the Christians, not knowing the cause -of the delay, were eager to be led. After eight or nine days of -negotiations, which the sultan had occupied in getting into Cairo -every fighting man upon whom he could reckon, the king moved his -forces to a village five or six miles from Cairo, where he pitched -his camp. Here messengers from Shawer met him, imploring him not to -advance nearer the city, as he was engaged in collecting, with all -possible speed and diligence, the sum of money which he had -promised. Shawer had already got back his son and nephew, giving in -return two grandchildren—children of tender age. Amaury was -completely deceived. Lulled by the assurances of Shawer, dazzled by -his own golden dreams, he saw himself, the successful violator of a -solemn treaty, returning laden with a treasure of gold such as no -king of the West could boast; with this he would bring knights from -Europe; with this he would beat off the Saracens, conquer Damascus, -reconquer Edessa and the strong places of the north; and having -successfully used this mighty treasure, he would violate another -solemn treaty, return to Egypt with a larger and more powerful army -and make himself master of Cairo and all its wealth. There was -plenty of time; he was not yet thirty; life was all before him, and -many years of enjoyment. - -But there came a rude awakening to the dream. Nûr-ed-dín, hearing of -the expedition of Amaury, and getting the messengers of Shawer, had -for himself two courses open to him. He might take advantage of -Amaury’s absence, and pour all his troops together into Palestine, -so as either to annihilate the kingdom of Jerusalem, or cripple it -beyond power of recovery; or he might send Shírkoh again to Egypt, -this time as the ally of Shawer, and with secret instructions as to -the nature of the alliance. He preferred the latter course. Egypt -was a prey that required courage and promptness; Palestine could -wait; like an over-ripe pear, it was certain, sooner or later, to -drop at his feet. Shírkoh arrived in Egypt. Shawer dropped the veil, -and laughed at Amaury. The king, in an agony of rage and -mortification, hastily broke up his camp and retired to Pelusium. -Thence, seeing that there was nothing more to be done, he returned -in disgrace and confusion to his own kingdom. - -As for Shírkoh, he had no intention whatever of going home again -without getting something substantial out of the expedition. He -established his camp before Cairo, and encouraged Shawer to look on -him as one of his best friends, inviting him to enter his camp at -all times, and come without escort. And one day, when Shawer, -relying on the friendliness of his ally, rode in accompanied only by -two or three of his sons and friends, he was seized by the guards of -Shírkoh and beheaded, without any resistance being possible. -Shírkoh, meantime, was taking a walk on the banks of the Nile, so as -to be able to say that he was innocent of the murder. Shawer’s sons -fled to the caliph. But the caliph could do nothing; the house of -Shawer were all cut off, like the house of Saul; and the -representative of the Fatemites was compelled to acknowledge the -servant of his rival as his sultan and vizier, the real master of -Egypt. - -“Oh, blind cupidity of men!” cries William of Tyre; “all the -treasures of Egypt were lying at our feet.... There was safety for -those who travelled by sea; there was trade for those who wished to -enrich themselves in Egypt; there was no enemy for us in the south; -the Egyptians brought us their merchandize, and spent their gold in -our country. And now all is changed; sad are the notes of our harps; -the sea refuses us peaceful navigation; all the countries around us -obey our enemies; every kingdom is armed for our ruin. And the -avarice of one man has done this; his cupidity has covered over with -clouds the clear bright sky which the goodness of the Lord had given -us.” - -It was some comfort to the Christians to hear that Shírkoh, a year -after his accession to power, was gone out of the world. But a -mightier than Shírkoh came after him, his nephew, Saladin. - -And now, indeed, the situation of the Christian kingdom was -precarious. With the exception of Tyre and the towns to the north, -the kingdom consisted of nothing but Palestine between Tiberias on -the north and Ascalon on the south. All the outlying forts, or -nearly all, were already gone. The prestige of Amaury, which had -been raised by his first successful expedition, was entirely gone by -the ill-success of the second. Moreover, Egypt, which had been a -friendly power, was now hostile. By means of a fleet from Egypt the -country might be menaced from the sea as well as from the land; -reinforcements, supplies, might be cut off; pilgrims intercepted. -Under these circumstances, it was resolved to send letters at once -to all the Western kings and princes, calling for assistance. The -patriarch, the Archbishop of Cæsarea, and the Bishop of Acre were -selected to be the bearers of these. The deputies, armed with these -despatches, embarked in a single ship. A frightful storm overtook -them; the oars were broken; the masts all went by the board; and on -the third day, more dead than alive with sickness and fright, the -unlucky ambassadors put back to port, and refused to venture -themselves again upon the sea. The Archbishop of Tyre took their -place, and went away, under better auspices, accompanied by the -Bishop of Banias, who died in France. He was away for two years, but -did not effect anything. Europe, in fact, was growing tired of -pouring assistance into a country, which, like the sea, swallowed -everything, gave nothing back, and still demanded more. - -The Emperor of Constantinople, however, who was perfectly aware of -the importance of keeping the Turks employed in fighting against -Palestine, and knew well that, Jerusalem once gone, Asia Minor was -at their mercy, and Constantinople would be the object of their -ambitions, sent a fleet of a hundred and fifty galleys of war, with -sixty large transports, and ten or twelve _dromons_, filled with all -sorts of instruments of war. It would have been better for King -Amaury had this gift, a white elephant, which had to be fed, never -been sent. As it was come, however, he proceeded to make use of it -by invading Egypt a third time. And this time they determined on -besieging Damietta, and Amaury led his army from Ascalon, on the -10th October, 1169, on the most useless expedition that he had yet -undertaken. - -A bar, formed by an iron chain, ran across the river, which -prevented the Christian fleet from advancing to the town; they -therefore took up their station outside. The troops on land formed -the siege in regular form, and, if Amaury had given the word, the -town might have been carried by assault; but he let the moment pass, -and reinforcements of Turks poured into the place by thousands. -Towers were constructed and sorties made by the besieged, but no -advantage on either side was gained. But now began the misfortunes -of the Christians. The Greeks had no provisions. They subsisted for -a while by eating that portion of the palm which is cut from the top -of the trunk at the branching out of the leaves, no bad food -provided enough can be obtained, the worst of it being that each -palm contains no more than enough for a single salad (as the -palmiste is now used), and costs the life of a tree. And when the -forest of palms was cut down round Damietta there was no more food -of any kind to be had, while the soldiers of Amaury were unable to -help their allies, having to consider the probability of being in a -few days without food themselves. Then heavy rains fell and swamped -the tents, and even a broad ditch round each one did not wholly keep -out the water. The Greek fleet, too, was nearly destroyed by a fire -boat, which was sent down the river. It set fire to six of the -galleys, and would have destroyed all the rest but for the king -himself, who mounted his horse, half dressed, and rode down to the -bank shouting to the sailors. The assaults were continued, but there -was no longer any heart in the Christian camp, and Amaury signed a -treaty of peace and withdrew his troops to Ascalon, which he reached -on the 21st of December, having been engaged for two months in -convincing the Saracens of his feebleness even when backed by the -Greeks. The fleet was overtaken by a storm, most of the ships were -lost, and of all the magnificent array of galleys that sailed from -Constantinople in the spring, but very few remained after the -campaign of Damietta. The failure of the expedition was probably due -to the fact that the Greek Emperor, who had promised a large sum of -money sufficient for the maintenance of the army, allowed it to go -without any. And the Greek generals, the first to find themselves in -want of provisions, not only had no money to buy them, but could -find no one to lend them money. - -The following year was marked by disasters of quite another kind. A -great earthquake, or rather a succession of earthquakes, passed -through Palestine, and by its violence and the frequency of its -attacks, for it returned again and again during a space of three or -four months, filled all men’s hearts with fear; hundreds perished in -the ruin of their houses; grief and consternation spread everywhere. -Antioch, with nearly its whole population, was entirely destroyed, -even its strong walls and towers being all thrown down; Laodicea, -Emesa, Aleppo, and Hamath shared the fate of Antioch. Tripoli -presented the appearance of a heap of stones, and Tyre, more -fortunate than the rest, had yet some of its towers overthrown. Amid -these disasters there was no thought of war, and for some months, at -least, there was peace. But in December, news came that Saladin was -invading Christian territory in the south. Amaury hastened to -Ascalon, and called all his chivalry together. They assembled at -Gaza, and he found that he could muster two hundred and fifty -knights and two thousand foot. Saladin was besieging the fort of -Daroum, which the king had himself built. But leaving Daroum, -Saladin advanced to Gaza. The Christian army fought their way -through to the citadel, and Saladin, after pillaging the city, -retired with his forces. Probably his object was to accustom his men -by small successes with overwhelming forces for the greater efforts -he intended to make when the prestige of the Christians should have -sunk lower, and the dread which the Saracens still felt for the -strong-armed knights in steel should have wholly, or in great -measure, passed away. - -Early in the following year Amaury called a council of his -barons to deliberate on the precarious state of the kingdom. -Every day the number of the enemy increased, every day their -own resources diminished. There was, of course, but one way to -meet the dangers which menaced them, the only way which the -kingdom had ever known, the arrival of aid from Europe. It was -resolved to send ambassadors with the most urgent letters to -all the powers, and to Constantinople a special ambassador -begging for instant aid. Who was to go? The king, after a -short parley with his advisers, declared that he would go -himself. The barons cried out, on hearing this announcement, -that they could not be deprived of their king, that the realm -would fall to pieces without him—to all appearance seriously -alarmed at the prospect of being left alone, or else every man -hoping himself to be appointed as ambassador. But Amaury -terminated the discussion in a manner characteristic of -himself. “Let the Lord,” he said, “defend His own kingdom. As -for me, I am going.” It is tolerably clear that the sovereign -who could permit himself to have doubts on the subject of a -future world, might well have doubts as to whether a kingdom, -so harassed as his own, so devoured by greed, selfishness, and -ambition, so corrupted by lust and licence, was really the -kingdom of the Lord. If it was, of course the Lord would look -after His own; if not, why then Amaury’s hands were well -washed of the responsibility. He went to Constantinople, where -he was received with every demonstration of friendship, and -William of Tyre exhausts himself in describing the favour -shown to him. One thing is noticeable, that the splendour of -the Greek emperor rivalled that of the caliph. On the occasion -of the first interview of Amaury with the emperor, there were -suspended before the hall of audience curtains of precious -stuff and rich embroidery, exactly like what we are told of -the Caliph of Cairo, and as soon as the king arrived the -curtains were withdrawn and the emperor disclosed sitting on a -throne of gold, and dressed in the Imperial robes. Great fêtes -were given to celebrate the arrival of Amaury and his train; -all the sacred relics, including the wood of the Cross, the -nails, the lance—was this the lance found by Peter at Antioch, -or another?—the sponge, the reed, the crown of thorns, the -sacred shroud and the sandals, were shown to the Latins; games -and spectacles were invented for their amusement, including -choruses of young girls and theatrical displays, in which, -says the Archbishop of Tyre, careful lest the king’s example -should be taken as a precedent among his own flock, the -greatest propriety was observed; and at last, treaties having -been signed and promises made, Amaury departed, laden with -valuable presents of gold and other valuables. Alas! it was -not gold that he wanted, but stout hearts and strong hands, -and of these he brought back none but his own. - -He returned for more fighting and more disappointment. Nûr-ed-dín -was reported near Banias with an army, and Amaury had to fix his -camp in Galilee to watch his movements. The object of the sultan, -however, seems to have been, like that of Saladin, to accustom his -men to face the Christians, and not yet to force on a decided -engagement. - -The Archbishop of Tyre at this time returned from his embassy. -Nothing had been effected. The princes of the West would promise no -help, would give no help. He brought with him Stephen, son of Count -Thibaut of Blois, whom the king intended to make his son-in-law. But -Stephen, after coming to Jerusalem, declined the king’s offer, led a -wild and licentious life for a few months, to the general scandal, -and then returned to Europe. - -Then followed three years of war. Toros, the Armenian prince, and -the firm ally of the Christians, died, and was succeeded by his -nephew, Thomas. His brother, Melier, wishing to obtain the dominion -for himself, repaired to Nûr-ed-dín, obtained his help on certain -conditions, and expelled his nephew, with all the Latin Christians -who were in Armenia and Cilicia. The prince of Antioch declared war -against him, and the king marched his army north. But while he was -on the road, news came that Nûr-ed-dín was attacking Kerak in Moab. -Before Amaury could get to Jerusalem, whither he hastened on receipt -of this news, the Saracens were defeated, and the siege raised by -Humphrey the Constable. - -Then came Saladin with a large force. It was decided that the -Christian army was not strong enough to meet him, and the troops -were marched, on pretence of seeking the Saracens, to Ascalon, where -they remained, while Saladin went round the south of the Dead Sea -and laid siege to the fortress of Montreal. This proved too strong -for him, and he returned to Egypt. The year after he made another -unsuccessful attempt in Moab, in which, however, he burned the -vineyards and ravaged the country, the king not being strong enough -to follow him. And now follows the most extraordinary and -inexplicable story in the whole history of Jerusalem. We give it in -the words of the historian himself (an account of the sect of -Assassins will be found p. 322). - -“During forty years the Assassins followed the faith of the -Saracens, conforming to their traditions with a zeal so great -that, compared with them, all other people would be esteemed -prevaricators, they alone exactly fulfilling the law. At this time -they had for chief a man endowed with eloquence, ability, and -enthusiasm. Forgetting all the customs of his predecessors, he was -the first who had in his possession the books of the Gospels and -the Apostolic code: he studied them incessantly and with much -zeal, and succeeded at length, by dint of labour, in learning the -history of the miracles and precepts of Christ, as well as the -doctrine of the Apostles. - -“Comparing this sweet and fair teaching of Christ with that of the -miserable seducer, Mohammed, he came in time to reject with scorn -all that he had been taught from the cradle, and to hold in -abomination the doctrines of him who had led the Arabs astray. He -instructed his people in the same manner, ceased the practices of a -superstitious worship, removed the interdiction from wine and pork, -abolished the Mohammedan fasts, and overthrew the oratories. He then -sent a messenger, one Boaldel, to King Amaury with the following -offer. If the Templars, who possessed strong places in his -neighbourhood, would remit an annual tribute of two thousand pieces -of gold which they exacted from the people round their castles, he -and his would be converted to the faith of Christ, and would all -receive baptism. - -“The king received the ambassador with a lively joy. He went so far, -in his readiness to close with the offer, as to hold himself -prepared to indemnify the Templars for the sum which they would -lose. And after keeping the messenger a long time in order to -conclude an arrangement with him, he sent him back to his master, -with a guide to watch over the security of his person. They had -already passed the city of Tripoli, and were on the point of -entering into the country of the Assassins, when suddenly certain -men, brethren of the Temple, drawing their swords and rushing upon -the traveller, who advanced without fear and under the protection of -the king, massacred the messenger of the sheikh.” - -Thus was lost the most splendid opportunity that ever Christian king -of Jerusalem had. There cannot be the least doubt that, had the -messenger arrived home in safety, a large army of men devoted to any -cause which their chief embraced, sworn to obey or to die, trained -in close discipline, fanatic to the last degree, would have been -transferred to the Christian camp. Moreover, there would have been a -precedent which history lacks of the conversion of a whole tribe or -nation from Islamism to Christianity. What sort of religion the -sheikh of the Assassins contemplated is difficult to tell. But he -could not have been a worse Christian than the defenders of -Palestine. And then comes the question, why did the Templars kill -the messenger? what reason had they for thwarting the sheikh and the -king? why, considering the indemnity they were to receive, should -they wish to prevent the arrangement? And what could have been their -motive for preventing the conversion of the Assassins to their own -religion? One answer only occurs to us. It has always seemed to us -that the Templars, towards the close of the Christian rule in -Palestine, were actuated by a deep and firmly rooted ambition. They -proposed, seeing the weakness of the kingdom, and the worthlessness -of its barons, to acquire for themselves castle after castle, strong -place after strong place, till, when King Amaury was dead, and his -son, already known to be tainted with leprosy, was on the throne, -the kingdom would drop quietly into their own hands, the only strong -hands left in the country. With this end in view they were acquiring -forts in Cilicia and Armenia, all over Phœnicia, and across the -Jordan. Palestine proper was dotted with their manors and fiefs. Nor -was this all. In Europe their broad lands increased every day, and -their income, even now, one hundred and fifty years before their -dissolution, was enormous. There can be no doubt that the Templars, -had they chosen to concentrate their forces, and to get together all -the knights they could muster, might have deferred for long, and -perhaps altogether, the final fall of the kingdom. But they did not -perceive the immediate danger, and while the Mohammedan forces were -uniting and concentrating, they probably still believed them to be -divided and dissentient. - -On no other ground than the hypothesis of this ambition can we -explain the singular murder of this ambassador. _The Templars did -not wish to see the king’s hands strengthened._ - -As this strange association, the Order of Assassins, played a most -important part in the political events of the period of which we are -speaking, a more detailed account of their origin and tenets may not -be out of place here. - -The national aversion of the Persians from the religion of their -Mohammedan conquerors gave rise to a number of secret sects and -societies having for their object the subversion of Islam, and in -the hatred which already existed between the two great divisions of -that creed, the Sunnís and Shiahs, the leaders and originators of -these sects found a ready means of securing proselytes and -adherents. In the year 815, a chief named Babek founded a new -religious order and waged an open war against the Caliphs, by whom -he was, however, defeated and exterminated. But while his partisans -fell beneath the sword of the executioner there was living at Ahwas, -in the south of Persia, a certain ‘Abdallah, grandson of Daisán the -dualist, who had inherited the hatred which his grandfather had -sworn against the faith and power of the Arabs. Warned by the fate -of Babek’s followers, he determined to undermine insidiously what he -could not with safety openly attack. He accordingly formed a society -into which proselytes were only admitted upon proof, and after being -sworn to the profoundest secrecy. The initiation consisted of seven -degrees, in the last of which he taught—that all religions were mere -chimeras and human actions indifferent. His missionaries spread over -the whole of the East, and carried their peculiar doctrines into -Syria, where one of them, named Ahmed ibn Eshk‘as el Carmatí, -founded the sect of Carmathians, whose history has been already -traced. ‘Obeid allah el Mehdí, the founder of the Fatemite dynasty, -was a followeŕ of El Carmatí, and from the moment when El Mehdí -made himself master of Egypt the Carmathian tenets prevailed in that -country, under the name of the Ismá̔ilíyeh. They were propagated by -official agents, of whom the chief was named _dái̒ ed do‘át_, -“missionary of missionaries,” and _cádhí el codhát_, “judge of -judges.” In the year 1004, they held public assemblies in Cairo -under the presidency of the last-mentioned officer. These meetings -were called _mejális el hikmeh_, or “scientific meetings,” and were -devoted to instructing those present in the mathematical and other -sciences; but such as were considered worthy, were admitted to a -more intimate participation in their mysteries, and were taught the -secret doctrines of the sect, consisting of a strange _mélange_ of -Persian and Gnostic ideas. - -We have already seen how this institution was made to subserve the -interests and pander to the mad fanaticism of El Hákem bi amri -’llah, and indirectly gave birth to the powerful sect of the Druzes. - -During the last half of the eleventh century one of the Ismaelite -missionaries, Hassan ibn Subáh el Homáirí, became the founder of the -new sect of the Ismaelites of the East, or Assassins. Hassan was -born in Khorassan; in his youth he contracted an intimate friendship -with Nizám el Mulk and ‘Omar el Kheiyám, and the three associates -took a solemn oath mutually to advance each other’s prospects in -after life. ‘Omar el Kheiyám became celebrated as an astronomer and -poet;[65] and Nizám el Mulk attained to the office of grand vizier, -under the Seljukian Sultán Melik sháh. Hassán es Subah sought and -obtained the assistance of his former companion, and was promoted to -high office in the court. Prompted, however, by ambition, he -endeavoured to supplant his benefactor, but Nizám el Mulk discovered -and counteracted his designs, and Hassan was driven in disgrace from -the kings presence. Not long afterwards he founded the order of -Assassins, and Melik Sháh and his vizier were among the first of his -victims. In 1090, he made himself master of the fortress of Alamút, -built on the summit of a lofty mountain, with steep escarpments, a -little distance from Casbín in the Persian province of ‘Irák. This -castle he fortified and supplied with water, partly from artificial -and partly from natural springs, and, by compelling the inhabitants -to cultivate the surrounding land and store the produce in the -subterranean granaries of the castle, he rendered it capable of -sustaining a protracted siege. - -Footnote 65: - - His ‘Quatrains,’ stanzas of exquisite polish, but breathing the - most sensual and atheistic philosophy, have been recently - published by M. Nicholas, Paris, 1867. - -Although the secret doctrines of the Ismaelites were taught in nine -degrees, there were but two ranks in the order, namely the _refik_, -or “companion,” and _dá‘í_, or “missionary.” Hassan instituted a -third class, that of the _fedawí_, or “devoted one.” For them the -secrets of the order were always covered with an impenetrable veil, -and they were but the blind instruments of vengeance or aggression -in the hands of their superior. They composed the body-guard of the -grand master, and were never for a single moment without their -daggers, so as to be ever ready to perpetrate murders at his -command. - -Marco Polo gives us a substantial, and doubtless exact, account of -the ceremonies which took place upon the initiation of a _fedawí_ -into the order. Within the precincts of their impregnable fortresses -were gardens furnished with all that could delight the eye or appeal -to the sensual taste of the voluptuary. Here the neophyte was led, -delicious meats and wine of exquisite flavour were set before him, -girls as beautiful as the houris of the prophet’s paradise -ministered to his pleasures, enchanting music ravished his ears, his -every wish was gratified almost before it was uttered, and, -intoxicated with delight, he fancied that he had really entered upon -the joys of the blessed. An intoxicating drug had in the meanwhile -been mixed with the wine, and, by producing a sort of delirium, for -a time enhanced his enjoyment, but as the satiety and languor -consequent upon excess crept over him he fell back stupefied and -insensible, in which state he was carried out of the place. On -awaking he found himself beside the grand master, who told him that -all the joys he had experienced were but a foretaste of what was -destined for those who yielded implicit obedience to his commands. -The alternative for those who doubted or hesitated was instant -death. - -The youth thus “devoted” to the service of the order was carefully -trained in all the arts of deception and disguise; he was taught to -speak various languages, and to assume a variety of dresses and -characters; and, loosed from all trammels of conscience or of creed, -he went forth, prepared to plunge his dagger into the breast of his -dearest friend, and even into his own, at his superior’s command. -Such an association could not but prove a formidable political agent -in those troublous times, and the sovereigns of the East feared the -secret dagger of the order more than the armies of their foes, and -rendered to the grand master whatever tribute and homage he chose to -demand. Towards the middle of the twelfth century the power of the -Assassins had extended itself from Khorassan to the mountains of -Syria, from the Mediterranean to the Caspian. All trembled before -it, and submitted more or less to its will. Hassan died in 1124, -after having chosen for his successor Kia Buzurgumíd, one of the -most strenuous of his _dá‘ís_; and the dignity of grand master -became ultimately hereditary in his family. The order of Assassins -continued in its integrity until 1254, when Manjou Khan, grandson of -the celebrated Jenghíz Khan, put an end to its existence. As for the -association of the Ismaelites in Cairo, the _Mejális el Hikmeh_, or -scientific lodges, they were finally suppressed by Saladin in the -year 1171 A.D. - -The Grand Master of the Assassins was called simply _sheikh_, -“elder,” or “chief;” and from his rocky fortresses of Alamút and -Maziatt he was known as Sheikh el Jebel, “Sheikh of the Mountain.” -The Crusaders, misinterpreting the title, always spoke of him as the -“Old Man of the Mountain.” - -There is little doubt but that the order of Knights Templars, who -figure so largely in the history of the Crusades, were a society -closely akin to the Assassins. The different grades of rank amongst -them correspond exactly with the several degrees of the Ismaelite -fraternity. Their dress, white with a red cross, symbolizing -innocence and blood, is almost identical with the garb of the -Fedawís, while the irreligious practices and secret murders, which -are clearly proved against them, all tend to establish the -conviction that they were rather Knights of the Dagger than of the -Cross. - -But to return to our history. - -Amaury, the poor harassed king, all whose projects failed, and none -of them through his own fault, fell into a fit of rage which nearly -killed him, when he heard the news of the murder of the ambassadors -of the “Old Man of the Mountain.” What was to be done? what revenge -could be taken for a mischief which was irremediable? He called his -barons, and poured the whole story into their indignant ears. They -chose two of their own body, and sent them to Odo de St. Amand, -Grand Master of the Templars, to demand satisfaction in the name of -the king and the realm for a crime so extravagant. One Walter du -Mesnil was suspected, a stupid man, likely to do whatever others -told him without inquiry or doubt. And here appears the pride of the -Templars. Odo coldly sent back word that he had “imposed a penance” -on the criminal, and that he should send him to the pope. The king -went to Sidon himself, seized the suspected man by force, and threw -him into prison, in spite of the protestations and fury of Odo. Then -followed protest, appeal, and protest again. Amaury succeeded in -making the sheikh himself believe in his own innocence, but the -sheikh’s enthusiasm for the religion of Christ was quenched, and the -opportunity gone by. - -The significance of Odo’s reply to Amaury lies in his promise to -send the criminal to the pope. Just as the Templars, from the very -beginning, were free from any episcopal jurisdiction, and owned no -authority in ecclesiastical matters in other than the pope himself, -so they now arrogated to themselves freedom in things temporal. They -would have no king but their grand master, no bishop but the pope; -they would have no interference in the government of their own -castles and places from any sovereign at all. And this seems the -main reason—their assumption of independence—why their destruction -was determined on by King Philip of France. - -In the year 1173[66] died Nûr-ed-dín, the greatest man of Saracen -story, next to Saladin. - -Footnote 66: - - According to William of Tyre. Others place his death a year later. - -Directly Amaury heard of his death, he laid siege to Banias—it will -be remembered how Nûr-ed-dín refused to take advantage of Baldwin’s -death—but raised the siege after a fortnight in consequence of -entreaties and the offer of large sums of money from Nûr-ed-dín’s -widow. On his return he complained of indisposition. This became -worse, and a violent dysentery set in. They carried him to -Jerusalem, where he died, after all the doctors, Greek, Syrian, and -Latin, had been called in successively. He was then in his -thirty-eighth year. One feels pity for Amaury, more than for any -other of the Kings of Jerusalem. He was, at the same time, so -long-headed and so unlucky; so capable, yet so unsuccessful; so -patient under all his disasters; so active in spite of his -corpulence; so careful of the kingdom, yet so unpopular; so harassed -with doubts, yet so loyal to his oaths; and so hopeful in spite of -all his disappointments, that one cannot help admiring and -sympathising with him. He committed the most gross act of perjury in -invading Egypt on pretence of Shawer’s disloyalty. But he was -punished for it by the destruction of the fairest dream of conquest -that ever man had. - -For one thing the present writers must, at least, be thankful to -him. He it was who instigated William of Tyre to write that -admirable history from which a large part of these pages are taken. - -In 1163 the city of Jerusalem was visited by the Jewish traveller -Benjamin of Tudela. He tells the following curious story concerning -the tombs of the kings. “On Mount Sion are the sepulchres of the -house of David, and those of the kings who reigned after him. In -consequence of the following circumstance, however, this place is at -present hardly to be recognised. Fifteen years ago, one of the walls -of the place of worship on Mount Sion fell down, and the patriarch -commanded the priest to repair it. He ordered stones to be taken -from the original wall of Sion for that purpose, and twenty workmen -were hired at stated wages, who broke stones from the very -foundation of the walls of Sion. Two of these labourers, who were -intimate friends, upon a certain day treated one another, and -repaired to their work after their friendly meal. The overseer -accused them of dilatoriness, but they answered that they would -still perform their day’s work, and would employ thereupon the time -while their fellow-labourers were at meals. They then continued to -break out stones, until, happening to meet with one which formed the -mouth of a cavern, they agreed to enter it in search of treasure, -and they proceeded until they reached a large hall, supported by -pillars of marble, encrusted with gold and silver, and before which -stood a table, with a golden sceptre and crown. This was the -sepulchre of David, king of Israel, to the left of which they saw -that of Solomon in a similar state, and so on the sepulchres of all -the kings of Juda, who were buried there. They further saw chests -locked up, the contents of which nobody knew, and were on the point -of entering the hall, when a blast of wind like a storm issued forth -from the mouth of the cavern so strong that it threw them down -almost lifeless on the ground. There they lay until evening, when -another wind rushed forth, from which they heard a voice like that -of a man calling aloud, ‘Get up, and go forth from this place.’ The -men rushed out full of fear, and proceeded to the patriarch to -report what had happened to them. This ecclesiastic summoned into -his presence R. Abraham el Constantini, a pious ascetic, one of the -mourners of the downfall of Jerusalem, and caused the two labourers -to repeat what they had previously reported. R. Abraham thereupon -informed the patriarch that they had discovered the sepulchres of -the house of David and of the kings of Juda. The following morning -the labourers were sent for again, but they were found stretched on -their beds and still full of fear; they declared that they would not -attempt to go again to the cave, as it was not God’s will to -discover it to any one. The patriarch ordered the place to be walled -up, so as to hide it effectually from every one unto the present -day. The above-mentioned R. Abraham told me all this.” - -To enable the reader better to understand what has gone before, it -will be as well to review the position of the Turks in Syria during -this and the immediately preceding reigns. - -By the taking of Jerusalem, and the flight of its Egyptian governor, -El Afdhal, the kingdom of Syria was lost for ever to the Fatemite -Caliphs. They yet retained possession of Egypt, but the remaining -princes of the house were mere tools in the hands of designing -ministers, and gave themselves up to luxurious ease in their palaces -at Cairo. Nor were their opponents, the ‘Abbassides, in much better -case, but lingered idly on in Baghdad, wielding the shadow of their -former power, while rival vassals fought and struggled for the -substance. - -The Seljukian sultans, after lording it over their imperial masters, -had shared the same fate; and, having yielded themselves up to the -enticements of luxury and wealth, were in turn tyrannized over by -their more vigorous Turkish slaves the Atabeks. The founder of this -family, a favourite slave of Melik Sháh, had been promoted to the -governorship of Aleppo, but perished in the civil disorders -consequent on the death of the sultan and the final division of the -Seljukian kingdom. His son Zanghí did good service against the -Franks at Antioch, and was rewarded by the caliph with the -sovereignty of Aleppo and Mosul. His career was one of uninterrupted -success, and, in a comparatively short space of time, he had taken -Edessa, and wrested from the Franks their possessions beyond the -Euphrates. His son Nûr-ed-dín completed the work which his father -had begun; he once more raised the prestige of the Mohammedan name, -and added the kingdom of Damascus to that of Aleppo and Edessa, -which he had inherited. Christian and Mohammedan authors alike -testify to the uprightness and integrity of his character, to his -impartial justice, and to the austere simplicity of his manners. He -rigorously proscribed the use of wine, he wore neither gold nor -silk, and on one occasion when his favourite wife requested the -indulgence of some feminine fancy, he bestowed upon her “three shops -in the city of Hums,” alleging that he had no other private -property, and that he dared not alienate the public funds, which he -considered as a sacred trust. He is usually designated by Moslem -writers by the title of Shehíd the Martyr, not because he fell -fighting for the faith, but because his life was spent in one -continuous series of holy works. - -The Frank occupation of Syria and the Holy Land had spread dismay -throughout the whole of Islam; in their distress the followers of -the prophet turned to Damascus, and saw in the rising greatness of -its sovereign a fresh hope of retrieving their fortunes. Nûr-ed-dín -did indeed become the instrument of the final overthrow and -expulsion of the Christians; but a slight digression is necessary to -explain the circumstances which led to his introduction upon the -scene. - -Dargham and Shawer, rival aspirants to the dignity of prime -minister to El ‘Άdhid le dín Allah, last of the Fatemite caliphs -of Egypt, had, by their struggles for power, involved that country -in civil war. Shawer, finding himself unable to cope with his more -powerful foe, applied for assistance to Nûr-ed-dín, who sent -Esed-ed-dín Shírkóh, governor of Edessa, with a large army into -Egypt. Dargham was defeated and slain, and the victorious Shírkóh -claimed for his master Nûr-ed-dín the reward which Shawer himself -had proposed, namely, a third of the revenues of the country; and, -on payment being delayed, proceeded to occupy Bilbeis, the capital -of the eastern province, as security. Shawer, as perfidious as he -was ambitious, invited Amaury, King of Jerusalem, to aid him in -ejecting his creditor. Shírkóh was obliged to relinquish Bilbeis; -but, having received reinforcements from Damascus, he speedily -returned, marched upon Cairo, and defeated the troops of the -Fatemite caliph, and made himself master of Upper Egypt. His -nephew Yusuf had been, in the meanwhile, sent against Alexandria, -which place he captured, and gallantly defended for more than -three months, against the combined forces of the Egyptians and -Crusaders. At last, both the Christian and Damascene troops -consented to evacuate Egypt, on consideration of receiving each a -large sum annually out of the revenues; and articles of peace were -solemnly drawn up, and ratified by all the contending parties; the -Crusaders were, moreover, allowed to maintain a garrison at Cairo, -ostensibly for the purpose of protecting the Egyptian government -from aggression on the part of Nûr-ed-dín. Fortunate would it have -been for the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem had Amaury held to his -agreement; but the favourable terms which had been accorded him -inspired him with an undue confidence in his own strength, and, -blind alike to his interests and his honour, he determined upon a -fresh invasion. Accordingly, in the latter end of the year 1168, -he led an army into Egypt, took possession of Bilbeis, and marched -upon Cairo. The greatest consternation prevailed in the capital at -the treacherous conduct of the Christian monarch, and the savage -cruelty of his troops. Cairo was hastily surrounded with a wall -and fortifications, and the old city was set on fire at the -approach of the invaders, the conflagration raging for fifty-four -days. In this extremity the Egyptian caliph piteously besought -Nûr-ed-dín to lend him his aid; and, in order still further to -excite his compassion, and depict the miserable plight to which -they were reduced, and the danger to which they were exposed from -the unbridled licentiousness of the invaders, El‘Άdhid enclosed -locks of his women’s hair in the letter which contained his -appeal. Shawer, in the meantime, endeavoured to avert the -immediate calamity by making terms with Amaury, and the latter, -dreading the arrival of the Damascene reinforcements, consented to -raise the siege on receiving an indemnity of a million _dínárs_; a -hundred thousand were paid down in ready money, and the Crusaders -retired, in order to give the vizier time to collect the -remainder. Nûr-ed-dín, on receipt of El ‘Άdhid’s letter, at once -despatched Shírkóh to the relief of Cairo, with an army of eight -thousand men, six thousand of whom were Syrians, and the remainder -Turks, and a sum of two hundred thousand _dínárs_, as well as a -large supply of clothes, arms, horses, and provisions. Shírkóh -requested his nephew Yusuf Saláh-ed-dín (Saladin) to accompany him -upon this expedition; but the latter, remembering the difficulties -and dangers he had experienced at Alexandria, begged to be -excused, and was only induced to accept a commission by an -exercise of authority on the part of the sultan Nûr-ed-dín. El -‘Άdhid met Shírkóh on his arrival with every mark of respect and -gratitude, and conferred upon him a magnificent robe of honour. -The vizier Shawer was also a frequent visitor to the Damascene -general’s tent; and assured the latter that although appearances -had been against him, he had not willingly broken faith with him, -and promised that the former agreement to pay Nûr-ed-dín a third -of the revenue should now be complied with. At the same time he -was plotting how he might best dispose of so troublesome a -visitor; and, having determined upon his assassination, invited -Shírkóh, his nephew, and the rest of his staff, to a banquet, at -which he hoped to execute his treacherous project. Saladin, -however, received intelligence of the conspiracy, and prevented -his uncle from accepting the fatal invitation. Shawer, furious at -being thus foiled sought the tent of Shírkóh, under pretence of a -friendly visit, and would doubtless have murdered him had he not -fortunately been at that moment on a visit to the tomb of the -celebrated Mohammedan saint Es Shafi‘í.[67] Returning from his -fruitless visit, Shawer was met by Saladin and his party, who -threw him from his horse, and carried him to Shírkóh’s camp. -El‘Άdhid, on hearing the news, sent to demand the head of his -treacherous vizier, whom he justly regarded as the cause of all -the troubles that had recently fallen upon Egypt. Shírkóh gladly -acceded to the request, and was installed by the Fatimite caliph -into the vacant post of prime minister, and received the honorary -title of El Melik el Mansúr, “the Victorious King.” and Emír el -Jayúsh, “Commander-in-chief of the Forces.” He did not, however, -live long to enjoy his newly-acquired dignity, but died within two -months and four days after his appointment. He was succeeded by -his nephew Saláh-ed-dín Yúsuf ibn Aiyúb (the Saladin of European -historians), whose life and exploits we shall relate in a future -chapter. - -Footnote 67: - - On page 204 we gave William of Tyre’s version of this event; the - Mohammedan authors from which the foregoing account is taken - regard it in a somewhat different light. - - - - - CHAPTER XIII. - KING BALDWIN THE LEPER. A.D. 1173-1186. - - “Would I were dead, if God’s good will were so, - For what is in this world but grief and woe?” - _King Henry VI._ - - -The only son of Amaury, by his first wife Agnes, daughter of the -younger Jocelyn of Edessa, was placed, at the age of nine years, -under the charge of William of Tyre. He was a studious bright boy, -and at first raised the highest hopes of his future. But his tutor -discovered by accident that he was afflicted with that dreadful and -incurable disease which was beginning to be so prevalent among the -Syrian Christians. In his boyish sports with the children of his own -age, his tutor remarked that when the boys pinched each other in the -arm, little Baldwin alone was able to bear the pain without any cry -or apparent emotion. This awakened his suspicions, and he took the -child to be examined by physicians. It was found that his right arm, -of which he had appeared to have perfect command, was half -paralysed. All sorts of fomentations and frictions were tried, but -all proved fruitless, and it was soon apparent that the future king -was a confirmed leper. Day by day the disease gained ground, seizing -on his hands and feet, and gradually gaining hold of his whole body. -He was handsome, too, and an accomplished horseman, passionately -fond of reading history and hearing the stories of valiant knights, -like his father and uncle. In person he exactly resembled his -father, and, like him, he was troubled with an impediment of speech. - -He was thirteen when his father died, and four days after that event -he was crowned in the Church of the Sepulchre with all the -ceremonies customary at this important event. The regency was at -first confided to Milo de Plancy, in spite of the opposition made by -Raymond, who pleaded vainly his relationship to the king, his long -services, and the importance of his dignity as Count of Tripoli. -Milo was a native of Champagne, and a distant cousin of King Amaury. -He was popular, because he was prodigal of promises, and full of -that _bravoure_ which catches the eyes of the people. But he was -arrogant, presumptuous, and full of ambition. Drawing upon himself -the hatred of all the barons by his manifest contempt for them, he -was set upon one night, by order of some unknown person, probably -one of the barons, and murdered, after which Raymond succeeded as -regent with no opposition. Raymond had spent nine years of his life -in prison at Aleppo, and had employed the dreary years of his -captivity in study, so that he was learned above the generality of -laymen. He was a man of courage in action, of prudence, and of -extreme sobriety in life. To strangers he was generous and affable: -to his own people he was neither one nor the other. - -An important change had meantime occurred in the fortunes of -Saladin. The death of Nûr-ed-dín left his kingdom to a boy, named -Malek-es-Saleh, who was received as his successor, while the Emir, -Abu-Mokaddem, was appointed regent. But the new regent gave little -satisfaction to the people, and a secret message was sent to Saladin -urging him to come to Damascus and take the regency. He went, -Abu-Mokaddem himself yielding to the storm, and inviting him to take -the reins of office. He very soon became master of the situation, -and, marrying the widow of Nûr-ed-dín, he assumed the title of -Sultan, and henceforward ruled the East. During the settlement of -his affairs there was comparative peace for the kingdom, what little -fighting went on being mostly in favour of the Christians. The -Emperor of Constantinople, however, experienced, near Iconium, a -defeat so disastrous that any help from that quarter was not to be -looked for, and Manuel himself, heart-broken at the loss of his -splendid army, and the capture and ill-treatment of his brother, -never recovered his cheerfulness: the memory of his misfortune -perpetually troubling him and depriving him of all repose and -tranquillity of spirit. - -In the third year of the king’s reign arrived in Jerusalem William -Longsword, son of the Marquis of Montferrand. He had been invited to -marry Sybille, sister of the king, and a few weeks after his arrival -the marriage was celebrated. The greatest hopes were entertained of -this prince. He was strong, brave, and generous. He was of the -noblest descent, his father having been maternal uncle to King -Philip of France, and his mother being the sister of Conrad. He had -grave faults, however: he could not keep any counsel, but was -perpetually telling of his projects; he was passionate and irascible -to the last degree, and he was addicted to intemperance in eating -and drinking. This probably proved fatal to him, for he died three -or four months after his marriage, leaving his wife pregnant. - -This was another calamity to the kingdom, which was sorely in want -of a man strong enough to organize a combined stand against the -rising power of Saladin. Philip, Count of Flanders, who came to make -an expiatory pilgrimage, was next received with hope, and the king -offered him the command of all his forces; but Philip failed in the -single enterprise he undertook, and returned home with little -addition to his glory. While Raymond, the regent, was with Philip in -the north, Saladin, who had returned to Egypt, led one of his -periodical incursions into Palestine, and fell to ravaging and -pillaging the south country. Baldwin, leper as he was, did not want -courage. If he could not fight, he could at least go out with his -men. He had with him Raymond, who had hastened to join him; Count -Jocelyn, his uncle, son of Jocelyn the younger, and three hundred -and seventy-five knights in all. It was judged prudent at first to -retire to Ascalon, but the people growing so infuriated at the sight -of the destruction of their property, the little Christian army went -out to attack the mighty force of Saladin. It was the last of those -wonderful battles where the Christians, frightfully overmatched, -bore down their enemies by sheer bodily strength, and carried the -day in spite of numbers. The historian puts down Saladin’s army at -twenty-six thousand, besides many thousands of light armed men. Of -course, the number is exaggerated, but there can be no doubt of the -paucity of the Christian army and the victory won by Baldwin. -Saladin escaped with a hundred horsemen in all, mounted on a camel: -his men were dispersed in all directions: heavy storms of rain and -an intensity of cold, to which they were unaccustomed, fell upon -them in the desert, and the Bedawín, learning their misfortunes, -plundered and murdered them. But the Christians were too weak to -follow up the victory by invading Egypt, and contented themselves -with building a fort at the ford over the Jordan. They also took the -opportunity of a little leisure to repair the walls of Jerusalem, -which were falling down with age. And at this time died stout old -Humphry, Constable of the kingdom, after a life spent in incessant -conflicts. His death was a great loss to the kingdom, which could -not now spare a single man. And after a grievous defeat near Banias, -where Odo, the Grand Master of the Templars, was taken prisoner, the -king concluded a treaty of peace with Saladin. - -Baldwin’s disease had now assumed its most violent form. He could -use neither hand nor foot, he was half blind, and rapidly losing his -eyesight altogether. But he clung to the crown, and learning that -the Count of Tripoli was coming to Jerusalem with a large following, -he feared that his intention was to depose him, and hastened to -marry his sister Sybille, widow of William Longsword, to Guy of -Lusignan. It was an unfortunate marriage, for Guy had no virtue of -any kind. He was handsome and personally courageous, but quite unfit -for the burden that this position threw upon him. And now everything -went wrong. There was no longer any self-restraint, any concord, any -noble aims among the Christian knights. The patriarch himself, -Heraclius, led openly a life of flagrant immorality; the Count of -Antioch, Bohemond, a degraded descendant of the great Bohemond, -divorced his wife without any grounds, and married a woman of ill -repute: Raymond of Tripoli quarrelled with the king; on all sides -were drinking, dicing, vice, and self-indulgence. Nothing was more -certain than that the fall of the kingdom was a matter of time only, -and Saladin, taking advantage of the treaty, which was as useful to -him as it was necessary to the Christians, was training his men for -the final effort by which he was to win Jerusalem. - -Renaud de Chatillon, the restless adventurer who had married -Constance of Antioch, was the actual cause of the fall of the -kingdom. His wife being dead, and her son become the Count of -Antioch, he married again, this time the widow of Humphry the -Constable. By his second marriage he became the seigneur of Kerak -and other castles situated beyond the Jordan. He had with him a -large number of Templars, and when the treaty with Saladin was -concluded, he announced his intention of not being bound by it, and -continued his predatory excursions. Saladin complained to Baldwin, -but the hapless king was powerless. Then Saladin arrested eighteen -hundred pilgrims, who had been wrecked on the shores of Egypt, and -declared his intention of keeping them in irons until Renaud gave up -his Mohammedan prisoners. Renaud and the Templars only laughed at -the threats of Saladin, and went on as before. The treaty being thus -openly broken, Saladin had no other course open but to recommence -hostilities, but after ravaging Galilee and laying siege to Beyrout, -the affairs of his own kingdom compelled him to retire, in order to -make war with the Attabegs, masters of Mossoul. - -Guy, meantime, too weak for the position he held, had not been able -to prevent Saladin’s ravages in Galilee, and when the sultan -attacked the fortress of Kerak could not go out to the assistance of -Renaud. Yielding to the pressure of his barons, the king deprived -Guy of the regency, and associated his nephew, a child of five years -old, with him on the throne, under the title of Baldwin the Fifth. -Poor little Baldwin the Fifth died very soon after, however, and had -very little enjoyment of his dignity. He was the son of William -Longsword and Sybille. Baldwin then summoned Guy de Lusignan before -him to answer for his many sins of omission. Guy refused to obey, -and took refuge in Ascalon, of which he was count. The king, who was -now quite blind, was carried to that city, and personally summoned -him to surrender. The gates were closed. Baldwin, thinking they -would not dare to refuse him admission, knocked at the gate with his -own helpless hands. But no answer was given. Then the poor blind -king, impotent in his rage, called Heaven to witness the outrage to -his authority, and was carried back to Jerusalem, swearing to punish -the audacity of Guy. All he could do was to deprive him of his -dignities, and to hand the regency over to Raymond of Tripoli. - -In the desolated state of the country, nothing could be thought of -but, as usual, to send to Europe for help. The patriarch Heraclius, -the Grand Master of the Temple, and the Grand Master of the -Hospitallers, were sent on an urgent embassy to ask for help. They -went first to Rome. The pope had been driven out of Rome and was now -at Verona, trying to re-establish peace throughout the whole of -Christendom. With him was Frederic, Emperor of Germany. They next -went to France. Philip Augustus received them with every kind of -distinction, but would promise no help. He had only recently mounted -the throne, and his own affairs required care. Next, and as a last -resource, they went to England. Henry II. was full of domestic -trouble at the time. He had taken, he acknowledged, an oath to -defend the kingdom of Jerusalem, but he could not go now, it was -impossible; he would, however, help them with treasure. The -patriarch lost his temper at this, the last of the repeated -refusals. “You were sworn,” he cried, “to take your army to the Holy -Land. Ten years have passed without your doing anything to redeem -your promise. You have deceived God: know you not what God reserves -for those who refuse to serve him? I see,” he went on, “that I am -exciting your wrath; but you may treat me as you treated my brother, -Thomas of Canterbury; it is all the same to me whether I die in -Syria by the hand of infidels, or whether I am murdered by you, more -cruel than any Saracen.” Henry took no notice of these angry words, -and declared his resolution not to abandon the kingdom, and allowed -those of his subjects who wished to take the Cross. But the zeal for -crusading had died out, and very few went to defend the Church of -the Sepulchre. - -As for the kingdom of Jerusalem, it was fast tottering to its fall. -The country[68] was dotted over with castles and strongholds, the -owners of which had learned, since the death of Amaury, to despise -the authority of the king. Moreover, the pride and power of the -Templars set up a sort of rival authority. Every baron fought for -his own land and for his own aggrandisement. There was no more -thought of conquest and glory; they fought now for plunder only. -When pilgrims arrived from the West they were made use of by the -Syrian barons for their own purposes; and when they were strong -enough to fight the Saracens, no treaty was sacred, no convention -was kept. The cities, especially those of the sea-shore, were -divided into nations, such as the Pisans, the Genoese, and the -Venetians, all of whom contended with each other over their -privileges, and often fought out their quarrels in the streets. The -Templars and the Hospitallers bargained for their arms by demanding -the cession of half a town, or a fort, in return for their services. -They quarrelled with each other, with the Church, and with the king. -And with the depravation of morals had come a total neglect and -contempt of religion, with—of which there are a few traces—the birth -of the spirit of infidelity. Men had begun to question and to -compare. There were not wanting renegades to be found among the -Mohammedan armies. Islam received its converts from the Christians, -but it gave back none in return. - -Footnote 68: - - See Michaud, Vol. ii., p. 306. - -The Crusaders had embarked upon an enterprise which rested on -religious enthusiasm. Religion was the salt of the kingdom which -they founded. While this lasted—it lasted till the reign of Baldwin -the Third—there was hope. When this died—it died in the reign of -Amaury—the kingdom was lost. Every baron and every soldier was in a -sense a special soldier of Christ, a kind of lay priest of the -altar. He had ever before his eyes those sacred places at sight of -which his fathers had wept aloud. But the handling of sacred things -is profitable only so long as the heart is open to their influences. -To the impure the most holy things are a mockery, the highest aims -are a subject of derision. And just as a worthless priest is -generally worse than a worthless layman, because he has deadened his -conscience more, and religion, a familiar thing, has no longer any -power to move his soul, so the degenerate soldiers of Jerusalem were -worse than their fellows, coarse, rude, and sensual though these -might be, beyond the sea, because for them there was nothing left -which was able to touch their hearts. - -Our history of the Christian kingdom draws to a close. In the midst -of these troubles, the miserable king, who had mercifully been -deprived of his senses, for the disease, when it has devoured the -fingers and toes, and eaten into the vigour and strength of a man, -fastens mysteriously on his intellect, and devours that too, died, -or rather ceased to breathe, and was buried with his fathers. We are -not told what epitaph was chosen for him. Surely, of all men, on -Baldwin’s tomb might have been carved the word, “Miserrimus.” - -Little Baldwin the Fifth died a day after his uncle, poisoned, as -was supposed, by his mother and Guy de Lusignan. It is possible. The -women whom Baldwin the Second left behind him, his daughters -Milicent, Alice, Hodierne, were bad themselves, and the mothers of -worse daughters. Of Sybille we can say little, except that she was -known to have had a guilty love for Guy before their marriage—the -king was actually uncertain at one time whether to stone to death -his sister’s paramour, or to make him her husband!—that she was -completely under his rule, and that she was ambitious, bold, and -intriguing. - - - - - CHAPTER XIV. - KING GUY DE LUSIGNAN. A.D. 1186-1187. - - Heu! voce flebili cogor enarrare - Facinus quod accidit nuper ultra mare, - Quando Saladino concessum est vastare - Terram quam dignatus est Christus sic amare. - _Contemporary Poem._ - - -When the little King Baldwin had been buried,[69] Sybille went to -the Patriarch, the Grand Master of the Templars, and the Grand -Master of the Hospitallers, to ask their advice and assistance. The -first two bade her be under no anxiety, because they would procure -her coronation, the former out of love for her mother, the Lady -Agnes, and the latter out of the great hatred he bore for Raymond of -Tripolis. And they advised her to send at once for Renaud de -Chatillon, as a man likely to be of great service to her. Unluckily -for Renaud, he came. At the same time she was to send to the Count -of Tripoli and the barons, summoning them to her coronation, because -the crown had devolved upon her. These, however, refused to be -present, and sent a formal protestation against the coronation. -Heraclius and the Master of the Templars laughed at the protest, but -the Master of the Hospitallers refused to attend the ceremony. The -gates of the city were shut, and no one allowed to enter or go out. -The barons, who were at Nablous, sent a trustworthy messenger, -disguised as a monk, to see what went on. Denied admittance at the -gates, he went to the lazar house, which was close to the walls, and -where he knew of a little postern. Here he was admitted, and, like a -modern reporter, went to the church and took notes of the -proceedings. The Queen elect was brought into the church by Renaud -and the Master of the Templars. The patriarch asked the latter for -his key—there were three—of the treasury, where were laid up the -crowns. He gave it up. Next he asked the Master of the Hospitallers -for his. He refused to give it up. Now, without the three keys, -those in the hands of the grand master and that kept by the -patriarch, the coronation could not proceed, for the simple reason -that the crown and sceptre were not to be got at. The Master of the -Hospitallers, when they pressed him, declared that he had hidden the -key. They searched for it, but could not find it. Then they pressed -him again, the coronation ceremony waiting all this time in the -church, until, in a rage, he dashed his key down on the ground, and -told them they might do as they pleased. - -Footnote 69: - - The history of William of Tyre, from which most of the preceding - account of the Christian kingdom has been taken, ends abruptly - just before the death of Baldwin. This chapter is mainly taken - from Bernard the Treasurer. - -The patriarch brought out two crowns: one he placed on the altar, -the other he placed on the head of Sybille. When she was crowned he -said to her, “Lady, you are a woman, and it is fitting that you have -with you a man, who may aid you to govern the realm. Take this -crown, and bestow it upon one capable of ruling.” - -It must be mentioned that, previous to her coronation, Sybille, in -the hope of conciliating the barons, had announced her intention of -getting a divorce from her husband. In this hope she was deceived, -for not one was present. There was therefore no occasion for further -pretence. Taking the crown she called Guy de Lusignan, and said to -him, “Sir, advance and receive this crown, for I know not how better -to bestow it.” - -He knelt before her, she placed the crown upon his head, and so Guy -de Lusignan became King of Jerusalem, the only incapable king the -little kingdom had, the only worthless king. When his brother -Geoffrey heard of the election, he remarked, “If they have made him -a king, I suppose they would have made me a god had they known me.” - -When the spy got back to Nablous, and told what had happened, -Baldwin of Ramleh offered to lay a wager that he would not be king -for a year, a bet which he would have won, as the event proved. - -“As for me,” said Baldwin, “the country is lost, and I shall go, -because I do not wish to share the shame and disgrace of having -assisted in the ruin of our kingdom. And for you, my lords, do what -you please.” - -“Sir Baldwin,” cried Raymond, “have pity on Christianity and remain -to help us. Here is Count Humphry with his wife Isabelle, also the -daughter of King Amaury. Let us go to Jerusalem and crown them -there. We shall have with us at least all the knights of St. John. -And I have a truce with the Saracens, who will even help us if we -want them.” - -It was decided to make Humphry King: but Humphry had no mind for a -crown which brought with it so many anxieties and troubles as that -of Jerusalem. In the dead of night he rode off to Queen Sybille; and -when the barons came to crown him in the morning, they found to -their great disgust that he was gone. - -He went straight to his sister-in-law, and, being brought into her -presence, saluted her as Queen. But she took no notice of him, -because he had not been present at her coronation. “Whereupon -Humphry began to scratch his head like a child that is ashamed of -himself, and said, ‘Dame! I could not. Why, they wanted to make me -king in spite of myself. That is why I ran away!’” - -Evidently a simple straightforward knight, this Humphry of Toron and -of sound, rather than brilliant, parts. - -“Since it is so,” said the queen, “I have no longer any animosity -towards you. But first do homage to the king.” - -Which Humphry did. - -The barons, acting on the advice of Raymond, were not slow in coming -to tender their allegiance, with the exception of Sir Baldwin of -Ramleh, who only sent his little son, praying Guy to receive his -homage, which the king refused to do. Thereupon Baldwin came -himself, and went through the necessary forms, saying, “Sir Guy, I -do you homage, but as a man who would rather not hold lands under -you.” - -It was for his son’s sake, for the knight would not remain any -longer in the country, and went away, “to the great joy of the -Saracens.” - -Raymond, meantime, was gone to Tiberias, where he waited to see what -would happen. The first thing that happened was a succession of -signs from heaven, manifestly importing disaster. As they happened -on Mohammedan soil as well as Christian, it is presumed that the -followers of Islam interpreted them in a contrary spirit. There were -tempests and impetuous winds, hail as big as hens’ eggs, -earthquakes, great waves, and _rades de mer_, while fire ran across -the heavens, “and you would have sworn that all the elements were -wrathful, detesting the excesses and vices of man.” It will be -observed that even in portents there is a decadence in the Christian -kingdom. Time was when knights in armour assailed cities in the -heavens, and when great comets blazed in the east like swords -hanging over a doomed country. We fall back now on hail and storm. - -Raymond called in Saladin on learning that it was the king’s -intention to besiege Tiberias. Saladin was glad of an excuse, and -sent his son in command of a small army—Bernard says of seven -thousand.[70] - -Footnote 70: - - Others say five hundred, which is more probable. - -The Grand Master of the Templars went out to meet them. He had in -all one hundred and forty knights with whom to confront this host. -The knights fought, as they always did, gallantly and bravely; so -bravely that they perished almost to a man, only the Master himself -and a very few escaping. One knight, Jacques de Maillé, a Templar, -performed such prodigies of valour that after he had fallen, the -Turks cut up his garments and divided them, in memory of so valiant -a man. It was in May that this disaster happened, the result of -internal dissension. “And in this month,” says a chronicler, “when -it is most fitting that roses should be gathered, the people of -Nazareth went out to gather together the dead bodies of their -valiant knights, and to give them burial.” - -The Master of the Templars had got hastily back to Nazareth, and -sent out messengers in all directions that he had gotten a signal -victory over the Turks, and that all who wanted booty must hasten to -his standard. They all flocked to him, like vultures, at the mention -of booty, and he led them to the field where the dead bodies of his -knights lay, the flower of the two orders. It is the keenest sarcasm -on the cowardice and meanness of the people that we read of. - - “Pudet hæc opprobria nobis - Et dici potuisse et non potuisse refelli.” - -But after this misfortune, further quarrels between king and barons -were useless, and Raymond hastened to make his submission. He met -the king at the Castle of St. George, at Ramleh, where a -reconciliation was effected, real and complete, so far as Raymond -was concerned, half-hearted and suspicious on the part of the -weak-minded king. - -Raymond, whose advice was generally sound, recommended Guy to -convoke all the forces at his disposition, and meet at the fountain -of Sefúríyeh. He also advised that the wood of the Cross should be -brought out by Heraclius, as the emergency was great. Heraclius, who -was afraid and probably foresaw disaster, declined to come, alleging -illness, but sent it by two of his bishops. - -Meantime, the king, by permission of the Master of the Templars, had -laid hands upon the treasure which Henry II. of England had sent -year by year, since the death of Thomas-à-Becket, to be used when he -should find time to accomplish his vow of a crusade. By means of -this money Guy found himself, when Saladin sat down before Tiberias, -at the head of the finest army which had marched under the banner of -the Cross since Godfrey besieged Jerusalem. The Countess of Tripoli -was in Tiberias, with her four sons, all knights. She wrote to Guy -saying that unless assistance came she must surrender the place. Guy -called a council and read the letter. Raymond was the first to -advise. - -“Sir,” he said, “let them take Tiberias, and I will tell you why. -The city is mine, and my wife is in it; if it is lost no one, -therefore, will lose so much as I. But if the Saracens take it, they -will occupy it, and will not come here after us, and then I shall -get it back again whenever I please. Now I prefer to lose my city -for a time than that the whole country should be lost, and between -this place and Tiberias there is not a drop of water. We shall all -die of thirst before we get there.” - -Thereupon, quoth the Master of the Templars, “Here is some of the -hair of the wolf.” But Raymond took no notice of this offensive -remark. “If it is not exactly as I have said,” he went on, “take my -head and cut it off.” - -All agreed that the advice given was sound and just, except the -Master of the Templars, who in his blind rage against Raymond could -not agree that anything he said was right. And in the night he went -to the king’s tent, just as he was going to bed. “Do you believe,” -he said, “in the advice of Raymond? It was given for the sole -purpose of bringing shame and disgrace upon us all.... Strike your -tents, call to arms, and march at once.” - -The king who owed to this man his crown, and the money with which -the army was raised, obeyed immediately, and to the grief and -surprise of the barons, the order was given to break up the camp. -And on this sad night, the 1st of July 1187, the Christian host -marched in silence and sadness to its fate. - -The Count of Tripoli led the first division; in the centre was the -king with the Holy Cross, borne by the Bishops of Acre and Lydda; -and the Templars, with Balian of Ibelin, brought up the rear. The -whole army consisted of twelve hundred knights, a considerable body -of light horse, and about twenty thousand foot. The words of Count -Raymond proved exactly true: there was no water at all on the way. -The Christians were harassed by the Turkish cavalry, by the heat of -the day, by the clouds of dust, and by the burning of the grass -under their feet, which was set fire to by the enemy as they marched -along. They halted for the night, and the camp of the Saracens was -so close to that of the Christians that “you could have seen a cat -run from one to the other.” It was a night of dreadful suffering for -want of water, and when the morning dawned some of those who could -bear their sufferings no longer went over to the camp of Saladin, -and threw down their arms, begging for a drink of water. “Sir,” said -one of these deserters to Saladin, “fall on them—they cannot help -themselves—they are all dead already.” King Guy, in hopes of ending -the sufferings of his men by victory, gave the signal for the battle -to commence. It was lost as soon as begun. For men, who had not -quenched their thirst for nearly four and twenty hours, had no -‘last’ in them. The knights, as usual, fought manfully, but even -these soon gave way. All round them was an arid plain or arid rocks, -while beneath their feet, and hardly a mile away, lay the calm and -placid Lake of Galilee, mocking their thirst by the serenity of its -aspect. The Holy Cross was lost in the midst of the fight, and when -the news went through the army there was no longer any hope. Some -tossed away their arms and sat down to be killed or to be taken -prisoners; some threw themselves upon the swords of the Mohammedans. -A little band of a hundred and fifty knights gathered round the -royal standard and defended the king to the last. Raymond, with -Balian of Ibelin, and a few more, cut their way through and escaped -to Tyre; but at last all resistance ceased, and King Guy, his -brother Geoffrey, with Renaud de Chatillon, the Grand Master of the -Templars, and all the chivalry of Palestine that were not killed, -were taken prisoners and brought before Saladin.[71] - -Footnote 71: - - See also Chapter xvi., page 380. - -As for the wood of the Holy Cross, some years after the battle of -Tiberias had been fought and lost, a brother of the Temple came to -Henry, Count of Champagne, and told him that, in order to save it -from falling into the hands of the Saracens, he had himself buried -it with his own hands, and that he knew where to look for it. He -took with him certain men to help in digging, and they searched for -three consecutive nights, but failed to find it. So, that for a -time, there was an end of one mischievous imposture at least. - -And now the highest ambition of Saladin was to be crowned with -success. Of all the holy places of his religion, only one was more -sacred than Jerusalem. It was destined for him to restore that -sacred Dome of the Rock which Omar had founded to the purposes for -which it was built, and to remove from the midst of the Mohammedan -Empire that hornet’s nest of Christians which, for nearly a hundred -years, had checked their conquests, insulted their faith, and -perpetually done them injury. - -The gates of the cities of Palestine flew open at the approach of -the conqueror. Tiberias yielded at once, and Saladin sent Raymond’s -wife to her husband. Raymond, however, was dying, and of a broken -heart. Almost alone among the chiefs he had still some nobility -left, and he could not bear to survive the fall of the country, his -country, and the end of so many high hopes and glorious -achievements. Acre resisted two days, and then opened its gates. -Nablous, Ramleh, Cæsarea, Jericho, Jaffa, Beyrout, had no knights -left to make defence with, and perforce capitulated. Tyre, Tripoli, -Ascalon, alone remained to the Christians. Saladin vainly attempted -the first, and desisted from the siege for more important matters. -But Ascalon was too necessary, in consequence of its communications -with Egypt, to be passed over, and he laid siege to the place in due -form. Guy was with him, in fetters. A breach was effected in the -walls, and Guy was put forward to urge upon the inhabitants not to -make a useless resistance. These sent deputies to the Sultan. “On -these conditions only shall you enter Ascalon, except across our -bodies. Give life to our wives and children, and restore the king to -liberty. Else we will fight.” Saladin granted the conditions. Guy -was to be set at liberty within a year; the people of Ascalon were -to leave the city freely and to carry with them all that they -pleased. - -And now, at length, came the turn of Jerusalem. Balian of Ibelin had -obtained of Saladin a safe conduct to the city, in order to take out -his wife and children, but on the sole condition that he was not to -stay there more than one night. He promised, and went. He found the -city defended by women and monks. A few pilgrims were there, and -some fugitive soldiers who had escaped the slaughter of Tiberias. -The people pressed round him with tears, cries, and lamentations, -when he told them of his word given to Saladin. “Sir;” said the -patriarch, “I absolve you from your oath; know well that it would be -a greater sin to keep it than to break it, for great shame would it -be for you and for your heirs, if you were thus to leave the city in -its hour of danger.” Then Balian of Ibelin yielded, and sent to -Saladin that he had been forced to break his word. Saladin by this -time was used to the perjury of Christians. For some years the -Mohammedans, simple in their faith, could not understand a religion -which permitted the most solemn treaties to be broken whenever a -priest could be prevailed on to give absolution for the perjury. But -they were wiser now. Raymond and Jocelyn, Renaud and Amaury, had -taught them the worth of a Christian’s promise, the value of a -Christian’s oath. Still, in Balian’s case there was much to be said. -It was not in human nature to resist the pleadings of the women and -the sight of all these helpless beings whose fate seemed placed in -his hands. - -There were only two knights in all the city. Balian knighted fifty -sons of the bourgeois. There was no money, because Guy had taken it -all. Balian took off the silver from the Holy Sepulchre, and coined -it into money for his soldiers. Every day all the men that he could -spare rode out into the country and brought in provisions, of which -they might have direful need, because the city was so full of women -and children that the houses were crowded and the unfortunate -creatures were lying about in the streets. Some sparks of courage -lived yet among the defeated soldiers, and all swore to defend the -city to the last. Balian, of course, knew perfectly well that the -cause was hopeless, and only remained to make what terms he could -for the people. But it was necessary to make at least some -resistance for the sake of honour, barren honour though it might be. - -Before the siege began, Saladin sent a message to the city to the -effect that if they made any resistance he had sworn to enter it by -assault only. Before this message, and after the taking of Ascalon, -his offers there were those which nothing but the most extreme -confidence in his own power would justify. “I know,” he said, “that -Jerusalem is the house of God: that is a part of my religion. I -would not willingly assail the house of God, if I can get possession -of it by treaty and friendship. I will give you thirty thousand -byzants if you promise to give up this city. You shall be allowed -five miles all round the city as your own ground to cultivate and -use as you please, and I will cause such an abundance of provisions -to be sent in that yours shall be the cheapest market in the world. -You shall have a truce from now to Pentecost; if, after that time, -you seem to see hope of success, keep your town if you can: if not, -give it up, and I will see you all safe and sound on Christian -soil.” But the deputies went away with many boasts that they were -going to die for the glory of God. In the end, nobody died who could -by any means avoid it. But at first, when Saladin’s camp was fixed -to the west, where, nearly a hundred years before, had been that of -Godfrey de Bouillon, the Christians made gallant sorties, and the -Saracens could do nothing against the impetuosity of their charges. -They observed, however, that after midday the sun was at their own -backs and in the faces of the enemy; and they reserved their attacks -for the afternoon, throwing dust in the air and into the eyes of the -besieged. - -After eight days of ineffectual fighting, Saladin changed his camp -to the east side, pitching it at the gate of St. Stephen, where the -valley of the Kedron has no great depth. In this new position, -Saladin was able to erect machines for casting stones and arrows -into the city. He also set his men to work undermining the walls. In -two days they had undermined fifteen toises of the wall, the -Christians not being able to countermine “because they were afraid -of the showers of missiles from the mangonels and machines.” The -Saracens fired the supports of their mines, and as much of the wall -as had been mined fell down. - -Then the besieged, finding that no hope remained of holding the -town, held a hasty council as to what should be done. For now a -universal panic had seized the soldiers; they ran to the churches -instead of to the ramparts, and while the defenders of the city -prayed within the walls of the church, the priests formed -processions and walked round the streets chanting psalms. - -Let Bernard the Treasurer tell this story in his own words: - -“The bourgeois, knights, and men of arms, in the council, agreed -that it would be better to sally forth and for all to die. But the -patriarch advised them to the contrary. ‘Sirs, if there were no -other way, this would be good advice, but if we destroy ourselves -and let the lives perish which we may save, it is not well, because -for every man in this town there are fifty women and children, whom, -if we die, the Saracens will take and will convert to their own -faith, and so they will all be lost to God. But if, by the help of -God, we can gain permission, at least, to go out from here and -betake ourselves to Christian soil, that would seem to me the better -course.’ They all agreed to this advice. Then they took Balian of -Ibelin and prayed him to go to Saladin and make what terms of peace -he could. He went and spoke to him. And while he was yet speaking -with Saladin about delivering up the city, the Turks, bringing -ladders and fixing them against the walls, made another assault. -And, indeed, already ten or twelve banners were mounted upon the -ramparts, or had entered where the wall had been undermined and had -fallen down. When Saladin saw his men and his banners on the walls, -he said to Balian, ‘Why do you talk to me about delivering up the -city, when you see my people ready to enter? It is too late now; the -city is mine already.’ And even while they spoke, our Lord gave such -courage to the Christians who were on the walls, that they made the -Saracens thereon give way and fall to the ground, and chased them -out of the moat. Saladin, when he saw it, was much ashamed and -troubled. Then he said to Balian that he might go back, because he -would do nothing more at the time, but that he might come again the -next day, when he would willingly listen to what he had to say.... -The ladies of Jerusalem took cauldrons and placed them before Mount -Calvary, and having filled them with cold water, put their daughters -in them up to the neck, and cut off their tresses, and threw them -away. Monks, priests, and nuns went barefooted round the walls of -the city, bearing in procession the said Cross before them. The -priests bore on their heads the _Corpus Domini_, but our Lord Jesus -Christ would not listen to any prayer that they made, by reason of -the stinking luxury and adultery in the city which prevented any -prayer from mounting up to God.... When Balian came to Saladin, he -said that the Christians would give up the city if their lives were -saved. Saladin replied that he spoke too late; but he added, ‘Sir -Balian, for the love of God and of yourself, I will take pity on -them in a manner, and, to save my oath (that he would only take them -by force), they shall give themselves up to me as if they were taken -by force, and I will leave them their property to do as they please, -but their bodies shall be my prisoners, and he who can ransom -himself shall do so, and he who cannot shall be my prisoner.’ -‘Sire,’ said Balian, ‘what shall be the price of the ransom?’ -Saladin replied that the price should be for poor and rich alike, -for a man thirty byzants, for every woman and every child, ten. And -whoever could not pay this sum was to be a slave.... - -“Balian went back with these hard terms, and during the night -prevailed upon the Master of the Knights Hospitallers to give up, -for the ransom of the poor, all that was left of the treasure of -King Henry of England. And the next day he obtained of Saladin a -reduction of the ransom by one half. - -“Then said Balian to Saladin, ‘Sire, you have fixed the ransom of -the rich; fix now that of the poor, for there are twenty thousand -who cannot pay the ransom of a single man. For the love of God put -in a little consideration and I will try to get from the Temple, the -Hospitallers, and the bourgeois, as much as will deliver all.’ -Saladin said that he would willingly have consideration, and that a -hundred thousand byzants should let all the poor go free. ‘Sire,’ -said Balian, ‘when all those who are able have ransomed themselves, -there will not be left half of the ransom which you demand for the -poor.’ Saladin said that it should not be otherwise. Then Balian -bethought him that he should not make so cheap a bargain by -ransoming all together as if he ransomed part at a time, and that by -the help of God he might get the rest at a cheaper rate. Then he -asked Saladin for how much he would deliver seven thousand men. ‘For -fifty thousand byzants.’ ‘Sire,’ said Balian, ‘that cannot be; for -God’s sake let us have reason.’ - -“It was finally arranged that seven thousand men should be ransomed -for thirty thousand byzants, two women or ten children to count as -one man. When all was arranged Saladin gave them fifty days to sell -and mortgage their effects and pay their ransom, and announced that -he who should be found in the city after fifty days should belong to -the conquerors, body and goods. - -“All the gates were closed except that of David. Guards were placed -at this to prevent any Christian from going out, the Saracens being -admitted to buy what the Christians had to sell. The day on which -the city was given up was Friday, the 2nd day of October, 1187. -Saladin placed officers in the town of David to receive the ransom, -and ordered that no delay was to be granted beyond the fifty days. -The patriarch and Balian went immediately to the Hospital and -carried away the thirty thousand byzants for the ransom of the poor. -When this was paid, they summoned the bourgeois of the city, and, -choosing from their body the two most trustworthy men of each -street, they made them swear on the relics of saints that they would -spare neither man nor woman through hatred or through love, but -would make one and all declare on oath what they had, and would -allow them to keep back nothing, but would ransom the poor with what -remained after their own ransoms had been paid. They took down the -number of the poor in each street, and making a selection, they made -up the number of seven thousand, who were allowed to go out of the -city. Then there was hardly anything left for the remainder.... But -when all those who were ransomed were out of the city, and there -remained yet many poor people, Seif-ed-dín went to Saladin, his -brother, and said to him, ‘Sire, I have helped to conquer the land -and the city. I pray you to give me a thousand slaves of those that -are still within it. Saladin asked him what he would do with them. -Seif-ed-dín replied that he would do with them as seemed him best. -Saladin granted his request, and his brother released them all. When -Seif-ed-dín had taken out his thousand captives, the patriarch -prayed Saladin to deliver the poor which yet remained. He gave the -patriarch seven hundred. Then Balian asked Saladin for some of those -left. He gave Balian five hundred. ‘And now,’ said Saladin, ‘I will -make my own alms.’ Then he commanded his bailiffs to open the -postern towards Saint Lazarus, and to make proclamation through all -the city that the poor might go out by this way, only that if there -were among them any who had the means of ransom, they were to be -taken to prison. The deliverance of the poor lasted from sunrise to -sunset, and yet there were eleven thousand left. The patriarch and -Balian went then to Saladin and prayed him that he would hold -themselves in hostage until those who were left could obtain from -Christendom enough to pay their ransom. Saladin said that he would -certainly not receive two men in place of eleven thousand, and that -they were to speak no more of it.” - -But Saladin was open to prayers from all quarters. The widows and -children of those who had fallen at Tiberias came to him weeping and -crying. “When Saladin saw them weeping, he was moved with great -pity; and, hearing who they were, he told them to inquire if their -husbands and fathers were yet living, and in prison, those who were -his captives he ordered to be released; and, in those cases where it -was proved that their husbands were dead, he gave largely from his -own private purse to all the ladies and the noble maidens, so that -they gave thanks to God for the honour and wealth that Saladin -bestowed upon them.” Clearly a magnanimous prince, this Saladin, and -one who was accustomed to return good for evil. - -There were so many Christians who came out of the city that the -Saracens marvelled how they could have all got in. Saladin separated -them into three divisions; the Templars led one, the Hospitallers -another, and Balian the third. To each troop he assigned fifty of -his own knights to conduct them into Christian territory.... These, -when they saw men, women, or children fatigued, would make their -squires go on foot, and put the wearied exiles on horseback, while -they themselves carried the children. Surely this is a tender and -touching picture of the soft-hearted soldiers of Islam, too pitiful -to let the little children cry while they had arms to carry them, or -to drive the weary forward while they could walk on foot themselves. - -When the exiles got to Tripoli they found themselves worse off than -on the march. Raymond would not let them enter, but sent out his -knights, who caught all the rich bourgeois, and brought them -prisoners into the city. Then Raymond deprived them of all that they -brought out of Jerusalem. The poorer of them dispersed into Armenia -and the neighbouring countries, and disappear from history. The -names of the Christians linger yet, however, in the Syrian towns, -and many of their descendants, long since converted to the faith of -the country, may be found in every town and village between Antioch -and Ascalon. - -Jerusalem was fallen, and the kingdom of the Christians was at last -at an end. It had lasted eighty-eight years. It had seen the -exploits of six valiant, prudent, and chivalrous kings. It was -supported during all its existence solely by the strength and -ability of its kings; it fell to pieces at once when its king, a -poor leper, lost his authority with his strength. Always corrupt, -always self-seeking, the Christians of the East became a by-word and -proverb at last for treachery, meanness, and cowardice. It was time -that a realm so degraded from its high and lofty aims should perish; -there was no longer any reason why it should continue to live; the -Holy City might just as well be kept by the Saracens, for the -Christians were not worthy. They had succeeded in trampling the name -of Christian in the dust; the Cross which they protected was their -excuse for every treachery and baseness which a licentious priest -could be bribed to absolve. The tenets and preaching of their faith -were not indeed forgotten by them, for they had never been known; -there was nothing in their lives by which the Saracens could judge -the religion of Christ to be aught but the blindest worship of a -piece of wood and a gilded cross; while the worst among them—the -most rapacious, the most luxurious, the most licentious, the most -haughty, the most perjured—were the very men, the priests and the -knights of the orders, sworn to chastity, to self-denial, to -godliness. It appears to us that Christianity might have had a -chance in the East against Islam but for the Christians; and had men -like Saladin been able to comprehend what was the religion which, -like an ancient painting begrimed and overladen with dirt and dust, -lay under all the vices and basenesses of the Christianity they -witnessed, the world would at least have been spared some of the -bitterness of its religious wars. - -As for Guy de Lusignan, it matters very little what became of that -poor creature. He made one or two feeble attempts to get back -something of his kingdom, but always failed. He finally sold his -title to King Richard, in exchange for that of King of Cyprus, and -ruled in great tranquillity in his new kingdom for a year, when he -died. - -So disastrous an event as the fall of Jerusalem must needs be -accompanied by signs and wonders from heaven. On the day that the -city surrendered, one of the monks of Argenteuil, as he remembered -afterwards, saw the moon descend from heaven to earth. It is -remarkable that nothing was said at the time of this very curious -phenomenon. In many churches the crucifixes shed tears of blood, -which was their customary and recognised way of expressing regret -when the monks thought anything was going wrong with the power of -the Church. And a Christian knight saw in a dream an eagle flying -over an army, holding seven javelins in its claws, and crying, “Woe, -woe to Jerusalem.” - - - - - CHAPTER XV. - THE THIRD CRUSADE. - - “Signor, saciez, ki or ne s’en ira - En cele terre, u Diex fu mors et vis, - Et ki la crois d’outre mer ni prendra - À paines mais ira en paradis.” - _Thibault de Champagne._ - - -We are not writing a history of the Crusades, and must hasten over -all those episodes in the long struggle of three hundred years which -do not immediately concern the Holy City. It is with regret that one -turns from the glowing pages of Vinsauf, Villehardouin, and -Joinville, with the thought that they have little to do with our -subject, and that we must perforce leave them for other pastures, -not so fair.[72] But a few words to show the progress of events, if -it is only to make us understand the story of Saladin, are -indispensable. - -Footnote 72: - - Why has no English historian treated of the Crusades? Besides the - scattered notices in Milman there is only the work of Knightley, - meritorious in its way, but as dry as sawdust; spoiled, too, by - the accident that it was written for the Society for the Promotion - of Christian Knowledge, and the author seems always horribly - afraid of saying something which might offend the Committee. - -The news of the fall of Jerusalem was received in Europe with a -thrill of horror and indignation. From every pulpit, preachers -thundered in the ears of the stupefied people the intelligence that -the city for which so much had been risked and spent was fallen, and -that it was the judgment of God upon the sins of the world. -Terrified and conscience-stricken, all Europe repented and reformed. -Luxury was abandoned, mortifications and self-denial were practised; -every sinner looked on the fall of the city as partly caused by -himself; nothing but prayers and lamentation were heard through all -the cities of Western Europe. And then when Pope Gregory sent his -circular letter exhorting the faithful to take up arms for the -recovery of Jerusalem, and when William of Tyre, eloquent, noble in -appearance, illustrious for learning and for virtues, came to Europe -to pray for help in the name of Christianity, kings forgot their -quarrels, nobles their ambitions, and it seemed as if, once more, -the cry of “Dieu le veut” would burst spontaneously from the whole -of Western Europe. It might have done had there been a man with the -energy and eloquence of Peter the Hermit. But the moment of -enthusiasm was allowed to pass, and Philip Augustus after taking the -Cross, delayed his Crusade, while he renewed his quarrel with Henry -the Second. - -In England and in France, in order to defray expenses, a tax called -the Tithe of Saladin, consisting of a tenth part of all their goods, -was levied on every person who did not take the Cross. The clergy, -with their usual greed, endeavoured to evade the tax, on the ground -that the Church must keep her property in order to preserve her -independence. They were overruled, however, and had all to pay, -except a few of the poorer orders, and the Lepers’ Hospitals. In -every parish the Tithe of Saladin was raised in the presence of a -priest, a Templar, a Hospitaller, a king’s man, a baron’s man and -clerk, and a bishop’s clerk. As this did not produce enough, Philip -Augustus arrested all the Jews, and forced them to pay five thousand -marks of silver. In order to prevent such a rush of villagers as -might lead, as it had already led, to the desertion of the fields, -every one had to pay the tithe except those who took the Cross with -the permission of their seigneur. And when the money had all been -collected, war broke out again between the two kings of France and -England. Peace was made between them by aid of the pope’s legate, -but Henry died in the midst of his preparations. Richard saw in the -death of his father the consequence of his own unfilial conduct, and -took the Cross as a sign of his unfeigned repentance. Baldwin, -Archbishop of Canterbury, preached the Crusade throughout England. -It was the first time that it had been preached here, and the old -enthusiasm of the French was aroused among the English. All wanted -to take the Cross; wives hid their husbands’ clothes; they ran naked -to Baldwin. Everywhere all sorts of miracles took place; the people -gathered the very dust which the bishop had trodden on as a holy -relic; they flocked together from every part of England, Wales, -Ireland, and Scotland, and if the numbers were less than those which -went from France it was because a selection was made, and only those -went who obtained permission to go. The religious zeal of the -English found its first exercise in the famous massacre of the Jews. -From them Richard got large sums of money, and as, with all his -resources, he could not get enough, he mortgaged a large part of his -estates, sold the dignities of the crown, and was quite ready to -sell the city of London itself, could he have found a purchaser. - -In one respect this Crusade started with far better prospects of -success than any which had preceded it. They went by sea, thus -avoiding the horrible sufferings inevitable in crossing Asia Minor; -and they established a code of laws, to maintain discipline and -order in the army. Whosoever struck another was to be dipped three -times in the sea; whosoever drew his sword upon another was to have -his right hand cut off; whosoever swore at another was to be fined -an ounce of silver for every oath; if a man were convicted of theft -he was to be shaven, hot pitch was to be poured on his head, which -was then covered with feathers, and he was to be put upon the -nearest shore; while if a man murdered another, he was to be tied to -the corpse, and both bodies thrown together into the sea. No woman -was to go with the Crusaders at all, save such as were necessary for -the service of the camp, and those only who were of sufficient age -to be above suspicion. No one was to practise gaming in any shape -whatever; and all luxury in dress or in the table was forbidden. -Thus the army started with the most admirable intentions as regards -virtue. It was to be a camp where there was no vice, no gaming, no -swearing, no violence—under penalties of boiling pitch and feathers, -abandonment on a savage coast, the loss of the right hand. - -Richard started from Marseilles; Philip Augustus from Genoa; -Frederick Redbeard from Germany followed the old course of Bulgaria -and Asia Minor. He had with him a hundred thousand men; and he -refused to allow any man to join the army who was not possessed of -at least three marks of silver. Frederick had the courtesy to send -an ambassador to Saladin, announcing his intention of making war -upon him. - -He fought his way across Asia Minor to Iconium, which surrendered. -The old terror which Godfrey and Baldwin had been able to inspire -among the Saracens was inspired again by Frederick. The Mohammedans -expected his arrival in Syria with the liveliest apprehensions. But -he never got there, for bathing in the river Selef he was seized -with a chill, and died. After his death large numbers of his men -deserted; the rest fought their way under the Duke of Swabia; and at -length, out of the one hundred thousand who had followed Frederick, -there entered into Palestine six hundred horse and five thousand -foot. - -Saladin, meantime, had besieged Tyre and Tripoli, both -ineffectually. He had, however, got possession of the strong post of -Kerak, after a siege of more than a year. The Christian defenders -actually sold their wives and children to the besiegers, in order to -save them from starvation. Saladin gave them back again after the -capitulation. He also, in 1189, two years after his capture, -restored liberty to Guy de Lusignan, on his taking a solemn oath -never to go to war with him. Guy swore, and directly after he -returned to Christian soil got the oath annulled, and returned to -besiege Acre. This was the crime which, above all things, enraged -the Saracens, and made a man like Saladin unable to understand a -religion which permitted it. Here was a captive king released from -his prison by the clemency of his conqueror, and without ransom, -solely on the condition that he would leave it to others to make war -upon him. Yet the very first thing he does is to break his oath, and -get up an army to attack him. Conrad de Montferrat, who was in Tyre, -refused to admit Guy, not thinking it necessary to acknowledge a -king who was unable to defend himself. But Guy, who was not without -courage, found means to raise a small army, and with it sat down -before Acre. He nearly took it by assault, when an alarm was spread -that Saladin was coming, and his men fled in a panic. It was not -Saladin who was coming from the land, but the first reinforcement of -the Crusaders from the sea. The Frisians and Danes, twelve thousand -in number, came first, and camped with Guy. Next came the English -and the Flemings. And then Saladin, becoming aware of the new storm -that was rising against him, came down from Phœnicia, and prepared -to meet it. Every day the Crusaders arrived; before Richard and -Philip were even on their way there were one hundred thousand of -them, and the hearts of the Mohammedans sank when they beheld a -forest of masts, always changing, always being renewed as the ships -went away and others came. The Christians, on the other hand, were -confident of success; a French knight, looking on the mighty host -about him, is reported to have cried out, blasphemously enough, “If -God only remains neuter the victory is ours.” Saladin forced on a -battle, and experienced a disastrous defeat. The Saracens fled in -all directions, and already the Christians were plundering their -camp, when a panic broke out among them. Without any enemy attacking -them, they threw away their arms, and fled. Saladin stopped his men, -and turned upon them. The rout was general, and victory remained -with Saladin, but a victory which he could not follow up, in -consequence of the confusion into which his camp had been thrown. He -withdrew, and the Crusaders, recovering from their panic, set to -work, fortifying their camp, and besieging Acre. They passed thus -the winter of 1189-90, without any serious success, and contending -always against Greek fire, which the besieged threw against their -movable towers. In the spring came Saladin again; the Crusaders -demanded to be led against the Saracens, the chiefs refused; the -soldiers revolted, and poured forth against the enemy, only to -experience another defeat, exactly similar to the first. And then -the leaders, despondent at their ill-success, endeavoured to make -peace with Saladin, when the arrival of Henry, Count of Champagne, -followed by that of Frederick, Duke of Swabia, raised their hopes -again. But then came famine, winter, and disease. Worse than all -these, came dissension. Queen Sybille died with her two children. -Conrad of Tyre resolved to break the marriage of her sister -Isabelle, now the heiress to the crown of Jerusalem, with Humphrey -de Toron, and to marry her himself. He did so, and claimed the -throne; so that the camp was split into two parties, that of Guy, -and that of Conrad. It was resolved to submit the matter to the -arbitration of the kings of England and France. The two kings were -quarrelling on their way. Richard refused to espouse Alice, Philip’s -sister, to whom he was betrothed, and married in her place -Berengaria. He further offended Philip by his conduct in Sicily, and -by his conquest of Cyprus, which island he refused to share with -Philip. Of course, therefore, directly Richard declared for Guy, -Philip took the part of Conrad; and it was not till after long -discussions that it was decided that Guy should hold the crown -during his life, after which it was to descend to Conrad and his -children. Then both kings fell ill; Saladin also was ill, with -continual fevers, and constant messages were sent to and from the -Christian and Saracen monarchs, which were construed by the savage -soldiers into proposals of treachery. Acre fell, after a two years’ -siege, and the loss of sixty thousand Christians by the Saracens’ -swords. Philip went home after this, and Richard, pleased to be left -without a rival, began his ferocious course in Palestine by the -cold-blooded slaughter of two thousand seven hundred Saracens. - -From Acre, after a short rest, devoted to those very pleasures -against which such stringent edicts had been passed, Richard led his -army to Cæsarea. In the midst was a sort of _caroccio_, a sacred -car, in which was the standard of the Cross, whither the wounded -were brought, and where the army rallied. The Saracens hung upon the -march, shooting their arrows into the ranks of the Christians. If -one was killed he was buried there and then. At night, when the camp -was fixed, a herald cried aloud three times, to remind the soldiers -of their vows, “Lord, help the Holy Sepulchre.” And at break of day -the march was resumed. They moved slowly, only performing about ten -miles a day. And then came the great battle of Assur, when Saladin -lost eight thousand of his men, and ought to have lost Palestine, if -Richard had been as good a Crusader as he was a general. Had they -marched upon Jerusalem there was nothing in their way. But they -stopped at Jaffa. Richard made propositions to Saladin. Would he -give up Jerusalem? The Saracen replied that it was impossible to -abandon a city whence the prophet had mounted to heaven. Then Cœur -de Lion made a proposition which called forth, to his extreme -astonishment—for the strong-armed king had but little insight into -the intricacies of theology—such vehement opposition, that he was -forced to abandon it. It was nothing less than to marry his sister -Jane, widow of William of Sicily, to El Melik el ‘´Adil, Saladin’s -brother. Both were to govern Jerusalem together. El Melik el ‘´Adil, -who was on terms of personal friendship with Richard, was perfectly -willing to arrange the marriage; but it was impossible to meet the -objections of imams as well as bishops, and the negotiations were -broken off, Richard proving thereupon his zeal for the faith by -murdering his captives. He then gave orders to march, declaring that -he was going to deliver Jerusalem. They started, but on the way he -changed his resolution, and determined to rebuild Ascalon, to the -chagrin and even despair of the common soldiers. And then the chiefs -quarrelled. Peace was re-established. Guy de Lusignan was made king -of Cyprus, and Richard gave the crown of Jerusalem to Conrad of -Tyre. But the latter was murdered by two emissaries of the sheikh of -the Assassins, “the old man of the mountains.”[73] Henry of -Champagne then married his widow Isabelle, and received the title of -king. - -Footnote 73: - - See p. 410. - -The next winter passed, and in the spring Richard, who had spent his -time in small skirmishes, whence he usually returned with -half-a-dozen heads at his saddle bow, declared his intention of -returning to Europe. He was persuaded to remain, and once more led -the army in the direction of Jerusalem. But he stopped some twenty -miles from the city. And the army, like the people of Israel, -murmured against him. There must, it seems to us, have been some -secret reason why he never marched upon Jerusalem. Could it have -been some superstitious one? Joachim, the hermit of Calabria, had -prophesied that Jerusalem should be taken seven years after its -capture by Saladin. It was now only five years. Was he waiting for -the fulfilment of the prediction? From his vacillation, it would -almost appear so. One day he rode within sight of the city. And then -this great knight, this type of his age; wild beast and murderer in -and after battle; illiterate and rude; yet full of noble impulses, -and generous above his peers, burst into bitter weeping, and -covering his face with his shield, cried aloud that he was not -worthy even to look upon the city of his Saviour. He could not bear -the thought of giving up the conquest of the Holy Land. On the other -hand, if we are right in our conjecture as to his motives for delay, -he could not possibly, with everything in his own kingdom going -wrong in his absence, wait two years more. He shut himself up in his -tent and passed hours alone, with pale and gloomy countenance. A -temporary relief to his sorrow was afforded by the successful -cutting off of the caravans which were going to Saladin from Egypt. -He got, too, a piece of the True Cross, which was paraded through -the camp with great rejoicing. - -Then, for the whole army looked to him for advice and guidance, he -called a council, and exposed certain reasons which made him -hesitate before advancing on Jerusalem. Of these, the principal -were, want of knowledge of the country, and its arid and thirsty -nature. He proposed to submit the matter to a council of twenty, of -whom half should be Templars and Hospitallers, and to be guided by -their advice; but the council could not agree, and dissension broke -out between the Duke of Burgundy and King Richard. The design of -besieging Jerusalem was given up, and the army slowly and sadly -returned to Ramleh, and thence to Jaffa. - -A peace was concluded shortly after between Richard and Saladin, in -which it was agreed to destroy Ascalon entirely, by the joint labour -of Christians and Mohammedans; the Christians were to have all the -coast between Tyre and Joppa; peace was to be enforced in the north -of Syria; pilgrimages were to be freed from the former tax, and a -truce for two years was to be agreed upon. - -The English Crusaders, divided into three bodies, all went up -unarmed to Jerusalem. They were received with kindness, and the -Bishop of Salisbury, who came last, with distinction, being -entertained by Saladin himself, who showed him the wood of the True -Cross, and granted him, as a favour, that two Latin priests should -be permitted to serve at the Church of the Sepulchre. And then, all -being arranged, Richard embarked at Acre. The people crowded to the -shore, weeping and crying over the loss of their champion, the most -stalwart warrior that ever fought for the Cross. The king himself -could not restrain his tears. Turning to bid farewell to the -country, he cried, “Oh, Holy Land! God grant that I may yet return -to help thee!” And his last message was one to Saladin, telling him -that he was only going home to raise money in order to complete the -conquest of the land. “Truly,” said the courtly Saladin; “if God -wills that Jerusalem pass into other hands, it cannot fall into any -more noble than those of the brave King Richard.” - -Such, briefly and baldly told, is the picturesque crusade of Cœur de -Lion. Of the terror which his name inspired; of his many and valiant -gests, of his personal strength, his chivalrous generosity, we have -not room to speak. Nor can we do more than allude to those other -qualities for which he made his name known; his ferocious and savage -cruelty; his pleasure in fighting for love of mere butchery; the -ungovernable rage which sometimes seized him; his want of -consideration for others; his “masterfulness;” the way in which he -trampled on, careless over whose body he passed, provided he -attained his ends. For these, and the other stories which can be -told about him, we refer our readers to the chronicles, and to that -book on the Crusades which has yet to be written. - - - - - CHAPTER XVI. - SALADIN. - - “Sans peur et sans reproche.” - - -Saladin has already appeared upon our pages, but hitherto scarcely -more than incidentally. The reader will, no doubt, be glad to have a -consecutive account of the career of this illustrious prince, as -told by the historians of his own nation. - -We must go back to the time of the invasion of Egypt by King Amaury. -On Shírkoh’s death, many of the chief officers of Núr-ed-dín’s army -were desirous of succeeding to the important post of grand vizier; -but the Caliph, El ‘Άdhid, himself sent for Saladin, and conferred -the office upon him, together with many privileges and titles of -honour. He was designated El Melik en Násir, “the Victorious King,” -and Sipáh-sálár, a Persian title, signifying generalissimo of the -army; and his standard, or coat of arms, was placed instead of his -name at the head of all official communications—a form made use of -only in the case of royal personages. In writing to him, however, -the Egyptian Caliph did not address his letters to Saladin -individually, but inscribed them “To the Emír Saladin, and all the -princes in the land of Egypt.” This was doubtless in order to assert -his own prerogative and superior authority; but the young Kurd, -having once placed his foot upon the steps of the throne, was not to -be deterred from mounting to the summit of his ambition by mere -scruples of etiquette. He was, moreover, a rigid follower of the -Shafi‘íte sect, and therefore no friend to the pretensions of the -sons of ‘Alí; indeed, he had already received the commands of -Nûr-ed-dín to depose the Ismaelites from all religious and judicial -offices, to appoint orthodox doctors in their stead, and to insert -the name of the Abbaside Caliph of Baghdad in the Friday prayer in -the place of that of the Fatemite Caliph of Egypt. - -In 1169 the Franks made their final effort for the possession of -Egypt, and besieged Damietta; but Saladin had garrisoned and -provisioned the town so well that it was enabled to hold out until a -fresh attack by Nûr-ed-dín upon the Syrian possessions of the -Christians compelled them to abandon the attempt and return home -bootless. The next year Saladin himself invaded their territory, -and, after plundering the neighbourhood of Ascalon and Ramleh, -returned to Egypt. His next expedition was against Ailah (‘Akabah), -which he blockaded by land and sea, and conquered with little -difficulty. - -For some time Saladin was prevented from carrying out Nûr-ed-dín’s -injunctions respecting the abolition of the Fatemite sect and -authority, through fear of an insurrection; but towards the end of -the year 1171 an opportunity offered itself in the sudden illness of -El ‘Άdhid li dín allah. Of this Saladin at once availed himself, and -the name of El Mostadhí bi amr illah was solemnly proclaimed in the -mosques of Cairo. - -This great _coup d’état_, which won Egypt over to the orthodox -Mohammedan sect, and ultimately enabled Saladin to grasp the -independent sovereignty of the country, was effected, as an Arab -historian quaintly observes, “so quietly, that not a brace of goats -butted over it.” The last of the Fatemites died only ten days -afterwards, in happy ignorance of the downfall of his dynasty. The -news was hailed with great demonstrations of joy in Baghdad, and -‘Emád-ed-dín Sandal, a confidential servant of Saladin’s, was -despatched to Cairo with dresses of honour for the emir, hearing -also the black flag, the famous standard of the house of Abbas. - -But Saladin was flying at higher game; and when news reached him of -the death of Nûr-ed-dín, in August 1174, he at once set out for -Damascus. El Melik es Sálíh Ismáìl, who had succeeded his father -upon the throne, was absent at Aleppo when Saladin arrived, and the -latter established himself without opposition in the government of -the town. Hums and Hamah (the Hamath of the Bible) next yielded to -his authority, but Aleppo still held out, and warmly supported the -cause of El Melik es Sálíh the legitimate heir to the kingdom. After -an unsuccessful attempt to reduce the place by blockade, Saladin -made terms with his rival, and each agreed to leave the other in -quiet possession of the districts of Syria which he then actually -held. Having concluded this arrangement, he returned to Egypt. El -Melik es Sálíh died in 1181, and was succeeded by his uncle, -‘Ezz-ed-dín Mas‘úd, who, however, exchanged by mutual consent the -throne of Aleppo with Maudúd, lord of Sanjár. - -In May, 1182, Saladin once more set out for Damascus, ravaging the -country of the Crusaders by the way, and obtaining a large amount of -booty. He never afterwards returned to Egypt, but from that moment -devoted himself to the task of reconquering the Holy Land for the -Mussulmans. - -In the following month he began his campaign, and, pitching at -Tiberias, harassed the neighbourhood of Beisán, Jaibín, and the -Ghor, causing much loss to the Christians, both of property and -life. Beirút and the sea coast were next attacked, and, even where -the towns themselves held out, the country around suffered severely -from his depredations, for he seldom returned empty handed from a -raid. - -It was in this same year, 1182, that the Frank occupants of Kerek -and Shobek determined to make an expedition against Medinah itself, -and thus to attack the Mohammedans in the very birthplace and -stronghold of their faith. They had even sworn that they would dig -up the body of the Prophet, and carry it off to their own country, -in order to put a stop to pilgrimages once and for all. That this -was no idle threat was clear from the fact that the Prince Renaud of -Kerek had caused ships to be constructed and carried over land to -the Red Sea, and that troops had been transported in these vessels, -and were actually on their way to Medinah. - -Saladin was at Hauran when the news of the intended invasion reached -him. He was furious at the insult offered to his religion, and sent -orders to his lieutenant in Egypt to despatch the Emír Hisám-ed-dín -Lúlú in pursuit of the enemy. The Franks, rather more than three -hundred in number, besides a body of rebellious Bedawín which had -joined their ranks, had advanced within a day’s march of Medinah -when Lúlú caught them up. Despairing of being able to resist the -Egyptian troops, who were superior to themselves both in numbers and -discipline, they sought refuge upon a mountain difficult of access, -while the Bedawín, with their usual discretion in cases of danger, -took to their heels. Lúlú, however, followed them to the heights, -captured, and sent them in chains to Cairo. They were given over for -execution “to the dervishes, lawyers, and religious persons,” who -put them all to a cruel death, reserving only two of the most -conspicuous members of the band, “who were sent to Mecca to have -their throats cut, like the beasts who are sacrificed before the -Ka‘abah.” - -In 1183 Saladin obtained possession of Hums, Amed, ‘Aintáb, and -other places. He next besieged Aleppo, which he took after a short -siege; though, to compensate the sovereign of that place, -‘Emád-ed-dín ibn Maudúd, for its loss, he bestowed upon him the -territory of Sanjár. The conquest of Aleppo took place in the month -Safar, and a poet of Damascus (Muhíy-ed-dín), celebrating the event -in an ode addressed to the Sultan, “declared that the capture of -Aleppo in Safar was a good augury for that of Jerusalem in Rejeb”—a -verse which seems to have been prophetic, for Jerusalem fell in the -month Rejeb of the year 1187 A.D. - -The next year the Sultan made a fresh attack upon Kerek. A severe -conflict took place between his forces and the Christians, and some -of the forts fell into his hands. He did not, however, follow up his -advantage, but returned to Damascus, having first marched upon -Nablús, which he plundered and burnt. - -In 1186 Diyár Bekr also yielded to his arms, and his kingdom was now -becoming so extensive that he found himself obliged to make some -different provision for the government of the various provinces. -Sending for his son, El Melik el Afdhal, from Egypt, he assigned him -the _seigneurie_ of Damascus; Egypt, Hamah, Diyár Bekr, &c., he -allotted to other members of his family. - -We now come to 1187, the year of the fall of Jerusalem, and the most -important era in Saladin’s career. His operations against the -Franks, though generally successful, had as yet partaken rather of -the character of border forays than regular warfare, and, although -they harassed and annoyed the Crusaders, they did not materially -weaken their position in the country. Jerusalem was defended by the -flower of the Christian chivalry, and as yet appeared too strong for -him to attack; but his determination had long been taken, and he -merely waited for an opportunity to strike a decisive blow. An -appeal was, moreover, made to him, artfully calculated to inflame -his religious zeal, and sting his personal pride. An aged native of -Damascus had been taken prisoner by the Franks and carried to -Jerusalem. From the place of his captivity be sent a copy of verses -to the Sultan, in which the Holy City was made to address him thus: - - Just sovereign, mighty monarch! thou - To whom the Crosses’ standards bow! - There cometh up before thee now - Jerusalem’s piteous plaint. - “Elsewhere are idols overthrown— - Shall I, the Holy House, alone, - The Muslim’s noblest temple, groan - Beneath so foul a taint?” - -The verse had its effect, and later on, Saladin rewarded the author -with the deanery (if I may so translate the word _khatábeh_) of the -Masjid el Aksa. - -In the month of March be addressed letters to all parts of his -dominions calling on his subjects to rally round his standard, and -follow him to the “Holy War.” Setting out from Damascus with such -men as he could raise, he began himself to beat up recruits, and -persuaded even the most unwilling to take up arms in the cause of -their faith. - -Renaud, Prince of Kerek, had resolved upon attacking the Mohammedan -pilgrims on their return from Mecca, and carrying them into -captivity; but Saladin encamped near Bosra until the caravan had -passed, and so thwarted his designs. Renaud was one of the fiercest -and most implacable antagonists the Muslims had to contend with, and -he, knowing that he had little chance of quarter if he fell into -Saladin’s hands, withdrew into his fortress at Kerek. As the -Egyptian contingent for which he was waiting did not arrive so soon -as he had expected, Saladin commanded his son, El Melik el Afdhal, -to remain at Rás el Má, and collect an army, while he himself -occupied his leisure by plundering and burning the villages in the -neighbourhood of Kerek. Here he was at last joined by the Egyptians, -and things remained _in statu quo_ for two months. Meanwhile El -Afdhal had executed his father’s commands, and collected a large -body of men, with whom, in the absence of other orders, he marched -upon Tiberias. At Sefúríyeh they were met by the Christian troops, -who sallied forth in great numbers from the town and gave them -battle. Fortune, however, declared for the Muslims, and the -Crusaders retired with great loss. Saladin, on receiving the news of -this victory, left Kerek and joined his son. The combined forces now -amounted to an immense number of men, all ardently desiring to do -battle with the “infidels,” and the Franks, sensible of the -approaching danger, made overtures for peace. But Saladin continued -his march upon Jerusalem. On the 27th of June he pitched at Jaibín, -and on the following morning reached the Jordan. - -In the meantime the Crusaders endeavoured to stop his progress, and -had assembled (according to the Arab authorities) to the number of -fifty thousand in the plain of Sefúríyeh, where for some days -continuous but unimportant skirmishes took place. Saladin determined -first to attack Tiberias itself, and, sending a party of sappers and -miners stealthily to undermine the walls, he approached and entered -the town at nightfall. The Franks knew that the loss of this -important place would be fatal to their cause. The next morning, -therefore, as soon as they got information of the movement, they -beat to arms, and proceeded with all speed to endeavour to oust -Saladin from his position. It was a Friday morning, but, rigid -Mussulman as the Sultan was, he did not, on this occasion at least, -allow his scruples to interfere with his plan of action. Leaving -some men in charge of the castle of Tiberias, he sallied out, and -gave battle to the enemy. The conflict raged fiercely, neither side -gaining a decisive advantage, until night coming on put a stop to -the encounter. In the morning, both sides prepared to resume the -fight, and the Muslims rushed to the attack shouting like one man. -At this a sudden panic seized upon the Christian ranks, and they -retired in disorder to Jebel Hattín, a village in which is the -reputed tomb of Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses. The Count of -Tripoli, foreseeing that defeat was imminent, withdrew with his -followers before the general rout began, and fled to Tyre. - -And now was enacted a scene of indescribable carnage and confusion. -The Muslims, who had followed in hot pursuit, came suddenly upon the -retreating host, and, having surrounded them on all sides, so as to -make escape impossible, set fire to the dry herbage beneath their -feet. The flames spread instantly, and the Christians, scorched by -the burning grass, and fainting under the scarcely less fierce rays -of a Syrian midsummer sun, fell, huddled together like sheep, -beneath the swords and darts of their assailants. No less than -thirty thousand of their bravest soldiers are said to have perished -on the field, and many others were taken captive. So entirely were -they cowed and demoralized that one peasant alone is related to have -taken thirty prisoners, and tied them in his tent, and to have sold -one of them for an old boot! - -Amongst the prisoners were the king himself, and his brother -Godfrey, Odo, Lord of Jebeil, Count Humphrey, the Grand Masters of -the Templars and Hospitallers, together with many knights of both -orders, and Prince Renaud of Kerek, who was one of the first -captured. Saladin had sworn that if ever Renaud fell into his power -he would slay him with his own hand, for he was incensed against him -not only for his meditated attack upon Medinah, but because he had -violated the truce and treacherously murdered some Egyptians who -were passing by Shobek, answering them by coarse jests upon Mohammed -when they appealed to his honour and the articles of peace. - -The Sultan was sitting in the threshold of his tent, which was not -yet completely set up, and the captives were arrayed before him one -by one. When King Guy was brought out he courteously invited him to -sit down by his side, and perceiving Renaud immediately after, he -made him sit down beside the king, and commenced upbraiding him with -his former breach of faith and with his attempt upon the sanctuary -of Medinah. Renaud excused himself, saying, through the interpreter, -“that he had only acted after the manner of princes.” At this moment -the king gave signs of being greatly distressed by thirst, and -Saladin ordered iced sherbet to be brought for his refreshment. -Having quenched his own thirst, the king handed the cup to Renaud; -but as the latter raised it to his lips, Saladin exclaimed, “Thou -hast given him to drink, not I.” This sentence was equivalent to -Renaud’s death knell, for Saladin thereby disclaimed the obligation -he would have been under (according to the laws of Arab warfare) to -spare the life of a captive who had eaten or drunk with him. As soon -as the tent was pitched the Sultan again ordered Renaud to be -brought before him, and told him he was “going to help Mohammed -against him this time.” He then gave the Prince of Kerek one last -chance for his life, offering to spare him if he would embrace -Islam. Renaud, whatever his other faults, was no coward, and as he -returned a proud refusal to the offer, Saladin smote him to the -ground, and commanded the attendants to cut off his head. The order -was promptly executed, and the reeking corpse was dragged by the -feet to where the king was standing. The latter, who had witnessed -the incident, made sure that his own turn was to follow next, and -could not conceal his agitation; but Saladin assured him that he had -no cause to fear, that “it was not the custom amongst his people for -one king to injure or insult another, and that Renaud had only met -the fate which all such traitors deserved.” - -The capture of the king was, however, of less importance in the eyes -of the Christians than that of the “True Cross,” which fell into the -hands of the Mussulmans on this occasion. The native writers -describe with great glee the costly covering of gold and precious -stones in which the relic was encased, and the despair of the -Christians at its loss. This victory, which completely crushed the -Christian power, and paved the way for Saladin’s future successes, -took place on the 14th of June. - -Saladin, by his manœuvre of the previous Friday, had only possessed -himself of a portion of the town of Tiberias. Raymond’s wife had -moved all she possessed to the castle, and prepared to defend it -against the invaders, but, when she saw the turn which affairs had -taken, she very wisely withdrew with her immediate followers and -rejoined her husband at Tyre. The Mohammedans were thus enabled to -occupy the fort. - -Having appointed Sárim-ed-dín Caimázá Sanjí as governor of Tiberias, -Saladin pitched his tent outside the town, and commanded the -Templars and Hospitallers who had been taken prisoners to be brought -before him. No less than two hundred of these were found distributed -amongst the soldiery, and Saladin ordered them to be immediately -beheaded. There were a number of “doctors and philosophers” present -with the Mohammedan troops, and these petitioned as a particular -favour to be allowed to perform the office of executioners, and -permission being accorded them, the learned gentlemen each selected -a knight and butchered him, as a practical comment upon the Ovidian -maxim— - - Ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes - Emollit mores nec sinit esse feros! - -The grand masters of the two orders were spared and sent, together -with the king, his brother Godfrey, and the Lord of Jebail, to -Damascus, where they were thrown into prison. - -On the following Tuesday the Sultan resumed his march, and on the -Thursday morning encamped before the walls of Acre. The inhabitants -made no resistance, but came out of the city and met him with -prayers for quarter. This he granted them, and, having given them -the option either of remaining in the city or removing from it, and -giving those who chose to withdraw time to enable them to do so, he -took possession of it with his troops on the 9th of July. While -here, Saladin received intelligence that his brother, El Melik el -‘Adil, had left Egypt, and was on the road to join him, having -conquered the fortress of Mejdel Yaba and the city of Jaffa by the -way. - -Making Acre his head-quarters, the Sultan dispersed his emírs over -the country in different directions for the purpose of attacking the -castles and fortified towns. Nazareth was taken after a slight -resistance, men and women were carried into captivity and their -property plundered. Sefuríyeh was found to be entirely deserted, the -inhabitants having decamped after the disastrous battle of Hattín. -Cæsarea, Arsúf, Sebastiyeh, and Nablús were next added to the list -of Saladin’s conquests; the last named place fell an easy prey, as -all the principal inhabitants, both of the town and its vicinity, -were Mohammedan, and consequently disaffected to the Christian rule. - -Fúleh was one of the most important fortresses of the Crusaders, and -a depôt both for their stores and men. Against this the Sultan next -directed his attention, and succeeded in reducing it after some -days’ siege. He did not, however, derive as much advantage from the -conquest of this place as he had expected, for its defenders had -found means of withdrawing with the greater part of their arms and -provisions; so that the Sultan found no one there when he entered it -but a few of the lower class of the population. It was, -nevertheless, important in its results, for the conquest of the -other principal forts of the neighbourhood followed as a matter of -course, and Dabúríyeh, Jaibín, Towáliyeh, Lejún, Beisán, and other -places fell into the Saracens’ hands, including the entire provinces -of Tiberias and Acre. - -The Sultan then ordered his nephew, El Melik el Muzaffar to march -upon the fortress of Tibnín. After a week’s siege the inhabitants -were obliged to sue for quarter. The request was referred to Saladin -personally, who granted quarter to the defenders of the town, taking -hostages for their good conduct, on condition of their entirely -surrendering it within five days, and setting free all the -Mohammedan captives who remained in their hands. This plan he -adopted thenceforth with all places which he conquered, and thus set -at liberty a large number of prisoners, many of whom were doubtless -fighting men, and would add greatly to the numerical strength of his -army. - -The occupation of Tibnín by Saladin’s troops took place on the 26th -of July, 1187, and three days afterwards the Muslim flag was flying -from the walls of Sidon. - -Saladin next attacked Beirút, which place prepared for a long -resistance; but his sappers and miners having succeeded in -undermining the wall and weakening the foundations of the tower, the -besieged deemed it better to capitulate, and the town was occupied -by the Saracens on the 6th of August. - -While he was at Beirút a letter came to the Sultan from one of his -officers at Damascus, informing him that Odo, Lord of Jebail, who, -it will be remembered, was taken prisoner at Hettín, had consented -to surrender his town on condition that he should be himself -released from captivity. Saladin ordered him to be brought to Beirút -in chains, and having concluded the bargain and obtained possession -of Jebail (August 14th), he set Odo at liberty. The arrangement was -not a politic one for the Mussulmans, for Odo was an active and -influential chief, and was destined to give them much trouble. The -greater part of the inhabitants of Beirút, Sidon, and Jebail were -Mohammedans, which may account for the easy conquest of those -places. The Christian part of the population, who had received -permission to withdraw on the entry of the Sultan’s troops, removed -to Tyre, where the Count of Tripoli had retired after the defeat of -the Christians at Tiberias. Hearing that Saladin was marching upon -him, the count vacated the city and fled to Tripoli, where he died. -The Marquis of Montferrat, who had only arrived that year on the -coast of Syria, happened at this time to put into the port of Acre, -not knowing that it was in the possession of the Muslims. He was at -first surprised that no demonstration of joy greeted his arrival, -but quickly perceiving the real state of the case, he would -willingly have sought safety in flight. The wind, however, being -unfavourable, he asked for quarter and requested that he might be -allowed to land. Permission was given him, but he pretended that he -dare not trust himself ashore without a safe-conduct in the Sultan’s -own handwriting, and gaining time by this and similar devices, he -took advantage of a favourable wind springing up and sailed away to -Tyre. Here he landed, and at once set about fortifying and -entrenching the town, and, being joined by the fugitives from all -the towns conquered by the Mussulmans, he succeeded in establishing -himself in an almost impregnable position. - -After the conquest of Beirút and Jebail, Saladin returned by way of -Sidon and Sarfend, and, passing by Tyre without attempting to -assault it, he proceeded to the coast of Philistia, and, having -taken Ramleh, Yabneh, Bethlehem, and Hebron on his way thither, sat -down before Ascalon and prepared to bring his engines of war to bear -upon the walls. For fourteen days the city held out, at the end of -which time the inhabitants surrendered on the urgent representations -of the king and the Grand Master of the Templars, to whom Saladin -had given a promise that he would release them from captivity so -soon as he should have mastered the forts and towers which still -remained in the hands of the Crusaders. Ascalon was enabled to make -very good terms with its conqueror, all the residents being -permitted to leave unmolested, and taking with them all their -property and possessions. It surrendered on the 5th of September, -1187, having been in the hands of the Crusaders for nearly -thirty-five years. At Ascalon Saladin was joined by his son, el -Melik El ‘Azíz ‘Othmán, from Cairo, who brought with him a -contingent of troops, and information of the departure of the Emír -Lúlú with the Egyptian fleet to intercept the arrival of -reinforcements to the Crusaders by sea. - -And now came the supreme moment for the Christian power; the Sultan -gave orders to march upon Jerusalem, and the greatest consternation -prevailed within the Holy City. - -On the evening of Sunday, the 20th of October, the Mohammedan army -arrived in front of the town on the west side, where it was met by a -large sortie, and a fierce and sanguinary conflict took place. On -the 25th, the Sultan moved his camp to the north side of the city, -and began to set up his engines and battering rams, and shortly -effected a slight breach; at the same time his sappers were -undermining the wall which runs parallel to the Wády Jehennum. The -Christians, few in numbers and disheartened, made one or two -sorties, but victory inclined to the Mussulmans. Balian of Ibelin -now sallied forth with a flag of truce, and besought the Sultan to -allow them to capitulate, but Saladin would hold no parley with him, -and swore that “he would capture the city by the sword, as the -Franks had taken it from the true believers.” The Frank leaders, -finding entreaties of no avail, swore that if terms were not granted -them they would sell their lives as dearly as might be, utterly -destroy the city, and the Cubbet es Sakhrah with it, and murder -every Mohammedan who remained in their power. As there were some -thousands of Muslim prisoners in the city, this last threat induced -the Sultan to reconsider his determination, and a council of war was -called, at which it was resolved that the peaceable capitulation of -the town should be received upon certain conditions. These were, -that the Christians should pay ten dínars for every man, five for a -woman, and two for a child, and that those who could not pay were to -surrender as prisoners. There were said to be more than sixty -thousand fighting men in the town, besides women and children and -other non-combatants; the sum of money demanded was therefore -immoderately large. Balian disbursed thirty thousand dínars on -behalf of the poor, and the Grand Masters of the Hospitallers and -Templars, as well as the Patriarch, came forward nobly to the relief -of their poorer brethren both with money and security. The -Mohammedans entered the city on the 1st of November, just before -noon-day prayer, and at once took precautions for ensuring the due -performance of the stipulation, by locking the gates of the city and -allowing no one to leave without payment of the required sum, and, -moreover, appointing officers to collect the poll-tax from the -inhabitants. - -The Mohammedan historians themselves allow that great corruption -prevailed amongst these officers, and that for a small consideration -they connived at the escape of many Christians by the breaches which -had been made during the siege, or even let them down themselves in -buckets from the walls. Some of the more distinguished, especially -of the women, experienced the Sultan’s clemency; amongst these was a -princess of great wealth, who had resided in Jerusalem as a nun, and -who was allowed to leave with her property intact. Sybille, the -queen consort of the captive king, and the Princess of Kerek, -daughter of Philip and mother of Humphrey, were also excused the -tax, and permitted to depart. Zeha, one of the Saracen generals, -sought and obtained the release of over five hundred Armenians, -alleging that they belonged to his country and were only present as -pilgrims; and a thousand more Armenians were set at liberty on a -similar representation being made in their favour by Muzaffer-ed-dín -Kokabúrí, another of Saladin’s officers. Committees were established -in various parts of the town where payments were received, and a -passport from any of these boards was sufficient to procure the -bearer a free passage out of the city. As might be expected much -peculation went on amongst the inferior officers, in spite of which -nearly one hundred thousand dínars were brought into the public -treasury, while many Franks still remained prisoners in default of -payment. The Franks were anxious to clear out of the place as soon -as possible, and sold their lands and effects at ruinous prices to -the Mussulmans, while the patriarch stripped the Holy Sepulchre and -other churches of the plate, gold and silver ornaments, and other -valuables, and prepared to carry them off with him. El ‘Emád, the -Sultan’s secretary, saw with displeasure the disappearance of all -this treasure, worth, we are told, more than two hundred thousand -dínars, and advised Saladin to forbid its removal, declaring that -the privilege extended to private property alone. But the Sultan -declared that the Christians should never have occasion to charge -the Muslims with a breach of faith, and allowed the Franks to carry -off all the portable articles they pleased. Those who were enabled -to leave made the best of their way to Tyre; but there still -remained over fifteen thousand defaulters, of whom eight thousand -were women and children. When the Mussulmans were quietly settled in -the possession of Jerusalem the Christians asked and obtained -permission to return, on payment of the usual tax. - -A curious reason is given by the Arab historians for the strong -feeling which the taking of Jerusalem excited throughout Europe. The -Christians, say they, made an image of Christ and Mohammed, the -latter holding an upraised stick and the former fleeing away, and -carried it about with them in Christian countries to induce their -co-religionists to revenge their quarrel by a new crusade. - -The first Friday after the taking of Jerusalem was a memorable one -for Islam; Saladin himself was present at the public service and -prayed in the Cubbet es Sakhrah, where a most eloquent sermon -(_khotbah_) was delivered by the poet Muhiy-ed-dín (whose verse -prophetic of the occasion has been already alluded to[74]) and the -concourse of people was so great that there was scarcely standing -room in the open court of the Haram Area. - -Footnote 74: - - Page 77. - -The Franks had built an oratory and altar over the Sakhrah itself, -and “filled it with images and idols;” these Saladin removed, and -restored it to its original condition as a mosque. The Christians -are also said to have cut off portions of the Sakhrah and sold them -in Sicily and Constantinople for their weight in gold. - -A great cross, plated with gold and studded with jewels, was found -on the holy rock when Saladin entered the Temple; this the Muslims -pulled down and dragged with great glee round the city, to the -intense horror of the Christians, who expected some dreadful -visitation to follow such profanity. Saladin’s first care was to -uncover the _mihráb_ or “prayer niche,”[75] in front of which the -Templars had built a wall, leaving an empty space between;[76] they -had also built a spacious house and a chapel on the west of the -kiblah. He pulled down the wall, covered the _mihráb_ with marble, -thoroughly cleansed the place, and supplied it with lamps, costly -carpets, and other furniture. The Sultan Nûr-ed-dín had himself -resolved upon the conquest of Jerusalem, but the expedition was -prevented by his sudden death. He had ordered a magnificent pulpit -(_mimbar_) to be executed by a celebrated artist at Aleppo, -intending to present it to the mosque; this Saladin sent for and -placed in the Jámi‘ el Aksa, where it remains to the present day, -and forms one of the principal objects of attraction to the visitor, -being one of the most exquisite pieces of carved wood-work in the -world. Both the Cubbet es Sakhrah and El Aksa were furnished by the -Sultan with copies of the Coran, doubtless from the celebrated -library at Damascus, the remains of which are preserved in the -little dome (called Cubbet el Kutub) in the Jámi‘ el Omawíyeh of -that city. - -Footnote 75: - - The _mihráb_, that is, of the Jámi‘ el Aksa, as being that of the - congregational building, and therefore the principal one in the - enclosure. It is necessary to bear in mind a few facts, which are - perfectly clear from the statements of the Arab historians (in the - original), but which are either neglected or misinterpreted by - many European writers, and notably by Mr. Fergusson. These are: 1. - That the _Masjid el Aksa_ is the _whole_ Haram Area, including the - Jámi‘ el Aksa and Cubbet es Sakhrah, as well as all the smaller - oratories, mosques, minarets, &c. 2. That _all these_ were built - by ‘Abd el Melik (see p. 77), and that the Cubbet es Sakhrah is - only mentioned more specially than the other buildings erected by - that prince because of its magnificent proportions and the - peculiar sanctity of the spot it covers. 3. That the Cubbet es - Sakhrah is only a supplementary building (see p. 83). 4. That when - _the_ pulpit, _the_ “kiblah,” &c., of the Masjid el Aksa is spoken - of it must always be referred to that of the Jámi‘ el Aksa; just - as when speaking of the chancel of an English cathedral we should - mean that of the main building, and not that of the lady chapel, - and still less of any oratory, however large, that might exist in - another part of the close. The account in the text is taken from - Mejír-ed-dín. The inscription recording Saladin’s restorations may - still be seen in letters of gold over the _mihráb_ of the Jámi‘ el - Aksa. - -Footnote 76: - - Some say it had been even turned into a _latrina_. - -The princes of Saladin’s family personally assisted in the work of -restoration and purification, and it is related that El Melik el -Muzaffar himself headed the attendants who swept out and washed the -sanctuary. The process must have cost a considerable sum, for after -thoroughly cleansing it with water they deluged every portion, even -to the walls and pavement, with rose water. - -The _mihráb_, or, as it is sometimes called, the Tower of David, -near the Jaffa Gate, was also refurnished as a mosque, and endowed -with funds. - -These more important buildings provided for, he turned his attention -to the other churches and sacred places in the town. The church of -Sion was occupied by El Melik el ‘Άdil and his staff officers, the -soldiery being encamped at the gate. The church of St. Hannah was -turned into a college for the doctors of the Shafi‘íte sect; and the -Patriarch’s house adjoining, and partly built on the church of the -Holy Sepulchre, was made use of as a cloister for the Sufí monks and -philosophers; both of these establishments were liberally endowed, -and afterwards became celebrated schools of Mohammedan learning. As -for the church of the Holy Sepulchre it was locked up, and no -Christian allowed to enter it. It had indeed a narrow escape, as -many of Saladin’s officers counselled him to destroy it; thanks, -however, to the Sultan’s moderation and the noble example of ‘Omar, -which he adduced, their advice was not carried out. The whole of the -wealth which he had acquired by this conquest he distributed amongst -the most deserving of his followers, disregarding the advice of some -more prudent minds to keep it against future emergencies. He also -collected all the Mohammedan captives, and fed them, clothed them, -and sent them to their homes at his own private expense. - -Saladin, having written to the caliph to acquaint him with the -victory, remained for some time at Jerusalem to complete the -reduction of the fortresses in the neighbourhood and to tranquillise -the country; while his generals El Melik el Afdhal and El Melik el -Muzaffer, proceeded to Acre. The Emír ‘Alí ibn Ahmed el Mashtúb, -governor of Sidon and Beyrout remained behind with the Sultan. -Hearing that the Marquis of Montferrat had taken advantage of the -concentration of their attention upon Jerusalem to strengthen his -position at Tyre, he began to tremble for the safety of his own -towns, and continually urged Saladin to resume his campaign in -Syria. - -Accordingly, on the 26th of October, Saladin once more set out for -Acre, and reached that city on the 3rd of November. In eight days -more he had moved off to Tyre, and, encamping at some distance from -the walls, awaited the arrival of the rest of his forces. On the -25th of November the reinforcements came up, under the command of -his son, El Melik ed Dháhir Ghiyás ed-dín Ghází, from Aleppo, and -the siege was commenced in right earnest, all the wood in the -neighbourhood being cut down for the construction of the battering -rams and other engines. But Conrad defended the place skilfully and -gallantly, and it withstood all attempts to take it by storm. - -Hitherto we have seen Saladin prosecuting a career of victory -unsullied by a single defeat; the tide of war now began to turn for -a time in favour of the Franks. - -The first disaster which the Muslims experienced was by sea. The -Sultan had ordered all the ships of war to come up and assist in the -blockade of Tyre, and those which were at Acre, ten in number, -quickly appeared upon the scene, and were joined in a few days by -the fleet from Beirút and Jebail. The marquis, seeing that this -manœvre was likely to cause him some trouble, determined to counter -it, and accordingly sent out his own vessels to give them battle. -The Muslim ships were drawn up in line close upon the shore and -immediately protected by their own troops. The sailors, confident in -the security of their position, neglected to remain upon the alert, -and thus gave the marquis his opportunity, of which he was not slow -to avail himself. On the night of the 8th of December, a number of -the Sultan’s ships were riding at anchor near the entrance to the -harbour of Tyre; the sailors and marines were tranquilly sleeping in -happy ignorance of the enemy’s movements, when, just before morning, -they were rudely awakened to find themselves surrounded and at the -mercy of the Christians, by whom they were at once boarded and -captured. The Mohammedans were paralysed at this sudden and -unexpected reverse, and the remainder of the fleet were hastily -ordered off to Beirút, towards which they made the best of their -way, the army riding alongside of them upon the shore to cover their -flight. Before, however, they had got far, the Frank vessels came -suddenly down upon them, and the Mohammedan sailors, precipitating -themselves into the water, made hastily for the shore, leaving their -vessels without a soul on board. One schooner alone managed to elude -her pursuers, and got off with all her crew. When the Christians -came upon the deserted vessels (which they still believed to be full -of men) they fancied that the Mohammedans were too terrified to give -them battle, and poured tumultuously out upon the shore and attacked -the main body of Saladin’s troops. The latter had by this time -somewhat recovered their presence of mind, and gave them a warm -reception; a desperate conflict took place, and the Franks were at -last driven back towards the town. Two of their leaders fell into -the enemy’s hands, and “a great count” was also taken prisoner. El -Melek ed Dháhir, who had not taken part in any of the previous -engagements, at once ordered the last mentioned prisoner to be -beheaded, and the Mohammedans, believing him to be the Marquis of -Montferrat himself (whom he did resemble in form and features) were -greatly delighted at the supposed death of so formidable an -antagonist. But they had experienced a very heavy blow, and would -fain have compelled the Sultan to relinquish the enterprise against -Tyre and return home. Saladin, however, reproached them with their -faint-heartedness, and, partly by bribes, partly by persuasion, -induced them to persevere. - -As a slight compensation for his recent losses and defeats he -received news about this time of the capitulation of the Fortress of -Honein, which had been for some time besieged by one of his -officers. - -The troops now began to suffer so severely from the winter cold and -rains that Saladin was obliged, though with extreme reluctance, to -raise the siege of Tyre. He had expended immense sums of money upon -his engines of war; but these were for the most part too bulky to -remove, while to leave them behind would be to strengthen the hands -of the besieged. Some, therefore, which it was possible to take to -pieces and pack up, were sent on to Sidon, while others, which could -not be so provided for, were set fire to and destroyed. The army -then broke up into several divisions, and departed with the -understanding that they were to come back again in the early part of -the spring and resume the siege. The Sultan himself moved on to Acre -and camped outside the city; but the cold presently became so -intense that he was compelled to seek shelter within the walls. -Remaining here in winter quarters, he occupied himself in regulating -and improving the public institutions of the town. With the first -mild days of spring Saladin was again on the move, and as the whole -complement of the army had not yet come up, he determined to -commence the new campaign by laying siege to the fortress of Kokeb; -but this proved a longer and more difficult task than he had -anticipated. - -While the Sultan was at Kokeb he received a visit from the widow of -Renaud, Prince of Kerek, who came to beg for the release of her son -Humphrey. She was accompanied by the queen and her daughter, who had -also married Renaud’s son. Saladin received them with great -courtesy, and agreed with the Princess of Kerek for the release of -her son on condition that the two fortresses of Kerek and Shobek -should surrender at discretion to his arms. Having exacted a promise -from her to this effect, Humphrey was sent for from Damascus, and -proceeded with his mother and a detachment of Mohammedan troops to -arrange for the fulfilment of the terms of the contract. But the -people of Kerek were by no means disposed to become a ransom for the -young count, and met the widow’s demand for them to lay down their -arms with coarse jeers and opprobrious language. At Shobek she fared -no better, and was after all constrained to return to the Sultan -with the humiliating confession that she had not sufficient -authority over her troops to carry out the stipulations. Saladin, -like a true and noble gentleman as he was, disdained to take a mean -advantage of her failure, and allowed both the lady and her son to -proceed to Tyre. In the meantime he sent troops to reduce Kerek and -Shobek. Kokeb still maintained an obstinate resistance, and Saladin, -leaving an officer with five hundred men behind him to continue the -siege, and posting a regiment of five hundred cavalry at Safad to -harass the Christians in that quarter, left for Damascus, which he -reached on the 5th of March, 1187. Here he received intelligence of -the approach of his army from the east, and, remaining only a week -in his capital, he again set out for Baalbekk, whence he marched on -to Lebweh, and was there joined by ‘Emád-ed-dín, Lord of Sanjár, -with his division. Disencumbering themselves of all the heavy -baggage, the combined forces hurried on to the sea coast. Several -months were consumed in military operations against the Franks -without any decisive engagement taking place, though one after -another, Jebeleh, Laodicea, Sion, Bekas, and other towns and -fortresses fell into the Sultan’s hands, and materially increased -his resources by the quantity of arms and provisions which they -contained. The fort of Burzíyeh gave him more trouble. This castle -enjoyed the reputation of being the strongest in Palestine: and was -situated upon a lofty mountain nearly 1700 feet high, with steep -escarpments, and surrounded by deep valleys. Notwithstanding its -formidable character Saladin determined to attack it, and on the -morning after his arrival (21st August) he ascended the heights with -his troops, both cavalry and infantry, and the whole of his siege -train, and surrounded the fortress on every side. For two days and -nights a continuous assault was made upon the walls with the -battering rams, and projectiles were thrown into the midst of the -castle without intermission. On the morning of the 23rd, -preparations were made for taking the place by storm: the whole army -was divided into three parts, each of which was to carry on the -assault for a portion of the day, so as to give the besieged no -interval of rest. The first division, under ‘Emád-ed-dín, commenced -the attack with the early morning light, and the contest raged on -both sides with unexampled fury; at last, ‘Emád-ed-dín’s men -beginning to flag, were relieved by the second division, commanded -by the Sultan in person. Placing himself at the head of the storming -party, Saladin called out to his soldiers to follow him to victory: -answering his appeal by a long and enthusiastic shout, they swarmed -like one man up the rocks and battlements, carrying everything -before them, and poured into the fortress. The defenders, driven -back from the walls, now began to cry out for quarter; but it was -too late, the blood of the Muslims was fairly aroused, and even -Saladin’s presence and authority could not for some time stop the -indiscriminate slaughter. At last order was partially restored, the -prisoners—an immense number—were secured, and the soldiers, loaded -with booty, returned in triumph to their tents. Amongst the captives -were the sister of the Prince of Antioch (to whom the castle -belonged), her husband, daughter, and son-in-law; these were all -treated by the conqueror with the greatest kindness and -consideration, and were, together with a few of their immediate -followers, allowed to depart free and unmolested. The fall of -Burzíyeh was closely followed by that of Diresak and Bukrás, both -strongholds of the Templars, near Antioch. The last of the two was a -great depôt of provisions, and by its capture a large quantity of -grain fell into the Saracens’ hands. - -Saladin next turned his attention to Antioch itself, but the prince -of that town, knowing that it was not sufficiently well furnished -either with provisions or arms to support a long siege, deemed it -more prudent to come to terms. A truce was therefore concluded for -five months, and an exchange of prisoners made. - -At Bukrás the Sultan took leave of ‘Emád-ed-dín, Zanghi, and the -Syrian contingent, who had done him good service in the late -campaign. Both the chief and his soldiery received substantial marks -of Saladin’s gratitude, who bestowed upon them liberal presents in -addition to the share of prize-money which had been already allotted -to them. - -Saladin then proceeded with his own army by way of Aleppo, Hamath, -and Baalbekk to Damascus, whither his men were desirous of returning -in time to keep the fast of Ramadhán. Anxiety, however, for the -success of the military operations which he had confided to his -various generals, would not allow him to remain long in idleness, -and in the beginning of October he set out for Safad. On the way he -was joined by his brother El Melek el ‘Άdil, who had just concluded -the siege of Kerek in Moab, that place having capitulated after a -protracted resistance. Safad held out until the 30th of November, -when it was ceded to Saladin’s forces; the defenders obtained -quarter by the release of a number of Muslim prisoners, who were in -their hands, and received permission to withdraw to Tyre. The -Christians hoped to make up for the loss of this important -stronghold by strengthening their position at Kokeb, which was -blockaded by one of Saladin’s generals. They accordingly despatched -two hundred picked men to lie in wait for the Muslims at a certain -difficult part of the road and attack them at a disadvantage. But a -company of Mohammedan troops happened to come across a straggler -from this party, who, to save himself, betrayed his companions, and -pointed out the ambuscade in the valley. The whole two hundred were -captured and brought to the Saracen leader. Amongst the prisoners -were two chiefs of the Knights Hospitallers, and being carried -before the Sultan one of them said, “Thank God, we shall come to no -harm, now that we have looked upon your highness’s face.” - -“This speech,” says the Arab writer, “must have been dictated by -divine inspiration, for nothing else could have induced the Sultan -to spare their lives; as it was, he set them both at liberty.” - -The great addition to the besieging force, combined with the extreme -cold and scarcity of provisions, proved too much for the endurance -of the garrison of Kokeb, and in the beginning of January, 1189, it -was added to the list of the Sultan’s conquests. After this, Saladin -and his brother returned to Jerusalem, where the latter took leave -of him and set out for Egypt with his division of the army. - -The Sultan then proceeded to Acre, and spent some time in fortifying -and otherwise providing for the safety and good government of the -town, which he handed over to the care of one Bahá-ed-dín Caracosh, -who had, in the meantime, arrived from Egypt with a large following. -Towards the end of March he commenced a tour of inspection -throughout his Syrian dominions, visiting in turn, Tiberias, -Damascus, and other places. On the 21st of April he reached the -Shakíf Arnon, near which he encamped in the plain called Merj ‘Ayún. -The fortress of the Shakíf was in the hands of Renaud, Lord of -Sidon, who came in person to the Sultan, and begged for three -months’ grace to enable him to remove his family from Tyre, alleging -that, if the Marquis of Montferrat should get intelligence of what -he had done, his family would be detained there as hostages. The -Sultan acceded to his request, and refrained from attacking his -castle. Renaud, however, took advantage of this leniency to -strengthen his own position, and made secret but active preparations -for war. Saladin discovering the treachery, gave orders for -blockading the fort, whereupon Renaud again endeavoured to induce -him to grant a year’s cessation of hostilities; but the Sultan was -not to be deceived a second time, and, some officers he had sent to -inspect the castle reporting that the work of fortification was -still being carried on, arrested the count, and sent him a prisoner -to Banias. Sending for him a few days afterwards, he upbraided him -with his perfidy, and despatched him for safe keeping to Damascus. -As for the castle, the Sultan established a close blockade, although -it was full twelve months before it was finally ceded to his -lieutenant. While the Sultan was encamped in the Merj ‘Ayún, the -Frank forces were concentrating around Tyre, which the marquis had -contrived to make the greatest stronghold in Syria, and in which the -last hope of the Christian arms was placed. - -On the 3rd of July they made an attempt upon Sidon, but were -repulsed by Saladin—whose scouts brought him timely notice of the -manœuvre—though not without considerable loss on either side. - -After this Saladin retired to Tiberias, and occupied some time in -making preparation for a decisive attack upon the Christian camp. -Meanwhile, the Christians were by no means idle, but dispersed -themselves over the country in various directions, committing much -depredation, and harassing the Mohammedan troops, who were -continually falling into their ambuscades. - -On the 22nd of August Saladin received news that the Franks had -collected their forces by land and sea, and were bearing down upon -Acre, a detachment having already reached Alexandretta, where they -had had a slight skirmish with the Muslims. The Sultan hastily -issued orders for collecting the army together, and hurried off to -the relief of the town. Having arrived at Sefúríyeh he left his -heavy baggage, and pushed on to Acre with all speed; but the Franks -were before him, and had already invested the place, rendering the -approach impossible for his troops. - -On the 13th of September he made a desperate onslaught upon the -besieging lines, drove the Franks to a hill called Tell es -Siyásíyeh, and thus established a free communication with the city -on the north side. - -On the 21st of September the Franks assembled towards the close of -the day and attacked the Muslims in full force; the latter, however, -withstood the shock, and both sides fought with great fury, but -night coming on compelled them to desist from hostilities. - -On the 24th the Sultan moved to Tell es Siyásíyeh, which, from its -commanding position, appeared to him a very important post to -occupy. Here information was brought him that the Franks were -dispersed over the country in foraging parties, and, without loss of -time, he despatched companies of Arabs, whose familiarity with -guerilla warfare peculiarly adapted them for such service, to -intercept them. The Bedawin horsemen bore down upon the small -detached parties, cut them off from the camp, and, slaughtering them -almost without resistance, carried their heads in triumph to -Saladin. - -On the 3rd of October the Franks made a desperate onslaught upon -Saladin’s troops; a fierce battle ensued, in which victory inclined -to the Christians, and the Muslims were compelled to flee, some to -Tiberias, and others to Damascus. While the victors were occupied in -pillaging the Sultan’s camp a panic suddenly seized them; the -Muslims rallied, and attacked their left, completely defeating them, -and killing more than five thousand cavalry, amongst whom was the -Grand Master of the Templars. The bodies of the Franks lay in such -numbers on the field of battle that the Muslims were much annoyed by -the stench, and the soldiers were employed for some days in throwing -the carcasses into the sea. - -Saladin now dismissed the Egyptian contingent, bidding them return -in the spring, and both sides prepared for the winter, which was -already setting in with great severity. The Franks fortified their -camp, and dug a fosse round the town of Acre, extending from sea to -sea. The Sultan had, in the meantime, removed to his old camp at -Kharú-beh, where the heavy baggage lay. The news that the Emperor of -Germany, Frederick Barbarossa, was _en route_ for Syria stimulated -both parties to further exertions, and the warlike preparations went -on with greater activity than ever. - -On the 13th of December the Egyptian fleet—which the Sultan had -ordered to be prepared on the first landing of the Franks at -Acre—arrived, with a complement of more than ten thousand men. This -reinforcement gave great confidence to the Muslim troops, and -constant raids were made by the new comers upon the Christian lines. -The arrival of a Frank ship, laden with women, about this time, -seems to have demoralized both armies; for the ladies appear to have -been somewhat indifferent as to religion and nationality, and to -have bestowed their favours upon Christian and Muslim alike, -according as one or the other happened to meet them on landing. The -Arab writers, however, speak of many Christian women, who were -animated by the true Crusading spirit; and it was no uncommon -occurrence to find upon the field of battle, or amongst the -prisoners, many champions of the softer sex. The new year, A.D. -1190, came in, and found things _in statu quo_, the town besieged by -the Franks, and the latter in turn hemmed in by the Sultan’s forces. -Saladin himself, ever actively engaged in inspecting his lines, was -exposed to constant dangers; on one occasion, having ventured out -hunting on the beach, he would inevitably have been taken prisoner -by a party of the enemy, had not the advanced guard of his own army, -which was stationed in the neighbourhood, luckily come up in time to -effect a rescue. Constant communications were kept up between the -town and the Sultan’s army by means of carrier pigeons and of -divers, who managed to swim past the enemy’s lines, and carry -letters and money to and fro between them. The Franks had -constructed towers, battering-rams, and other engines of war, with -great skill, and would have, no doubt, accomplished the taking of -the city by storm, had it not been for a certain cunning artificer -from Damascus, who succeeded in destroying them one by one with -rockets, naphtha, and other combustibles, which he directed upon the -works. - -The winter and spring passed away without any decisive change in the -relative position of the two armies; but on the 13th of June, 1190, -a second naval reinforcement arrived from Egypt, and the Sultan -endeavoured, by an attack by land, to divert the attention of the -enemy, and enable the marines to land. The Frank ships, however, -were not idle, and several severe engagements took place by sea, in -which the Muslims had decidedly the disadvantage. Presently news -arrived that the Emperor of Germany had crossed over from -Constantinople, and had been for more than a month, during the -severest season of winter, in great straits, his army being -compelled to devour their cavalry horses for want of food, and to -burn their pontoons in the absence of fire-wood. - -On reaching Tarsus the army halted to drink at the river which flows -by the city, and the Emperor being driven, in the crowd and -confusion, to a deep part of the stream, where there was a rapid -current, was hurried away by the force of the stream, received a -blow on the head from an overhanging bough, and was taken out in an -insensible and almost lifeless condition. A violent chill and fever -was the result, which terminated after a few hours in his death. His -son succeeded him in the command, and arrived at Acre with the -remnant of a fine army in a miserable plight, and entirely -dispirited by such a succession of reverses. - -The Franks, when they heard of the approach of the son of the -Emperor of Germany, were afraid that he would appropriate all the -credit of the campaign, and determined to make a final effort before -he arrived. Accordingly at noon, on the 25th of July, they attacked -the camp of El Melik el ‘Άdil. He withstood the charge, and managed -to drive back the enemy without waiting for the rest of the troops -to come up. At this juncture the Sultan arrived upon the scene with -a large number of men, and attacked the Franks in the rear. A -complete victory for the Muslims was the result, more than ten -thousand of the enemy falling, with a loss, it is said, of only ten -men on the other side. - -The arrival of Count Henry with a large following and much wealth, -gave fresh courage to the disheartened Christian forces. The count -distributed large sums amongst the soldiery; and the siege of Acre -was prosecuted with more vigour than ever. Provisions now became -very scarce and dear in the Christian camp, and many of the -soldiers, compelled by actual starvation, came over as deserters to -the Mohammedan lines. - -A few battles were fought, always with disadvantage to the Franks, -many of whom were also killed or taken prisoners in the ambuscades -which the Muslims were continually laying for them. On the 31st of -December, seven ships arrived from Egypt with provisions for the -relief of the town, and while the inhabitants were engaged in -assisting them to escape the enemy’s fleet and get into port, the -Christians took advantage of the walls being partially deserted, to -make a desperate effort to take the place by storm. The scaling -ladders, however, broke with the weight of the men; the storming -parties were thrown into disorder, and the Muslims, on the alarm -being given, left the ships to themselves, and rushing up to the -walls drove back or cut to pieces their assailants. The incident was -disastrous to both sides, for a sudden storm coming on carried the -seven ships out to sea, where they perished with all the crews and -supplies. A few nights afterwards a portion of the eastern wall of -the city fell down, but the defenders thrust their bodies into the -breach so promptly, that the Franks were unable to take advantage of -the opportunity. - -Two curious stories are told of this period of the war. One is, that -a party of Frank renegades having obtained possession of a small -vessel, landed upon the island of Cyprus during the celebration of a -feast. They immediately proceeded to the principal church of the -place, entered it, and mixed with the congregation who were -assembled there in prayer. Suddenly they started up, locked the -door, and completely sacked the building, carrying away more than -twenty-seven prisoners, women and children, whom they sold at -Laodicæa. The other story is, that some Mohammedan looting the -Christian camp, had stolen an infant, three months old, from its -mother’s arms. The bereaved parent rushed over to the enemy’s camp, -and, before she could be stopped by the guards and chamberlains, -appeared before the Sultan’s tents, lamenting her loss, and -beseeching him to restore her child. Saladin caused inquiries to be -made, and finding that the infant had been purchased by one of his -soldiers, ransomed it with his own hand, and gave it back to its -mother. - -A brig belonging to the Mohammedans and bound for Acre, with seven -hundred men on board and a large quantity of arms and munitions of -war, came into collision with one of King Richard’s English vessels. -The Mohammedan captain, finding himself worsted in the fight, burnt -his ship, which perished with all hands. This was the first serious -disaster which the Mohammedans had experienced. In June, 1190, -hostilities were carried on with renewed vigour, and engagements -were of daily occurrence. On one occasion, after a slight skirmish, -the Franks retired with a single capture, and having got out of bow -shot of the Muslim camp they made a bonfire and roasted their -prisoner alive. The Muslims, maddened at the insult and barbarity, -brought out one of their Frank prisoners, and, by way of reprisal, -burnt him in front of their lines. El ‘Emád, Saladin’s secretary, -who relates the incident, describes with much feeling the effect -produced upon the minds of all the spectators by this exhibition of -savage ferocity. - -The crisis was evidently approaching. The Franks endeavoured to -delude the Sultan into inactivity by proposals for peace, while they -were at the same time hastening on their preparations for a final -assault upon Acre. Saladin, however, was constantly informed of the -state of things within the city, and knew that it could not hold out -much longer; he, therefore, refused to listen to terms, but used all -means in his power to force on a battle, and on the night of the 2nd -of July he attacked the enemy’s trenches, and succeeded in forcing a -position at one, though not a very important point. - -At this juncture, Seif-ed-dín el Mashtúb, momentarily expecting the -city to be taken by storm, came out with a flag of truce to make an -offer of capitulation, and demand quarter on behalf of the -inhabitants. King Richard received him with his usual bluntness, and -refused to grant the request. When El Mashtúb reminded him of the -clemency which his master Saladin had exercised upon similar -occasions, Richard answered curtly: “These kings whom thou seest -around me are my servants; but as for you, ye are my slaves; I shall -do with you as I please.” The Saracen emír returned to Acre highly -indignant at this discourteous treatment, and swore that the fall of -the city should cost the victors dear. - -When El Mashtúb made known the ill success of his errand many of the -chief men and emírs of Acre deserted the city, to the great chagrin -of the Sultan, who condemned them to forfeiture of their estates, -and other pains and penalties. This severity, and the charge of -cowardice, induced some to return and take part once more in the -defence of the town. - -On the 4th of July a great battle took place, and lasted until -the morning of the 5th, but without any decided advantage on -either side. Evening again came and found them in the same -position; the city surrounded by the enemy, and the enemy -surrounded by Saladin’s army. But on Saturday the 6th, the -Prince of Sidon sallied forth from the trenches with about forty -knights, and rode into the Sultans camp carrying a flag of -truce. Saladin sent Najíb-ed-dín, one of his confidential -officers, to arrange with him the terms on which the city should -be capitulated. At first the Franks refused to listen to any -other terms than the complete surrender of all the Christian -possessions in Syria and Palestine, and the release of all the -captives. It was then proposed that Acre should be ceded to the -Christians, that its garrison and inhabitants should be allowed -to leave unmolested, and that an exchange of prisoners should be -made, one Christian being released by the Muslims for every one -of their own men given up by the Christians. These terms were -also refused, and Saladin’s magnificent offer to throw the “True -Cross” into the bargain could not induce them to agree. Perhaps -the relic had fallen into disfavour after its failure at -Tiberias, or it might be that the Crusaders were beginning to -rely more upon their own military prowess than upon the childish -superstitions of the fetish-worshipping monks. - -On the 22nd of July the Christians effected a breach in the walls, -and were with difficulty prevented from entering the city. El -Mashtúb again sought Richard’s camp with offers of capitulation, and -this time with better success. It was agreed that the lives and -property of the defenders of Acre should be spared on condition of -their paying two hundred thousand dínárs, releasing five hundred -captives, and giving up possession of the True Cross. - -Suddenly, therefore, much to the Sultan’s surprise and annoyance, -the Christian standards were seen flying from the walls of Acre. He -immediately despatched Bahá-ed-dín Caracosh to make the best -arrangements possible, and promised to pay half the amount of the -indemnity at once, and give hostages for the settlement of the -remainder of the claim within a month. Hostilities were not -suspended in the meantime, and the Franks having made several -sallies from their new position at Acre, suffered severely from the -Arab horsemen, who continually came down unexpectedly on them and -cut off their retreat. - -In the beginning of August messengers came from the Christian camp -to demand payment of the sum agreed upon. The first instalment of a -hundred thousand dínárs was given up to them, but Saladin refused to -pay the rest, or to hand over the captives until he had received -some guarantee that the Christians would perform their part of the -contract, and allow the prisoners from Acre to go free. After -numerous delays and disagreements everything appeared at last likely -to be satisfactorily arranged; the money was weighed out and placed -before Saladin, the captives were ready to be delivered up, and the -“True Cross” was also displayed. Richard was encamped close by the -Merj ‘Ayún, and had caused the Acre captives to be ranged behind him -on the neighbouring hill side. Suddenly, at a signal from the king, -the Christian soldiers turned upon the unhappy and helpless -captives, and massacred them all in cold blood. Even at such a -moment as this Saladin did not forget his humane disposition and his -princely character. The proud Saladin disdained to sully his honour -by making reprisals upon the unarmed prisoners at his side; he -simply refused to give up the money or the cross, and sent the -prisoners back to Damascus. - -Which was the Paynim, and which the Christian then? - -In the first week of September the Franks determined to march upon -Ascalon, and, having provided for the safety of Acre, set off in -that direction. El Afdhal, who was in command of the advanced guard, -intercepted them on their road, and managed to divide them into two -parties. He then sent off an express to his father Saladin, -requesting him to come to his assistance, but the officers of the -Sultan represented to him that the army was not yet prepared to -move; the opportunity was therefore lost, and the Franks were -enabled to pass on to Cæsarea. The Muslims, however, shortly -afterwards started in pursuit, and on the 11th of September they -came up with the enemy, and a bloody battle was fought by the Nahr -el Casb near Cæsarea. The next day both armies moved off to Arsúf; a -battle took place on the road, and the Franks retired with -considerable loss into the town, while the Muslims encamped on the -banks of the river ‘Aujeh. - -In a few days they again fought their way along the coast, and on -the 19th of September the Christian army succeeded in reaching -Jaffa, while the Sultan with his troops encamped at Ramleh on the -afternoon of the same day. - -Here he waited for the heavy baggage, and when this arrived, in -charge of his brother, El ‘Άdil, he moved on to Ascalon. A council -of war was immediately held, at which it was decided to destroy the -fortifications of the last named town. As the Franks were in -possession of Jaffa, which lies about half way between Ascalon and -Jerusalem, it was clearly impossible to defend both towns without -the maintenance of an overwhelming force in each, and as Saladin -felt sure that Ascalon, if besieged, would share the fate of Acre, -he determined to raze it to the ground, and concentrate his efforts -upon the defence of Jerusalem. The work of demolition was at once -commenced, and the city, one of the finest in Palestine, soon became -a mass of ruins; the inhabitants suffered severely by this -transaction, for they were obliged to sell their property at ruinous -prices, and dispersed themselves over the country, to find a home -where best they could. - -The intermediate fortresses of Lydda, Ramleh, and Natrún were next -destroyed, and on the 14th of October the Sultan camped on a high -hill near the latter town. A few unimportant engagements had in the -meantime taken place between the two armies, in one of which Richard -narrowly escaped being taken prisoner. - -Negotiations were now reopened between El Melik el ‘Άdil and King -Richard, and a peace was actually arranged, upon the stipulation -that Richard should give his sister in marriage to El ‘Άdil, and -that the husband and wife should occupy the throne of Jerusalem, and -jointly rule over the Holy Land. The Grand Masters of the Templars -and Hospitallers were to occupy certain villages, but they were not -to retain possession of any of their castles. The queen was to have -no military attendants in Jerusalem, although a certain number of -priests and monks were still to be allowed there. - -El ‘Άdil called the principal men of the army around him, El ‘Emád, -Saladin’s secretary, amongst the number, and deputed them to consult -the Sultan’s wishes upon the subject. The latter agreed to the -conditions, and on the 30th of October the messengers returned to -King Richard to inform him of the acceptance of his proposal. - -The Frank chiefs, however, strongly opposed the match, while the -priests poisoned the princess’s mind, and induced her to withdraw -from the engagement, except on the condition that El ‘Άdil should -embrace the Christian religion. This, of course, he declined to do, -and the negotiations fell through. The Sultan then moved off to -Ramleh, so as to be nearer the enemy. Here news was brought him that -the Franks had made a sortie at Barzur; hastening against them he -approached their camp and completely surrounded it, but the -Christians charged fiercely and suddenly, and broke through the -Mohammedan ranks. - -On the 18th another conference was held between El ‘Άdil and the -King of England, but again their attempts at negotiations failed. -The Lord of Sidon, who had come from Tyre, was more fortunate, and -concluded a peace with the Sultan, hoping by this means to -strengthen his own hands against Richard. The latter, on this, again -renewed his proposals, but they, as usual, came to nothing, for -whenever an arrangement was on the point of being concluded his bad -faith or stupidity rendered it abortive. - -There was now no longer any doubt but that the Franks were bent upon -the conquest of the Holy City, and as winter was coming on apace, -the Sultan retired, on the 14th of December, within the walls of -Jerusalem, and occupied himself with the fortification of the town. -He, however, provided for the safety of the country between -Jerusalem and Jaffa by posting brigades of soldiers in the various -passes and defiles upon the road. - -A party of workmen opportunely arrived at this time from Mosul, -despatched by the sovereign of that place, who also sent money to -pay them. These were employed in digging the trenches, and remained -six months engaged upon the work. In addition to this, Saladin built -a strong wall round the town, at which he compelled more than two -thousand Frank prisoners to labour. He repaired the towers and -battlements between the Damascus and Jaffa gates, expending upon -them an immense sum of money, and employing in their construction -the large stones which were quarried out in cutting the trench. His -sons, his brother, El ‘Άdil, and other princes of his court, acted -as overseers of the work, whilst he himself daily rode about from -station to station encouraging the labourers, and even bringing in -building stones upon the pommel of his saddle. His example was -followed by all classes of inhabitants, and the work of -fortification went on with great rapidity. By the beginning of the -year 1192 the wall was completed, the trenches were dug, and the -inhabitants awaited with complacency the arrival of the besieging -army. On the 20th of January the Franks left Ramleh, and had -advanced as far as Ascalon, when they suddenly changed their -intention of marching upon Jerusalem and stayed to rebuild the -demolished city. El Mashtúb, who had been taken prisoner by the -Franks, but had purchased his ransom for the sum of fifty thousand -dinars, of which he had actually paid thirty thousand (and given -pledges for the rest), came to Jerusalem on the 18th of March. The -Sultan received him graciously, and gave him the town of Nablús and -its vicinity as a compensation for his heavy pecuniary loss. The -general did not, however, live long to enjoy his good fortune, but -died in the course of the year, bequeathing a third of his estate to -the Sultan, and leaving the rest to his son. - -On the 29th of March the Marquis of Montferrat was assassinated at -Tyre by two men as he was leaving the house of the bishop, where he -had just been entertained at a repast. The murderers were at once -arrested, and put to an ignominious death; not, however, until they -had confessed that it was the King of England who had instigated -them to the deed. Many attempts have been made by historians to -clear King Richard’s character from this foul blot, and a letter -purporting to come from the “Old Man of the Mountain” accepting the -responsibility of the act is triumphantly appealed to. The document -in question is, however, a transparent forgery, and the unscrupulous -character and savage brutality of the lion-hearted king afford only -too good reason for believing the dying testimony of the actual -perpetrators of the crime. At any rate, Richard alone profited by -it, and obtained possession of Tyre, which he subsequently made over -to Count Henry of Champagne. On the death of the marquis, Richard -again endeavoured to come to terms with Saladin, proposing to divide -the country equally between the latter and himself, and to leave all -Jerusalem and its fortifications in possession of the Muslims, with -the sole exception of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. - -A great reverse was experienced by the Mohammedans about this time -by the fall of Dárúm, a strong fortress, situated on the border of -the Egyptian territory beyond Gaza. The Franks stormed the town -after having effected a breach in the walls, and refused quarter to -the inhabitants. The governor, finding all hope of further -resistance gone, escaped to Hebron; the superintendent of stores, -however, remained, and, determining that the besiegers should reap -as little profit as possible from their conquest, hamstrung all the -beasts of burden and burnt them. When the Christians entered the -city they put nearly every one of the inhabitants to the sword, -reserving only a few prisoners, for whom they thought they might -obtain a heavy ransom. Several other engagements took place in the -same neighbourhood, in which the Franks were not so successful, and -on the 3rd of April they divided their camp into two parties, the -one making its head-quarters at Ascalon, and the other pitching at -Beit Jibrín. Jerusalem was now threatened with an immediate attack, -but the vigilance of the Sultan warded off the blow, and a -determined sortie compelled the enemy to retire to Colonia. - -The Sultan had sent frequent messengers to Egypt to hurry on the -departure of the army which was being levied in that country for the -relief of Jerusalem. Falek-ed-dín, El ‘Άdil’s brother, who was in -command, pitched his tents at Bilbeys; whence, as soon as his -numbers were complete he set off, followed by an immense concourse -of merchants and traders who had taken advantage of the military -escort across the desert. On the 23rd of June news reached the -Sultan that the Egyptian contingent was on the march, but that, -relying on their numbers, they were proceeding without due caution, -while the King of England with a large force was lying in wait for -them upon the road. Saladin sent off an officer at the head of a -division to meet the approaching force, with orders to conduct them -round by the desert, and take them over the river of El Hesy before -the enemy should come upon them. Falek-ed-dín, however, did not take -any means to inform himself concerning the place of rendezvous, but -taking the shortest road, and sending his heavy baggage round by -another way, he called a halt, and encamped for the night beside a -stream called El Khaweilifeh. With the early dawn next morning the -enemy came suddenly upon them, and a scene of indescribable -confusion ensued. The Muslims started up from their sleep, ran -frantically off in any direction that was open to them, and thus -escaped in the twilight. Their baggage, arms, and equipments fell, -of course, into the enemy’s hands; this was so far fortunate, for if -the Franks loved slaughter well they loved plunder better, and there -was sufficient to turn their attention from pursuing the fugitives -of the Egyptian force thus completely broken up and routed; some -wandered back to Egypt, not a few were lost in the desert, and a -miserable remnant found their way by Kerek to Jerusalem, where the -Sultan received them kindly and condoled with them upon their -misfortune. - -The Crusaders, being unsuccessful against Jerusalem, determined to -make an expedition against Beirút, as the occupation of that port -was most important for their communications with home, and its -conquest seemed likely to prove an easy matter. - -But they had miscalculated the tactics of the man with whom they had -to deal; Saladin, who appears throughout to have possessed the -fullest information respecting their movements, sent orders to his -son, El Afdhal, at Damascus, to prepare for their reception. -Accordingly, when they reached the sea coast of Syria they found -Beirút occupied by the Damascene troops, and a large army awaiting -them in the Merj ‘Ayún, which prevented the Franks in Acre from -coming to the assistance of their comrades. Taking advantage, also, -of their absence, Saladin bore down upon Jaffa, which, in the -absence of King Richard, could not hold out for long. The Muslims -had already effected an entry into the city, and were about to take -possession of the fortress, when Saladin, who could never refuse a -petition for quarter, and whose experience of the Crusaders’ good -faith had not yet taught him prudence, allowed himself to be -prevailed upon by promises of submission on the part of the -patriarch and other chief men of the town to grant a day’s delay and -treat about the terms of capitulation. Of this concession the -Christians, as usual, took a mean advantage, and while they deluded -the Sultan with false oaths and promises, they were sending express -messengers to hasten the return of Richard, who unexpectedly arrived -by sea in the very midst of the negotiations and took possession of -the citadel. The Muslims thus lost much of the advantage which their -victory gave them, but they still retained possession of the town -itself, and recovered the greater part of the property which had -been plundered from the Egyptian contingent. - -Both parties were now at a dead lock; the Franks on their side could -not hope to take Jerusalem, and the Muslims on theirs were unable to -drive the Christians out of the country. Richard was the first to -propose an armistice; but Saladin still held out, and strenuously -urged upon his officers the necessity for continuing the _jehád_, or -“Holy War.” But the Mohammedan chiefs were weary of continued -fighting without decisive results, and as strongly urged upon the -Sultan that the army required rest, and that peace was absolutely -necessary to enable the country to recover its industrial activity, -the repression of which had already caused so much misery to the -inhabitants. An appeal to Saladin on behalf of a suffering community -was never made in vain, and he consented to forego the attractions -of military glory for the sake of his people’s prosperity. A truce -of three years and eight months, both by land and sea, was -ultimately agreed upon, commencing 2nd of September, 1192. The -crusading princes and generals took solemn oaths to observe the -conditions of the treaty, with the sole exception of King Richard, -who held out his hand to the Saracen Sultan, and said that “There -was his hand upon it, but a king’s word might be taken without an -oath.” Saladin returned his grasp, and professed himself satisfied -with that mode of ratifying the truce. He probably felt that in this -frank and cordial demonstration he had a better guarantee of -Richard’s good faith than any oath would have afforded; for bitter -experience had taught him that so long as an unscrupulous priest -remained to give the sanction of the Church to an act of perfidious -meanness, a Crusader’s oath was of little value. The terms of the -truce were, that the sea-board from Jaffa to Cæsarea, and from Acre -to Tyre, should remain in the hands of the Franks, and that Ascalon -should not be rebuilt; the Sultan, on his side, insisted that the -territory of the Ismaelites should be included in the truce, and the -Franks on theirs demanded a similar privilege for Antioch and -Tripoli; Lydda and Ramleh were to be considered common ground. -Saladin, on the conclusion of the truce, occupied himself in -strengthening the walls and fortifications of Jerusalem; and the -Crusaders, having free access to the city, commenced visiting the -Holy Sepulchre in crowds, and, to judge from the accounts given of -their behaviour, this privilege, for which they had been fighting so -long, was after all but lightly esteemed. King Richard begged -Saladin not to allow any one to visit the city without a written -passport from himself, hoping by this means to keep up the -devotional longings of his followers, and so to induce them to -return at the expiration of the truce. Saladin’s keen penetration at -once detected the impolicy of such a step, while his sense of honour -revolted against its discourtesy, the request was, therefore, -refused. Richard shortly after this fell ill, and leaving the -government in the hands of his nephew, Count Henry, he sailed away, -and left the Holy Land for ever. Saladin, whose restless energy and -religious zeal would not allow him to remain long in idleness, -prepared for a pilgrimage to Mecca, and had actually written to -Egypt and to Arabia to make the necessary arrangements; but at the -instance of his officers, who represented to him the urgent need -which the country stood in of his presence, he relinquished his -intention. - -After a tour through Syria, in the course of which he provided for -the safety and good government of the towns through which he passed, -redressing the wrongs of the people, punishing those who exercised -injustice or oppression, and rewarding all whose administration had -been moderate and just, he returned to Damascus, after an absence of -four years, during the whole of which time he had been incessantly -occupied in the prosecution of the Holy War. His arrival was hailed -with the greatest demonstrations of joy; the city was illuminated, -and for days the people made holiday to celebrate the return of -their beloved sovereign, the saviour of El Islam. But their joy was -short-lived, for on the 21st of February, 1193, he was seized with a -bilious fever, and after lingering for twelve days he expired, and -was buried in the citadel of Damascus, in the apartments in which he -died. A short time afterwards the Sultan’s remains were removed to -the tomb which they now occupy, in the vicinity of the Great Mosque, -and which had been prepared for their reception by his son, El -Afdhal. Saladin was nearly fifty-seven years old when he died; his -father, Aiyúb, was the son of a certain Kurd, a native of Davín, -named Shádí, and a retainer of ‘Emad-ed-dín Zanghí, father of the -celebrated Sultan Nûr-ed-dín, of Damascus. From him the dynasty was -called the Kurdish or Aiyubite dynasty. At the outset of his career -Saladin delighted to emulate his great namesake, Yúsuf es Sadík, the -Joseph of Scripture story; in pursuance of this idea he sent for his -father to Egypt, immediately upon his accession to power, and -offered to give up all authority into his hands. This Aiyúb -declined, and contented himself with the honourable and lucrative -post of Controller of the Treasury, with which his son entrusted -him. The old gentleman died of a fall from his horse while his son -was absent upon one of his expeditions against the Christians at -Kerek. No better proof can be given of the respect and esteem which -Saladin’s many virtues naturally commanded than the terms upon which -he lived with his brother and other relatives. In spite of the too -frequent application of the proverb which says that “the Turk can -bear no brother near the throne,” we do not hear of a single -instance of jealousy or insubordination being exhibited against his -authority by any member of his house or court, while his subjects -absolutely idolized him. Saladin knew how to win the affection of -his troops while he made his authority felt, and his example -restrained in them that license which war too often engenders. -Courteous alike to friend and foe, faithful to his plighted word, -noble in reverses and moderate in success, the Paynim Saladin stands -forth in history as fair a model of a true knight _sans peur et sans -reproche_ as any which the annals of Christian chivalry can boast. - - - - - CHAPTER XVII. - THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMS. - - “Proclaim unto the people a solemn pilgrimage; let them come unto - thee on foot, and on every lean camel, arriving from every distant - road; that they be witnesses of the advantages which accrue from - visiting this holy place.”—Cor’án, cap. xxii. vv. 28, 29. - - -There are two kinds of pilgrimage in Islam, the _Hajj_ and the -_Ziyáreh_. The first is the greater pilgrimage to the shrine of -Mecca, and this it is absolutely incumbent upon every Muslim to -perform once at least in his life. As the injunction is, however, -judiciously qualified by the stipulation that the true believer -shall have both the will and the power to comply with it, a great -many avoid the tedious and difficult journey. The second, or -_Ziyáreh_, consists in “visiting” the tombs of saints, or other -hallowed spots, and is an easier and more economical means of grace, -as the pilgrim can choose his shrine for himself. Next to that of -Mecca and Medina, the pilgrimage to Jerusalem is most esteemed by -Mohammedan devotees; and, as we have already seen, political -exigencies have, on more occasions than one, caused it to be -substituted for the more orthodox and genuine _Hajj_. While all -Muslims are enjoined to visit Mecca, they are recommended to go to -Jerusalem. Plenary indulgence and future rewards are promised to -those who visit the Holy City, and the effect of all prayers and the -reward or punishment of good or evil works, are doubled therein. -Such as are unable to accomplish the journey may send oil to furnish -a lamp, and as long as it burns the angels in the place will pray -for the sender. As for those who build, repair, or endow any portion -of the Mosque, they will enjoy prolonged life and increased wealth -on earth, as well as a reward in heaven. The Roman church is not -singular in its successful dealings with rich and moribund sinners. - -The pilgrim, in entering the Haram, puts his right foot forward, and -says, “O Lord, pardon my sins, and open to me the doors of thy -mercy.” As he goes out he repeats the customary benediction upon -Mohammed, and exclaims, “O Lord, pardon my sins, and open to me the -doors of thy grace.” In entering the Cubbet es Sakhrah he should be -careful to keep the Holy Rock upon his right hand, so that in -walking round it he may exactly reverse the proceedings in the case -of the Tawwáf, or circuit of the Ka‘abeh at Mecca. He should then -enter the cave which is beneath the Sakhrah with humility of -deportment, and should first utter the formula called “the Prayer of -Soloman,” viz., “O God, pardon the sinners who come here, and -relieve the injured.” After this, he may pray for whatsoever he -pleases, with the assurance that his request will be granted. - -As he is conducted about the Haram es Sheríf the various sacred -spots are pointed out to him, and when he has performed the -requisite number of prostrations, and repeated the appropriate -prayer dictated by his guide, the story or tradition of each is -solemnly related to him. Thus, on approaching the “Holy Rock” he is -told that it is one of the rocks of paradise; that it stands on a -palm-tree, beneath which flows one of the rivers of Paradise. -Beneath the shade of this tree Asia, the wife of Pharaoh, who is -said to have been the most beautiful woman in the world, and Miriam, -the sister of Moses, shall stand on the Day of Resurrection, to give -drink to the true believers. - -This Sakhrah is the centre of the world, and on the Day of -Resurrection the angel Israfíl will stand upon it to blow the last -trumpet. It is also eighteen miles nearer heaven than any other -place in the world; and beneath it is the source of every drop of -sweet water that flows on the face of the earth. It is supposed to -be suspended miraculously between heaven and earth. The effect upon -the spectators was, however, so startling that it was found -necessary to place a building round it, and conceal the marvel. - -The Cadam es Sheríf, or “Footstep of the Prophet,” is on a detached -piece of a marble column, on the south-west side of the Sakhrah. It -is reported to have been made by Mohammed, in mounting the beast -Borák, preparatory to his ascent into heaven on the night of the -“M‘iráj.” - -Before leaving the Cubbet es Sakhrah the pilgrim is taken to pray -upon a dark coloured marble pavement just inside the gate of the -Cubbet es Sakhrah, called Báb el Jannah; some say that this is the -spot upon which the prophet Elias prayed, others that it covers the -tomb of King Solomon. All agree that it is a stone which originally -formed part of the pavement of Paradise. - -A descent into the Maghárah or cave beneath the Sakhrah—a -reverential salutation of the “tongue of the rock,” a broken column -slanting against the roof of the cave—a prayer before the marks of -the Angel Gabriel’s fingers—and, if he be a Shi‘ah, a fervent -prostration before a piece of iron bar which does duty as the sword -of ‘Alí ibn Abi Tálib “the Lion of God.” These, with a few others of -less interest, complete the objects of special devotion in the -Cubbet es Sakhrah itself. - -On issuing forth into the open court more wonders meet his eye. -First, there is the beautiful Cubbet es Silsileh[77] or Dome of the -Chain; it derives its name from a tradition that in King Solomon’s -time a miraculous chain was suspended between heaven and earth over -this particular spot. It was possessed of such peculiar virtue that -whenever two litigants were unable to decide their quarrel they had -but to proceed together to this place, and endeavour each to seize -the chain, which would advance to meet the grasp of him who was in -the right, and would elude all efforts of the other to catch it. One -day two Jews appealed to the ordeal, one accused the other of having -appropriated some money which he had confided to his keeping, and, -swearing that he had not received it back, laid hold of the chain. -The fraudulent debtor, who had artfully concealed the money in the -interior of a hollow staff upon which he was leaning, handed it to -the claimant, and swore that he had given back the money. He also -was enabled to seize the chain, and the bystanders were hopelessly -perplexed as to the real state of the case. From that moment the -chain disappeared, feeling doubtless that it had no chance of -supporting its character for legal acumen in the midst of a city -full of Jews. - -Footnote 77: - - Also called Malikemet Da’ád, or the Tribunal of David. - -The place, however, still retains some of its judicial functions, -and, if we are to credit Arab historians, perjury is an exceedingly -dangerous weapon in the neighbourhood of the Sakhrah. It is related -that the Caliph ‘Omar ibn ‘Abd el ‘Azíz ordered the stewards of his -predecessor Suleimán, to give an account of their stewardship upon -oath before the Sakhrah. One man alone refused to swear and paid a -thousand dínárs rather than do so; in a year’s time he was the only -survivor of them all. The Constantinople cabinet might take a hint -from this. - -On the right hand of the Sakhrah, in the western part the court, is -a small dome called the Cubbet el M‘iráj, or “Dome of the Ascent,” -which marks the spot from which Mohammed is supposed to have started -upon his “heavenly journey.” It is, of course, one of the principal -objects of the Muslim pilgrims’ devotion. The present dome was -erected in the year 597, on the site of an older one which had -fallen into ruins, by a certain governor of Jerusalem named Ez -Zanjelí. - -The Macám en Nebí, or “Prophet’s Standpoint,” is celebrated from its -connection with the same event. It is now occupied by an elegant -pulpit of white sculptured marble. - -At the end of the Haram Area, on the eastern side, is a spot known -as Súk el Ma‘rifah (Market of Knowledge), behind the praying place -of David. The tradition attaching to this spot is, that when any of -the ancient Jewish occupants of the city had committed any sin, he -wrote up over the door of his own house a notice of the fact, and -came to the Market of Knowledge to pray for forgiveness. If he -obtained his request he found the written confession obliterated -from his door, but if the writing still remained the poor Jew was -rigorously cut off from all communication with his kind until the -miraculous signature of pardon was accorded him. A little lower down -on the same side is a small apartment containing an ancient marble -niche, resembling in shape the ordinary Mohammedan _mihráb_; this is -usually known as ‘´Mehd ‘Eisá or “Jesus’ Cradle,” although some of -the Muslim doctors, with greater regard for the antiquarian unities, -call it “Mary’s Prayer-niche.” The pilgrim enters the place with -reverence, and repeats the _Súrat Miryam_, a chapter of the Coran -which gives the Mohammedan account of the birth and ministry of our -Lord. - -By the Jámi‘ en Nisá, or “Woman’s Mosque,” forming part of the Jámi‘ -el Aksa, is a well, on the left of the great entrance, called Bir el -Warakah or “Well of the Leaf.” The story goes that during the -caliphate of ‘Omar a man of the Bení Temím, named Sherík ibn Haiyán, -dropped his bucket into this well, and climbing down to fetch it up -found a door, into which he entered. Great was his surprise at -seeing a beautiful garden, and having walked about in it for some -time be plucked a leaf and returned to tell his companions of his -strange adventure. As the leaf never withered, and the door could -never again be found, no doubt was entertained but that this was an -entrance into Paradise itself, and as such the well is now pointed -out to the pilgrim. - -The bridge of Es Sirát, that will be extended on the Day of Judgment -between heaven and hell, is to start from Jerusalem, and the pilgrim -is shown a column, built horizontally into the wall, which is to -form its first pier. - -The Muslim guide will wax eloquent upon this, his favourite subject, -the connexion between the Day of Judgment and the Masjid el Aksa; -and as the pilgrim stands upon the eastern wall he will hear a -circumstantial account of the troubles and the signal deliverance -which shall come upon the true believers in the latter day. - -Dajjál, or Antichrist, (he learns), will not be allowed to enter -Jerusalem, but will stop on the eastern bank of the Jordan while the -faithful remain on the western side. Then Christ, who will reappear -to save the true believers, will take up three of the stones of -Jerusalem, and will say as he takes up the first, “In the name of -the God of Abraham;” with the second, “In the name of the God of -Isaac;” and with the third, “In the name of the God of Jacob.” He -will then go out at the head of the Muslims, Dajjál will flee before -him, and be slain by the three stones. The victors will then proceed -to a general massacre of the Jews in and around the Holy City, and -every tree and every stone shall cry out and say, “I have a Jew -beneath me, slay him.” Having done this the Messiah will break the -crosses and kill the pigs, after which the Millenium will set in. - -The last sign which is to precede the day of resurrection is that -the Ka‘abeh of Mecca shall be led as a bride to the Sakhrah of -Jerusalem. When the latter sees it, it will cry out, “Welcome thou -Pilgrim to whom Pilgrimages are made.” No one dies until he has -heard the sound of the Muezzin in Jerusalem calling to prayer. - -The pilgrims to the Haram es Sheríf differ but little from those of -the Holy Sepulchre. Both endure great hardships, exhibit intense -devotion and ostentatious humility; and both believe that by -scrupulous practice of the appointed rites and observances they are -advancing a claim upon the favour of heaven which cannot be -repudiated. Both delight in assuring themselves and others that it -is love for the stones on which the saints have trodden which brings -them there, but if their satisfaction could be analysed it would be -found to consist in a sense of religious security, which a learned -Muslim doctor has quaintly expressed: “The dwellers in Jerusalem are -the neighbours of God; and God has no right to torment his -neighbours.” - -As with us in Europe, the only notices of Jerusalem during the -Middle Ages are derived from the Crusaders and early pilgrims, so -the various accounts of the Holy City, with the quaint stories and -traditions attaching to it, with which Mohammed’s writings teem, are -all due to the early warriors and pilgrims of Islam. - -Of these, and their name is legion, I will select a few of the most -eminent in order that the reader may form some idea of the sources -from which the Arab historians have drawn their information. - -The Mohammedan pilgrims to Jerusalem range themselves naturally into -two great classes or periods, namely, those who “came over with the -conqueror” ‘Omar, or who visited the city between the date of his -conquest and the second Christian kingdom, and those who were -posterior to Saladin. Of all the Mohammedan pilgrims to Jerusalem -the first and most distinguished was Abu ‘Obeidah ibn el Jerráh, to -whom, as has already been shown, the conquest of Jerusalem was due. - -He died in the great plague at ‘Amwás, (Emmaus) A.D. 639, in the -fifty-eighth year of his age, and was buried in the village of -Athmá, at the foot of Jehel ‘Ajlún, between Fukáris and El -‘Άdilíyeh, where his tomb is still pointed out. In this plague no -less than twenty-five thousand of the Muslim soldiery perished. - -Bellál ibn Rubáh, Mohammed’s own “Muezzin,” accompanied ‘Omar to -Jerusalem. He was so devoutly attached to the person of the Prophet -that he refused to exercise his office after Mohammed’s decease, -except on the occasion of the conquest of the Holy City, when he was -prevailed upon by the Caliph once more to call the people to prayers -in honour of so great an occasion. - -Khálid ibn el Walíd, surnamed the “Drawn Sword of God,” was also -present with the victorious army of ‘Omar; he died in the year 641 -A.D., and was buried, some say, at Emessa, and others, at Medínah. - -‘Abúdat ibn es Sámit, the first Cádhí of Jerusalem, arrived with -‘Omar, he was buried in the Holy City, but his tomb disappeared -during the Christian occupation. - -Another interesting member of the first pilgrim band was Selmán el -Fársí, one of the early companions of Mohammed. Although he does not -play a very conspicuous part in Mohammedan history, his name has -acquired a strange celebrity in connexion with the mysterious sect -of the Nuseiríyeh in Syria. The tenets of this people are so -extraordinary and so little known that I cannot refrain from giving -a slight account of them here. - -The Nuseiríyeh worship a mystic triad, consisting of and represented -by ‘Alí, the son-in-law and successor of Mohammed, Mohammed himself, -and Selmán el Fársí. These are alluded to as _‘Ams_, a mystical -word, composed of the three initial letters of their names; ‘Alí -being, moreover, called the Maná, or “meaning,” _i.e._, the object -implied in all their teaching, Mohammed, the chamberlain, and Selmán -el Fársí, the door. To understand this we must remember that Eastern -sovereigns are never approached except through the mediation of -their chamberlains; and the three offices will therefore correspond -with those of the Holy Trinity, the King of Kings, the Mediator, and -the Door of Grace. From this triad proceed five other persons, -called _aitám_, or monads, whose function is that of creation and -order. Their names are those of persons who played a conspicuous -part in the early history of Islám; but they are evidently identical -with the five planets known to the ancients, and their functions -correspond exactly to those of the heathen deities whose names the -planets bear. - -The Nuseiríyeh hold the doctrine of a Fall, believing that they -originally existed as shining lights and brilliant stars, and that -they were degraded from that high estate for refusing to recognise -the omnipotence of ‘Alí. - -The mystic Trinity, ‘Ams, is supposed to have appeared seven times -upon the earth, once in each of the seven cycles into which the -history of the world is divided. Each of these manifestations was in -the persons of certain historical characters, and each avatar was -accompanied by a similar incarnation of the antagonistic or evil -principle. - -The devil of the Nuseiríyeh is always represented as a triune being, -and, carrying out the principle of affiliating their religious -system upon the history of Mohammedanism, they have made the -opponents of ‘Alí represent the personification of evil, as he -himself and his immediate followers are the personification of good. -Thus Abu Bekr, ‘Omar, and ‘Othmán, are considered by the Nuseiríyeh -as the conjunct incarnation of Satan. - -They believe in the transmigration of souls, and that after death -those of Mohammedans will enter into the bodies of asses, Christians -into pigs, and Jews into apes. As for their own sect, the wicked -will become cattle, and serve for food; the initiated who have given -way to religious doubts will be changed into apes; and those who are -neither good nor bad will again become men, but will be born into a -strange sect and people. - -The religion professed by the great mass of the Nuseiríyeh is, -indeed, a mere _mélange_ of doctrines, dogmas, and superstitions, -borrowed from the various creeds which have at various times been -dominant in the country; and yet this incongruous jumble serves as a -cloak for a much more interesting creed, namely, the ancient Sabæan -faith. - -The Nuseiríyeh conceal their religion from the outer world with the -greatest care, and do not even initiate their own sons into its -mysteries until they have arrived at years of discretion; the women -are never initiated at all. - -In the first degree or stage of initiation, they are made acquainted -with the doctrines of which I have given a sketch; in the second -they are told that by ‘Ams the Christian Trinity is intended; and in -the last, or perfect degree, they are taught that this Trinity, the -real object of their worship, is composed of Light, or the Sky, the -Sun, and the Moon, the first being illimitable and infinite, the -second proceeding from the first, and the last proceeding from the -other two. - -The five monads are, in this stage, absolutely declared to be -identical with the five planets. - -In their religious ceremonies they make use of hymns, libations of -wine, and sacrifices; to describe them in detail would be out of -place in this work, I will, therefore, only mention one, which has -an exceptional interest. - -Amongst the ceremonies observed at their great feast is one called -the “Consecration of the Fragrant Herb.” The officiating priest -takes his seat in the midst of the assembly, and a white cloth, -containing a kind of spice called mahlab, camphor, and some sprigs -of olive or fragrant herb, is then placed before him. Two attendants -then bring in a vessel filled with wine, and the master of the house -in which the ceremony takes place, after appointing a third person -to minister to them, kisses their hands all round, and humbly -requests permission to provide the materials necessary for the -feast. The high priest then, having prostrated himself upon the -ground, and uttered a short invocation to certain mystic personages, -distributes the sprigs of olive amongst the congregation, who rub -them in their hands, and place them solemnly to their nose to inhale -their fragrance. - -This ceremony would alone furnish evidence of the antiquity of the -Nuseiríyeh rites, for it is unquestionably the same as that alluded -to by Ezekiel (viii. v. 17), when condemning the idolatrous -practices of the Jews. In that passage the prophet (after mentioning -“women weeping for Tammúz,” the Syrian Adonis, “twenty-five men with -their backs toward the temple of the Lord, and their faces to the -east, worshipping the sun in the east,” and thus showing beyond -question that the particular form of idolatry which he is condemning -is the sun worship of Syria) concludes with the following words: “Is -it a light thing which they commit here? For they have filled the -land with violence, and have returned to provoke me to anger: _and, -lo, they put the branch to their nose_.” - -The more sober Muslim historians tell us that Selmán el Fársí died -at the age of ninety-eight or ninety-nine years; but some do not -scruple to assert that he was over six hundred years old, and had -personally witnessed the ministry of Christ. Nothing certain seems -to be known of him, except that he died in the year A.D. 656, and no -reason appears for his deification by the Nuseiríyeh except the fact -that he was a Persian, and a friend of ‘Alí ibn Abí Talib. Abu -Dhurrá is another of the companions of Mohammed, deified by the -Nuseiríyeh (in whose pantheon he appears as the representative of -the planet Jupiter), and is also said to have entered Jerusalem with -the army of ‘Omar. He is buried at Medinah. - -Sheddád ibn Aus. It is related that Mohammed, some little time -before his death, predicted that Jerusalem would be conquered, and -that Sheddád, and his sons after him, would become Imáms (or high -priests) there, which prediction came to pass. Sheddád died in -Jerusalem, A.D. 678, at the age of seventy-five, and was buried in -the cemetery near the Bab er Rahmah, close under the walls of the -Haram es Sheríf, where his tomb is still honoured by the faithful. - -The Caliph Mo‘áwíyeh also visited Jerusalem before his accession to -the throne, and it was in that city that the celebrated compact was -made between him and ‘Άmir ibn el ‘Άs to revenge the murder of -‘Othmán. He died in Damascus, on the 1st of May, A.D. 680. - -One of the most distinguished of Mohammedan pilgrims to Jerusalem -was Ka‘ab el Ahbár ibn Máni‘, the Himyarite, familiarly called Abu -Is’hak. He was by birth a Jew, but had embraced the Muslim religion -during the caliphate of Abu Bekr, in consequence, as he alleged, of -his finding in the Book of the Law a prophecy relating to Mohammed. -He is chiefly remembered as having pointed out to ‘Omar, whom he -accompanied to Jerusalem, the real position of the Sakhrah. The -following tradition is also ascribed to him: that “Jerusalem once -complained to the Almighty that she had been so frequently -destroyed; to which God answered, ‘Be comforted, for I will fill -thee, instead, with worshippers, who shall flock to thee as the -vultures to their nests, and shall yearn for thee as the doves for -their eggs.’” He died at Hums in A.D. 652. - -Sellám ibn Caisar was one of the companions of Mohammed, and acted -as governor of Jerusalem under the Caliph Mo‘áwíyeh. - -The position of women amongst the first professors of Islám appears -to have been much more honourable than amongst their later -successors, and the early annals of the creed contain many notices -of gifted and pious women who appeared to have exercised no small -influence over the minds of their contemporaries. One of these -distinguished females was Umm el Kheir, a freed woman of the noble -family of ‘Agyl, and a native of Basora. She visited Jerusalem, -where she died about the year 752. Her tomb is still to be seen on -the Mount of Olives, in a retired corner south of the Chapel of the -Ascension; and is much frequented by pilgrims. It is related that -Umm el Kheir, one day, in the course of her devotions, cried out, -“Oh, God, wilt thou consume with fire a heart that loves thee so?” -When a mysterious voice replied to her, “Nay, we act not thus; -entertain not such evil suspicions of us.” The precept, “Conceal -your virtues as you would your vices,” is also attributed to the -same saint. - -Safíyah bint Hai, known as “The Mother of the Faithful,” was amongst -the earliest pilgrims to Jerusalem, having visited it with the army -of ‘Omar. To her is attributed the tradition that the division of -the wicked from the good on the Day of Judgment will take place from -the top of the Mount of Olives. She died about the year 670. - -An anecdote related of the celebrated Sufyán eth Thorí, affords a -good example of the devotion and fervour of these early Mohammedan -pilgrims. He is said to have repeated the whole of the Coran at one -sitting in the Cubbet es Sakhrah, and on one occasion, when he had -prayed until he was completely exhausted, he bought a single -plantain and ate it in the shade of the mosque, apologising for even -this indulgence by the remark, “The ass can do more work when he has -got his fodder.” He died at Bosrah A.D. 777. - -Al Imám es Sháfíi‘, one of the most learned of the Mohammedan -doctors, and the founder of one of the chief sects into which the -religion is divided. He was born in 767 A.D., the same year in which -Abu Hanífeh, the founder of the Hanefite sect, died. His works, -which are very voluminous, and considered by his followers as next -in authority to the Coran itself, are said to have been all written -within the space of four years. - -The following _fatwa_, or legal decision, attributed to him during -his stay at Jerusalem, not only evinces the great erudition and -readiness for which he was so celebrated, but affords an amusing -specimen of the trifling minutiæ upon which the Mohammedan doctors -often consent to dispute. Having established himself in the Haram es -Sheríf, he professed himself ready to answer any question that might -be put to him, concerning either the Coran or the Sunneh, that is, -the written or oral law. “What should you say,” said a person -present, “respecting the legality of killing a wasp, when one is -engaged in the rites of the pilgrimage.” Without a moment’s -hesitation the Imam replied, “The Coran itself tells us that we are -to accept whatsoever the prophet hath granted us, and to abstain -from what he has forbidden us. (Coran, 59. 7.) Now, Ibn ‘Aiyinah had -it from ‘Abd el Melik ibn Amír, who had it from Huzaifah, that the -prophet said, ‘Be guided in all things by my immediate successors, -Abu Bekr, and ‘Omar.’ But Ibn ‘Aiyinah further relates that Mas‘úd -told him that Cais ibn Musallim was informed by Tárik ibn Shiháb, -that ‘Omar bade the pilgrim slay the wasp.” Es Sháfíi‘ died at -Carafah es Sughra, in Egypt, on the 20th December, A.D. 819. - -Mohammed ibn Karrám, the founder of the Karramíyeh sect, resided at -Jerusalem for more than twenty years, and died there in the year 869 -A.D. His doctrines are considered by the majority of Mussulmans as -heterodox and pernicious. He was said to have been buried by the -Jericho gate, near the tombs of the prophets, but neither the gate -nor the sheikh’s tomb exist at the present day. - -Abu ’l Faraj al Mucaddasí, Imám of the Hambileh sect, and the -founder of that of Imám Ahmed. He is the author of very esteemed and -voluminous works upon theology and jurisprudence. He died the 9th of -January, 1094, and was buried at Damascus, in the cemetery near the -Bab es Saghír, where his tomb is still frequented by the faithful. - -Sheikh Abu ’l Fath Nasr, a celebrated recluse and theologian, fixed -his residence at Jerusalem, living the life of an ascetic, in the -building to the east of the Báb en Rahmah, which was called after -him En Násiríyeh. He was a friend of the eminent philosopher El -Gházali, whom he met at Damascus. He died in the last named city in -the year 1097, A.D. - -Abu ‘l Ma‘álí el Musharraf ibn el Marján Ibrahím el Mucaddeú. He is -the author of a celebrated treatise upon the history and antiquities -of Jerusalem, entitled _Fadháïl Bait el Mucaddas w es Sakhrah_, “The -Virtues of Jerusalem and of the Rock.” Little or nothing is known of -him beyond this composition; the date of his decease is also -uncertain, but it is ascertained that he was contemporary with -Sheikh Abu ’l Cásim, who was born about 1040, A.D. - -This Sheikh Abu ’l Cásim er Rumailí, was a celebrated doctor of the -Shafiite sect. He established himself at Jerusalem, and was so -renowned for his great knowledge of religious jurisprudence, that -difficult points of law from all quarters of the Muslim world were -sent to him for his opinion, and his decision was always considered -final. He is also the author of an excellent treatise on the history -of Jerusalem. On the capture of the city by the Crusaders, in the -year 1099, he was taken prisoner, and his ransom fixed at one -thousand dínárs. The Muslims did not however, appear to set a very -high value upon their learned doctor, for the sum demanded for his -release was never raised; and the reverend gentleman was stoned to -death by the Franks at the gate of Antioch. Some authorities say -that he was put to death in Jerusalem. - -Abu ’l Cásim er Rází was by birth a Persian, and studied -jurisprudence at Ispahan, from which place he removed to Baghdad, -and ultimately proceeded to Jerusalem, where he adopted the life of -a religious recluse. He was slain by the Crusaders on their entry -into Jerusalem in July, 1099. - -The renowned philosopher, El Ghazáli himself, was also a pilgrim to -Jerusalem, in which city he composed the magnificent work for which -he is chiefly celebrated, namely the _Muhyi ’l u̒lúm_, “The -Resuscitation of Science.” He occupied the same apartments in which -Sheikh Násir had formerly resided, and the name was changed in -consequence from that of En Nasiríyeh to El Ghajálíyeh. The -building, however, has long since disappeared. El Ghazáli died at -Tús, his native town, in the year 1112. - -Dhí’á-ed-dín ‘Eisá studied Mohammedan literature and jurisprudence -in Aleppo, and was attached to the court of Esed-ed-dín Shírkoh, -Saladin’s uncle, with whom he visited Egypt. On the death of the -former, it was principally owing to the exertions made by him, and -Bahá-ed-dín Caracosh, that Saladin was appointed to succeed him as -Grand Vizier of Egypt. In the year 753, Dhí’á-ed-dín accompanied -Saladin upon an expedition against the Franks, in the course of -which he was taken prisoner, though subsequently ransomed for sixty -thousand dínárs. He was a great favourite with Saladin, and, as has -been before mentioned, preached the first sermon in the Masjid el -Aksa after the conquest of the Holy City. He was of noble birth, and -great learning, and while accompanying Saladin in his “Holy War” he -combined the ecclesiastical with the military character, wearing the -armour and uniform of a soldier, and the turban of a priest. He died -during the siege of Acre, in the year 583, and his remains were sent -to Jerusalem, and buried in the cemetery of Mamilla. - -Sheikh Sheháb-ed-dín el Cudsí was also a _Khatíb_, or preacher, in -Jerusalem; he was present with Saladin at the taking of the city, -and received the _soubriquet_ of Abu Tor, “The Father of the Bull,” -because he was in the habit of riding upon one of those animals, and -fighting from its back. Saladin bestowed upon him a small village, -near the Jaffa gate, in which was the monastery of St. Mark, where -he lived and died. Both the monastery and the hill upon which it -stands are now called after him, Abu Tor. It is related of him, that -when he wanted any provisions he used to write an order and tie it -on the neck of his favourite bull, which would go straight to the -bazaars and bring back the articles required. - -After the death of Saladin the list of eminent Muslims whose names -are connected with the history of Jerusalem becomes too formidable -in its dimensions to admit of more than a brief notice of a few of -the most important. I will commence with the kings and princes. - -El Melik el Moa̔zzem was a son of El ‘Ádil, Saladin’s brother, and -succeeded his father in the government of Syria, in August, 1218, -A.D. He was a Hanefite (departing in this from the traditions of his -house, which had all along professed the doctrines of Es Shafí‘i), -and founded a college for the sect in the Masjid el Aksa. He was a -great patron of Arabic philosophy, and erected the building called -the “Dome of the Grammarians,” on the south side of the court of the -Sakhrah; to him is also due the construction of the greater number -of carved wooden doors which adorn the Haram building, and which -still bear his name. We have already alluded in a former chapter to -the operations of this prince, and his brother, El Melik el Kámil, -against the Franks, as well as to the invasion of the Khárezmians, -and other troubles which overtook Jerusalem. - -After this we hear no more of victories or crusades, and the -connection of the succeeding princes with the history of Jerusalem -is chiefly derived from their benefactions to the Haram es Sheríf. I -will mention only a few of these, whose munificence is recorded on -the numerous tablets which adorn the buildings in the sacred area. - -El Melik ed Dhaher Beybers, Sultan of Egypt, visited Jerusalem in -1269, on his return from a pilgrimage to Mecca. Passing by the “Red -Hill,” between Jericho and Jerusalem, which is, according to the -Muslims, the traditional site of Moses’ grave, he erected the -building to which devotees yearly flock in crowds, to the present -day. He repaired the Mosque El Aksa, and the Cubbet es Silsilah, and -completely renovated the interior of the Cubbet es Sakhrah, which -was in a very dilapidated condition. He died at Damascus in June, -1277. - -Es Sultán Calá‘ún, originally a Memlúk, purchased for one thousand -dínárs, ascended the throne of Egypt in 1279. He repaired the roof -of the Jámi‘ el Aksa, and erected a cloister called El Mansúrí, near -the Báb en Názir. - -El Melik el ‘´Adil Ketbegha began to reign in 694, and repaired the -eastern wall of the Haram by the Golden Gate. Es Sultán Lajein, who -succeeded him, also executed many repairs in the mosque. Sultán -Mohammed, son of Caláó̒n, who had succeeded his father, but been -twice compelled to abdicate, at last succeeded in establishing -himself on the throne of Egypt in A.D. 1310. He repaired the south -wall of the Haram, coated the inside of the mosque with marble, and -regilded the domes of El Aksa, and the Cubbet es Sakhrah. So -beautifully was this gilding executed, that Mejír-ed-dín, writing -one hundred and eighty years afterwards, declares that it looked as -though it had been but just laid on. Even now, in the records of -Saladin’s restoration which exist upon the dome of the Cubbet es -Sakhrah, and over the Mihráb of the Aksa, the gold remains -untarnished. - -Mohammed ibn Caláó̒n also repaired the arches over the steps leading -up on the north side to the platform on which the Dome of the Rock -stands, and executed many useful works in and around Jerusalem, he -died in A.D. 1340. - -Es Sultán el Melek el Ashraf Sha̒bán, grandson of the preceding, -repaired the Bal el Esbát, put new wooden doors in the Jámi‘ el -Aksa, and repaired the arches over the steps on the west side of the -Sakhrah platform, by the Báb en Názir. Sultán Abu Sa‘íd Barkúk was -the first of the Circassian dynasty in Egypt, he ascended the throne -in 1382. To him is due a portion of the wood-work around the -Sakhrah. - -In 1393, his lieutenant, El Yaghmúrí, came to Jerusalem, and set -right the numerous abuses which had crept into the administration of -the city in the time of his predecessor. These reforms he proclaimed -by causing an account of them to be engraved upon a marble tablet, -and hung up in the Haram es Sheríf. The governors of Jerusalem would -seem to have been rather prone to relapses in this respect, for we -find El Yaghmúrí’s example followed by many of the succeeding -viceroys. - -Sultán en Násir Farj succeeded to the throne of Egypt in the year -1399, when only twelve years old. He separated the government of -Jerusalem and Hebron from that of Mecca and Medína, which had -hitherto been exercised by one official. During his reign occurred -the incursions of the Tartars, under Timour or Tamerlane. - -Sultán el Melik el Ashraf Barsebá‘í, a freedman of Barkúk’s, -becoming Sultán in 1422, followed his former master’s example, and -expended some money upon the repair of the mosque at Jerusalem. He -presented a beautiful copy of the Coran to the Mosque of El Aksa, -and appointed and endowed a reader and attendant to look after it. - -In the year 1447, during the reign of El Melik ed Dháher Chakmak, a -portion of the roof of the Cubbet es Sakhrah was destroyed by fire. -Some say the accident was caused by lightning, others, by the -carelessness of some young noblemen, who clambered into the roof in -pursuit of pigeons, and set fire to the woodwork with a lighted -candle which one of them held in his hands. The Sultan repaired the -damage, and also presented to the Sakhrah a large and magnificent -copy of the Coran. This prince was a great champion of the faith, -and sent his agent, Sheikh Mohammed el Mushmer to Jerusalem for the -purpose of destroying all the newly erected Christian buildings in -the place, and of clearing out the monasteries and convents. Some -new wooden balustrading which was found in the Church of the Holy -Sepulchre was carried off in triumph to the Mosque of El Aksa; and -the monastery, or Tomb of David, was cleared of its monkish -occupants and appropriated by the Mohammedans, while even the bones -in the adjoining cemetery were dug up and removed. - -The so-called Tomb of David was originally a convent of Franciscan -monks, who believed it to be the site of the Cœnaculum, and their -traditions mention nothing of an underground cavern such as is now -said by the Mohammedans to exist. The tradition which makes it the -tomb of David is purely Muslim in its origin, and does not date back -earlier than the time of El Melik ed Dháher Chakmak. Oral tradition -in Jerusalem says that a beggar came one day to the door of the -monastery asking for relief, and in revenge for being refused went -about declaring that it was the tomb of David, in order to incite -the Muslim fanatics to seize upon and confiscate the spot. His plan, -as we have just seen, succeeded. - -El Ashraf also gave a great Coran to the Jámi‘ el Aksa, which was -placed near the Mosque of ‘Omar, by the window which overlooks -Siloam. Sultán el Ashraf Catibáï, in the year 1472, widened and -improved the steps leading up to the platform of the Sakhrah, and -furnished them with arches like those on the other sides. He also -re-covered the roof of El Aksa with lead. A notice of the events -which happened in Jerusalem during the reign of this sovereign will -be found in the account of Mejír-ed-dín (p. 439). - -The names of a great number of learned men are mentioned in the -Mohammedan histories of Jerusalem, either as pilgrims or as -preachers, cádhís or principals of colleges. Of these the majority -would be unknown to, or possess but little interest for, the -European reader, I will therefore content myself with mentioning a -few who have written upon or otherwise distinguished themselves in -connection with the Holy City. - -Sheikh el Islám Burhán-ed-dín, chief Cádhí of Jerusalem, died in -1388. The marble pulpit in the Cubbet es Sakhrah, from which the -sermon is preached on feast days, was the gift of this divine. Es -Saiyid Bedred-dín Sálem, a lineal descendant of ‘Alí ibn Abi Tálib, -was also connected for some time with the Haram at Jerusalem. He was -esteemed a great saint, and was visited as such by pious Muslims -even during his lifetime. Many miracles are recorded of him, and it -is said that the birds and wild beasts came to make pilgrimages to -his tomb and those of his sons—at Sharafát in the Wády en Nusúr, -about three days’ journey from Jerusalem—and prostrate themselves -with their faces on the ground at the door of the small building -which covers the graves. They are still objects of great veneration -to Muslim pilgrims in Palestine. Es Sheikh Abu ’l Hasan el Magháferí -exercised the office of Khatíb, or preacher, in Jerusalem. He -studied the celebrated history of the city by Ibn ‘Asáker, under the -direction of its author, in A.D. 1200. Shems-ed-dín el ‘Alímí -accepted the office of chief Cádhí of Jerusalem in 1438, towards the -end of the reign of Sultan Barsebaí. An incident is related in the -notices of his life which throws some light upon the condition of -the Christians in the city. A church of large dimensions, and -furnished with a magnificent dome, existed on the south side of the -Holy Sepulchre, in close proximity to the Haram es Sheríf. This was -a favourite place of worship with the Christian inhabitants, and the -chaunting of the priests could be heard in the Cubbet es Sakhrah -itself, to the great scandal of the “Faithful.” While they were -concerting measures for putting a stop to the services without -infringing the law, an earthquake happened, which threw down the -dome of the church, and completely dismantled the building. The -Christians applied to the governor of the city and the Cádhí of the -Hanefite sect for permission to restore the building, and, by dint -of heavy bribes, obtained it. El ‘Alímí, who was Cádhí of the -Hambelite sect, was furious at this, and declared that as the church -had been destroyed by the act of God for the express convenience of -the Muslim worshippers in the Cubbet es Sakhrah, it was sheer -blasphemy to allow it to be rebuilt. An indignant letter written by -him to Cairo brought a special commissioner with orders from the -Sultan el Ashraf Einál to stop the building and pull down what had -been already erected. This was probably the commencement of the -general Crescentade against the churches and monasteries of -Jerusalem, which took place under the jurisdiction of El ‘Alímí, in -the reign of Sultán Chakmak, to which I have already alluded in my -notice of that prince. The Cádhí was also in the habit of seizing -upon the children of deceased Jews and Christians, who were -tributaries of the State, and of compelling them to be trained up in -the Mohammedan religion. The Shafiite Cádhí disputed the legality of -this, and the question was warmly disputed by the Mohammedan -doctors, both in Jerusalem and Cairo. Although the decision was not -favourable to his view of the case, he continued to follow the same -course until he was removed from the office in 1468. Amongst the -Mohammedan viceroys and governors of Jerusalem may be mentioned the -following: El Emír ‘Ezz-ed-dín es Zanjeilí, who repaired the Cubbet -el Míraj in the year 1200. El Emír Hisám-ed-dín, who restored the -Cubbet en Nahwíweh in 1207. El Emír Zidugdi was governor of -Jerusalem during the reigns of the Sultans Beibars and Cala’on. He -built a cloister by the Báb en Názir and paved the court of the -Sakhrah. El Emír Násir-ed-dín made extensive restorations in the -Haram Area, and opened the two windows in the Aksa which are on the -right and left of the Mihráb, and coated the interior of the mosque -with marble in 1330. The well-known author, Mejír-ed-dín, resided -for some time in Jerusalem, and has given us the best history of the -Holy City extant in Arabic. The following is a brief extract of his -own very graphic account of the events which happened there during -the reign of the Sultán El Ashraf Catibái, in whose service the -writer was. As a picture of the state of things in Jerusalem in the -fifteenth century it may not prove uninteresting to our readers. - -In the year 1468 a severe famine occurred in Jerusalem and its -neighbourhood in consequence of the unusual drought of the preceding -winter. The people began to exhibit signs of dissatisfaction, and -matters were not improved by a quarrel which took place between the -Názir el Haramain, or Superintendent of the Two Sanctuaries (Hebron -and Jerusalem), and the Náïb, or Viceroy. These two officials came -to an open rupture, and as the Názir and his men were engaged in -laying in water from the Birket es Sultán to some buildings upon -which they were employed, the Náïb with a company of attendants came -suddenly upon them, and a fierce fight took place. The city was -immediately divided into two factions, some taking the part of the -Názir and others of the Náïb, and even the presence of a special -commissioner from Cairo failed to quell the disturbance. The plague, -with which Syria had been for some time visited, next attacked -Jerusalem, and raged from the 17th of July, 1469, until the middle -of September. - -The next year (1470) was more propitious, but the great people of -the city still seemed unable to agree. On the 12th of February, -Cádhí Sherf-ed-dín came to Jerusalem, and was visited, immediately -on his arrival, by Ghars-ed-dín, chief Cádhí of the Shafiite sect. -Now Sheikh Sheháb-ed-dín el ‘Amírí, principal of one of the colleges -attached to the Haram, also happened to drop in, and, either through -ignorance or inadvertence, took a seat in the assembly above the -Cádhí. The two reverend gentlemen entered into a warm dispute, in -the course of which the Sheikh threatened to tear the Cádhí’s turban -off his head. The Cádhí retorted that the Sheikh “did not know the -meaning of a turban,” implying that he did not know how to conduct -himself as became his office. Both parties then left the assembly, -and the matter being referred to arbitration, certain learned -gentlemen adjourned to the Cubbet es Sakhrah to discuss it, -accompanied by a crowd of idlers. The people of Jerusalem, -determined to defend their fellow-citizen, attempted to decide the -question by pillaging the Cádhí’s house and maltreating his wives. -The day was a very rainy one, which circumstance increased the bad -temper of the mob, and it was at one time more than probable that -the sanctuary would become the scene of anarchy and bloodshed. In a -subsequent appeal, made to the Sultan himself at Cairo, the Cádhí -got scant satisfaction, and was so laughed at and ridiculed on his -return to Jerusalem that he was ultimately obliged to resign his -office and leave. The atmosphere of Jerusalem appears to have a -particularly unfortunate effect upon the temper of theologians. - -The winter of 1472-3 was exceedingly severe, and the rains so -incessant that the foundations of the buildings were, in many -instances, undermined; three hundred and sixty houses are said to -have fallen down from this cause, but one woman, who was buried in -the ruins of her dwelling, was the only person killed. - -About the end of the year 1475 the Sultan himself, El Ashraf -Catibái, performed the pilgrimage to Jerusalem on his return from -Mecca. Immediately upon his arrival in the city he held a court, on -which occasion the inhabitants crowded round him to present -petitions against the Viceroy, whom they accused of all manner of -injustice and oppression. The chief Cádhí was also included in the -indictment, as having given corrupt decisions in the interests of -the governor. The latter purchased immunity by paying off upon the -spot all claims that were made against him, and was retained in his -office by the Sultan, who, however, intimated that if a single -complaint were again made he would have him cut in halves. The Cádhí -narrowly escaped corporal punishment, and was dismissed -ignominiously from his office, and compelled to leave the city. - -In May, 1476, orders came from the Sultan to arrest all the -Christians connected with the Churches of the Holy Sepulchre, Sion -and Bethlehem, in revenge for the capture of four Muslims by the -Franks at Alexandria. The orders were executed, but we are not told -what became of the prisoners. Towards the end of 1477 the plague, -which had been raging for some time in Syria, reached Jerusalem, and -lasted for more than six months, causing a terrible mortality. - -In 1480 a great disturbance took place in Jerusalem in consequence -of the governor having imprisoned and put to death some Bedawín of -the Bení Zeid tribe. A crowd of ferocious Arabs bore down upon -Jerusalem determined to revenge the death of their comrades, and the -governor, who was riding outside the city at the time of their -arrival, narrowly escaped falling into their hands. Setting spurs to -his horse he dashed through the Báb el Esbát, rode across the -courtyard of the Mosque, and escaped through the Báb el Magháribeh. -The Bedawín swarmed in after him with drawn swords, utterly -regardless of the sacred character of the place. Finding that their -victim had escaped they followed the method adopted on similar -occasions by European agitators, broke into the houses and shops of -the neighbourhood and plundered all that they could lay their hands -on, and then broke open the jail and let loose the prisoners. - -In 1481 a number of architects and workmen were sent to Jerusalem by -the Sultan to repair the Haram, and to rebuild the various colleges -which had fallen into decay. In 1482 a messenger arrived bearing the -Sultan’s order that the Christians were to be permitted to take -possession once more of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and -exhibit therein the customary Easter pyrotechnic display. The order -was at first disputed by the Muslim officials, but as the -commissioner threatened to indict them for contempt of authority -they were obliged to give way. - -In 1491, Jerusalem was again visited by the plague; at first from -thirty to forty people died of it daily, but in a little time the -average rate of mortality was increased to a hundred and thirty. - -The winter of this year was very severe, and a snowstorm occurred, -which lasted several days, and lay upon the ground to the depth of -three feet, greatly incommoding and frightening the inhabitants. -When it began to melt, the foundations of many of the houses gave -way, and serious disasters were the result. - -Mejír-ed-dín’s history of this period is very diffuse, and is -chiefly devoted to an account of the various Cádhís, and other -religious or legal functionaries in Jerusalem. But the ascendency of -the Shafiite or Hanefite doctrines, or the intense devotion of an -old gentleman who had learned a whole commentary upon the Coran by -heart, are not subjects of much general interest; we have, -therefore, confined ourselves to stating the few facts above -detailed. - -We ought, perhaps, to include in our list of Mohammedan pilgrims -those from whom all our information is gleaned,—Ibn ‘Asáker, and the -later Arabic writers who have written on the subject; their names, -however, and the names of their books, although of high authority to -the Oriental scholar, could have but little weight with the English -reader. - - - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - THE CHRONICLE OF SIX HUNDRED YEARS. - - “Oh! yet we trust that somehow good - Will be the final goal of ill, - To pangs of nature, sins of will, - Defects of doubt, and taint of blood.” - _In Memoriam._ - - -The Christian kingdom, reduced after Saladin’s conquest to a strip -of land along the coast, with a few strong cities, depended no -longer on the annual reinforcement of pilgrims, but on the strength -and wealth of the two military orders. Unfortunately these -quarrelled, and the whole of Syria became divided, Mohammedans as -well as Christians, into partisans of Knights Templars, or of -Knights Hospitallers. Henry of Champagne, the titular king, was only -anxious to get away, while Bohemond, the Prince of Antioch, was only -anxious to extend his own territories. In Germany alone the -crusading spirit yet lingered, and a few Germans flocked yearly to -the sacred places. Germany did more. The emperor, with forty -thousand men, went to Palestine by way of Italy. When he arrived, he -found, to his amazement, that the Christians did not want him—the -truce concluded with the Mohammedans being not yet broken. The -barons and princes had resolved not to break it at all; but rather -to seek its renewal. But the Germans had not accomplished their long -journey for nothing. They issued from their camp at Acre in arms, -and broke the truce by wantonly attacking the Saracens. Reprisals at -once followed, as a matter of course. Jaffa was attacked. Henry of -Champagne hastened to its defence. There he fell from a high window, -and was killed. The arrival of more Crusaders enabled the Christians -to meet El Melik el ‘Άdil in open field, and to gain a complete -victory. They followed it up by taking the seaboard towns, and the -whole coast of Syria was once more in the hands of the Christians. -Of Jerusalem no one thought except the common soldiers, with whom -the capture of the city remained still a dream. Isabelle, the widow -of Henry, was married a fourth time, to Amaury de Lusignan, who had -succeeded his brother Guy on the throne of Cyprus, and now became -the titular king of Jerusalem, a shadowy title, which was destined -never to become a real one, except for a very brief interval. - -When the Germans went away, the Christians of Palestine were once -more at the mercy of the Saracens, with whom they had broken the -treaty. The Bishop of Acre was sent to supplicate help from Europe. -He was shipwrecked and drowned almost immediately after leaving -port. Other messengers were sent. These also were drowned in a -tempest. So for a long time news of the sad condition of the -Christians did not reach Europe. But, indeed, it was difficult to -raise the crusading spirit again in the West. Like a flame of dry -straw it had burned fiercely for a short time, and then expired. -Jerusalem was fading from the minds of the people. It was become a -city of memories, round which the glories of those myths which -gathered about the name of Godfrey and Tancred were already present. -Innocent III., a young and ardent pope, wrote letter upon letter. -These produced little effect. He sent preachers to promise men -remission of sins in return for taking the Cross. But it was a time -when men were not thinking much about their sins. Priests imposed -the penance of pilgrimage to Palestine; but it does not appear that -many pilgrims went; and boxes were placed in all the churches to -collect money; but it is not certain that much money was put into -them. Then Fulke de Neuilly, the most eloquent priest of the time, -was sent to preach a crusade, and succeeded in fanning the embers of -the crusading enthusiasm once more into an evanescent and -short-lived flame. How little of religious zeal there was in the -movement may be judged by the sequel, and we cannot here delay to -detail the progress of the Crusade which ended in the conquest of -Constantinople. No history can be found more picturesque, more full -of incident, and more illustrative of the manners and thoughts of -the time; but it does not concern Jerusalem. An old empire fell, and -a new one was founded, but Christendom was outraged by the spectacle -of an expedition which started full of zeal for the conquest of the -Holy Land, and was diverted from its original purposes to serve the -ambition of its leaders, and the avarice of a commercial city. - -Egypt and Syria, meantime, were kept quiet from war by troubles not -caused by man. The Nile ceased for a time to overflow, and a fearful -famine, a famine of which the records speak as dreadful beyond all -comparison, set in; during this men kept themselves alive by eating -the flesh of those who died, while the cities were filled with -corpses, and the river bore down on its tide dead bodies as numerous -as the lilies which bloom on its surface in spring. And before the -famine, which extended over Syria as well, had ceased, an earthquake -shook the country from end to end. Damascus, Tyre, Nablous, were -heaps of ruins; the walls of Acre and Tripoli fell down; Jerusalem -alone seemed spared, and there the Christian and the Mohammedan met -together, still trembling with fear, to thank God for their safety. -The sums of money which Fulke de Neuilly had raised in his preaching -were spent in repairing the walls which had fallen, and the knights -sent messengers in all directions to implore the assistance of the -West. Amaury, a wise and prudent chief, died, leaving an infant son, -who also died a few days after him, and Isabelle was a widow for the -fourth time. Pope Innocent III. could find none to go to the Holy -Land but those whom he ordered to go by way of penance. Thus, the -murderers of Conrad, Bishop of Wurtzburg, were enjoined to bear arms -for four years against the Saracens. They were to wear no garments -of bright colours; never to assist at public sports; not to marry; -to march barefooted, and dressed in woollen; to fast on bread and -water two days in the week, and whenever they came to a city to go -to the church, with bare backs, a rope round the neck, and rods in -the hand, there to receive flagellation. But their penance was not -so cruel as that inflicted on the luckless Frotmond, described above -(p. 124). Another criminal, one Robert, a knight, went to the pope -and confessed that while a captive in Egypt, during the dreadful -famine, he had killed his wife and child, and kept himself alive by -eating their flesh. The pope ordered him to pass three years in the -Holy Land. - -The Crown of Jerusalem devolved, by the death of Amaury de Lusignan, -on the daughter of Isabelle, by her husband, Conrad of Tyre. The -barons, looking for a fit husband to share the throne with her, that -is, to become their leader in war, selected John de Brienne. He was -recommended by the King of France, “as a man good in arms, safe in -war, and provident in business.” And hopes were held out that -another crusade would be sent from France. On the strength of this -expectation, the Templars, in spite of contrary advice from the -Hospitallers, broke the truce which yet existed with the Mahometans, -and open war began again. King John de Brienne came with an army of -three hundred knights, and no more; fortresses and towns were taken; -the Christians began to drop off, and desert the falling country; -and the new king soon found himself with no place that he could call -his own, except the city of Acre. He sent to the pope for -assistance. The pope could not help him, because there was a new and -much easier crusade on the point of commencing, that against the -Albigeois. And then happened that most wonderful episode in all this -tangled story, the Crusade of the Children, “expeditio nugatoria, -expeditio derisoria.” - -It had long been the deliberate opinion of many ecclesiastics that -the misfortunes of the Christian kingdom, and the failure of so many -Crusades, were due to the impure lives of the Christian soldiers. -Since the First Crusade it had been the constant and laudable aim of -the Church to maintain among the _croisés_ a feeling that personal -purity was the first requisite in an expedition inspired solely by -religious zeal. All their efforts were vain; laws were made, which -were broken at once. Shameful punishments were threatened, of which -no one took any notice. Even the camp of Saint Louis himself was -filled with every kind of immorality; while that of Richard’s -Crusade, spite of the strictest laws, became the scene of profligacy -the most unbridled. For every one Crusader, in the later -expeditions, who was moved by a spirit of piety, there might be -found ninety-nine who took the Cross for love of fighting, for the -sake of their _seigneurs_, for sheer desire of change, for a release -from serfdom, for getting away from the burden of wife and family, -for the chance of plunder and license, and for every other unworthy -excuse. Thus it was that the religious wars fostered and promoted -vice; and the failure of army after army was looked on as a clear -manifestation of God’s wrath against the sins of the camp. - -This feeling was roused to its highest pitch when, in the year -1212, certain priests—Nicolas was the name of one of these -mischievous madmen—went about France and Germany calling on the -children to perform what the fathers, through their wickedness, -had been unable to effect, promising that the sea should be dry to -enable them to march across; that the Saracens would be -miraculously stricken with a panic at sight of them; that God -would, through the hands of children only, whose lives were yet -pure, work the recovery of the Cross and the Sepulchre. -Thousands—it is said fifty thousand—children of both sexes -responded to the call. They listened to the impassioned preaching -of the monks, believed their lying miracles, their visions, their -portents, their references to the Scriptures, and, in spite of all -that their parents could do, rushed to take the Cross, boys and -girls together, and streamed along the roads which led to -Marseilles and Genoa, singing hymns, waving branches, replying to -those who asked whither they were going, “We go to Jerusalem to -deliver the Holy Sepulchre,” and shouting their rallying cry, -“Lord Jesus, give us back thy Holy Cross.” They admitted whoever -came, provided he took the Cross; the infection spread, and the -children could not be restrained from joining them in the towns -and villages along their route. Their miserable parents put them -in prison; they escaped; they forbade them to go; the children -went in spite of prohibition. They had no money, no provisions, no -leaders; but the charity of the towns they passed through -supported them. At their rear streamed the usual tail of camp -followers, those people who lived wherever soldiers were found, -following in the track of the army like vultures, to prey on the -living, and to rob the dead. Of these there came many, _ribauds et -ribaudes_, corrupting the boys, and robbing them of their little -means; so that long before the army reached the shores of the -Mediterranean the purity of many was gone for ever. - -There were two main bodies. One of these directed its way through -Germany, across the Alps, to Genoa. On the road they were robbed of -all the gifts which had been presented them; they were exposed to -heat and want, and very many either died on the march or wandered -away from the road, and so became lost to sight; when they reached -Italy they dispersed about the country seeking food, were stripped -by the villagers, and in some cases reduced to slavery. Only seven -thousand out of their number arrived at Genoa. Here they stayed for -some days. They looked down upon the Mediterranean, hoping that its -bright waters would divide to let them pass. But they did not; there -was no miracle wrought in their favour; a few, of noble birth, were -received among the Genoese families, and have given rise to -distinguished houses of Genoa; among them is the house of Vivaldi. -The rest, disappointed and disheartened, made their way back again, -and got home at length, the girls with the loss of their virtue, the -boys with the loss of their belief, all barefooted and in rags, -laughed at by the towns they went through, and wondering why they -had ever gone at all. - -This was the end of the German army. That of the French was not so -fortunate, for none of them ever got back again at all. When they -arrived at Marseilles, thinned probably by the same causes as those -which had dispersed the Germans, they found, like their brethren, -that the sea did not open a path for them, as had been promised. -Perhaps some were disheartened and went home again. But fortune -appeared to favour them. There were two worthy merchants at -Marseilles, named Hugh Ferreus, and William Porcus, Iron Hugh and -Pig William, who traded with the East, and had in port seven ships, -in which they proposed to convey the children to Palestine. With a -noble generosity they offered to take them for nothing; all for love -of religion, and out of the pure kindness of their hearts. Of course -this offer was accepted with joy, and the seven vessels, laden with -the happy little Crusaders, singing their hymns, and flying their -banners, sailed out from Marseilles, bound for the East, accompanied -by William the Good and Hugh the Pious. It was not known to the -children, of course, that the chief trade of these merchants was the -lucrative business of kidnapping Christian children for the -Alexandrian market. It was so, however, and these respectable -tradesmen had never before made so splendid a _coup_. Unfortunately, -off the Island of St. Peter, they encountered bad weather, and two -ships went down, with all on board. What must have been the feelings -of the philanthropists, Pig William and Iron Hugh, at this -misfortune? They got, however, five ships safely to Alexandria, and -sold all their cargo, the Sultan of Cairo buying forty of the boys, -whom he brought up carefully and apart, intending them, doubtless, -for his best soldiers. A dozen, refusing to change their faith, were -martyred. None of the rest ever came back. Nobody in Europe seems to -have taken much notice of this extraordinary episode, and its memory -has so entirely died out that hardly a mention of it is found in any -modern history of the period. Thousands of children perished. -Probably their mothers wept, but no one else seems to have cared. -And the pope built a church on the Island of Saint Peter, to -commemorate the drowning of the innocents, with the cold remark that -the children were doing what the men refused to do. It is, however, -pleasing to add that the two honest merchants were accused some -years afterwards of conspiring to assassinate the Emperor Frederick, -and so perished on the gallows-tree. - -In 1213, after the Children’s Crusade, Innocent essayed once more to -wake the enthusiasm of Christendom. He promised, as before, -remission of sins to those who took the Cross: he wrote to the -Sultans of Damascus and Cairo, informing them that the Crusaders -were coming, and urged on them the advisability of giving up -Jerusalem peaceably: and he informed the world that Islam was the -Beast of the Apocalypse, whose duration was to be six hundred and -sixty years, of which six hundred were already passed. Some, no -doubt, of his hearers, thought that, such being the case, they might -very well be quiet for sixty years more. At the same time he wrote -to the Patriarch of Jerusalem with strict injunctions to effect, if -possible, a reform in the morals of the Syrian Christians, as if -that were a hopeful, or even a possible task; and, as before, -preaching was ordered through every diocese, and collecting-boxes -for every church. In England the preaching was a total failure. John -saw a means of reconciling himself with the Church, and took the -Cross. But the barons, in their turn excommunicated, held aloof, and -occupied themselves with their home affairs. Philip Augustus of -France, after giving the fortieth part of his wealth to the expenses -of the Crusade, quarrelled with the Cardinal de Courçon over the -powers which he assumed to possess as the legate of the pope. In -Germany, Frederick II., recently crowned King of the Romans, took -the Cross in the hope of preserving the support of the Church, Otho, -his rival, being at war with the pope. Then came the Council of -Lateran, at which Innocent presided. He spoke of Jerusalem and the -Holy Land. His address was received without any marks of enthusiasm. -Nevertheless a Crusade was actually undertaken, partly against the -Prussians, partly to Palestine. The latter was led by Andrew, King -of Hungary. It was conveyed in Venetian ships from Spalatro and the -towns of the Adriatic first to Cyprus, where they were joined by the -deputies of the king and patriarch, and the military orders. Thence -they sailed to Acre, where they landed in 1217. Like all the -crusading armies, this was too big to be manageable, too diverse in -its composition to be subject to discipline, too unruly to be led, -and under too many leaders. They marched straight across Palestine, -avoiding Jerusalem and the south. They bathed in the Jordan, and -wandered along the banks of the Sea of Galilee, singing hymns, -making prisoners, and plundering the towns, the Saracens not -striking a blow. Their only military exploit was an attempt on Mount -Tabor, on the top of which stood a fortress. There, too, were the -ruins of a church and the monasteries which the Mohammedans had -destroyed. The Crusaders climbed the hill in the face of the enemy’s -arrows and stones, and would have carried the fortress easily by -assault but for one of those panics which were always seizing the -Christians at this period. They all turned and fled down the slope -of the hill in the wildest confusion. On their return to camp the -chiefs accused each other: the soldiers talked of treachery, and the -patriarch refused any more to bring out the wood of the Cross—for -this imposture had been started again. To revive the spirits of the -army, Andrew ordered a march into Phœnicia. The time was winter: -cold, hail, and rain killed the troops: on Christmas Eve a furious -tempest destroyed their camp and killed their horses. Dejected and -discouraged, the Christians returned to Acre. Famine began again, -and it was resolved to separate into four camps. John de Brienne, -King of Jerusalem, with the Duke of Austria, commanded the first, -which lay in the plains of Cæsarea: the kings of Hungary and Cyprus -the second, which was stationed at Tripoli: the Master of the -Templars the third, at the foot of Mount Carmel: the fourth remained -at Acre. The King of Cyprus died, and the King of Hungary went home -again. He had got possession of the head of St. Peter, the right -hand of St. Thomas, and one of the seven vessels in which the water -had been turned into wine. His anxiety to put these treasures in a -place of safety was the chief cause that led him to forsake the -Crusade. - -After his departure the Crusaders changed all their plans, and—it is -very curious to observe how persistently they avoided Jerusalem, the -pretended object of their aims—embarked at Acre for the siege of -Damietta, which they took after nearly two years of fighting. This -taken, they advanced on Cairo: on the way, for we have no space to -follow all their misfortunes, the Nile overflowed, they were cut off -from all hope of succour, assailed on every side by the enemy, and -finally compelled to offer terms. During the negotiations they found -themselves deprived of everything, encamped on a plain inundated by -the waters of the Nile: worn-out by hunger and sickness. The King of -Jerusalem went himself to the Sultan. “There he sat down and shed -tears. ‘Sire,’ said the Sultan, ‘why do you weep?’ 'Sire,’ replied -the King, ‘I do well to weep, for the people with whom God has -charged me I see perishing in the midst of the waters and dying of -hunger.’ The Sultan had pity on the King, and wept himself, and for -four days running sent thirty thousand loaves daily to poor and -rich.” - -So ended a Crusade which showed neither prudence nor bravery, which -began with an artificially-excited enthusiasm, and was carried on by -the leaders in hopes of gaining personal distinction. There was no -discipline, no strong bond of a common hope; the knights deserted -the banners after a defeat and went home, some of them without even -striking a blow; and even in this time of relic-worship the wood of -the Cross failed to animate the spirits of the soldiers. Of all the -Crusades, this was the least worthy of success, the least animated -by religious ardour. - -We are next to see the conquest of Jerusalem absolutely effected by -a Crusader, but by a Crusader under excommunication and interdict, -by means of a treaty with the Mohammedans, and actually against the -will and wishes of the Church. It is a troubled and tangled web of -dissimulation, ambition, and interested motives, into which we dare -not venture.[78] On the one hand we have a sovereign, clear-sighted, -gifted with a strong will, highly educated, equal at all points of -scholarship and attainments to any Churchman, holding tolerant views -as to differences of religion, a poet, a musician, and an artist: -one, too, who loved to associate with poets and artists: a king who -surrounded himself with Mohammedan friends, and made no sign of -displeasure when they performed the devotions due to their religion -in his very presence: a lawyer far in advance of his age, a gallant -lover, and a magnificent prince. In his Sicilian Court he welcomed -alike Christian, Jew, and Mohammedan—even Saracen ladies. Here the -sturdy and uncompromising faith of Western Europe was shorn of its -strength and sapped by the spirit of toleration, or even worse, by -the spirit of free thinking. Frederick himself wrote and spoke -Arabic: he corresponded with the Sultan of Damascus, receiving from -him, and propounding himself, curious questions in geometry. -Society, in fact, modern society, born before its time, was about to -grow up amid the fostering influences of Frederick, when its growth -was checked and destroyed by the interposition of the pope. For, on -the other side, stood the Monk: cold, bigoted, cut off from social -influences, old in the practice of austerities, fanatic in the cause -of the Church, arrogating to himself the blind obedience of the -whole world, claiming ever more and more the domination over men’s -hearts. The Monk, personified by Pope Gregory IX., formerly the -Cardinal Ugolino, confronted the king, and bade him do his bidding; -while, to his monastic eyes, the existence of such a court as that -of Frederick’s was blasphemous, devilish, and full of sin. - -Footnote 78: - - See Milman’s ‘Hist. of Latin Christianity,’ vol. iv., p. 196 _et - seq._, for as clear a statement of the imbroglio between Frederick - and the Pope as can well be looked for. - -Frederick had taken the Cross. He had, moreover, pledged himself to -embark for the Holy Land in August, 1227. The time approached. -Frederick had already opened up negotiations with El Malek el Kamíl, -the Sultan of Egypt. Presents had passed between them. Even an -elephant had been sent, and the Church shuddered at this big and -visible proof of treachery on the part of Frederick. Pilgrims -meantime assembled by thousands and from all parts: Frederick failed -in having provisions and ships for all the throng: the heats of -summer came on with violence, and fever broke out. But the fleet -sailed, with Frederick. Three days afterwards his ship came back. He -was ill, and could not go. - -Old Pope Gregory saw his opportunity. He would use his power. -Frederick was not ill, but only pretending illness. He preached -from the text, “It must needs be that offences come, but woe unto -him through whom they come.” He pronounced the sentence of -excommunication. Frederick wrote, on hearing of this, in perfect -good temper, calmly stating the fact of his illness: he took no -notice of the excommunication; but, after holding a Diet of the -Barons of Apulia, he issued an appeal to Christendom, calling on -all the sovereigns of Europe to shake off the intolerable yoke of -the priests, and declaring his own innocence in the matter of the -broken covenant. He called to witness the ill-treatment and -ingratitude with which the Church had always repaid those who -submitted—the malice and bitterness with which the Church had -always persecuted those who refused to submit; and he pointed to -the power and wealth of Rome as contrasted with the poverty of the -early Church. In the long history of the world’s revolt against -the pretensions of the priesthood, which has never for a moment -ceased since these pretensions first began to make themselves -heard, no more remarkable document has ever been issued, save only -the famous theses of Luther. - -Frederick was rewarded by a second excommunication, and the pope -placed every town in which he might be under interdict. Then the -people of Rome rose in insurrection, and the pope fled. - -Frederick went to the Holy Land. If he wished to avoid fighting with -his friends, the Saracens, he had certainly succeeded; because the -Crusaders, forty thousand in number, on hearing of Frederick’s -return to Italy, all re-embarked and went home again. The king, -notwithstanding a peremptory order from the pope forbidding him to -embark so long as he was under the ban of the Church, set sail with -a small fleet of twenty galleys, and six hundred knights. He arrived -at Acre. The Knights Templars and Hospitallers received him as their -king. Frederick was now married to Yolante, the daughter of John of -Brienne, from whom he took the crown of Jerusalem, on the ground -that he only held it in right of his wife, whose rights were now -descended to her daughter. The clergy refused to meet him, and there -came messengers from the pope, by whose command the knights of the -orders withdrew their help. Frederick went his own way. He sent -Balian, Prince of Tyre, as an ambassador to El Malik el Kamíl, who -sent him back with valuable presents, Saracenic robes, singers, and -dancing girls, and, above all, Frederick’s old friend Fakhr-ed-dín. -Then the Templars wrote to the Sultan proposing the assassination of -the Emperor. Kameel quietly sent on the letter to his friend, who -read it and said nothing. The negotiations between Frederic and -Kameel went on in secrecy; they were so far advanced that the former -found himself in a position to disclose to the barons the terms -proposed. He sent for the Grand Masters of the two orders, and -submitted his proposals to them. They refused to act without the -patriarch. Frederick knowing well enough that the patriarch would -refuse to act without the pope’s consent, replied that he could do -without that prelate. And then the treaty was signed. The Christians -were to have Jerusalem, except the Mosque of Omar, where the -Mohammedans were to worship freely; the Saracens were to have their -own tribunal; the emperor, King of Jerusalem, was to send no succour -to any who might attack the sultan; with some minor points. And as -soon as the treaty was signed, the Germans set off with Frederick, -and the Master of the Teutonic Knights, to the Holy City. The -Christians had got back their city. The Church of Christ refused to -have it, or to acknowledge, in any way, the treaty. Frederick rode -into the city to find the church empty and deserted. With his -knights and soldiers he marched up the aisle, took the crown from -the altar, and put it on his own head, without oath or religious -ceremony of any kind. Nor did he affect any religious zeal or -manifest any emotion. “I promised I would come,” he said, “and I am -here.” It was his answer to the world, and his defiance of the pope. -His vow was fulfilled, in a literal sense; but the Crusade was -ruined; he had done more than any other king since Godfrey; he had -recovered the city, but without slaughtering the infidel, and -subject to the conditions that the Mohammedans were to practise -their religion within its walls. What did Frederick care for a -religion which he confounded with the gloomy teaching of his -ecclesiastical enemies? “I am not here,” he confided to his friend -Fakhr-ed-dín, “to deliver the Holy City, but to maintain my own -credit.” - -And two days after his coronation he went away again, in cynical -contempt of the city and its church. He wrote a letter to the pope -and sovereigns of Europe, stating that he had, “by miracle,” taken -the city, which was henceforth Christian. The pope, in an agony of -rage at the way in which his enemy had ignored his excommunication, -foamed at the mouth, and called the treaty a treaty of Belial. -Moreover, he could not but feel the awful irony of the situation, -when Jerusalem itself, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, were -forbidden to have the service of the Christian religion performed in -them, because their deliverer, a Christian king, was under the -interdict of the pope. And here, reluctantly, we must leave the -fortunes of Frederick; not, perhaps, a good man, but a better man -than the arrogant and implacable monk who opposed him; and, perhaps, -from an unecclesiastical point of view, the best man in a high place -at that time in all the world. - -The treaty was signed in 1229. Frederick in leaving Palestine, left -the Christians without a chief, without a head. The Christians in -Jerusalem, always dreading an attack from the Saracens, were -constantly taking refuge in the tower of David, or the surrounding -deserts. The patriarch, who had done most to estrange the emperor, -wrote letter after letter, imploring for help. How many such letters -had been sent since the Crusades had first commenced? Gregory had -concluded some sort of reconciliation with Frederick, and now asked -his help in an attempt to get up a new Crusade. It was left to the -Franciscan friars—Saint Francis of Assisi had himself been present -at the Crusade of King Andrew—to preach this. [Sidenote: 1237.] -There were found a large number of barons in France to enrol their -names; and by the Council of Tours it was resolved that the Cross -should no longer be a pretext for the safety of every sort of -criminal. But while the Crusaders were assembling came the news of -the downfall of the Latin kingdom of Constantinople, and a -discussion begun as to whether it were better to go to the help of -that city instead of Jerusalem. And before they had decided, came a -message from Frederick urging them to wait for him. While they -waited, civil war broke out in Italy. The old animosity between -Frederick and the pope was revived; and, worse than this, the treaty -which Frederick had made with El Malik el Kamíl, which was for ten -years only, expired; and the Saracens from Kerak, marching suddenly -upon Jerusalem, took it without the least resistance, and razed the -tower of David. The pope had forbidden the Crusaders to leave -Europe; but in spite of his prohibition, a small army, under the -Duke of Brittany and the Count of Champagne, landed in Acre. After a -few ineffective forays, they experienced a defeat which cost them -the loss of many of their leaders. So they all went home again, and -were replaced by an English prince, Richard of Cornwall, who -afterwards called himself Emperor of Germany. The Saracens thought -that Richard Lion Heart was coming back again, and awaited his -approach with the keenest terror. But he did nothing. Abandoned both -by Templars and Hospitallers, he contented himself with ransoming -the Christian prisoners, and, after visiting Jerusalem, and -worshipping at the Holy Places, Richard returned to Europe, and the -turmoil of European wars. - -And now a new enemy appeared in the field. The people of Kh’árezm, -driven westwards by the Tartars, came into Syria, a wild and -ferocious band, with their wives and children, sparing neither -Mohammedans nor Christians. Had the forces in Syria been united, a -successful stand might have been made against them. But the -Mohammedans were divided amongst themselves, and the Sultan of Cairo -offered the Kharezmians Palestine for their own, if they would -conquer it. They accepted the offer with joy, and marched twenty -thousand strong upon Jerusalem. All the people in the city abandoned -it hastily, except the helpless poor and infirm. These the -Kharezmians found in their beds, and after killing them, thirsting -for more blood, they inveigled back the Christians by hoisting the -flags of the Cross. The flying Christians, looking round from time -to time, caught sight at last of the banner of victory. Satisfied -that God had delivered the city by a special miracle, and hearing, -moreover, the bell ring for prayer, they trooped back to the city. -Directly they were within the gates, the Kharezmians, who had only -withdrawn a short distance, returned and surrounded them. In the -depth of night the unhappy Christians endeavoured to fly. They were -all cut to pieces. None were spared. And the barbarians then turned -their wrath upon the very tombs, and tore up the coffins of Godfrey -and Baldwin, which they burned with all the sacred relics they could -find. - -The Templars at Acre called on the Saracen princes of Damascus, -Emessa, and Kerak, to make common cause against their common enemy. -They came to Acre, headed by the valiant El Melik el Mensúr, Prince -of Emessa, whose entrance into the city was greeted with shouts of -applause. The allied armies met the Kharezmians on the plain of -Philistia, the battlefield of so many periods and so many peoples. A -curious incident is told, which took place before the battle. The -Count of Jaffa, an excommunicated man, asked the patriarch, who was -there with his wood of the Cross, as usual, for absolution. He -refused it. Again he asked, to be again refused. But then the Bishop -of Bama, impatient of his superior’s obstinacy, cried out, “Never -mind. The patriarch is wrong, and I absolve you myself.” Of course -one priest’s absolution is as good as another’s, and the count went -into battle, to be killed with a light heart. They fought all that -day, and all the next day, with a ferocity which nothing could -equal. But then the Mohammedans gave way, and the victory remained -with the Kharezmians. Of the allies thirty thousand lay dead on the -field, while of the Christian knights, there returned to Acre only -the Prince of Tyre, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, with his wood, -thirty-three Templars, twenty-six Knights of St. John, and three -Teutonic knights. The Kharezmians came before Jaffa. They tied -Walter de Brienne, who was their prisoner, to a cross, and told him -that unless he exhorted the besieged to submission they would put -him to death. He called on the garrison to defend themselves to the -last extremity, and was sent to Cairo, where he was murdered by the -mob. Palestine was relieved of the presence of the Kharezmians by -the Sultan of Cairo, who sent them to Damascus, which they took and -plundered. They then demanded the fulfilment of his promise as -regarded the lands of Palestine. But the Sultan prevaricated, and -refused, sending an army of Egyptians against them; they were -defeated in ten battles, and perish out of history altogether, -having only appeared for the brief space of three or four years. - -The Kharezmians were gone; but the Christians, who had suffered most -of any at their hands, were in a condition of terrible weakness. So -threatening was the state of affairs, that they once more forced -their claims on the pope, and showed how, without help, they were -all undone. The pope renewed all the privileges accorded by his -predecessor to those who took the Cross. And then followed the -Crusades of Saint Louis. Of his expedition to Egypt, the siege of -Damietta, the calamities which befel his army, his own captivity, -his ransom and freedom, we cannot here speak. They belong to the -special history of the Crusades. - -It was in 1250, after his return, that Saint Louis visited Acre. He -had with him a small number of knights, all in rags, and deprived of -everything. A pestilence broke out in the city. Louis remained, -endeavouring to ransom the twelve thousand Christian captives from -the Sultan of Cairo. Meantime he was urgently wanted at home, where -that most singular movement, known as the revolt of the -_Pastoureaux_, was distracting his country. And all efforts failed -to raise bands of new Crusaders. Some, however, went to join the -king. Among them was a Norwegian knight, named “Alenar de Selingan,” -according to Joinville, who, with his companions, beguiled the time -till they should be fighting the Saracens by slaying the lions in -the desert. The Sheikh of the Assassins also sent an embassy with -presents to Louis, asking for his friendship, and offering to remain -as firmly allied to him “as the fingers on the hand or the shirt to -the body.” Ives, a monk who could speak Arabic, was sent back on the -part of the king with a present of gold and silver cups and scarlet -mantles. He brought back a confused and wondrous story of the -religion of this sect (see p. 322). He described them, oddly, as -having a wonderful veneration for Peter, whom they maintained to be -still alive. And he told how a mournful silence reigned round the -castle of the Sheikh, and how, when he appeared in public, a herald -went before, crying out, “Whoever you are, fear to appear before him -who holds in his hand the life and death of kings.” - -Louis, meantime, was repairing the fortifications of Cæsarea and -Jaffa, and making severe laws against the dissolute morals of the -Christians in the East and of his own men. His knights went on -pilgrimages to Jerusalem, whither he refused himself to go. But he -went to Nazareth, to Mount Tabor, and other sacred places. - -After a little fighting, the news of his mother’s death determined -him to go home. He sailed in 1254, having been four years engaged in -his disastrous expedition, which only had the effect of making the -Mohammedans cautious how far they attacked the Christian -settlements, and mindful of the exasperation into which their fall -might throw the West of Europe. The subsequent efforts to raise a -Crusade all failed. The poets as well as the priests did their best, -but with no success. It is remarkable, however, that there is not a -word about crusading in the whole of the Romance of the Rose, except -a reference or two to the palm of the pilgrim. Neither of its -writers, certainly, was at all likely to be touched by the crusading -enthusiasm. Rutebeuf however, throws himself into the projected -Crusade with extraordinary vigour. “Ha! roi de France!” he cries— - - “Ha! roi de France! - Acre est toute jor en balance.” - -He laments that no one will come to the help of the sacred places. - - Ah! Antioch; ah! Holy Land, - Thy piteous wail has reached this strand. - We have no Godfrey, brave and bold; - The fire of charity is cold - In every Christian heart; - And Jacobin and Cordelier - May preach, but not for love or fear - Will soldier now depart. - -He shows, too, the change come over the thoughts of men by giving a -dispute between a _croisé_ and one who refuses to take the Cross, in -which the latter advances the startling proposition, not heard since -the time of Origen, that a man can very well get to heaven without -“pilgrimising,” and without fighting for the Cross.[79] - -Footnote 79: - - “Je dis que cil est foux nayx, - Qui se mest en autrui servage - Quant Dieu peut gaaigner sayx - Et vivre de son heritage.” - -But Rutebeuf is very urgent. He laments the decay of religious zeal. - - O’ergrown with grass the long road lies, - Thick trodden once by eager feet, - When men pressed on with streaming eyes, - Themselves to offer at God’s seat. - They send, instead, wax tapers now; - God has no true hearts left below. - -The fatal thing, however, was a feeling slowly growing up that it -was God’s will that the Church of the Sepulchre should belong to the -infidel; and a bishop of a somewhat later time gives three reasons -for this; namely, first, as a plea for the Christians; second, for -the confusion of the Saracens; and thirdly, for the conversion of -the Jews. And for the first reason he argues that Christians will -never be allowed to have the city again till they are sinless, -because God will not have his children commit sin in such a place; -as for the Saracens, they are, of course, only dogs; now the master -of a house is not very careful about the behaviour of his dogs, but -he cannot bear ill behaviour on the part of his children. - -Little now remains to tell, because Jerusalem passes away from -history, and the events which follow are hardly even indirectly -concerned with the Holy City. Louis led another Crusade and met his -death at Tunis. Edward of England, with his brother Edmund and eight -hundred men came to Acre, but were, of course of little use with so -small a reinforcement; and, after concluding a treaty with the -Sultan of Egypt, they too departed. Then twenty years of expectation -and fear pass away: Europe looks with indifference upon the Holy -Land: Laodicea is taken: Tripoli is taken: and lastly, Acre itself -is taken. The siege of this, the last place held by the Christians, -lasted a month, when the Mohammedans entered the city after a -furious assault. They were driven back by arrows and stones hurled -from the houses: day after day they came on, were repelled with -slaughter, and every day the Christians saw their camp growing -larger and larger. The military orders fought with a heroism which -caused the Saracens to think that two men were fighting in every -knight. But the end came at length, with a great and terrible -carnage. The nuns, trembling, and yet heroic, actually preserved -their honour by cutting off their noses, so that the Saracens only -killed them. The Patriarch of Jerusalem was put on board a ship, -entreating to be allowed to die with his flock. The ship sank and he -was drowned, so that his prayer was granted. A violent storm was -raging. Ladies rushed to the port, offering the sailors all they -had, diamonds, pearls, and gold, to be put on board. Those who had -no money or jewels were left on the shore to the mercies of the -victors. The Templars held out in their castle a few days longer and -then fell. All were killed. So ended, after two hundred years of -continued fighting, the Christian settlements in Palestine.[80] The -West heard the news of the fall of Acre with a sort of unreasoning -rage, and instantly set about mutual accusations as to the cause of -its fall. And the wretched _Pullani_, the Syrian Christians, who had -survived the taking of Acre, dropped over one by one to Italy and -begged their bread in the streets while they told the story of their -fall. - -Footnote 80: - - In the same year the house of the Virgin was miraculously - transferred from Nazareth to a hill in Dalmatia; whence, by - another miracle, it came to Loretto. Why did not the Holy - Sepulchre come too? - -Pilgrims and travellers continued to visit Jerusalem. Sir John -Mandeville was there, early in the fourteenth century, and describes -the churches and sacred sites, but says little enough about the -condition of the people. Bertrandon de la Roquière was there a -hundred years later. He says that though there were many other -Christians in Jerusalem, the Franks experienced the greatest amount -of persecution from the Saracens, and that there were only two -Cordeliers in the Church of the Sepulchre. And in the same century -Ignatius Loyola twice went on pilgrimage. He wished to end his days -in Palestine, but this was, unhappily, denied him, and he returned, -to be a curse to the world by establishing his society. Among other -pilgrims, passing over various princes and kings, may be mentioned -Korte, the bookseller of Altona early in the eighteenth century, who -was the first to assail the authenticity of the sites, and that of -Henry Maundrell, chaplain to the English factory at Aleppo. - -But during the interval of five hundred years Jerusalem has been -without a history. Nothing has happened but an occasional act of -brutality on the part of her masters towards the Christians, or an -occasional squabble among the ecclesiastics. Perhaps, some time, the -day may come when all together will be agreed that there is no one -spot in the world more holy than another, in spite of associations, -because the whole earth is the Lord’s. Then the tender interest -which those who read the Scriptures will always have for the places -which the writers knew so well may have a fuller and freer play, -apart from lying traditions, monkish legends and superstitious -impostures. For, to use the words which Cicero applied to Athens, -there is not one spot in all this city, no single place where the -foot may tread, which does not possess its history. - - - - - CHAPTER XIX. - THE MODERN CITY AND ITS INHABITANTS. - - -Jerusalem stands upon a tongue of land, bounded on the west by the -Valley of Hinnom, and on the east by the Valley of Jehoshaphat, two -deep wádies, which, uniting at the southern extremity, under the -name of the Kedron, flow down together to the Dead Sea. The -promontory thus formed is divided again by a smaller valley, called -the Tyropœon, bisecting the city from north to south, and running -from the Damascus gate, by the Pool of Siloam, into the Kedron. Two -hills, or spurs, thus project from the elevated ground on the -north-west of the city, of which the western—the higher of the -two—is called Mount Sion, and the eastern, Mount Moriah; upon the -last stood the Temple of the Jews, and upon it at the present day -stands the far-famed Masjid el Aksa, better known as the Haram es -Sheríf, or “Noble Sanctuary.” Between the valley of Hinnom and that -of the Tyropœon a narrow neck of ground is occupied by the Citadel -or “Tower of David.” - -In shape the city is an irregular rhomboid, the longest diagonal of -which measures something less than a mile. It covers about two -hundred and nine acres of ground, of which thirty-five are occupied -by the area of the Haram es Sheríf. There are five gates: the -Damascus gate in the centre of the north side; St. Stephen’s gate on -the east, a little to the north of the Haram; the Water or Dung -gate, in the Tyropœon valley, with the Sion gate on the south side, -and the Jaffa gate immediately under the walls of the city on the -west. The main street is about three-fifths of a mile long, and -bisects the city from north to south; from this the other streets -run, for the most part, at right angles; that which follows the -direction of the north wall of the Haram being called the Via -Dolorosa, and containing the Roman archway known as the “Ecce Homo -Arch.” The city is divided into quarters, defined by the -intersection of the principal street, and that which crosses it at -right angles from the Jaffa gate to the Bab es Silsileh, one of the -gates of the Haram; they are named after the different sects to whom -they are appropriated.[81] The Mohammedan quarter comprises the -north-east portion of the town, also, of course, including the Haram -Area; the Christian quarter is in the north-west; the Jewish quarter -consists of all the south-eastern part, except so much of it as it -covered by the Haram; and the remaining quarter, the hill of Sion, -on the south-west, is appropriated to the Armenians. The mountains -which encompass Jerusalem are dull and unvaried in outline, and, -being composed of white limestone, there is an utter absence of all -pleasing variety of colouring. Nor does the intense clearness of the -atmosphere add much to the general effect, diminishing as it does -the distance, and dwarfing the proportions of all around. The view -from the Mount of Olives, situated immediately to the east of the -city, alone forms an exception to the monotony of the general -appearance of the neighbourhood, and from this really fine views are -obtained. Looking on the city itself, the eye rests upon the -graceful form and rich colouring of the Dome of the Rock, standing -in its picturesque and quiet enclosure, while the gilded dome of the -Holy Sepulchre, the tapering minarets of numerous mosques, the -massive walls and clustering buildings, combine to make a beautiful, -and even impressive picture. Turning to look eastward, a scene no -less grand and novel presents itself; before you, a little to the -right, the mountains of Moab rise up high above the azure waters of -the Dead Sea; the broad deep valley of the Jordan comes in from the -left, the course of the stream just discernible by the thin fringe -of verdure which lines its banks; while the blank dreary desert -stretches almost to your very feet, making even the desolate hills -of Jerusalem look green and fertile by the contrast. - -Footnote 81: - - For these particulars see the Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem, - 1864-5. - -There are many objects of interest outside the city walls, and a -walk round the town, on the outside, furnishes food for much curious -antiquarian speculation. Commencing with the head of the valley on -the north-west side, you pass the upper and lower pools of Gihon, -the former situated in the midst of a picturesque Mohammedan -cemetery. Turning down into the Valley of Hinnom, and past the -countless tombs excavated in the solid rock, you come to the well of -Joab (the En-Rogel of Scripture), immediately opposite the queer -little village of Siloam, which consists of caves faced with rude -masonry or plaster. - -In the Valley of Jehoshaphat—besides the modern Hebrew graves, which -lie so thickly together that they appear almost to form one broad -pavement—there are several curious monuments; the tomb of -Jehoshaphat, of which nothing but a pediment rising a little out of -the ground, and roughly bricked up, is now visible; the tomb of -Zachariah, and the Pillar of Absalom, two monolithic monuments of -uncertain date; and a little cave-chamber cut in the face of the -rock, ornamented with two Doric columns, and leading into a -sepulchral vault, which is said to have formed the hiding-place of -St. James the apostle during the first Christian persecution. Then -come the Fountain of the Virgin, the Garden of Gethsemane, and the -site of the Ascension upon the Mount of Olives. All these, with many -others, and the traditions which attach to each, have been too well -and too frequently described by travellers to need that we should -dwell upon them here. - -The Cœnaculum, or Tomb of David, is situated at the south-west angle -of the town, outside the city walls; the history of this has been -already related on p. 436. - -The olive groves by which the city is surrounded, and of which such -glowing descriptions have been given by enthusiastic pilgrims, are -scanty, and, like most other olive groves, exceedingly ugly and -uninteresting; to tell the sober truth it is impossible to grow very -rapturous over a stunted tree, with greasy, silver-grey foliage and -dilapidated trunk. On a gala day, however, when a motley throng, -dressed in bright colours and fantastic garb, crowd outside the -Jaffa gate, disperse themselves amongst the tombs in the cemetery of -the upper pool of Gihon, or cluster in animated groups beneath the -olive trees, the scene is one which a lover of the picturesque might -travel far to see. - -The city is completely walled round, presenting the appearance of a -huge fortress; by the Jaffa gate, where the tower of Hippicus rises -above the walls, and the cypresses of the Armenian convent gardens -peep over the battlements, they are pretty and picturesque, but, -with this exception, there is nothing whatever in them to arrest the -attention. Examining them more closely, you are struck with the -great size of the stones used in their construction, many of which, -especially in the lower portions, are doubtless of great antiquity. -Captain Warren, in the course of his excavations at the south-east -angle and elsewhere, has come upon blocks which may still occupy the -place where Solomon’s workmen laid them, but now that the -excavations are discontinued and the shafts closed the pilgrim will -be grievously disappointed if he expect to find a single stone _in -situ_. - -The houses are all built of roughly-hewn blocks of stone. Syrian -houses have flat roofs, but the want of timber for beams renders -this construction impossible in the southern part of Palestine, and -the deficiency is supplied by furnishing the buildings with large -stone domes. From the nature of the ground there is not a single -level street in Jerusalem. The streets are paved with the hard -limestone of the country, worn smooth with constant traffic, and -this makes them cleaner than those of many other Eastern towns. - -Nothing could be more out of harmony with all sacred associations -than the interior appearance of modern Jerusalem. True, there is -something picturesque and romantic about the narrow streets, the -quaint old archways, and the ruins upon which you stumble at every -turn; but the ruins are those of Saladin’s city not of Herod’s, -while the Jerusalem of David and of Solomon lies crushed and buried -twenty fathoms under ground. - -Of course, the two principal objects of attraction in Jerusalem are -the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the Haram es Sheríf. - -The actual Sepulchre is covered by a small chapel coated with -reddish marble, and is surrounded by a circular building of fine -proportions, with a magnificent dome. The Greek church is -immediately to the east of this rotunda, and Calvary to the -south-east, and some twelve or thirteen feet above it. The only -entrance is by a door leading into an open court on the south, and -this is never opened except by the Mohammedan official who has -charge of it, and with the permission of the patriarch of one of the -Christian sects. - -On a bench inside the door sits a Turkish guard, whose duty it is to -see that the Christians do not cut each other’s throats in order to -show their zeal for the faith, and the precaution is far from -needless. - -The open court in front of the entrance to the church is filled with -native Christian pedlars from Bethlehem, who drive a thriving trade -in crosses, rosaries, incense, and other devotional wares. - -Of the various traditional sites within the church, and of the -respective authenticity of each, it is not our province here to -speak; suffice it to say, the priests have crowded into this small -area every incident of the Passion and Crucifixion of our Lord, as -well as a great many others of which the ordinary Christian has -never heard. - -It is refreshing to escape from the narrow streets and noisy -stifling bazaars into the quiet shady close of the Haram es Sheríf. - -The engraving prefixed to this volume conveys a good idea of the -general effect of the buildings and the enclosure in which they -stand; but in order completely to realise the scene one must have -the bright colours and the atmospheric effect: and, above all, the -dim religious light streaming in through the gorgeous stained-glass -windows of the Cubbet es Sakhrah and the Mosque of El Aksa. A few -years ago the traveller was debarred from this enjoyment, and could -not even venture near the sacred spot without danger to life and -limb from the infuriated fanatics who guard it. Now, however, a -_douceur_ to the Sheikh, and the company of an attendant from the -consulate, or police station, will be sufficient to procure the -privilege. It is time that the jealous barbarity and insolent -licence of the Turks should be modified by the good sense of -civilized nations, and that sanctuaries such as these, which are -common to Christian and Mohammedan, should be thrown open to both. -Perhaps, some day, Europe may learn that it is scarcely worth while -to make war upon a Christian power for the sake of upholding a -rotten and corrupt government which repays the obligation by -encouraging its own subjects to insult and murder the subjects of -its allies. - -The inhabitants of Jerusalem number about sixteen thousand, and the -pilgrims and travellers who annually visit it at Easter time are -reckoned at about fifteen thousand more. - -The population is composed of such varied and discordant elements -that to give an account of the different sects alone would occupy a -volume. We do not profess to enter at all into the question from a -theological point of view, but simply to give a brief account of the -various peoples inhabiting Jerusalem as they appear to the traveller -of the present day. - -First in order come the Mohammedans, Turkish and native, who, -although they give themselves the airs for which the true believer -is distinguished, and look with ill-concealed aversion and contempt -upon all besides themselves, yet are not, perhaps, quite so -fanatical as those in other towns of the Holy Land. They are, for -the most part, Orientals of the conventional type, leading lazy, -useless lives, and dividing their time between smoking, praying, -bargaining, and cursing. The Turks have the same stupid pasty look -which all town-bred Turks have. The natives are remarkable for -nothing but sturdy limbs, an inordinate appetite for brown bread and -onions, and an incessant habit of reckoning up real or imaginary -gains. If you see two Fellahín coming along the road you may venture -anything that their conversation will be of piastres, and that the -first word you hear will be a numeral. We must do the Mohammedans -the justice to say that the bigotry is not all on their side, for a -Jew’s life is not safe if he so much as venture into the -neighbourhood of the Holy Sepulchre. - -The Christians are of so many different types and nations that it is -almost hopeless to attempt to enumerate them all; the following are, -however, the chief divisions: - -The native Christians are chiefly from Bethlehem; they are a fine -athletic race, much fairer than the Muslim peasantry, and exhibiting -unmistakable traces of an admixture of European blood, dating back, -no doubt, from the Crusading times. The women are sometimes -exceedingly pretty, and their costume very picturesque; they wear a -loose-fitting, coloured dress, and a saucepan-shaped cap upon their -head, over which is thrown a white mantle, or veil, reaching almost -to the feet. - -The men wear enormous turbans and the ordinary striped _abbah_, or -cloak, of coarse goat’s-hair; this, with a linen shirt, leather -belt, and enormous yellow slippers, completes their dress. They do a -large trade in rosaries, crosses, carved shells, beads, and olive -wood fancy articles, and are a quiet and industrious people. - -The Syrians, or Jacobites, are a small body who occupy a monastery -upon Mount Sion, called the House of St. Mark. The present bishop is -an intelligent man, a native of Asia Minor; one or two monks of the -monastery, and the old woman who cleans up the place, are natives of -a village near ‘Aintáb, on the banks of the Euphrates, the only spot -where the Syriac language is spoken. In this little convent the -traveller may still hear the accents of that ancient tongue, and, -probably—as the old lady is no lover of monkish indolence—he will -have the opportunity of judging of its capabilities as a scolding -medium. - -The Greek community consists mainly of monks, with a slight -sprinkling of dragomen and wine-shop keepers. The Greek monk, with -his handsome face, reverend beard, and severely simple costume, is a -noble and saintly figure as to the outward man; but Greek monks, -known more intimately, are found to be a drunken and sensual crew, -devoid alike of honour and religion. We speak of the monks only, for -the Patriarch of Jerusalem and one or two of his bishops are -gentlemanly and even learned men, while amongst the laymen attached -to the educational branch of the convent may be made some agreeable -acquaintances. Although the blasphemous fraud of the “Descent of the -Holy Fire” on Easter Sunday, is countenanced by the Armenians, it is -really kept up by the Greeks, and performed by the Greek Patriarch. -A more degrading spectacle than this can scarcely be imagined: the -Church of the Holy Sepulchre crammed to suffocation with eager, -half-mad pilgrims, and the Chief Dignitary of the Orthodox Church of -Christ solemnly entering into His tomb to juggle with a box of -lucifer matches! What wonder that the “infidel” soldiers, who keep -the peace in the church, gaze on the scene with a supercilious and -derisive smile. - -About Easter time the city begins to swarm with Russian pilgrims. -These are, perhaps, the only real religious enthusiasts among the -crowds who annually come to worship at the Holy City, and no one who -has seen the reverence with which they look upon everything in the -place—even to the drunken monk who admits them into the church—or -the genuine emotion and awe which they display when kneeling before -the site of some absurd tradition, can doubt for one moment of their -sincerity. Many a weary mile must they tramp along in their native -land, many an unheard of hardship must they encounter before they -can toil up the sides of Mount Sinai, or reach the foot of Calvary; -and yet they never seem to grow sick or faint-hearted, but plod on -with a marvellous steadiness of purpose, and whenever you meet a -Russian pilgrim, whether it be in the midst of the scorching desert -or by the shady banks of Jordan, he will greet you with a respectful -salutation and a bright contented face. At Jerusalem itself they may -well be content, for the Russian government has built a hospice near -the Jaffa gate where thousands of these poor pilgrims are taken in -and cared for. This immense establishment is furnished with -dormitories, refectories, chapel, reading-rooms, hospitals, &c., and -for cleanliness and good management would compare favourably with -any institution of the kind in Europe. - -The Copts have a large monastery of their own immediately contiguous -to the Holy Sepulchre, and have contrived, by bribing a Turkish -official, to appropriate a great portion of the funds and buildings -belonging to the Abyssinians too. At the back of the chapel of the -Holy Sepulchre, under the dome, is a little oratory belonging to -this sect. The Copts of Jerusalem are little better than -transplanted Egyptian Fellahín; their large round features and heavy -looks easily distinguish them from the rest of the population. - -The Abyssinians are an exceedingly gentle and inoffensive community. -They are principally employed as domestic servants by the European -residents in the city. They have a monastery, or, rather, a few -cells amidst the ruins of what was once a monastery, in an open -court over the Chapel of Helena, part of the buildings of the Holy -Sepulchre. Here a few monks and a few nuns live in the utmost -squalor and misery, subsisting on charity, and in a chronic state of -fever. They exhibit great kindness and affection for their -compatriots, and are always ready to assist from their own scanty -means any Abyssinian who may come to them in distress. They are -perhaps the only monks to whom can be conscientiously applied the -name of men. - -The Armenians are a thriving and industrious people, and their -quarter is the only one in Jerusalem in which any regard is evinced -for cleanliness or order. The large convent of St. James, the son of -Zebedee, on Mount Sion, belongs to them, and the street immediately -outside its gates might almost be mistaken for that of some European -continental town. The church is the most richly decorated of any in -the city, and, amongst other curiosities, possesses the chair -traditionally supposed to have belonged to St. James. The patriarch -is a gentleman and an accomplished man of the world, and even -amongst the monks may be found some who devote themselves to -photography and other useful arts. The Armenian is easily -distinguishable by a florid complexion, very prominent nose, and -dark hair. - -The Georgians are a small and insignificant body, occupying the -Convent of the Holy Cross outside Jerusalem, to the left of the -Jaffa road. - -Of the Occidental Christian communities need only be mentioned the -Latins. Amongst a number of monks of the conventional low Romish -type, there are a few intellectual men, who devote themselves to -educating the poor peasantry of the neighbourhood. Their convents -are more orderly, have more of life in them, than those of the -Oriental Christians, and one is bound to say that the Latin clergy -in Jerusalem do make the best of that parent of all social evils, -the celibacy of the priesthood. - -The Jews of Jerusalem are almost entirely supported by their -co-religionists in Europe, upon whose charity they impose, and whose -name they disgrace. They are divided into two classes: the -Ashkenazim, who consist chiefly of emigrants from Germany and -Poland, and the Sephardim, who claim connexion with the old Hebrew -families of Spain. The Sephardim are far superior to the others, -both in culture and in manners, and have occasionally a certain air -of Oriental dignity about them. The Ashkenazim, on the contrary, -are, for the most part, mean and disreputable in appearance, and -apparently belong to the lowest orders of society. With his dull, -exaggerated German-Jewish features, his ridiculous garb,—a long -eastern _caftan_, or vest, and a broad-brimmed slouch hat, from -which depend on either side of the face the Pharisaic love-locks—the -Ashkenaz Jew of Palestine resembles nothing so much as his -representative in modern theatrical burlesque. The services in their -synagogue are conducted in a shamefully careless and indifferent -manner; and the weekly ceremony of “wailing over the stones of the -Temple,” when not regarded through that distorting medium of -religious enthusiasm which too many travellers bring with them to -the Holy Land, is simply a farce. - -This picture is a melancholy one; much as one may wish that it could -have been painted in brighter colours, it is best to present -truthfully the impression which the modern city makes upon most -travellers whose eyes are not blinded by the associations clinging -to its soil. Filled with abuses, its sacred shrines defiled, and -their worshippers exposed to constant danger and insult, Jerusalem -is indeed “trodden down of the Gentiles until the time of the -Gentiles be fulfilled.” - - - - - APPENDIX. - THE POSITION OF THE SACRED SITES. - - -There are very many difficulties in the way of a reconstruction of -the City of Herod. The course of the second and third walls, the -position of Antonia, and even that of the Temple itself, have been -made the subject of very keen and bitter controversy; and, coming to -later times, the site of Constantine’s buildings on and round the -Holy Sepulchre has been assigned to two positions. Without -attempting to go thoroughly into the question, which would not only -take too much space, but would give this volume a character quite -foreign to our purpose, let us only state the ground taken up as to -the two chief sites only, that of the Temple and that of the Holy -Sepulchre. - -Everyone has seen plans of the modern city. The eastern side is -mainly occupied by what is called the Haram Area, a four-sided space -surrounded by vast walls, which are, in some places, buried a -hundred feet deep in _débris_. One only of its angles is a perfect -right angle, that at the south-west corner. In the middle -is a platform constructed round a rough rock, projecting -above the surface; in the rock is a cave. Above it is the -Kubbet-es-Sakhrah—the Dome of the Rock—an octagonal building of very -great beauty. Along the southern wall are various mosques and -praying places, the most conspicuous being the Jámi‘-el-Aksa. -Tradition has always assigned to the platform in the centre the site -of Solomon’s and Herod’s Temples, but Mr. Fergusson, followed by -Messrs. Lewin, Thrupp, and others, places the Temple in the -south-west corner, measuring off six hundred feet from each angle to -get its limits. We have thus, without considering minor points of -difference, two sites for the Temple. - -The so-called Church of the Holy Sepulchre is situated in the -western part of the city, north of what is now called Mount Zion. -There, according to the voice of tradition, were erected the -buildings of Constantine, and there has existed, ever since, the -cave which Christians have reverenced as the Sepulchre in which our -Lord lay. - -Mr. Fergusson maintains, on the other hand, that the Dome of the -Rock is a building erected by Constantine to cover the Sepulchre of -our Lord, and that the cave in the rock is the Sepulchre itself. To -support this he endeavours to prove that the rock was not enclosed -by the city walls at the time of the crucifixion; that the cave may -very well have been a tomb: and that, independent of all argument -from architecture, the description of historians and pilgrims accord -with his position of the church, up to the end of the tenth century, -over the rock in the Haram Area. And at some period, most probably -after the demolition by Hakem in 969, the Christians abandoned the -old site, and collected money to build a new church on the present -site, which they pretended was the real site. - -There are three ways of considering the question: by excavation, by -history, and by arguments derived from a study of the architecture. -For the first, Captain Warren is the only person who has excavated, -on a scale of sufficient magnitude to produce results which bear -upon the question at all. We subjoin a few of his results and -opinions, with one or two brief explanatory remarks: - - (1.) He has made a contour map of This makes the altar of - the whole hill on which the Haram Solomon’s Temple, provided - Area stands. From this, a most that was in the south-west - important contribution to the angle, some forty feet below - topographical question, it the present surface. But was - appears that the hill was, much not the altar on the - as Josephus describes it, steep threshing-floor of Araunah? - and almost precipitous. From the Further, the threshing-floors - top of the rock to the lowest of Syria are now about the - point in the south wall, a tops of high places, open to - distance of seven hundred feet, the four winds, and not on - there is a dip of one hundred and slopes, particularly steep - fifty feet, i.e., one in five. slopes. - - (2.) He thinks that the east wall By Mr. Fergusson’s theory, the - is the most ancient, and the east wall is more modern than - south-west angle a later the west; but see, below, the - addition, probably of Herod. His evidence of Josephus, p. 5. - opinion is principally founded on - the masonry of the stones laid - bare at the foundations. - - (3.) He has found what he thinks This wall, in Mr. Fergusson’s - was the old Ophel wall, running plan, springs from the Triple - from the south-east angle round Gate. - the ridge of the hill. - - (4.) He has examined the Triple - Gate for remains of the eastern - wall _and finds none_. - - (5.) He has found what have been Would Phœnician characters - pronounced by an eminent have been used by Herod’s - authority to be Phœnician workmen? - characters at the south-east and - north-east angles. - - (6.) He has found on the If Mr. Fergusson is correct, - north-side of the platform of the these may be remains of the - Dome of the Rock certain Church of Justinian. But they - foundations, the remains of some may just as well prove to be - older building. But as yet no part of the foundations of the - further examination of the arches Temple. - then discovered has been - possible. - - (7.) He discovered the actual The foundations of the wall - remains of the great bridge which were found to cross a - crossed the valley at the carefully constructed older - south-west corner. aqueduct. Now if the west wall - was Solomon’s, who built the - aqueduct? It must have been - either David or the Jebusites, - and one always imagines that - before Solomon’s time there - were few buildings or - constructions, if any, in - Jerusalem; certainly not - aqueducts. - - (8.) Jar handles were found at Of course no direct inference - the south-east corner with can be drawn from the finding - inscriptions in Phœnician of anything small below the - character of the same period as surface. Tobacco pipes were - the Moabite stone. found thirty or forty feet - below the surface, but no one - has concluded therefrom that - the kings of Israel smoked - tobacco. - - (9.) He thinks that “Solomon’s If this is so, no argument can - Stables” are “a reconstruction rest upon the manifest - from the floor upwards, and it is inability of the vaults as - probable from the remains of an they now are to support the - arch described by Captain Wilson Royal Cloister. - at the south-east angle, that the - original vaulting was of a much - more solid and massive - character.” - -Most of these results and opinions, it will be found, weigh very -heavily in favour of the traditional view. At the same time an -opinion may always be wrong. - -II. Let us pass on to the evidence given by history. - -The only historical evidence we can rely on as to the actual site of -the Temple, on which subject little information can be found in the -Bible itself, is to be obtained from Josephus. We refer to three -passages: - - (1.) Antiq. viii., 3, § 9. - - “When Solomon had filled up great Solomon, therefore, following - valleys with earth, and had the practice common to all - elevated the ground four hundred nations, built his temple in - cubits, he made it to be on a such a place, that it should - level with _the top of the occupy a commanding position, - mountain on which the Temple was and should be an object of - built_, and by this means the mark for the surrounding - outmost temple, which was exposed country. - to the air, _was even with the - Temple itself_.” - - (2.) Bell. Jud., v., ch. 5, § 1. - - “Now this temple was built upon a This is exactly confirmatory - strong hill. At first the _plain of the preceding. It proves - at the top was hardly sufficient that Josephus, and therefore - for the holy house and the the Jews, believed the altar, - altar_, for the ground about it _wherever it really was_, to - was very uneven, and like a be the top of the hill. - precipice; but when King Solomon, See, however, above, Capt. - who was the person that built the Warren’s results, No. 1. - Temple, had built a wall to it on - its east side, there was then - added one cloister, founded on a - bank cast up for it, and in the - other parts the holy house stood - naked; but in after ages, the - people added new banks, and the - hill became a larger plain. They - then broke down the wall on the - north side,and took in as much as - sufficed afterwards for the - compass of the entire Temple.” - - (3.) Antiq. xx., ch. 9, § 7 - - “They persuaded Agrippa to This evidence proves that a - rebuild the eastern cloisters. wall was built _before_ the - These cloisters belonged to the time of Herod, and - outer court, _and were situated traditionally by Solomon, _in - in a deep valley_, and had walls a deep valley_ east of the - that reached four hundred cubits Temple. By reference to Capt. - [in length], and were built of Warren’s contour map, it will - square and very white stones, the be observed that by no - length of each of which stones possibility can this be stated - was twenty cubits, and their of a wall starting from the - height six cubits. This was the Temple gate. - work of King Solomon, who first - of all built the entire Temple. - But King Agrippa, who had the - care of the Temple committed to - him by Claudius Cæsar, - considering that it is easy to - demolish any building, but hard - to build it up again, and that it - was particularly hard to do it to - those cloisters, which would - require a considerable time, and - great sums of money, he denied - the petitioners their request - about that matter.” - -Next, let us take the historical evidence from Eusebius downwards, -as to the site of the Sepulchre. We adduce the principal passages -which bear on the question. - -First comes Eusebius. His evidence we have given in full (p. 57). It -seems to us to amount to this:— - -Constantine, taking down a temple to Venus which had been, according -to tradition, built over the site of the Holy Sepulchre, and -clearing away the earth, found a tomb, cut in the rock, still -remaining. His workmen immediately concluded that this could be no -other than the tomb of our Lord. He surrounded it with pillars and -decorations. In front of it, or round about it, he made a level -place. On the east side of the level place he built a magnificent -church, the Basilica of the Martyrion, _the only church_ which he -erected at all. In front of this church was an open market-place. -Market-places, it may be remarked, are always in the middle of -towns, not on the outside. - -Eusebius is contemporary with the event, and writes as if he -actually witnessed the building of the church and the decoration of -the tomb. His evidence is therefore of the highest importance; and -from him it would appear that Constantine _built no church over the -Sepulchre at all_. - -We come next to the accounts left behind by pilgrims and others. -First in order comes the Bordeaux pilgrim, who was in Jerusalem -while Constantine’s buildings were being erected. His account is as -follows:— - -“Also to you going out into Jerusalem, to ascend Sion, on the left -hand and down below in valley by the wall in the pool which is -called Siloam.... In the same way Sion is ascended, and then appears -the place where was the house of Caiaphas the priest; and the column -is still there at which they beat Christ with scourges. But within, -inside the Sion wall, is seen the place where David had his palace, -and [where were] seven synagogues, which once were there, [but] one -only remains [standing], for the rest are ploughed up and sowed -over, as Isaiah the prophet hath said. Thence, in order to go -outside the wall, to those going to the Neapolitan gate, on the -right hand, down in the valley, are walls where was the house or -prætorium of Pontius Pilate. There our Lord was heard before He -suffered. But on the left hand is the hill of Golgotha, where the -Lord was crucified. Thence about a stone’s throw is the crypt where -His body was placed, and (from which) He rose again on the third -day. There, lately, by order of Constantine, a Basilica has been -built, that is, a church of wonderful beauty,” &c., &c., &c. - -(2.) St. Cyril. Fourth century.[82] - -“The cleft (or entrance) which was at the door of the Salutary -Sepulchre, was hewn out of the rock itself, as is customary here in -the front of sepulchres. For now it appears not, the outer cave -having been hewn away for the sake of the present adornment;[83] for -before the sepulchre was decorated by royal seal, there was a cave -in the face of the rock.”[84] - -Footnote 82: - - Taken from Williams’ ‘Holy City,’ vol. ii., p. 80, and p. 172. - -Footnote 83: - - Can this remark apply to the rock, rough and unshapen, in the Dome - of the Rock? See Williams’ ‘Holy City,’ vol. ii. - -Footnote 84: - - It may be observed on this passage that the so-called Tomb of - Absalom, as has been discovered by M. Clermont Ganneau, was - originally a cave, but the rock has been cut away on all sides - from it, so that it now stands out like a built monument. - -(3.) Antoninus Martyrus gives the following facts:— - -“From the monument to Golgotha is eighty paces,” _i.e._, about two -hundred feet. But between Siloam and Golgotha is a distance of about -a mile. - -(4.) Antiochus the Monk. A.D. 630. - -Modestus ... templa Salvatoris nostri Jesu Christi, quæ quidem -barbarico igni conflagrarunt, in sublime erigit omni prorsus digna -veneratione, puta ædes Calvariæ ac Sanctæ Resurrectionis; domum -insuper dignam omni honore venerandæ crucis, quæ mater ecclesiarum -est.[85] - -Footnote 85: - - See Williams’ ‘Holy City,’ ii., 263. - -(5.) Arculf. A.D. 695. - -Bishop Arculf, returning from pilgrimage to the Holy Land to his -bishopric in France, was wrecked and cast away in the Hebrides, -whither contrary winds had carried the vessel. He was hospitably -received by Adamnanus, the Abbot of Iona, and beguiled the winter -evenings by narrating his adventures in Palestine, and describing -the sacred sites. The abbot wrote down his account, and sent copies -of it to different parts of England. Bede gives an abridgment. -Arculf also made a plan of the Church of the Sepulchre, which has -come down to our times. - -“The Church of the Holy Sepulchre ... is supported by twelve stone -columns of extraordinary magnitude. In the middle space is a round -grotto (tegurium) cut in the rock itself, about a foot and a half -higher than a man of full stature, _in which nine men could stand -and pray_.[86] The entrance of the grotto is on the east side; on -the north side, within, is the tomb of our Lord, hewn out of the -rock, seven feet in length, and raised three feet above the floor. -Internally the stone of the rock remains in its original state, and -still exhibits the mark of the workman’s tools. To this round -church, which is called the Anastasis, that is, the Resurrection, -adjoins on the right side the square church of the Virgin Mary, and -to the east of this another church of great magnitude is built on -the spot called in Hebrew Golgotha, from the roof of which there is -hung by ropes a great brazen wheel with lamps....” - -And in another place, “In that famous place where was formerly the -splendidly-built temple, in the neighbourhood of the eastern wall, -the Saracens have erected a quadrangular house of prayer, ... which -house is able to contain about three thousand men at once.” - -Footnote 86: - - The cave of the Sakhra contains an area of five hundred square - feet; certainly one could hardly expect a writer having this area - in his mind to say that it could only contain nine men. - -(6.) Willibald. A.D. 765.[87] - -The Sepulchre had been cut out of the rock: and the rock itself -stands out above the ground, and is square at the bottom and grows -pointed at the top. On its summit is the Cross of the Sepulchre; and -thereupon is built a beautiful house; and on the eastern side in -that stone of the Sepulchre is a gate by which men enter within to -pray; and there is within the couch on which lay the body of the -Lord. - -Footnote 87: - - Given in Fergusson’s ‘Jerusalem,’ p. 160, and in Bonney’s ‘Holy - Places,’ p. 23. - - (7.) Bernhard the Wise. A.D. 807. This account agrees with - Bernhard[88] describes the Arculf’s. It is difficult to - group, as of “four churches fit these churches into the - connected together by walls, that Haram Area. Building was - is to say, one in the east, which always going on, which - has Mount Calvary: and one in the accounts for the difference - place in which the Cross of the between this story and that of - Lord was found, which is called Willibald’s. - the Basilica of Constantine: - another to the south, and a - fourth to the west, in the middle - of which is the sepulchre of the - Lord.... Between these four - churches is a Paradise without a - roof, the walls of which shine - with gold, and the pavement with - precious marble. In the midst of - it is an inclosure of four - chains, which proceed from the - aforesaid four churches, and in - it said to be the centre of the - world.” - -Footnote 88: - - Williams’ ‘Holy City,’ ii., 264. - -With a very few trifling exceptions, which may be found enumerated -in the ‘Bible Atlas,’ p. 73, the whole voice of writers since the -tenth century is clearly and unmistakably in favour of the present -site. - -We must not omit to notice the opinion of Mr. Lewin, that the Dome -of the Rock was originally the Temple of Jupiter, which Dion Cassius -tells us was built on the site of Herod’s Temple. But he goes on to -suppose that Hadrian was deceived as to the real situation of the -Temple, a thing which seems to us impossible. The foundations which -the Mohammedans found when they began to build, may very well have -been those of the Temple of Jupiter, and many of the old pillars may -have been used for the new Dome. The destruction of the Temple was -probably due to Chosroes, who clearly left nothing standing at all. -It may, however, have been destroyed by the pious zeal of the -Christians. - -So far therefore, as the historical evidence goes, it appears to us -that the following facts come out with great clearness. - -(1.) Josephus, and therefore the Jews generally, believed that -Solomon’s temple was built on the highest part of the hill, the -ground being afterwards raised artificially. - -(2.) Herod’s temple was built, with greater magnificence, in the -same spot. - -(3.) Hadrian built a temple to Jupiter on the Temple Hill. - -(4.) Julian attempted to rebuild the temple itself from its old -foundations. Did he, to effect this object, first destroy the Temple -of Jupiter? If not, who did? - -(5.) For four centuries after this the place remained a receptacle -for filth of all kinds, but not forgotten. - -(6.) Omar erected a small mosque in front of it (p. 76). - -(7.) ‘Abd el Melik and his successors repaired the whole Masjid (the -Haram Area), built the Mosque el Aksa, and the Dome of the Rock (p. -79). - -(8.) The Crusaders called the Dome of the Rock, _Templum Domini_, -the Temple of the Lord, to distinguish it from the Mosque el Aksa, -which they called _Templum Solomonis_, the Palace of Solomon. - -With regard to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, we have the -following data furnished us. - -(1.) Constantine decorated the cave, and erected a magnificent -Basilica over the site of the Crucifixion. - -(2.) All Constantine’s buildings were destroyed by Chosroes; and -rebuilt, after a fashion, by Modestus, with the assistance of John -Eleemon, Patriarch of Alexandria. - -(3.) The Mohammedans at the taking of the city spared the Church of -the Holy Sepulchre. - -(4.) Hakem ordered the destruction of the church. This was done, and -collections were made in every part of the Christian world to -rebuild it. - -(5.) This church was burned down in 1808. - -With regard to the discrepancies in the accounts given by pilgrims, -and the impossibility of completely harmonizing their descriptions -with any theory of sites, this may be remarked: Too much stress must -not be laid upon the accuracy or inaccuracies of stories told by -early travellers. Why should we look for accuracy in the narrative -of a pilgrimage spent in a state of mental _exaltation_, of which we -cold-blooded Christians can have no possible idea? When the pilgrim, -arrived at the goal of his journey, was crawling on his knees from -site to site, praying and praising, abandoning himself to all the -emotions which the memories of the places evoked, was it a time to -pull out the measuring tape and to count the paces? - -To sum up, next, the historical evidence as regards the Dome of the -Rock. - -(1.) When Mohammedan writers speak of the Masjid el Aksa, they mean, -not the Mosque el Aksa, but the whole Haram Area, including all the -oratories, mosques, minarets, &c. - -(2.) All these were built, as has been related, chap. IV., by ‘Abd -el Melik. - -(3.) The Dome of the Rock is only a supplementary building (see p. -83). - -(4.) When the pulpit, the ‘kiblah,’ &c., of the Masjid el Aksa is -spoken of, we must refer it to the Jami‘ el Aksa. - -The Haram Area, when Omar visited it first, presented an aspect -somewhat similar to what it has at present, so far as its outward -walls, dimensions, and general level are concerned. In the centre -was the rock, where, as everybody knew, had been the Temple. This -was covered with rubbish and filth. And round the rock, and about -it, were certain old foundations, most likely those of Hadrian’s -Temple to Jupiter, possibly those of the Temple of Herod. Along the -south wall were extensive ruins. At the south-east angle lay arches -and substructures overthrown; and further west the ruins of a -Christian church, most probably that of Justinian’s church, now the -Jami‘ el Aksa. All these substructures were repaired by the -Mohammedans, the position of the walls being, naturally, retained. -Then, being desirous of building a dome over the Sacred Rock, ‘Abd -el Melik issued letters and collected money. He first designed and -built a small dome, the same which is now called the Cubbet es -Silsilah, for a treasury. He was so pleased with the work that he -ordered his great dome to be built on the same model. The Dome of -the Rock must not be compared with other mosques, because it is not -one, and was never meant for one, but it may advantageously be -compared with other _welis_, or Mohammedan oratories. Therefore no -argument can be drawn from what would be an exceptional shape for a -mosque. - -It must be distinctly understood that Arabic historians are as clear -and explicit as to the building of this splendid dome as we should -be over the building of St. Paul’s by Christopher Wren; and that in -the account given by us (p. 79 _et seq._) no single sentence is -inserted for which there is not full authority in the Arabic -historians. - -The third and last method of argument is from architecture. History -may be misinterpreted. It may even purposely deceive. But -architecture cannot lie. Within limits, superior and inferior, the -date of a building can be assigned to it. These limits approach each -other more nearly as we come to modern times. Architects find no -difficulty, for instance, in distinguishing buildings of the -fifteenth from those of the sixteenth century. But the limits recede -from each other as we go back. Therefore it is that this is an -argument, as concerns the Holy Sepulchre, which can only be used by -hands of the greatest experience. Nor ought any conclusion to be -generally accepted by the world until it has been acceded to by a -majority of that small number of architects competent to judge. Mr. -Fergusson has written on the architecture of the Dome of the Rock; -his conclusions however have not met with the approval of -authorities, such as Professor Willis, or the Count de Vogüé, of -equal rank with himself. Until architects agree, then, surely we -have nothing to rest on but the historical evidence. - - - - - INDEX. - - - Abu Bekr, 66 - Abu ’l Casím, 431 - Abu ’l Faraj, 430 - Abu ’l Fath Nasr, 431 - Abu Ishak, 428 - Abu Obeidah, 70, 423 - Abu Saíd Barkúk, 435 - Abu Táher, 95 - Abúdat ibn es Sámit, 424 - Abyssinians, 475 - Acre, 367, 391, 406, 464 - Adana, 166 - Adhémar, 144, 145, 171, 173, 175 - Ælia Capitolina, 54 - Afdhal, 196, 330 - Agrippa, chap. i. - Akiba (Rabbi), 51 - Albinus, 8 - Alexandria surrenders to Shirkoh, 307; - taken by Amaury, 308 - Alexis Comnenus, chap. vi. - Alice of Antioch, 253, 261 - Alimi, El, 438 - Al Imám es Shafi, 429 - Amaury, King, chap. xiv. - Amaury de Lusignan, 444 - Andrew’s Crusade, 451 - Anselm, vision of, 178 - Antioch, siege of, 170 - Antoninus, 118 - Arabs, their character and arts, 91 - Armenians, 475 - Arm of Ambrose, loss of, 207 - Arnold, 176, 185, 216 - Arnulphus, 118 - Ascalon, 107, 287, 408 - Ashraf Barsebai, Sultan, 435 - —— Catibai, Sultan El, 439 - —— Einál, Sultan El, 438 - —— Shaban, Es Sultan, 434 - Assassins, murder of messenger, 319; - sect of, 322 - Assises de Jerusalem, 202 - - Babain, battle of, 307 - Baghi Seyan, 170 - Baldwin I., chap. viii., 166, 201 - —— II., chap. ix. - —— III., chap. xi., 269 - —— IV., chap. xiii. - —— V., 343 - Baldwin du Bourg, 225, 231, and chap. ix. - Balian of Ibelin, 352 - Barcochebas, 52 - Battle of Lake Huleh, 292 - Bedawín in Jerusalem, 441 - Beirût, attempt on, 413 - Bellál ibn Rubáh, 424 - Benjamin of Tudela, 328 - Berenice, 14 - Bernard, 277 - Bertram of Tripoli, 227 - Bertrand de Blanqueford, 310 - Bether, 53 - ——, identification of, 54 - Beyrout, 10 - ——, taking of, 228 - Bir el Warakah (Well of the Leaf), 421 - Bishop’s Pilgrimage, 136 - Blanchegarde, 267 - Bohemond, 156, 224 - Bordeaux Pilgrim, 116 - Burham-ed-dín, Sheik, 437 - Burzíyeh, castle of, 395 - - Cadam es Sheríf, 419 - Cadhi of Jerusalem, 437 - Cæsarea, 7, 16, 179, 219 - Calaun, Es Sultan, 434 - Caliph of Cairo, 305 - Carmathians, the, 95 - Carrier pigeons, 401 - Cestius Gallus, 10; - defeat of, 17 - Chain, ordeal of the, 420 - Charlemagne, 123 - Chiefs of First Crusade, 135 - Children’s Crusade, 448 - Chosroes takes Jerusalem and destroys Church of Holy Sepulchre, 63 - Christians of city imprisoned, 441 - Claudius Felix, 6 - Clermont, Council of, 144 - Cœnaculum, 436 - Coloman, King, chap. vi. - Completion of Temple, 9 - Conrad of Tyre, 367 - Constance of Antioch, 288 - Constantine builds Basilica, 59; - decrees against Jews, 60 - Copts, 475 - Cruelty of Christians, 404, 406 - Crusades, time ripe for, 169 - Crusaders, return of, 199 - Cubbet el Míráj, 420 - Cuspius Fadus, 3 - - Dagobert, 201, 214, 216, 217, 222 - Damascus, siege of, 283 - Damietta, 452 - ——, Greek fleet at, 315 - Darúm, capture of, 411 - Dhaher Chakmak, El Melik, 435 - ——, El Melik el, 433 - Dhia-ed-Dín, 432 - Dome of the Rock, erection of, 79; - repair of, 83, 93; - inscription in, 86; - not a mosque, 85 - Druzes, their teaching, 106 - - Earthquake in Palestine, 316 - Eastern Cloisters, 9 - Edessa, fall of, 272 - Edgar Atheling, 155 - Edrei, 273 - Effects of Christian occupation, 245 - El Adhed, 332 - El Arish, 233 - El Emád, 387 - El Ghazálí, 432 - Eleanor, Queen, 281 - Emico, 151 - End of the world expected, 133 - Es Sirát, Bridge of, 422 - Eusebius, 57, _et seq._ - Eustace de Bouillon, 237 - —— Garnier, 239 - Ezz-ed-dín, 438 - - Fair of September, 127 - Fakhr-ed-dín, 456 - Fálek-ed-dín, 411 - Famine in Egypt, 445 - —— in city, 439 - Fatemite Caliphs, 300 - Festus, 8 - Florus, Gessius, 10, 11, 12, 13 - Foulcher de Chartres, 213 - Fragrant herb, consecration of the, 427 - Francis of Assisi, 458 - Frederic D. of Swabia, 367 - Frederick II., 453 - —— Redbeard, 365 - Freisingen, Bishop of, 280 - Frotmond, story of, 124 - Fulke, chap. x., 254 - —— the Black, 133 - —— de Neuilly, 445 - - Garnier de Grey, 211 - Georgians, 476 - Gessius Florus, 10 - Ghars-ed-dín, 439 - Godfrey, chap. vii., 154, 181 - Gorgona, disaster in Valley of, 164 - Gotschalk, 151 - Gregory IX., 454 - Guy de Lusignan, chap. xiv., 339 - Guymer, 167 - - Hadrian, 51; - builds Temple of Jupiter on site of Temple, 54 - Hajj, the, 417 - Hakem, el, 99, 129 - Haram repaired, 442 - Harûn Er Raschíd, 123 - Helena, Life of, 55; - Invention of the Cross, 56 - Henry of Champagne, 367, 369, 443 - Heraclius, 64, 67, 68 - —— the Patriarch, 341 - Hisam-ed-dín, 438 - Holy Fire, miracle of, 216 - Holy Grail, the, 219 - Holy Lance, vision of the, 173; - discovery of, 174 - Holy Sepulchre, discovery of, 57; - adornment of, 58 - Hugh of Cæsarea, 304 - —— of Jaffa, 263 - —— Vermandois, 157, 205, 209 - Humphrey de Toron, 346, 394 - - Ida of Austria, 209 - Ilgazi, 238 - Imposture of Easter fire, 474 - Innocent III., 445 - Interdicts in Palestine, 290 - - Jamí-en-Nisá, 421 - Jerome, 114 - Jerusalem, Repair of the walls, 410 - —— Siege of, by Titus, chap. ii. - —— Siege and fall of, 354 - —— Taking of, by Saladin, 385 - Jesus, son of Ananus, 25 - Jews, heroism of, 44 - Jocelyn, 239, 241, 260 - —— II., 271 - John de Brienne, 446, 452 - —— Comnenus, 265 - —— of Gischala, chap. ii. - Josephus, chap. ii - Judas the Galilæan, 3 - Julian, attempts to rebuild the Temple, 61 - - Ka‘abeh, the, desertion of, 96 - Khalit ibn el Walíd, 424 - Kharezmians, 459 - Khotbah of Muhiy-ed-dín, 388 - King, choice of, 191 - Knights Hospitallers, foundation of, 247 - —— Templars, foundation of, 249 - Kokeb, capture of, 397 - - Lietbert, 135 - Longsword, William, 337 - Louis VII., chap. x. - —— IX., 461 - - Macám en nebé, 421 - Macarias, 135 - Maghárah, the, 419 - Manahem, 15 - Manners of the Syrian Christians, 295 - Maria of Constantinople, 309 - Masjid el Aksa, 75, 381 - Mejír-ed-dín, 439 - Milan, Bishop of, 206; - his army entirely destroyed, 207 - Milicent, 263, 270, 293 - Milo de Plancy, 336 - Moazzem, El Melik el, 433 - Modern city, chap. xix. - —— native Christians, 473 - —— Jews of Jerusalem, 476 - Mohammedan beliefs, 422 - —— pilgrims, chap. xvii. - Mohammed ibn Karrám, 430 - ——, Sultan, 434 - Montferrat, assassination of Marquis of, 369, 410 - Montreal, capture of, 302 - Mount Tarsus, passes of, 169 - - Nahr el Casb, battle of, 407 - Nasir-ed-dín, 438 - Nasír Farj, Sultan, 435 - Naval defeat of Mohammedans, 392 - Nero, 8 - Nevers, Duke of, 208; - defeat of, 209 - —— Count of, 309 - Nicæa, battle of, 153; - siege of, 162 - Nicephorus Phocas, 97, 128 - Nicolas, preacher, 447 - Nûr-ed-dín, 284, 292, 294, 301, 303, 309, 319, 327 - Nuseiríyeh, doctrines of the, 425 - - Odolric, 132 - Omar, Caliph, 68, _et seq._ - Ordeal by fire, 177 - Order of St. Lazarus, 247 - - Pancrates, 168 - Paula and Eudoxia, 114 - Penances, 446 - Peregrinationes, majores et minores, 121 - Peter the Hermit, 141, and throughout chap. vi. - Philip Augustus, 365 - —— of Flanders, 337 - Pilgrim’s Progress, The, 118 - —— service, the, 120 - Pilgrimage, passion for, 113 - Plague in Jerusalem, 441 - Pons of Tripoli, 265 - Population of Jerusalem, 23 - Porphyry, 114 - Position of sacred sites, _Appendix_ - Pyrrhus, 171 - - Rabbinical Law, 48 - Rains at Jerusalem, 440 - Ramleh, 179, 220 - Raymond, grand master of Hospitallers, 289 - —— of Plaisance, 134 - —— Poitiers, 262 - —— Toulouse, 155, 198, 200, 206, 225 - Relics, finding of, 126, _et passim_ - Renaud de Chatillon, 288, 289, 291, 339, 371, 380 - —— of Sidon, 398 - Renegades, story of, at Cyprus, 403 - Richard Cœur de Lion, chap. xv., and 404 - —— of St. Vitou, 135 - —— of Cornwall, 459 - Robert of Flanders, 158, 172, 190 - —— Normandy, 155, 171 - —— Orleans, 130 - Roger of Antioch, 230 - Russian pilgrims, 475 - Rutebeuf, 462 - - Safiyah bint Hai, 429 - Sakhrah, Mohammedan belief concerning, 419 - —— purification of, by Saladin, 388 - Saladin, 319, 338, 347, 350, 365, chap. xvi. - Saladin’s holy war, 377 - Samaritans, 5, 62 - Second Crusade, 277 - Seif-ed-dín, 358, 404 - Selman el Farsí, 427 - Sepulchre, Church of the, destroyed by Chosroes, 64; - rebuilt by Modestus, 64; - by Thomas, 93; - destroyed by Hakem, 103 - Shakíf, fortress of, 397 - Sharafál, 437 - Shawer, 301, 311, 313 - —— and Dhargam, 301 - Sheddád ibn Aus, 427 - Shehab-ed-dín, 439 - Sherf-ed-dín, 439 - Shírkoh, 312 - Sicarii, 6 - Sigard of Norway, 228 - Simon Ben Gioras, chap. ii. - Sophronius, 72 - Stephanus, 5 - Stephen of Blois, 155, 172, 205 - ——, Count of Perche, 292 - Sufyan eth Thori, 429 - Súkel Marifah, 421 - Sybille, 337, 339, 367, chap. xiv. - Sylvester converts the Jews, 60 - - Tancred, 157, 179, 225 - Tell es Siyásíyeh, 399 - Templars, defeat of, 348 - Theodora of Constantinople, 293 - Theudas, 4 - Thierry of Flanders, 266 - Thomas (patriarch) rebuilds Church of Sepulchre, 93 - Tiberias, battle of, 350, 378 - Tiberius, Alexander, 4 - Tithe of Saladin, 363 - Titus: his army, 19; - number of, 20, 21; - besieges Jerusalem, chap. ii. - Toghrul Beg, 109 - Tomb of David, 436 - Tours, Council of, 458 - Trajan, revolt under, 49 - Tripoli, 226 - Truce between Saladin and Richard, 414 - True Cross, Invention of, 56; - discovery of piece of, 195 - —— loss of, 381 - Tutush, 111 - Tyre, 243 - —— siege of, 393 - - Umm el Kheir, 429 - - Ventidius Cumanus, 4, 5 - Vespasian in Galilee, 17; - taxes the Jews, 49 - - Walter the Penniless, 148 - Walter of Cæsarea, 263 - William of Cerdagne, 226 - Willibald, 123 - - Yaghmúri, El, 435 - Yarmúk, battle of, 69 - - Zanghi, 253, 262, 265, 270, 272, 330 - Zidugdi, 438 - Zimisces, 97, 129 - Ziráyeh, the, 417 - - - - - LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET - AND CHARING CROSS. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - Transcriber’s Note - -The transliteration of Arabic words proved difficult to render, -particularly with respect to multiple diacritical marks. The -printer seemed somewhat undecided about how best to represent the -hamza (ʿ) and ayn (ʾ). For example, <img class="inline" -src="images/coran.png" height="18" alt="coran" />, <img -class="inline" src="images/daidedoat.png" height="18" alt="dai̔ ed -doat" />, or <img class="inline" src="images/eshkaas.png" -height="18" alt="Eshka‘as" />, and sometimes omitting them (e.g. -<img class="inline" src="images/shafiite.png" height="18" -alt="Shafi‘íte" /> = ‘Shafiíte’ or ‘Shafiite’ for ‘Shafi‘íte’). -They are rendered here as left and right single quotes. Where the -mark is printed atop a letter, in mid-word, it is inserted to the -left. This avoids a number of unacceptable approximations, e.g., -where that hamza appears atop a Latin i, as in <img class="inline" -src="images/daidedoat.png" height="18" alt="dái̔ ed do‘át" />, -where the dot is retained in the italic form used in the text -(_dái̔_) - -The page reference (p. 585) for Saladin’s taking of Jersulem is -incorrect. It has been corrected to p. 385. - -Other errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have been -corrected, and are noted here. The references are to the page and -line in the original. The following issues should be noted, along -with the resolutions. - - 127.19 for dy[e]ing. Inserted. - - 138.12 but instead of helping Afsi[s/z] Replaced. - - 160.32 occupied by the caliphat[e] of Cordova Added. - - 179.9 the time was gone by fo[t/r] negotiation Replaced. - - 226.33 The next important place attac[h/k]ed Replaced. - - 239.3 allowed to d[e/i]sperse in various directions Replaced. - - 283.19 make themselves masters of the position[,/.] Replaced. - - 331.18 Shaw[a/e], as perfidious as he was ambitious Replaced. - - 343.1 religion, a famil[i]ar thing, Inserted. - - 353.14 Guy had taken it all[.] Added. - - 383.22 Saladin next attacked Beir[u/ú]t Replaced. - - 383.28 While he was at Beir[u/ú]t Replaced. - - 389.1 leaving an empty space between;[”] Removed. - Prob. - spurious. - - 400.2 the Grand Master of the Templars[,/.] Added. - - 473.18 called the House of St. Mark[,/.] Replaced. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Jerusalem, the City of Herod and -Saladin, by Walter Besant and Edward Henry Palmer - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JERUSALEM, THE CITY OF HEROD *** - -***** This file should be named 60319-0.txt or 60319-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/3/1/60319/ - -Produced by KD Weeks, Sonya Schermann and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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