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diff --git a/old/60258-0.txt b/old/60258-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 0fb726a..0000000 --- a/old/60258-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14443 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's New lands within the Arctic circle, by Julius Payer - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: New lands within the Arctic circle - Narrative of the discoveries of the Austrian ship - "Tegetthoff" in the years 1872-1874 - -Author: Julius Payer - -Release Date: September 7, 2019 [EBook #60258] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW LANDS WITHIN THE ARCTIC CIRCLE *** - - - - -Produced by Albert László, Greg Bergquist and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - - -[Illustration: TWILIGHT AT MIDDAY, FEBRUARY 1874.] - - - - - NEW LANDS - WITHIN THE ARCTIC CIRCLE. - - _NARRATIVE OF THE DISCOVERIES - OF THE AUSTRIAN SHIP “TEGETTHOFF” - IN THE YEARS 1872-1874._ - - BY - JULIUS PAYER, - ONE OF THE COMMANDERS OF THE EXPEDITION. - - WITH MAPS AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS FROM DRAWINGS - BY THE AUTHOR. - - Translated from the German, with the Author’s Approbation. - - NEW YORK: - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, - 549 AND 551 BROADWAY. - 1877. - - - - -AUTHOR’S PREFACE. - - -In laying this book before the Public I desire, in the first instance, -to acknowledge without reserve my sense of the great merits of my -colleague, Lieutenant Weyprecht. The reader of the following pages will -learn with what unwearied, though fruitless, energy he struggled to free -the _Tegetthoff_ from her icy prison, and what dauntless courage and -unfailing command of resources he displayed in our hazardous retreat -from the abandoned ship, till the moment of our happy rescue. The order -and discipline maintained on board ship, and in the terrible march over -the Frozen Ocean, as well as in the perilous boat voyage after leaving -the ice-barrier, were mainly due to his distinguished abilities. He had -supreme command of the expedition, as long as its duties were strictly -nautical; when the operations of sledging and surveying began, I had the -responsibility of a separate and independent command. - -Nor ought I to be slow to pay my tribute of respect to the perseverance -and constant self-denial of Lieutenant Brosch and Midshipman Orel. It -would be difficult to determine, whether they shone more as officers of -the ship, or as observers of scientific phenomena. The highly important -duty of managing the stores and provisions was discharged also by -Lieutenant Brosch with a conscientiousness that secured the confidence of -all. - -To the watchful skill of Dr. Kepes we owed it, that the health and -constitution of the members of the expedition suffered so little from all -their hardships and privations. - -The conduct of the crew was on the whole praiseworthy. Their obedience to -command, their perseverance and resolution shown on every occasion, will -be cited as an example of what these virtues and qualities can achieve -amid the most appalling dangers and trials. - -With regard to my narrative, I make no claim for it founded on its -literary excellence; rather I sue for indulgence to its manifold -shortcomings. I have not written for the man of science, though I have -not shunned a few scientific details. Nor have I aimed at presenting a -record, which might be profitable to those who shall follow us in the -same career of discovery, though some hints will be found in my pages -which will not be without their use to those who may consult them for -information and guidance. Rather I have endeavoured to narrate our -sufferings, adventures, and discoveries in a manner which shall be -interesting to the general reader who reads to amuse himself. - -The magnetical and meteorological observations, so carefully taken and -tabulated by Weyprecht, Brosch, and Orel, together with the sketches of -the Fauna of the Frozen Ocean, drawn by myself from the collection of Dr. -Kepes, were presented to the Imperial Academy of Sciences of Vienna, and -will in due time be published under the auspices of that august body. - - - - -PRELIMINARY NOTICE BY THE TRANSLATOR. - - -It will be interesting to English readers to learn a few particulars -concerning the two leaders of the Austrian North Polar Expeditions. Carl -Weyprecht was born in Hesse-Darmstadt in 1838, and in his eighteenth -year entered the Austrian navy. Ten years afterwards he was present -at the action between the Austrian and Italian fleets at Lissa—July -20, 1866; was promoted to the rank of lieutenant of the second class, -and _decorated_ with the order of the Iron Cross in recognition of his -services in that battle. It was shortly after this, that Weyprecht -volunteered to take the command of a small vessel, manned by only -four seamen, which was to sail from Hammerfest to explore the Arctic -Ocean. This dauntless offer was the basis of the first German North -Polar expedition. When, however, permission to act in this capacity -was obtained, Lieutenant Weyprecht was serving on board the Austrian -frigate _Elizabeth_, which formed one of the squadron sent by the -Austrian Government to bring home the body of the ill-fated Maximilian. -Immediately on his return to Europe he repaired to Gotha, eager to place -his services at the command of the expedition which had meantime been -planned by Petermann and a committee of patrons of Arctic exploration. -But unhappily, just at this moment his health, which had suffered from -fever caught at New Orleans, failed, and the command of the expedition, -known as the first German North Polar Expedition (May 24-October 10, -1868), was undertaken by Captain Koldewey. It was only in 1871 that -he recovered his health, and in the June of that year began, in the -_Isbjörn_, his life of Arctic experience and discovery. In the following -year, 1872, he was appointed to the naval command of the expedition -which sailed in the _Tegetthoff_, whose strange and eventful history is -recorded in the following pages. - -His companion and colleague, Julius Payer, was born at Schönau in -Teplitz, Bohemia, in 1841, and received his education as a soldier at -the Wiener-Neustadt Military Academy, 1856-59, where General Sonnklar -was his teacher in geographical science, and early imbued his mind -with a love for the grandeurs of the glacier world. With the rank of -“Ober-Lieutenant” he served in the campaign of 1866 in Italy, and was -_decorated_ for his distinguished services at the battle of Custozza. -Afterwards, while serving with his regiment in Tyrol, he gained great -celebrity as one of the most successful Alpine climbers, and turned his -experience as a mountaineer to profit in his surveys of the Orteler -Alps and glaciers. Payer gained his first experience as an Arctic -discoverer in the second German North Polar Expedition, under Koldewey -and Hegemann—June 15, 1869-Sept. 11, 1870. His services during that -expedition were of a most distinguished character. He shared in the -most important discoveries which were then made, specially those of -König Wilhelm’s Land, and of the noble Franz-Josef Fjord. He acquired -in East Greenland the experience of sledging, which was of such eminent -use in his explorations of the great discovery of the _Tegetthoff_ -Expedition—Kaiser Franz-Joseph Land. He shines too as an author in his -descriptions of Greenland scenes, in the _Second German North Polar -Voyage_, published in 1874 by Brockhaus of Leipzig, and partially -reproduced in an English translation by the Rev. L. Mercier and Mr. H. W. -Bates. For these services, on the return of the expedition, he was again -_decorated_, receiving the order of the Iron Crown. - -In the voyage of the _Isbjörn_, June 21-Oct. 4, 1871, we find him -associated with Weyprecht in the pioneering voyage described in the -earlier part of this work, and lastly as joint commander of the renowned -_Tegetthoff_ expedition, June, 1872-September, 1874. - -The Gold Medals entrusted to the Royal Geographical Society were awarded -in 1875: the Founder’s Medal to Lieutenant Weyprecht, and the Patron’s -Medal to Lieutenant Julius Payer. - - * * * * * - -As these pages are passing through the Press, the country has been -deeply moved by the unexpected intelligence of the return of the -Arctic Expedition. Gratulations on its safe and happy return have been -unanimously and eagerly expressed by all the organs of public opinion. -Disappointment, however, has, we fear, fallen on many minds as, after -the first feelings of joy at the safe arrival of the officers and crews -of the _Alert_ and _Discovery_, they read the brief telegraphic summary -sent by Captain Nares: “Pole impracticable,”—“No land to northward.” -Popular enthusiasm looked rather for the conquest of the Pole; expected, -perhaps, to read, one day, that the Union Jack had been hoisted there, -to commemorate the triumph of England’s perseverance at last rewarded. -Few, we apprehend, would pass through the chill of these two clauses of -the message to mark the hope contained in the third—“voyage otherwise -successful.” In what special respects the success proclaimed was -achieved, we must patiently wait for a future record to reveal; but -while awaiting the history which no doubt will be written to justify and -prove this announcement, let us exercise our loyal belief in the skill -and courage of our countrymen, and feel persuaded that what men could do -under their circumstances no doubt was done by them. - -The interest which will be excited afresh in Arctic discovery and -adventure, will doubtless sharpen the interest in the volumes which -record the fortunes of the Austrian expedition; and we venture to -affirm—without undue partiality—that, though the history of Arctic -exploration and discovery abounds in records of lofty resolution and -patient endurance of almost incredible hardships, the narrative of the -voyage of the _Tegetthoff_ will be found to fall below none in these -high qualities. The mere destiny of the vessel itself equals, if it does -not exceed, in the element of the marvellous, anything which has before -been recorded. Surely this is borne out when we think, that on August 20, -1872, the _Tegetthoff_ was beset off the coast of Novaya Zemlya; remained -a fast prisoner in the ice, spite of all the efforts made by her officers -and crew to release her; drifted during the autumn and the terrible -winter of 1872—amid profound darkness—whither they knew not; drifted to -the 30th of August in the following year (1873), till, as if by magic, -the mists lifted, and lo! a high, bold, rocky coast—lat. 79° 43′ E., -long. 59° 33′—loomed out of the fog straight ahead of them. Close to this -land—which could be visited with safety only twice, on the 1st and 3rd -of November of that year—the ship remained still fast bound in the ice. -Not till the winter of 1873 had passed, and the sun had again returned, -was it possible to explore the land, which had been so marvellously -discovered. On the 10th of March, 1874, the sledge journeys commenced, -and terminated May 3rd, after 450 miles had been passed over, and the -surveys and explorations completed, which enabled Payer to write the -description of Kaiser Franz-Josef Land (pp. 258-270), which shows that -other still undefined lands, with an archipelago of islands, have been -added to the geography of the earth. - -But the perils of the expedition did not end here. On the 20th of August, -1874, it was resolved to abandon the _Tegetthoff_ in the ice, and to -return in sledges and boats to Europe. Captain Nares tells us, in his -telegraphic despatch, that the sledging parties of the _Alert_ and -_Discovery_ compassed on an average one-and-a-quarter mile per day on -the terrible “Sea of Ancient Ice,” and discovered, after the experience -gained in seventy miles passed under these conditions, that the “Pole -was impracticable.” If our readers wish to have a conception of the -toils and perils of the Austrian sledge parties on their return from the -_Tegetthoff_ let them mark the single image presented to the mind by -the statement (p. 364):—“After the lapse of two months of indescribable -efforts, the distance between us and the ship was not more than nine -English miles.” Had the ice on the Novaya Zemlya seas remained as -obstinate as it seems to have done in the new desolation, the “Sea of -Ancient Ice,” escape would have been as impossible to the _Tegetthoff’s_ -crew, as advance towards the Pole was to the sledge parties of our last -Arctic expedition. But fortunately, soon after, “leads” opened out in the -ice; the boats were launched, and after about another month of alternate -rowing and sledging, the ice barrier was happily reached in the unusually -high latitude 77° 40′; and the brave men who three months before had left -the _Tegetthoff_ were saved. - -This is perhaps the most marked analogy between the perils of the two -expeditions; so far as those of our own are yet known. But the scientific -conclusions of Lieutenant Payer, as set forth in the general Introduction -to his narrative, strikingly harmonize with the actual discoveries of the -_Alert_ and _Discovery_. Already it is authoritatively announced, that -there is no open Polar Sea; that this hypothesis is as baseless as the -existence of President’s Land. In the fourth chapter of that Introduction -(pp. 25-31), our author has analysed with great sagacity the various -theories on which that hypothesis was made to rest, working up to the -conclusion, that no such sea exists. The demonstration of experience now -takes the place of enlightened argument and opinion; fact and theory are -here at one. - -Nor can we forbear to direct attention to another statement in the same -chapter. Let our readers mark the prophetic spirit of the following -passage: “All the changes and phenomena of this mighty network lead us to -infer the existence of frozen seas up to the Pole itself; and according -to my own experience, gained in three expeditions, I consider that the -states of the ice between 82° and 90° N. L. will not essentially differ -from those which have been observed south of latitude 82°; I incline -rather to the belief that they will be found worse instead of better” (p. -30). And “worse instead of better” they have been found, as we cannot -doubt, when we weigh the ominous significance of the designation the “Sea -of Ancient Ice.” - -History may or may not verify the position which the telegram so briefly -resumes—“The Pole impracticable.” Impracticable no doubt it was, if the -condition of the ice seen by our expedition in that awful sea be its -normal condition. All that it was possible for men to dare and achieve, -England will feel that her officers and sailors dared and achieved under -the circumstances they encountered. It may be, that later experience will -show, that even that Sea may present to future explorers an aspect less -tremendous; yea, that in some seasons, which science may yet predict, -when her theories of the sun-spots are matured and formulated, open water -will be found, as perhaps it was found in the year of the expedition of -the _Polaris_, where the heroic sledging parties from the _Alert_ and -_Discovery_ saw nothing and found nothing, but piled-up barriers of ice -rising to the height of 150 feet. - -It would be idle to predict, in the face of these results, that the Pole -shall yet be reached. Any confident prediction in this spirit would, at -the present moment, be singularly inopportune, as well as unwise. But -despair would be equally unjustifiable, while its influence would be -most hurtful and depressing, especially if Arctic exploration and the -attainment of the Pole were supposed to be identical propositions. There -are two things: reaching the North Pole, and the exploration of the -Polar region. If the former appeals more to the imagination, and readily -calls forth the emotions which are fed by the love of the marvellous, -the latter enlists the sympathies of those who take a broader view of -the necessities of Arctic exploration. These have found a powerful -representative in one whose services entitle him to speak with authority, -in the naval chief of the _Tegetthoff_ expedition. At a meeting of the -German Scientific and Medical Association held at Gratz in September of -1875, Weyprecht read a paper on the principles of Arctic exploration, -in which, according to the summary of its contents, which appeared -in _Nature_, October 11, 1875, he maintains, that the Polar regions -offer, in certain important respects, greater advantages than any other -part of the globe for the observation of natural phenomena—Magnetism, -the Aurora, Meteorology, Geology, Zoölogy, and Botany. He deplores, -that while large sums have been spent and much hardship endured for -geographical knowledge, strictly scientific observations have been -regarded as holding a secondary place. Though not denying the importance -of geographical discovery, he maintains, that the main purpose of -future Arctic expeditions should be the extension of our knowledge -of the various natural phenomena which may be studied with so great -advantage in those regions. He insists in that paper on the following -propositions:—“1. Arctic exploration is of the highest importance to -a knowledge of the laws of nature. 2. Geographical discovery in those -regions is of superior importance only in so far as it extends the -field of scientific investigation in its strict sense. 3. Minute Arctic -topography is of secondary importance. 4. The geographical Pole has for -science no greater significance than any other point in high latitude. -5. Observation stations should be selected without reference to the -latitude, but for the advantages they offer for the investigation of the -phenomena to be studied. 6. Interrupted series of observations have only -a relative value.” The suggestions thrown out by Lieutenant Weyprecht -have been taken up by one whose mind seems to rise instinctively to all -high aims and objects. Prince Bismarck forthwith appointed a German -Commission of Arctic Exploration, consisting of some of the most eminent -men of science of whom Germany can boast, who reported to the Bundesrath -in a memoir, the recommendations of which were unanimously adopted. From -_Nature_, November 11, 1875, which we have already quoted, we borrow the -following _résumé_ of that report:— - - “1. The exploration of the Arctic regions is of great - importance for all branches of science. The Commission - recommends for such exploration the establishment of fixed - observing stations. From the principal station, and supported - by it, exploring expeditions are to be made by sea and by land. - - “The Commission is of opinion that the region to be explored - by organised German Arctic explorers is the great inlet to the - higher Arctic regions situated between the eastern shore of - Greenland and the western shore of Spitzbergen.... - - “3. It appears desirable, and, so far as scientific - preparations are concerned, possible, to commence these Arctic - expeditions in 1877.” - - “4. The Commission is convinced that an exploration of the - Arctic regions, based on such principles, will furnish valuable - results, even if limited to the region between Greenland and - Spitzbergen; but it is also of opinion, that an exhaustive - solution of the problems to be solved can only be expected when - exploration is extended over the whole Arctic zone, and when - other countries take their share in the undertaking. - - “The Commission recommends, therefore, that the principles - adopted for the German undertaking be commended to the - governments of the states which take interest in Arctic - inquiry, in order to establish, if possible, a complete circle - of observing stations in the Arctic zones.” - -Thus we are brought face to face with two different purposes, which -may be termed, respectively, the romantic and the scientific purposes -of Arctic discovery. To the former the attainment of the Pole has -hitherto been the all in all of a geographical discovery. “The Pole -impracticable,” telegraphed by Captain Nares, as the result of the -expedition which has returned baffled to our shores, is a stern reproof -to all who would still advocate a dash at the Pole as the worthiest -purpose of Arctic discovery. Aims and endeavours not so glaring, nor -appealing in the same degree to the love of the marvellous, are suggested -in the sagacious proposals of Lieutenant Weyprecht, to whom science will -not refuse her calmer and more measured respect, and in whom, as Captain -of the _Tegetthoff_, all who love deeds of daring and energy will find a -congenial spirit. - -To Lieutenant Payer has fallen the distinguished honour of being not only -the colleague in command and friend of Weyprecht, but the historian of -their common sufferings and common glory in an enterprise, the fame of -which the world, we believe, will not willingly let die. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - _INTRODUCTION._ - - CHAPTER I. - - THE FROZEN OCEAN _page_ 1-10 - - 1. The ice-sheet of the Arctic region.—2. “Leads” and “ice-holes” - defined.—3. Pack-ice and drift-ice.—4, 5, 6. Various designations - of ice-forms.—7. Estimate of the thickness of ice.—8. Rate of - its formation.—9. Old ice.—10, 11. Characteristics of young - ice.—12. Results of the unrest in Arctic seas.—13. The snow-sheet - described.—14. Colour of field-ice.—15. Characteristics of - sea-ice.—16. Specific gravity of ice.—17. Irregularity of the - forms of ice.—18. Temperature of the Arctic Sea.—19. Noise - caused by disruption.—20. The ice-blink.—21. The water-sky.—22. - Evaporation.—23. Calmness of the sea beneath the ice.—24. - Overturning of icebergs.—25. Change of the sea’s colour near - ice.—26. Icebergs described.—27. Noise caused by the overturning - of icebergs. - - CHAPTER II. - - NAVIGATION IN THE FROZEN OCEAN _page_ 11-19 - - 1. Preparatory study necessary for Polar navigators.—2. - Choice of a favourable year necessary.—3. Navigation in - coast-water recommended.—4. Failure often caused by leaving the - coast-water.—5. Distance possible to accomplish in one summer.—6. - The best time of year.—7. Steam-power recommended.—8. The rate - of speed.—9. The build of Arctic ships.—10. Tactics of a ship - in the ice.—11. Small vessels preferred.—12. Iron ships not - suitable.—13. Two vessels to be employed.—14. “Besetment” and - how to avoid it.—15. The use of a balloon recommended.—16. The - “crow’s-nest.”—17. Winds and calms.—18. A winter harbour or - “dock.” - - CHAPTER III. - - THE PENETRATION OF THE REGIONS WITHIN THE POLAR CIRCLE; THE - PERIOD OF THE NORTH-WEST AND NORTH-EAST PASSAGES _page_ 20-24 - - 1. The Pole.—2. Old fancy of reaching India through the - ice.—3, 4, 5. The first Polar navigators.—6-10. The North-West - and North-East Passages.—11. Strange tales of the old - discoverers.—12. The Polar world becomes the object of scientific - investigation.—13. M’Clintock perfects the art of sledging. - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE INNER POLAR SEA _page_ 25-31 - - 1. The Arctic Sea compared to the glaciers of the Alps.—2, 3. - Old fancies respecting an Inner Polar Sea.—4. Improbability of - such a sea existing.—5. Influence of the Gulf Stream.—6. The - Polynjii seen by Wrangel.—7. State of the ice in different years - as found by various expeditions.—8. Probability that the most - northerly regions do not differ from those already discovered.—9. - Improbability that the Pole can be reached by a ship.—10. The - English expedition to penetrate Smith’s Sound. - - CHAPTER V. - - THE FUTURE OF THE POLAR QUESTION _page_ 32-36 - - 1. Material advantage from Arctic voyages.—2. The commercial - value of the North-West and North-East Passages no longer thought - of.—3. The Polar question a problem of science.—4. The increase - of the safety and convenience with which the ice-navigation is - now performed.—5. The means of conducting Polar expeditions - perfected.—6. Sledge expeditions afford the chief hope of - success.—7. Not much more to be expected from ships.—8. The route - by Smith’s Sound recommended.—9. The English expedition.—10. - Lieutenant Weyprecht’s plan for united scientific investigation. - - CHAPTER VI. - - POLAR EQUIPMENTS _page_ 37-46 - - 1. Past experience to be consulted.—2. The commander.—3. - Selection of the crew.—4. Discipline and pay.—5. The best men to - be obtained.—6. Special qualifications.—7. The medical man.—8. An - artist or photographer desirable.—9. Old ideas of equipment.—10. - The greatest possible comfort necessary.—11. A table of the - sizes of the vessels in various expeditions.—12. The best kind - of ships.—13. The allowance of food.—14. Spirituous liquors.—15. - The ship becomes a house in the winter.—16. The quarters of - the men.—17. Lamps and candles.—18. Clothing of the crew.—19. - Instruments and ammunition.—20. The cost of different expeditions. - - _THE PIONEER VOYAGE OF THE ISBJÖRN_ _page_ 49-69 - - 1. A pioneer expedition resolved on.—2, 3. Route to the east - of Spitzbergen.—4. The _Isbjörn_ chartered for the service.—5. - Attempts to gain information on the probable state of the ice.—6. - An unfavourable ice-year predicted.—7. The expedition leaves - Tromsoe.—8. The coast of Norway described.—9. The _Isbjörn_ in - the ice.—10. Seeking a harbour.—11. Cape Look-out.—12. Two ships - met with.—13. In the ice.—14. The return to the ice-barrier.—15. - The geological formation of the western coast.—16. Arrive at Hope - Island.—17. Ice disappeared.—18. Whales abound.—19. Splendid - effects of colour.—20. In a sea.—21. A run along the west coast - of Novaya Zemlya.—22. Storms compel us to keep to sea.—23. Object - of the voyage.—24. The Austro-Hungarian Expedition of 1872.-25. - The plan of the Austro-Hungarian Expedition. - - _VOYAGE OF THE “TEGETTHOFF.”_ - - CHAPTER I. - - FROM BREMERHAVEN TO TROMSOE _page_ 73-77 - - 1. The qualities requisite for a Polar navigator.—2. The crew of - the _Tegetthoff_—3. The _Tegetthoff_ lifts her anchor.—4. The - vessel.—5. Crossing the sea.—6. The languages spoken on board the - _Tegetthoff_.—7. The officers and crew of the _Tegetthoff_.—8. - Arrive at Tromsoe.—9. The first and last voyage of the - _Tegetthoff_ begins. - - CHAPTER II. - - ON THE FROZEN OCEAN _page_ 78-92 - - 1. Within the frozen ocean.—2. The sea of Novaya Zemlya.—3. We - continue our course by steam.—4. The decay of ice.—5. Effects - of light.—6. We meet the _Isbjörn_.—8-10. The Barentz Islands - described by Professor Höfer.—11. Preparations for future - contests with the ice.—12. Inclosed in the land-ice.—13. We - celebrate the birthday of Francis Joseph I.—14. Our prospects do - not improve.—15. The _Tegetthoff_ finally beset. - - CHAPTER III. - - DRIFTING IN THE NOVAYA ZEMLYA SEAS _page_ 93-100 - - 1. Winter begins.—2. The impossibility of reaching the coast of - Siberia.—3. Unsuccessful efforts to get free.—4. The name-day of - the Emperor Francis Joseph I.—5. Encounters with polar bears.—6. - A “snow-finch” visits the ship.—7. Novaya Zemlya recedes - gradually from our gaze. - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE “TEGETTHOFF” FAST BESET IN THE ICE _page_ 101-113 - - 1. Signs indicate the insecurity of our position.—2. A dreadful - Sunday.—3. We make ready to abandon the ship.—4. The dogs.—5. - We return to the ship.—6. We drift in the Frozen Sea.—7. Our - alarms.—8. Our constant state of readiness to meet destruction. - - CHAPTER V. - - OUR FIRST WINTER (1872) IN THE ICE _page_ 114-125 - - 1. Surrounded by deep twilight.—2. Our preparations for - winter.—3. The difficulty of sledge-travelling.—4. Sumbu mistaken - for a fox—5. The rending of the ice.—6. Our short expeditions.—7. - The continual threatening of the ice.—8. A bear shot.—9. The - effect of the long Polar night.—10. The middle of the long - night.—11. Christmas feasts.—12. The first hour of the new - year.—13. The dogs allowed in the cabin.—14. Carlsen writes in - the log-book. - - CHAPTER VI. - - LIFE ON BOARD THE “TEGETTHOFF” _page_ 126-138 - - 1. The _Tegetthoff_ covered with snow.—2. The excessive - condensation of moisture.—3. The destruction of the snow wall.—4. - The removal of the tent roof.—5. The stove of Meidingen of - Carlsruhe.—6. The arrangements of the officers’ mess-room.—7. - Those who occupied the mess-room.—8. Our meals.—9. Divine service - on deck.—10. After dinner.—11. The monotony of our life.—12. - After supper.—13. Middendorf contrasting the influence of climate - on men.—14. Our sanitary condition.—15. Baths.—16. Passages from - my journal.—17. A school instituted. - - CHAPTER VII. - - ICE-PRESSURES _page_ 139-142 - - 1. Preparations for leaving the ship.—2. Extracts from journal. - - CHAPTER VIII. - - THE WANE OF THE LONG POLAR NIGHT _page_ 143-148 - - 1. The light increases.—2. A bear hunt.—3. Table of the course of - the _Tegetthoff_.—4. Throw out bottles inclosing an account of - the events of the expedition. - - CHAPTER IX. - - THE RETURN OF LIGHT.—THE SPRING OF 1873 _page_ 149-161 - - 1. The sunrise.—2. Our first look at each other.—3. Visits - from bears.—4. The carnival.—5. Continual fall of snow.—6. - Return of birds.—7. Ill health of Dr. Kepes.—8. Bear shot.—9. - A road constructed.—10. Reading without artificial light.—11. - Accumulation of rubbish round the ship.—12. Begin to dig out the - ship.—13. Surprised by bears.—14. Our hopes to reach Siberia.—15. - Snow continues to fall.—16. Visited by birds.—17. The steam - machinery put in working order.—18. A partial eclipse of the - sun.—19. Birth of four Newfoundland puppies. - - CHAPTER X. - - THE SUMMER OF 1873 _page_ 162-172 - - 1. Decay of the walls of the ice.—2. The blaze of light on clear - days.—3. Our constant digging.—4. Continual sinking of the - ship.—5. Nothing but ice.—6. Short expeditions.—7. Feast on the - birthday of the Emperor.—8. Table showing our change of place.—9. - Some paragraphs from the Admiral’s report of the _Tegetthoff_—10. - Sounding the depth of the sea. - - CHAPTER XI. - - NEW LANDS _page_ 173-177 - - 1. Seal-hunting.—2. Sunset at midnight.—3. The second summer - gone.—4. Land at last.—5. Kaiser Franz-Josef’s Land.—6. - Hochstetter Island. - - CHAPTER XII. - - THE AUTUMN OF 1873.—THE STRANGE LAND VISITED _page_ 178-184 - - 1. Autumn of 1873.—2. Resolve to abandon the vessel.—3. Daylight - begins to fail.—4. Everything in readiness to leave the ship.—5. - Wilczek Island.—6. Our joy at reaching land.—7. Exploring the - island.—8. An expedition.—9. The silence of Arctic Regions.—10. - The island continues a mystery. - - CHAPTER XIII. - - OUR SECOND WINTER IN THE ICE _page_ 185-198 - - 1. Night begins to reign.—2. Leisure for study.—3. Complete - darkness.—4. Continual fall of snow.—5. The middle of the second - Polar night.—6. Ill temper of the dogs.—7. The dogs.—8. Pekel, - Sumbu, and Jubinal.—9. Christmas time.—10. Our life in the - ship.—11. Improvement in health.—12. Scurvy. - - CHAPTER XIV. - - SUNRISE OF 1874 _page_ 199-201 - - 1. Return of the moon.—2. Sun appears above the horizon.—3. - Lieutenant Weyprecht and I resolve to abandon the ship after the - sledge journeys. - - CHAPTER XV. - - THE AURORA _page_ 202-210 - - 1. The northern lights.—2-4. The appearance of the aurora.—5. The - influence on the magnetic needle.—6. Description of the aurora by - Lieutenant Weyprecht. - - _THE SLEDGE JOURNEYS._ - - CHAPTER I. - - THE EXPLORATION OF KAISER FRANZ-JOSEF LAND RESOLVED ON _page_ 213-215 - - 1. Necessity of exploration.—2. Plan of the sledge journeys.—3. - Eagerness to begin.—4. Illness of Krisch. - - CHAPTER II. - - OF SLEDGE TRAVELLING IN GENERAL _page_ 216-221 - - 1. The sledge the best means of exploration.—2. The coast line - to be followed.—3. Best season for sledging.—4. State of the - snow-road.—5. The formation of depôts.—6. Sledges dragged by men - and dogs—7. Sledging best performed by dogs.—8. The instruments - required on a sledge journey. - - CHAPTER III. - - THE EQUIPMENT OF A SLEDGE EXPEDITION _page_ 222-234 - - 1. The equipment of a sledge.—2. Construction of our sledges.—3. - The cooking apparatus.—4. Fuel.—5. Tents used at night.—6. - The sleeping bag.—7. Arms and ammunition.—8. Chest for - instruments, &c.—9, 10, 11. The provisions.—12. Boats in sledge - expeditions.—13. Articles of clothing.—14. Furs.—15. Covering for - the feet.—16. Drawing the sledge. - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE FIRST SLEDGE JOURNEY _page_ 235-245 - - 1. Qualities of a leader.—2. Object of our first expedition.—3. - My party.—4. We begin our journey.—5. Violent motion of the - ice.—6. Conduct of the dogs.—7. Death of the bear.—8. The driving - snow.—9. Reach the plateau of Cape Tegetthoff.—10. Ascending - the plateau.—11. Night in the sleeping bag.—12. Difficulty of - dragging the sledge.—13. Ascend a mountain, Cape Littrow. - - CHAPTER V. - - THE COLD _page_ 246-257 - - 1. The Sonklar glacier.—2. Effect of cold.—3. The frightful - cold of North America.—4. Effect of low temperature on the - human frame.—5. The voice in cold weather.—6. Hardness of - everything.—7. Effect of cold on the senses.—8. Protection - against cold.—9. Danger of frost-bite.—10. Thirst.—11. A block of - snow.—12. Return to the ship.—13. Death of Krisch. - - CHAPTER VI. - - A GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF KAISER FRANZ-JOSEF LAND _page_ 258-270 - - 1. Size of the country.—2. Surface of ice.—3. Map of the - country.—4. Naming of discoveries.—5. Comparison of Arctic - lands.—6. The existence of volcanic formations.—7, 8. Geology - of Franz-Josef Land.—9. Glaciers of Spitzbergen.—10. Ice of - Franz-Josef Land.—11. Temperature of the air.—12. The plasticity - of the glaciers.—13. North-east of Greenland and Siberia.—14. - The vegetation.—15. Finding drift-wood.—16. Impossibility of - inhabiting Franz-Josef Land.—17. The absence of animal life.—18. - Seals abound.—19. Species of fish seen.—20. Birds.—21. The - collection of Dr. Kepes. - - CHAPTER VII. - - THE SECOND SLEDGE EXPEDITION.—AUSTRIA SOUND _page_ 271-294 - - 1. Plan of second expedition.—2. Danger of leaving the ship.—3. - Visited by bears.—4. Our preparations finished.—5. The sledge - party.—6. Our march.—7. Torossy wounded by a bear.—8. Danger of - frost-bite.—9. Arrive at Cape Frankfurt.—10. The configuration - of the country.—11. We penetrate to Cape Hansa.—12. A bear - killed.—13. I examine the beach.—14. Loss of the dog Sumbu.—15. - Easter Sunday.—16. Approach of a bear.—17. Our canvas boots worn - out.—18. We reach Becker Island.—19. We lose a bear.—20. Direct - our course towards Cape Rath.—21. A bear shot.—22. Difficulty of - advancing.—23. We arrive at Cape Schrötter. - - CHAPTER VIII. - - IN THE EXTREME NORTH _page_ 295-313 - - 1. We ascend the summit of the Dolerite Rock.—2. Our expedition - to the extreme north.—3. We divide the provisions.—4. The merits - of our dogs.—5. Klotz has to return.—6. Zaninovich and the - sledge fall into a crevasse.—7. Reach Cape Habermann.—8. Cape - Brorock.—9. The enormous flocks of birds.—10. Difficulty of - travelling.—11. Cape Säulen.—12. Reach Cape Germania.—13. Cape - Fligely.—14. We plant the Austro-Hungarian flag.—15. Document - inclosed in a bottle. - - CHAPTER IX. - - THE RETURN TO THE SHIP _page_ 314-335 - - 1. Our return journey.—2. Observations of temperature.—3. - Snow-blindness.—4. A bear shot.—5. Reach Cape Hellwald.—6. - Orel continues to march southwards.—7. Reach Cape Tyrol.—8. - Grandeur of the scenery.—9. Find our companions.—10. We sink - in the snow.—11. Arrive at open sea.—12. Over the glaciers of - Wilczek Land.—13. Enveloped in whirling snow.—14. Digging out - our depôt.—15. The difficulty of advancing.—16. Reach Schönau - Island.—17. I find the ship.—18. The ship in our absence. - - CHAPTER X. - - THE THIRD SLEDGE JOURNEY _page_ 336-340 - - 1. Our wish to explore Franz-Josef Land.—2. We leave the - ship.—3. The dogs and the bears.—4. A bear killed.—5. Ascent of - the pyramid-like Cape Brünn.—6. The extreme difficulty of the - ascent.—7. Return to the ship. - - _THE “TEGETTHOFF” ABANDONED.—RETURN TO EUROPE._ - - CHAPTER I. - - LAST DAYS ON THE “TEGETTHOFF” _page_ 343-347 - - 1. “Plundering the ship.”—2. Appearance of the ship.—3. Short - expeditions.—4. Rapid decrease of the cold.—5. The boats and - their contents.—6. The dogs, Gillis and Semlja, shot.—7. Our - stock of clothes.—8. Our plan of escape. - - CHAPTER II. - - ON THE FROZEN SEA _page_ 348-376 - - 1. The day for abandoning the ship comes.—2. We start.—3. The - dogs.—4. We return to the ship to replenish the stores.—5. - Shooting bears.—6. Reach Lamont Island.—7. Return to the ship - for the jolly boat.—8. Impatience to launch our boats.—9. Launch - at last.—10. Shoot a seal.—11. Quotations from the journal.—12. - Crossing fissures.—13. Disheartening efforts.—14. From one floe - to another.—15. Carlsen.—16. Life in the boats.—17. Our dreadful - situation.—18. Our rations diminished.—19. Forcing our way.—20. - Pushing floes asunder.—21. No advance, but great efforts.—22. - Delight caused by an advance of four miles a day.—23. Secure - a bear.—24. Our progress greatly increases.—25. Ice-hummocks - everywhere.—26. Alternate launching and drawing up the boats.—27. - Increased progress.—28. The swell of the ocean.—29. Shut in once - more.—30. Contrivances to pass away the time.—31. Calking the - boats.—32. We reach the open sea.—33. Farewell to the Frozen - Ocean. - - CHAPTER III. - - ON THE OPEN SEA _page_ 377-389 - - 1. Sight of the open sea.—2. Compelled to kill the dogs.—3. We - take a last look at the ice.—4. Fifty miles from land.—5. We - sight Novaya Zemlya.—6. We hold on our course.—7. Vain attempt to - land on Novaya Zemlya.—8. Difference in the climate in various - years.—9. Land in Gwosdarew Bay.—10. Step on land once more.—11. - Coast of Novaya Zemlya.—12. Look in vain for a sail.—13. Our - provisions nearly exhausted.—14. We divide the remnant of - food.—15. Deliverance at last.—16. The schooner _Nikolai_.—17. - Our reception on board.—18. We hear the news from Europe.—19. - Captain Voronin agrees to take us to Norway.—20. The crew of the - _Nikolai_.—21. We run along the coast of Lapland.—22. Landing at - Vardö.—23. Reception. - - APPENDIX. - - I. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS _page_ 391-393 - - II. DIRECTION AND FORCE OF THE WIND _page_ 394 - - INDEX _page_ 395 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - PAGE - - TWILIGHT AT MIDDAY—FEBRUARY, 1874 _Frontispiece_ - - THE FIRST ICE 53 - - STILL LIFE IN THE FROZEN OCEAN 79 - - GWOSDAREW INLET 84 - - FORMATION OF THE DEPÔT AT “THE THREE COFFINS” 89 - - THE “TEGETTHOFF” AND “ISBJÖRN” SEPARATE 90 - - THE “TEGETTHOFF” FINALLY BESET 91 - - ATTEMPTS TO GET FREE IN SEPTEMBER 94 - - SEAL-HUNTING—SEPTEMBER 1872 96 - - SHOOTING AT A TARGET, OCTOBER 1872 97 - - PARHELIA ON THE COAST OF NOVAYA ZEMLYA 99 - - AN OCTOBER NIGHT IN THE ICE 105 - - THE MOON WITH ITS HALO 109 - - OUR COAL-HOUSE ON THE FLOE 111 - - THE TWILIGHT IN NOVEMBER 1872 115 - - SUMBU CHASED FOR A FOX 116 - - WANDERINGS ON THE ICE IN OUR FIRST WINTER 117 - - ENCOUNTER WITH A POLAR BEAR 120 - - ICE-HOLE COVERED WITH YOUNG ICE 121 - - CARLSEN MAKES THE ENTRY IN THE LOG 124 - - THE “TEGETTHOFF” IN THE FULL MOON 127 - - DIVINE SERVICE ON DECK 131 - - ICE-PRESSURE IN THE POLAR NIGHT 140 - - FRUITLESS ATTEMPT TO RESCUE MATOSCHKIN 145 - - SUNRISE (1873) 150 - - THE CARNIVAL ON THE ICE 152 - - THE “TEGETTHOFF” DRIFTING IN PACK-ICE—MARCH 1873 155 - - SOUNDING IN THE FROZEN OCEAN 171 - - APPROACHING THE LAND BY MOONLIGHT 183 - - DEPARTURE OF THE SUN IN THE SECOND WINTER 187 - - NOON ON DECEMBER 21, 1873 189 - - PEKEL, SUMBU, AND JUBINAL 193 - - IN THE MESS-ROOM 196 - - THE AURORA DURING THE ICE-PRESSURE 204 - - KRISCH, THE ENGINEER 215 - - TEAM OF SEVEN MEN AND THREE DOGS 224 - - THE COOKING APPARATUS 224 - - THE SLEDGE WITH ITS LOAD 229 - - THE DRESS OF THE ARCTIC SLEDGER 231 - - TOROSSY IN HARNESS 234 - - CAPE TEGETTHOFF 242 - - MELTING SNOW DURING A HALT NEAR CAPE BERGHAUS 244 - - ON THE SONKLAR-GLACIER 247 - - BLOCK OF SNOW 254 - - THE BURIAL OF KRISCH 256 - - LIPARIS GELATINOSUS 266 - - HIPPOLYTE PAYERI 268 - - HYALONEMA LONGISSIMUM 268 - - UMBELLULA 269 - - KORETHRASTES HISPIDUS 270 - - NEPHTHYS LONGISETOSA 270 - - THE DOGS DIFFER AS TO THE TREATMENT OF YOUNG BEARS 273 - - THE WINTER HOLE OF A BEAR 277 - - LIFE IN THE TENT 279 - - CAPE FRANKFURT, AUSTRIA SOUND, AND THE WÜLLERSDORF MOUNTAINS 280 - - HOW SUMBU WAS LOST 284 - - CAPE EASTER AND STERNEK SOUND 285 - - HOW WE RECEIVED BEARS. CAPE TYROL IN THE BACKGROUND 286 - - DINING ON BEARS’ FLESH 287 - - CUTTING UP THE BEARS 292 - - ICEBERGS AT THE BASE OF THE MIDDENDORF GLACIER 298 - - THE SLEDGE FALLS INTO A CREVASSE ON THE MIDDENDORF GLACIER 300 - - KLOTZ’S AMAZEMENT 302 - - THE ALARM OF THE HOHENLOHE PARTY 303 - - HALT UNDER CROWN-PRINCE RUDOLF’S LAND 305 - - CAPE AUK 307 - - CAPE SÄULEN 309 - - THE AUSTRIAN FLAG PLANTED AT CAPE FLIGELY 311 - - MELTING SNOW ON CAPE GERMANIA 315 - - ENCAMPING ON ONE OF THE COBURG ISLANDS 318 - - THE VIEW FROM CAPE TYROL. COLLINSON FIORD—WIENER NEUSTADT ISLAND 321 - - BREAKING IN 323 - - ARRIVAL BEFORE THE OPEN SEA 325 - - DRAGGING THE SLEDGE UNDER THE GLACIERS OF WILCZEK LAND 326 - - THE SLEDGE IN A SNOW-STORM 328 - - DIGGING OUT THE DEPÔT 329 - - THE MIDNIGHT SUN BETWEEN CAPE BERGHAUS AND KOLDEWEY ISLAND 331 - - THE “TEGETTHOFF” DESCRIED 332 - - KLOTZ 333 - - MARKHAM SOUND, RICHTHOFEN PEAK FROM CAPE BRÜNN 338 - - FIRST ABANDONMENT OF THE “TEGETTHOFF” 348 - - IN THE HARBOUR OF AULIS 352 - - WE LAUNCH AT LAST 355 - - MARCHING THROUGH ICE-HUMMOCKS 357 - - HALT AT NOON 358 - - CROSSING A FISSURE 359 - - CARLSEN 361 - - SCENE ON THE ICE 366 - - BEARS IN THE WATER 371 - - CALKING THE BOATS 374 - - FAREWELL TO THE FROZEN OCEAN 375 - - LANDING ON THE COAST OF NOVAYA ZEMLYA 380 - - THE BAY OF DUNES. THE RUSSIAN SCHOONERS 385 - - - - -[Illustration: MAP of the NOVAYA ZEMLYA SEA for the Austro-Hungarian -Expeditions.] - - - - -AUSTRIAN ARCTIC VOYAGES. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE FROZEN OCEAN. - - -1. The ice-sheet spread over the Arctic region is the effect and sign of -the low temperature which prevails within it. During nine or ten months -of the year this congealing force continues to act, and if the frozen -mass were not broken up by the effects of sun and wind, of rain, waves, -and currents, and by the rents produced in it from the sudden increase of -cold, the result would necessarily be an absolutely impenetrable covering -of ice. The parts of this enormous envelope of ice sundered by these -various causes now become capable of movement, and are widely dispersed -in the form of ice-fields and floes. - -2. The water-ways which separate these parts are called “leads,” or, when -their extent is considerable, “ice-holes.” The meshes of this vast net, -which is constantly in motion, open and close under the action of winds -and currents in summer; and it is only in its southern parts that the -action of waves, rain, and thaw produces any considerable detachments. -Towards the end of autumn, the ice, forming anew, consolidates the -interior portions, while its outer edge pushes forward, like the end -of a glacier, into lower regions, until about the end of February the -culminating point of congelation is attained. Motionless adhesion of the -fields, which naturally reach their greatest size in winter, does not, -however, exist even then; for during this period they are incessantly -exposed to displacement and pressure from the currents of the sea and the -air. - -3. When the ice is more or less closed, so as to render navigation -impossible, it is called “pack-ice,” and “drift-ice” when it appears -in detached pieces amid predominating water. Since there are forces -operating which promote the loosening process at its outer edge, and its -consolidation within, it is self-evident, that the interior portions -tend to the character of “pack-ice,” and its outer margin to that of -“drift-ice.” This general rule, however, is so modified in many places, -by local causes, currents, and winds, that we find not unfrequently at -the outer margin of the ice thick barriers of pack-ice, and in the inner -ice, ice-holes (polynia[1]) and drift-ice. - -4. Ice navigation, during its course of three hundred years, has created -a number of terms to designate the external forms of ice, the meaning -of which must be clearly defined. Ice formed from salt-water is called -“field-ice;” that from the waters of rivers and lakes “sweet-water ice.” -The latter is as hard as iron, and so transparent that it is scarcely -to be distinguished from water. Icebergs are masses detached from -glaciers. The words “patch,” “floe,” “field,” express relative magnitude, -descriptive of the smallest ice-table up to the ice-field of many miles -in diameter. The term “floe,” however, is generally applied to every -kind of field-ice, without reference to its size. The ice which lies -along coasts, or which adheres to a group of islands within a sound, -is called “land-ice.” Sledge expeditions depend on its existence and -character. Along the coast-edge land-ice is broken by the waves and tide, -and the forms of its upheaval and deposition on the shore constitute the -so-called “ice-foot.” Broken ice, or “brash,” is an accumulation of the -smaller fragments of ice which are found only on the extreme edge of the -ice-belt. “Bay-ice” is ice of recent formation, and its vertical depth is -inconsiderable. - -5. Land-ice is less exposed to powerful disturbances, and its surface, -therefore, is comparatively level, and is only here and there traversed -by small hillocks called “hummocks” or “torrosy.” These are the results -of former pressures, and they are gradually reduced to the common level -by evaporation, by thawing, and by the snow drifting over them. - -6. But ice-floes exposed to constant motion from winds and currents, and -to reciprocal pressure, have a more or less undulating character. On -these are found piles of ice heaped one upon another, rising to a height -of twenty or even fifty feet, alternating with depressions, which collect -the thawed water in clear ice-lakes during the few weeks of summer in -which the temperature rises above the freezing point. The specific -gravity of this water, where it does not communicate with the sea by -cracks, is in all cases the same with the specific gravity of pure sweet -water; and as the salt is gradually eliminated from the ice, the water -produced is perfectly drinkable. In the East Greenland Sea ice-floes -frequently measure more than twelve nautical miles across—these are -ice-fields properly so called.[2] In the Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya -Seas, they are much smaller, as Parry also found. - -7. The thickness which ice acquires in the course of a winter, when -its formation is not disturbed, is about eight feet. In the Gulf of -Boothia, Sir John Ross found the greatest thickness about the end of -May; it was then ten feet on the sea and eleven feet on the lakes. In -his winter harbour in Melville Island, Parry met with ice seven or -seven-and-a-half feet thick; and Wrangel gives the thickness of a floe -on the Siberian coast, which had been formed in the course of a winter, -at nine-and-a-half feet. According to the observations of Hayes the ice -measured nine feet two inches in thickness in Port Foulke. He estimates -it, however, by implication, far higher in Smith’s Sound: “I have never -seen,” he says, “an ice-table formed by direct freezing which exceeded -the depth of eighteen feet.” - -8. The rate at which ice is formed decreases as the thickness of the -floe increases, and it ceases to be formed as soon as the floe becomes -a non-conductor of the temperature of the air by the increase of its -mass, or when the driving of the ice-tables one over the other, or the -enormous and constantly accumulating covering of snow, places limits to -the penetration of the cold. - -9. While therefore the thickness which ice in free formation attains is -comparatively small, fields of ice from thirty to forty feet high are -met with in the Arctic Seas; but these are the result of the forcing of -ice-tables one over the other by pressure, and are designated by the name -of “old ice,” which differs from young ice by its greater density, and -has a still greater affinity with the ice of the glacier when it exhibits -coloured veins. - -10. When the cold is excessive a sheet of ice several inches thick is -formed on open water in a few hours; this, however, is not pure ice, but -contains a considerable amount of sea-salt not yet eliminated; complete -elimination of the saline matter takes place only after continuous -additions of ice to its under surface. A newly-formed sheet of ice is -flexible like leather, and as it becomes harder by the continued cold, -its saline contents come to the surface in a white frosty efflorescence. - -11. Hayes mentions that he met with fields of ice from twenty to a -hundred feet thick in Smith’s Sound. But if it is difficult in many cases -to distinguish glacier-ice, when found in small fragments, from detached -portions of field-ice, it is often still more difficult to distinguish -between old and new ice, and the attempt to do so is merely arbitrary, -because their masses depend not on their age alone, but on other -processes to which they are exposed. A floe of normal thickness is never -more than two or three years old; and if it is to exist and preserve its -size for a longer period, it must somewhere attach itself to land-ice, -so as to escape destruction from mechanical causes, and dissolution from -drifting southwards. Many floes run their course from freezing to melting -within a year. - -12. The perpetual unrest in the Arctic Sea, which continues undiminished -even in the severest winter, and the incessant change in the “leads” and -“ice-holes,” are the main causes of the increase of the ice, both in its -area and in its vertical depth. Were this constant movement to cease, the -result would be the formation of a sheet of ice of the uniform thickness -of about eight feet over the whole Polar region. - -13. A layer of snow, which, like the ice itself, is at a minimum in -autumn, covers the whole surface of all the ice-fields. This snow, -which in winter is sometimes as hard as a rock, sometimes as fine as -dust, takes, towards the end of summer, more and more the character of -the glacier snow of our lofty Alpine ranges. Its grains, in a humid -state, exceed the size of beans, and when in motion they make a rustling -noise like sand. This granular snow is the residuum of the incomplete -evaporation of what fell in the winter, and of the surface of the ice -which has become “rotten” and porous. Its crystals are frequently from -a third to a sixth of an inch in length, and firm ice is found even in -autumn only at the depth of one or two feet. In the North of Spitzbergen, -Parry observed that the surface of the ice was frequently cut up into -ice-needles of more than a foot long by the drops of rain, which in -summer fall upon it, and in some places he found it overspread with red -snow. We ourselves never saw the phenomenon observed by Parry, and the -ice-crystals we met with seldom exceeded the length given above. - -14. Field-ice is of a delicate azure-blue colour, and of great density, -and there is, in these respects, no difference between that of the -Arctic and Antarctic regions. Cook, indeed, calls the South Polar ice -colourless, though Sir James Clark Ross speaks expressly of the blueness -of its ice-masses. Sea-ice surpasses the ice of the Alps both in the -beauty of its colour and in its density. The glorious blue of the -fissures is due to the incidence of light, the blue rays of which only -are reflected, while the other rays are absorbed. A spectrum observation -made in 1869 on a Greenland ice-field gave brownish red, yellow, green -and blue. The yellowish spots observed in ice are due to the presence of -innumerable microscopic animalculæ. - -15. Sea-ice, which, when the cold is intense, is hard and brittle, -loses this quality with the increase of temperature till it acquires -an incredible toughness, far exceeding that of glaciers; and floes -several feet thick bend under mutual pressure before they split. Hence -the fruitlessness, especially in summer, of all attempts to loosen the -connexion of its parts by blasting with gunpowder. - -16. The specific gravity of sea-ice is 0.91, and accordingly about nine -parts of a cubical block of ice are under water, while one part only -rises above the surface. If, however, the ice of a floe be irregularly -formed and full of bubbles, the specific gravity will be correspondingly -reduced, and the volume submerged may diminish to two-thirds of the whole -mass. - -17. The irregularity of the forms of ice is so great, that no deduction -can safely be drawn from them; cases may occur where a recently-formed -ice-floe, which has been attached to old ice, is forced by its neighbour -to sink under the normal level; hence the submergence of floes beneath -the level of the sea is often overstated. - -18. The temperature of the Arctic Sea at the surface is generally below -the freezing point, and then increases slightly with the depth. Sir -James Ross observed that the temperature in all oceans does not alter at -great depths, and placed this constant temperature at 39° F. In summer -the temperature of the atmosphere rises little above freezing point, -and, according to Sir James Ross, it is still less at the South Pole, -because he saw no thaw-water streaming down from the icebergs there as -he did in the North. It was first observed in Forster’s days, that is -about a century ago, that the salt was gradually eliminated from frozen -sea-water. Of this fact Cook knew nothing; and even Sir James Ross -endorses Davis’s remark that “the deep sea freezes not.” But the fact -that ice is formed on the open sea, and far from the vicinity of land, -was first asserted by Scoresby, and has been confirmed by all subsequent -observers, though it was long disputed. - -19. The crackling sound so commonly heard along the outer edge of the ice -exposed to the action of the waves, is a consequence of the penetration -of its pores by the sea-water, which is then immediately frozen, and -disruption follows at once. But disruption on a far grander scale is -due to a cause the very opposite of this, the sudden contraction and -splitting of the ice, even in the great ice-fields, which is produced -usually in winter by the sudden fall of the temperature. - -20. When light falls on a field of pack-ice, it is reflected in the -stratum of air above it, and this span of light, called the “ice-blink,” -just above the horizon, warns the navigator of the impossibility of -penetrating further. This phenomenon is often observed also over -drift-ice, although not so intense nor so yellow in colour as over -pack-ice. - -21. Water spaces, on the other hand, show their presence by dark spots on -the horizon, produced by the formation of clouds from ascending mists. -These are the so-called “water-sky,” and faithfully indicate the “leads” -beneath them. Above the larger “ice-holes,” they assume the dark colours -of a thunder-sky, though they are never so strongly defined. - -22. The annual evaporation from the surface of the ice, which even in -winter is never entirely interrupted during the severest frost, and the -destruction of ice by the action of rain and waves, are balanced, to -speak generally, by its re-formation by frost. The maximum accumulation -of ice takes place in spring, its minimum in the beginning of autumn. -We observed in the autumn of 1873 not only the evaporation of the snow -of the preceding winter, but also a vertical decrease of ice of about -four feet. Evaporation is, therefore, the most potent regulator of the -balance between waste and growth in the accumulation of ice; and next in -importance is the drifting of its masses towards the south through all -those openings by which the Polar waters mingle with the waters of lower -latitudes. - -23. However great the agitation of the sea may be in the open ocean, -and though it may dash its waves with wild fury on the edge of the -ice, within the icy girdle it is undisturbed, in consequence of the -enormous weight of the superincumbent masses. It is only in the large -“ice-holes,” and when the winds are very high, that the action of -waves is discernible. An isolated accumulation of floes in a circular -form, suffices to produce a calm interior sea, and its outer edge only -encounters the beat of the ocean. - -24. The ceaseless attack to which the ice is exposed on its outer edge -is the cause of its excavation and undermining. Hence its centre of -gravity is constantly displaced; and the overturning of its masses and -its strange transformations are the consequences of this instability. -The smaller the masses of the ice, the more fantastic are the shapes they -assume. - -25. Change of colour in the sea as we enter the ice-region is frequently, -though not invariably, observed. Almost immediately on entering the ice, -its normal dull green colour gives place to a deep ultramarine blue, -especially in the East Greenland seas, and this colour is maintained -under all changes of the weather, and is only modified by local currents. -Two hundred and fifty years ago it appeared to Hudson, on the coast of -Spitzbergen, that the sea, whenever it was free from ice, was green, -and that its being covered with ice and its blueness of colour were -intimately connected. Sir James Ross states that in both Polar oceans -the colour of the sea changes in the neighbourhood of ice, and that the -dull brownish colour sometimes seen near pack-ice in the Antarctic Ocean -is owing to an infinite number of animalculæ. The rapid fall of the -temperature of the water to the zero point is another indication that ice -is near. - -26. Of all the ice-formations in the Arctic Seas, icebergs are the -most enormous. “It is well known that ice is not by any means so heavy -as water, but readily floats upon its surface. Consequently whenever -a glacier enters the sea, the dense salt water tends to buoy it up. -But the great tenacity of the frozen mass enables it to resist the -pressure for a time. By and by, however, as the glacier reaches deeper -water, its cohesion is overcome, and large fragments are forced from -its terminal front and floated up from the bed of the sea to sail away -as icebergs.”[3] This process is sometimes called “the calving” of the -glaciers; and the direction of the cleavage is a pre-indication of -the forms of the masses when detached. The characteristic features of -icebergs are their simple outline, differing widely from the fantastic -shapes which the fragments of sea-ice tend to assume; their great height -as compared with their breadth—their greenish-blue colour—their distinct -stratification—their slight transparency—and the roughly-granulated -character of their ice. Icebergs with long, sharp-pointed peaks, like -those exhibited in numerous illustrations, have no real existence. It -is only fragments of field-ice, raised up by pressure, exposed to the -action of waves and the process of evaporation which are transformed -into fantastic shapes. Icebergs are generally of a pyramidal or tabular -shape, and in time they are usually rounded off into irregular cones. -They vary in height from 20 to 300 feet. Sir John Ross (1818) mentions -an iceberg of 51 feet; Baffin (1615) of 240 feet; Parry (1819) of 258 -feet; Kane (1853) of 300 feet; and Hayes (1861) one 315 feet high, -the depth of which below the water-line he estimated at half a mile. -On the coast of East Greenland, Scoresby once counted 500 icebergs, -some of which reached the height of 200 feet; and during the second -German North-Pole expedition, we saw many at the mouth of the Kaiser -Franz-Josef fiord which measured 220 feet in height. In Austria Sound, -and on the east coast of Kron-Prinz Rudolph’s land, their altitude -varied from 80 to 200 feet. From the covering of mist which envelops -them, icebergs generally appear much higher than they really are, and -their depth below the surface is not so considerable as is generally -supposed. In an iceberg 200 feet above the water, a total height of 600 -to 800 feet may, as a mean, be inferred. It is only glaciers of a very -great size which shed icebergs; smaller glaciers, like those of Novaya -Zemlya, only strew the sea with a multitude of fragments which resemble -broken sea-ice. Hence the appearance of icebergs is connected with the -proximity to glacier-covered lands, and with the currents which prevail -along their coasts. Baffin’s Bay, Smith’s Sound, East Greenland, the -South-East of Greenland, Austria Sound, are the principal places where -they collect together and lie like fleets before the entrances of bays -and gulfs. Under-currents of the sea take them not unfrequently in -directions contrary to the drift of the field-ice, which depends only on -upper-currents; and abnormal winds may sometimes carry them out to seas -where they have been seldom or never seen.[4] This appears to be the case -even with those met with on the north-west coast of Novaya Zemlya. On the -other hand, they have never been seen on the coasts of Siberia, which -have no glaciers. - -27. The constant displacement of the centre of gravity of an iceberg, -resulting from the unsymmetrical decrease of its form, causes its -periodical oversetting; and the different temperature of the internal and -external ice is the principal cause of its rending asunder with a noise -like thunder; a process which occurs generally in the height of summer. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -NAVIGATION IN THE FROZEN OCEAN. - - -1. Although it be impossible to give any one, who has not with his own -eyes seen the Arctic Sea, a perfectly clear conception of its character, -the phenomena described in the preceding chapter are sufficient to -indicate the difficulties and dangers to which its navigation is -necessarily exposed. And to these difficulties and dangers, formidable -enough in themselves, are often added the evil influences of preconceived -theories and exaggerated expectations, usually followed by bitter -disillusions. The calm judgment, which, to all the bold plans of -navigation within the Polar basin, opposes distrust in their feasibility, -while it points to the hundred expeditions which have at last returned -home after penetrating but a little way into the frozen sea, is an -attainment of slow growth. Years, too, must be devoted to the theoretical -study of the Polar question, to the examination of all that predecessors -have experienced and recorded. But this study is very important to -Polar navigators; for the discoveries which they too readily regard as -exclusively their own prove sometimes to have been made centuries before -them. - -2. A most essential element of success is the choice of a favourable -ice year; and the commander of an expedition must possess sufficient -self-control to return, as soon as he becomes convinced of the existence -of conditions unfavourable for navigation. It is better to repeat the -same attempt on a second or even a third summer, than with conscious -impotence to fight against the supremacy of the ice. - -3. Polar navigators have learnt in the school of experience to -distinguish between navigation in the frozen seas remote from the -land, and navigation in the so called coast-waters. The former is -far more dangerous, entirely dependent on accident, exposed to grave -catastrophes, and without any definite goal. It affords no certainty -of finding a winter harbour for the long period when cold and darkness -render navigation impossible. On the other hand, a strip of open water, -which retreats before the growth of the land-ice only in winter, forms -itself along coasts, and especially under the lee of those exposed to -marine currents running parallel to them; and this coast-water does not -arise from the thawing of the ice through the greater heat of the land, -but from the land being an immovable barrier against wind, and therefore -against ice-currents. The inconstancy of the wind, however, may baffle -all the calculations of navigation; for coast-water, open as far as the -eye can reach, may be filled with ice in a short time by a change of -the wind. Land-ice often remains on the coasts even during summer, and -in this case there is nothing to be done but to find the open navigable -waters between the extreme edge of the fast-ice and the drift-ice. Should -the drift become pack-ice, the moment must be awaited when winds setting -in from the land carry off the masses of ice blocking the navigation, -and open a passage free from ice, or at least only partially covered -with drift-ice. It is evident that navigation in coast-waters must be -slow and gradual, though it has always been attended with the greatest -advantages. Barentz was the first who tested its value; but it was Parry, -the most distinguished of all Polar navigators, who discovered its full -importance, and from his day it has been accepted as an incontrovertible -canon of ice-navigation. On this point he himself says: “Our experience, -I think, has clearly shown, that the navigation of the Polar Seas can -never be performed with any degree of certainty without a continuity of -land. It was only by watching the openings between the ice and the shore -that our late progress to the westward was effected; and had the land -continued in the desired direction, there can be no question that we -should have continued to advance, however slowly, towards the completion -of our enterprise.”[5] - -4. The successes of the English in the North American Archipelago were -the result of this mode of navigation. Its principle is to search for -and sail along the network of narrow channels when the main passage is -blocked by pack-ice, and to turn to account the narrowest opening between -the ice and the land. In the Siberian coast expeditions also this method -of constantly following the coast-waters has been successfully observed. -Where coast-water does not exist, or only to a limited extent, as on -the East Coast of Greenland, this method is of course impracticable. -The fate of the second German North Pole expedition is an illustration -of this; it was ordered to penetrate in this direction, and its failure -was inevitable. On the other hand, all the unsuccessful attempts -of expeditions to penetrate northward from Spitzbergen—expeditions -whose course and termination resemble each other as one egg resembles -another—may be reckoned among those in seas remote from land. To the -same category belong the expeditions for the discovery of a north-east -passage, and simply because of the great extent of frozen sea between -Novaya Zemlya and Cape Tcheljuskin. - -5. In the frozen sea remote from the land, from 200 to 300, or at the -most 400, nautical miles must, according to all past experience, be -regarded as the greatest distance which a vessel is able to compass, -under the most favourable conditions, during the few weeks of summer -in which navigation is possible. The fact that Sir James Ross at the -South Pole, and Norwegian fishermen in the Sea of Kara, accomplished -still greater distances, only proves that they were little or not at -all impeded by ice. Ross observed that the ice-floes of the Southern -Arctic Seas are smaller than those of the Northern: “The cause of this is -explained by the circumstance of the ice of the southern regions being -so much more exposed to violent agitations of the ocean, whereas the -northern sea is one of comparative tranquillity.”[6] The rarer occurrence -of land at the South Pole permits freer scope to the currents of the sea, -diminishes the opportunity for the growth of ice on the coasts, tends to -widen the passages in the network of water-ways, and thus facilitates -navigation. Even the swell of the sea within the ice is observed in -the South Polar Ocean, while it is never seen in the North. Besides -the greater hindrances peculiar to the whole North Polar Sea, there is -the specially unfavourable circumstance, in the case of the North-East -passage, that the shallowness of the Siberian Sea prevents a close -navigation of its coasts. - -6. The choice of the most appropriate season is another important -consideration in ice-navigation; for this period does not fall at the -same time in all seas, and the disregard of season was a common cause of -the failures of the expeditions of earlier centuries. Since the frozen -sea remains unbroken and almost unaffected by the action of the sun even -in June, and at that time extends far to the south, it is evident that -all attempts to force a passage in that month are labour thrown away. -The ice-barrier retreating northward, or the transformation of pack into -drift-ice, leaves free navigable water four or five weeks later. The -month of August is the best time for ice-navigation in Baffin’s Bay; the -end of July or beginning of August on the East Greenland coasts; the -second half of August and the beginning of September in the Spitzbergen -waters; and in the region of the Parry Islands the favourable opportunity -ends about the beginning of September. In general, it seems that the -time most propitious for all the coast-water routes, begins some weeks -earlier than the corresponding period in the frozen seas remote from -land. But since, even in the first weeks of September, the most promising -conditions are often succeeded by a sudden reaction due to storms, to -cold setting in rapidly, or to excessive falls of snow, navigation in -the land-remote frozen seas, in itself so extremely hazardous, becomes -specially critical, just when the ice-sheet at its minimum appears to -promise the greatest results. - -7. The help of steam power is an indispensable requisite, as by it a -vessel is able to defy the capricious changes of the wind. The movements -of a ship amid the ice are made in interminable curves, and the power -to describe an arc with the least radius enables a vessel to follow -up narrow and often blocked water-ways. As it is incessantly exposed -to severe shocks from the ice, a paddle-wheel steamer is useless; and -even in screw-steamers care must be taken to protect the propeller by a -special construction. - -8. The rate of speed of a vessel in the ice must necessarily be moderate. -From three to six miles an hour are sufficient: and a rate of eight -or ten miles would soon render her not seaworthy. But even with this -reduced rate, her whole frame-work is shaken and loosened at last by the -incessant shocks she sustains; and this condition of the ship becomes -apparent when concussion with the ice is followed not by a noise as of -thunder, but by a low, dull, groaning sound. The larger a vessel, the -less her capacity to withstand these shocks, and the sooner will these -signs of her diminished strength betray themselves. - -9. An Arctic ship should be built with sharp rather than with full lines, -so that when pressed by the ice, she may more easily escape being nipped -and crushed. A ship built with what is called—in England—full lines, a -full, round ship, is not easily raised but is liable to be crushed by -ice-pressure. The _Hansa_ was built in this manner, and was crushed by -the first squeeze from the ice; the _Germania_ and the _Tegetthoff_ were -both of them sharp-built ships, and stood the test of the ice excellently -well. To protect it from the effects of grinding on ragged “ice-tongues,” -the hull is generally iron-plated for some feet under water, and the bows -are strengthened as much as possible, because this part of the ship is -exposed to the greatest shocks. - -10. The tactics of a ship in the ice are guided entirely by the character -of the hindrances to be overcome. If the ice-fields be large and heavy, -they are then generally separated by broader water-ways and “leads,” -and a ship may often amid such ice follow her course for hours with few -deviations subject always to the danger of being “beset” and crushed. -When the passage is blocked by a barrier of ice, the situation becomes -grave and serious; for such fields are not to be displaced by any force -which the ship may exert, and nothing is left to the navigator but to -await their parting asunder in a position as sheltered as possible. -When the ice is loose and the floes comparatively small, the impeding -barriers may be charged by the ship. She may then force asunder some of -these floes or separate them by the continuous pressure of steam-power. -In cases of this kind, large vessels have the advantage, and can bring -to bear a greater amount of pressure, whereas smaller ones stick fast -and remain immovable. These accumulations of ice, while they make a -“besetment” more likely, diminish the danger of pressure. - -11. Hence it is clear that small are to be preferred to large vessels -for ice-navigation, except under circumstances of rare occurrence; -first, because they are more readily handled, and next, because of their -greater power of resistance and of their being more easily raised under -pressure from the ice. Their one disadvantage of lesser momentum is of -comparatively slight consequence. The experience of all the North Pole -expeditions of this century shows, that ships of 150, or at the most of -300 tons, are best suited for all purposes. - -12. Iron ships have often been employed, but with no success; they -are far less able to bear pressure than wooden ships, as was proved, -among other things, by the fate of the _River Tay_ in 1868, in Baffin’s -Bay, and of the _Sophia_, a Swedish ship of discovery in the north of -Spitzbergen. - -13. It admits of no question, that two vessels should be employed in -preference to one, and this should be accepted as a first principle -whenever the means at our disposal admit of it. Both ships should also -be provided with steam-power, for otherwise their separation is almost -inevitable,—a danger, however, for which, under all circumstances, they -must be prepared. - -14. All that is commonly understood about piercing the ice by sawing and -boring through it is a delusion, and arises from the misunderstanding of -technical expressions. Where there is navigable water, there any one can -sail—where there is none, no one. In 1869 and 1870, after coming on a -_cul-de-sac_ of ice in Greenland to the east of Shannon Island, we could -not penetrate a yard further; in 1871, in loose, but solid ice, we drew -away only by warping on the smaller floes, without being able to make -the slightest progress, and in 1872 we were twice “beset,” in heavy ice, -in spite of our steam power. The penetration of close pack-ice is an -impossibility: in this case patient endurance is alone of any avail, and -hence Sir John Ross so emphatically recommends the Polar navigator “never -to lose sight of the two words caution and patience.”[7] If a vessel, -therefore, is arrested by impenetrable masses barring its way, the -breaking up of the ice must be patiently awaited, and this, generally, is -effected by calms, although the ebb and flow of the tide appear to have -an influence on the solidity of the ice. It is then usual with sailing -ships to seek the larger “ice-holes,” or keep in the freest water-ways, -in order to guard against the danger of being completely inclosed. These -precautions, however, are not so requisite for steam-vessels, as their -power to escape quickly and in any direction secures them against this -danger. A steam-vessel may even venture to fasten on to an ice-floe by -means of an ice-anchor, and of course under its lee, the fires being -banked up, so that by getting up steam she may shift her place as soon -as the ice moves nearer. As a principle, and so far as it is possible -without the exhaustion of her powers, a ship in the ice should endeavour -to be in constant motion, even though this entail many changes of her -course and the temporary return to a position which had been abandoned. -The making fast to a floe, however, should never be attempted, except -when every hope of navigating in the surrounding waters has been proved -fruitless. The fastening a vessel to an iceberg diminishes, indeed, its -drifting, but is, if possible, to be avoided, because of the danger of -the iceberg overturning or rending asunder, things which occur far more -frequently than we should be led to expect from their great appearance -of stability. When a ship, notwithstanding every possible caution, is -“beset,” it is then advisable to “ship” the rudder in order to protect -it from injury, to which it is peculiarly liable from its unusual weight -and size. A ship is exposed to considerable danger when she finds herself -among icebergs in a calm; but since these are over-spread by a dazzling -sheen, even in the thickest mist, the peril of the position is to be -avoided at the last moment by warping. - -15. As the happy choice of a sea-way is one of the essential conditions -of success in ice-navigation, the ability to determine the ship’s -position and to ascertain whether a surface covered with ice to the -horizon, admits of being penetrated, is most desirable. Hence the -employment of a balloon would be of the last importance in Arctic -navigation. The advantage of being able to ascend from the ship in a -balloon secured by a rope, to the height of a few hundred feet, is -self-evident; and, undoubtedly, the first vessel which avails herself of -this great resource will derive extraordinary benefit from it. - -16. From the deck of a ship even drift-ice appears to be of such solidity -at a little distance as to defy navigation, while from the mast-head more -water than ice may be descried. In order then to extend the horizon, a -look-out, called “the crow’s nest,” is fixed on the mast-head, in which -an officer is always on the watch, and from which all the operations -of the vessel are directed. In a ship of the size and height of the -_Tegetthoff_ the horizon visible from “the crow’s nest” extends to about -eleven miles,[8] but at the distance of even five miles the possibility -of penetrating cannot be determined with sufficient exactness. It is the -business of the officer in “the crow’s nest” to observe the passages -through the ice and distant objects generally, as he is in the best -position to fulfil this most important duty. It is the special business -of the watch on the forecastle to mark what lies in the immediate -neighbourhood of the vessel, and his constant care is demanded to avoid -isolated ice-floes and prevent collision with them. The seaman at the -helm steers the ship by the signs and calls which come to him from “the -crow’s nest,” and modifies them according to those of the watch on the -forecastle. The rest of the crew remove the smaller fragments of ice from -the vessel’s course, special care being taken to prevent their damaging -the screw. - -17. While sea-currents move the ice in close and continuous lines, winds -produce great disturbances in their movement, and open long “leads” in -the direction of their course, which often alternate with strips of the -thickest pack-ice. This movement of the ice varies with each accumulation -of floes, as its rate of motion depends on the height of the ice-field, -which then acts as a sail. It is ascertained by experience that calms, -on the other hand, have the remarkable property of breaking up the ice. -The knowledge and application of these circumstances are essential to -the Arctic navigator. If the course of a ship lies across or against -a current, it is constantly deflected. The deflection on the coast of -East Greenland, for example, amounted to five, even ten miles, within -twenty-four hours; hence the importance of choosing routes with and not -against the course of currents. - -18. Lastly, it is of the greatest moment to choose betimes an appropriate -winter harbour, and it is therefore necessary to keep near the coast -towards the close of the season for navigation. To find one suitable -for shelter during the winter in an unknown Arctic region is a matter -of great difficulty, for it very often happens, that the ice drifts out -from these “docks”[9] in the storms which constantly occur, or perhaps -the “dock” is so sheltered, that the ice, if it breaks up at all, breaks -up only in the following summer. Shallow bays which freeze almost to the -bottom, lying under the lee of a current or within a fiord, are the most -appropriate spots in which to winter. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE PENETRATION OF THE REGIONS WITHIN THE POLAR CIRCLE; THE PERIOD OF THE -NORTH-WEST AND NORTH-EAST PASSAGES. - - -1. Around the lonely apex of the Pole stand cairns of stone which serve -to mark the points to which the restless spirit of human enterprise -and discovery has penetrated. In its zenith wheels the sea-gull in -its flight, and the harpoon-persecuted seal finds on its ice-floes an -unapproachable asylum; but the Pole itself remains the goal which no -human effort has yet reached. - -2. As all knowledge is perfected slowly and gradually, so man’s knowledge -of the earth and its configuration forms no exception to this general -rule. Of the few attempts of early antiquity to enlarge the domain -of geographical knowledge, tradition tells us only of the Argonautic -expedition of the Greeks, of the voyage of the Phœnicians to Ophir, and -their bolder circumnavigation of Africa. With the conception of the -spherical form of the earth the still vague notion of climatal zones -makes its appearance, and to this, four centuries before Christ, Pytheas -of Marseilles gave the first scientific elucidation and the first -approximation to modern theories by his doctrine of the Polar Circle. -Almost contemporaneously Alexander’s expedition to the wonder-land of -India created a paradise for commerce and navigation, to secure which a -shortened route, _the route through the ice_—the most perverse notion -that ever entered into the mind of man to conceive—was one thousand eight -hundred years afterwards eagerly and passionately sought. - -3. Rome had extended her knowledge to Scandinavia, and Seneca’s -prophetical mind foresaw the discovery of new worlds. But the deluge -of religious strifes, the migrations of nations in the earlier part of -the Middle Ages, the holy zeal for destruction in the apostles to the -heathen, proved formidable barriers to the extension of geographical -knowledge, which were broken through only by the piratical hordes of -Normans so renowned in story. While the Romans boasted that Britain -had never been circumnavigated, the Normans, throwing the deeds of the -Phœnicians into the shade, discovered Greenland, and became _the first -Polar Navigators_. - -4. Travels by land were the principal means by which the geographical -knowledge of the world was enriched; but during the Middle Ages the -information which travellers communicated, uncertain and superficial even -for Europe, served only to supply food for the fancies of map-makers, as -far as the distant parts of the world were concerned. - -5. But the grand moment at length arrived in the history of mankind when -the civilization of the West, looking beyond the narrow horizon of the -Old World, and awaking from the geographical dreams of centuries, burst -the fetters of tradition, and within three hundred years perfected the -knowledge of our planet up to the Pole. - -6. When by his famous line of partition, Pope Alexander VI. granted to -Spain and Portugal the new countries discovered in the East and West, the -brigantines of these nations spread themselves over all seas in search of -new lands and fresh glory. To the other maritime nations, to the English -and the Dutch, nothing remained, if they meant to acquire gold-yielding -lands, but to drive the Spaniards and Portuguese from their conquests, or -to seek new Eldorados—yea, by the discovery of sea routes on the north -of Asia and America, to aspire to India itself. This was the conception -first entertained by both the English and the Dutch, and Geography at -any rate profited by their delusions. These nations were not to blame -if those routes, known afterwards as the _North-West_ and _North-East -passages_, degenerated into chimeras, if passages had to be sought in -higher and still higher latitudes,—ultimately in the ice itself, although -the Dutch geographer, Plancius, struck out the consoling theory of the -_open Polar Sea_. - -7. But who in those days could presuppose that the continents of Asia -and America, just where those passages were attempted, symmetrically -developed the most enormous longitudinal dimensions? Even the actual -discovery of the vast extent of Siberia exerted but little influence -on the question of the North-East passage, for the achievements of -individuals were not then so quickly disseminated as at present. A -succession of men in vessels poorly equipped now struggled against the -supremacy of the ice, avoiding at first the dreaded wintering, while they -attempted sometimes the North-East, sometimes the North-West, sometimes -the passage over the Pole itself. In these attempts many lost their -lives; many returned, despairing of but still hoping for the solution of -the problems—_but no one reached the goal_. - -8. The amazing simplicity of the first adventurers is seen in Frobisher’s -project to erect forts, duly provided with cannons and men, on the -commanding points of the passage, in the letters of recommendation given -by kings of England to the leaders of the expedition for the small -Saracenic states which were supposed to exist beyond the river Obi; but -these old navigators carried no letter of recommendation to the great -potentate—the ice. Gold, too, they hoped to find in the North, because -the book of Job speaks of gold coming from thence, and the North-East -passage was considered as free from danger, because Pliny mentions some -Indians who had been driven towards Norway! - -9. When another century and a half had elapsed, a series of unsuccessful -attempts to force the North-East passage put a decisive check to -material interests in Polar expeditions. The North-East passage belonged -henceforward to the history of the past. The English and Dutch withdrew -from the Novaya Zemlya seas; and after Wood’s retreat no scientific -expedition entered those seas for two hundred years, _until the days of -the Austrian Expeditions_. - -10. Among the maritime nations of Europe, it was England, and especially -her merchants, who had hitherto largely invested in the costs and risks -of these Argonautic expeditions “for the glory of God and the good of -the country.” The Dutch soon contented themselves, after Barentz’s -death, with the capture of whales in the Arctic seas; France remained -an unconcerned spectator, while the sylphs of Versailles consumed the -whalebone of whole fleets of whalers; and Spain and Portugal early -withdrew from seas in which, instead of ingots of gold, ice-floes only -were to be found. But even for England the days of the prophets had now -passed away—the days of a Cabot, a Mercator,[10] a Wolstenholme, and a -Walsingham. Men of weight raised their voices against the chimeras of -Arctic commercial routes, and Chillingworth contemptuously compared an -expedition for the discovery of the North-East passage to the study of -the Fathers. - -11. It may be asked why nations struggled with dauntless ambition for the -lost cause of the barren North-West and North-East passages, while for -a century they stretched forth timid hands after the rich treasures of -lands lying in the more favoured zones? _The mighty stimulus of the love -of the marvellous_ explains this series of efforts taken up by generation -after generation. Frobisher, Davis, Baffin, and the Novaya Zemlya -adventurers, told on their return of gold-lands far within the domains -of the icy Hydra. Their tales of single combats with spear or matchlock -against polar bears, of the dreadful snow-storms and fearful cold of -the Arctic winter, were heard with grim delight by listeners on whom -no hardships were imposed. Or they spoke of a darkness that continued -for months, of the flaming arches of the northern lights, of the sun -remaining visible for many weeks in the heavens, of a race of dwarfs, -of unheard-of animals, of fish as big as ships of war, of monsters with -long teeth which precisely resembled the Sphinxes of the plains of the -Pyramids, of white and blue foxes, of floating mountains of dazzling -crystal, of ships seen upside down in the air—when had ever the mind of -man more food to nourish the love of the marvellous or greater incentives -to stimulate the love of distinction? But besides these appeals to -the imagination, every generation desires new confirmations of its -convictions; and hence geographical questions, after being shelved for a -time, come again to the front as by an inward necessity. - -12. If the earlier Polar expeditions pursued exclusively material ends, -a decided change appears in those of the present century—the Polar world -itself became an object of scientific investigation. With Sir John Ross -(1818) began a series of expeditions, at first subservient to the -idea of a North-West passage, but which ultimately derived all their -importance from their attempt—ineffectual as it proved—to rescue the -lives of 139 men, who had fallen far from the fields and scenes where -earthly fame is commonly achieved. It was these expeditions, still fresh -in the memory of this generation, which, summoning to their aid the -modern power of steam against the ice, succeeded in drawing on our Arctic -maps a circle whose mean distance was 200 (German) miles from the Pole. -Parry on the frozen sea of Spitzbergen had approached it within 100 miles -(German); Kane, Hayes and Hall on the coast of the Kennedy Channel, the -former to within 116, and the two latter to within 108 miles, and the -Austro-Hungarian expedition to within 109 miles. - -13. M’Clintock, who returned with the relics of the Franklin expedition, -succeeded in perfecting a mode of discovery independent of the ship—that -by means of sledging—admirably adapted for future Arctic expeditions. -But the North-West passage for which six generations had toiled, though -discovered, was shown to be utterly worthless for all material purposes—a -dreary web of coast lines. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE INNER POLAR SEA. - - -1. The Arctic Sea, in some of its features, forcibly impresses us with -its resemblance to the glaciers of the Alps. In both cases, the ice -presses from a region, colder and less favoured by climate, towards one -warmer and more favoured. In the Alpine glaciers, the movement is from -above downwards; in the Frozen Ocean, the movement is from a higher to a -lower geographical latitude. In both cases, the tongues and spurs of the -masses of ice formed by the configuration of the land or by currents of -the sea, terminate, whenever they reach an isothermal curve of altitude -or latitude, the mean temperature of which suffices to dissolve them -or prevent their formation. Moraines also have their equivalent in the -Arctic Sea; for it is an established fact that icebergs and ice-fields -laden with the _débris_ and rubbish of Arctic lands, deposit these -burdens round the outer edge of the Frozen Ocean, and to this process, -partially at least, the origin of the Newfoundland Banks is ascribed. -If this comparison between the phenomena of high latitudes and great -altitudes be just, then we should have as much reason to believe in the -existence of the so-called open Polar Sea, as we should have to maintain, -that in our glacier ranges ice ceases to be formed above a certain -altitude. - -2. The belief of past times[11] in such a sea shows how unsatisfactory -is the simple to man’s mind, and how old is his tendency to clothe the -remote and the uncommon with a garment of the marvellous. What was the -open Polar Sea but the “Harz Sea” of the North, or the legendary zone -of the ever-sunny Eden of the Hyperboreans, far beyond the land of the -Anthropophagi over which was spread an atmosphere veiled in snow, and -through which no light could penetrate! Who has ever seen this open Polar -Sea? Do the accounts of navigators confirm its existence? Nay—their -accounts are rather a series of counter-statements: Hudson, Baffin, -Phipps, Tschitschagoff, Buchan, Franklin, Parry, Collinson, Scoresby, -M’Clintock, Koldewey, Torell, Nordenskjöld, have all expressed their -disbelief in its existence. If some have pretended that they have seen -it, how strange it is that they never sailed on it! It has recently -been attempted to make the great champion of the Polar question, Dr. -Petermann, a supporter of this conception; but in the “Mittheilungen” of -this highly meritorious geographer, there are many passages which most -emphatically protest against it. His views extend only to an inner Polar -Sea navigable under certain circumstances, and every one acquainted with -those regions may adopt his point of view, though he refuses to admit the -existence of the open Polar Sea. - -3. In those centuries when the Natural Sciences were little cultivated, -when the theories of the Trade Winds, of Equatorial and Polar -sea-currents, were still unknown, and when as yet the processes in the -Frozen Ocean had not been submitted to scientific investigation, we -cannot be surprised at the preconceptions which were formed concerning -its phenomena. In those times all beyond Norway was a chaos of ice-filled -darkness; the necessity of a scientific investigation of those wastes -was not felt; and down to the time of Sir John Ross, Polar navigators on -their return home brought with them no kind of scientific knowledge of -Nature in the Arctic regions. To reach India was the main if not the only -end they had in view. The instructions which Willoughby, the first Polar -navigator, received, give us an insight into the delusions of earlier -times. These, for example, warned adventurers against men-eaters who -swam naked in the sea, and in the rivers. It was the period of fables -long since forgotten. Maldonado, de Fuca, Bernarda, Yelmer, Andrejew, -Martinière, and the whale-fishers, brought home tales of passages to -India discovered, of new continents, of the ascertained connexion of -Novaya Zemlya with the northernmost point of Siberia (Yelmerland) or -even with Greenland. Two centuries ago the failure of all attempts at a -North-East passage was attributed to Russia’s commercial policy, inasmuch -as it had been proved to the satisfaction of all, that the heat was -greater in the north, that the seas there ceased to freeze, and that the -country was covered with a luxuriant green! - -4. There was, indeed, a certain logical consequence in the belief of an -inner Polar Sea, as long as it was unknown that ice is formed on the -open sea as well as on the coasts. There was also one argument, which -made the existence of such a sea not altogether improbable. It might -be assumed, that the formation of ice renewed every year in the Arctic -regions, would necessarily produce eternal bulwarks of congelation and -destroy all organic life, unless sea-currents modified these extremes of -climate. The ice which is formed round the Pole—it was argued—is not of -an unlimited but of a definite quantity. Since, then, this quantity of -ice must be brought with tolerable uniformity from the innermost Polar -region to lower latitudes by the action of sea-currents, there are at -least one or two months of the summer when the ice is at a minimum, when -no new formation takes place, and when a sea relatively ice-free may -appear in the place of the sea which had been covered with ice. This sea -would be the more open and navigable, just in proportion as less land -might be found at the Pole. But in this assumption it is implied, that -the ice moves with perfect regularity and in radial lines from a given -point without any disturbance from winds, or counter-currents, or land, -consequently with a quiet simplicity of hydrography, for which Nature, -neither there nor elsewhere, shows any predilection. Dove makes the mean -annual temperature of the North Pole, 2·5° F.; but it is probably still -less. What, then, is the probability of an open Polar Sea, if this annual -mean only be considered? All the accounts too of animal life increasing -in exuberance as we advance northwards—from which a more favourable -climate within the innermost Polar region and an open Polar Sea have been -inferred—must be received with caution, for the appearance of numerous -flocks of birds proves only that they remain where open water prevails -for a time and that they change their abode with its change of place. - -5. In more recent times great influence has been attributed to the -Gulf Stream as a power influencing all the seas, known and unknown, of -the whole Arctic region. Dr. Petermann, however, in a lately published -work, endeavours to show that its effects are discernible only on the -northern seas of Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya. Its action on the coasts -of Spitzbergen has been indisputably established by the Swedes, who -discovered there certain tropical plants (_Entada gigalobium_); but the -penetration of the warmer waters of this current to the northern coasts -of Novaya Zemlya has not been so positively ascertained. In the Austrian -Expedition of 1873-4, we discovered no proofs of its existence. We found -neither the constant current, nor the water of a higher temperature, -which characterizes that renowned stream. - -6. For a long time the “ice-holes,” seen by Wrangel and Morton, were -regarded as indications of an ice-free Polar Sea. With regard to those -seen by Morton in 81° 22′, Richardson very justly remarks: “The open -water of the Kennedy Channel is not of greater extent in the month of -June than the open spaces which have occasionally been seen in summer on -the north of Spitzbergen by whale-fishers.” Wrangel, when he describes -the “Polynjii,” which he saw on the east of the New Siberian Islands, -accounts for them by the action of a local coast-wind; and yet Wrangel -would have been the first to favour the notion of an inner Polar Sea, for -he still thought, in opposition to Scoresby, that ice could not be formed -on the open sea, because of the absence of land as a support for the ice -in its formation. - -7. The first practical application of the theory of an open Polar Sea -was long ago devised by Plancius; the discovery, namely, of a route -in high latitudes to China. But the expeditions to the North Pole, -properly so termed, sprang also from this theory, which was held with -the greatest pertinacity. The evidence of unsuccessful undertakings was -always met and outweighed by the counter-experience of one favourable -year in the ice. Thus Barentz, in the exceedingly propitious summer of -1594, advanced without difficulty one degree of latitude beyond the -northern extremity of Novaya Zemlya, while his successors frequently -encountered insurmountable difficulties at Cape Nassau, and he himself -in the following year, 1595, found the state of the ice changed much -for the worse. In the years 1871, 1874, Mack, Carlsen, and the two -Austro-Hungarian expeditions came upon an open sea in the very places -where very few, if any, water-ways were to be seen in 1872 and 1873. In -the summers of 1816, 1817, the mighty stream of ice on the coast of East -Greenland had decreased to such an extent that Scoresby met with little -ice between 74° and 80° N.L., but since then whalers have constantly seen -the heaviest ice there, heavier than anywhere else. In 1753 and 1754, -the Sea of Kara and the Novaya Zemlya Sea were free from ice. But in -subsequent years the whale-fishers knocked in vain at their ice-barred -entrances. In 1823 Lütke from a point on the west coast of the Sea of -Kara saw that sea without ice; but, in the middle of August, 1833, -Pachtussow found the western side of that sea open, while in the previous -year he himself could not pass the Karian Gates. Again in 1743 and 1773, -the North Spitzbergen Sea held out promises the most inviting, which -might possibly have permitted the reaching of a still higher degree of -latitude than that which Nordenskjöld and Koldewey attained in 1868. Sir -John Ross, in the first year of his second voyage, found all things most -favourable for navigation; but in the following year the very reverse; -and Sir James C. Ross experienced the same alternation of circumstances -in the Southern Polar Sea. In 1850, Penny found the Wellington Channel -free from ice, but in 1852, Belcher, although he penetrated far further -than Penny, was confronted in the same channel by pack- and drift-ice. -Scoresby the younger, to whose profound faculty of observation we owe -the most significant hints on the nature of the Polar Sea, although he -had navigated the Greenland ice-ocean for twenty years, landed only -once on its coast. The Swedish expedition (1861) could approach the -north-east of Spitzbergen only in boats; Smith sailed over the sea there -(1871) as far as Cape Smith. The walrus-hunter, Matilas, sailed round -(1864) the north-east island completely, and Carlsen, an ice navigator, -as successful as he was skilful, in 1863 circumnavigated Spitzbergen, -and in 1871 Novaya Zemlya, and discovered there the relics of Barentz’s -winter quarters. In 1872, King Karl Land was circumnavigated, although -both Koldewey and Nordenskjöld (1868) as well as the first Austrian -expedition (1871) had in vain attempted to approach it. How greatly also, -in the same year, the state of the ice varies in different places, is -proved by the fact, that Franklin learnt from the whalers that they never -saw the ice so thick and so strong in Davis Straits as at the end of July -1819, while Parry, more to the north by some degrees of latitude, pursued -his path of discovery even to Melville Island, and in the following -year returned to England without meeting any special obstacles. These -examples, to which many more might be added, show how variable are the -chances of ice-navigation from one year to another. But however variable -the conditions of the ice may be, the impediments, even under the most -favourable circumstances, are so very great, that we have never been -able to penetrate the innermost Polar regions,—_penetrate_, that is, _to -where, according to the views of an earlier time, the open Polar Sea -should be found_. - -8. Those propitious ice-years amount therefore to nothing more than a -greater recession of the outer ice-barrier—trifling when compared with -the mighty whole—or to an increased navigability of certain coast-waters, -or to a local loosening of the inner Polar ice-net. In reality the whole -Arctic Sea, with its countless ice-fields and floes, and its web of fine -interlacing water-ways, is nothing but a net constantly in motion from -local, terrestrial, or cosmical causes. All the changes and phenomena -of this mighty network lead us to infer the existence of frozen seas up -to the Pole itself; and according to my own experience, gained in three -expeditions, I consider _that the states of the ice between 82° and 90°_ -N.L. _will not essentially differ from those which have been observed -south of latitude 82°; I incline rather to the belief that they will be -found worse instead of better_. - -9. If this view be correct, it will remain an insuperable difficulty -to reach the Pole with a ship. The penetrating to 82° or 83° exhausts, -according to all past experience, the disposable time for navigation, and -presupposes moreover the most favourable conditions for the attaining of -such high latitudes. A ship which reaches 82° N.L. by the beginning of -autumn must risk nothing more, should only navigate really open water, -and the expediency of securing a winter harbour should then outweigh -every other consideration. - -10. He who expects with a ship of the present construction to reach the -Pole in a single summer, necessarily believes in an ocean at the Pole. -But even if an expedition should penetrate to 84° in Smith’s Sound, or -should reach Cape Tcheljuskin on the north-east route, it would not -follow that such an ocean exists, but only that the Polar Sea presents at -different times and in different places open water-ways, which may enable -a ship to advance beyond a point hitherto reached; but it is improbable -that the circumstances which favoured this will be repeated the next -summer, so as to permit the ships to penetrate still further—or to -return. The last American expedition returned without being able to speak -decisively as to the possibility of navigating Lincoln Sea, and since -this has not yet been verified by fact, we must suspend our judgment on -the matter. To the English expedition, which has taken this route to -the Pole, is reserved the great work of throwing light on the region of -Upper Smith’s Sound, and the whole civilized world will hail with joy any -successes which a nation, so long conspicuous for its perseverance in the -cause of discovery, may happily achieve. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE FUTURE OF THE POLAR QUESTION. - - -1. The eagerness of human nature for gain and material prosperity is so -great, that we are wont to estimate the value of all undertakings by the -standard of utility; and too often it is forgotten, that each generation -is destined to fulfil the task of acquiring and collecting the knowledge -which is to benefit only a later generation. If, then, the Polar question -be valueless for our material interests, is it therefore valueless for -science? and assuming that it is for the present worthless as far as -gain and wealth are concerned, must it continue so for all time? Not -that we are entitled, even from this narrower point of view, to deny -the usefulness of Polar exploration, as Cook seems to have done when he -said, “Never from those regions will any advantage accrue to our race;” -but rather bear in mind what Sir James Ross tells us: “The profit which -accrued to England, in each year after the voyage (1818) of my uncle -(Sir John Ross) in North Baffin’s Bay, from those rediscovered parts of -the Arctic seas, was more than enough to defray all the expenses of the -voyages of discovery undertaken from 1818 to 1838.” Scoresby with his -single ship made a million thalers by the capture of whales, and the -Americans had for many years a clear profit of eight million dollars from -the fisheries of the frozen seas of Behring’s Straits. There were also, -it is true, very considerable losses; for, in 1830, nineteen English -ships engaged in the whale fishery were “beset” in the ice of Melville -Bay, and nearly all destroyed; in 1871, twenty-six American ships were -crushed to pieces in Behring’s Straits, and as many as seventy-three -Dutch vessels sank in one year in the seventeenth century from the -pressure of the ice. - -2. We do not, however, mean to assert, that the progress of Polar -discovery is always followed by a corresponding increase in the capture -of fish in the Arctic seas. On the contrary, the take of oil-yielding -animals is steadily decreasing, and even if an open sea should be -discovered in 82° N.L., in which whales should be found in as great -abundance as ice-floes unhappily are, the whaler with his poor equipment -would never be able to follow them thither. The fur countries, once as -productive as the mines of Peru, are incapable of further extension; even -the treasures of mammoths’ tusks have become rare, and in order to bring -thirty tons of lignite from the north-east of Greenland, a ship must -expend seventy tons of sound coal in the transit, besides passing the -winter there. That the teas of China, the silks of Japan, the spices of -the Moluccas will never descend to us from the ice-fields has long been -settled. No one at the present day thinks any longer of the commercial -value of the North-West and North-East passages. Modes of escape from -the perils and caprices of the ice have grown out of the endeavour to -discover routes of commerce, which lay beyond the reach of the cannon -of the Spaniards at the time when they aspired to the monopoly of the -trade of the world. The reward of 25,000 gulden, offered by the Dutch -government for the discovery of a North-East passage, and that of £20,000 -by the English parliament for the North-West passage, have never been -paid, because never claimed, nor are they, in the least degree, likely to -be claimed.[12] - -3. Yet, quite independent of material results, Polar exploration presents -no unworthy object for scientific investigation—a region of the globe -120,000 square miles in extent never yet entered by man. The Polar -question, as _a problem of science_, aims at determining the limits of -land and water, at the perfecting of that network of lines with which -comparative science seeks to surround our planet, even to its Poles. The -completion of this labour will serve to discover those physical laws -which regulate climates, the currents of the atmosphere and sea, and the -analogies of geology with the earth as we see it. - -4. But how is this to be attained? At first it would appear as if the -methods of ice-navigation had been followed by such success, that their -continued application guaranteed still greater results. The gradual -advance by means of ships, from the Polar Circle to 73°, 75°, 79°, or -even to 82° N.L., has been the result and is the reward of the labours of -three centuries. But to reach higher degrees, from 82° to 90°, depends on -other conditions than mere time. That increased experience and boldness -have removed many of the inconveniences and dangers attendant on Arctic -navigation is undoubtedly true, but it is also as true, that, upon the -whole, _the safely and convenience of ice-navigation have more steadily -increased than its successes_. Hudson, Baffin, and especially Scoresby, -and even some whalers of the seventeenth century, reached latitudes which -have scarcely been exceeded since, and in many cases this progress was -due, not to greater boldness and experience, but rather to chance and the -caprices of the ice, which “to the whaler often permitted glances into -its interior, which were denied to the scientific explorer.” - -5. The greater perfection of our means enables us to conduct Polar -expeditions with greater facility. Instead of dissipating our strength -by sending out several ships, even small fleets, amounting sometimes to -fifteen ships (often not larger than the boats of a modern Polar ship), -since the days of Sir John Ross, we equip one or two ships only, strongly -built for their “special purpose, provided with steam-power, and with -all that is desirable or requisite; and instead of despatching them -for short summer cruises, we provision them, send them out for several -years, and, by appropriate nourishment and the aid of medical science, -protect the crews from the scourge of scurvy. In those days, when even -the wealthy lived during the winter on salt beef, and English squires -were obliged at the beginning of winter, on account of the scarcity of -food for the cattle, to kill and salt a portion of their herd, preserved -and antiscorbutic victuals were an impossibility to a Hudson, a James, a -Fox, in their winters amid the ice. Those introduced by Ross—then called -“Donkin’s meat”—have been greatly improved since, and through them the -scurvy, which used to carry off whole crews of ships, has lost its -former terrors. - -6. In this power to extend our expeditions without danger, and especially -in sledge journeys during the autumn and spring, which are possible only -to expeditions prepared to winter in the ice, are the grounds why we have -not halted at the barriers “of the bulwarks built for eternity;” in the -Rennselaer harbour, in the Lancaster-Barrow route, or at the Pendulum -islands. It is only sledge expeditions, as Middendorf says, which have -been able to effect results of any magnitude on the inaccessible coasts -of the extreme north; and the great extent to which the Russians had used -sledge expeditions evidently served as an example both to the English and -to Kane. - -7. In Polar expeditions, therefore, we have probably reached, so far as -the exploration of the highest latitudes by means of ships is concerned, -the limits of possibility. The extraordinary success which fell to the -lot of Hall’s expedition _teaches us only the possibility of encroaching -but a little beyond that limit_, even under the most favourable -circumstances. - -8. In all cases where the attempt shall be made to reach the highest -latitudes with a ship, I would again recommend the route through Smith’s -Sound, because, in the first place, I believe that any considerable -advance is only to be expected in coast-water; and in the second place, -because the Grant Coast offers facilities for sledge expeditions on a -large scale. East Greenland in the higher latitudes, 73°-75°, may be -regarded as inaccessible; and the attempt to penetrate northwards in its -coast-water was a delusion of the second German North-Pole expedition. In -the north of Spitzbergen, and in Behring’s Straits, fifty expeditions and -countless whalers have heard from the ice an imperious _ne plus ultra_; -and the same prohibition has been uttered to as many expeditions on the -North-East passage. In both these routes the cause of failure was the -disproportion between what could be reached in one or two summers, and -the vast extent of sea blocked by impenetrable ice. In like manner, the -probability of reaching the Pole itself with our present resources is so -small, and the attempt to do it is so utterly disproportionate to the -sacrifices exacted and the results achieved, that it would be advisable -to exclude it from Arctic exploration, until, instead of the impotent -vessels of the sea, we can send thither those of the air. - -9. Be this as it may, the present English North-Pole Expedition will -essentially contribute to solve the question, whether the Pole can be -reached by the route through Upper Smith’s Sound. This, according to the -views of almost all Polar navigators, holds out the greatest chances for -further advance by sea. Should this expedition, equipped in so effective -a manner, and sent out by a nation of such great experience, not come -nearer to the goal, or, if nearer, only through sledging—which may very -probably be the case—the conviction will then be strengthened, that all -efforts to reach the Pole by navigation in the Frozen Ocean are hopeless, -and witness only to the glorious persistency of human endeavour. - -10. But until aërial navigation to the Pole shall be attempted, it -would be advisable to follow the example of the Swedes, and, in the -service of Natural History and Geography, content ourselves with the -exploration of those Arctic lands of which, up to the present moment, we -know only the coast-line, or which, situated on the outermost verge of -our Polar charts, are still untrodden by man; we mean specially Gillis’, -Grinnell’s, Wrangel’s Land, and above all, the interior of Greenland. -The Polar question, hitherto regarded chiefly as a geographical problem, -would thus, for a considerable time, be taken up in the interest of -Natural Science. Lieutenant Weyprecht, after dwelling on the predominance -of exploration in Polar expeditions, expresses a wish, that the great -civilized nations would unite in contemporaneous Arctic expeditions for -magnetical, electrical, and meteorological investigations: “In order to -attain decisive scientific results, a number of expeditions should be -sent to different places in the Arctic regions to make observations, at -the same time, with similar instruments, and in accordance with similar -instructions.” They who think such results too insignificant for the -energies and sacrifices which are expended to achieve them, and who would -rather that such efforts should be transferred to those still unknown -regions of the earth, which may become the dwelling-places of man, will, -of course, give their veto against the further agitation of the Arctic -question. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -POLAR EQUIPMENTS. - - -1. Every Arctic expedition should be guided by the experience of its -predecessors, both in its plan and its equipment; and hence we have often -to deplore the negligence of almost all Polar navigators in failing to -inform those who follow them of what they actually saw, of their modes -of procedure, or of the mistakes which they committed. It will not, -therefore, be labour thrown away, if we state our own experience and -record our own observations for the guidance of others, in order to show, -with the utmost possible clearness, what future explorers have before -them, and how best to meet it. - -2. Undivided command in an expedition is the first of all rules; but -if there be any division of command in a subordinate expedition by sea -or land, the duties and rights of its commander must be clearly and -exactly defined. In recent times the command of a Polar expedition has -sometimes been conferred not on a seaman, but on a man of science, -as in the cases of Kane, Hayes, Nordenskjöld, and Torell. Where the -investigation of questions connected with Natural History is the aim and -object, this precedent is admissible, but it should never be observed -where the commander has an important part to fulfil as a navigator. The -command of an expedition has never been conferred on a man of science -by the English government. In the very commencement, indeed, of Polar -discovery, an English expedition was placed under the command of Sir -Hugh Willoughby, who was not bred a sailor, but down to the seventeenth -century, even in their naval campaigns, such men were appointed to naval -commands. The Dutch expeditions of the sixteenth century generally -adopted a destructive division of command, under supercargoes and pilots, -representing the mercantile and nautical elements: confusion and discord -were the inevitable consequences. - -3. Next to the selection of a commander, the selection of the crew -demands the greatest care. This ought to be made some time before the -expedition starts, in order that those unfit for the service may be -discovered, and their places supplied by others; this cautious mode of -procedure, and not a preference for any particular nationality, will -secure the most effective crew. Although seamanlike qualities do not -belong in the same degree to every nation, time and pains only are needed -to secure a picked crew for a North-Pole expedition from almost any -nation. Endurance of cold is not the only test of effectiveness, although -this is a very common assumption; but a sense of duty, perseverance, -and resolution are the virtues of a seaman. Habit soon teaches men to -conquer cold, and inexorable necessity often hardens weaklings into -heroes for Arctic discovery. A certain degree of intelligence is of -high importance in the crew. In many cases resolution in the midst of -dangers depends on their capacity to observe and think, even on their -possessing certain branches of knowledge. The greater part of the crew of -the _Tegetthoff_ had these advantages. But men who, in a heavily-laded -sledge, leave the old and take to recently-formed ice, without noticing -the difference,—who observe a frost-bitten foot several hours after the -mischief has been done,—who lose their cartridges, know nothing of their -rifle, and little more of their compass, or who pass on without observing -the configurations of the land, possess an indifference indeed, but of a -kind very dangerous to themselves and to the whole party, though they may -despise death as much as Achilles is said to have done. - -4. An intelligent crew, from their greater feeling of independence, -is, however, more difficult to command than an ignorant one. Devotion -and blind confidence are more rarely found in an educated crew; their -amenability to discipline is dependent on the good example, the kindness -and unalterable calmness of those who may command them. The law of a -Polar expedition is obedience, and its basis morality. Punishments are -in such situations a miserable and depressing means for the preservation -of order, and then employment, especially in a private undertaking, -will tend rather to loosen than to maintain the bonds of discipline. -If Parry, in 1820, caused corporal punishments to be inflicted, this -proves the greater facility with which discipline is maintained on -board of a man-of-war, but not its appropriateness generally. Coercion -and threats produce no effect; and hence the folly of attempting to -secure success by sending out again those who returned without having -achieved anything, which was done last century by the authorities of St. -Petersburg with every unsuccessful enterprise on the Arctic coasts of -Siberia. The regulation that the most meritorious among the crew shall -be specially rewarded, after the return of the expedition, provides -for the recognition of merit, without exciting ill feeling in the less -worthy. For the officers scientific success may be a perfect reward -of their toils, but for the crew the reward should consist of more -material advantages. Money, indeed, seems a feeble motive of action to -men destined to withstand for years the inclemency of Arctic winters, -and uncertain whether they shall ever return; but, notwithstanding, it -is the only form by which men without sympathy for the aims of science -can be gained for the attainment of such objects. The crews of Sir John -Ross received for a martyrdom of four years passed in the ice about £100 -a head; in the second German expedition from eight to twelve thalers -were the monthly pay of each sailor. The pay of the sledgers in the -_Tegetthoff_ was, however, nearly four times as much; in some sledge -journeys it amounted to 3,000 gulden a man. - -5. Contrary to what might be expected, the re-employment of those who -have served before is not to be recommended as a rule. The very best -only should be re-enlisted. The others are too much disposed to place -their experience on a level with that of their commanders; and in -all cases, where their opinions differ from those of their officers, -they damage by a kind of passive opposition the fundamental law of an -expedition—obedience. Those who enter the Arctic regions for the first -time are wont to receive the orders of an experienced commander with an -attention as unquestioning as it is respectful. Married men also should -be excluded, as they were by Barentz in his second (1596) expedition. - -6. Some of the crew should be good shots, good pedestrians and -mountaineers, but all must be of the same nationality, and in perfect -health. The least symptom of rheumatism, of diseases of the lungs and the -eyes, and of certain chronic maladies only too common among seamen, unfit -them for the endurance of the Polar climate, and especially for sledge -expeditions. Those who are addicted to drink are peculiarly liable to the -scurvy. - -7. The medical man of an expedition, besides professional skill and -experience, must possess the most imperturbable patience, for to many of -his patients he is not less a physician of the mind than of the body. He -should convince himself of the sanitary condition of the crew before the -expedition starts, although it may have been previously investigated by -medical authorities and declared satisfactory. - -8. Since an expedition, in addition to its scientific functions, should -take up the illustration of Nature at the Pole, the employment of a -photographer, but still better of an artist, is very desirable, for the -former is too much confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the ship in -his operations. - -9. The records of Arctic adventure in former days tell us of equipments -strangely incompatible with the object pursued. Their commercial purpose -constrained them to fill the hold with bales of silk, instead of -provisions for years; but the letters of recommendation which were given -to the explorers of the North-East passage for the Saracen princes on -the route to Chatai seem peculiarly ludicrous. Some justification may be -discovered for Owczyn taking a priest with him on his Siberian expedition -(1734), but hardly for his wanting fifty-seven men in a vessel only -seventy feet long, and arming it with eight falconets. The employment -of a drummer, twelve privates and a corporal, on Gmelin’s scientific -Siberian expedition, is still more unintelligible; more so than Davis’s -band of music, which was intended to charm the feelings of the Eskimos -and dispose them to peaceful proceedings, his predecessor Frobisher -having had the saddest experience of their barbarism. Other expeditions -by the too plentiful distribution of knives and hatchets among the -Eskimos placed them in a position seriously to threaten the white man, -and even at the present day the so-called “Wilden-kiste” often contains -articles little calculated to inspire the natives with a high opinion of -our moral superiority. - -10. In fitting out a Polar expedition, all respect should be paid to the -principle of bestowing on those who are for a time banished, the greatest -possible amount of comfort. The proportions of a ship, and the space at -its disposal, narrow the limits available for this end; and since the -return to the employment, as at the first, of small vessels, even these -limits have been considerably diminished. - -11. The following table shows that the employment of small vessels was -the principle at first followed, although the English undertakings -even of this present century never thoroughly adopted the example of a -Fotherby, a Baffin, and a Ross:— - - +------------------------+---------------+---------------+-----+ - | THE EXPEDITIONS OF |TONNAGE OF THE |PROVISIONED FOR|CREW.| - | | SHIPS. | | | - +------------+-----------+---------------+---------------+-----+ - | | | | | | - | | A.D. | | | | - |Willoughby | 1553 |120| 90|160| | 18 months | | - |Frobisher | 1576 | 25| 25| 10| | | | - | ” | 1577 |180| 30| 30| |} | | - |Pett Jackman| 1580 | 40| 20| | |} | 15 | - |Davis | 1585 | 50| 35| | |} | 42 | - | ” |2nd expedn.| 10| 50| 53|120|} | | - |Weymouth | 1604 | 70| 60| | |} | | - |Knight | 1606 | 40| | | |}Mostly for } | | - |Hudson | 1607 | | | | |}one year } | 10 | - | ” | 1608 | | | | |}only. } | 15 | - |James Poole | 1609 | 70| | | |} | 15 | - |Hudson | 1610 | 55| | | |} | | - |Smith | 1610 | 50| | | |} | | - |James Poole | 1611 | 50| | | |} | | - |Fotherby | 1615 | 20| | | |} | | - |Baffin | 1616 | 58| | | |} | | - |Fox | 1631 | 80| | | | 18 months | 20 | - |James | 1631 | 70| | | | 18 ” | | - |Wood | 1676 | | | | | 16 ” | 19 | - |Moor | 1746 |180|140| | | | | - |Ross | 1818 |385|252| | | | | - |Parry | 1819 |375|180| | | 2½ years | | - |Lütke | 1821 |200| | | | | 45 | - |Hayes | 1860 |133| | | | 1½ ” | 15 | - |Koldewey | 1869 |180|200| | | 2 ” | 29 | - +------------+-----------+---+---+---+---+---------------+-----+ - -12. The inspection of this table shows that it was the practice of the -sixteenth century to send out fleets of ships of a very small size, -that in the seventeenth one small ship was commissioned, and that the -employment of two vessels has been the rule since; and this would have -been still more evident, if the various Franklin expeditions had been -included in the above table. In 1829 Sir John Ross started with a ship -drawing eighteen feet, but changed afterwards to one drawing eight -feet; and from eight to twelve feet is now the recognised draught in -Polar ships. Large vessels require a numerous crew, and if they have -not been built exclusively for the purpose of Polar exploration, their -small economy of space prevents their being fitted out for more than -two years and a half. In 1819 Parry’s ship, the large _Fury_, had, with -a draught of eighteen feet, provisions for only two and a half years, -whereas the _Victory_ (1829) of Ross with only seven feet draught had -on board, besides stores for the same period, a steam-engine and coals -for a thousand hours’ steaming. The Russian Novaya Zemlya navigators of -this century have adopted vessels of a size which must be destructive -of all comfort and convenience. These vessels are thirty or forty feet -long, with a draught of five or six feet, and a crew of nine or ten men. -But Arctic ships must have a crew above the ordinary strength and be -provided with steam-power; so that, allowing for the necessary space for -the quarters of the crew, for the engines and the coalbunkers, little -room will be left for the stowage of stores. But this little should -be reserved for well-chosen provisions stowed away so as to avoid all -empty spaces, and secure the greatest amount of resistance to lateral -pressure. The weakest parts of a ship are always the spaces left for -air in the quarters of the men. A crew, which is exposed to threatening -dangers from the ice, will never regret the strengthening of these -void spaces by heavy horizontal tie-beams, removable when the ship is -in the winter harbour, and so adjusted as not to impede communication. -The mere suspension of heavy beams against the hull of a ship does not -always answer the purpose of protection, since the pressure of the ice -frequently drives away these protecting timbers. The practice, however, -is not absolutely to be rejected. - -13. The daily allowance of solid food for the effectives in an Arctic -expedition amounts to about two pounds, and in sledge expeditions to -2¾ pounds, of which half a pound is bread and one pound preserved meat. -Besides the usual provisions, large supplies of preserved vegetables, -of cocoa, of extract of meat, of rice, of preserved peas, of dried -farinaceous food (such as macaroni), are very desirable. Salted meat is -to be avoided as much as possible. The luxury of fresh bread twice a week -instead of the hard ship’s biscuit is an essential means of promoting -health, and the want of yeast for its preparation may be supplied by -“baking powder.” Once a day a ration of lemon-juice should be served out -as a preservative against scurvy, and anti-scorbutic victuals should -be laid in abundantly. Plenty of tea and tobacco is indispensable; the -want of these is painfully felt, especially by the sailors. Cases have -actually occurred, where crews have ground the wooden blocks of the -rigging to powder, to serve as tea, and have used the hoops of casks for -tobacco. - -14. The moderate enjoyment of spirituous liquors is much to be -recommended, as their influence on health and sociality is of great -importance. The preservation, however, of a sufficient stock of wine, -especially in winter, is a matter of much difficulty, since most kinds -freeze at 21° F. or 14° F. As long as the ship is afloat, as it generally -is when winters are passed in the ice, it is advisable to preserve the -supply of wine at the bottom of the hold, and to place all other things -most liable to be frozen in layers above it. But if a ship be nearly -or entirely out of water, it is advisable to keep the wine, and other -indispensable liquids, in the empty spaces of the cabin, under the -cabin table, near the stove, below the berths, and under the sky-light -after it has been closed for the winter. Only absolute want of space -justifies the preparation of _chemical wine_,[13] since the volume of -its constituent parts without water is only a fifth of real wine; and -under all circumstances _chemical wine_ is but a miserable shift, and -the beer (even the spruce beer of Sir John Ross) which the English used -to manufacture on board ship from the essence of malt and hops is far -preferable. The rum and cognac, especially for sledge expeditions, in -order to save weight should contain the greatest possible amount of -alcohol, for its dilution before use is a matter of no difficulty. - -15. During the winter, residence in the ship itself is preferable to -living in log-houses, because the ship can be more easily heated and -suffers less from the accumulation of ice. But since a ship in the Arctic -Sea ceases for ten months of the year to be a ship and becomes in fact a -house, this should be kept in view when she is being fitted out. - -16. The place where the men live is always in the fore-part of the ship, -but their berths should be changed in a certain rotation, because of -the inequality of the condensation. It is not advisable to place the -kitchen in the quarters of the crew in order to diminish the consumption -of coals, because an accumulation of moisture is thereby increased. The -officers and _savans_ occupy a common messroom in the after-part of the -ship, and sleep in little cabins ranged round it. The power to withdraw -occasionally from the presence of those who must be together for years -is an important element of harmony. Sir John Ross and his officers in -1833, even in the miserable hut built on the Fury coast, did not occupy -the common messroom heated by a stove, but preferred separate cabins, -the temperature of which seldom rose above the freezing point, and in -which they had to suffer much from the accumulation of ice. All the -living rooms should be provided with waterproof carpets. Their heating -by means of the common stoves is objectionable, because of the unequal -distribution of warmth. An even temperature is best maintained by the use -of the Meidinger “Fullofen,” which has the further advantage of consuming -only a small quantity of coals. Hot-air flues are, perhaps, preferable -even to these, because they better prevent the freezing of the moisture -in the cabins, and indeed in every part of the ship. - -17. An Arctic ship should be provided with an iron-plated washing and -drying closet, without which the washing of linen would be restricted -to the few weeks of summer weather. This closet may also be used as a -bath-room, an important means of promoting health. The lighting of the -living rooms by petroleum sufficiently answers all purposes; in the -cabins, however, stearine candles are to be preferred either to it or any -other oil. The construction of the lamps used in making observations in -the open air during the long Arctic darkness is a matter of the greatest -importance. Those used in the second German North-Pole Expedition were -of peculiar excellence, and never failed in their difficult service. -Massive lamps, with glass globes protected with wire, and burning -petroleum in preference to common oil, should be used on deck, and as -they are employed for so many purposes and exposed to so many risks, a -plentiful supply of them should be provided. In the huts on the deck, -built over the hatchways, train-oil may be used with advantage, if the -lamps are so constructed that the flame may heat the reservoir containing -the oil. - -18. So long as the crew remains on board the ship, their clothing, even -in the severest winter, needs but little attention. Thick close-fitting -woollen under-garments, knitted woollen gloves, outer-garments of strong -cloth, are in all cases sufficient on deck, and in all those parts of -the ship which are kept at a certain temperature. Leather boots lined -with fur were long considered an indispensable requisite for Polar -expeditions, but they have not maintained their character, as they are -very heavy, become unpliable in frost, and soon quite useless through its -action and the wearing off of the fur. - -19. Before the departure of the expedition, all the instruments should be -thoroughly cleansed from oil by a practical optician, and the fire-arms -should undergo a like operation at the hands of the gunmaker, and -their barrels should be browned to protect them better from rust. The -ammunition, powder and matches to blast the ice, alcohol and petroleum, -should be stowed in the after-part of the ship, and the two latter should -be reached only through a closely-fitting pump. A very ample supply of -alcohol, flannel, buffalo-skins, strong cloth, water-proof canvas, felt, -leather, reindeer shoes, snow boots, shovels, cramp irons, poles, &c., -articles which are too often overlooked, should be taken, both from their -usefulness on board ship and also on land expeditions. - -20. The costs of Polar expeditions have relatively rather diminished than -increased. The expenses of Willoughby’s expedition 300 years ago amounted -to the sum—quite enormous for that day—of £6,000; Moor’s (1746) cost -£10,000; while Back’s difficult but successful undertaking to explore -the great Fish-river (1833-1835), only £5,000. The Siberian expedition -of Middendorf (1844)—costing only 13,300 rubles (£1,717)—was a matchless -example of extraordinary achievements with little expenditure. The costs -of the various Franklin Expeditions from 1848 to 1854 amounted, according -to the statement of the English Admiralty, to twenty million francs -(£833,333); those of the second German North-Pole Expedition to 120,000 -thalers (£11,000), and the expenses of our own Austrian-Hungarian North -Pole Expedition to 220,000 gulden (£18,333). - - - - -PIONEER VOYAGE OF ISBJÖRN. - -_JUNE 20-OCTOBER 4, 1871._ - - - - -THE PIONEER VOYAGE OF THE “ISBJÖRN.” - - -1. The failure of the second German Arctic expedition directed the future -efforts of Polar exploration to the seas of Novaya Zemlya. Although the -geographical position and political relations of Austria prevented its -Government from taking any active part in the great geographical problems -and questions of our times, an interest in Polar discovery had been -excited in her statesmen, which gradually ripened into a determination to -send its flag, renowned for its military fame, to consecrate struggles -on the peaceful domain of scientific exploration. The magnanimous act -of Graf Wilczek, contributing 40,000 florins towards the equipment of -an Austro-Hungarian expedition, not only strengthened but also endowed -the resolve. In order, however, to obviate the possibility of spending -large sums on a plan which might be unfeasible, or if feasible, of little -value, it was determined to despatch a pioneer expedition to the seas of -Novaya Zemlya under the joint command of Lieutenant Weyprecht and myself. -The knowledge and experience gained in that voyage—which is described in -the following pages—induced the Austrian Government to send another and -more powerful vessel to those seas, equipped to pass two or more winters -in the ice. - -2. It seemed to be established as the result of many expeditions, that -almost invincible difficulties opposed the reaching of the central Arctic -regions by the routes through Baffin’s Bay, Behring’s Straits, along -the coast of Greenland, and from Spitzbergen, mainly because on them -all we are met by the great Arctic currents, which act as channels to -carry off the ice of the Polar basin. These currents carry with them -vast masses of ice, which they deposit on all the coasts which they -strike. On the results of many Norwegian, Russian, and German voyages, -partly in the interests of science, partly in the interests of commerce, -many geographers maintained that the traces of the Gulf Stream did not -disappear at the North Cape, but rather that it exercised a considerable -influence on places and in latitudes not before imagined, as, for -instance, on the north-east coasts of Novaya Zemlya. An expedition, -therefore, which followed the course of the warmer waters of the Gulf -Stream would find fewer and less formidable obstacles, than on the routes -exposed to the Arctic currents, carrying with them colossal masses of -ice towards the south. On the east of Spitzbergen there is a land which -has, indeed, been often seen, but never reached, or even attempted to -be reached—Gillis’ Land—lying in the course of the Gulf Stream; and it -is a probable assumption, that navigable water would be found under its -western coast, as at Spitzbergen, where 80° N. Lat. can be reached every -year without any difficulty. If, then, this stream extends still further -to the north—which is probable according to the soundings taken by the -Swedes—it is reasonable to expect that higher latitudes may be reached on -this than on any other route. - -3. It is remarkable, that the seas between Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya -were utterly unknown to science. No expedition had ever been sent -thither, though many things seemed to invite and favour the venture, -and Dr. Petermann had long endeavoured to organize a powerful and -well-equipped expedition to explore higher latitudes on this route. At -length Lieutenant Weyprecht and I undertook a voyage of reconnaissance to -those waters, in order to ascertain whether the climate and the state of -the ice were as favourable in reality, as they seemed to be in theory. -No attempt was to be made to reach high latitudes or to make important -geographical discoveries. The small means at our command forbade either. -Our aims were more limited; they referred to the temperature of the -water and the air, to the currents, to the state of the ice, to the -probability of success in the following year (1872), and lastly, to -opportunities for extended sledge journeys. We were to sail from Tromsoe -about the middle of June, and return thither by the middle of September. - -4. In order to diminish expenses, we chartered at Tromsoe a small sailing -ship. A steamer would, indeed, have been more serviceable, but the cost -would have been quadrupled, without any adequate advantage. The _Isbjörn_ -(i.e., Ice-bear) was a vessel of fifty tons, cutter-rigged, 55 feet long, -17 feet broad, with a draught of 6 feet. Her bows were protected with -sheet-iron, two feet above, and two feet under, water. She was new and -strong, and made with us her first voyage. We had also two small boats, -and a so-called “Fang-boot”—whale-boat. She was commanded by Captain -Kjelsen, and had as a crew a harpooner, four sailors, a carpenter, and -a cook—all Norwegians. We were provided with the requisite instruments -by the Imperial Geographical Institute, and were provisioned for four -or five months. The Austrian Consul Aagaard aided us to the utmost of -his ability in the equipment of the vessel. It must be observed, that -we had no direct command or control over the vessel and its crew; the -responsibility for the ship, and the immediate command over its crew, -belonged to the skipper Kjelsen. Weyprecht was, however, the real -commander. - -5. The information we gathered concerning the state of the ice in the -region of our projected exploration, was exceedingly contradictory. -While, for example, Dr. Bessels, in the steamer _Albert_, of Rosendal, -discovered a branch of the Gulf Stream with a temperature of 41° F. at -the ice-barrier on the south of Gillis’ Land, Dr. Petermann sent us a -letter of Lamont, in which he said: “Every year the ice appears to me -more formidable.” The whalers of Tromsoe, who knew the ice of that region -only from hearsay, and could give no positive information as to its -limits, uttered many unfavourable prognostications as to the possibility -of penetrating that frozen sea, or of approaching Gillis’ Land from the -south. The region was utterly unknown, even to many skippers who sailed -from Spitzbergen to Novaya Zemlya. The few attempts to penetrate to that -land, first seen in 1707, and regarded by the Swedes as a continent, had -been unsuccessful. So also their efforts to reach it from the south-west -in 1864 and 1868. Captain Koldewey’s attempt also, which was made from -the “Thousand Isles” three months before the last-named voyage, had been -attended with the same want of success. None of these expeditions had -passed beyond the ice-barrier, and their failures contributed greatly to -strengthen the opinion, that the Novaya Zemlya seas were unnavigable. - -6. All our inquiries were met also with the prediction of an exceedingly -unfavourable year for the ice. The spring of 1871 had been unusually -severe, and even to the middle of June the northern parts of Norway were -covered with a mantle of snow reaching down to the sea. It was inferred, -therefore, that there would be an excessive accumulation of ice in the -seas further north. We heard even, that there was ice at the distance -of about twenty (Norwegian) miles from North Cape. And it was certainly -true, that the north winds, which prevailed for some weeks, kept a number -of Norwegian fishing and seal-hunting vessels weatherbound off the -“Scheeren.” All this notwithstanding, we determined to keep to our plan -of sailing to Hope Island, and of following from thence the ice-barrier -towards the east, our progress, of course, being dependent on favourable -conditions of the ice, and perhaps on the influences of the Gulf Stream. -As it was within the verge of possibility to make Gillis’ Land during the -season of our operations, we considered it advisable not to pass beyond -40° E. Long. while we penetrated northward. - -7. On the 20th of June we left Tromsoe during a drizzling snow-storm, and -while we were sailing up the “Qualsund” without a pilot, we touched the -ground—a danger we incurred from the desire of our married sailors to put -their wives ashore, after leave-taking, as near the land as possible. At -Rysoe we fell in with the fleet of the Tromsoe fishing-boats at anchor, -waiting for a change of weather, and with them some vessels which, we -thought, would have been by this time in the ice, having left Tromsoe -four weeks before. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST ICE] - -8. The rocky islands off the coast of Finnmark are surrounded by bleak -cliffs, rising to the height of 2,500 feet, and upwards. Trees cease -to grow there; occasionally the birch appears, but never in sufficient -numbers to form a wood. The numerous islands of a gneiss formation -show the same landscape which characterizes Norway—indescribably bleak -table-lands, deep secluded valleys and gorges, interspersed with lonely -mountain lakes. The bold, picturesque outlines of these islands are -exceedingly striking, though their fertility is meagre in the extreme. -The solitary rocky shores are inhabited by poor families, secluded from -the world, and having little intercourse with each other. They live for -the most part on the fish which they catch. The remains of fish round -these settlements render their approach exceedingly disagreeable; on the -Loffoden Islands a guano manufactory has been established, which turns -this refuse to good account. Tromsoe or Hammerfest appears in their eyes -as the glory and pride of the world. We were detained two days—June 24 -and 25—by contrary winds, at Sandoe, an island covered with sea-sand -full of small mussel shells, to the height of 600 feet. Ascending an -elevated peak of this island, 2,000 feet high, we saw a panorama of -countless cliffs of all sizes stretching down to Andeness, and opposite -to us, the gloomy, rugged wastes of Norway, which show iron-bound walls, -waterfalls, and bleak headlands, without woods, meadows, or habitations. -For many hours we were mocked by an eagle, which, now soaring high, now -darting down with rapid flight, gave his unwieldy pursuers a stiff and -exhausting climb. We at last put to sea on the 26th of June, and passed -the enormous rocky pile of Fugloe, down the precipitous face of which the -inhabitants descend by means of ropes to get the down of the Eider-geese. -Next day we were out of sight of land. The breeze freshened, and, as we -sailed further to the north, we saw many whales. On the 28th of June we -came on the _first ice_—a sight which reminds the Polar navigator that he -has reached his home! Driven down by the north wind, its fragments lay -thickly on the misty horizon like gleaming points. We were now south-east -of Bear Island in 73° 40′ N. Lat. and 21° E. Long., and found the ice so -broken up that we did not hesitate to penetrate it, in order to find out -the latitude in which its closed masses would appear. We passed through -forty miles of this loose drift-ice, and then came on the pack in 74° 30′ -N. Lat. and 23° E. Long. Already, on the 30th of June, we had experienced -the powerlessness of a small sailing vessel in such circumstances. The -calms which had set in rendered it impossible to steer the ship, just -when the ice was drifting in wild confusion. In spite of all our efforts -to warp, the ship was inclosed by ice—in fact, _beset_. During our -captivity of ten days, there was an alternation of fogs and gales with -heavy sea-swells. The neighbourhood of floes sometimes small, sometimes -large, which constantly shifted their places, kept us in a state of -continual watchfulness. The _Isbjörn_, on some of these days, sustained -such severe pressures from the ice, that her safety was imperilled. On -the 4th of July we had heavy storms from the south-east, which packed -the ice still closer, and, though the sea is generally quite calm within -the ice, it was otherwise on this occasion. In the afternoon we heard -through the dense fog the thunder of the ocean breaking on the outer -edge of the ice, and the roar increased as the sea rose. Our attempts to -haul further into the ice and still-water were fruitless; the ship was -pressed too firmly, and was not to be moved from its place. Our position -became more and more critical as the sea continued to rise. During the -whole night the waves roared and boiled around us. The rudder groaned -under the pressure of the floes, and had to be made fast to prevent its -being broken off. A mass of ice grazing past the davits utterly destroyed -one of our boats. The critical nature of such a situation is simply -the uncertainty as to the amount of pressure which a ship can sustain. -Towards evening the fog lifted and rolled away, presenting a spectacle -of fearful grandeur. All round us lay the open sea dashing against the -ice, which was itself in wild motion. Floes and icebergs were driven -about by the waves, and their fragments strewed in all directions. At -midnight our little ship sustained shock after shock, and her timbers -strained and creaked. The “brash” of the crushed ice, which had gathered -round the ship, prevented her destruction. As the storm abated, the -larger masses of ice moved off to the edge of the horizon, so that in the -morning we could not see open water from the deck. The day broke: what -a change in the ice! The sea was calm, and a long swell died out on its -outer edge. Piles of ice all round us,—a weird and deathlike calm! The -heavens were cloudless; the countless blocks and masses of ice stood out -against the sky in blue neutral shadow, and the more level fields between -them sparkled like silver as they shone in the sun. The movement of the -sea beyond the ice abated, “leads” within the floes, hitherto scarcely -perceptible, widened out. But again the sky was overcast, the sea assumed -the colour of lead, though it continued quite calm and the “ice-blink” -appeared on the northern horizon. - -9. On the 10th of July the ship under full sail forced her way through -the floes, which were still somewhat close, and reached open water. The -masses of ice through which we pressed were of considerable size. We now -continued our course, which had been interrupted in the manner described, -along the ice-barrier in a north-easterly direction. After leaving the -Norwegian coast, the depth of the sea decreased considerably. We were -now on the bank of Bear Island, and we found bottom at 90 metres (49·213 -fathoms). Our course was impeded by calms, currents and winds from the -east, and even in the middle of July by severe storms. We were sometimes -in drift-ice and sometimes outside of it. We soon discovered that the -ice of these seas was not to be compared with the vast masses of the -Greenland seas. The floes we saw were not more than one year old. As we -sailed eastward, the icebergs were neither so numerous nor so large, -and disappeared almost entirely at 40° E. Long., which we reached on -the 21st of July, after we had followed the ice-barriers from 74° to -75° 30′ N. Lat. Here we penetrated within them. Though drift-ice lay on -every side, a steamer would have found nothing to arrest her progress. -But the prevalence sometimes of east winds, sometimes of calms, the -constant occurrence of fogs, the defects of our vessel, the little -authority we had over the crew when extraordinary labour was demanded, -the great extent of the region to be explored,—all these difficulties -prevented our pressing on in this direction. We therefore turned, July -22, in a westerly direction, in order to explore another opening in the -ice, into which we advanced for about fifteen miles, and found floes -not more than a year old lying so loosely together, that our ship under -full sail seemed to pass over them, much in the same fashion as a sledge -glides over a snow-covered plain. But again our course had to be altered, -and Weyprecht steered the vessel in a south-westerly direction to the -ice-barrier. In 76° 30′ N. Lat. and 29° E. Long. we came on high and -close masses of ice, and escaped with much difficulty (July 29) the -danger of being again “beset.” - -10. We had meantime been convinced that, though the state of the ice -was on the whole so favourable, we could not, with the means at our -command and with a crew not trained to habits of obedience, do more -than carry out our original intention. We could not make up for the -defects of our sailing craft by any special exertion on the part of the -crew. Could we have done this, we might have penetrated further in a -northerly direction; though at this late period of the summer we could -not calculate on being able to return, and by the end of October our -provisions would have been exhausted. We could only, therefore, attempt -to reach Gillis’ Land, and ascertain whether it possessed the importance -attributed to it by the Swedes. A safe harbour had therefore to be -sought, in which the ship might be left, while a party in a boat should -make for the mysterious land. Such a harbour we expected to find at Cape -Leigh-Smith. We therefore held to the westward, towards the Stor-Fiord. -It is an extremely hazardous thing, demanding incessant attention, to -tack and cruise at the ice-barrier during the continuance of fogs and -with heavy seas and unfavourable winds. Not unfrequently, the ice-blink -is seen all round the horizon, and we discover that we have come into a -great “ice-hole,” or a calm makes it impossible to steer the ship, just -when a strong current is bearing her into the thickest of the ice-masses. -We had our share of these and other risks till we suddenly beheld, while -sailing in a fog among icebergs a hundred feet high, the long stretching -plateau of Hope Island. According to Weyprecht’s observations, there is -an error of 40′ in latitude in the position of this island on the Swedish -maps. The real position of the south-west cape of Hope Island is 76° 29′ -N. Lat., and 25° E. Long. Seduced by a great opening in the ice, and -deviating from our course for a short time, we advanced in a northerly -direction to the east of the island, in the hope of reaching Gillis’ Land -from thence. But after sailing in a fog for a whole day among icebergs -lying close to the cliffs of the island, we were driven further westward, -and coming suddenly on the ice—Lat. 76° 30′—with an exceedingly high -sea, escaped being dashed to pieces as by a miracle. To penetrate -here was an impossibility. We therefore altered our course again for -Walter-Thymen’s Straits. A dense girdle of ice several miles deep, and a -strong current setting towards the south-west, frustrated every attempt -to land on Hope Island. To the west of this we found the ice-barrier in -76° N. Lat., formed of heavy pack-ice, and small icebergs. Our passage -to the South Cape (Cape Look-out) of Spitzbergen (76° 30′ N. Lat.) was -comparatively quick. Numerous cliffs and rocks on which the waves were -breaking, not marked on any chart, rose in the night of August 4 out of -the fog at the distance of a few ships’ lengths from us, and it was with -the utmost difficulty that we could tack with the heavy sea and strong -north-east wind. - -11. The day after, when the heavy storm-clouds lifted from the table-land -of Cape Look-out, we made the unpleasant discovery, that we were to the -south-west of it. Hitherto we had been sailing in dense fog, but after -passing this Cape we had almost unbroken sunshine, which illuminated -the whole western side of Spitzbergen up to Prince Charles’s foreland. -A current one or two miles wide, which flows southward, turns at Cape -Look-out and flows in a northerly direction. At this Cape, which is the -apex of the current, besides many rocks on which the waves break, there -are twenty islands, some of them of considerable size. This promontory, -which has been of great importance to navigators for more than 200 -years, is erroneously represented in the charts I have seen. Many -ships, therefore, have been wrecked at this place, chiefly those of the -Spitzbergen whalers and sealers, who base their sailing on making this -headland, though they are ignorant of its exact geographical position. -Thrice we tried at the beginning of August to reach the Stor-Fiord from -the western side of Cape Look-out, and thrice we were driven back by this -current, though the wind was in our favour. This, however, gave us an -opportunity we had not expected, of seeing something of the west coast -of Spitzbergen with its fiords and glaciers as far as Horn Sound. A fog, -as dense as coal smoke, floats almost always over “Hornsundstind” (4,500 -ft. high) and the pyramid of Haytand. The slopes, clothed in dull green, -running down to the coast, make Spitzbergen seem scarcely an Arctic land -when compared with the cold grandeur of Greenland. The rocky shores of -the northern parts of Norway are more dreary, and wear more the aspect -of Arctic regions than Spitzbergen. Hence General Sabine, comparing -Spitzbergen with Greenland, called it “a true paradise.” - -12. On the 10th of August the ice began to move out from the Stor-Fiord. -It pushed on with great velocity from the north-east, turned round Cape -Look-out, and deposited itself along the west coast, covering it with -thick layers in sixteen hours. On the 12th of the month, in consequence -of the fog and strong current, we found ourselves between the heavy -drift-ice and the reefs of Cape Look-out. According to our reckoning we -should have been twenty-five miles to the east of it. It was only by -boldly charging the drift-ice, with the vessel under full sail, that the -_Isbjörn_ escaped the danger of being beset. On the 13th the wind chopped -round, and, standing away to the south, we succeeded, after cruising -about for ten days, in running into Wyde-Jans Water. Our involuntary -detention off Cape Look-out enabled us to land twice. During one of these -visits we built a cairn, in which we deposited a notice of the course we -had steered. The hasty survey we made enabled us to correct some very -gross errors in the maps. On the evening of the 14th we sighted Edge -Island, and cruised in the drift-ice, which was becoming gradually more -dense in that direction. Here we fell in with two ships from Finland, -engaged in the capture of the walrus, and learnt from their skippers some -particulars concerning the state of the ice, which induced us to give up -the direct course to Cape Leigh-Smith, and to prefer coasting along the -west side of the Fiord. - -13. The ice was now more packed. The ship, weakened by numerous -ice-pressures and countless shocks, and making much water, was in so bad -a condition, that part of the bows under the water-line was shattered, -and some timbers of the hull were forced in. In order to give some notion -of the force of the shocks to which we had been exposed in forcing our -course through the ice, let it suffice to say, that the iron plating an -inch thick, with which the bows had been strengthened at Tromsoe, had -been broken off like so many chips. - -14. Tacking up against the north wind we came, in the night of August -16, on broken ice off Whale’s Bay, in 77° 30′ N. Lat. The expected free -coast-water was not to be found, and the prevailing winds from the north -took away any hope of reaching Cape Leigh-Smith in less than a week. -Our plan of a boat expedition, for which three weeks would have been -necessary, from Cape Leigh-Smith to explore Gillis’ Land, had now to -be renounced; and as the southern extremity of Stor-Fiord is generally -blocked up at the end of August by an accumulation of ice brought from -the east, we were constrained to leave the fiord at once, and return to -the ice-barrier we had left. - -15. The geological formation of the western coast of this fiord has never -been explored. From a visit to the land and the ascent of a mountain -2,000 feet high, we learnt some interesting facts concerning its Jurassic -formation, which appeared to extend far to the south. We found traces, at -some distance apart, of the more recent brown coal, and fossil remains -(Bivalves in ferruginous chalk-marl); we gathered also some plants -still in flower, and brought away some red snow. This excursion enabled -us also to examine the beautifully-developed glaciers of Spitzbergen. -Hornsundstind (4,500 feet high) is a most imposing mountain, and viewed -from the east resembles a sugar-loaf. The other mountains on the -coast of the fiord rise to heights varying from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. -Noble glaciers slope down both sides of the main ridge, which runs in -a southerly direction through the island. Some of these, when they -reach the sea, are three or four miles wide, and their terminal fronts -are about 80 feet high. The snow-line of those which debouch on the -Stor-Fiord is at an altitude of 1,000 feet, and their surface is little -broken by crevasses. None of these glaciers are of sufficient size to -shed icebergs, properly speaking. The sea close to the coast is shallow, -and the detachments from the glaciers are merely larger or smaller blocks -of ice. - -16. On the evening of August 16, sailing before the wind, we forced our -way through the ice of the Stor-Fiord, and two days afterwards arrived -at Hope Island, the steep, rocky walls of which rose out of the fog just -as we were close under it. We found the icebergs still firmly grounded, -precisely as we had observed them three weeks before. As an unusually -strong current was running towards the south-west at the rate of two -miles an hour, great caution was needed when we landed in the whale-boat -amid rocks and cliffs not marked on any chart. The geological formation -of the island was identical with that of the mountainous region on the -south of Whale’s Bay. We found brown coal, but the shortness of our visit -did not permit us to inspect the beds of it. Drift-wood of Siberian larch -and pine lay in great quantities on the shore. - -17. It was surprising to observe the change which meanwhile had taken -place; the ice both to the west and east of us had disappeared. We were -eager to find it, and again penetrated as far as possible into it. We -tacked about on the 19th, 20th, and 21st of August—the weather being -stormy—with little success against the north wind, which had prevailed -for some weeks. A current from the north drove us constantly southwards. -After leaving the Stor-Fiord the temperature of the water exceeded the -temperature of the air. On the 22nd of August, in 76° 45′ N. Lat. and 28° -30′ E. Long. we found very little drift-ice, which standing out but a -few inches above the water-level presented no impediment to navigation. -Nothing but contrary winds stood in the way of our penetrating in a -northerly direction, except, indeed, the doubts and fears raised by -our skipper and his crew at our attempting higher latitudes at so late -a period of the year. König Karl’s Land lay only forty miles to the -north—still invisible on account of the mists. Fresh traces of Polar -bears announced the neighbourhood of land. We therefore bore away to -the east in 32° E. Long. on the 24th of August—the day on which the sun -set for the first time. The number of icebergs constantly increased -from this date, while some weeks previously, in the same region, we had -scarcely seen one. This, perhaps, is to be explained from the fact, that -their appearance is irregular, depending on the varying movement of the -glaciers, and also on the time and manner in which the icebergs clear out -from the bays and fiords. On the 26th we had stormy weather, rain, and -snow. On the 27th, amid a dense fog, and with the sea running high, we -came close to an iceberg, against which the sea was dashing itself in -foam and spray, just in time to avert a collision. On the 29th of August -we perceived that the ship had been carried 1° 30′ eastward in a short -time by a current. The further we sailed in this easterly direction, the -further northward the ice retreated, and we began to hope that we should -come nearer the Pole than any ship ever had in this sea. The southern -limit of the ice-barrier in the Novaya Zemlya seas, towards the end of -summer, is usually placed at 76° N. Lat., but we had reached 78° N. Lat., -with 42° E. Long., without seeing (August 30th) a fragment of ice. The -_Isbjörn_ had, therefore, penetrated 100 miles in seas hitherto unknown. -There was still a long heavy swell from the north, but the temperature of -the water had fallen 4½° within twenty-four hours, and it was no longer -of an ultramarine, but of a dirty green colour; so that, notwithstanding -the sanguine expectations we had cherished, we expected every moment to -come on pack-ice. Already, too, the “ice-blink” was visible here and -there on the horizon. - -18. Whales, secure from persecution in this remote sea, seemed to abound; -we saw many “blowing” and spouting. They came sometimes in pairs close to -the ship. Their chase and capture might have been carried on here with -every hope of success. On the morning of the 31st of August we saw six -Eider-geese, the precursors of near land. A blue shadow on the eastern -sky arrested the attention of us all for a long time. We felt as if we -were on the brink of great discoveries. But, alas! the supposed land -dissolved into mist. The poverty of our equipment prevented us from -penetrating further. We might easily have been driven onwards by unknown -currents, and the ice closing behind us might have cut off return to -Europe. We could not be assured that we had not come upon a bight, or -_cul-de-sac_, stretching far to the north, and which might quickly change -its character. On the night of August 31, in 78° N. Lat., the ice lay in -some places loose and widely dispersed, in others it was more compact, -but nowhere was it in great masses; it scarcely rose above the horizon, -and it was entirely without icebergs. There was nothing to prevent a -vessel with steam power from penetrating further. - -19. Still following the ice-barrier as it retreated northwards, we -passed beyond 78° 30′ N. Lat. in the night of August 31. The influence -of the high latitudes we had reached, on the duration of light, was -unmistakable. For some days, however, the temperature had fallen below -32° F., a coating of snow lay on the deck, and the rigging was covered -with ice like glass. The morning of the 1st of September broke; about -half-past three o’clock fresh breezes from the north drove off the mist, -and revealed one of those pictures peculiar to the high north from its -dazzling effects of colour—the beams of the sun in glowing splendour were -piercing through heavy masses of clouds, while the moon shone on the -opposite side of the heavens. An ice-blink resembling an Aurora lay on -the north. - -20. We had reached 78° 38′ N. Lat., and yet the ice around us presented -no serious impediment—none at least as far as we could see. Should we -then venture further with our ship in its weakened condition? We might -still follow up an opening within the ice running northward, though, in -doing this, we should expend the time needed for the exploration of the -eastward-lying Novaya Zemlya seas. We determined therefore to bear away -to the east before some currents of loose drift-ice. But fog and a high -sea from the north-west caused us to alter our course more and more to -the south-east. For the first time in these high latitudes we observed -drift-wood, and we found ourselves in a sea, the temperature of which -at the surface did not materially exceed the temperature of the air. -Whenever, however, the temperature of the air rose, a thaw suddenly set -in. The colour of the sea alternated between blue and a dull green. A -few days previously we had passed over a sea extraordinarily rich in the -ribbed Medusæ (Beroë), and where the Rorqual (whale) abounded. - -21. The great question now arose, whether the open water found in these -high latitudes were only an accidental bight in the ice or a connected -sea. It seemed bold to assume the latter, since 76° 30′ N. Lat. had never -before been passed in that region. In order, therefore, to arrive at some -positive conclusion on this point, we stood away from the ice at noon -of the 1st of September, and ran down in open water to 75° 52′ N. Lat. -and 51° 44′ E. Long., intending to return to the north again, in order -to explore the state of the ice to the north-east. Overcoming with much -difficulty the opposition of our skipper, we returned to the edge of the -ice, which we found, September 5th, in 78° 5′ N. Lat. and 56° E. Long. -Though there was not much wind, a high sea running on the ice compelled -us to leave it. In our course to the south-east we crossed 77° 30′ N. -Lat. and 59° E. Long.; here, also, to the south of 78°, there was no ice. -To penetrate further to the east formed no part of our plan, and since -another attempt to return to the ice would have been objectless, for the -reasons above stated, we proposed to run into a bight on the west coast -of Novaya Zemlya to take in fuel and water, which we urgently needed. The -longer nights now made it almost impossible to manœuvre a ship in the -ice when the winds were high, though a good steamer might have persisted -for some time longer. The temperature of the sea on the 5th of September -was 39° F. in Lat. 77° 30′, and on the 8th of the month, when we were in -sight of Cape Nassau, it reached 41° F. - -22. Storms compelled us to keep to sea. As a current constantly set us -to the north-east, we found it not possible to land on Novaya Zemlya, -scarcely even to see it. On the night of September 12th we came into -the region where the equatorial and Polar air-currents meet, and had an -opportunity of observing the hurricane-like effects of their conjunction. -The barometer fell about two inches, and the sea was so broken that the -ship could hardly be steered, even with a fresh wind. On September 14th -we were off Matoschkin Schar, and could not anchor, a snow-storm from the -north-east completely hiding the coast. The change, which meantime had -taken place in the sky, was strange and remarkable. Heavy thunder-clouds -lay over our heads, just as they do in the region of the trade-winds, and -every moment threatened to discharge themselves. On the 13th of September -we saw the first Aurora, in the shape of an arch, passing through, our -zenith. The want of fuel and water, from which we began to suffer, and -the end of the season for navigation, compelled us to avail ourselves of -the favourable wind which had set in, and begin our voyage home, without -landing on Novaya Zemlya. On this same day three of our crew of seven -men fell ill, one of them with scurvy. A heavy storm from the north-east -compelling us to heave to, we lay close under the coast of Lapland for a -whole day. On the 20th of September we ran into Tana Fiord on the east -of North Cape, the most northerly point of Europe, and took in water. -The gloomy cliffs of Tanahorn and the rocky iron-bound coasts were not -at all behind the lands we had left in their terrible desolation. On the -24th of August the _Isbjörn_ passed North Cape; on the 4th of October -she anchored in Tromsoe. Weyprecht had remained on board while, with a -Lapland sailor who could speak Norwegian, I left the ship in Tana Fiord -and went on to Tromsoe through Lapland, sometimes by means of a small -boat on the shallow rivers and sometimes by means of reindeer sledges. - -23. It had formed no part of our plan, either to make discoveries, or to -reach high latitudes. Our object was to investigate whether the Novaya -Zemlya seas offered greater facilities, either from the influence of the -Gulf Stream, or from any other causes, for penetrating the unexplored -Polar regions. Many arguments, derived from the scientific results of -our voyage, would seem to favour this idea, and in contradiction to the -discouraging views of our predecessors, whose failures are explained by -their defective equipment and the choice of the most unfavourable season -for navigation, we ventured to draw the following inferences: - -(1.) The Novaya Zemlya Sea is not filled with impenetrable ice, rendering -navigation impossible; on the contrary, it is open every year, probably -up to 78° of N. Lat., and is connected with the Sea of Kara, which is -also free from ice in autumn, and even, it may be, with the “Polynjii,” -in the North of Asia. If this inference should not be admitted, the -following remarks of Lieutenant Weyprecht, in anticipation of objections, -are put forward as worthy of consideration:—“In all probability the -open condition of the ice in 1871 will be ascribed to chance, or to an -especially favourable ice-year. With respect to the latter alternative, -the accounts given by the walrus-hunters of Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya -should convince us, that the year 1871 was not only not a favourable, -but a most unfavourable year in the ice. It was almost impossible to -navigate Wyde-Jans Water, and the Sea of Kara could only be reached -through the most southerly straits—the Jugorsky Straits. There remains, -therefore, only the other objection, that the accident of favourable -winds was the cause of our penetrating so far. But our meteorological -journal shows North, or at any rate Northerly winds, and often, too, -blowing freshly, from August 4th to September 5th, with the exception of -twelve watches, _i.e._ two days. But in no case could these winds have -driven the ice to the north. With respect to the loose character of the -ice we encountered, it might be said, that we saw only the outer ice. -But, in the first place, we were often so far within the barrier that it -would be inadmissible to speak of it as the outer ice; and, in the second -place, the ice-barrier shows the state of the ice behind it. Whenever the -wind lies against the ice, there the ice is always the most dense and -packed, and we find open places only when we have worked our way through -the outer ice.” - -(2.) The time most favourable for navigation in this sea falls at the end -of August, and lasts—though rendered hazardous by storms, the formation -of young ice, and the darkness which supervenes at that season—till the -end of September, and during this period the ice may be said to be at its -minimum. - -(3.) The Novaya Zemlya Sea is a shallow sea—a connection and continuation -of the great plains of Siberia. In the extreme north, its depth was 600 -feet, and south-east of Gillis’ Land about 300 feet. - -(4.) Gillis’ Land is not a continent, but either an island or a group of -islands. Whereas, from the circumstance that in the highest latitudes—in -79° N. Lat.—we found drift-wood covered with mud, sea-weed, creatures -which live only near the land, decreasing depths of the sea, sweet-water -ice and icebergs laden with dirt, it may be inferred, with great -probability, that there exist masses of land to the north-east of Gillis’ -Land. - -(5.) The appearance of Siberian drift-wood, only in the most northern -seas reached in our voyage, seems to point to an easterly current there. - -(6.) The Russian expeditions in the past and present centuries, which -attempted to penetrate by the north-west coast of Novaya Zemlya, -miscarried, because they sailed before the favourable season for -navigation, and also because they had not the advantage of steam. - -(7.) How far the Gulf Stream has any share or influence in the favourable -conditions for the navigation of the Eastern Polar Sea which have been -described, cannot as yet be positively determined. The state of the -ice, the observations which were made on the temperature of the sea, -its colour and the animal life found in it, seem to speak in favour of -the action of this current in that region. It is possible that the Gulf -Stream may exercise its culminating influence on the west coast of Novaya -Zemlya only at the beginning of September; for while the temperature of -the sea in the months of July and August gradually fell from 45° F. to -36° F. in Lat. 75° N., and to zero and below it, still more to the north, -we observed 39° F., September 6, in Lat. 78°, and 41° F., September -10, in Lat. 75° 30′. The temperature of the air was in all these cases -considerably less than that of the water. If the unusually favourable -state of the ice on the east of Spitzbergen should be ascribed to warm -southerly currents of air, it may be replied that our observations -specify the almost uninterrupted occurrence of north winds. It is also -possible, that at the beginning and middle of summer the Gulf Stream may -move slowly in a northerly direction along the coasts of Novaya Zemlya, -and that towards autumn it spreads itself more and more to the west. Our -observations proved the existence, in the eastern Novaya Zemlya seas, -of a band of warm water, from thirty-six to forty feet deep, beneath -which lies, without gradation, a colder stratum. It is evident that the -unequal density of these strata prevents their mingling. This band of -warmer water near North Cape is about 150 feet deep, with a temperature -of nearly 45° F., but diminishes as it flows northward. The frequency -of fogs and mists in the Novaya Zemlya Sea, and the squalls unknown -to other Arctic regions, which are characteristic of a more southerly -region, indicate also a current of warm water. How this warm current -gradually cools towards the north, and becomes shallower, and how -distinctly it divides into those strata of water of equal temperature, -so characteristic of the Gulf Stream, is shown by three series of -observations taken by Weyprecht at different latitudes, with the maximum -and minimum thermometer of Casella:— - - 72° 30′ lat., 44° long.|77° 26′ lat., 44° long.|76° 40′ lat., 55° long. - 12 to 114′ + 4·8° C. | 6′ to 30′ + 2·2° C. | 6′ to 39′ + 2·5° C. - 144 + 2·5 | 36 + 1·8 | 48 + 1·0 - 174 + 2·0 | 45 + 0·3 | 60 - 0·0 - 204 + 1·5 | 60 + 0·3 | 72 - 0·6 - 234 + 1·3 | 75 - 0·9 | 90 - 0·6 - 264 + 1·0 | 90 - 0·8 | 120 - 1·3 - 294 + 0·5 | 120 - 1·6 | 180 - 1·2 - 360 + 0·5 | 180 - 1·8 | 300 - 1·2 - 450 + 0·0 | 360 - 1·6 | - 600 - 0·4 | | - 800 - 1·3 | | - -24. These inferences rendered the despatch of a well-equipped expedition -to the Novaya Zemlya seas very desirable, either to penetrate towards -the north, or to pursue the direction of the north-east passage. To this -idea a most gracious reception was given by the Emperor of Austria. -Hence arose the Austro-Hungarian expedition of 1872. The promoters of -this undertaking assumed neither the existence of an open Polar Sea, -nor the possibility of reaching the Pole by sledge or boat expeditions. -Their object, simply and broadly stated, was the exploration of the -still unknown Arctic regions, and it was their belief, that a vessel -could penetrate further into this region by the route between Novaya -Zemlya and Spitzbergen, where the _Isbjörn_ in her pioneer voyage found -the ice more loose and navigable than had been imagined possible. But -in addition to the causes already specified, the influence of the warm -currents, produced by the great rivers of Siberia discharging themselves -into a shallow sea, was also supposed to co-operate in producing this -phenomenon. Of these rivers, the Obi and Jenisej alone discharge -into that shallow sea a body of water as great as the waters of the -Mediterranean or the waters of the Mississippi. The course of the current -produced by these mighty rivers is as yet unknown; but it was natural -to suppose, that old and heavy pack-ice could not be formed on a coast -submitted to such an influence. This is confirmed by the observations -of the Russians, who in the coldest period of the year always find -open water in the Siberian seas. Middendorf, August 26, 1844, found the -Gulf of Taimyr quite free from ice; our own observations, made in 60° -E. Long., and those of the Norwegian Mack, who advanced to 81° E. Long. -(75° 45′ N. Lat.), support the supposition of a still navigable sea. Of -the region between Cape Tscheljuskin and the ice-free spaces asserted -to exist by Wrangel, and others, we know but little; but it is probable -that the character of the ice in those seas does not greatly differ from -the character of the ice in contiguous seas. Of the seas between Novaya -Zemlya and Behring’s Straits, at the distance of a few miles from the -Asiatic coast, nothing is known. No ship has ever navigated this enormous -Eastern Polar Sea. - -25. It was the plan of the Austro-Hungarian expedition to penetrate in -an E.N.E. direction, in the latter half of August, when the north coast -of Novaya Zemlya is generally free from ice. The places at which the -expedition was to winter were left undetermined; these might, possibly, -be Cape Tscheljuskin, the new Siberian islands, or any lands which might -be discovered. A return to Europe through Behring’s Straits, however -improbable it might be, lay among the possibilities of the venture. -Minor details were left to circumstances. In the event of the loss of -the ship, the expedition was to endeavour to reach the coast of Siberia -by boats, and, on one of the gigantic water-courses of Northern Asia, -penetrate into more southern regions. The depôt of provisions and coals -which it was Graf Wilczek’s intention to deposit on the north coast of -Novaya Zemlya, was to be the nearest refuge for the crew in the event of -disaster to the ship. Stone cairns were to be erected on all prominent -localities, and in these were to be laid accounts of the course of the -expedition. Till its return at the end of the autumn of 1874, its members -were to be cut off from all intercourse with Europe. The motives of an -undertaking so long and so laborious cannot be found in the mere love -of distinction or of adventure. Next to the wish to serve the interests -of science by going beyond the footsteps of our predecessors, we were -influenced by the duty of confirming and fulfilling the hopes which we -ourselves had excited. - - - - -VOYAGE OF THE “TEGETTHOFF.” - -_JUNE, 1872-SEPTEMBER, 1874._ - -I. - -FROM BREMERHAVEN TO KAISER FRANZ-JOSEF LAND. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -FROM BREMERHAVEN TO TROMSOE. - - -1. He who seeks to penetrate the recesses of the Polar world chooses a -path beset with toils and dangers. The explorer of that region has to -devote every energy of mind and body to extort a slender fragment of -knowledge from the silence and mystery of the realm of ice. He must be -prepared to confront disappointments and disasters with inexhaustible -patience, and pursue devotedly his object, even when he himself becomes -the sport of accident. That object must not be the admiration of men, -but the extension of the domain of knowledge. He spends long years in -the most dreadful of all banishments, far from his friends, from all -the enjoyments of life, surrounded by manifold perils, and bearing the -burden of utter loneliness. The grandeur therefore of his object can -alone support him,—for otherwise the dreary void of things without can -only be an image of the void within. How many are the preconceptions with -which the novice begins the voyage to the rugged, inclement north! Books -can tell him little of the stern life to which he dooms himself, as soon -as he crosses the threshold of the ice, thinking perhaps to measure the -evils that await him by the physical miseries of cold instead of by the -moral deprivations in store for him. - -2. In the year 1868, while employed on the survey of the Orteler Alps, a -newspaper with an account of Koldewey’s first expedition one day found -its way into my tent on the mountain side. In the evening I held forth on -the North Pole to the herdsmen and _Jägers_ of my party as we sat round -the fire, no one more filled with astonishment than myself, that there -should be men endued with such capacity to endure cold and darkness. -No presentiment had I then that the very next year I should myself have -joined an expedition to the North Pole; and as little could Haller, one -of my _Jägers_ at that time, foresee that he would accompany me on my -third expedition. And much the same was it with the three-and-twenty men -who early in the morning of June 13, 1872, came on board the vessel in -Bremerhaven, to cast in their lot with the ship _Tegetthoff_, whatever -that lot might be; for we had all bound ourselves by a formal deed, -renouncing every claim to an expedition for our rescue, in case we should -be unable to return. Our ideal aim was the north-east passage, our -immediate and definite object was the exploration of the seas and lands -on the north-east of Novaya Zemlya. - -3. A bright day rose with us, and no augur’s voice could have heightened -the glad hopes which animated every one of us. Friends from Austria and -Germany had come to bid us a last farewell; but, as every venture should -be, so our departure that morning was, quiet and without pretension. -About six o’clock in the morning the _Tegetthoff_ lifted her anchor and -dropped down the Schleusen and the Weser, towed by a steamer. Down the -broad stream we calmly glided, full of satisfaction at the fulfilment -of long-cherished plans. There lay the same pastures, the same trees -and meadows which had so delighted us on our return from Greenland. Yet -unmoved we saw all the charms of nature grow young under the morning -sun and then fade away in the evening twilight—as the land gradually -disappeared behind us, and the coasts of Germany were lost to view. With -the feeling that we were leaving them for so long a time, our thoughts -turned to our new life in the narrow limits of a ship, and the resolve -to live and labour in harmony animated each breast. How often we should -be liable to casualties which no eye could foresee, we were soon to find -out, when in almost dead calm and without steam we came on the shallow -waters of Heligoland. What would have become of the expedition, had we -not discovered in time, that we had only a few feet of water under the -keel! - -4. The vessel, 220 tons burden, was fitted out for two years and a half, -but was over-freighted by about thirty tons, so that our available space -was much curtailed. Yet the cabin, which Weyprecht, Brosch, Orel, Kepes, -Krisch, and I occupied, was far more commodious than the miserable -hole in which eight of us had been crowded together on our Greenland -expedition. Our supply of coals, 130 tons, was large in proportion to -the size of the ship, being calculated not only for our daily wants, but -to enable us to keep up steam for about sixty days. But to economise -this store we used our sails, as much as possible, even in the ice. Both -ship and engine—of 100 horse power—tested in the trial trip of June 8, -sustained their character during the expedition, and did great credit to -the Tecklenborg firm. - -5. The wind being unfavourable, it took us some time to cross the North -Sea and reach the coast of Norway. My journal describes this part of -our voyage. “Light winds from the south carried the _Tegetthoff_ on her -lonely course over the North Sea. In undimmed brightness the blue sky -stretched overhead, the air was balmy and mild. In the grey distance -frowns the iron rampart of countless cliffs encircling the barren wastes -of Norway. Occasionally a sea-gull comes near us, or some bird rests -on the mast-head; now and then a sail is seen on the horizon,—but save -this, no life—no event. Every one feels, though no one utters it, that a -grave future lies before him; each may hope what he wishes, for over the -future there is drawn an impenetrable veil. All, however, are animated -with the consciousness, that while serving science, we are also serving -our Fatherland, and that all our doings will be watched at home with the -liveliest sympathy. - -6. “On board the _Tegetthoff_ are heard all the languages of our -country, German, Italian, Slavonic, and Hungarian; Italian, however, is -the language in which all orders are given. The crew is lighthearted -and merry: in the evening a gentle breeze carries the lively songs of -the Italians over the blue sea, glowing under the midnight sun, or the -monotonous cadence of the _Ludro_ of the Dalmatians recalls the sunny -home which they are so soon to exchange for its very opposite, which -remains a sort of mystery to all their powers of fancy. Thus begins -so peacefully our long voyage into the frozen ocean of the north. In -a few weeks the ice will grate on the bows of the _Tegetthoff_, the -crystal icebergs will surround her, and with many a strain will the good -ship force her way through the icy wastes, sometimes inclosed on every -side, sometimes free in coast-water, or threatened by the ‘ice-blink’ -foreboding danger.” - -7. The officers and crew of the _Tegetthoff_ amounted in all to -twenty-four souls. - - Lieutenant Carl Weyprecht, } - Lieutenant Julius Payer, } _Commanders of the Expedition._ - Lieutenant Gustav Brosch,[14] } - Midshipman Edward Orel, } _Officers of the Ship._ - Dr. Julius Kepes, _Physician to the Expedition_. - Otto Krisch, _Engineer_. - Pietro Lusina,[15] _Boatswain_. - Antonio Vecerina, _Carpenter_. - Josef Pospischill, _Stoker_. - Johann Orasch, _Cook_. - Johann Haller, } - Alexander Klotz, } _Jägers_, from Tyrol. - Antonio Zaninovich, _Seaman_. - Antonio Catarinich, ditto. - Antonio Scarpa, ditto. - Antonio Lukinovich, ditto. - Giuseppe Latkovich, ditto. - Pietro Fallesich, ditto. - George Stiglich, ditto. - Vincenzo Palmich, ditto. - Lorenzo Marola, ditto. - Francesco Lettis, ditto. - Giacomo Sussich, ditto. - Captain Olaf Carlsen, _Icemaster and Harpooner_. - We had eight dogs on board; two we got in Lapland, the rest were - brought from Vienna. - -8. Stormy weather detained us for some time among the Loffoden Isles, -so that we made Tromsoe only on July 3. Here we were received most -courteously by the Austro-Hungarian Consul, Aagaard, who invited us to -a banquet. We remained here a week, in order to complete our equipment. -The ship, which had leaked considerably ever since we left Bremerhaven, -was thoroughly examined by divers, the stores were landed, the ship -repaired and reladen. Our supply of coals was replenished, a Norwegian -whale-boat added to our equipment, and, lastly, the harpooner, Captain -Olaf Carlsen, was taken on board. On July 6 we received our last news -from Austria, letters and newspapers. The Ukase granted by the Russian -Government also arrived, drawn up both for Weyprecht and myself in case -of our being separated, a document of great importance, if the ship -should be lost and we had to return through Siberia; an issue only too -probable when the vast length and enormous difficulties of the north-east -passage were considered. While Lieutenant Weyprecht was engaged in -stopping the leak of the ship, some of us ascended—a Lapp of the name -of Dilkoa being our guide—a pinnacle of rock, 4,000 feet high, towering -over Tromsoe’s labyrinth of fiords, in order to compare our aneroid and -mercurial barometers. From the summit we beheld an enormous dark column -of smoke rising perpendicularly to the height of about 1,500 feet in the -still air—the northern extremity of Tromsoe was in flames. Most gladly -would we have learned something of the state of the ice this year; but as -yet this was impracticable, for none of the walrus hunters had returned -from their grounds in the north. - -9. On the morning of Saturday, July 13, officers and crew heard mass from -a French priest, and bidding adieu to our Tromsoe friends, we left the -quiet little city, the most northerly of Europe, early on Sunday morning. -The passengers of the Hamburg mail steamer, entering the harbour as we -left it, greeted us with loud and long cheers, and steaming through the -narrow Grötsound, close under the cliffs of Sandoe and Rysoe we came into -the open sea, Captain Carlsen acting as our pilot. As we issued from -the _Scheeren_, a mist arose which covered and obscured the huge rock -of Fingloe. Here the engine fires were put out and the sails set, and -the first and last voyage, which the _Tegetthoff_ was destined to make, -began. On July 15 we steered towards the north, the Norwegian coast with -its many glaciers in full view, and on the 16th we sighted the North Cape -in the blue distance. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -ON THE FROZEN OCEAN. - - -1. Unfavourable winds had hindered our progress for some days; we now -encountered heavy seas. On July 23 a sudden fall of the temperature and -dirty rainy weather told us that we were close to the ice, which we -expected to find later and much more to the northward, and on the evening -of July 25, lat. 74° 0′ 15″ N., we actually sighted it, the thermometer -marking 32·5° F., and 34·5° F. in the sea. The northerly winds, which had -prevailed for some time had broken up the ice, and it lay before us in -long loose lines. Its outer boundary was consequently the very opposite -of those solid walls of ice which we met with in Greenland in 1869, and -two years afterwards on the east of Spitzbergen. Though surprised at -finding the ice so far to the south, we never imagined that this was -anything but a collection of floes, which had drifted out perhaps from -the Sea of Kara through the Straits of Matotschkin. But only too soon -the conviction was forced upon us that we were already within the Frozen -Ocean, and that navigation in the year 1872 was to differ widely from -that of the preceding year. Lieutenant Weyprecht had the day before -fastened “the crow’s nest” to the mainmast of the _Tegetthoff_, and -henceforth it became the abode of the officer of the watch. On July 26, -while steering in a north-easterly direction, the ice became closer, -though it was still navigable; but we nowhere saw the heavy fields which -had astonished us on the east coast of Greenland, and which Lütke found -to be so dangerous to navigation. The temperature of the air and the sea -fell rapidly, and during the two following weeks it remained below the -freezing point almost uniformly, and without any essential difference -between day and night. - -[Illustration: STILL LIFE IN THE FROZEN OCEAN.] - -2. The frozen sea of Novaya Zemlya is characterized by that inconstancy -of weather which in our lower latitudes we attribute to the month of -April; the same variability is met with, though in lesser degree, in the -Greenland seas during the summer months. Snowstorms now alternated with -the most glorious blue skies. The black-bulbed thermometer showed 113° F. -in the sun, with 39° F. in the shade. The hunting season began, and the -kitchen was well provided with auks and seals. Our Dalmatians soon learnt -to like the dark flesh of the latter. - -3. The ice gradually became closer; July 29 (74° 44′ N. Lat., 52° 8′ E. -Long.) we were able to continue our course only under steam, and heavy -shocks were henceforward inevitable; in many cases the vessel could -not force a passage except by charging the ice. In the night a vast, -apparently impenetrable barrier stopped our progress; but the tactics of -charging under steam again cleared a passage, and we penetrated into a -larger “ice-hole.” We now glided along over the shining surface of its -waters, as if we were navigating an inland lake, save that no copsewood -clothed the shores, but pale blocks of ice, which the mist, that now fell -and enveloped us, transformed into the most fantastic shapes, and at -last into mere shapelessness itself. In all that surrounded us neither -form nor colour was discernible; faint shadows floated within the veil -of mist, and our path seemed to lead no whither. A few hours before -the glowing fire of the noonday sun had lain on the mountain wastes of -Novaya Zemlya, while refraction raised its long coast high above the icy -horizon. Nowhere does a sudden change in Nature exercise so immediate an -effect on the mind as in the Frozen Ocean, where, too, all that brings -delight proceeds from the sun. - -4. For some days we had entered into a world utterly strange to most -of us on board the _Tegetthoff_. Dense mists frequently enveloped us, -and from out of the mantle of snow of the distant land the rocks, like -decayed battlements, frowned on us inhospitably. There is no more -melancholy sound than that which accompanies the decay and waste of the -ice, as it is constantly acted on by the sea and thaw, and no picture -more sad and solemn than the continuous procession of icebergs floating -like huge white biers towards the south. Ever and anon there rises -the noise of the ocean swell breaking amongst the excavations of the -ice-floes, while the water oozing out from their icy walls falls with -monotonous sound into the sea; or perhaps a mass of snow, deprived of its -support, drops into the waves, to disappear in them with a hissing sound -as of a flame. Never for a moment ceases the crackling and snapping sound -produced by the bursting of the external portions of the ice. Magnificent -cascades of thaw-water precipitate themselves down the sides of the -icebergs, which sometimes rend with a noise as of thunder as the beams of -the sun play on them. The fall of the titanic mass raises huge volumes -of foam, and the sea-birds, which had rested on its summit in peaceful -confidence, rise with terrified screams, soon to gather again on another -ice-colossus. - -5. But what a change, when the sun, surrounded by glowing cirrus clouds, -breaks through the mist, and the blue of the heavens gradually widens -out! The masses of vapour, as they well up, recede to the horizon, and -the cold ice-floes become in the sunlight dark borders to the “leads” -which gleam between them, on the trembling surface of which the midnight -sun is mirrored. Where the rays of the sun do not directly fall on it, -the ice is suffused with a faint rosy haze, which deepens more and more -as the source of light nears the horizon. Then the sunbeams fall drowsily -and softly, as through a veil of orange gauze, all forms lose at a little -distance their definition, the shadows become fainter and fainter, and -all nature assumes a dreamy aspect. In calm nights the air is so mild -that we forget we are in the home of ice and snow. A deep ultramarine sky -stretches over all, and the outlines of the ice and the land tremble on -the glassy surface of the water. If we pull in a boat over the unmoved -mirror of the “ice-holes,” close beside us a whale may emerge from its -depths, like a black shining mountain; if a ship penetrates into the -waste, it looks as weird as the “Flying Dutchman,” and the dense columns -of smoke, which rise in eddies from her funnel, remain fixed for hours -until they gradually melt away. When the sun sinks at midnight to the -edge of the horizon, then all life becomes dumb, and the icebergs, the -rocks, the glaciers of the land glow in a rosy, effulgence, so that we -are hardly conscious of the desolation. The sun has reached its lowest -point,—after a pause it begins to rise, and gradually its paler beams -are transformed into a dazzling brightness. Its softly warming light -dissolves the ban under which congelation has placed nature, the icy -streams, which had ceased to run, pour down their crystal walls. The -animal creation only still enjoys its rest; the polar-bear continues to -repose behind some wall of ice, and flocks of sea-gulls and divers sit -round the edge of a floe, calmly sleeping, with their heads under their -wings. Not a sound is to be heard, save, perhaps, the measured flapping -of the sails of the ship in the dying breeze. At length the head of a -seal rises stealthily for some moments from out the smooth waters; lines -of auks, with the short quick beat of their wings, whiz over the islands -of ice. The mighty whale again emerges from the depths, far and wide -is heard his snorting and blowing, which sounds like the murmurs of a -waterfall when it is distant, and like a torrent when it is near. Day -reigns once more with its brilliant light, and the dreamy character of -the spectacle is dissolved. - -6. We had sailed over one “ice-hole,” and again a dense barrier of ice -frowned on us; as we forced our way into it, the ice closed in all round -us—we were “beset.” The ship was made fast to a floe, the steam blown -off, its hot breath rushing with a loud noise through the cold mist; -every open mesh in the net of water-ways was closed by the ice, which -soon lay in such thick masses around us, that any one provided with a -plank might have wandered for miles in any direction he liked. July 30, -the _Tegetthoff_ remained fast in her prison; no current of water, nor -any movement among the floes lying close to us was discernible; a dead -calm prevailed, and mist hung on every side. On the following day we -made vain efforts to break through a floe which lay on our bows. The -calm still prevailed, Aug. 1 (74° 39′ N. L. 53° E. L.), and no change -was to be seen in the ice. Aug. 2, the crew began with hearty good-will -the toilsome work of warping, but with no success, the smallness of the -floes hardly admitting of this manœuvre. In the evening of the same day -it seemed as if a fresh breeze would set us free; but after we had gone -on for a few cable-lengths, a great floe once more barred the route, -while at the same time the wind fell. At length, when the ice became -somewhat looser, we got up the engine fires, and in the following night -broke through, under steam, a broad barrier of ice, which separated us -from the open coast-water of Novaya Zemlya. In the morning of Aug. 3, -we forced our way into coast-water, twenty miles broad, to the north of -Matotschkin Schar, and steered due north, the mountainous coasts still in -sight. A belt of ice 105 miles broad lay behind us. The country greatly -resembled Spitzbergen, and we observed with pleasure its picturesque -glaciers and mountains rising to the height of nearly 3,000 feet, though -inconsiderable compared with the mountains of Greenland. Far and wide not -a fragment of ice was to be seen; there was a heavy swell on, the air was -unusually warm (41° F.), in the evening rain fell, and on Aug. 4 we had -dense mists and driving snow-storms, which forced us to keep to the west -of Admiralty Peninsula. During the night of Aug. 6, the snow-storms were -heavier than before, and the deck was quite covered. Towards the north -and west very close ice was seen, and since the temperature of the air, -even with the winds in the south-west, remained constantly below zero, -it was evident that the ice must stretch far in that direction also. -Aug. 7, we ran on the white barriers to the west of Admiralty Peninsula, -and far to the north, beyond a broad field of ice, refraction indicated -open water and showed the forms of “Tschorny Nos” floating in the air. -In the afternoon of Aug. 8 the ice in 75° 22′ N. L. became so thick -around us that we were compelled to have recourse to steam-power; but the -_Tegetthoff_, even with this auxiliary was unable against a head-wind -to penetrate a broad strip of close ice, and banking up our fires, we -determined to wait its breaking up. Close under the coast open water was -again observed, and in it—a Schooner! Every one now hastened to write -letters to his friends and relations, but the schooner, to which we -meant to give our letters and despatches, by running into the heart of -Gwosdarew Bay escaped the duty we had in store for it. About half-past -ten P.M. the wind had fallen and the ice began to open out, and we were -able to continue our voyage under steam in a north-westerly direction. -The sun lay before us, the clear mirror of distant “leads” glowed with -a glorious carmine, the barriers of ice which lay between these “leads” -appeared as stripes of violet, and only our immediate neighbourhood was -pale and cold. The _Tegetthoff_ laboured through the dense accumulation -of floes and about midnight reached open water, and the steam was again -blown off. Aug. 9, we sailed in coast-water perfectly free from ice, -excepting the icebergs we encountered, some about forty feet high. These, -generally, were so numerous and so small in size, that they were at once -seen to be offshoots from the small glaciers of Novaya Zemlya as they -plunge into the sea. Their surface was frequently covered with débris. -Loose drift-ice showed itself, Aug. 10, but the ship continued to steer -between the floes towards the north. In the forenoon of that day we were -again nearly “beset,” but happily escaped that fate after four hours’ -warping. Aug. 11, our course was continued without impediment in a -northerly direction through the loose drift-ice. The land, from which we -had hitherto remained distant about eight or twelve nautical miles, now -declined in height from three thousand to fifteen hundred or a thousand -feet, and quickly lost its picturesque character. On the noon of August -12, on account of a thick mist, we made fast to a great floe, and were -able to commence on it the training of the dogs to drag the sledges. - -[Illustration: GWOSDAREW INLET.] - -7. In the neighbourhood of the Pankratjew Islands, a ship suddenly -and unexpectedly appeared on the horizon, and endeavoured to gain -our attention by discharges from a mortar, and by the hoisting of -flags. How great was our astonishment and our joy when we beheld the -Austro-Hungarian flag at the peak of the _Isbjörn_, and were able to -greet Count Wilczek, Commodore Baron Sterneck, Dr. Höfer, and Mr. -Burger half an hour afterwards on board the _Tegetthoff_. Coming from -Spitzbergen in the _Isbjörn_ (the ship of our precursory expedition of -1871) they had sighted us two days before. That in a sailing vessel, and -without any sufficient equipment, they had succeeded in following and -overtaking the _Tegetthoff_, which had penetrated so far with difficulty -and by the aid of steam was a proof both of skill and resolution. Their -object was to establish a depôt of provisions at Cape Nassau, at whatever -personal risk to themselves. About two o’clock in the morning our guests -returned to the _Isbjörn_, and both ships now sailed in company, and -without meeting any hindrance in the ice-free coast-water, in a northerly -direction. In the forenoon of Aug. 13, in 76° 18′ N. Lat. and 61° 17′ E. -Long., we came upon closer ice, amid mist and stormy weather, and the two -ships anchored to some firm land-ice two cable-lengths from each other, -about a mile from the land. Close to the south of us lay the Barentz -Isles with their singularly formed hills, which the walrus-hunters call -by the somewhat gloomy name of “The Three Coffins.” On our north an -enormous iceberg rose in dazzling whiteness above a faintly glimmering -field of ice, a harbinger of new countries—for its size forbade us -to think that it owed its origin to the glaciers of Novaya Zemlya. -Continuous winds from the W.S.W., close ice, mist, downfalls of snow, -the necessity of determining the geographical position of the depôt of -provisions which we had established, compelled us to lie for eight days -before the Barentz Islands. The opportunity we thus had of putting our -feet once more on the land was exceedingly agreeable. We made repeated -visits to the shore with two dog-sledges, in company with Professor -Höfer; and as his observations on the phenomena of the country are those -of a distinguished geologist, I here insert those he has kindly placed at -my disposal. - -8. “The Barentz Isles are flat, girt with cliffs, and separated by -narrow straits from the coast, which rises up terrace on terrace. Its -rocks consist of a black, very friable slate, frequently alternating -with strata of mountain limestone of the carboniferous period, varying -in breadth from one to ten _metres_. These strata are filled with a -countless number of fossilized inhabitants of the sea, trilobites, -mussels, brachiopodes, crinoides, corals, &c., which are utterly foreign -to the Frozen Ocean as it now is, and whose cognates live only in warm -seas. - -9. “The animal world, therefore, buried in the limestone of these -islands, is an indisputable proof that there was once, in these high -latitudes, a warm sea, which could not possibly co-exist with such great -glaciers as those which now immerse themselves in the seas of Novaya -Zemlya. That portion of the earth, now completely dead and buried in -ice, once knew _a period of luxuriant life_. In its sea there revelled -a world of life, manifold and beautiful in its forms, while the land, -as the discoveries on Bear Island and Spitzbergen prove, was crowded -with gigantic palm-like ferns. This age of the earth’s history is called -the carboniferous period; it was the rich and fertile youth of the high -north, which lived out its time more rapidly than the southern zones, now -in all their vigour and variety. If we compare the Fauna buried in the -chalk formations of the Barentz Isles, with the contemporaneous Fauna -which we know from the carboniferous formation of Russia, specially -that of the Ural, we find a very remarkable agreement, not only in -their general character, but also in particular organisms. Many of the -fossils of the carboniferous limestone of these high degrees of latitude -(76°-77°) are found in analogous strata of the Ural, and are proved -by the researches of Russian geologists to exist there as far as the -fiftieth degree of latitude. Without stopping to insist on the great -similarity between the stratification of Novaya Zemlya and the Ural—the -former being the real continuation of the latter—we dwell here on the -fact that in the carboniferous period there was a sea which stretched -from the fiftieth to the seventy-seventh degree of north latitude, _i.e._ -twenty-seven degrees, or 405 geographical miles, which was animated by -the same Fauna, and which consequently must have presented the same -relations, especially a like warm temperature. From these signs it -would appear that the zones of climate now so decisively marked on the -surface of the earth did not exist at the carboniferous period. The -horizontal surface of the land leads us at the first to infer horizontal -stratification; but we find the contrary to be the case; the marine -deposits once horizontal, have been so raised at a later period that -they are now vertical. Since the friable slate degrades rapidly, and -the limestone layers very gradually, it may be assumed that the former -wasting away leaves the limestone layers standing like walls between -them—a thing which, in a small scale, may often be elsewhere observed. If -a glance at these buried fossils awakens in us an image, as in a dream, -of a creation rich in organic forms, a glance at the present state of the -Barentz Isles impresses us with the gloomiest feelings. - -10. “Before us lies this small greyish brown fragment of the earth. The -cold, level ground is covered with sharp-edged pieces of rock, which -appear to be as it were macadamised, so closely are they rammed together. -Here and there, about a fathom’s length from each other, lie brownish -green masses like mole-hills. When we examine them more closely, each -mass resolves itself into a vast number of small plants of the same -species (_Saxifraga oppositifolia_), whose little stalks are covered with -dark green leaves, which are alive, and also with brown leaves, which -have been dead for years and years, but wither in the cold much more -gradually than with us. From this small heap, tender rosy blooms raise -their little heads, bidding defiance to the bitter snowy weather which -sweeps over the miserable plain. Another species of saxifrage (_Saxifraga -cœspitosa_), with shorter stalks and yellowish-white flowers, growing in -thick clumps, forms, together with the first-named variety and the more -rarely appearing _Saxifraga rivularis_, the hardiest representatives -of this family of plants so frequently found in the Polar regions. If -to these we add _Draba arctica_ with its little yellow flowers, forming -in valleys large patches of sward, the yellow flowering poppy (_Papaver -nudicaule_), and a rare willow (_Salix polaris_), which with some few -leaves peeps forth from the soil, we have described the whole Flora of -that desolate waste, in which a mere passing glance would scarce detect -the existence of vegetable life among the débris of rocks and the heaps -of snow. Mosses are found here and there in the moister fissures of -rocks, and especially on the coast, where old drift-wood, or the bones -of whales or other animals, afford the nourishment they need, and in -some places the mosses spread themselves out into small carpets. Lichens -love to shelter under the clusters of the different kinds of saxifrage, -though sometimes they are found by themselves. Of this class we will -mention merely the so-called Iceland moss (_Cetraria islandica_), -and a reindeer lichen (_Cladonia pyxidata_); the few other forms are -nearly related to those mentioned, and belong to the so-called creeping -lichens. One peculiarity of the Flora of the far north, which we have -already mentioned, is their growth in clumps. Only thus can these tender -organisms maintain their existence against the stern elements; and this -indeed is a characteristic of all Arctic creation, which is seen in the -animal world also, when its means of nourishment are hard to find. We -will point only to the herds of reindeer, of lemmings, of walruses, of -seals, &c., lastly to the vast flocks of birds; all of which illustrate -the principle: _common danger begets common defence_.” - -11. Our involuntary leisure at the Barentz Isles enabled us to make -some precautionary preparations for our future contests with the ice; -for a ship may be crushed by the ice and sink in a few minutes, as had -happened some days previously, not far from us, to the yachts _Valborg_ -and _Iceland_. Provisions and ammunition for four weeks were got ready, -and each man was entrusted with a special service, if it should ever come -to this extremity. To guard against the dreaded pressures of the ice, -heavy beams were hung round the hull of the vessel, so that the pressure -on the ship might be distributed over a larger surface, and the vessel -itself be raised instead of crushed. Our space on deck, somewhat limited -at first, had been considerably enlarged, although our numerous sledges, -our stock of drift-wood, and the rudder which had been unshipped, formed -inconvenient obstacles, while the chained-up dogs occasioned some -unpleasant surprises to those who had not succeeded in gaining their -affections. These poor animals, without protection, suffered much from -the cold rough weather which now prevailed, though subsequently some -provision was made for their comfort. Sumbu and Pekel, the two Lapland -dogs, were the most hardy, and slept without stirring, even when they -were completely covered with snow. It was only after a long and stout -resistance that the dogs became accustomed to the flesh of seals; at -first they growled at every one who offered it to them. - -[Illustration: FORMATION OF THE DEPÔT AT “THE THREE COFFINS.”] - -12. Aug. 14, we were threatened by the advance of an enormous line of -pack-ice, which inclosed us in the little “docks” of the land-ice, and -caused the _Isbjörn_ to heel over. In the evening a bear came near -this vessel, which was shot by Professor Höfer and Captain Kjelsen. On -the following day, with the help of the dogs and sledges, we removed -over the land-ice to “The Three Coffins” the provisions which were -to form the depôt: 2,000 lbs. of rye-bread in casks, 1,000 lbs. of -pease-sausages in tin cases. These were deposited in the crevice of a -rock and secured against the depredations of bears. We felt assured of -the conscientiousness of Russian or Norwegian fishermen, that they would -make use of these provisions only under the pressure of urgent necessity. -This depôt was intended to be the first place of refuge, in the event of -the ship being lost. - -[Illustration: THE “TEGETTHOFF” AND “ISBJÖRN” SEPARATE.] - -13. Both ships were dressed with flags, and round one common table we -celebrated the birthday, Aug. 18, of the Emperor and King, Francis Joseph -I. On Aug. 19 we fetched some drift-wood from the land, and saw from a -height an “ice-hole” stretching to the north at no great distance from -the coast. As we returned to the ship we came across a bear, which, -being assailed by so many hunters at once, took to flight. Aug. 20, some -changes in the ice seemed to make navigation possible, and we forthwith -went on board the _Isbjörn_ to bid adieu to our friends. It was no -common farewell. A separation to those who are themselves separated -from the world moves the heart to its depths. But besides this, in -bidding adieu to Count Wilczek, we felt how much we were indebted to -him, as the man who had fostered the work we were about to undertake, -who dreaded no danger while providing for our safety in the event of a -catastrophe to the expedition. Our high-minded friend was at this moment -the embodiment of our country, which, honouring us with its confidence -and trust, demanded that we should devote all our energies to the high -objects of the expedition. Often afterwards did this adieu return to our -memories. With a fresh wind from the north-east we passed the _Isbjörn_ -as we steamed towards the north, while this vessel, veiled in mist, soon -disappeared from our eyes. - -[Illustration: THE “TEGETTHOFF” FINALLY BESET.] - -14. Our prospects, so far as the object of our expedition was concerned, -had meantime not improved. To cross the Frozen Sea to Cape Tscheljuskin -in the present year was not to be dreamt of, and yet the thought of -wintering in the north of Novaya Zemlya was positively intolerable. The -navigable water was becoming narrower every day, and the ice seemed to -increase in solidity, especially in the neighbourhood of the coast. In -the afternoon of this day we ran into an “ice-hole,” but in the night -barriers of ice stopped our further progress. As usual, the ship was -made fast to a floe, the steam blown off, and we awaited the parting -asunder of the ice.[16] Five walruses who had been watching us from a -rock as we entered that ill-starred “ice-hole,” sprang into the water and -disappeared. - -15. Ominous were the events of that day, for immediately after we had -made fast the _Tegetthoff_ to that floe, the ice closed in upon us from -all sides and we became close prisoners in its grasp. No water was to be -seen around us, and _never again were we destined to see our vessel in -water_. Happy is it for men that inextinguishable hope enables them to -endure all the vicissitudes of fate, which are to test their powers of -endurance, and that they can never see, as at a glance, the long series -of disappointments in store for them! We must have been filled with -despair, had we known that evening that we were henceforward doomed to -obey the caprices of the ice, that the ship would never again float on -the waters of the sea, that all the expectations with which our friends, -but a few hours before, saw the _Tegetthoff_ steam away to the north, -were now crushed; _that we were in fact no longer discoverers, but -passengers against our will on the ice_. From day to day we hoped for -the hour of our deliverance! At first we expected it hourly, then daily, -then from week to week; then at the seasons of the year and changes of -the weather, then in the chances of new years! _But that hour never -came_, yet the light of hope, which supports man in all his sufferings, -and raises him above them all, never forsook us, amid all the depressing -influence of expectations cherished only to be disappointed. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -DRIFTING IN THE NOVAYA ZEMLYA SEAS. - - -1. At the end of August the temperature in the Frozen Ocean is generally -at the freezing point of the Centigrade thermometer, but this year (1872) -it was constantly six degrees below it. A cold bleak air enveloped us, -there was abundance of snow, the sun showed himself rarely, and for -some days he had sunk, at midnight, under the horizon. The ship and her -rigging were stiff with ice, and everything indicated that for us winter -had begun. As the masses of ice which inclosed us consisted only of small -floes, we were led to hope that the strong east winds would soon disperse -them. But the very contrary really happened, for the low temperatures, -the calms, and falls of snow, bound the floes of ice only the more -closely together, and within a few days congealed them into one single -field, in the midst of which the ship remained fast and immovable. Our -surroundings were monotonous beyond description,—one vast unattractive -white surface, and even the high-lands of Novaya Zemlya were covered with -freshly fallen snow. - -2. To reach the coast of Siberia under these circumstances had become -an impossibility, and even in the event of our being liberated, the -search for a winter harbour in Novaya Zemlya would be a matter of peril -and difficulty. Yet we calculated confidently on this contingency and -employed our enforced inactivity in completing our preparations for -sledge journeys during the autumn, although we could not but feel, that -their importance must be of secondary interest and value in a country -so well known as Novaya Zemlya. Meantime we drifted slowly along the -coast in a northerly direction and apparently under the influence of -a current, which has been often observed on the northern coasts of -Novaya Zemlya. But the gloom of our situation, as we became conscious -of our captivity, was more distinctly and painfully felt. On the 1st of -September the temperature sank nine degrees below zero (12° F.), and -the few and limited spaces of open water round our floe disappeared. -The sun now remained six hours below the horizon, and the formation of -young ice in a single night often reached such a thickness, that we soon -perceived that our last hope for this year lay in the setting-in of heavy -equinoctial storms to break up the ice-fields. - -[Illustration: ATTEMPTS TO GET FREE IN SEPTEMBER.] - -3. On the 2nd of September a fissure running through our floe reached -the after-part of the _Tegetthoff_ and opened into a “lead,” and even -our floe partially broke up; but this availed us nothing, for the ship -itself remained fast on a huge fragment. During the night of Sept. 3, the -after-part of the _Tegetthoff_ was gently raised for the first time by -the pressure and driving from beneath of the ice; yet of the formidable -nature of such pressure we had as yet no presentiment. Though our -situation seemed desperate, it was not attended by immediate danger, and, -condemned as we were to inactivity, we found the amusement and occupation -we needed in skating on the young ice, which covered many of the -newly-formed ice-holes between the ice-floes. Besides the duty of making -and recording meteorological observations, the training of the dogs, the -bringing ice to the kitchen to be transformed into water, the manufacture -of oil, expeditions on foot to explore the country, were the only forms -in which our energies could be exerted. Absolute loneliness surrounded -us; even the Arctic sea-gull (_Larus glaucus_) and the grey stormy petrel -(_Procellaria glacialis_, L.) of the polar regions, were but rarely seen, -and a bear, which, Sept. 5, came within forty paces of the ship, was -driven away by the awkwardness of our hunters. The cold became more and -more intense and the weather more gloomy. Sept. 2, the cabin lamp had to -be lit for the first time about half-past nine o’clock, and on the 3rd we -began to heat the interior parts of the ship, the temperature of which -had been for some time at zero; and on the 11th, the first fiery belts -of the Aurora flamed in the northern heavens. On the 9th and 10th, there -was a very heavy storm from the north-east, which drove us back for a -short time towards the west, and partially broke up our floe, but all the -efforts of the next week to destroy the connection of what remained by -sawing and blasting proved unsuccessful. Blasting with powder, whether -above or below the surface-ice, proved ineffectual. Even old fissures -in the ice appeared to defy further disruption, segments which had been -laboriously made by sawing, froze again almost immediately, and even -the application of steam was powerless to set our floe in motion and -force the breaking-up of the parts which had been sawn through. It was -of no avail that, up to Oct. 7, we kept open a trench round the ship, by -destroying in the day the ice which had been formed during the night: the -expected disruption of our ice-field never happened. Dark streaks in the -heavens still proclaimed that we were in the neighbourhood of open water, -and though they seemed only to indicate “leads” of no great breadth or -extent, they helped to sustain our hopes. But these were soon doomed -to be disappointed, for even these “leads” closed up, and _at the same -time the temperature fell to an unusually low degree_. On the 15th of -September we had 15 degrees of cold, and on the 19th the temperature fell -18·6 degrees below zero (C.). To add to this, there were frequent falls -of drifting snow. As long as fissures remained we had opportunities of -seal-hunting, but by the end of the month the “ice-holes” were overspread -with spongy ice, which hindered the movements of our boats within them. -The alternate openings and closings of the water-ways around us seemed in -our monotonous life a harmless spectacle, for the lofty walls of piled-up -ice had not as yet for us the language of imminent and threatening -dangers. - -[Illustration: SEAL-HUNTING—SEPTEMBER 1872.] - -4. Sept. 22, there was a fissure in the ice about thirty paces from the -ship, and we quickly put on board all the materials which were lying on -the floe, believing that the moment of our deliverance had come. But no -such moment came, nor did the equinoctial storms which we expected set -in; _we continued to drift still further to the north_; and on Oct. 2, we -had passed the seventy-seventh degree of north latitude. In the beginning -of this month a storm, which lasted but a short time, opened up a large -“ice-hole” near the after-part of the ship, and forthwith we set to work -to open a passage through our floe in order to reach it, but two days -afterwards this “ice-hole” also closed up. Yet amid all our mishaps we -forgot not on October the 4th—the name-day of his Majesty the Emperor -Francis Joseph I.—the homage which was due to our noble and gracious -Sovereign. The ship was gaily dressed with flags, and a rifle-match, -in which watches and pipes were the prizes, scared away for a short -afternoon the sad impressions of the moment. - -[Illustration: SHOOTING AT A TARGET, OCTOBER 1872.] - -5. Encounters with polar bears afforded us much excitement. On the 6th -of October our first bear was killed and divided among the dogs, for as -yet we had not learnt to regard the flesh of these animals as the most -precious part of our provisions. A fox also, the first seen during this -expedition, showed himself during the previous night. He had evidently -come from Novaya Zemlya, and his curiosity had led him close to the -ship, from whence he was driven by the dogs. It now became indispensable -for everyone who left the immediate neighbourhood of the ship to carry -arms with him, and the neglect of this precaution had sometimes rather -ludicrous, at other times somewhat serious, consequences. On the 11th -of October I left the ship unarmed, and with no other companion than -our Lapland dog, Pekel, to employ myself in the harmless occupation of -piling up a tower of ice. Working as I was in a stooping position, I was -unconscious of what was immediately around me, when on a sudden the loud -barking of Pekel caused me to raise myself, and I saw a bear quite close -before me. Shaking his head and making a snuffling noise, he came on -towards me. In the expectation that some of the people engaged on deck -would see my critical position, I contented myself with shaking my fist -at him, unwilling to reveal any weakness to my enemy. As this, however, -seemed to produce no effect, I cried out repeatedly, “A bear!” At last -I saw Klotz, who was on deck, go to the stand of arms, but with such -stoical composure, that I ceased to trust to others, and left to the -bear, who had now advanced to a distance of about fifteen paces from me, -the glory of forcing his enemy to take to flight. - -6. In the first days of October the temperature rose considerably, the -thermometer standing a little below zero (C.). This was due to south-west -winds, and to the temporary extension of the “ice-holes” in our immediate -neighbourhood. The days now became shorter, the sun surrounded with -red masses of clouds set behind barriers of blackish-blue ice, and -an ever-deepening twilight followed his disappearance. Sept. 29, a -“snowfinch” flew from the coast of Novaya Zemlya to the ship, hopped -about the deck for a little time, and after delighting us all by his -little song, again left us. Some few sea-gulls still wended their flight -to the spaces of water in our neighbourhood. Skimming over the top of -the mast, they seemed to gaze down upon us, and then with a shrill cry -darted away like arrows towards the south. There was something melancholy -in this departure of the birds; it seemed as if all creatures were -retiring from the long reign of night which was before us. In order to -divert our attention from the dreadful monotony of our captivity by some -occupation in the open air, we fell on the plan of building houses of ice -round the ship. The activity of a building-yard reigned on our ice-floe; -heavy ice-tables were broken or sawed through, the dogs in the sledges -carried the fragments to their appointed places, and with these blocks we -raised crystal walls and towers. Snow, mixed with sea-water, furnished an -inexhaustible source of the most excellent mortar; and while we worked -laboriously at these meaningless erections, we earned at least by our -labour the reward of sleep free from care. - -[Illustration: PARHELIA ON THE COAST OF NOVAYA ZEMLYA.] - -7. As we drifted helplessly northward, the coasts of Novaya Zemlya -receded gradually from our gaze. Hitherto we had lain close to the land, -which with its rounded mountains and valleys filled with glaciers seemed -a miniature of Alpine scenery. Daily almost the gigantic luminous arcs -of parhelia stood above it, the usual precursors of stormy weather or -heavy falls of snow. Towards the north and north-east the country becomes -flatter, and runs into glacier-wastes little raised above the level -of the sea. The topography of the northern parts of Novaya Zemlya is -complete confusion. The only survey which exists—that of Lütke—extends no -further than Cape Nassau. The maps of the Barentz Isles are frequently -in contradiction with fact, and their correction is extremely desirable. -Though this land was of no value for our object, yet it was still land, -and it seemed also to us, drifting as we did, the symbol of the stable -and immovable. But now it was gradually disappearing from our eyes. -During September we had moved slowly, but with October we drifted at a -greater rate, so that by the 12th of this month we saw nothing but a line -of heights some thirty miles off, towards the south. At last every trace -of land disappeared from our gaze; a hopeless waste received us, in which -no man could tell how long we should be, or how far we should penetrate. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE “TEGETTHOFF” FAST BESET IN THE ICE. - - -1. Autumn was passing away, the days were getting shorter, and in our -immediate neighbourhood no movement in the ice was perceptible, save that -we had drifted continuously towards the north-east; sometimes, though -rarely, a fissure in the ice grew to the proportions of an “ice-hole,” -only, however, to be quickly frozen over and present a surface for -our skates. There lay the frozen sea, the picture of dull, hopeless -monotony; shelter there was none. Our floe, though it seemed to combine -the conveniences of a winter harbour, could not stand the test of closer -observation, the illusion of such a notion must be short-lived. But -many signs now indicated the insecurity of our position. Fields of ice -in our neighbourhood cracked and split asunder, and piled-up masses -floated round us, silent preachers, as it were, of the destruction which -ice-pressure could produce. - -2. A change, however, was soon to come over the scene. On the evening of -October 12 we imagined that the cabin lamp oscillated, and consequently -that our floe was in motion. On the same night we were conscious -of a violent movement in the ice. A dreadful day was the 13th of -October,—a Sunday; it was decisive of the fate of the expedition. To -the superstitious amongst us the number 13 was clothed with a profound -significance: the committee of the expedition had been constituted on -February 13; on the 13th of January the keel of the _Tegetthoff_ had -been laid down; on the 13th of April she was launched; on the 13th of -June we left Bremerhaven; on the 13th of July, Tromsoe; after a voyage -of 13 days we had arrived at the ice, and on the 13th of October the -temperature marked 16 degrees below zero (C.). In the morning of that -day, as we sat at breakfast, our floe burst across immediately under the -ship. Rushing on deck we discovered that we were surrounded and squeezed -by the ice; the after-part of the ship was already nipped and pressed, -and the rudder, which was the first to encounter its assault, shook and -groaned; but as its great weight did not admit of its being shipped, we -were content to lash it firmly. We next sprang on the ice, the tossing -tremulous motion of which literally filled the air with noises as of -shrieks and howls, and we quickly got on board all the materials which -were lying on the floe, and bound the fissures of the ice hastily -together by ice-anchors and cables, filling them up with snow, in the -hope that frost would complete our work, though we felt that a single -heave might shatter our labours. But, just as in the risings of a people -the wave of revolt spreads on every side, so now the ice uprose against -us. Mountains threateningly reared themselves from out the level fields -of ice, and the low groan which issued from its depths grew into a deep -rumbling sound, and at last rose into a furious howl as of myriads of -voices. Noise and confusion reigned supreme, and step by step destruction -drew nigh in the crashing together of the fields of ice. Our floe was -now crushed, and its blocks, piled up into mountains, drove hither and -thither. Here, they towered fathoms high above the ship, and forced the -protecting timbers of massive oak, as if in mockery of their purpose, -against the hull of the vessel; there, masses of ice fell down as into an -abyss under the ship, to be engulfed in the rushing waters, so that the -quantity of ice beneath the ship was continually increased, and at last -it began to raise her quite above the level of the sea. About 11.30 in -the forenoon, according to our usual custom, a portion of the Bible was -read on deck, and this day, quite accidentally, the portion read was the -history of Joshua: but if in his day the sun stood still, it was more -than the ice now showed any inclination to do. - -3. The terrible commotion going on around us prevented us from seeing -anything distinctly. The sky too was overcast, the sun’s place could -only be conjectured. In all haste we began to make ready to abandon the -ship, in case it should be crushed, a fate which seemed inevitable, if -she were not sufficiently raised through the pressure of the ice. About -12.30 the pressure reached a frightful height, every part of the vessel -strained and groaned; the crew, who had been sent down to dine, rushed -on deck. The _Tegetthoff_ had heeled over on her side, and huge piles -of ice threatened to precipitate themselves upon her. But the pressure -abated, and the ship righted herself; and about one o’clock, when the -danger was in some degree over, the crew went below to dine. But again a -strain was felt through the vessel, everything which hung freely began to -oscillate violently, and all hastened on deck, some with the unfinished -dinner in their hands, others stuffing it into their pockets. Calmly -and silently, amid the loud sounds emitted by the ice in its violent -movement, the officers assumed and carried out the special duty which -had been assigned to each in the contemplated abandonment of the ship. -Lieutenant Weyprecht got ready the boats, Brosch and Orel cleared out the -supply of provision to be taken in them; Kepes, our doctor, had an eye to -his drugs; the Tyrolese opened the magazine, and got out the rifles and -ammunition—I myself attended to the sledges, the tents, and the sacks for -sleeping in, and distributed to the crew their fur coats. We now stood -ready to start, each with a bundle—whither, no one pretended to know! For -not a fragment of the ice around us had remained whole; nowhere could -the eye discover a still perfect and uninjured floe to serve as a place -of refuge, as a vast floe had before been to the crew of the _Hansa_. -Nay, not a block, not a table of ice was at rest, all shapes and sizes -of it were in active motion, some rearing up, some turning and twisting, -none on the level. A sledge would at once have been swallowed up, and -in this very circumstance lay the horror of our situation. For, if the -ship should sink, whither should we go, even with the smallest stock -of provisions?—amid this confusion, how reach the land, thirty miles -distant, without the most indispensable necessaries? - -4. The dogs, too, demanded our attention. They had sprung on chests, and -stared on the waves of ice as they rose and roared. Every trace of his -fox-nature had disappeared from “Sumbu.” His look, at other times so -full of cunning, had assumed an expression of timidity and humility, and, -unbidden, he offered his paw to all passers by. The Lapland dog, little -Pekel, sprang upon me, licked my hand, and looked out on the ice as if -he meant to ask me what all this meant. The large Newfoundlands stood -motionless, like scared chamois, on the piles of chests. - -5. About 4 P.M. the pressure moderated; an hour afterwards there was -a calm, and with more composure we could now survey our position. The -carpenter shovelled away the snow from the deck in order to inspect -the seams. They were still uninjured. The knees and cross-beams still -held, and no very great quantity of water was found in the hold. This -result we owed solely to the strength of our ship and to her fine lines, -which enabled her to rise when nipped and pressed, while her interior, -so well laden as to become a solid body, increased her powers of -resistance. Everything was again restored to its place, so that it was -possible to go up and down the cabin stairs without great difficulty, -and in the evening the water in the hold, which had risen 13 inches, -was pumped out to its normal depth of 6 inches. We went down into the -cabin to rest, but though thankful and joyful for the issue, our minds -were clouded with care and anxiety. Henceforth we regarded every noise -with suspicious apprehensions, like a population which lives within an -area of earthquakes. The long winter nights and their fearful cold were -before us; we were drifting into unknown regions, utterly uncertain of -the end. When night came, we fell asleep with our clothes on, though our -sleep was disturbed every now and then by onsets of the ice, recurring -less frequently and in diminished force; but daily—and for _one hundred -and thirty days_—we went through the same experiences in greater or -lesser measure, almost always in sunless darkness. It was, however, a -fortunate circumstance for us that we encountered the first assaults of -the ice at a time when we were still able to see; for instead of the calm -preparations we were able to make, hurry and confusion would have been -inevitable had these assaults surprised us amid the Polar darkness. - -[Illustration: AN OCTOBER NIGHT IN THE ICE.] - -6. Early in the morning of Oct. 14 we all met at breakfast, but on every -face there lay an expression of grave thoughtfulness, for each of us was -contemplating the long perspective of those dreary nights, in which we -should drift without a goal in the awful wastes of the Frozen Sea. The -speedy restoration of our floe was now our most earnest desire. It was -only severe frost and heavy falls of snow—as we vainly imagined—which -could cement the chaos of broken fragments around us and form from them -a new floe; for as yet we had not learnt by experience, that severe cold -in itself, unaccompanied with wind, is sufficient to break up the fields -of ice, from the contraction which it causes. We deluded ourselves with -another consolation—we imagined that the ice-pressures would cease as -soon as we passed the eastern extremity of Novaya Zemlya, and that in the -Sea of Kara we should drift without encountering the pressures, due, as -we conceived, to our nearness to land. But vain also was this hope, for -we were drifting not into the Sea of Kara, but towards the north-east. -We should have found, even in that sea, that pressures from the ice may -occur within the Frozen Ocean, however, as well as at its coasts. The -masses of ice which caused our disasters probably came from that sea. - -7. The time subsequent to this crisis was full of painful and anxious -moments, but a chronological description of the events of each day, -involving a mere repetition of our sad impressions, would be wearisome to -the reader. I will, therefore, transfer from my journal such portions of -it as most forcibly express the thoughts that passed through the minds of -the handful of men on board the _Tegetthoff_ during those terrible days:— - -“_October 14._—About half-past eight o’clock in the evening a new fissure -in the ice appeared astern of the ship; a strain was felt throughout her -timbers; in a moment every one in his fur dress and with his bundle in -his hand was on deck: so will it be, perhaps, throughout the winter—what -a life! - -“_October 15._—All had slept in their clothes. Fresh pressures from the -ice were felt about eight o’clock in the morning, not so powerful as on -the 13th, but of such force that all sprang from their berths and within -a minute again stood ready on the deck. Much ice had been forced under -the after-part of the ship, which was raised up by the pressure. When -all was calm every one set to work to make a bag to contain the gear he -meant to take if the ship should be crushed. Mine contained the following -articles: one pair of fur gloves, one pair of woollen gloves, a pair of -snow spectacles, six pencils, a rubber, three note-books, the journal of -my Greenland expedition, a book of drawings, ten ball-cartridges, two -pairs of stockings, a knife, a case of needles and thread. On the 13th -we had neglected to provide ourselves with maps of Novaya Zemlya; two -of these I now included among my stock of necessaries. Six Lefaucheux -rifles, four Werndl-rifles, two thousand cartridges, two large and two -smaller sledges, a tent for ten, one for six men, two great sleeping -sacks, each for eight, and a smaller one for six men, were placed in the -boats. Although all these preparations would have been quite vain if -the ship had sunk with the ice in motion to crush us, we must, for our -mutual encouragement, keep up the appearance of believing in them. About -six o’clock in the evening the full moon rose, like a copper coin fresh -from the mint, above our horizon on the deep blue of the heavens. In the -evening the ice was at rest, and for the first time for some days we -ventured to undress on going to bed. - -“_October 16._—Slept without care or disturbance till two o’clock in -the morning, when pressure from the ice again set in, and all rushed on -deck. Some of the crew threw out on the ice the antlers of a reindeer of -Novaya Zemlya,—for according to a superstition of the seamen the horns -of a reindeer are the generators of mischief! The ice again calm, and -I fell asleep from exhaustion; but about half-past five in the morning -there was a new pressure of about twenty minutes’ duration, and almost as -fearful as on the 13th of the month. The exceeding haste with which every -one rushes up from below as soon as the ship begins to strain, shows the -effect which the noise makes on us; it is impossible to become accustomed -to it; every one runs on deck. Again the ice rests, but about half-past -seven in the morning, another pressure, which almost tore away the beams -protecting the hull and the davits to which they were fastened. The ship, -however, rights herself. To-day the ice which overhung our bulwarks was -dug away to prevent masses of it falling on the deck. In the evening, -diminished pressure from the ice; at night, glorious moonlight scenery; -nothing more peaceful, but nothing more illusive, than such a scene at -such an hour. - -“_October 17._—All quiet during the night till Lusina came to announce, -with a voice as from the grave, that the ship was making more water, -sixteen inches in the forepart, eleven inches amidships. East wind, with -heavy drifting snow-storms—during the day once only a strain of short -duration was felt in the ship, as a new fissure opened in the piled-up -ice on our starboard quarter. - -“_October 18._—Our anxieties somewhat abate and our watchful state of -preparation to leave the ship relaxes, and most of us determine once -more to undress for the night. After several weeks the sun, which had -been obscured by the weather, becomes visible, rising 2° 25′ above the -horizon; the temperature stands at -20° F., and our latitude is 77° 48′. - -“_October 19._—Straining in the ship; the sun rose about a quarter past -eight, but was soon veiled in frosty vapours. - -“_October 20._—The hull of the ship is still without its necessary -protection of ice and snow, while we are wrapt in furs and wear -reindeer-shoes and felt-boots. In the evening a faint mock moon was -visible. - -“_October 21._—At night we were alarmed by a loud sound, and in few -minutes all were on deck with their fur clothes on—a fissure had opened -on the starboard side of the ship, connecting itself with that which had -been formed astern of the ship. In an hour this fissure had widened about -four feet, and we worked for some hours by the light of lamps to fill it -up with snow and pieces of ice. The low temperature (-21° F.) led us to -expect that this chasm would be bridged over without further effort on -our part. The moon stood surrounded by a vast halo in the heavens and -illuminated the awful loneliness of our abode. Once more a calm! When -any one comes down from the deck into the cabin, the eyes of all are -involuntarily turned upon him to read in the expression of his face what -is going on above, and each dreads to hear it said, that the ice is in -motion. In the afternoon, when the fissure closed, we heard the old dull -sound from the ice, and the ship strained violently, and all were on deck -ready to leave. About nine o’clock in the evening the motion of the ice -was again felt. Uncertain and full of fears as to what the night might -bring forth, we go early to rest; no one knows how short that rest may -be. Even Klotz lays aside his stoical calmness, and the philosophical -dignity of his remarks departs when his comrades spring from their berths -and rush on deck with their bundles. The frozen pumps are daily thawed -by boiling water; to-day the shaft of one of them broke, through the -excessive strain put upon it. - -[Illustration: THE MOON WITH ITS HALO.] - -“_October 22._—During the night, motion in the ice. At 9.30 A.M. the -sun rose, and attains its meridian altitude at 1° 41′. In the evening -the fissure in the ice again opens. Rents and small ‘ice-holes’ are all -round us, and frosty vapour fills the air. To-day the skull of a bear was -thrown out on the ice, the crew asserting that mischief comes from the -possession of it! - -“_October 23._—During the night violent movement in the ice; the sound -produced resembles the noise of a fleet of paddle-wheel steam-ships, -steaming now with full, now with half power. The height of the sun to-day -above the horizon was a little above one degree, its form was distorted -by refraction into an egg-like shape, and its edges were in constant -vibration. - -“_October 24._—The daylight is now so feeble that the lamps have to be -lighted during the day, with the exception of two or three hours in the -forenoon. Many of the crew are suffering from frost-bites on their hands, -in consequence of their exposure in removing the unnecessary rigging, and -in the preparations to facilitate the removal of our stock of provisions -in the event of our being forced to abandon the vessel. - -“_October 25._—In the afternoon we made an attempt to drive the dog -sledges, but the snow, in spite of the low temperature, lay in such -masses between the small hummocks and on the few level places, that -they sank deep into it. It is storms of wind only that harden the snow, -and for some time we have had calms or light breezes. In the evening -there was a movement in the ice astern of the ship, accompanied with the -highest soprano tones. The noise the ice makes in its pressure very much -resembles the piping and howling of a storm among rocky cliffs or through -the rigging of a ship. About half-past ten at night, the oscillating -movements of the ice, occurring at definite intervals, made it appear -as if they arose from a swell of the ocean. The ship groans and creaks -constantly; indeed, creaking and groaning are weak expressions for such a -noise. Once more all are ready. We begin to fear that the ice will never -rest. - -“_October 26._—Pressure throughout the whole night. Armed and provided -with lanterns, we used the sledges to remove two boats, 150 logs of wood, -fifty planks, and a supply of coals, to the port side of the vessel, and -chose a stronger floe, on which to build a house of refuge. Tired and -exhausted, we fell asleep, in spite of the straining and creaking of the -vessel. - -[Illustration: OUR COAL-HOUSE ON THE FLOE.] - -“_October 27._—The sun at noon was scarcely visible above the horizon. At -night of the same day a strong wind from the south-east opened a fissure -on the starboard side of the vessel and about 150 paces from it, which -grew into the dimensions of an ‘ice-hole.’ - -“_October 28._—To-day the sun took leave of us. Only with its upper -edge had it appeared above the horizon, and sent towards us its mild -beams like the consoling glance of a departing friend. The coal-house -is finished. But what reliance can be placed on such an abode in such a -position? A storm may carry away the planks which form its roof; sparks -from a fire may set fire to its walls and consume it; and at any moment, -through a pressure opening up an abyss beneath, it may sink and be -engulfed. Two o’clock in the afternoon, the groaning sound comes from -the piles of ice around us; our floe appears to twist somewhat, and the -pressure of the ice will probably soon begin. - -“_October 29._—During the night a noise in the ice, which, though it did -not further disturb us, was yet witness enough that it is ever ready to -disturb us. The sun no longer appears; only a rosy light at noon in the -heavens. - -“_October 30._—At half-past three o’clock in the morning there was a -dreadful straining and creaking in the ship: at once we sprang out of our -berths, and stood on deck with our fur garments on, and with our bags as -before. New fissures had appeared which rapidly enlarge themselves; the -two boats and the coal-house are now surrounded by up-forced masses of -ice and separated from us. Then a pause! There is however no real repose, -and the least sound on deck, the falling of anything heavy—at other times -quite unnoticed—alarms us into the expectation of new onsets. At noon, as -we sate at dinner, there was renewed and excessive straining in the ship, -and even in the cabin we heard such a rushing sound in the ice without, -that it seemed as if the whole frozen sea would the next moment boil and -rise in vapour. During all the afternoon the noise continues, and all -the fissures send forth dense vapours, like hot springs. During the day -no quiet for reading or working, and every night almost our sleep is -disturbed by a horrible awaking within a great creaking, groaning coffin. -Men can accustom themselves to almost anything; but to these daily -recurring shocks, and the constantly renewed question as to the end and -issue of it all, we cannot grow accustomed.” - -8. There is however such an intolerable monotony in my diary, that, -to spare my readers, I thus, in a few words, resuming its contents, -describe our situation:—“One of us, to-day, remarked very truly, that he -saw perfectly well how one might lose his reason with the continuance -of these sudden and incessant assaults. It is not dangers that we fear, -but worse far; we are kept in a constant state of readiness to meet -destruction, and know not whether it will come to-day, or to-morrow, or -in a year. Every night we are startled out of sleep, and, like hunted -animals, up we spring to await amid an awful darkness the end of an -enterprise from which all hope of success has departed. It becomes -at last a mere mechanical process to seize our rifles and our bag of -necessaries and rush on deck. In the daytime, leaning over the bulwarks -of the ship, which trembles, yea, almost quivers the while, we look out -on a continual work of destruction going on, and at night, as we listen -to the loud and ever-increasing noises of the ice, we gather that the -forces of our enemy are increasing.” - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -OUR FIRST WINTER (1872) IN THE ICE. - - -1. In the beginning of November we were already environed by a deep -twilight; but our dreary waste had become of magical beauty; the rigging, -white with frost, stood out, spectre-like, against the grey-blue of -the heavens; the ice, broken into a thousand forms and overspread with -a covering of snow, had now assumed the cold pure aspect of alabaster -shaded with the tender hues of arragonite. Southward at noon we saw veils -of frosty vapour rise into the carmine-coloured sky out of the fissures -and “ice-holes,” in which the water seemed to boil. - -2. All our preparations for wintering had now been completed. Lieutenant -Weyprecht struck the top-masts to diminish pressure from the wind; some -sails were still kept set, in order that the ship, in the event of her -being set free, might at once get under weigh. The fore-part of the ship -only could be covered in as a tent, for the preparations to abandon her -in case of need compelled us to leave her after-part uncovered. There, -in perfect order, lay all the materials we meant to take with us, our -provisions, ammunition, tents, sledges, &c. The ship was surrounded with -a wall of snow and ice, which we constantly restored, whenever it was -injured by pressure from without, and her deck was gradually overspread -with a mantle of snow, which contributed, however, to maintain an equable -warmth in the ship. Our distance from land rendered it impossible to -cover the deck with a layer of sand, which would have prevented the -melting of the snow from the warmth of the ship. - -[Illustration: THE TWILIGHT IN NOVEMBER, 1872.] - -3. The temperature of November rose once only—about the middle of the -month—considerably; but, except on that occasion, the thermometer stood -with tolerable regularity below -13° F., and on the 20th of the month -it reached its minimum at -33° F. Winds, from whatever quarter they -might blow, constantly raised the temperature, because the colder air -was thus modified by the warmer which lay above the open spaces of -sea-water; calms were accompanied by a rapid intensification of cold. -Wind, increased drifting, pressure, and the formation of fissures—all -these are naturally connected. New openings were quickly covered with -young ice, which presented a smooth surface when formed by less intense -cold, but when the temperature fell lower its saline contents were exuded -in a moist, tough layer, which lay on its surface about an inch thick. In -this state of the ice, sledge-travelling was rendered more difficult, -and even walking was far from easy; for it is only under a temperature -ranging from -4° F. to -13° F. that this layer is frozen. The incessant -rending of the ice-sheet, by exposing the warmer surface of the sea, -tends to mitigate the cold, while, on the other hand, the freezing of -these fissures augments the quantity of ice. - -[Illustration: SUMBU CHASED FOR A FOX.] - -4. In the beginning of the month our nights were dark, and it was only -occasionally that the light of the aurora and meteors visited us with -their fleeting splendours. Although in clear weather day was still -distinguishable from night, yet the darkness, even at noon, was so -great, that mists could not be seen, but felt only, and it was no longer -possible, without the light of a lantern, to make even the slightest -sketch, or to take aim with the rifle. Hence, when we met with bears we -could not be certain of our aim, if they were at any distance from us, -and, on one occasion, Sumbu was mistaken for a fox, chased, and but for -my coming up would have been shot. - -[Illustration: WANDERINGS ON THE ICE IN OUR FIRST WINTER.] - -5. The first days of November passed away without any new disturbance -from the movement of the masses of ice, and our feeling of security grew -apace, and with it our hopes revived, never again to leave us entirely, -not even when the pressures returned, as they did too soon. Once more -the fields of ice, firmly pressed together, were rent asunder; fissures -opened out, and shone in the moonlight like rivers of silver. The night -of Nov. 20 was one of extreme anxiety. A mountain formed of piles of -broken ice bore down on us amid a fearful din, threatening to bury the -ship. Silent, and conscious of our utter helplessness, we watched this -gigantic heap of crashing ice-tables drifting nearer and nearer, crushing -as it advanced the heaviest pieces of ice with a noise which echoed -through our ship. Escape seemed impossible: and Providence alone arrested -its career. This night the crew received each an extra glass of grog to -obliterate the impression of this terrible crisis. - -6. With the exception of books, we had no other amusement than short -expeditions, never extending beyond a mile from the ship, in which we -were accompanied by all the dogs. We generally set out with two small -sledges, and, when the moon was not shining, with our rifles ready to -fire, for the darkness and the utter absence of open spaces on the ice -imposed the utmost caution against bears. At a very short distance -we could see nothing of the ship, and only by our footsteps on the -snow could we make out where we were and find the way back. In these -expeditions we were exposed to another danger—the risk of being cut off -from the ship by the breaking-up of one of the drifting floes. Even the -dogs felt the insecurity of recently-formed ice, and put their feet on it -with fear and hesitation, and only by compulsion. There seemed to be a -cunning agreement among them to shirk the work altogether; for they often -rushed away into the coal-house, and threw the harness of the sledges -into inextricable confusion. - -7. December came, but it brought no change in our situation. Our life -became more and more monotonous; one day differed in no respect from -another, it was but a mere succession of dates, and time was reckoned -merely by the hours for eating and sleeping. The ice, however, did not -share in the universal repose. It was never weary of threatening; no day -elapsed without movement on its part. My journal records December 1, 8, -9, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26, 28, 29, 30, and 31, as days of special disturbance -and agitation. On the 20th, as we were talking in the coal-house of the -approaching festival of Christmas, a sudden violent movement of the ice -surprised us, and rushing out we found that the floe on which the house -stood was breaking up. With all haste we endeavoured to save as much as -possible of the coal and materials, and moved them close to the ship. The -minimum temperature of December was -26° F.; the mean of the whole month -amounted to -22° F.; and the extreme of cold, -33° F., was reached on the -26th. A few days before Christmas the temperature rose to a little below --13° F. It may be observed that the lower temperatures were registered -during the prevalence of winds from the south-east, and the higher during -winds from the north. - -8. When the moon returned in the middle of December, our sledge -expeditions were extended to a distance of 1½ miles from the ship, over -snow and hummocks, to recently frozen ice-holes, the lonely beauty of -which, edged with dark masses of ice, in the distance, and lying under -the clear silver light of the moon, filled us with feelings of profound -melancholy. On returning from one of these expeditions to our vessel, -after we had unharnessed the dogs, we heard loud barks from Sumbu, and -looking round saw a bear close beside him, which Orel managed to shoot -dead when he was not above five paces from the rope-ladder on the port -side of the vessel. He was at once cut up, the dogs meanwhile looking -on with profound attention; and in reward for his watchfulness, Sumbu -was indulged with an extra good feast—the heart and tongue of the bear, -which, as yet, we ourselves had not learnt to eat and enjoy. On the -18th, however, he encountered our heavy displeasure for the offence of -frightening off a fox, which had ventured to come very near the vessel. - -[Illustration: ENCOUNTER WITH A POLAR BEAR.] - -9. When there was no moon it was perfectly dark, even during the day; but -on December 14, in a very clear forenoon, we saw in the south a tender -orange segment of light, three or four degrees above the horizon, edged -with green, sharply defined against the dark sky, and when the moon, -high in the heavens, faced this arch of light, a peculiar faint twilight -was observable. But generally there was no difference between the light -of midday and the light of midnight. The heavens were usually overcast, -and the light of the aurora, during the few minutes of its greatest -intensity, seldom exceeded that of the moon in its first quarter. But -how deep would be the night of the Polar regions, if the land, instead -of being white with snow, were covered with forests! On December 20 we -were unable, even at noon, to read anything but the titles of books of -the largest type; a man’s eyes were invisible at the distance of a few -paces, and at fifty even the stoutest ropes of the ship were scarcely -discernible. The effect of the long Polar night—when the range of the -light of a lamp is the whole world for man—is most oppressive to the -feelings; nor can habit ever reconcile those who have lived under the -influences of civilization to its gloom and solitude. It can be a -home only to men who spend their existence in eating and drinking and -sleeping, without any disturbing recollection of a better existence. The -depression was made more intense by the consciousness that we had been -driven into an utterly unknown region and with our eyes bound. Work, -incessant work, was the only resource in these circumstances. - -[Illustration: ICE-HOLE COVERED WITH YOUNG ICE.] - -10. Again from my journal I reproduce some passages which express the -feelings which passed through our minds—through mine at least—during this -season of the _Tegetthoff’s_ first winter in the ice:—“_December 21_—The -middle of the long night. It is noon, and, though nothing can be lighter -than the colour of all that surrounds us—of the snow—yet it is as dark -as midnight. Nothing but a pale yellow sheen hovers over the south. The -sun has sunk below the horizon 11° 40′, and we should have to ascend -a mountain eighteen and a half (German) miles high in order to behold -it. Nothing is to be seen, neither bears nor men, and we only hear the -steps of those who are near us. We see but the confused outline even of -the ship, as she drifts hither and thither with the floe, a prisoner in -the fetters of the ice, the sport of winds and currents, carrying her -further and further into the still and silent realm of death. A definite -object, with hope to inspire them, raises men above toils and troubles -of every kind; but exile like ours, when the sacrifice seems useless, -is hard to be borne. An inexorable ‘No’ lays its ban on every hope, and -daily struggle for self-preservation is our lot. If we attempt to fathom -destiny, our utmost hopes are liberation from our icy captivity some -time next summer, and the reaching the coast of Siberia. Siberia a hope! -And yet how changeable are the feelings when the reign of monotony is -interrupted! The moon is up—darkness exists no more. In the North the -moon is an event—it is life, everything almost; it is the only link which -connects us with the far-distant home. As its beams fall on the meanest -forms, diamonds blaze forth in its light from the snow and the frost, -and the soul feels the beauty of the transformation. She looks down on -us like a returning friend that watches over us, and unfolds bewitching -forms and magic images to cheer us. Two weeks ago she rose above the -horizon, first as a blood-red disk, then paled as she climbed higher and -higher, till she stands out the clear, silver-bright, full moon.” - -11. Christmas had come; the season when in the forests of our -far-distant home the branches of the pine-trees are heavy laden with -snow, and which ever comes back with the memories of the days of our -youth, and with the remembrances of our families and absent friends. -Only for a short time, about noon, we were made uneasy by a movement and -pressure of the ice. But the alarm passed away, and we gathered together -for a choice and gorgeous feast, both on Christmas Eve and Christmas Day, -and each of the cabin-mess had a bottle of good wine to himself. Carlsen -and Lusina were our guests. Each of the crew received half a bottle of -wine, together with a quarter of a bottle of “artificial wine,”[17] and -in addition an allowance of grog, so weak, however, that even a baby -might have drunk it without harm. Dried fish, roast bear well kept and -seasoned, nuts and the like, contributed in their way to heighten the -joyous feelings which, this day at least, animate even the most miserable -of men. The dogs, at other times so insatiable, had for once enough and -to spare, and carried off the fragments to bury them in the snow. The -contents of a chest full of presents, which we had brought with us, were -distributed by lot, and great was the delight of those who won a bottle -of rum or a few cigars. - -12. The last day of the year 1872 afforded us no very happy thoughts -as we looked back on its events; it had been to us a year of -disappointments. The comparison drawn between our actual condition -and the expectations we had so ardently cherished seemed full of the -bitterest irony. This day also, about noon, a pressure from the ice, -which lasted but a short time, alarmed us all, and we rushed on deck to -make our usual preparations. The enemy, however, passed away without -further disturbance, and cheerfully and socially we awaited the first -hour of the new year. With a bottle of champagne, one of the two still -left, we meant to greet its coming in with that hopefulness of mind -which seems inextinguishable in all the changes and chances of life. -But the champagne, alas! proved a delusion. Klotz, the Tyrolese, in one -of his brown studies exposed this precious bottle for four hours to a -temperature of -19° F., and when he produced it the bottle had burst and -the wine was thoroughly frozen. At midnight the crew serenaded us, and -we afterwards marched forth in a body with torches, and walked round -the ship, whose rigging glowed in the light of the tarred torches. The -frosted fur garments of the men seemed edged with shining light, and a -red glare fell on the masses of ice. - -[Illustration: CARLSEN MAKES THE ENTRY IN THE LOG.] - -13. To-day, too, we allowed the dogs to descend into our cabin,—the -constant object of their longings. The poor animals were so dazzled by -looking at our lamp, that they almost took it for the sun itself; but -by and by their attention was directed exclusively to the rich remains -of our dinner, the sight of which appeared completely to satisfy their -notions of the wonders of the cabin. After behaving themselves with great -propriety, they again quietly withdrew, all except Jubinal, who appeared -to be indignant at the deceitfulness of our conduct, inasmuch as we had -allowed him to starve so long on dried horse-flesh and on crushed bear’s -head, while we revelled in luxury. He accordingly made his way into -Lieutenant Brosch’s cabin, where, discovering a mountain of macaroni, he -immediately attacked it, and warned us off from every attempt to rescue -it, by growling fiercely till he had finished it all. Sumbu, however, -with much levity, suffered himself to be made drunk by the sailors with -rum, and everything which he had scraped together for weeks and buried in -the snow and so carefully watched, was stolen from him by the other dogs -in one night. - -14. Another year had now glided away. Looking anxiously into the future, -we shortsighted mortals saw the fulfilment of our highest wishes in being -liberated from the floe. In the pious manner of the whalers of the Arctic -Ocean, Carlsen wrote this day in the log: “Önsker at Gud maa vere med os -i det nye aar, da kan intet vare imod os—_May God be with us in the new -year and nothing can be against us_.” In this new year, with its happier -issues, was verified again the eternal truth, that Providence acts in -ways not to be fathomed, and that it is folly in man to mark out his own -path beforehand according to his own mind. The sun of this new year, -whose beams were to light us to new lands and discoveries, was still low -beneath the horizon. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -LIFE ON BOARD THE “TEGETTHOFF.” - - -1. Like a spectre in white, the ship stretches out her arms, as if in -silent complaint, towards the heaven, and rests, in cruel mockery of -her destiny, on a mountain, not of water, but of ice, and seems like a -building ready to fall in. A wall of snow and ice surrounds her hull, -snow lies thick on her deck, and her rigging is stiffened in icy lines. -Could we see through her sides, we should then behold four-and-twenty -men parted off in two spaces under the suns of two lamps. Let us inspect -them, and first the cabin of the officers in the after-part of the ship. - -2. Neither few nor slight were our struggles to remedy the various -inconveniences which we encountered; their enumeration here is meant -to aid the experience of future adventurers. Though our arrangements -were far from complete or perfect, we had never to complain of the -discomforts which previous expeditions, even the second German expedition -to Greenland, had to endure from the excessive condensation of moisture. -Against this enemy we protected ourselves by the snow wall which we -raised round the ship, by covering in the deck windows of the cabin, by -lining our quarters with vulcanized india-rubber, by sheds built over the -cabin stairs, all acting as condensers. Before, however, I enter on the -unavoidable inconveniences to which we were exposed by the formation of -ice, or by damp and the sudden change of temperature, I would preface my -remarks by observing, that all these discomforts and inconveniences are -to be endured far more easily than would seem possible to the reader, -and that life on board a ship of a North Pole expedition, under normal -circumstances, is free from annoyances worthy of mention. - -[Illustration: THE “TEGETTHOFF” IN THE FULL MOON.] - -3. It is a matter of the last importance to keep the air pure and -wholesome, and to maintain an equable warmth in the quarters of -the officers and crew. The accumulation of moisture and consequent -congelation in them is an inconvenience which requires incessant -watchfulness to avert.[18] The destruction of the snow wall which -surrounded the ship increased the condensation; for that snow covering -was nothing but a greatcoat for the ship and those on board. In the -beginning of November 1872 the frost on the bulk-heads of the berths, -and on those parts of the cabins which were impervious to warmer air, -was very perceptible. The bed-clothes were frozen at night to the -sides of the ship, the iron knees of the beams—not, alas! covered with -felt—gleamed like stalactites, small glaciers were formed under the -berths, and even in October the skylight was frozen, inches thick. Every -rise in the temperature caused this formation of ice to fall down like a -“douche,” and with the opening of a door a white vapour, even in October, -streamed along the deck. We prevented the increase of moisture by cutting -the openings in the deck, over which we placed two chimneys, each a foot -high and covered with a thin metal cap. We boarded up the skylight, -leaving a lid by which to air the cabin. But in spite of all this the -variations of temperature within our quarters were extraordinary. If -the heat of the air in the middle of the cabin and on a level with our -heads rose from -2° F. to 76° F.—our usual mean temperature—it amounted -on the floor to a little above 34° F., and fell during the night not -unfrequently below freezing-point. - -4. But the greatest inconvenience perhaps with which we had to contend, -arose from the removal of the protection of the tent roof, which was -stretched over the after-part of the ship. The want of this prevented -our walking on the deck in bad weather, and it also hindered perfect -ventilation, which could only be secured, with the constant heat which -was maintained below, by keeping the deck windows open. Warming the air -from underneath the floor of the cabin would possibly be preferable -to the best stove. We had the stove of Meidingen of Carlsruhe, the -excellence of which had been tested on the _Germania_. This stove -consumed only 20 lbs. of coals daily, with a thermometer at -13° F., -and after the adoption of certain arrangements to save the fuel, its -consumption amounted to only 12 lbs. Even in the coldest period of the -winter we never consumed more than 4½ cwt. in a month. The lighting of -the messroom and quarters of the men was effected by petroleum, the daily -consumption of which amounted to about 2⅔ lbs. Altogether there were in -the ship two large and two small lamps, besides the deck-lantern, which -were burning day and night. The berths were lighted with train-oil; for -special purposes, such as drawing, candles were used. - -5. The stove had one troublesome enemy in the shape of a hole, as big as -a man’s head, in the door of the mess-room, through which a cold stream -of air poured itself; and as the ship dipped forward considerably, and -the hearth was only about a foot above the floor of the mess-room, this -stream filled the whole space with a lake of cold air from three to four -feet deep. Hence, while in the berth close by the stove there was a -temperature ranging between 100° F. and 131° F., in the other, there was -one which would have sufficed for the North Pole itself. In the former -a hippopotamus would have felt himself quite comfortable, and Orel, the -unhappy occupant of it, was often compelled to rush on deck, when the -ice-pressures alarmed us, experiencing in passing from his berth to -the deck a difference of temperature amounting to 189° F. In the other -berth of the mess-room, water, lemon-juice, and vinegar froze on the -floor. Those who occupied it, as they lay in beds, or those who sat at -the table to read, were in a cold bath reaching up to their neck. But -the hole was an indispensable necessity, for it was better to endure -the discomfort even of such a draught than to impede ventilation. Other -causes, too, disturbed the equilibrium of temperature. At night the stove -was sometimes, from sanitary considerations, not lighted, and then all -had to sleep in that cold bath. With the increase of cold and wind, our -inconveniences often assumed somewhat ludicrous forms. Some passages from -my journal will make this clear:—“When any come below the temperature -falls. If the door be opened there rolls in a mass of white vapour; if -any one opens a book which he has brought with him, it smokes as if it -were on fire. A cloud surrounds those that enter, and if a drop of water -falls on their clothes, it is at once converted into ice, even at the -stove. Frequently the upper stratum of air in the mess-room becomes so -heated, that the deck light has to be opened, and then it rises up, like -smoke out of a chimney, to blend itself with the cold air without.” - -6. The arrangements of the officers’ mess-room are simple and in harmony -with its purpose. Here stands a large table, used for study and for -meals; the smaller berths, where the officers sleep, are round the sides -of the mess-room—just large enough to enable a man to breathe in. There, -in a recess between two pillars, an untold resource, the library (of -about 400 volumes, chiefly scientific); close beside it the chronometers; -and lastly, the inevitable evils, the medical stores, ranged round the -mast. By the side of scientific works stand Petermann’s _Mittheilungen_; -and between Milton’s _Paradise Lost_ and Shakespeare’s immortal works, -a whole tribe of romances, which were read with never-tiring delight. -Our instruments, too, frosted with ice, are here, and a chest containing -our journals. Once a month a cask, filled with wine—the chemical -wine—concocted of snow, alcohol, tannin, sugar, and glycerine, was placed -there. Dr. Kepes was not only our physician, but our wine brewer. One -thing more we have to mention, which, alas! incommoded us much too -little—wine; that is, wine made in Austria, from grapes. As we have -already mentioned, the want of room in the cabin prevented our laying in -a large stock, and the supplies we had were frozen in a cellar below the -mess-room, about the middle of December, for the temperature of even this -place was about 16° F. or 14° F. Each, however, had a bottle of rum as an -allowance for eighteen days. But quite inexhaustible was the supply of -our common drink—melted snow—a great jar of which, filled to the brim, -stood always on the table. Under the cabin were our supplies of alcohol -and petroleum, accessible only by well-fitting pipes, but possible -volcanoes as far as our safety was concerned. From the accumulation of -so many combustible materials, together with 20,000 cartridges, and with -several lamps constantly burning, it is clear that the danger of fire was -great. But once only had we an alarm from this source—when Carlsen caused -us much trepidation by accidentally discharging a rifle in the cartridge -magazine. - -7. Let us now turn to the persons who occupied this mess-room. Marola, -the steward, lights the lamp, and kindles the fire, and awakens those -who were not already awoke by the smoke from the stove, with the cry, -“Signori, le sette e tre quarti, prego d’alzarsi;” and after a pause of -a quarter of an hour, during which the sleepers seem carefully to deny -their existence, he startles this silence of indifference by the second -call: “Colazion’ in tavola.” Out of every berth now comes forth its -occupant, each in picturesque costume; costumes teach us how superficial -after all is civilization in man! - -8. The day’s work begins. The watch, as ever, walks the deck, lest -the ice should slip away from the world unobserved; in the mess-room -meanwhile calculations or drawing or writing are in full operation. Our -daily meals consist of a breakfast of cocoa, biscuit, and butter; of a -dinner of soup, boiled beef, preserved vegetables, and _café noir_, and -of tea in the evening, with hard biscuit, butter, cheese, and ham. I -would recommend _potage_ instead of _tea_ for the evening meal to all -future expeditions. Many of the articles of food must be thawed before -the process of cooking begins, the greater part of the provisions -being frozen as hard as iron. The tins with preserved meat stand for -hours in boiling water, and the things for supper on the cabin stove, -in order to be thawed. A plate of cheese that steams, butter as hard -as a stone, which has thrown off the salt it contained in great lumps -from the action of frost, a ham as hard as the never-thawed ground of -the Tundra of Siberia, form an icy repast, specially if we use knives, -which are so cold that they often break with the least exertion of -force. I will here notice the sanitary importance—insisted on by Parry -and Ross—of fresh bread, which the cook in an Arctic ship should be able -to bake about twice a week. On board the _Tegetthoff_ we used at first -Liebig’s “baking-powder,” but this from being kept too long gave such -a disagreeable taste to the bread, that we gave it up and contented -ourselves with a defective leaven. - -[Illustration: DIVINE SERVICE ON DECK.] - -9. Every Sunday at noon we celebrated Divine Service. Under the shelter -of the deck-tent, the Gospel was read to the little band of Christians -gathered together by the sound of the ship’s bell, in all that grave -simplicity which marked the worship of the early Christian Church. The -Service over, we then sat down to the Sunday dinner, which was graced by -a glass of wine and cake. Carlsen and Lusina were our guests by turns. -Carlsen always appeared in his wig, trimmed with extra care, and on the -high festivals of the Church decorated also with the cross of the order -of St. Olaf. Lusina, our excellent-boatswain, was ready to talk with -enthusiasm on any subject whatever, prefacing his stream of words with -some sententious remark or with some far-fetched introduction. During -our meals the conversation turned on our plans for the future; we talked -of Polar bears; we discussed the question of the existence of Gillis’ -Land and the possibility of our reaching Siberia; but very seldom did -we venture to speak of what filled the minds of all—our captivity in -the ice. Political combinations formed a favourite theme; and as we had -some old numbers of the _Neue Frei Presse_ on board, they furnished an -inexhaustible source of topics for conversation. The events of the year -1870 were related as the latest news, and we thought anxiously of the -issue of the war between Germany and France, and feared lest Austria -should be compelled to take part in it. - -10. After dinner came the hour for contemplation; in our lonely berths -and by the side of our beds we sat down to brood—to listen to our -watches beating seconds. The English Arctic expeditions, during the long -period of their enforced leisure, found a great source of amusement and -distraction in theatricals. But the ships of these expeditions had far -larger crews than the _Tegetthoff_, and the men could be more easily -spared for these recreations. But there were other reasons why we could -not think of following the example of the English. Our situation during -the first winter was far too serious for such things, and no other place -for the theatre was at our disposal except the barricaded deck; and we -should have had to sit there with a thermometer marking from 25° to 37° -of cold, on the centigrade scale, and see how the actors and the audience -suddenly rubbed their frost-bitten feet with snow! There was one other -potent reason for this renunciation—our performances must have been in -four different languages. - -11. Monotonous beyond all monotony is life in the long night of a Polar -winter, and exile can never on earth be so entire as here under the -dreadful triumvirate—darkness, cold, and solitude. In such a life, the -man who surrenders himself to idleness, or even to sleeping during the -day, must necessarily be utterly demoralized. In fact, nothing can be -more destructive to an expedition wintering in the Arctic regions than -the indulgence of mental or bodily lassitude. The real ground of the -failure of the attempts made in earlier times to winter in Jan Mayen and -other places in the far North was probably the utter want of discipline. -There is, however, a widely spread, though mistaken view, that the long -day of Polar lands is oppressive to man. Nothing is more untrue; for -not continual light, but constant darkness, is distressing. Continual -daylight heightens the energies and vital powers; and yet, in our own -first winter, it was less the darkness which wore us than the perpetual -anxiety; when our greatest consolation was found in the Arabic proverb, -“_In niz beguzared_” (_This too will pass away_), inscribed on our cabin -wall. - -12. After supper, before going to bed, we smoked our cigars in the shed -over the cabin steps, with a thermometer from 25° to 37° below zero C., -and talked pleasantly over bygone days, though our thoughts were not -unmixed with gloomy forebodings, as we heard ever and anon the ominous -sounds that issued from the moving ice. Existence on board a straining -and groaning ship resembles life over a volcano. It was only after we had -been some time in this ice-covered wooden grotto that the temperature -rose, through our own heat, a few degrees, and it was certainly some -testimony to the excellence of my down-quilted clothes that I could wear -them in the cabin without being distressed by the heat, and yet I was -able to sit the whole evening in this freezing hole without suffering -from cold. A train-oil lamp sends out almost more smoke than light, -and when the snow drifted, we had to contend with the importunities of -the dogs, who seemed to regard the deck shed as a great dog-kennel. -With a sudden rise of the outer temperature this shed became utterly -uninhabitable, for its coating of ice then melted and fell down like -rain. - -13. The effect of the long winter night is even greater on the body than -on the mind, because of the insufficient opportunities for exercise. -Middendorf contrasting the influence of climate on men remarks:—“I -consider travels in cold regions, even in the most unfavourable -conditions of climate, to be far less dangerous to life than travels -under the tropics. The former certainly are unutterably more miserable, -but as certainly less deadly. I say this notwithstanding the danger which -threatens ships when they penetrate far within the realms of ice. We -are never secure from sudden and deadly attacks of illness in tropical -countries, but the longer we remain in them the less is the danger; -whereas the high North deteriorates the constitution of the blood, and -after three winters, very few can stand a fourth.” To the influences of -Polar life detrimental to health must be added the constant hindrance to -perspiration from wearing an extra quantity of woollen clothing—more or -less hurtful as it is more or less waterproof—the want of fresh animal -and vegetable food, and last, but not least, the periodic departure of -light and warmth. - -14. Our sanitary condition during the two winters we spent on board the -_Tegetthoff_ was not altogether satisfactory. Scorbutic affections of -the mouth and diseases of the lungs appeared sometimes in distressing -shapes, and scarcely a day passed in which we had not one or two on the -sick-list. I believe, however, that our trying situation had far more to -do with these evils than the southern blood and breeding of our people. -The incessant watchfulness and care of Dr. Kepes left nothing undone -which would counteract the evil influences to which we were exposed. The -berths of the crew were changed in rotation, and those which were exposed -to the greatest accumulation of ice were dried by warm air conveyed -through movable pipes. Want of exercise, constant change of temperature, -depression of mind, the periodic scarcity of fresh meat, were the -causes of the scurvy. In our first winter it appeared only in the more -crowded quarters of the crew. It was then also that the first symptoms -of lung-disease appeared in Krisch, the engineer, which he probably -contracted from “catching cold.” From that time he liked to sit by the -stove and always complained of cold. Our supplies of preservatives -against, and remedies for scurvy were rather limited, although we had -at our disposal several hundred tins of preserved vegetables, a cask of -cloud-berries (_Rubus chamæmorus_), which we had brought from Tromsoe, -and above a hundred bottles of lime-juice. Wine also is an important -preservative; we therefore served out to the crew, notwithstanding our -small supply, twice a week, not Kepes’ artificial, but real wine—at the -rate of two bottles for eighteen men. No doubt scorbutic symptoms would -have been far more general and severe, had we not been fortunate enough -to shoot no less than sixty-seven Polar bears, a larger number than -had fallen to any previous expedition. It was more a sign of our good -intentions to leave nothing undone or untried in our efforts against -this malady, than any actual service it was to us, that we sowed cress -and cabbage—radishes did not succeed—in a bed which we suspended over -the stove. It was interesting, however, to observe how the little plants -of cress, with every change of position, always turned to the light of -the lamp, growing to the height of three inches, and in spite of their -brimstone colour retaining the true cress flavour. - -15. The use of the bath tends greatly to promote health, for without -it the skin of the body has no other stimulant; but the insecurity of -our position rendered bathing sometimes a somewhat doubtful enjoyment. -I remember many cases, when some of us, while bathing in the cold dark -washing place in lukewarm water an inch deep, were alarmed by a sudden -pressure of ice. Ultimately we gave up this practice, finding that it -produced a troublesome amount of damp. - -16. To a stranger, who should have visited us during this winter, nothing -in the ship would have been so surprising and interesting as a visit to -the quarters of the crew. Except for an hour, from five to six o’clock -in the evening, when they were encouraged to take exercise in the open -air, the rest of their time was spent in school, or in the duties of -the watch, or in the work of the ship. Our supply of Slavonic books was -unfortunately not very ample, and besides, not all the crew were able -to read; the greater therefore was their tendency, like men of southern -climes, to harmless noise, and I believe that some of our people, during -the whole expedition, never ceased to speak. Here I beg to insert some -passages from my journal:—“Passing by the steaming kitchen, we enter -their messroom. Here in a narrow space we find the toilers of the sea -and the mountains—eighteen in number. A little band of Dalmatians who -for the first time encounter darkness and cold, the horrors of which are -increased tenfold to men born and bred in the sunny South. Truly it could -be no little thing to such men to be torn from sleep almost every night -by the movement of the ice, to sit day after day in the long night of -winter without any real intellectual occupation, and yet not to become -demoralized, but remain calm and composed, and ever ready to obey and -oblige. Can anything higher be said in their praise? Those men slept, -each by himself, in a double row of berths; only Lusina the boatswain, -and Carlsen the harpooner, who had circumnavigated Spitzbergen and -Novaya Zemlya, occupied a separate partition. The clatter of the tongues -of so many vehement Southerners was like the sound made by the smaller -wheels of a machine, while the naive simplicity of the grave Tyrolese -came in between times, like the steady beat of a great cog-wheel. It was -a miniature reproduction of the confusion of tongues of Babel. Lusina -speaks Italian to the occupants of the officers’ cabin, English with -Carlsen, French with Dr. Kepes, and Slavonic with the crew. Carlsen -had adopted for the ‘Slavonians,’ as he called our people, a kind of -speech compounded of Norwegian, English, German, Italian, and Slavonic. -The crew, with the exception of the two Italians, speak Slavonic among -themselves. The head of the little German colony is the cook, a Styrian; -his heart is better than his culinary skill, for only too readily he -leaves his work to be done by the stove. There is also among them a -Moravian, Pospischill, the Vulcan of the ship; but we must return to the -predominant race—the Slavonic. There is Lukinovich, a very Harpagon, -always collecting, finding treasures in nails, empty bottles, lamp wicks, -and searching even under the snow for articles wherewith to fill his -sack—the sack which he was one day to leave behind him, much against the -grain, when we abandoned the ship. There is Marola, the steward, and -Fallesich, who had worked at the Suez Canal; these are our great singers. -Then Palmich with his lance, the man whose zeal never bated, and whose -very glance transfixed everything; Vecerina, the Job of the party, and -the merry Titans, Sussich and Catarinich; Latkovich and Lettis, ‘the -philosophers;’ Stiglich, the immovable confessor of passive obedience -and the unlawfulness of resistance; Zaninovich, the ‘pearl;’ Haller the -herdsman and Klotz the prophet. Five of these men had run away from their -wives. Klotz the prophet was under all circumstances, not indeed the -most useful, but the most interesting person of this little community. A -lofty calm worthy of an Evangelist graced his outer man; of still greater -stature than Andreas Höfer, he wore, like him, a large black beard. As -a hunter, a guide, a collector of stones, and a lonely enthusiast, he -had moved about the mountains of his home, leading a life of visions. At -home he was regarded as an incomparably bold mountaineer, and the ropes -of the ship were to him so many convenient foot-paths. His reputation as -a physician in his native land was great, and on board ship he failed -not with his good offices. Haller, his fellow-countryman, shared with -Klotz the office of armourer, and the duties of hunter and driver of the -sledge-dogs; and when we began our sledge journeys, both of them were -ready to relieve others in dragging. Both had served in the army, Klotz -on the Tonale, Haller on the Stelvio, and in 1868 the latter had been -my useful companion when I was engaged in the survey of the Ortler and -Adamello Alps. ‘The philosophers’ of our party, Latkovich and Lettis, had -drawn a fine distinction between the different layers of ice, according -as they contained a greater or less amount of saline matter: _Ghiaccio -della prima_ and _Ghiaccio della seconda qualità_.” - -17. To obviate as far as possible the evils of too much leisure among -the men, a school was instituted at the beginning of the January of -the second year; Lieutenant Weyprecht, Brosch, and Orel undertook the -Italians and Slavonians, and I the Tyrolese. To avoid all confusion I -retired with my smaller body of pupils to the shed on deck. Here, with -the thermometer at 25° to 37° below zero C., the seed of wisdom was sown -in the hearts of these sons of nature; but alas! the climate was not -favourable to its growth. After many painful disillusions, the Pole was -ascertained to be the intersection of lines in a point, of which nothing -was to be seen in reality. If in this little lecture-room an exercise had -to be examined, and the scholars were obliged to hold in their breath, -in order that the teacher, who spoke out of a cloud, might be able to -see the slate; or when the pupils engaged in a division sum had suddenly -to stop to rub their hands with snow, was it a matter of wonder if the -school did not flourish exceedingly? - -18. The food of the crew consisted principally of preserved meats, -different kinds of pulse, and the products of the chase, amounting on -an average to two bears a week. Bear-flesh, roasted, was liked by all; -the seal was at first despised, till necessity corrected taste. Besides -artificial wine, water was their strongest drink. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -ICE-PRESSURES. - - -1. When compared with the tortures we endured from the thought that -we were captives in the ice, little to us seemed the dangers which -threatened our existence, though these assumed the appalling form of -ice-pressures. Daily almost the ship had to sustain the attacks of our -old enemy, and when the ice seemed to repose, threatening indications -were not wanting to warn us how short that repose might be. My journal -records a long series of commotions in the ice on almost every day -of January 1873, and even during the pauses the timbers of the ship -continually shook and trembled and creaked. The pressures accompanied by -a low grumbling noise were very great on the 3rd, and lasted till the -oldest ice was shattered, during which our hatchways were displaced. On -the 4th the pressures continued without intermission during the whole -day. But on the 22nd they exceeded all we had hitherto experienced. When -we awoke in the morning, the crashing of the masses of ice was dreadful. -In the messroom we heard a deep, grumbling, rumbling noise—the ship -trembled like a steam-vessel under very high pressure. When we hastened -on deck we were greeted by the long howls which issued from the ice, and -we were soon convinced of the exceedingly formidable character of this -special onset! Ten paces astern of the ship, the ice had been heaved -up in a moment into mountains. With the greatest difficulty, amid the -profound darkness that prevailed, the boats were got on board, and many -stores re-shipped, though some of our coals had to be sacrificed. A tent -formed of sails was engulfed, and our water-hole utterly displaced -by the pressures; it was only after many attempts that we succeeded -in finding a thinner ice-table, which we pierced till we found water. -January 26, again tremendous pressures roused us from sleep. In half an -hour every preparation was made to leave the ship, and I believe that -many of us, while waiting the issue amid the fearful din heard from the -deck, longed that the ship might be crushed, in order to escape from the -torture of continually preparing to depart. - -[Illustration: ICE-PRESSURE IN THE POLAR NIGHT.] - -2. I will not, however, fatigue the reader with the monotonous rehearsal -of our ever-recurring daily dangers, but will here insert a few passages -from my journal of that date, which will suffice to explain our position:— - -“Scarcely asleep after the exhaustion and cares of the day, the timbers -of the ship begin to moan and groan close by our ear, and we awake and -lie listening to the onset of the ice. We hear the step of the watch -on deck crackling on the ice as he paces to and fro; as long as it -is measured and steady we know there is nothing to be feared. Again -that uncanny creaking in the timbers, and the watch comes to announce -to those below that the terrible movement in the ice has begun, and -once more we all spring from our beds, put on our fur clothes, seize -our ready-filled bags, and amid the darkness stand ready on deck, and -listen to the war between the ice and the elements. In autumn, when the -ice-fields were not nearly so large as in the winter, their collision was -accompanied by a deep dull sound; but now, rendered hard and brittle by -the extreme cold, a sound as of a howl of rage[19] was emitted as they -crashed together. Ever nearer come the rushing, rattling sounds, as if -a thousand heavy waggons were driving over a plain. Close under us the -ice begins to tremble, to moan and wail in every key;—as the fury of the -conflict increases, the grumbling becomes deeper and deeper, concentric -fissures open themselves round the ship, and the shattered portions -of the floes are rolled up into heaps. The intermitting howls become -fearfully rapid, announcing the acme of the conflict, and anxiously we -listen to the sound which we know too well. Then follows a crash and -crack, and many dark lines wander over the ice: these are for a moment -narrow fissures, the next moment they yawn asunder like abysses. Often -with such a crash the force of the pressure seems broken; the piles of -ice collapse, like the undermined walls of a fortress, and calm is again -restored. But to-day this was but the commencement, and with renewed -violence a second assault of the ice begins,—then a third, yea a fourth. -Tables of ice broken off from the floes around us rise perpendicularly -from the sea; some are bent under the enormous pressure, and their curved -shapes attest the elasticity of ice. Like a giant in the conflict, a -veteran floe, many winters old, crushes in its rotations its feeble -neighbours, and in turn succumbs to the mighty iceberg—the leviathan of -all ice-forms, which forces its way through a phalanx of opposing masses, -crushing them to pieces as it advances. And in this wild and fearful -tumult a ship—squeezed, pressed, all but crushed, by the ice; her crew -on deck, ready to leave her at a moment’s notice. Boats and sledges, -tents, provisions, arms and ammunition, everything prepared, if the ship -should at last be destroyed—but for what?—for an escape? No one really -thought this possible, though all were ready for the attempt. But again -the conflict ceases, and once more we breathe freely, and can contemplate -the wonderful change that has come on everything round us. A few minutes -have sufficed to create a maze of mountain chains from a plain of ice. -The flat surfaces covered with snow, which we saw yesterday, are gone. -Ice ruins are visible on every side. Abysses gape between the shattered -masses, and show the dark sea beneath. Gradually a calm has crept -over all; equilibrium is reinstated in the desolate realm of ice; new -‘leads’ and ‘ice-holes’ have been opened up, but for the _Tegetthoff_ no -liberation.” - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE WANE OF THE LONG POLAR NIGHT. - - -1. Although the sun was mounting higher, there was no essential change -in the gloom and darkness which surrounded us. In fact we were drifting -during the whole of January towards the north, and were wintering nearer -the Pole than any who had ever preceded us.[20] On gloomy days, noon was -not distinguishable. We were now four hundred miles within the Frozen -Ocean, and had been for five months the sport and play of winds and -currents, and nothing indicated any change in our situation. Yet, in -spite of our desperate position, the first, ever so faint, indications of -the return of light filled us with joy. With a clear atmosphere, January -10, we observed for the first time at noon a decided brightness, and on -the 19th a brilliant carmine was seen in the sky, an hour before noon -on the southern horizon. After a long obscuration from cloudy weather, -the morning twilight increased gradually, and by the end of the month it -was discernible in the forenoon. As the light increased, the signs of -the convulsions were more distinctly seen. Round us there rose piles of -craggy ice, which, hurled up, as from a crater, by the ice-pressure of -the 22nd, kept us in a state of constant fear, lest the ice-walls would -break up and fall in upon us. At a little distance off, nothing was to -be seen of the ship but the tops of its masts: the rest of it was hidden -behind a lofty wall of ice. The ship itself, raised seven feet above the -level of the sea, rested on a protuberance of ice, and, removed from its -natural element, looked a truly miserable object. This ice protuberance -had been formed from a floe which had been often rent asunder and frozen -again, and had been rounded in a singular manner from the under-driving -of the ice and the lateral pressure in its recent movements. In other -respects, also, our environment had been completely changed. Before the -movement in the ice on the 22nd, a narrow strip of level ice wound like -a river through a maze of hummocks, and throughout the winter this had -been diligently used for exercising the dogs. Of this nothing was now to -be seen: walls of ice rose, where a fortnight before our coal-house had -stood: fissures gaped on every side. In every respect the weather during -this month was capricious and unaccountable. In the first two weeks, the -temperature fell several times below -35° F., and on January 8, 13 and -14, quicksilver, exposed to the cold, froze to a solid mass; gin also -froze, and alcohol only maintained its fluid state. Yet, notwithstanding -this low temperature, the snow was always soft; and it continued to be -so, amid all the variations of temperature and the high winds of this -month. January 22 and 23, the temperature rose for a short time to -26° F.; everything in the ship then began to thaw, and a disagreeable -moisture penetrated both our clothes and our quarters. The mean -temperature of this month, in consequence of these abnormal variations, -did not exceed -8° F., and was therefore about ten degrees higher than -might have been expected. - -2. The bears had in these last weeks kept at a regrettable distance from -us. On the 12th, however, a very large fellow ventured to come within -ten paces of the rope-ladder on the starboard side. We fired at him with -explosive balls and he fell; but his strength was so great, that even -after these terrible wounds he was able to get up and run. Explosive -bullets, however, are to be recommended for encounters with bears, though -their flight is rather uncertain. A bear-hunt, on the 29th and 30th, had -a somewhat tragical result. About ten o’clock at night, when it was quite -dark, a bear approached the ship, and with the agility of a tiger fell -on Sumbu, who got away very cleverly, and by his loud barking summoned -Krisch, who was then on watch, to his aid. When he was not more than -ten feet from the deck Krisch fired at him and wounded him. The noise -brought some of us at once, and though it was exceedingly dark and the -snow very deep, a useless chase, in which I joined, forthwith began. The -pursuit through the midst of driving snow became weaker; until at last I -found myself alone with Palmich. We could see nothing; and heard only an -occasional howl of pain. We hastened our steps through the whirling snow, -till we saw, by the dim light of our lantern, Matoschkin lying howling -on the ground, and the bear a few steps from him, vigorously assailed -by Sumbu, who seized him by the foot whenever he began to retreat. As -Matoschkin incautiously approached too near, the bear turned, seized -him, and carried him off. To fire with effect was impossible; we were -too far off to take aim with our rifles. The bear continued to drag -the dog along, and at last a puff of wind put out our lantern, and we -soon discovered our inability to keep up with our enemy. Bitterly as we -lamented the fate of the poor dog, whose howls were brought to our ears -by the wind, we had nothing for it but to return to the ship. About noon -next day when it was sufficiently clear, Brosch, the two Tyrolese, and I -set out to ascertain the fate of the dog. The snow was drifting heavily, -and we constantly sank into it as we advanced. After a toilsome walk we -came on traces of blood, which Sumbu followed up, while Gillis timidly -stuck to us. At last, after we had gone on for the third of a mile, -Sumbu came back in a great state of excitement, and then ran on before -us till he stopped at an ice-hummock, where he renewed his angry barks. -We advanced with quickened steps and with our rifles cocked, and when we -were about twenty paces from it the bear came out from behind, apparently -in great astonishment. After several shots the bear fell, but again -gathering himself up he dragged himself along like a walrus, in spite -of his broken spine, with extraordinary activity towards an “ice-hole” -covered with young ice. Two other shots with explosive bullets terminated -his career, and Matoschkin, whose body we afterwards found behind the -ice-hillock, was avenged. - -[Illustration: FRUITLESS ATTEMPT TO RESCUE MATOSCHKIN.] - -3. The cold set in with great intensity with the month of February and -maintained itself throughout it: the mean monthly temperature being --31° F. Repeatedly the quicksilver froze, and in the last eight days -it remained solid. Even the petroleum was frozen on the 17th at -49° -F. in the globe of the lamp, though it was throwing out a considerable -heat. The lowest temperature we experienced was on the last day of the -month, -51° F. Notwithstanding the extreme cold, the light had increased -so much that a thermometer, in which the degrees were strongly marked, -could be read off, even on the 3rd of the month, at ten o’clock in the -forenoon without the aid of lamplight; and on the 20th we were able to -carry on our meteorological observations, without any artificial light -at six o’clock in the evening. The ruddiness we observed at noon in the -south grew more and more decided. On clear days we could discern, about -seven o’clock in the morning, a faint twilight, and at noon of February -14 the near approach of the sun was distinctly to be traced by a bright -cloud that was resting over it, though it was still below the horizon. -About the middle of the month there was light enough to cause the -different forms and groups of ice to cast shadows. In spite of the low -temperature, we remained for hours in the open air, though previously to -this period we had ventured on deck for a few minutes only at a time—the -watch of course excepted. But as the daylight increased, we saw also what -a dark, gloomy grave had been our abode for so long a period. All our -thoughts and conversations were concentrated on the returning light of -the sun. The movements of the ice ceased to be a source of dread, though -for several days during the month they had been exceedingly formidable. -In the course of our drifting we had penetrated into a region where never -ship had been before. The following table exhibits the course of the -_Tegetthoff_, as she drifted from August 21, 1872, to February 27, 1873:— - - +--------------------+-------+-------+ - | Time. | N. | E. | - | | Lat. | Lon. | - +--------------------+-------+-------+ - | | | | - | Aug. 21 1872, day | | | - | when the ship was | ° ′ | ° ′ | - | beset | 76·22 | 62·3 | - | Sept. 1 1872 | 76·25 | 62·50 | - | ” 4 ” | 76·23 | 62·49 | - | ” 11 ” | 76·35 | 60·18 | - | ” 14 ” | 76·37 | 60·50 | - | ” 21 ” | 76·28 | 63·9 | - | ” 26 ” | 76·36 | 64·8 | - | ” 27 ” | 76·38 | 64·4 | - | ” 28 ” | 76·37 | 64·10 | - | Oct. 1 ” | 76·50 | 65·22 | - | ” 2 ” | 76·59 | 65·48 | - | ” 3 ” | 77·4 | 66·1 | - | ” 17 ” | 77·50 | 69·22 | - | ” 18 ” | 77·48 | 69·8 | - | ” 22 ” | 77·46 | 69·26 | - | ” 31 ” | 77·53 | 69·12 | - | Nov. 5 ” | 77·53 | 69·30 | - | ” 9 ” | 78·15 | 69·42 | - | ” 14 ” | 78·8 | 71·16 | - | ” 18 ” | 78·10 | 70·31 | - | ” 28 ” | 78·13 | 69·48 | - | Dec. 4 ” | 78·19 | 69·1 | - | ” 8 ” | 78·21 | 69·2 | - | ” 12 ” | 78·25 | 68·57 | - | ” 16 ” | 78·22 | 67·42 | - | ” 19 ” | 78·13 | 67·11 | - | ” 26 ” | 78·10 | 68·19 | - | Jan. 2 1873 | 78·37 | 66·56 | - | ” 19 ” | 78·43 | 69·32 | - | ” 26 ” | 78·50 | 71·47 | - | Feb. 2 ” | 78·45 | 73·7 | - | ” 14 ” | 78·12 | 72·20 | - | ” 19 ” | 78·15 | 71·38 | - | ” 23 ” | 79·11 | | - | ” 27 ” | 79·12 | | - +--------------------+-------+-------+ - -4. The inspection of this table shows that the movement of the ship was -retarded as the increasing cold closed the open places of the sea, and -when we fell under the influence of the Siberian ice-drift from east to -west. It may be remarked, too, that we drifted generally straight before -the wind, and that we and our floe during the first four months turned -only one degree in azimuth. By the end of January all the open places of -the sea were closed; and the masses of ice were thus driven one over the -other from their mutual pressure, and pile thus rose upon pile. It seems -probable, also, that wind was the main cause of our drifting, while sea -currents were only of secondary moment. From the beginning of the month -of February we drifted constantly toward the north-west, and from this -deviation in our course we indulged in the hope that we were approaching -the mysterious Gillis’ Land. But at this time the liberation of the ship -in the summer was the sum of our expectations and desires. In fact, there -was not one of us who doubted this eventuality. Fully convinced, as we -were, that our floes, firmly attached to each other, would ultimately -break up and drift southwards, we determined to make them the bearers of -the record of what had befallen us. Hence we threw out, February 14th, -round the ship a number of bottles, inclosing a narrative of the main -events of the expedition from the departure of Count Wilczek up to that -date. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE RETURN OF LIGHT.—THE SPRING OF 1873. - - -1. Though the sun did not return to our latitude (78° 15′, 71° 38′ E. -long.) till the 19th of February, we were able to greet his beams three -days previous to that date, owing to the strong refraction of 1° 40′, -which accompanied a temperature of -35 (F.). To the Polar navigator the -return of the sun is an event of indescribable joy and magnificence. In -those dreadful wastes he feels the force of the superstitions of past -ages, and becomes almost a worshipper of the eternal luminary. As of old -the worshippers of Belus watched its approach on the luxuriant shores of -the Euphrates, we, too, standing on mountains of ice or perched on the -masts of the ship, waited to hail the advent of the source of light. At -last it came! A wave of light rolled through the vast expanse of heaven, -and then—up rose the sun-god, surrounded with purple clouds, and poured -his beams over the world of ice. No one spoke for a time. Who indeed -could have found words to embody the feelings of relief which beamed on -the faces of all, and which found a kind of expression in the scarcely -audible exclamation of one of the simplest and least cultured of the -crew, “Benedetto giorno!” The sun had risen with but half his disk, as if -reluctant to shine on a world unworthy of his beams. A rosy hue suffused -the whole scene, and the cold Memnon pillars of ice gave forth mysterious -whispers in the flood of heat and light. Now indeed with the sun had a -new year begun—what was it to bring forth for us and our prospects? But -alas, his stay was short—he remained above the horizon for a few minutes -only; again his light was quenched, and a hazy violet colour lay over -distant objects, and the twinkling stars shone in the heavens. - -[Illustration: SUN-RISE (1873).] - -2. While we watched the sun’s return, we had also an opportunity of -looking on each other. How shocked and surprised were we with the change -which had been wrought on us in the long Polar night! Our sunken cheeks -were overspread with pallor; we had all the signs of convalescence after -a long illness—the sharp-pointed nose, the sunken eye. The eyes of all -had suffered from the light of lamps which had burnt for months; those -especially who had used them for hard work. But all these consequences -were of short duration under the beneficent influence of the daylight and -the spring sun, which soon brought colour into our faces. Cheerfulness -gradually returned to all on board the _Tegetthoff_, as we revelled in -the warm beams of the sun. We built a house without a roof, and open to -the south, and thither the healthy and the sick on calm fine days used to -repair from the dreary ship, and sun themselves like lizards. But within -the ship it was still night. - -3. The visits of bears again became numerous. February 17th one of about -five feet long was shot very close to the ship, and two days afterwards -a second came near us, but was scared away by the awkwardness of the -hunters. The dogs however pursued him, and we were compelled from fears -for their safety to follow up the chase. The temperature of -33° F., -and a pretty strong wind against which we had to run in the pursuit, -brought on in some of our party palpitation of the heart and spitting of -blood, and our return to the ship was a matter of some difficulty. On -the morning of the 20th another bear came close to the ship, was fired -at, but missed, and got away. Palmich, Haller, and Klotz immediately -gave chase, though the temperature was -40° F., and the wind high. -After a short time Palmich returned with his face frost-bitten, and the -Tyrolese after several hours, without any success, but with their feet -so frost-bitten that they had lost all feeling in them. The second stage -of the malady had begun, which renders amputation almost a necessity. -For several hours their feet had to be rubbed with snow till sensation -returned, and with returning sensation much suffering; large swellings -as big as a man’s fist rose on their feet, which were reduced only after -the application of ice for several days. Again, in the grey of the -morning of February 22nd a bear came within eighty paces of the ship, -which Sussich, the watch on deck, after several shots, which the animal -seemed not in the least to regard, at last hit and killed. By a wound on -his right forepaw we recognised our friend whom we had hotly chased a -few days before. He was six feet in length, and in his stomach there was -nothing but a small piece of the skin of a seal. Sussich was overjoyed -with his success, and for the whole day tried to drag everyone outside -the ship to show the result of his prowess, “Se mi non era, il copava -tutti,” he added, with a look of contempt on those who had not been so -successful as himself. - -[Illustration: THE CARNIVAL ON THE ICE.] - -4. Although at the end of February the sun rose with a carmine light -which imparted an indescribable charm to the fields of snow and ice, we -were doomed to disappointment in our expectation of bright and clear -weather in the after-part of the day. Soon after sun-rise, white frosty -mists gathered over the ice-fields, making the sun as he shone through -them a mere ball of light, or completely concealing him. On February -24th we enjoyed the peculiar spectacle of seeing the sun appear, the -temperature being -44° F., distorted by refraction, through the thick -mists on the horizon, as if he were quite flat, beamless, and of a -coppery red. The end of February reminded us of the carnival time of the -land of the South, and the crew appeared in such masques as they could -command; but their masquerading formed a sad and mocking contrast with -the gravity of our position. The men bestowed all their art on “Sumbu,” -who was dressed up as the demon “Lindwurm,” and deported himself in a -manner highly becoming his costume. - -5. With the month of March the spring had, in name at least, begun; but -in our sense of the word no spring as yet appeared. Instead of the joyous -gleams of early vegetation, a blinding white waste environed us; instead -of the perfumed breath of flowers and the soft air of spring, there rose -driving clouds of ice-needles; and parhelia of almost daily occurrence -shone in a heavy sleepy fashion through white frosty mists. The -atmosphere was filled with snow; to be convinced of this we had only to -look at the sun when the weather seemed clear and bright. This continual -fall of snow as fine as dust was the cause of the retardation of the -evaporation of the ice. The influence of the sun was so great, that on -March 3 the black-bulb thermometer indicated the unusual temperature of -45° F., and a layer of snow on the bows of the vessel showed evident -signs of diminution. The thermometer, in the sun, rose eight degrees -March 6, and nine degrees two days after. The weather was calm and clear, -and the increasing influence of the sun was a most joyful sensation. A -cube of ice freely suspended showed during the second half of March a -daily diminution of 1/100 of its weight from evaporation; while in the -sea itself its behaviour was the very opposite; the cube of ice, which -was submerged to a depth of ten feet from February 19th to March 5th, -showed at the latter date an increase of its mass, amounting to ¾ of an -inch round its surface. In the beginning and end of March the cold was -so severe, that the thermometer every day for three weeks marked -35° -F. Calms and clear weather, however, characterized this period of the -spring, and snow-drifting and a clouded sky were rare. On the 13th of -March the full moon again appeared in the azure twilight of the western -heavens, and its soft light fringed with silver the dark ranges of ice. -The days became longer, and the shadows cast by the masses of ice were -shorter and more marked, and every one who remained long in the open air -was forced to use snow-spectacles. Small avalanches began to fall from -the rigging, and the masts, spars, and ropes lost their white frosted -aspect. On the 22nd the fore-part of the ship’s hull facing the south was -completely free from snow and its dark colour was visible. On the 29th -the temperature in the sun exceeded the temperature at 9.30 A.M. by 34° -F.; and on the 30th we could for the first time observe the melting of -the snow on the seams of the timber of the ship’s hull. The enumeration -of these events, insignificant as they may appear, will serve to show -with what attention the Polar navigator notes the minutest occurrence due -to the influence of the sun. - -6. Welcome, though illusive, harbingers of the returning summer were the -first birds, whose arrival we greeted on the 19th. These were little -divers, which flew over the ship to the open spaces of water amid the -ice, there to seek their food in the countless crustaceæ which abound -in them. Magnificent auroras continued to illuminate our nights; and -although the duration of their intensity was much too brief to serve as a -source of light, there was a charm in these phenomena which their daily -recurrence could not weaken. - -7. While under these various influences the health of all on board the -_Tegetthoff_ greatly improved, we were threatened with the serious -calamity of losing our excellent physician, Dr. Kepes, who fell ill on -the 13th of the month. For two weeks we were kept in a state of anxious -fear for him; and our anxieties were increased as we had to treat his -malady without the necessary knowledge and experience. To our great joy, -however, he was spared to us; and our supply of fresh bear’s-flesh was -henceforth reserved for him. - -8. For some time the bears had observed a very distressing reserve and -shyness in their visits, On the 15th one came near us, and as Pekel had -for some time announced his approach, he found a long front of rifles -drawn up behind some masses of ice to give him a warm reception. He, as -usual, came on under the wind, showing considerable interest in our -edifices. He then ascended a small ice-crag, and, after balancing himself -carefully, sat down on the top of it, with his snout uplifted, snuffing -all round. This seemed so ludicrous to some of our party that they burst -out into a laugh so loud, that the bear came down from his pinnacle in -evident astonishment, and with much circumspection drew nearer and nearer -till at a short distance from us he fell mortally wounded. He was, alas! -a very small animal, about 5½ feet long, and his stomach was absolutely -empty. On the 30th of March another came close to the ship; the watch on -shore fired at, but missed him, whereupon both the watch and the bear -took to flight. - -[Illustration: THE “TEGETTHOFF” DRIFTING IN PACK-ICE.—MARCH 1873.] - -9. April at last arrived, and with it the time of icicles, which hung -down from every yard of the ship, and from every rope of the rigging, -from every icy ridge and crag. The melting and decaying of the ice, -though always a source of satisfaction when the question of its breaking -up is discussed, went on, to our impatient desires, with intolerable -slowness. What was it to us that we were able to read even at midnight -on the 2nd of April; that the number of divers and sea-gulls constantly -increased; that on the 6th the difference of temperature between sun and -shade was 18°; that the black-bulb thermometer on the 20th showed 43° F.; -that the sun on the 11th rose about two o’clock in the morning, and from -the 16th remained constantly in the heavens? What did all this matter? -The constant light notwithstanding, we were still environed with the -signs of deepest winter, and the forms and masses of ice collapsed with -a slow deliberation that tortured us. We were no longer to be satisfied -and amused with the spectacle of parhelia, even though the phenomenon -should appear, as it did on the 1st of April, with eight suns. Months -of weary waiting still lay before us; daily we had to arm ourselves -with patience, as, when we came on deck, we discovered the apparently -unchangeable character of our environment, with all its forms, which had -become familiar to us down to the smallest details. Reluctantly condemned -to almost total idleness, we filled up our time with such occupations -as fancy suggested. Some of our people built a tower of ice on a level -part of our floe; others tried their rifles—tried often enough before—at -empty bottles as targets. Along with the Tyrolese I constructed a road -through hills of ice, over passes and ridges, going up and down in -serpentine paths, making a circuit of about three miles round the ship. -The labour of weeks with picks and shovels was expended in making and -preserving it; after each downfall of snow this road had to be dug out -afresh. Our passing and repassing along it through a maze of ice not -only beneficially exercised our bodies, but furnished opportunities for -training our dogs to drag heavy-laden sledges. I continued also to fill -my portfolio with studies of scenery in the ice, and I accustomed myself, -whenever there was no wind, whatever might be the temperature, to draw -for hours together with no other protection to my hands than light gloves. - -10. April had begun with a temperature of -38° F.; as the month advanced -it steadily increased. At the end of the month the extreme of cold was -but -20° F. But the weather had now lost the clearness of the early -spring; and constant calms, together with the frequent falls of snow, -undid the work of the few hours of the day on which the sun shone. -The ice was covered with deep snow; on the level we sank ankle deep, -while among the hummocks it was up to our knees. Sledging would have -been impracticable. Among the changes produced by the softening of the -weather, none was greater or more agreeable than the return of daylight -to the cabin, when we took off the covering of the skylight and removed -the tent-roof from the fore-part of the ship. Once more to be able to -read without the dull glimmer of artificial light was an extraordinary -event in our monotonous life. For five months our lamps had been burning -in our mess-room, so that the walls were black with smoke, and it was a -work of no small labour to make them clean and pleasant. The unloading of -the ship’s hold was, however, a far heavier, though necessary task; the -thick crusts of ice which had accumulated on its sides must be removed, -lest the provisions should be damaged by their thawing; and there was no -time to lose, for the temperature in the hold was only 1° below zero. The -provisions, which had been left out on the ice, were again stowed in the -ship, the cessation of the ice-pressures rendering this precautionary -measure useless. - -11. Round a ship which has wintered in the ice there is gradually -accumulated a mass of rubbish of all kinds, of which cinders form a -considerable constituent. These, when thrown out in small quantities, -sink at once into the snow, while larger quantities act as a -non-conducting layer. Hence we were surrounded by a maze of holes, big -and little, alternating with plateaus, under which winter still continued -to linger. When thaw-water made its appearance, all this was transformed -into a succession of lakes and islands, which we bridged over by planks. - -12. Meantime we began our labours of digging out the ship. We removed -the wall of snow, which had served as an outer garment and protection -during the winter, and the hard-trodden layer which covered the deck -a foot thick. In clearing away from the after-part of the ship, we -discovered that the machinery protecting the screw had been torn away by -the ice-pressures. The mischief done, however, was not considerable; and -as the ship made no water, we consoled ourselves with the thought, that -she had sustained no material injury, though she had lain so long out of -water perched on the floe. - -13. The continued cessation of movements in the ice induced Weyprecht -to erect a tent at no great distance from the ship, to carry on in it -observations of the magnetic constants, which were taken on certain -appointed days. On the night of one of such days, Orel, who conducted -these observations, was surprised by the visit of a bear. His shouts -for help brought us on deck, but before we could actually reach him, -the seaman on the watch had killed the bear with an explosive bullet. -Hitherto these animals had shown little courage in the neighbourhood of -the ship, and to shoot them from the deck exposed no one to any danger; -but this incident showed us that we could not count securely on their -actions. Soon after this we had another surprise. Stiglich, the seaman -on watch on shore, suddenly found himself confronted with a bear about -eight paces off. Throwing his cap to the bear, he made a rush for the -rope-ladders of the ship, but fell in his hurry and confusion. Carlsen, -hearing his cries for help, hastened to the rescue, and dexterously shot -the pursuer. A glorious event for Carlsen! who used to tell us strange -stories of his encounters with bears: how he had scared them away with -the glance of his eye; and how once in Novaya Zemlya he had frightened -away a whole pack of them by the magic of his glance. All doubts in -the prowess of his eye were silenced to-day by the more unquestionable -prowess of his rifle. On the 28th of May a bear clambering over the wall -of ice close astern of the ship was shot dead with an explosive bullet. -His stomach was empty, but notwithstanding his leanness, he furnished -more meat than many others, for he was fully seven feet long. - -14. At the end of April the force of the winds so loosened the -compactness of the ice, that dark strips hanging above the horizon in -all directions announced the existence of numerous fissures, although -they were invisible even from the masts of the ship. We counted on these -signs with such unshaken confidence, that when on the 2nd of May we heard -in the distance the now familiar sound of the ice-pressures, we heard -them not only without dismay, but as the voice of a joyous message. -Three-quarters of a year had passed away since we were first caught in -the ice—a time laden to us with bitter disappointments to our hopes, and -great dangers to our lives. The hour of our long and ardently desired -liberation seemed at hand. If once we got free, it lay within the bounds -of possibility that we might reach, if not the somewhat mythical Gillis’ -Land, then at least the uninhabited Arctic coasts of Siberia. Siberia -had, in fact, become the rosiest of our hopes. Some, indeed, still -indulged in extravagant expectations and counted on the discovery of new -lands, even while they drifted with the ice. But our wishes for the most -part had become so subdued, that the discovery of the smallest cliff -would have satisfied our ambition as discoverers. - -15. But Nature’s laws held their own course, undisturbed by our desires. -Snow continued to fall in abundance, and spread its mantle over the ice. -The constant round of downfalls and evaporation was a sad bar to our -hopes. In the beginning of May the snow began to thaw on the surface, -and became soft and sticky. Even in the depth of winter it was never -hard, but like the fine dry grains of driving sand. This change in the -snow, which occurs a fortnight earlier than in Greenland, compelled us to -substitute our black leather boots for those of sailcloth, which we had -hitherto worn. On the 2nd of May the temperature fell to -8° F., but it -now began to rise gradually, so that it sometimes reached the freezing -point about the end of the month, and on the 29th rose five degrees above -it. The mean temperature of the month, however, was not above 16° F. But -the difference of temperature in the sun and the shade became greater and -greater. The thermometer marked -18° F. at 6 P.M. of the 1st of May, and -on the 11th the black-bulb thermometer showed 90° F. at 3 P.M., while -the common instrument gave only 14° F. In the middle of the month, after -the heavy winds fell, we were enveloped with dark fog banks; stray beams -of the sun broke through the warm misty atmosphere, and dark skies were -succeeded by masses of white vapour illuminated by the sun. Just as in -our happier clime, the Arctic April has her alternations of cloud and -sunshine. - -16. Hitherto the only birds which had visited us were divers and gulls. -Once only a snow-bunting flew among us, and fearlessly settled on the -ship. On the 24th of May the auks made their appearance, and from that -date we were constantly entertained by the whirring sounds of their -flight. As they keep one direction in their flight, we could shoot those -only which passed over the ship; they were a useful addition to our -table, though they had to be steeped in vinegar to make them palatable. -The majestic Burgomaster Gull appeared somewhat later, and later still -the “Ice-birds” frequented the shores of the lakes around us, and hovered -round the remains of the bears we had shot. These birds settled with the -greatest boldness in the immediate neighbourhood of the ship, and day and -night filled the air with their wild shrill cries. - -17. By the middle of March, Krisch, the engineer, had put the steam -machinery in working order, but another month elapsed before the -screw-propeller, which had been frozen fast, was set free; our fears lest -it should refuse to act proved to be groundless. As, however, there was -no prospect of our being able to use steam for some time, it was thought -advisable to dig out and raise the rudder in order to secure it. - -18. On the 26th of May a partial eclipse of the sun was visible in our -latitude; but from an error in our calculations we had ante-dated the -commencement of the observation by about two hours and a half. Everyone -on board who had an instrument at his command stood ready to observe the -passage of the moon over the sun’s disk. After waiting for some time in -vain, we discovered the error we had committed as to the time of the -beginning of the eclipse, but in order that the dignity of astronomical -observation might not be degraded in the eye of the crew, we still held -our ground with the telescopes in our hands. Two hours of such suspense -enabled us to feel that there could be no more perfect fulfilment of -the punishment of Sisyphus than being condemned to wait for an eclipse -of the sun which would not come off! At last the eclipse took place, -but not until great disgust had been excited in the minds of men who -were too much inclined to regard the whole thing as a piece of humbug. -At the height of the eclipse about one-third only of the sun’s disk was -obscured, and the sun was so covered with mist that we could look at it -without the use of coloured glasses. The whole duration of the eclipse -was one hour and fifty-six minutes. - -19. From the 1st of the month the number of living creatures belonging -to the expedition had been increased by the birth of four Newfoundland -puppies, who passed the earliest days of their youth in a tent erected -on the ice, and artificially heated to the temperature of a European -May. But all our care in rearing this litter was frustrated by one of -these little Polar wretches, who, after sucking his mother till he was -as round as a drum, lay on his brothers as they slept, and stifled them. -This little criminal received the name of Torossy, and soon became the -pet of the crew, and a favourite with all the other dogs. The fame which -he afterwards gained made him an important member of the expedition. All -the dogs had become so hardy during the past winter, that they now slept -outside their kennels, finding the inside too warm for them. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE SUMMER OF 1873. - - -1. The time crept away with indescribable monotony. The crew performed -their heavy labours, but of events there were none. The only change in -our position was the constant decay of the buttresses and walls of ice, -until the frozen sea lay like a snowy chaos before us. Pure sharp-edged -ice was nowhere to be seen; the edges were no longer transparent; -evaporation had transformed the surface into a kind of glacier-snow. -June 1, we had the greatest degree of cold of the month, the thermometer -marking 13° F.; but on the last day it rose to 32·2° F.; the mean -temperature being 31·1° F. Every week brought us promises of summer. On -the 1st the black-bulb thermometer reached 98° F.; on the 14th rain fell -for the first time; on the 16th the temperature at 9 o’clock A.M., was -41·5° F., on the 26th 46·4° F., and on the 29th even 50·2° F. On these -days the air seemed to have the pleasant mildness of southern climes, and -when there was no wind we felt an oppressive sultriness. Wreaths of mist -moved along the icy wastes which glowed with sunlight, while the long -dark lines of ice-wall lay in deep shadow. The air was filled with flocks -of birds; day and night we heard the shrill cries of the Robber-gulls, -ever and anon mingled with the barking of the dogs in full pursuit of -them. Flocks of rotges congregated without fear in the narrow basins of -distant “leads;” and the “great gulls,” shunning companionship, sat for -hours on the top of an ice-cliff, or in the middle of a floe. - -2. No one who has not actually seen it, can imagine the blaze of light -in the Arctic regions on clear days, or the glow which floats sometimes -over the cold white ice-floes, with their outlines in constant vibration, -while refraction transforms the icebergs into a variety of shapes. The -sun’s power is sometimes so great as to blister the skin in a few hours, -and the glare from snow and ice produces snow-blindness, if the eyes be -not carefully protected. At a little distance the sea appears to be of a -deep black colour, though it still preserves its ultramarine hues in the -narrow “leads;” even the pure blue of the heavens may be called almost -black when compared with the dazzling sheen of the ice. In the middle -of June there was an incessant dripping and oozing in the ice-world, -and streams of thaw-water flowed into the open fissures. By the end of -the month the surface of the ice resembled snow; and even at some depth -it was viscous, instead of brittle and hard as glass, as it is during -the colder season. Streams of thaw-water ran through the softened and -saturated snow. Small lakes were formed on the levels, and swamps of -snow, wearing a traitorous exterior, surrounded their borders. In the -summer of 1873 we observed a vertical decrease of five or six feet in -the thickness of the ice; but this diminution in thickness was from -the surface downwards, while in the sea itself there was little or no -thawing, because the temperature of its surface was still below zero. The -moisture, from which there was no escape, became exceedingly troublesome. -In spite of our stout leather boots we had never the comfort of dry -feet during the whole of the summer, and this we felt the more, as our -labours to free the ship, which we had commenced at the beginning of May, -necessitated our being constantly amid the snow and ice. - -3. At the end of May the ship began slowly to settle, and the water rose -between the ice and the hull on the fore-part of the ship. But we soon -discovered that these small changes would not suffice to free us from our -prison-house, but that we must ourselves endeavour to loosen the fetters -which held us fast, if it were only to banish gloomy thoughts of the -future by action of some kind or other. Hence constant digging, sawing, -and blasting on our floe, through May, June, July, and August—labours -in which the whole crew of the ship, with the exception of the sick -and of the cook, took part; labours, alas! which admonished us of the -impotence of man when he contends against the power of Nature. Only on -the port side of the ship were our efforts to dig through the floe at -all successful; on the starboard side the floe had been so enormously -increased by the tables of ice forced upon one another, that we had not -pierced through the ice after sinking a shaft eighteen feet deep; and at -last the water, forcing itself through the pores of the ice, compelled -us to desist from the labour of sinking deeper. The process of sawing -was possible only where we had broken through the ice—that is, on the -port side; yet even there the great thickness of the floe necessitated -the construction of longer instruments, for which the iron casing of -the engine-room had to furnish the material. The difficulty of sawing -increases with the thickness of the ice in an almost incredible manner. -It is easy enough to cut through a floe, four or five feet thick, but to -break up one, eight or ten feet thick, is a matter of great difficulty. -Our saws too, even when they were lengthened, permitted a play of only -a foot; and their twisting, as they cut deep, proved a great hindrance. -Besides, when we had cut to the depth of a fathom, the saws were always -frozen fast, and when we attempted to free them by blasting they were -very often broken in pieces. But even the sections, made with so much -difficulty, often proved to be quite useless, as they were frozen -together again by broken ice left in the cut. Blasting with gunpowder -proved as ineffectual as in the previous year; in fact, the process was -only applicable to ice-blocks which had been loosened by sawing, and -which could not be broken up by the crow-bar alone. - -4. By the middle of June we were at last convinced that the thickness -of the ice rendered it impossible to join together, by sawing, the -two-and-twenty holes which we had dug out round the ship. Henceforward -our labours were confined to the formation of a basin at the fore-part of -the ship. Although we saw the impossibility of liberating the vessel, as -long as she rested on a mountain of ice, we hoped that the basin would -help to break up the floe, and that the _Tegetthoff_ would of itself -return to its normal position. The gliding down of the ship, raised as it -was, to its natural water-line might indeed easily end in a catastrophe, -but we braved this peril when we thought of the vain attempts we had -made to free her. Though the ship sunk so much in the course of the -summer, that its height above the water-line was a little more than two -feet in the fore-part of the ship, and three feet in the after-part, -this circumstance in our favour was outweighed by the disadvantage of -the rapid melting away of the ice at its sides. The ship, freed from its -covering of ice, stood so high above it, that in order to guard against -the danger of its overturning we were obliged, in the second half of -the summer, to shore it up by strong timbers fastened to its masts. It -looked no longer like a ship, but like a building ready to fall in! In -the middle of July Lieutenant Weyprecht ordered Krisch, the engineer, to -construct heavy chisels and borers to ascertain the thickness of the ice. -After long and hard labour, we found that after boring through several -ice-tables, to a depth of twenty-seven feet, we still struck on ice! -Every attempt, therefore, to break through this accumulation had to be -given up, and we contented ourselves with leading the basin we had formed -on the fore-part round the larboard side of the ship. On the 27th of the -month, twenty tons of coal were removed to the ice, in order to lighten -the ship as much as possible, and every day we had to look to the props -which steadied the ship, as the melting of the ice rendered them unsafe. -In the following weeks, the bows continued to sink into the water, while -the after-part as a natural consequence was raised up. - -5. Even in the month of July, the weather was generally gloomy and -unsettled. We had several times two or three inches of snow, and the -showers were mingled with mist, rain, and snow, as had been the case in -June. The winds were generally from the west; the mean temperature of the -month was 34·7° F.; on the 8th of July, the black-bulb thermometer marked -108° F., and the temperature in the shade at the same date amounted to -34° F. But neither wind nor temperature made any change in our position. -The sun on which our liberation depended was seldom visible; and the -winds on which we had counted failed to blow. For weeks we watched for -the formation of fissures round the ship. Fissures indeed were formed, -but at such a distance that they were utterly useless to us. On the 16th -of June, one opened towards the south-east; but it was at least two miles -distant, and in the middle of July it was only half a mile nearer to us. -Nothing, absolutely nothing, was to be seen from the deck but ice, and -Klotz, coming down one day from the top-sail yard, described our position -with a melancholy laconic brevity: “Nix als Eisch, und nix als Eisch, -und nit a bisserl a Wosser. (_Nothing but ice, ice everywhere, and not a -patch of water._)” Amid such impressions all hope gradually left us. The -drifting of the ice ceased to animate our hopes. Even the approach of a -fissure on the 29th of July to the distance of three-quarters of a mile, -in consequence of heavy gales from the south and west, ended in miserable -disappointment. A movement in the ice which began a little way off on the -6th of August resulted only in the diminishing of our floe. There was no -essential change in the remainder of this month, except that the monthly -mean temperature fell to 32·7° F. We had the greatest extreme of heat on -the 4th of August, 41·9° F.; but on the last day of the month we had 5·7 -degrees of cold. - -6. For some time we had been surprised by the appearance of a dark -mass of ice, the distance of which prevented us from making a closer -acquaintance with it. Our life on the narrow space of our floe had quite -assumed the character of that of mere insects, who dwell on the leaf of -a tree and care not to know its edges. Excursions of one or two miles -were regarded as displaying an extraordinary amount of the spirit of -enterprise and discovery. On the 14th some of us pushed on for about four -miles to the group of ice just mentioned, and discovered it to be a very -large iceberg. Two moraines lay on its broad back. These were the first -stones and pieces of rock we had seen for a long time, and so great was -our joy at these messengers of land, that we rummaged about among the -heaps of rubbish, with as much zeal as if we had found ourselves among -the treasures of India. Some of the party found what they fancied to be -gold (pyrites), and gravely considered whether they would be able to take -a quantity of it back to Dalmatia. Although the glaciers of Novaya Zemlya -could not shed icebergs of such magnitude as that on which we now stood, -we all held it for certain that it had come from thence. Not one of us -had the least presentiment that it could belong to new lands, to which -at that time we were near. Even the other icebergs which we discovered -in increasing numbers on the following days, did not as yet speak to us -the language of a message to fill us with hope and ardour. Our walk to -the “dirt iceberg” was an event in our monotonous life, and was often -repeated. These expeditions enabled us also to form some conception of -the size of our floe, the diameter of which could not be less than six or -seven miles. - -7. August 18—the birthday of his Majesty our Emperor,—the ship was -dressed with flags, the only form left to us of expressing our loyalty. -Our dinner was as sumptuous as the circumstances permitted, though -fasting would have been more appropriate, as the third day after this was -the anniversary of that sad and gloomy day on which we were inclosed in -the ice. In order to visit an iceberg which lay to the north-west of us, -we ventured beyond our floe for the first time, and passed over a fissure -to some drifting ice-floes which lay in the way. A seal lying on the ice -was immediately attacked by our dogs, but succeeded after many efforts -in reaching its hole. From the top of the iceberg, which was about sixty -feet high, we discovered that the few openings in the ice were not -navigable “leads,” but isolated holes utterly unconnected, and therefore -useless for navigation. - -8. We had continually drifted, since the beginning of February, first to -the north-west and then to the north, with few modifications; at that -date, we had reached our greatest East Longitude, and winds appeared as -before to be the main cause of this drifting. At the end of that month -there was a succession of calms, and we lay almost motionless in latitude -79°, and longitude 71°. The subjoined table shows our change of place in -the following months. - - +------------------+-----------+------------+ - | Time. | Latitude. | Longitude. | - | | ° ′ | ° ′ | - +------------------+-----------+------------+ - | March 3 1873 | 79 13 | 69 32 | - | ” 9 ” | 79 19 | 68 28 | - | ” 14 ” | 79 20 | 68 28 | - | ” 20 ” | 79 33 | 68 52 | - | ” 25 ” | 79 23 | 67 17 | - | ” 27 ” | 79 15 | 67 29 | - | ” 29 ” | 79 14 | 67 35 | - | April 2 ” | 79 5 | 66 49 | - | ” 3 ” | 79 5 | 66 42 | - | ” 7 ” | 79 4 | — | - | ” 10 ” | 79 12 | 68 1 | - | ” 12 ” | 79 19 | 67 43 | - | ” 13 ” | 79 20 | 67 40 | - | ” 15 ” | 79 14 | 67 0 | - | ” 19 ” | 79 18 | 65 51 | - | ” 20 ” | 79 19 | 65 37 | - | ” 27 ” | 79 13·5 | 64 37·0 | - | ” 28 ” | 79 12·2 | 64 41·8 | - | May 1 ” | 79 15·8 | 64 58·8 | - | ” 2 ” | 79 17·1 | 65 3·9 | - | ” 6 ” | 79 16·0 | 65 0·5 | - | ” 10 ” | 79 20·4 | 65 41·9 | - | ” 11 ” | 79 20·2 | 65 32·4 | - | ” 13 ” | 79 19·7 | 65 15·8 | - | ” 14 ” | 79 19·8 | 64 45·6 | - | ” 16 ” | 79 15·5 | 63 39·0 | - | ” 17 ” | 79 13·1 | 63 21·7 | - | ” 22 ” | 79 9·2 | 62 3·5 | - | ” 29 ” | 79 2·4 | 62 55·5 | - | ” 30 ” | 79 2·5 | 62 54·2 | - | ” 31 ” | 79 2·5 | 62 53·9 | - | June 1 ” | 79 2·4 | 62 43·2 | - | ” 3 ” | 79 0·4 | 62 29·7 | - | ” 5 ” | 79 1·3 | 62 24·8 | - | ” 6 ” | 79 1·1 | 62 20·2 | - | ” 9 ” | 79 5·4 | 61 31·4 | - | ” 10 ” | 79 5·3 | 61 23·6 | - | ” 11 ” | 79 4·3 | 61 21·3 | - | ” 18 ” | 79 6·6 | 61 5·2 | - | ” 20 ” | 79 8·6 | 61 2·8 | - | ” 22 ” | 79 9·2 | 60 54·9 | - | ” 24 ” | 79 8·4 | 60 31·8 | - | ” 25 ” | 79 11·2 | 60 14·6 | - | ” 26 ” | 79 13·3 | 59 55·3 | - | ” 27 ” | 79 13·7 | 59 46·0 | - | ” 28 ” | 79 15·5 | 59 35·4 | - | July 3 ” | 79 15·2 | 59 14·8 | - | ” 4 ” | 79 14·8 | 59 13·3 | - | ” 8 ” | 79 15·2 | 59 5·8 | - | ” 10 ” | 79 13·2 | 59 9·0 | - | ” 15 ” | 79 9·8 | 59 52·6 | - | ” 18 ” | 79 7·3 | 59 50·4 | - | ” 19 ” | 79 7·6 | 59 35·1 | - | ” 20 ” | 79 8·7 | 59 33·6 | - | ” 21 ” | 79 9·2 | 59 33·1 | - | ” 22 ” | 79 9·0 | 59 34·1 | - | ” 23 ” | 79 6·6 | 59 34·2 | - | ” 24 ” | 79 7·1 | 59 29·5 | - | ” 25 ” | 79 6·6 | 59 27·3 | - | ” 31 ” | 78 58·5 | 60 25·5 | - | August 1 ” | 78 56·9 | 60 40·6 | - | ” 4 ” | 79 0·4 | 61 6·2 | - | ” 13 ” | 79 25·4 | 61 6·6 | - | ” 14 ” | 79 24·5 | 61 16·3 | - | ” 16 ” | 79 27·8 | 61 7·6 | - | ” 19 ” | 79 29·1 | 61 31·0 | - | ” 21 ” | 79 31·3 | 61 44·8 | - | ” 30 ” | 79 43·0 | 60 23·7 | - | ” 31 ” | 79 42·5 | 60 5·6 | - | Sept. 2 ” | 79 40·2 | 60 32·9 | - | ” 5 ” | 79 41·3 | 60 12·5 | - | ” 8 ” | 79 34·2 | 59 47·3 | - | ” 9 ” | 79 33·6 | 59 45·9 | - | ” 10 ” | 79 32·2 | 59 53·1 | - | ” 16 ” | 79 45·6 | 61 30·5 | - | ” 23 ” | 79 49·6 | 61 58·1 | - | ” 30 ” | 79 58·3 | 60 41·1 | - | Oct. 16 ” | 79 54·6 | 60 34·7 | - | ” 19 ” | 79 53·9 | 60 40·6 | - | ” 23 ” | 79 44·5 | 60 7·9 | - | ” 26 ” | 79 44·3 | 59 17·1 | - | ” 27 ” | 79 44·0 | 59 14·1 | - | ” 28 ” | 79 43·8 | 59 6·6 | - | ” 29 ” | 79 44·8 | 59 9·8 | - | ” 30 ” | 79 49·0 | 58 59·9 | - | ” 31 ” | 79 50·6 | 58 53·7 | - | Ship in Land ice | 79 51·1 | 58 56·0 | - +------------------+-----------+------------+ - -9. The meteorological observations of the expedition, and the course -of the _Tegetthoff_ have been ably analysed by Vice-Admiral Baron von -Wüllersdorf-Urbair in the _Mittheilungen_ of the Imperial Academy of -Sciences of Vienna, and while I refer the curious reader to these reports -for a fuller discussion of these questions, I subjoin the most important -paragraphs of the Admiral’s report which concern the course of the -_Tegetthoff_:— - -“Under ordinary circumstances a ship drifts on with the floe; is -imprisoned, and necessarily obeys the force of the wind and the -sea-currents. Its course, consequently, corresponds to the combined -effect of these forces. But, inasmuch as the _Tegetthoff_ was not in the -free sea, but was driven along for the greater part of the time in close -pack-ice, the ship not only obeyed the general movement of the ice, which -was dependent on the direction of the winds and currents of the sea, -but was also influenced by its vicinity to coasts and by the greater or -lesser accumulation of ice. - -“In so far as the _Tegetthoff_ with her hull and masts presented a -greater surface to the wind, the floe, on which it was imprisoned, would -necessarily receive an excess of movement in the direction of the wind. -If this excess formed an angle with the direction of the movement of the -ice, the ship’s floe would deviate to the side of the least resistance, -and drift according to the resultant between wind and resistance. Thus -it might be that the ship’s course deviated from the wind, even in a -direction opposed to it. But these anomalies certainly were not great, -and could not well be estimated, because the deviations which thus arose -depended on the direction of the wind, on the density and mass of the -ice, on causes, in fact, which could not be exhibited under numerical -relations. - -“If we compare the statements, as given in the _Meteorological -Journal_,[21] concerning the ice-drift and ice-pressures, it is seen that -the maximum of both occurred in those parts of the sea in which the ship -was within the action of the ice coming from the Sea of Kara, and that -the greatest deviations in the ship’s course necessarily happened there. - -“With respect to another abnormal deviation in the ship’s course, it -cannot be doubted that this depended on the vicinity of Franz-Josef Land, -towards which the masses of ice drifted under the action of continuous -south-west winds; and were again driven back, thus forming a circle -in their movement. It would seem natural to assume the existence of a -sea-current in order to explain this peculiarity; but the configuration -of that land and its coasts, or the greater or lesser amount of -immovable ice, or, lastly, the prevailing winds in those regions, -may have influenced the direction of the movement of the ice, and -consequently of the ship’s course. - -“If we consider the prevalence of winds, as furnished by Weyprecht’s -observations for more than two years, we find south-west winds prevailing -in the southern part of the seas that were navigated, and north-east -winds in the northern part of those seas. - -“If the sea to the east of Franz-Josef Land should not be broken by -larger groups of islands, or by masses of land, but be a vast range of -ocean, the winds would be free from the influence of land, and blow in -a north-easterly direction, and exhibit, so to speak, the phenomenon of -a Polar north-east trade wind. If it should be the case that north-east -winds prevail to the north of the 78th or 79th degree of north latitude, -and, at the same time, south-west winds to the south of that same degree, -the notion of a sea-current must be dismissed, and a revolving movement -in the ice assumed, in the opposite direction to the hands of a clock. -The observations of Weyprecht on these winds establish their circulatory -character. The curve of deviation in the course of the _Tegetthoff_ seems -to be in harmony with this assumption. But these suppositions cannot be -accepted, until observations be made on the winds to the south of 79° N. -L. at the same season of the year with those which were so successfully -made by Weyprecht to the north of this degree. - -“The following arguments, however, would seem to favour the supposition -of the existence of a sea-current. The curve at the commencement of its -deviation corresponds pretty nearly with the direction which the Gulf -Stream would take after passing round Norway, and in its further course -with that current, which comes out of the Sea of Kara between Novaya -Zemlya and Cape Taimyr, and which undoubtedly exists, though its course -has to be more accurately determined. - -“However small may be the value we assign to the winds in explanation of -the deviation in the _Tegetthoff’s_ course, it is at any rate impossible -to ascribe those phenomena to the influence of the coast formation. We -must, therefore, assume either, that the different directions of the wind -produce a constant circulation of the ice in the sea to the north of -79°; or that currents known to exist in this and contiguous seas cannot -be excluded from the small part of the ocean lying between Novaya Zemlya -and Franz-Josef Land.” - -From these and other grounds the Vice-Admiral Baron von Wüllersdorf draws -the following conclusions:— - -“It is probable that there exists a sea-current in the seas between -Novaya Zemlya and Franz-Josef Land; that at any rate, its existence -cannot positively be denied, although the prevailing winds may produce -similar phenomena. - -“That there is a great probability that the Ocean stretches far to the -north and east beyond the eastern end of Novaya Zemlya.” - -[Illustration: SOUNDING IN THE FROZEN OCEAN.] - -10. During the summer Orel took soundings of the depth of the sea, -which he was prevented from continuing in the winter by the frost. -These show its shallowness on the north of Novaya Zemlya, especially -towards Franz-Josef Land. A bank, over which we drifted in the summer of -1873, and which we explored with a drag-net, was the principal source -of the collection of marine fauna, which we shall speak of in a later -chapter. These soundings also enabled Orel to prove the small increase -of the temperature of the sea at any considerable depth. He used in his -experiments the maximum and minimum thermometer of Casella. The specimens -we collected showed, that the bottom of the sea consists of layers of -mud and shells. The soundings are exhibited in the following table:— - - +----------------+-------+ - | Time. |Metres.| - +----------------+-------+ - | July 20 1872 | 400 | - | ” 28 ” | 115 | - | ” 31 ” | 250 | - | Aug. 3 ” | 130 | - | ” 4 ” | 80 | - | ” 22 ” | 36 | - | ” 30 ” | 170 | - | Sept. 16 ” | 100 | - | ” 25 ” | 90 | - | ” 29 ” | 85 | - | ” 30 ” | 190 | - | Oct. 2 ” | 170 | - | ” 9 ” | 450 | - | Nov. 14 ” | 345 | - | Jan. 28 1873 | 510 | - | Mar. 27 ” | 450 | - | April 28 ” | 350 | - | May 17 ” | 230 | - | ” 18 ” | 187 | - | ” 19 ” | 172 | - | ” 20 ” | 163 | - | ” 21 ” | 138 | - | ” 22 ” | 186 | - | ” 23 ” | 162 | - | ” 25 ” | 177 | - | ” 25 ” | 182 | - | ” 26 ” | 186 | - | ” 27 ” | 249 | - | ” 28 ” | 251 | - | ” 29 ” | 254 | - | ” 30 ” | 253 | - | ” 31 ” | 256 | - | June 1 ” | 238 | - | ” 2 ” | 210 | - | ” 3 ” | 183 | - | ” 4 ” | 207 | - | ” 5 ” | 200 | - | ” 6 ” | 198 | - | ” 7 ” | 190 | - | ” 8 ” | 215 | - | ” 9 ” | 231 | - | ” 10 ” | 203 | - | ” 11 ” | 240 | - | ” 12 ” | 218 | - | ” 13 ” | 211 | - | ” 14 ” | 235 | - | ” 15 ” | 161 | - | ” 16 ” | 184 | - | ” 17 ” | 222 | - | ” 18 ” | 200 | - | ” 19 ” | 186 | - | ” 20 ” | 220 | - | ” 21 ” | 195 | - | ” 22 ” | 200 | - | ” 23 ” | 169 | - | ” 24 ” | 178 | - | ” 25 ” | 195 | - | ” 26 ” | 220 | - | ” 27 ” | 227 | - | ” 28 ” | 233 | - | ” 29 ” | 240 | - | ” 30 ” | 240 | - | July 1 ” | 240 | - | ” 3 ” | 245 | - | ” 4 ” | 250 | - | ” 5 ” | 235 | - | ” 6 ” | 235 | - | ” 7 ” | 274 | - | ” 8 ” | 266 | - | ” 9 ” | 250 | - | ” 10 ” | 250 | - | ” 11 ” | 236 | - | ” 12 ” | 265 | - | ” 13 ” | 247 | - | ” 14 ” | 215 | - | ” 15 ” | 195 | - | ” 16 ” | 184 | - | ” 17 ” | 200 | - | ” 18 ” | 240 | - | ” 19 ” | 232 | - | ” 20 ” | 231 | - | ” 21 ” | 231 | - | ” 22 ” | 226 | - | ” 23 ” | 198 | - | ” 24 ” | 205 | - | ” 25 ” | 216 | - | ” 26 ” | 218 | - | ” 27 ” | 218 | - | ” 28 ” | 236 | - | ” 29 ” | 260 | - | ” 30 ” | 236 | - | ” 31 ” | 234 | - | Aug. 1 ” | 225 | - | ” 2 ” | 219 | - | ” 3 ” | 173 | - | ” 4 ” | 188 | - | ” 5 ” | 210 | - | ” 6 ” | 107 | - | ” 7 ” | 216 | - | ” 8 ” | 184 | - | ” 9 ” | 244 | - | ” 10 ” | 225 | - | ” 11 ” | 209 | - | ” 12 ” | 214 | - | ” 13 ” | 189 | - | ” 14 ” | 177 | - | ” 15 ” | 170 | - | ” 16 ” | 170 | - | ” 17 ” | 174 | - | ” 18 ” | 148 | - | ” 19 ” | 152 | - | ” 20 ” | 138 | - | ” 21 ” | 130 | - | ” 22 ” | 131 | - | ” 23 ” | 128 | - | ” 24 ” | 145 | - | ” 25 ” | 140 | - | ” 26 ” | 185 | - | ” 27 ” | 219 | - | ” 28 ” | 180 | - | ” 29 ” | 132 | - | ” 30 ” | 211 | - | ” 31 ” | 197 | - | Sept. 1 ” | 260 | - | ” 2 ” | 142 | - | ” 3 ” | 212 | - | ” 4 ” | 215 | - | ” 5 ” | 178 | - | ” 6 ” | 188 | - | ” 7 ” | 204 | - | ” 8 ” | 250 | - | ” 9 ” | 240 | - | ” 10 ” | 218 | - | ” 11 ” | 168 | - | ” 12 ” | 127 | - | ” 13 ” | 132 | - | ” 14 ” | 137 | - | ” 15 ” | 111 | - | ” 16 ” | 134 | - | ” 17 ” | 178 | - | ” 18 ” | 175 | - | ” 19 ” | 275 | - | ” 20 ” | 300 | - | ” 21 ” | 220 | - | ” 22 ” | 188 | - | ” 24 ” | 237 | - | ” 25 ” | 325 | - | Oct. 28 ” | 165 | - | ” 31 ” | 210 | - +----------------+-------+ - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -NEW LANDS. - - -1. We Spent the latter half of August in seal-hunting, for it was only by -the use of fresh meat that we were able to contend with, if not prevent, -cases of scurvy. Day after day lines of hunters lay in wait before the -fissures at the edge of our floe, and in the evening our dogs generally -had to drag in the sledges several seals to the ship. Many of these -creatures which we wounded sank and disappeared. All these seals belonged -to the class Phoca Grœnlandica. Walruses were never to be seen, and once -only in an “ice-hole” we came across a shoal of white whales, which -however seemed to be moving on. In the capture of seals we sometimes used -a light boat, made of water-proof sailcloth, which two men could easily -drag out of the water. Some of our people too had learnt the use of the -harpoon. By the end of September we had killed in one way or another some -forty seals, and as we shot many of the birds which flew round us, and on -an average one bear a week, we were seldom without fresh meat. With the -exception of Krisch, the engineer, who suffered from lung disease, and of -the carpenter, who had become lame from a scorbutic contraction of the -joints, all on the sick list recovered under the influence of work in the -open air and of the improved diet. - -2. The covering of deep soft snow, which had been so troublesome, almost -disappeared at the beginning of autumn, and the surface of the ice had -been transformed by evaporation into a firm mass like the congealed -snow of a glacier, so that we were able to walk on its hard surface -without sinking; only the numerous small ice-lakes, on the floes, -impeded our excursions. In all these signs, we were reminded of the near -approach of winter, and it seemed that, drifting as we were constantly -towards the north, we should spend it nearer to the Pole than any other -expedition had ever done. On the 25th the sun set at midnight. The period -intervening between this and the time when the sun ceases to reappear may -be regarded as the autumn of the Arctic region. For some time the light -had so diminished, that our quarters again became dark at night, and -from the 19th of July we were obliged to use a light in order to read at -midnight. On the 29th of August, after falls of rain and snow succeeded -by north winds, the ship was stiffened in a coating of ice. The rigging -was covered with an incrustation of ice of an inch thick, and pieces of -ice of a pound weight sometimes fell on the deck, rendering walking on -it neither comfortable nor safe. After a succession of frosts and thaws, -complete congelation at last set in, and when the moon was up, the masts -and rigging shone like burnished silver. - -3. The second summer was gone. It had come in with the hope and promise -of liberation, and patiently had we awaited this result. With sad -resignation we now looked forward to another winter. But once more it was -to be seen, in our case, how great is the power of men to endure dangers -and hardships, when these come upon them not suddenly but gradually. -A few months ago, the thought that we should be prisoners on the ice, -bound to our floe, for a second winter, would have been unendurable. But -now that the intolerable thought had become a stern fact, we accepted -and endured it. But often as we went on deck and cast our eyes over the -wastes, from which there was no escape, the despairing thought recurred, -that next year we should have to return home—without having achieved -anything, or at most with a narrative of a long drift on the ice. Not -a man among us believed in the possibility of discoveries, though -discoveries beyond our utmost hopes lay immediately before us. - -4. A memorable day was the 30th August 1873, in 79° 43′ Lat. and 59° 33′ -E. Long. That day brought a surprise, such as only the awakening to a -new life can produce. About midday, as we were leaning on the bulwarks -of the ship and scanning the gliding mists, through which the rays of -the sun broke ever and anon, a wall of mist, lifting itself up suddenly, -revealed to us, afar off in the north-west, the outlines of bold rocks, -which in a few minutes seemed to grow into a radiant Alpine land! At -first we all stood transfixed and hardly believing what we saw. Then, -carried away by the reality of our good fortune, we burst forth into -shouts of joy—“Land, Land, Land at last!” There was now not a sick man on -board the _Tegetthoff_. The news of the discovery spread in an instant. -Every one rushed on deck, to convince himself with his own eyes, that the -expedition was not after all a failure—there before us lay the prize that -could not be snatched from us. Yet not by our own action, but through -the happy caprice of our floe and as in a dream had we won it, but when -we thought of the floe, drifting without intermission, we felt with -redoubled pain, that we were at the mercy of its movements. As yet we had -secured no winter harbour, from which the exploration of the strange land -could be successfully undertaken. For the present, too, it was not within -the verge of possibility to reach and visit it. If we had left our floe, -we should have been cut off and lost. It was only under the influence of -the first excitement that we made a rush over our ice-field, although we -knew that numberless fissures made it impossible to reach the land. But, -difficulties notwithstanding, when we ran to the edge of our floe, we -beheld from a ridge of ice the mountains and glaciers of the mysterious -land. Its valleys seemed to our fond imagination clothed with green -pastures, over which herds of reindeer roamed in undisturbed enjoyment of -their liberty, and far from all foes. - -5. For thousands of years this land had lain buried from the knowledge -of men, and now its discovery had fallen into the lap of a small band, -themselves almost lost to the world, who far from their home remembered -the homage due to their sovereign, and gave to the newly-discovered -territory the name - - KAISER FRANZ-JOSEF’S LAND. - -With loud hurrahs we drank to the health of our Emperor in grog hastily -made on deck in an iron coffee-pot, and then dressed the _Tegetthoff_ -with flags. All cares, for the present at least, disappeared, and with -them the passive monotony of our lives. There was not a day, there -was hardly an hour, in which this mysterious land did not henceforth -occupy our thoughts and attention. We discussed whether this or that -elevation in the grey and misty distance were a mountain, or an island, -or a glacier. All our attempts to solve the question of the extent of -the land lying before us were of course still more fruitless. From the -headland which we had first seen (Cape Tegetthoff), to its hazy outline, -in the north-east, it seemed to extend nearly a degree; but as even its -southernmost parts were at a great distance from us, it was impossible -to arrive at anything more definite than a mere approximation to its -configuration. The size and number of the icebergs which we had recently -fallen in with were now amply explained,—they were indisputable witnesses -of its great extent and its vast glaciation. - -6. At the end of August and the beginning of September north winds -drove us somewhat towards the south, so that the outlines of the land -were still more faintly defined. But at the end of September we were -again driven towards the north-west and reached 79° 58′, the highest -degree of latitude to which the _Tegetthoff_ and its floe drifted. We -now saw an island at some distance off—afterwards called Hochstetter -island—lying before us. Its rocky outlines were distinctly visible, and -the opportunity of _reaching the land by a forced march_ seemed more -favourable than any which had been presented. It might also be the last -chance offered to us, for our fears lest we might drift out of sight of -this land were well founded. Six of her crew now left the _Tegetthoff_ -and committed themselves to the destiny which the movement of the ice -had in store for them. The east winds, which had prevailed during the -last days, had forced the ice landward, and the pressures had crushed in -the edges of our floe, and greatly diminished its size. We rushed over -the grinding, groaning, broken walls of drifting ice, and so great was -our ardour, that we took no notice when some one or other of the party -tripped and fell. Each panted to reach the land. We had already gone half -way, the ship having long disappeared from our eyes, when there arose a -mist which enveloped everything, so that the masses of ice looked like -high mountains through the hazy atmosphere. Of the land itself we could -see nothing, and no choice was left to us but to return to the ship -through the mist. The compass was little help, and within the barriers of -recently broken ice the traces of our steps were lost. We took at last -a wrong direction and were following it up, in spite of Jubinal’s loud -barks to divert us. As he ran backwards and forwards, magnified in the -mist he ran many risks of being mistaken for a bear. What the sagacity of -six men could not do, this the instinct of the animal effected. Exhausted -by our own exertions, we yielded ourselves to his guidance, and he -actually brought us into the right track—and back to the ship. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -THE AUTUMN OF 1873.—THE STRANGE LAND VISITED. - - -1. The autumn was unusually mild, though stormy and gloomy. The -thermometer up to the 20th of September fell daily some degrees below -zero (C.), and occasionally we had rain. At the end of the month the -minimum temperature ranged from 14° to 5° F., and the mean temperature of -the month was as low as 24·5° F. The mildness of the season was, perhaps, -connected with the unusual recession of the ice-barrier in the south; -though it might have been a consequence of the open water which had been -formed under the land during the drifting of the floes. The land itself -was but seldom visible, and heavy masses of dark-blue clouds, which are -peculiar to southern latitudes, generally hung over it. Frequent falls of -snow again covered everything around us. Parhelia were sometimes visible, -and these were generally the precursors of driving snow, which reared -deep drifts round the ship. The numerous little lakes on the ice-floes -were frozen over in the night even in the earlier part of August, and -at the end of the month these bore us during the day. The clear mirror -of their surface cracked whenever the temperature fell suddenly some -degrees, while the effect of contraction in the ship was followed by the -noises which we called “Schüsse.” The “ice-holes” were overspread with -a viscous ropy ice, which was strong enough to bear us at their edges. -The ship now stood out from the ice; her hull was about fourteen feet -above the surrounding surface of snow. To facilitate egress and ingress, -we constructed steps of ice on each side of the vessel. After the 7th of -September our efforts to free the ship were given up. The little basin -at the fore-part of the ship—the result of the toil of many months—was -completely frozen over, and afforded us the recreation of skating as a -reward for our labours. - -2. The experience of the past greatly strengthened all the grounds and -motives which so readily presented themselves to abandon our helpless -vessel in the following summer and attempt the return to Europe by -means of sledges and boats. If there had been no other reason for this -resolution, regard for our health would have dictated the step. Our -supply of lemon-juice was so reduced, as to leave scarcely a doubt as -to the necessity of attempting to return. But amid these prudential -considerations, we were filled with fear lest we should be unable to -explore the mysterious land we had discovered. - -3. The daylight now began to fail. On the 9th of September the sun set at -8.30 and the stars were visible at night. About the middle of the month -lamps were kept burning all the night through in our quarters below, and -our environment, never very animated, again wore the aspect of the dark -realm of ice. The visits of birds became rarer, although they did not -quite leave us as long as there was any open water near. The divers and -auks had already disappeared. They flew in long lines southward, and as -they whizzed past us through the rigging of the ship, we acknowledged -the superiority of these little creatures to us and to our ship, which -was never to hoist its sails again. The ice-birds, and the robber-gulls -still remained with us. We once shot a rose-coloured gull (Ross’s gull), -said to belong only to North America and Iceland. On the 28th we saw the -last snow-bunting. The first aurora was seen on the 22nd, and during the -winter its light fell not merely on the Frozen Ocean but on the distant -Franz-Josef’s Land, showing us that we were not drifting away from it. By -the end of the month we had drifted to the eightieth degree of latitude, -nearly; and every cliff of the land, even the most insignificant, -emerging at a distance from the ice, had charms enough to call us all on -deck. - -4. In the second half of October, winds from the north and north-east -had driven us towards the south and south-west, and as we neared the -land we saw that the ice-fields were broken up by their contact with its -immovable barrier. Our own floe had been greatly diminished from the -general pressure of the ice. On the 1st of October we were driven so -near the land that we found ourselves in the midst of the destruction -going on in the ice. Our ice-floe was shattered and broken, and so -rapidly had it diminished in size, that the distance of the ship from -the edge of the floe, which was 1,300 paces on the 1st, amounted to only -875 two days afterwards. On the 6th it had diminished to 200 paces, so -that it was reduced to a mere fragment of its former size. The shocks -it now received caused the ship to quiver and shake, and we heard the -cracking and straining in its timbers, which kept us on the tenter-hook -of expectation lest the ice should suddenly break up. It seemed as if we -were doomed to a repetition of the trials and dangers of the preceding -winter. The bags of necessaries to be taken with us if we should be -forced to leave the ship, were kept in readiness for immediate use. As -we watched the advancing wall of ice, and heard the too well known howl -it sent forth, and saw how fissures were formed at the edge of the floe, -the days of the ice-pressures were painfully recalled, and the thought -constantly returned—what will be the end of all this? The Land we had so -longed to visit lay indeed before us, but the very sight of it had become -a torment; it seemed to be as unattainable as before; and, if our ship -should reach it, it appeared too likely that it would be as a wreck on -its inhospitable shore. Many were the plans we formed and debated, but -all were alike impracticable, and all owed their existence to the wish -to escape from the destruction that stared us in the face. Such were our -out-looks when on the 31st of October we were driven close to a headland -of no great height, about three miles distant from the ship, and found -ourselves in the midst of icebergs, several of which were of considerable -magnitude. Towards this, the bergs, or we ourselves, or both, were -rapidly drifting, as the soundings showed. If the icebergs drifted they -would of course crush all the ice-fields which stood in their way. We -were now in 79° 51′ N. Lat. and 58° 56′E. Long. Here exactly in the -longitude of Admiralty peninsula of Novaya Zemlya, and with the ship -lying north and south, we were to pass the winter—but harbourless. - -5. On the forenoon of the 1st of November, the land lay to the north-west -of us in the twilight. The lines of rocks were so clearly and distinctly -seen, that we were convinced that it could be reached without endangering -our return to the ship. There was no room for hesitation; full of energy -and wild excitement, we clambered over the ice-walls lying to the -northward, which consisted of barriers, fifty feet high, of huge pieces -of ice recently forced up amid the pressure. These passed, we came on a -broad surface of young ice, which showed that there had been open water -there a short time before. Over the surface of this young ice we now ran -towards the land. We crossed the ice-foot and actually stepped on it. -Snow and rocks and broken ice surrounded us on every side; a land more -desolate could not be found on earth than the island we walked on; all -this we saw not. To us it was a paradise; and this paradise we called -Wilczek Island. - -6. So great was our joy at having reached the Land at last, that we -bestowed on all we saw an attention which, in itself it in no way -merited. We looked into every rent in the rocks, we touched every block, -we were ravished with the varied forms and outlines which each crevice -presented. We talked in grand style of the frozen slopes of its hollows -as glaciers! Nothing was of greater moment in these first hours than the -question of its geological character, and great was our surprise to find -here the same rocks, with which we had become acquainted at the Pendulum -Islands during the second German North Polar Expedition. The columnar -conformation of these Dolerite rocks singularly resembled those of Griper -Roads and Shannon Island. The vegetation was indescribably meagre and -miserable, consisting merely of a few lichens. The drift-wood we expected -to find was no where to be seen. We looked for traces of the reindeer and -the fox, but our search was utterly fruitless. The land appeared to be -without a single living creature. We then ascended a rocky height on the -southern margin of the island, whence we had a view of the frozen ocean -extending some miles beyond the ship. There was something sublime to the -imagination in the utter loneliness of a land never before visited; felt -all the more from the extraordinary character of our position. We had -become exceedingly sensitive to new impressions, and a golden mist which -rose on the southern horizon of an invisible ice-hole, and which spread -itself, like an undulating curtain, before the glow of the noontide -heavens, had to us the charm of a landscape in Ceylon. - -7. How vexatious was it to feel, that if we had reached this Land some -weeks earlier, we might have explored it without the risk of being cut -off from the ship. For some days the sun had sunk below the horizon, and -the twilight of noon admitted of only a few short excursions from the -ship, quite insufficient to satisfy our earnest desire to learn more of -its structure and configuration; and we much feared lest the constant -north winds should cause us to drift out of sight of it. Southwards -stretched a flat surface of bluish-grey ice, and beyond the distant ship, -a large “ice-hole” from whose yellow mirror there arose undulating mists. -Beyond this again stretched dark lines of floes running parallel to the -horizon, over which, in the south, hung the sky in deep carmine. We -scrambled over a rugged slope covered with ice as smooth as glass, which -ran into the interior of the little island, in order to get a clear view -northward; but we were compelled to return without achieving our purpose, -for we feared to absent ourselves longer from the ship. We accordingly -went back, but returned next day to explore. But these barren days and -small events made a profound impression on our minds, and even Carlsen, -the old and tried navigator of the frozen deep, wore on his breast, -beneath his fur coat, the star of the order of St. Olaf, to do due honour -to the dignity of discovery. We built a pyramid of stones six feet high -on the island, and fixed in it one of our flags attached to a pole. - -8. On the 3rd of November a party of us started about eight o’clock -in the morning, when it was quite dark, to attempt to reach a glacier -which we had seen, on the north of the island and on the other side of a -frozen inlet of the sea. We took with us a small sledge drawn by three -dogs, and, in constant fear of being cut off from the ship, we pressed -on over a level surface of snow towards some objects suffused with a dim -rosy light, which seemed to float over them. As we neared them we found -them to be icebergs, which sparkled like jewels, and which we took to -be the terminal precipice of the glacier we were in search of. It was -only, however, after some hours that we came actually in sight of it; the -ship having meanwhile disappeared from our view. Suddenly there emerged -before us, in the east, a white band, which proved to be the terminal -front of the glacier, which, as we approached it, we were surprised to -find had an inclination of only two or three degrees. Its highest point, -therefore, must have been at a very great distance. On its left side -there was a moraine of great depth. When we began our return to the ship, -the rosy evening light had disappeared from the higher clouds, while it -became clearer behind the gigantic mass of the glacier, so that its dark -outline stood out strongly marked on the heavens. It was quite dark when -we again drew near the ship, but the brave Carlsen, armed with rifle and -walrus-lance for any emergency, came out to meet us. - -[Illustration: APPROACHING THE LAND BY MOONLIGHT.] - -9. In an excursion on the 6th of November we reached a point on the -north-west of Wilczek Island—passing for the first time during this -expedition beyond the eightieth degree of north latitude—whence we could -see the mainland of the new country stretching before us under the -silver light of the moon. An indescribable loneliness lay on its snowy -mountains, faintly illuminated by the span of twilight in the south and -by the light of the moon. If the ice on the shore, as it was moved by the -ebb and flow of the tide, had not sent forth shrill notes, and had not -the wind sighed as it passed over the edges of the rocks, the stillness -of death would have lain on the pale and spectral landscape. We hear of -the solemn silence of the forest or of the desert, or of a city buried -in sleep during the night; but what is this silence to the silence of a -land with its cold glacier mountains losing themselves in snows and mists -which can never be explored, and the very existence of which had remained -unknown from creation till this moment? - -10. On the 7th another short expedition towards the south-west of Wilczek -Island was carried out; but notwithstanding all our exertions we were -unable to determine its configuration, even of the parts immediately -contiguous to us. Until the spring of the following year, the whole -island, except perhaps a portion of its southern side, remained a mystery -to us. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -OUR SECOND WINTER IN THE ICE. - - -1. The Land had meantime been thickly enveloped in its pure white mantle, -and wreaths of snow-drifts lay over the rocks scattered over its surface. -The light became fainter. Sometimes the precipitous faces of the glaciers -seemed to glow in subdued rose-colour through the leaden grey of the -atmosphere. When new “ice-holes” appeared, a frosty vapour rose and -spread over the surface of the ice; the ship and surrounding objects were -covered as if with down; even the dogs were frosted white. We used to -stand on deck and gaze on the sun as it sank, surrounded by the evening -clouds, behind the jagged edges of the hummocks. Raised by refraction, -he appeared for the last time on the 22nd of October with half his disc -above the horizon, and the whole southern sky was for a time like a sea -of fire over the cold, stiff forms and lines of ice. At length the disc -disappeared, and masses of dark clouds moved up and obscured the light -still lingering in the sky. The long reign of night began, and the wastes -around us relapsed into the stern sway of winter. A pale twilight still -lingered for some time, but its faint arc became smaller and feebler. -No shadows accompanied the forms of those who strayed over the ice. The -wind moaned in the frozen desert. The darkness and the cold continually -increased, till the dome of night vaulted the lonely spot which had -become our home. - -2. But the hope and expectation of successes to be achieved, and the -feeling that our safety was not immediately threatened, rendered this -second winter a happy contrast to the preceding one. We had now leisure -and calmness for intellectual occupations, which were, indeed, the -only means of relieving the monotony of the long period of darkness. We -lived like hermits in our little cabins in the after-part of the ship, -and learned that mental activity without any other joy suffices to make -men happy and contented. The oppressive feeling of having to return -ingloriously home, which had always been disagreeably present to our -minds during the first winter, was no longer felt. We had now a hope, the -charms of which grew day by day, that in the spring we should be able -to leave the ship and start on expeditions to explore the land we had -discovered. Happy in this expectation, we could enjoy the indescribable -pleasures of good books, all the more that we were far from the busy -haunts of men, and that the presence of danger clears and sharpens the -understanding. Nowhere can a book be so valued as in such an isolated -position as ours was. Great, therefore, was the advantage we possessed in -a good library, consisting of books of science, and of the classics of -literature. In fact, freed from the constantly recurring perils, which -had been our portion in the first long Arctic night, this second winter -was, to all who actively employed their minds, comparatively a state -of happiness, undisturbed by cares. With regard to the crew, they were -kept in good humour by the increase of their comforts. As we had not the -prospect of a third winter in the ice—which would have rendered a greater -economy of our provisions imperative—we were enabled to provide them with -a more generous diet. - -3. In the last three weeks of November we had complete darkness, the sky -clouded over and the weather bad. So dark was it, that our environment, -though it was overspread with countless hummocks and ice-cliffs, looked -like one black unbroken level. On the 31st of October most of the stars -were visible about 3 o’clock in the afternoon; by 4 o’clock actual night -prevailed. On the 16th of November large print was barely legible even at -noon. On the 18th of the month we were able to read the larger letters on -the title-page of Vogt’s _Geology_ at the distance of a foot. At noon, on -the 13th of December, not a letter of this same title-page was legible, -even in clear weather. On the 5th of November there was a total eclipse -of the moon, which then sank below the horizon and did not return till -the 29th of that month. Its beams then fell on a large ice-hole, which -had formed itself twenty miles to the south of the ship, which made us -apprehensive lest our floe should be driven by the north winds in a -southerly direction. On the 4th of December the moon reached its highest -declination, but, as it waned, it was constantly obscured by bad weather. -I had reckoned on the return of moonlight to make an excursion of some -days to the mainland. But the fickleness of the weather at the beginning -of December compelled me to confine my wanderings to Wilczek Island, -which I frequently visited, although with a thermometer at -35° F. I -was exposed to frost-bites in the face and hands, whenever I attempted -to draw by the light of a lamp, and with only the protection of light -woollen gloves.[22] - -[Illustration: DEPARTURE OF THE SUN IN THE SECOND WINTER.] - -4. We observed during this winter, that, on the clearest nights, snow of -the finest texture continued to fall, so that we saw the heavenly bodies, -as it were, through a veil of fine gauze. In the moonlight this fine -snow sparkled faintly, and its presence could only be discovered by a -prickling on the skin. The constancy of these downfalls added of course -to the depth of the snow under which the _Tegetthoff_ was almost buried; -indeed at the beginning of the spring she no longer stood out from the -covering of snow, although her fore-part was eleven-and-three-quarter -feet, and her after-part four-and-a-half feet, above the ice on which -she rested. The air was also often filled with an indescribable quantity -of driving snow; and when the wind dropped and permitted it to fall, we -were struck with the profound stillness of our environment. The cold -constantly increased and penetrated all the parts of the interior of the -ship which were not artificially heated,[23] and almost all the fluids, -which were not specially protected, were frozen. The various kinds of -spirits on board were exposed on the 23rd of November to the cold at -26° -F.; at the end of an hour-and-a-half they still remained fluid. When the -temperature fell to -31° F., hollands, common gin and maraschino were -congealed in two-hours-and-a-half, but rum and brandy remained unchanged. -On another occasion a mixture of two parts of pure alcohol to one part -of water froze at -47° F., cognac at -53° F. This low temperature had -so increased the thickness of the ice, that the basin of open water, -which had been sawed through in the previous summer, was covered on -the 3rd of January with ice three-and-a-half, and on the 20th with ice -six-and-a-half feet thick. - -[Illustration: NOON ON DECEMBER 21, 1873.] - -5. On the 21st of December, the middle of the second long Polar -night—which lasted in all 125 days—was reached; and although we knew -where the south lay, every trace of twilight had disappeared, and for six -weeks we were enveloped in unbroken darkness. The figure of a man could -not be discerned at a very short distance. In order to be able to sketch -the ship, I had to illuminate it by torches. Those who made expeditions -afoot were struck, as it were, with blindness. If they approached what -seemed to be a lofty chain of mountains, over the ridge of which the -planet Jupiter hung like a glowing point, they came at once on a dark -wall of ice; and when they ascended the apparently far distant ridge, the -planet stood almost in the zenith. There was something approaching to -twilight only when the crescent moon shone in her first quarter. On the -7th of December the sun was 12°, and on the 21st 14½°, below the horizon. -We should not have seen the sun, could we have ascended the pinnacle of -the Alps, which Pliny imagined to be 120,000 feet high, or even from that -summit of the Caucasus which Aristotle reckoned at 230,000 feet. - -6. Distrusting the quiescent state of the ice, we had again stretched -a tent over one-half of the ship’s deck, while the other portion was -covered with snow trodden down as hard as a skating-rink. The space -for free movement was narrowed still further by the long-boat placed -between the two masts, by the stores of provisions kept in readiness for -the possible disaster which might compel us to leave the ship, by the -stand of rifles, by dog-kennels, and other inevitable impediments. In -bad weather the dogs sheltered themselves under the tent, and sometimes -showed ill-temper if their feet were trod on. There were places on deck -where only their particular friends were safe from being bitten; Sumbu -especially had a bad habit of lying behind a cask and springing out -on every one that passed by. Here under its friendly shelter the men -waited the summons to their meals. Hither came Carlsen to enjoy the -opportunity of talking Norwegian with some one or other. The deck light -shone feebly on all this, shedding its rays on the fine snow which fell -through the tent-roof. In the second half of the winter, when the deck -was less frequented, the lantern became, like the crew—more sleepy; and -its dull light fell on hard-frozen sailcloth, boards covered with snow, -and on empty tin cases. Here, too, walked, of course, the deck-watch, -enveloped in clothes from head to foot, with only their eyes uncovered, -looking more like moving figures than men. The deck-watch had also to -keep open the water-hole in the ice, to look out for bears, and to assist -in reading off the thermometers exposed on the ice. They were on duty for -two hours, and the moment they were relieved, they shot down into their -quarters, as quickly as a harpooned whale dives under the waves. He, too, -whose duty it was to fetch the snow to be converted into water was often -to be seen on deck. Although the store of snow in which we lived was -inexhaustible, yet, in order to be exempt from this duty in bad weather, -it was the practice of those who were told off for this service to lay -up a supply of blocks of frozen snow under the tent. Some of the crew -showed the scrupulosity of chemists in their work. Before they proceeded -to build up their pile, they brought specimens to the cook, in order to -learn his opinion as to the residuum of salt in the ice. - -7. With December a new era began for the dogs. A large snow house was -built for them outside the ship, in which were placed their kennels, -well filled with straw. The name of each dog was written on his house. -And here let me remark, that the winter quarters of the dogs should -always be on the ice. To keep them under the deck-tent is unhealthy and -inconvenient, and would be an impossibility if their numbers were great. -Every morning Haller opened the door of the snow house, and out rushed -the dogs, with their tails in the air, to begin forthwith a general -fight. No shouts, no blows, not even the discharge of a rifle could -separate the combatants. Pouring water over them at a temperature of -35° -F., though a somewhat barbarous way of producing peace, was successful -only with the younger dogs. When the fight was over, the next object -was to find out their special patron, and the instant they recognised -him they rushed upon him, tugged at his clothes, and thrust their noses -inquiringly into his pockets. Each then made his morning round, visiting -the places where he had hid in the snow a piece of bread or covered up -a bit of seal. When they had satisfied their appetite, it was curious -to observe how they would make it smooth over the hole in which they -deposited their treasure, all the time cunningly turning their eyes right -and left to see whether they were observed. - -[Illustration: PEKEL, SUMBU, AND JUBINAL.] - -8. Their violence and eagerness having somewhat abated, we may observe -the members of our pack one by one. The red giant there, who offers his -paw as huge as a bear’s, is named after a god of the heathen days of -Lapland, “Jubinal;” and not a few legends surrounded the accounts of his -early life. A Siberian Israelite, so it was said, brought him from the -north of Asia over the Ural. He was the victor in all fights, the leader -of the sledge team, and could drag four men on a hard level path without -any effort. The day before we sailed from Bremerhaven he tore a sheep to -pieces. Every summer when he changed his coat, the sailors clad him in -a canvas dress. Bop was his inferior in strength, but his superior in -wisdom; Matoschkin surpassed him in gravity. The latter used to sit for -hours in a moody manner on a pile of chests looking at the ice world. -Bop and Matoschkin were Newfoundlands; the first died of cold in our -first winter, the latter, as our readers may remember, was carried off -by a bear and torn to pieces. We had also two Newfoundland bitches, who -were called respectively “Novaya” and “Zemlya;” the former died in the -first year, the latter, though she was of little use in sledging from -her laziness, may claim indisputably the merit of being the mother of -her hopeful son, “Torossy,” who grew to a considerable size, and was -the pride of the whole crew. He knew no other world than the frozen -ocean, and no other destiny than to draw a sledge; and to this work he -had devoted himself zealously since the commencement of winter. In the -happy courage of ignorance he wagged his tail all day on deck; wagged -his tail as he followed us on the ice; wagged it, even when Sumbu stole -his dinner; wagged it, even before the jaws of a bear. Gillis, the fifth -Newfoundland, was incessantly quarrelling, and was the irreconcilable -enemy of Jubinal; he was a favourite with no one, chiefly because he had -killed the two cats which we brought from Tromsoe as pets for the dogs. -His body was covered with scars, and half his time was spent under the -medical treatment of the Tyrolese. He was not wanting in docility, but he -was essentially an eye-pleaser; all his efforts in the sledge were mere -sham. Pekel, the Lapp, was the smallest of all the dogs. In his early -days he had tended the reindeer at the North Cape and on the plains of -Tana Elf, and his ways did not fit him for life amid the ice, but for the -brown herd which roamed at the foot of Kilpis. Hence he was quarrelsome, -and showed special enmity to Sumbu, the mere sight of whom was enough to -stir up the most hostile feelings. He was therefore banished with his -house to a high ice-cliff, but the thaw destroying its supports, house -and dog fell plump into an ice-lake. Among all the dogs there was no such -desperate hypocrite as Sumbu, the most demonstrative in his friendship, -but withal the most greedy and dissatisfied. He was the first to slink -away with tail between his legs and find out the most secluded nook, -when he saw the other dogs being harnessed in the sledges; and, when -pulled out and put in a team, at once laid himself down on the sledge, -not to draw, but to be drawn. When at last he was set in motion, he was -no longer the same dog. He was then full of action, unsurpassed in speed -and agility, and his sportiveness was as great as his cunning. From the -carpenter he would carry off a hoop, or a bag of nails from the stoker, -or he lay flat on his belly and thrust out his long nose in the snow. His -agility stood him in good stead, for it enabled him to catch all the mice -that ventured on deck. Neither the stores of provisions for the dogs nor -the depôt of food for the crew were safe from his depredations. He hated -bears so fiercely, that he began to howl like a wolf when we turned out -to hunt them. Boldly he followed up their trail, even when at a distance -from the hunters and close to the heels of the bear. The dogs were fed -once a day with bear’s flesh or blubber, or dried horse-flesh, as long as -it lasted.[24] They well knew the hour of feeding, and gathered together -before it arrived. At night they were shut up in their house, and when -the snow drifted they all lay huddled in a heap before the door. The -dog-house was about eight feet high, but after a few weeks we could -scarcely discern it from the accumulation of snow-drifts. For some time -we kept up communication with it by means of a shaft dug in the snow; but -one day in February a fissure in the ice was formed right across where -the house stood, which compelled us to remove it. - -9. The end of December came, and with it the season of those festivals -which animate the Christian world—Christmas-tide and the New Year. In -order to celebrate them in common, we built a snow house, decorated its -interior with flags, and placed in it a Christmas tree, which, however, -more resembled a wooden hedgehog or a _cheval de frise_. About six -o’clock in the evening all our preparations were made, and the ship’s -bell, sounding mournfully in the dark and misty atmosphere, summoned -us to our snow house on the ice. Here lots were drawn, and cigars, -watches, knives, pipes or rum fell to the fortunate drawers. For all -these presents we had to thank friends in Vienna, or Pola, or Hamburg. -Then came the Christmas dinner, but no one’s heart was in the matter. Our -bodies, indeed, were present, but our thoughts were far away with those -we loved at home. New Year’s Eve passed off somewhat more cheerfully. -Better grounded seemed our expectations that 1874 would at last bring us -our long-desired activity and a not inglorious return to Europe. Scarcely -had the new year begun than the crew knocked at our cabin doors with -their congratulations, and such salutations continued to be the order of -the day. On the whole this second winter both before and after the new -year (1874), passed away without the fearful events of the preceding. -Although floes lay close to us on every side, and we had no harbour in -which to pass the winter with comfort—like a bear in its winter sleep—the -quiescent state of the ice allowed us to hope that our floe would remain -in the position it had hitherto maintained. This hope, indeed, lay at the -mercy of the winds; for if north winds should set in, it was extremely -probable that the ice would break up and drift asunder. - -10. The life we now led below in the ship had ceased to be in any -way disagreeable, and cheerful and entertaining reading seemed to be -healthier than bodily exercise. We did not suffer from any want of the -necessaries of life; the temperature of our living-rooms generally -admitted of our sitting for hours even without our overcoats. The long -night of this Polar winter was gloomy and oppressive only to those who -had time and leisure to weigh the burden of the hours. There were, -of course, even in this second winter, some of those discomforts and -dangers of which the reader has heard enough, and which lead him when -he reads of life in the frozen regions to think of ice-floes rather -than of a room in which comfort is quite possible. We had, indeed, the -usual inconveniences. As early as the middle of October the skylight was -so covered with frost that we could scarcely read even at noon. On the -20th of that month we were obliged to keep the lamps constantly burning, -and to close in the skylight, which brought night into the mess-room -before the night of Nature had arrived. By the middle of November the -condensation of moisture was perceptible, and our bed-clothes were -frequently frozen to the wall, and had to be torn from it before we -could go to rest. Yet what signified all this? We all slept soundly -notwithstanding, and during the day had to complain rather of warmth -than of cold. The condition of the crew, however, was not so happy. We -could not follow the example set by Hayes and others of removing the -contents of the hold to the land, and so transforming it into quarters -for the men. On board the _Tegetthoff_ we suffered some of the evils of -over-population, and the moisture was so much increased from it, that -some of the berths were completely saturated. The employment of hammocks -would perhaps avert this evil. - -[Illustration: IN THE MESS-ROOM.] - -11. The number of those afflicted with scurvy decreased with the approach -of spring. Their gums recovered their fresh and natural appearance, and -the general weakness, the pains in the joints, the leaden weight of the -feet, the depression of spirits—symptoms of this terrible malady—abated, -and the scorbutic marks disappeared from their bodies. Pachtusow, when he -wintered in Novaya Zemlya, so abundant in supplies of drift-wood, caused -his people to use the bath once a week in a log house constructed on the -land, as a preservative against scurvy, and had their inner clothing -washed twice a week, but even these steps were insufficient to avert the -malady. In our case baths so added to the moisture that we were obliged -to put a stop to them, and our under-garments could be changed only as -our stock of them permitted. Hence we could hope to prevent the spread -of scurvy only by the improvement of our diet. Several hundred-weight of -potatoes and a large supply of preserved meat had been kept in store for -the second winter. These now came into use, and were the more welcome -as our supply of lemon-juice—the most important preservative against -scurvy—was diminishing. By the advice of our physician, Dr. Kepes, we -departed from the maxim, so generally adhered to in Arctic expeditions, -of avoiding spirituous liquors. From the beginning of October our men -daily received rations of brandy. When I compare the sanitary condition -of the crew of the _Tegetthoff_ with the better state of that of the -_Germania_, I attribute this to the lesser power of resistance to -disease in some of our people on board the _Tegetthoff_ and to the moral -depression so easily explained by our disasters in this ship. - -12. The Arctic voyager is exposed to no disease so much as to scurvy. -Its appearance among a crew exercises a most untoward influence. Its -causes are still but little known; the means, however, of combating it -are numerous. It is no longer the scourge it was in the days of Barentz, -when he and all his men were attacked with it on the short summer -excursion of 1595, or when in Munk’s expedition of 1619 all died but two. -In Behring’s expedition of 1741, out of seventy-six men, forty-two were -attacked and thirty died. In Tschirikoff’s summer expedition during that -same year (1741), out of seventy men, twenty died. Rossmyslow, who passed -the winter of 1768-69 in “Matoschkin-Schar,” lost seven out of thirteen -men. When the disease gains the mastery, the utter incapacity of the -expedition for further exploration follows as a necessary consequence. -Lassinius, who was sent out to explore Novaya Zemlya in 1819, had to -return in the height of summer, all his men having fallen down with the -scurvy. This disease has been a frightful enemy to expeditions which have -wintered in that region, and carried off numerous victims. All these, it -is true, were miserably equipped, and depended on the medicinal virtues -of the “Löffel-kraut” of that country for remedies against the disease. -In 1832-33 Pachtusow, wintering in the south of the island, out of ten -men lost three; in 1834-35, two more died of the same disease. In the -expedition of Ziwolka and Mojsejew, 1838-39, the scurvy gained such -mastery that at the end of February half of the crew were attacked, and -Ziwolka himself with eight men died. Parry regarded damp, especially -damp bedding, as the principal cause of the malady. During his wintering -at Melville Island he found sorrel an effective remedy or palliative. -He attributed the greatest anti-scorbutic effect to beer; and according -to him and to most of the English expeditions, beer and wine take the -place of brandy. The disease generally has a fatal issue when there has -been excessive loss of blood, or when dropsy supervenes. Most of Ross’s -second expedition suffered more or less from it, and the experience of -that expedition showed that vegetable nourishment alone was not competent -to make head against it. Ross regarded the addition of fish or seals to -the ordinary diet as an effective preservative, and did not disdain the -use of blubber for the same purpose. Lemon-juice, uncooked potatoes, -fruit with much acidity, fresh vegetables and fresh meat, wine and yeast, -exercise in the open air, and cheerfulness, have always proved sufficient -to prevent its appearance, or at any rate to render it improbable. But -however valuable these may be as preventives, they almost cease to have -any effect when the disease has once broken out. The lime-juice must be -fresh, and, like vinegar, be taken in as concentrated a form as possible. -It is decomposed and useless by being kept too long, and also by the -action of frost. This was the case with the lemon-juice which Sir John -Ross found among the stores of the _Fury_. An anti-scorbutic effect has -been attributed also—and with justice—to the chewing of tobacco. It -appears that liability to scurvy is very different among different races, -and that neither vegetable nor animal food is an absolute preservative. -The Eskimos, and even the Lapps, who seldom or never use vegetables, -are almost exempt from it, and McClure’s men fell down with it in their -second winter, although they had fresh meat three times a week. Steller -relates that in Kamschatka scurvy attacks strangers only, but not the -natives, who live largely on vegetables; he states also, that the scurvy -when it does appear among strangers and visitors there, is cured by a -diet of the fresh fish of spring. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -SUNRISE OF 1874. - - -1. An unbroken sleep for the whole winter would, undoubtedly, be a -blessing to the Arctic navigator, and the most energetic among us -resigned himself to slumber for a few hours in the afternoon—the profane -time of the day for all zones of the earth—especially after the coming -in of the New Year, when the long unbroken night is intensely felt. The -darkness diminished very gradually, and as the weather was frequently -cloudy and dull, it was little lessened by the full moon, which we had at -the beginning of January and February. December 26, we were able to read -only the title of _New Free Press_, at the distance of a few inches, but -not a word of Vogt’s _Geology_. January 11, the word Geology on the title -of that book was discernible in clear weather, but only when the book was -held up to the light of the midday twilight. On the following day it was -as dark at nine o’clock in the morning as at noon on December 1st. The -moon returned again on the 24th of January, and after it was four days -old we could distinguish the common print of the “Press” by its light, -and for the first time read off the degrees of the thermometer without -artificial means. During the whole of the month we had alternations -of high temperatures and snow-drifting, and at the end of it the wind -dropped and the cold became exceedingly great, causing the ice to break -up to the south of our position. It would be difficult to give in an -illustration any notion of the wonderful forms produced by the twilight, -and its glowing colour-effects, and quite impossible to describe the -blaze of the meridian heavens, while deep shadows still lay over the -ice-plains and a dark ridge fringed and closed the horizon. - -2. At noon on the 23rd of February the rolling mists glowed with a red -light, announcing the reappearance of the sun. The next day the sun -himself, raised and distorted into an oval shape, appeared above the -horizon about 10 A.M. Again there was spread over the snow that magical -rosy hue, those bright azure shadows, which impart a poetical character -even to the landscape of the frozen north. The return of the sun was -this year the deliverance from our long night of 125 days.[25] Anxiously -had we waited his return, and joyously we greeted it, but not with the -frenzied feelings of the previous year. Then the reappearance of the sun -was tantamount almost to a deliverance from hell itself; but now the sun -was nothing to us but as a means to an end: would it enable us to begin -our sledge-journeys to explore the Kaiser Franz-Josef Land? The mere -thought of the possibility of making new discoveries threw us into a -feverish impatience, and our fears became intense lest the ship with its -floe should drift away and frustrate the execution of our plans just as -they seemed feasible. - -3. On that same day Lieutenant Weyprecht and I resolved to abandon the -ship after the termination of our projected sledge-journeys of discovery, -and to attempt to return to Europe by means of the boats and sledges. No -arguments were needed to convince every one of the ship’s company of the -absolute necessity of this resolution. Our ship lay on its icy elevation, -beyond the power of man to liberate her, and the provisions would not -be sufficient to sustain us for another year. But fear lest the state -of our health should greatly deteriorate in a third winter spoke more -forcibly than anything else in favour of our decision. When we looked at -our medical stores, once so ample, now so reduced, at the few bottles of -lemon-juice we could count on, all saw the impossibility of our remaining -longer in these latitudes. The melancholy issue of Franklin’s expedition -forced itself on our mind as an instructive example and warning. In all -likelihood that ill-fated expedition had delayed its return a year longer -than it should have done, and began it in so weakened a condition, that -it was next to an impossibility that they should have succeeded in their -purpose. We began to be pinched also in many of our stores, in spite -of the greatest economy in their use. To add to our perils, the doctor -drew a sad picture of the sanitary condition of our crew. Of nineteen -men, several had fallen sick: Krisch still suffered from scurvy and -consumption; Marola from the first scorbutic symptoms; Fallesich from -its consequences; Vecerina from the utter inability to move his lower -extremities produced by the same malady; Palmich from a constant tendency -to it and the contraction of his lower extremities; Pospischill from lung -disease; and Haller from a rheumatic affection of his extremities which -almost incapacitated him for any exertion. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -THE AURORA. - - -1. The Northern lights had shone for these two winters with incomparable -splendour, not, indeed, with the quiet diverging beams, sometimes -observed in our northern latitudes, and different also from the phenomena -which have been seen and noted in recent years, even in Central Europe; -they resembled rather those we saw in East Greenland, save that the -brilliancy and intensity of their colours were far greater. - -2. It is very difficult to characterize the forms of this phenomenon, not -only because they are manifold, but because they are constantly changing. -Sometimes the Aurora appears like flaming arches with glowing balls of -light; sometimes in irregular meridians painted on the heavens, sometimes -in brilliant bands and patches of light on the sky. Each of these forms -was frequently developed from a different one, but towards morning the -last-named appearance was the most general. - -3. The movement of the waves of light gave the impression that they -were the sport of winds, and their sudden and rapid rise resembled the -uprising of whirling vapours, such as the Geysers might send forth, -which generally assumed the form of enormous flames, except that they -were transparent and mist-like. In many cases the Aurora much resembled -a flash of summer lightning conceived as permanent. It appeared almost -always in the south, and was visible from September till March, during -which period it was to us the only external excitement which we had. The -illuminating power of the Aurora, when its colours were most brilliant -and intense, was inferior to the illuminating power of the full moon. -Some rare cases excepted, this was either so small or so transitory, -that it had no influence on the darkness of our long winter nights. -Like a stream, or in brilliant convolutions, the light rushed over the -firmament, as well from east to west as from west to east. The formation -of the corona (or the convergence of the streamers in the direction -of the inclination needle) was sudden, and short in its duration, -and frequently happened more than once in the course of a night. Its -greatest intensity was from eight till ten o’clock at night. It was never -accompanied with sound.[26] The sketch we have given represents one of -its most characteristic forms. The inner parts of the flames are usually -whitish green, and their edge on the upper side red, on the lower green. - -4. Brilliant auroras were generally succeeded by bad weather. Those on -the other hand which did not rise to any great height in the sky, or -which did not show any special mobility, were regarded as the precursors -of calms. None of the theories which have been ventilated are in exact -accordance with all the manifestations of these northern lights. The -undulating motion of their waves of light, their rolling forth like -pillars of smoke driven by winds, has hitherto remained unexplained. -Although electrical processes, still unknown, seem to be the main causes -of the Aurora, atmospheric vapours may, however, have a considerable part -in producing the phenomenon; and nothing so much favours this supposition -as the indefinite form in which it often appears. Its occurrence during -the day, _i.e._ light clouds with its characteristic movement, has been -rather imagined than actually observed. The transition of white clouds -into auroral forms at night has never at least been satisfactorily -proved. Falling stars pass through the northern lights without producing -any perceptible effect, or undergoing any change. A dirty sulphur yellow -was characteristic of all auroras when the sky was overcast with mists or -when they were seen by moonlight. In clear weather they were colourless. - -[Illustration: THE AURORA DURING THE ICE PRESSURE.] - -5. Their influence on the magnetic needle was very variable. While -the quiescent and regular arches had little or no effect, the quicker -and more fitful streamers, especially when accompanied with prismatic -colours, produced great disturbance in it. Sir John Ross remarked, that -the aurora when tinged with deep red colour had a great effect on it, -although he completely stultifies his observation by his supposition, -that the phenomenon was produced by rays of the sun reflected on the vast -fields of snow and ice surrounding the Pole. Parry in 1820 could discover -no effect from it either on the magnetic needle or on the electrometer. -During the winter of 1872-3, the character of the northern lights was -much altered, though their colour remained constant. At first they -consisted chiefly of bands of light, running from the south-northwards. -At a later period of that winter they assumed for the most part the -appearance of coronæ, and then their direction was from the north -southwards. During the voyage of the _Tegetthoff_ the observations of the -behaviour of these lights and of the magnetic constants were taken by -Weyprecht, Brosch, and Orel by means of a magnetic theodolite, a dipping -needle, and three variation instruments. The extraordinary disturbances -of the needle rendered the determination of exact mean values for the -magnetic constants impossible. The diminution of their intensity was -considerable during the continuance of auroras. In 79° 51′ N. Lat. and -58° 56′ E. Long. the declination amounted to 19½° E. and the inclination -to 82° 22′. The ice-pressures which occurred in December, 1873 together -with the tedious preliminaries in fixing the magnetic instruments, -prevented these officers from carrying out their labours regularly -till the next month. The following are the principal results of these -observations: (1) The magnetic disturbances were of extraordinary -magnitude and frequency. (2) They were closely connected with the aurora; -and they were greater as the motion of the rays was more rapid and -fitful, and the prismatic colours more intense. Quiescent and regular -arches, without changing rays or streamers, exercise almost no influence -on the needle. (3) In all the disturbances the declination needle moved -towards the east, and the horizontal intensity decreased while the -inclination increased. - -6. In spite of the extreme difficulty of describing the appearances -of those fitful and changing lights, I believe that the following -description of Lieutenant Weyprecht will be found equally faithful and -effective:— - -“There in the south, low on the horizon, stands a faint arch of light. It -looks as it were the upper limit of a dark segment of a circle; but the -stars which shine through it in undiminished brilliancy convince us that -the darkness of the segment is a delusion produced by contrast. Gradually -the arch of light grows in intensity and rises to the zenith. It is -perfectly regular; its two ends almost touch the horizon and advance to -the east and west in proportion as the arch rises. No beams are to be -discovered in it, but the whole consists of an almost uniform light of a -delicious tender colour. It is transparent white with a shade of light -green, not unlike the pale green of a young plant which germinates in -the dark. The light of the moon appears yellow, contrasted with this -tender colour so pleasing to the eye, and so indescribable in words, a -colour which nature appears to have given only to the Polar regions by -way of compensation. The arch is broad, thrice the breadth, perhaps, of -the rainbow, and its distinctly marked edges are strongly defined on -the profound darkness of the Arctic heavens. The stars shine through it -with undiminished brilliancy. The arch mounts higher and higher. An air -of repose seems spread over the whole phenomenon; here and there only -a wave of light rolls slowly from one side to the other. It begins to -grow clear over the ice; some of its groups are discernible. The arch is -still distant from the zenith; a second detaches itself from the dark -segment, and this is gradually succeeded by others. All now rise towards -the zenith; the first passes beyond it, then sinks slowly towards the -northern horizon and as it sinks loses its intensity. Arches of light are -now stretched over the whole heavens; seven are apparent at the same time -on the sky, though of inferior intensity. The lower they sink towards the -north, the paler they grow, till at last they utterly fade away. Often -they all return over the zenith, and become extinct, just as they came. - -“It is seldom, however, that an aurora runs a course so calm and so -regular. The typical dark segment which we see in treatises on the -subject, in most cases does not exist. A thin bank of clouds lies on -the horizon. The upper edge is illuminated; out of it is developed a -band of light, which expands, increases in intensity of colour, and -rises to the zenith. The colour is the same as in the arch, but the -intensity of the colour is stronger. The colours of the band change in -a never-ceasing play, but place and form remain unaltered. The band is -broad and its intense pale green stands out with wonderful beauty on the -dark background. Now the band is twisted into many convolutions, but -the innermost folds are still to be seen distinctly through the others. -Waves of light continually undulate rapidly through its whole extent, -sometimes from right to left, sometimes from left to right. Then again -it rolls itself up in graceful folds. It seems almost as if breezes high -in the air played and sported with the broad flaming streamers, the ends -of which are lost far off on the horizon. The light grows in intensity, -the waves of light follow each other more rapidly, prismatic colours -appear on the upper and lower edge of the band, the brilliant white of -the centre is inclosed between narrow stripes of red and green. Out of -one band have now grown two. The upper continually approaches the zenith, -rays begin to shoot forth from it towards a point near the zenith, to -which the south pole of the magnetic needle, freely suspended, points. -The band has nearly reached it, and now begins a brilliant play of rays -lasting for a short time, the central point of which is the magnetic -pole—a sign of the intimate connection of the whole phenomenon with -the magnetic forces of the earth. Round the magnetic pole short rays -flash and flare on all sides; prismatic colours are discernible on all -their edges; longer and shorter rays alternate with each other; waves -of light roll round it as a centre. What we see is the auroral corona; -and it is almost always seen when a band passes over the magnetic pole. -This peculiar phenomenon lasts but a short time—the band now lies on -the northern side of the firmament; gradually it sinks, and pales as it -sinks; it returns again to the south to change and play as before. So -it goes on for hours; the aurora incessantly changes place, form, and -intensity. It often entirely disappears for a short time only to appear -again suddenly, without the observers clearly perceiving how it came and -where it went: simply—it is there. - -“But the band is often seen in a perfectly different form. Frequently -it consists of single rays, which, standing close together, point in an -almost parallel direction towards the magnetic pole. These become more -intensely bright with each successive wave of light; hence each ray -appears to flash and dart continually, and their green and red edges -dance up and down as the waves of light run through them. Often again the -rays extend through the whole length of the band and reach almost up to -the magnetic pole. These are sharply marked but lighter in colour than -the band itself, and in this particular form they are at some distance -from each other. Their colour is yellow, and it seems as if thousands of -slender threads of gold were stretched across the firmament. A glorious -veil of transparent light is spread over the starry heavens; the threads -of light with which this veil is woven are distinctly marked on the -dark background; its lower border is a broad, intensely white band, -edged with green and red, which twists and turns in constant motion. A -violet-coloured auroral vapour is often seen simultaneously on different -parts of the sky. - -“Or again, there has been tempestuous weather, and it is now—let us -suppose—passing away. Below on the ice the wind has fallen, but the -clouds are still driving rapidly across the sky, so that in the upper -regions its force is not yet laid. Over the ice it becomes somewhat -clear; behind the clouds appears an aurora amid the darkness of the -night. Stars twinkle here and there; through the openings of the clouds -we see the dark firmament and the rays of the aurora chasing one another -towards the zenith. The heavy clouds disperse; mist-like masses drive -on before the wind. Fragments of the northern lights are strewn on -every side; it seems, as if the storm had torn the aurora bands to -tatters and was driving them hither and thither across the sky. These -threads change form and place with incredible rapidity. Here is one! -lo, it is gone! scarcely has it vanished before it appears again in -another place. Through these fragments drive the waves of light; one -moment they are scarcely visible, in the next they shine with intense -brilliancy. But their light is no longer that glorious pale green, it -is a dull yellow. It is often difficult to distinguish what is aurora -and what is vapour—the illuminated mists as they fly past are scarcely -distinguishable from the auroral vapour which comes and goes on every -side. - -“But, again another form. Bands of every possible form and intensity -have been driving over the heavens. It is now eight o’clock at night, -the hour of the greatest intensity of the northern lights. For a moment -some bundles of rays only are to be seen in the sky. In the south, a -faint scarcely-observable band lies close to the horizon. All at once -it rises rapidly and spreads east and west. The waves of light begin to -dart and shoot; some rays mount towards the zenith. For a short time it -remains stationary, then suddenly springs to life. The waves of light -drive violently from east to west; the edges assume a deep red and green -colour, and dance up and down. The rays shoot up more rapidly; they -become shorter; all rise together and approach nearer and nearer to the -magnetic pole. It looks as if there were a race among the rays, and that -each aspired to reach the pole first. And now the point is reached, and -they shoot out on every side, to the north and the south, to the east and -the west. Do the rays shoot from above downwards, or from below upwards? -Who can distinguish? From the centre issues a sea of flames; is that sea -red, white, or green? Who can say?—it is all three colours at the same -moment! The rays reach almost to the horizon; the whole sky is in flames. -Nature displays before us such an exhibition of fireworks as transcends -the powers of imagination to conceive. Involuntarily we listen; such -a spectacle must, we think, be accompanied with sound. But unbroken -stillness prevails, not the least sound strikes on the ear. Once more -it becomes clear over the ice, and the whole phenomenon has disappeared -with the same inconceivable rapidity with which it came, and gloomy night -has again stretched her dark veil over everything. This was the aurora -of the coming storm—the aurora in its fullest splendour. No pencil can -draw it, no colours can paint it, and no words can describe it in all its -magnificence. And here below stand we poor men, and speak of knowledge -and progress, and pride ourselves on the understanding with which we -extort from Nature her mysteries. We stand and gaze on the mystery which -Nature has written for us in flaming letters on the dark vault of night, -and ultimately we can only wonder and confess that, in truth, we know -nothing of it.” - - - - -THE EXPLORATION OF KAISER FRANZ-JOSEF LAND. - -_THE SLEDGE JOURNEYS._ - - - - -[Illustration: ORIGINAL MAP of the KAISER FRANZ JOSEF LAND _surveyed by_ -JULIUS PAYER.] - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE EXPLORATION OF KAISER FRANZ-JOSEF LAND RESOLVED ON. - - -1. The necessity of returning home admitted of no question; but the -exploration of the Land of which we had seen hardly anything, beyond -the cliffs that lay in our immediate neighbourhood, was also felt to -be a necessity. That land, which we were all predisposed to imagine as -stretching far beyond this wall of rocks,—of what did it consist? Was it -an island or a group of islands? And those white masses lying on these -lofty ranges, were they glaciers? To these questions no one as yet could -give an answer. But of this there could be neither doubt nor question, -that we could not count on our floe for a moment, and that those were -lost who were not on board the ship if the floe with the ship began to -drift. On the 1st of March the Tyrolese announced, that a fissure had -appeared half-way between the ship and the shore, and the danger of -being cut off became the chief subject of talk, both in the cabin of the -officers and in the quarters of the men. When, however, we considered the -importance of the venture, all hesitation disappeared, and there was not -a man in the ship who would not have made his apprehensions subordinate -to the necessity of exploration. - -2. As the commander of the expedition on shore, I explained to the -council we held on the 24th of February, my plan for the projected -sledge-journeys, namely: that the sledge-parties count on the means of -escape being left behind to supplement those they may have at their -command, and that the depositing of these means be completed before the -sledge-parties start; that the expeditions shall begin between the -10th and 20th of March, be continued for six or seven weeks, and take, -if possible, the following directions:—one along the coast towards the -North, a second towards the West, and a third into the interior, and -each to be concluded by the ascent of a dominating height; that in -the event of the sledge-parties not finding the ship on their return, -they should attempt to go back at once to Europe, and only under the -most urgent circumstances pass a third winter in the ice, though the -superfluous stores, which were to be transported to the land, would to a -certain extent enable them to do this. I engaged also not to extend these -journeys to a date which would prevent the men recruiting their strength -before the return of the whole expedition to Europe. - -3. The exploration of the strange land having been resolved on, the -greatest activity reigned in the ship. There was not a man on board the -_Tegetthoff_ who was not eager to prepare for the sledge-journeys, though -all knew that besides the two Tyrolese only four men were to accompany -me. Every one longed to take part in the exploration of the unknown land, -and the monotony of our life was now exchanged for a state of great -excitement; a great venture had been resolved on, and expectations rose -with the possibility of discoveries. The comparatively short period for -which our stores had now to last enabled us to indulge in what, under -the circumstances, might be called luxury. We could thus dispose of more -than two hundred bottles of wine, which had been reserved for the sick -in the event of a third winter being passed in the ice. Three-and-twenty -men now in three months drank two hundred bottles of wine and smoked -like chimneys the superfluous stores of cigars and tobacco. Potatoes, -preserved vegetables and fruit, were daily on our table. Our allowance -of rum was increased; lights were freely burnt in every corner, and the -novel sensation of luxury was universal. - -4. While we were all living as if the oppressive load under which we had -lain so long had suddenly been removed, in these days of general hilarity -and amid the excitement of new plans, our comrade Krisch drew toward his -sad and melancholy end. From the beginning of February his malady had -made great progress. His body was covered with scorbutic spots; but in -spite of all this the hope of speedy recovery constantly animated our -afflicted companion, who set us a lofty example of the fulfilment of -duty by his zealous activity. In the summer, though already under the -influence of his mortal disease, he had been busy in the construction -of new ice-saws and borers, in order that he might contribute something -to the liberation of the ship, and when he heard of the projected -expeditions to Franz-Josef Land, he gathered sufficient strength to -extort from me the assurance that I would take him with me. But his end -was surely though slowly drawing on; his nights were sleepless, and -pain left him neither day nor night. At the beginning of March a state -of unconsciousness supervened, and the action of his diseased lungs was -now to be heard in an uninterrupted rattling in his throat. Moments of -mental clearness became more infrequent in his delirium; help had become -impossible; all the care of our physician and of the watchers, who never -left him, was now directed merely to the alleviation of his sufferings. -He lingered till we returned from our first sledge expedition on the 16th -of March. - -[Illustration: KRISCH, THE ENGINEER.] - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -OF SLEDGE TRAVELLING IN GENERAL. - - -1. The sledge is pre-eminently the means of geographical exploration in -high latitudes, and as discovery now forms the main purpose of Polar -expeditions, it may be important to describe clearly and precisely the -system we followed, that others may either adopt or improve on our -methods. Thus I will enter into many details, not in order to dwell on -the inconveniences incident to this mode of travelling, but to show -how the greatest amount of safety and protection may be secured to the -sledge-party. - -2. Sledge-journeys presuppose that the ship is safe and secure in a -winter harbour. A ship which has not yet completed its summer voyage -should avoid them as exceedingly hazardous; and as a principle such -expeditions are to be absolutely declined by a ship which is beset in the -ice; the success which may have attended some must by no means stimulate -others to imitate them. Their object is the exploration of lands still -unknown or imperfectly known. They presuppose also the existence of ice, -closely adhering to a coast, on which the journeys are performed, and -this coast-line must run in a northerly direction, if the North Pole -be the goal of discovery. Though sledge-parties follow the coast-line -they actually travel on the frozen sea; for it is never safe to abandon -that line and make for pack-ice at a distance from it. The crossing of -glaciers, however small may be their inclination, is always attended with -danger; and if the route be stopped by a stretch of land whose extent -forbids dragging, it is of course impossible to proceed. The roughness -of the land and its insufficient covering of snow even in winter -sufficiently explain this. A sledge cannot, for any considerable length -of time, be dragged up an inclination exceeding two or three degrees. - -3. The season of the year for sledging must depend on the climate of -particular Arctic localities, and the capacity of the men to endure low -temperatures during the night-camping, and driving snow during the march. -It is advisable, when more than one year is to be spent in the ice, to -begin the more extended sledge-journeys in the first year, because the -capacities of Europeans to endure cold rather decrease than increase. -Sir John Ross, for example, says that his people at the beginning of a -third winter were incapable of bearing hardships, especially those of -travelling on the ice. The best season for sledging must always be that -time of the year when snow-storms are infrequent, for even a healthy and -seasoned party will more easily confront a very low temperature than -driving snow-storms. As a rule, these conditions are found most perfectly -in autumn; and I do not understand the objection which Hayes makes to -this season as being the most damp; whereas as a matter of fact it is the -least so. Autumn journeys are preferable to those in spring, both with -respect to climate and the state of the road; only they must be commenced -early, on account of the rapidly decreasing length of the days.[27] The -darkness of winter puts an end to all sledging, and the excessive cold of -spring renders it difficult. Summer makes it impossible by breaking up -the land-ice, or impedes it by transforming the snow into thaw-water and -sludge. Next to autumn, therefore, the latter part of March, all April, -and a part of May, are most adapted for this purpose. It must at the same -time be remarked, that Captain Lyon (1822) and Dr. Kane regarded March as -peculiarly dangerous on account of the prevalence of storms. - -4. Next to the season, the state of the snow road, depending on the -hardening action of wind and cold, has to be considered. The cold -should not vary more than from -2° to -24° F., because greater frost -transforms the smooth evaporating surface of snow into a rough plain, -bestrewed with sharp pointed crystals, so that the sledge instead of -gliding along encounters the friction, as if of a sandstone surface, -and stops at the least obstacle. Snow of an ivory-like smoothness rarely -occurs; on the contrary, we find the snow in deep layers as fine as -powder, into which we sink knee-deep, or among barriers of hummocks, -miles in extent, which impose enormous détours in the transport of the -baggage. During the journey from 2° to 13° below zero F. constitutes -the pleasantest temperature, and even the nights, under this condition, -are passed without inconvenience by a party inured to exposure. -Snow-storms, however, in their mildest form—snow-drifting—are, at this -moderate temperature, distressing and dangerous. In fact, among all the -contingencies which may occur during a Polar expedition, there is no -severer test of enduring perseverance than dragging a sledge in the face -of drifting snow at a temperature from 13° to 35° below zero F. - -5. The ship in its winter harbour is the only place of refuge, in all -cases where a meeting with Eskimos cannot be counted on. Except for -the accidents of hunting, on which no dependence should be placed, the -country itself affords no kind of means of subsistence; hence all the -necessaries of life must be carried in the sledges. The heavily laden -sledge becomes in truth a ship of the icy wastes, and its loss involves -the destruction of the whole party. In order to lighten its load and yet -prolong the journey as much as possible, supplies of provisions are often -deposited along the routes to be traversed. This may be done, either by -previous shorter journeys, or by leaving behind a part of the provisions -which have been taken from the ship, or by burying the product of the -chase in the manner adopted by fur-hunters and Indians. The danger to -such stores from the inroads of bears or the breaking up of the ice must -be guarded against by a careful selection of localities; and the place -being chosen, the provisions should either be buried four feet deep in -snow between steep rocks, somewhat above the level of the sea, or the -bags containing them should be suspended on the inaccessible faces of -the rocks. The choice of an elevated point is some security against -visits from bears. But it is never advisable to build confidently on -finding the depôt, or to make the possibility of return dependent on -this contingency. A small stock of the necessaries of life should always -be kept in reserve, as a prudent precaution in case the depôt should -be destroyed. If however the depôts remain untouched and uninjured, and -their numbers be considerable, the duration of the journey, which can -be prolonged for thirty or forty days only where provisions are carried -in the sledges, may thus be doubled in extent. The depôts for journeys -in the spring are often formed in the preceding autumn, though their -preservation is of course exposed to great risk. - -6. Sledges are dragged sometimes by men and dogs conjointly, sometimes by -men without dogs, or by dogs alone. Reindeer are found to be unfit for -sledge dragging; although Parry in former days, and Nordenskjöld more -recently, frequently attempted to employ them in this service. Though -a reindeer is able to make with a sledge as many as 120 miles in three -days, it cannot continue such efforts without long periods of repose, -nor drag the heavy loads which are requisite in longer journeys. Besides -this, he who has had any experience in this mode of travelling, knows the -unaccountable capriciousness of these animals, their stubbornness, and -the difficulty of feeding them. Natives alone are able to manage them, -while to strangers they refuse subjection. When the sledges are dragged -by men alone, unexpected contingencies are less to be apprehended, but -at the same time their rate of progress is diminished. In an expedition -calculated to last a month, ten miles constitute the average day’s march, -when circumstances are favourable. If the length of the journey be -prolonged, this average will be considerably diminished. The combination -of men and dogs in the work of dragging accelerates the speed. With -regard to the men employed in this work, it is advisable to engage -experienced mountaineers[28] of great bodily strength, such men being -able to do work for which, it is admitted, sailors have neither training -nor inclination. - -7. No form of sledge travelling, when measured by results, can be -compared with sledging by the help of dogs alone; for this method -enables us to compass the greatest possible distance, and diminishes -the dead-weight of the load in the sledge. Besides this, dogs are not -only active but tractable; they show no fear; they can endure hunger -longer than men, even while making great exertions; they neither drink -nor smoke; neither fuel for the stove to liquefy the snow, nor tent, -nor sleeping bag, need be taken for them; none, in fact, of those many -little things which are indispensable for men. In extreme necessity -they may be even used for food. And since a strong dog is able to drag, -even for a long journey, double of what he needs for his own support, -the surplus falls to the share of the man who accompanies him, and -who is able, therefore, to prolong his absence from the ship. Without -considering the forced marches which Englishmen, Americans, and Russians -have frequently made on the ice with a number of dogs, the employment -of a few dogs in sledge expeditions has such conspicuous advantage over -teams of men, that I would earnestly recommend the following method of -procedure: two teams of dogs, each of two or four strong Newfoundlands, -should be employed, one to be driven by the leader of the expedition and -the other by one of the most experienced and trustworthy of the party. -Each sledge should carry at starting, a weight of from 4 to 7 cwt., i.e. -provisions for thirty to fifty days, only needing a slight supplement -from the products of the chase. Sixteen miles a day, on an average, may -easily be thus accomplished, especially if the rest of the party attached -to each sledge walk on before their respective teams. Distances varying -from 500 to 800 miles may thus be reached, while 300 or at the most 500 -miles are all that men alone in the same time can perform. Journeys of -this kind require much experience, so that those men only are serviceable -who have much practical acquaintance with life in the Arctic wastes, -and not merely with life as it is in the ship, but who are inured to -fatigues and skilled in the use of those precautions which distance from -the ship imperatively demands during the prevalence of extreme cold. With -regard to the route itself, whenever the object is the reaching of higher -latitudes and the exploration of a still unknown country, it is advisable -to choose one from four to eight miles distant from the land. The search -for a route is greatly facilitated whenever we can ascend dominating -heights to enable us to determine our position. Such a course not only -saves us from the necessity of making détours, but affords the only -possibility of being able to touch the land at desirable points and of -ascertaining the character of the intervening districts. A survey may be -made either by triangulation, the base being measured by those who remain -behind in the ship and the summits of the mountains serving as the points -of the triangles, or by the determination of the geographical latitude -and longitude of the different spots. The combination of both methods is -of course most desirable. - -8. The following instruments may be employed in sledge journeys, -according to the degree of exactness which is required: a small universal -instrument, a sextant with an artificial horizon, a pocket chronometer, -an azimuth compass, a boat compass of simple construction, an alcohol and -mercurial thermometer, and two small aneroids. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE EQUIPMENT OF A SLEDGE EXPEDITION. - - -1. The equipment of a sledge expedition on a large scale demands an -amount of circumspection and precision which experience alone can give, -and its safety and success may be endangered by the neglect of apparently -trifling precautions. At a distance from the ship the most formidable -dangers may arise, from allowing the matches to become damp, from the -leaking or the loss of a vessel containing spirit, from the setting fire -to a tent, which only too probably may happen from the carelessness of -the cook, to say nothing of those yet greater perils,—the inability of -some of the party to march, the destruction of depôts of provisions by -bears, or the breaking in of the sea. The first principle in fitting out -such an expedition should be the rejection of everything not absolutely -necessary for the support of life, the instruments only excepted; and -the second, that the whole of the travelling gear should be of the most -perfect and convenient form. The departure from these rules contributed, -among other things, to the melancholy issue of the Franklin expedition. -McClintock speaks most emphatically of the evils of over-loading with -things not absolutely necessary. The success of an undertaking may -be defeated by the neglect even of things apparently insignificant. -Mojsejew’s sledge expedition along the coast of Novaya Zemlya in 1839 -was a proof and illustration of this. It was wrecked within a few days -by the snow-blindness of the entire party, caused by their want of -snow-spectacles. If we except the journeys of the Russian explorers of -the Siberian coast, carried out, however, at the sacrifice of the whole -nomad population, and of all the dogs and reindeer of North Asia—from -which to this day the exhausted country has not recovered—the merit of -the organization of sledge expeditions belongs pre-eminently to the -English. It was by Parry and James Ross that those experiments with -sledges were begun, which have since been brought nearly to perfection -by McClintock.[29] The method thus perfected serves to this day as a -pattern to be imitated, as it enables a party of men, inured to hardships -and fatigues, to pass many weeks without the help of those resources -which only a ship in such icy wastes can afford. I will now endeavour -to describe with sufficient detail the equipment of our sledges in the -journeys we carried out. - -2. The changeableness of the weather during the season for sledging, -and the character of our expeditions, required the employment of three -sledges of different sizes. The smallest of these was a dog-sledge, -and the two others were larger and intended to be drawn by men. The -runners were respectively 6, 8 and 11 feet long, and 1½, 2 and 2¾ inches -broad[30]—gently curved at each end—and about one foot high, so as to -raise the lading above the snow. The sledges were constructed of the best -ash, and carried loads amounting to 7, 12, and 20 cwts. respectively. -The two runners were fastened together by two strong front boards, and -by four cross-pieces of wood firmly lashed to the upright standards of -the sledge, which were themselves dovetailed into the runners. Screws -were sparingly used, and chiefly in the fittings of the two horns of the -sledge, and of the rail on which the rifles were suspended, and which -also was used to push and guide the sledge. The rail was, therefore, of -considerable strength, in order to withstand the pressure of a man’s -force. The runners were shod with steel carefully riveted on. The -accompanying sketch shows the manner in which a sledge is drawn by a -team of men and dogs combined. Those who take the longest steps in the -march should precede, and the less active should be placed in the middle, -so that any slackness may be easily detected; for in a sledge journey it -is disgraceful to draw a weight less than the weight of what we can eat. -The centre trace should never be grasped, as this diminishes the force of -the pull. - -[Illustration: TEAM OF SEVEN MEN AND THREE DOGS.] - -[Illustration: THE COOKING APPARATUS.] - -3. The proper construction of the cooking apparatus is of the greatest -importance, the great principle being to develop heat and prevent its -escape as much as possible. The accompanying woodcut represents an -apparatus which excellently well fulfils this condition. A, is the -inner compartment; B, the holder containing about a bottle of spirit, -with seven wicks; C, the covered pan for cooking; D, the outer case; -and E, a pan filled with snow and fitted with a moveable handle, which, -being placed over an opening in the outer case, utilizes the ascending -heat, which would otherwise escape, to liquefy the snow. The apparatus -should be made of sheet iron, each of its parts of one piece, and there -should be no soldering, in order to diminish the risk of breakage and -the setting fire to the tent by the escape of the spirit in a state -of combustion. These cooking machines should be of different sizes, -according to the number of men in the expedition. The largest of those -used by us consumed ¾lb. of spirits of wine to convert snow, with a -thermometer from 13° to 22° below zero F., into three gallons of boiling -water. On account of the smaller consumption of alcohol, it is better to -use ice than snow for the purpose of cooking. - -4. Alcohol of the greatest purity and strength is the best fuel, and is -most easily transported in vessels containing about ten gallons. Next -to alcohol, stearine is most to be recommended, on account of its great -heating powers; and then train-oil, though the smoke and dirt produced -by it in the tent are almost unbearable evils. Petroleum ought not to be -employed, on account of its dangerous character and its being prejudicial -to health. Wood and coals generate too little heat in proportion to their -bulk. Parry was the first who, in his journey of 1827, employed spirits -of wine; he still used wood and coals in 1820 and Lyon in 1822. - -5. The nights are passed either in snow huts, or in tents. If tents -be used, the climate must determine their material, whether cotton or -sailcloth. A mackintosh floor-cloth should always be spread over the -ground of the tent. It is indispensable to make the walls of the snow -huts two or three feet high, in order to allow room for movement, and -the closed side, _i.e._ the side opposite the entrance, must be made -double, as it is always exposed to the direction of the wind. The tent -entrance must be carefully closed with hooks and rings, and should not -reach to the ground. A tent formed by two poles, about eight feet long, -crossed at each end, with another to rest on these supports, is the most -simple and secure form of erection. During the journey, a small sail -may be advantageously used, whenever the wind is favourable; one of the -tent-poles may be used as a mast, and an “Alpine stock” may serve as a -yard for the sail. - -6. The sledge party passes the night in a common sleeping bag, in which -there may be, under propitious circumstances, smaller separate bags for -each. When the temperature is not below -13° F., the sleeping bag may be -made out of a warm strong quilt; but when the cold is more intense, it -must be made of buffalo-skin, and to prevent its being pulled off during -the night it should be buttoned at the top in the middle. Sheep-skins -cannot be recommended for this purpose, as they are far heavier than -buffalo-skins; and as they more easily collect moisture, so they freeze -more quickly. The sleeping bag should always be wrapped up in the tent -and packed with it on the sledge, so that it may come as little as -possible in contact with the snow. If the temperature should fall below --35° F., the travelling party suffers greatly from the frost even in -such a sleeping bag, and it would then be advisable to lay an inflated -india-rubber mattress under the bag, so that only the legs of the -sleepers should be exposed to the influence of the cold. - -7. As for arms, it is enough to have three double-barrelled Lefaucheux -rifles and one revolver; and even in districts where encounters with -bears may be daily expected, three cartridges a day are a sufficient -stock of ammunition. These should be explosive shells, with steel points. -Small shot cartridges are indispensable on sledge expeditions, as birds -are not unfrequently met with. When the cold is excessive, great caution -must be used with the cock of the lock, as the brittleness of the metal -then causes it to be easily broken; and from the same cause the hammer -will often not stand at half-cock. The guns must not be oiled, as it -sometimes happens that the hammer on full-cock will not go down where -the lock is smeared with oil. Light woollen gloves should be worn for -shooting, in order that the fingers may not be frozen in handling the -guns. - -8. A chest, fixed on the fore-part of the sledge, contains the -instruments used in surveying and in the determination of localities; -also a thermometer and an aneroid barometer, lucifer matches and -cartridges, packed in tin boxes and carefully protected from damp; a -supply of nails and screws, wind-screens for the travellers, sewing -materials, the spoons of the party, extra soles of felt for shoes, -medical stores, brushes, sketch-book, flags, and a supply of light cord. -The pocket-chronometer must be worn in close contact with the body of the -leader of the party, to guard it against the hurtful influences of the -cold. - -9. The provisions should be placed below everything, when the sledge is -loaded. The daily allowance for each man ought to be increased by half -a pound above the usual rations on board ship, so that about 2½ lbs. or -2¾ lbs. of solid food fall to the share of each man, and about an equal -weight to each dog. McClintock allowed 2½ to 3 lbs. a head for the men; -but only 1 lb. pemmican a day for the Eskimo dogs. Hayes calculates -provisions for fourteen dogs for twelve days at 300 lbs.—almost 2 lbs. a -day; and, on another occasion, for fifteen dogs for thirty-eight days, at -800 lbs; and considers 1½ lbs. for Eskimo dogs as too little, when great -demands are made on their strength and endurance. From my own experience, -I should say, that the least diminution of this quantity of nourishment -reduces the capacity to endure great cold and excessive exertions, and -produces, after even a few days, a feeling of lassitude both in the -men and the dogs, harder to endure than even the sensation of hunger. -Parry, in his sledge and boat expedition of 1827, found that 10 oz. of -biscuit and 9 oz. of pemmican were hardly sufficient to sustain a man’s -strength. “It may be useful,” he observes,[31] “to remark, as the result -of absolute experience, that our daily allowance of provisions, although -previously tried for some days on board the ship, and then considered -to be enough, proved by no means sufficient to support the strength of -men living constantly in the open air, exposed to wet and cold for at -least twelve hours a day, seldom enjoying the luxury of a warm meal, and -having to perform the kind of labour to which our people were subject. -I have before remarked, that, previously to our return to the ship, our -strength was considerably impaired, and, indeed, there is reason to -believe, very soon after entering upon the ice the physical energies of -the men were gradually diminishing, although for the first few weeks they -did not appear to labour under any specific complaint. This diminishing -of strength, which we considered to be owing to the want of sufficient -sustenance, became apparent, even after a fortnight, in the lifting of -the bread bags; and I have no doubt that, in spite of every care on the -part of the officers, some of the men, who had begun to fail before we -quitted the ice, would, in a week or two longer, have suffered very -severely, and become a serious incumbrance, instead of an assistance, to -our party; and we were of opinion, that in order to maintain the strength -of men thus employed, for several weeks together, an addition would be -requisite of at least one-third more to the provisions we daily issued.” - -10. To facilitate inspection, it is advisable to portion off the stock -of provisions for each week in separate sacks, and never to open a fresh -sack till the previous one has been emptied. The contents of the sacks -for the latter weeks should be increased a fifth-part at least above the -normal weight; because hunger with its accompanying loss of strength -generally grows in a distressing manner. The provisions should consist of -boiled beef, hard bread, extract of meat, chocolate, grits, pea-sausages, -sugar, rice, condensed milk, and coffee. Tea and the two last mentioned -articles of food have an indescribably reviving effect, especially in -the morning, and enable the party to make long forced marches, warding -off the great enemy of such expeditions—thirst. Pemmican and fatty -substances, however, when the temperature is very low, must be used in -moderation, inasmuch as they tend to promote this evil. The fact that -we require more carbon in our food in winter than in summer, and that -the colder a country is, the more of this element should be found in -its nourishment, may, indeed, be true for life in settled abodes or on -board an Arctic ship, but does not hold good of sledge journeys. As fresh -meat affords, under all circumstances, the strongest nourishment, the -business of hunting must not be left to chance. In order to diminish the -weight, all preserved foods—with the exception of milk—are turned out of -their tin cases, and kept in small bags. Wherever there is a certainty -of finding drift-wood, I would recommend, as Back does, vermicelli or -macaroni, which can then be properly prepared. Good strong tea is of -the greatest importance, though at first we set little store by it. A -small ration of rum daily is almost indispensable in sledge journeys, -especially when the temperature is very low. Franklin (1819) and John -Ross (1829) both pronounce in favour of the moderate use of this spirit, -though they were of opinion that rum, when the crews were leading an -inactive life on board ship, promoted scurvy. The provisions we have -specified do not altogether correspond with the views of earlier Polar -navigators. Pachtussow and Ziwolka provided themselves in their sledge -journeys (1835) with the following stores:—Salted meat, barley-meal, -grits, biscuit, butter, tea and sugar; and Parry’s provisions, in 1827, -consisted of pemmican, wheat-meal, sweet cocoa-powder, biscuit, and 300 -lbs. of concentrated rum.[32] Hayes preferred dried meat, beef-soup, and -potatoes to the usual pemmican. - -11. The equipment should be supplemented by the following articles:—A -small cask of strong rum, a funnel, an india-rubber bottle to measure out -the daily allowance of spirit, a snow-shovel, and a stand for surveying -purposes. The sketch given below exhibits a sledge laden and packed for a -long journey. - -[Illustration: THE SLEDGE WITH ITS LOAD. - - _a_, Spirit-can. - _f_, Axe, Thermometer. - _h_, Dog-sledge. - _i_, Cooking-machine. - _k_, Box of instruments. - _m_, Tent and sleeping-bags. - _n_ and _z_, Surveying-stand and tent-pole. - _o_, Sledge-sail - _r_, Sacks of provisions. - _s_, India-rubber bottle. - _t_, Funnel. - _u_, Shovel.] - -12. To obviate the danger of being cut off from the ship by the breaking -up of the ice, or to enable the party to push on further, boats have -frequently been taken in sledge expeditions. For such purposes, boats of -thin metal or of wood are not to be commended; those made of leather, -india-rubber, or waterproof sailcloth, are preferable. But even when -their wooden frame-work is made as light as possible, their weight is not -less than 300 or 400 lbs. The addition of this weight, and the difficulty -of lading them, are so much felt on such journeys, that the boat is -usually left behind at a little distance from the ship, as was the case -in Kane and Hayes’ journeys up Smith’s Sound. The case is different, -however, in journeys which have to be carried out partly on the ice -and partly—and, indeed, chiefly—on the sea. In such cases, boats of -sufficient size to carry both the crews and the baggage are requisite. -The whale boat of the Norwegian whalers, carrying seven or eight men, -is best adapted for this purpose; although, in long reaches of deep -snow, they have their inconveniences, as almost double the number of men -is then needed to drag them along. The boats in such expeditions are -transported over the ice when the snow road is good, or only passably -good, by means of the largest of the sledges we have described; but, if -the snow be very deep, it would be advisable to use sledges with three -runners underneath, boarded over, so as to prevent the load from sinking -into the snow.[33] - -13. As the sledge party has to endure for several weeks all the horrors -of Arctic weather, the article of clothing demands special care and -consideration. Abundance of woollen under-garments and light furs best -answer this purpose. The woollen under-garments should not fit too -closely, so as to hinder the circulation of the blood; and the fur coat -should be wide, and reach half-way down the leg. It would be a great -mistake to take the clothing of the northern nomad as our pattern. Our -powers of enduring the severities of Arctic climate are inferior to -theirs, so that we cannot attempt to imitate their hardihood; but our -own industries enable us to surpass all their resources. During the -march, a long garment of lamb’s-wool, to which a belly-band is sewn, two -stout linen shirts, one or two pairs of woollen drawers, strong cloth -trousers, a pair of common mittens, and a light hood, are sufficient for -all temperatures. Wind, especially if it be accompanied with drifting -snow, necessitates fur coats, with hoods attached, two pairs of woollen -gloves, and a band of flannel to protect the nose, buttoned on to the -hood. Wind-guards, made of strong leather serving to protect the face -against wind and frost, must not be neglected. Flannel masks, with holes -cut for nose and mouth, are of little use, as they are completely frozen -in a few hours. A shawl wrapped round the mouth is, after all, the best -protection against cold wind, and the least hindrance to respiration. As -the shortest beard is converted at once into a glacier by the freezing -of the breath, it is necessary to cut it off. The accompanying figure -exhibits the Arctic sledger prepared for the eventualities of cold. It -need scarcely, however, be remarked, that no absolutely general rules can -be laid down in the matter of clothing, which depends on the different -capacities of resistance in individuals, and also on the variations -of the weather. When the temperature is not more than 2° or 13° below -zero F., some diminution of the garments enumerated above may safely be -allowed. Knitted woollen hoods are sufficient protection for the head -in almost all cases. Gloves, not intended to be used in drawing and in -handling the instruments, should be made of lamb’s-wool, and the fingers -lined with flannel. The stockings also should be strengthened with -flannel at the heels and toes, and should be kept as dry as possible; -because wet feet are inevitably frozen when the cold is excessive. Hence, -also, the stockings must be changed at night and dried, by being laid on -the chest during sleep. - -[Illustration: THE DRESS OF THE ARCTIC SLEDGER.] - -14. In the matter of furs, no better can be selected than buffalo-skin, -or wash-leather made of bear’s hide; though no covering can surpass that -which is made from the skins of birds—Eider-ducks, for example—which -is equally good for either summer or winter, during the march, or -even during sleep, and which need be exchanged for furs only when the -temperature during a night-camping falls 35° to 58° below zero F. -Sheep-skin and wolf-skin are too heavy; and the reindeer-skin, though -so light and warm, is not suitable, as it at once loses the hair when -exposed to damp, and does not last a winter with constant use; but of -these, the best are those of the young reindeer killed in autumn. Some -Arctic travellers, in the absence of furs, have used an extra covering -of light sailcloth, as a protection against the drifting snow, which -penetrates the clothes and stiffens them. We have tried this experiment, -but were not convinced of its success. In Parry’s second expedition, his -people are said to have worn their furs next to their bodies, and to have -found this warmer than the wearing of woollens next the skin; but this I -am inclined to regard as a mistake. When furs are worn during the march, -their congelation and consequent increase of weight are diminished by -wearing the furs sometimes inside and sometimes outside. The inhabitants -of Lapland and Kamschatka constantly wear the fur outside; and some -Eskimo tribes wear double furs—one turned inside, the other outside. If -cloth clothes are worn, their surface should be smooth, so as not to -harbour the driving snow; and all buttons should be of a large size, as -frozen fingers find it easier to manage them. - -15. The covering for the feet of a sledge-party should be sailcloth -boots, lined with flannel, and soled with stout felt; and it is not -advisable to strengthen the soles by plaiting them with string, as the -boot thereby loses that perfect pliability which is indispensable to -preserve the foot from the danger of frost-bite. Hence also any covering -of india-rubber is objectionable. Leather boots must not be used in -sledging; because they become utterly unpliable at a low temperature, and -make frost-bites inevitable; and when once put on they cannot be pulled -off without being cut to pieces. All boots should be so large and their -legs so wide, that they may be put on conveniently over the trousers; -and sailcloth boots especially, because of their shrinking from frost, -should be so wide, that they can be put on easily over three pairs -of strong woollen stockings. The Eskimo, the inhabitants of Lapland, -Kamschatka, and other northern nomad tribes, wear the dried grass of -_Cyperacites_ as their foot-coverings; and this might be recommended, -if it did not also involve the use of skin-coverings for the feet, in -which no European can make long marches, without their being inflamed. -Because, in the Arctic regions, the condensation of moisture in the shape -of ice is an enemy constantly to be guarded against, all stuffs are to be -avoided which tend to harbour moisture, especially the linings of coats, -pockets, and so forth, made of cotton instead of pure wool. India-rubber -garments must never be used, as they prevent evaporation from the body. - -16. If dogs are used to draw the large sledges along with men, they -ought to be harnessed in the way which the sketch on a preceding page -represents. The dog-sledge should be laid across the hinder part of -the principal sledge, and made fast to it. If, however, dogs alone are -employed, and at walking-pace, they are harnessed in pairs, one pair -behind the other. Each dog should draw by a single trace, as we can only -thus avoid the constant entangling of the rope-traces. If more than four -dogs be employed, they cannot well go in pairs one before the other, but -must be harnessed to the sledge in a row, side by side, and the traces -must be long, so as to enable the most powerful and best-trained dogs, -which are placed in the middle, to be somewhat in advance of the others. -The dogs should be selected according to the special purpose for which -they are to be employed; for, while an Eskimo dog will run, but shirks -the effort of drawing heavy loads, a Newfoundland submits to its load, -but, goes at a foot’s-pace. In the Hudson’s Bay territory a cross between -a wolf and a dog is regarded as the best animal for draught, because it -surpasses the dog proper in strength and courage. Newfoundlands of pure -breed are, on the whole, most to be recommended, and next to them, the -Eskimo dog, which has a good deal of the character of the wolf, though he -is difficult to hold. These dogs, too, although they are indescribably, -thievish, voracious, and ill-tempered, in consequence of their harsh -treatment and bad feeding, have this further distinguishing quality, -that they will stick to a retreating bear with wonderful pertinacity -till the hunter comes up to kill it. European dogs are only to be taken -when an expedition has not the opportunity of procuring dogs of the -kinds we have mentioned; but, if they be employed, they should be strong -and hardy, with long hair and thick coat. The purity of their breed is -of less consequence than their being good-tempered, as fights between -large dogs end in the destruction of the weaker. The Ostjaks, in the -neighbourhood of Obdorsk, are the nomad tribes nearest Europe who use -dogs for sledges; and their breed of dogs is far superior to any other, -either in Lapland or Northern Russia. The dogs of Russia in Europe were -employed in the expedition (1839) of Ziwolka and Mojsejew to Novaya -Zemlya; but it does not appear that they answered the expectations which -had been formed. In sledge-expeditions the dogs are allowed to sleep in -the open air; but they must be fastened to stakes, lest the scenting -some animal should tempt them to run off. We ourselves, however, allowed -a small tent, weighing little, for the few dogs which accompanied us. -Dogs whose paws have not been early hardened by long marches on the -ice, easily hurt their feet, which do not heal during the journey; and -wounds can only be prevented from getting worse by a daily application -of collodion and brandy, and by a protection of flannel; and this is the -treatment we pursued to Jubinal in the journey we are about to describe. -Whenever a dog is exhausted by dragging, it is generally blooded in the -tail or ear after the fashion followed by the Siberian tribes. - -[Illustration: TOROSSY IN HARNESS.] - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE FIRST SLEDGE JOURNEY - - -1. From the preceding remarks on the equipment of a sledge, the reader -will, perhaps, have gained a pretty clear notion of the procedure -by which we are enabled to travel for weeks in Arctic wastes. This -description will have shown him the various and manifold contingencies -against which a leader has to provide, if he is to conduct an expedition -safely and successfully, especially if he commands a body of men, who are -neither so careful nor so observant as those who accompanied me in the -sledge journeys I am about to describe. - -2. I now pass to the first of these, the object of which was to determine -the position and general relations of the new Land, which still remained -a mystery to us, to reconnoitre a route for its exploration towards the -north, and to ascertain what we could of the character of the intervening -regions. I regarded the ascent of the high mountain—Cape Tegetthoff—which -we had seen before us for months, as the preliminary step towards the -attainment of these ends. Its great distance from the ship had rendered -abortive all the attempts to reach it which had been made at the end -of last autumn. With the beginning of March (1874) the sledging was -now to commence in reality. Though the sun had returned on the 24th of -February, it was seldom visible in the remaining days of that month; a -heavy water-sky overspread the southern heavens, and the only cheerful -precursors of spring were the birds which once more appeared in our -neighbourhood. The snow had been distressingly soft, but the north-east -winds which prevailed during the first days of March hardened it. When -these winds fell, the temperature also fell, and although the beginning -of March is regarded as a time little favourable for sledge travelling -on account of the excessive cold, our impatience for action overcame all -doubts and fears, and on the 9th one of our larger sledges stood ready, -laden and packed for an expedition, equipped for a week. It carried an -extra quantity of provisions, which were intended to form depôts. From -the general store we took 39 lbs. of hard bread, 5 lbs. of pemmican, 16 -lbs. of boiled beef, 6½ lbs. of lard, 1 lb. of pea-sausage, ½ lb. of -salt and pepper, 6 lbs. of rice, 2 lbs. of grits, 5 lbs. of chocolate, 5 -gallons of rum, 1 lb. of extract of meat, 2 lbs. of condensed milk, and -8 gallons of alcohol. The rest of the baggage consisted of such articles -as we have described above. We had besides 3 breech-loaders and 100 -cartridges, of which 40 were fired away. - -3. I selected for my party six men and three dogs, Gillis, Torossy and -Sumbu. As I reserved the picked men of our crew for the contemplated -longer journey towards the north, some of the above were not altogether -adequate to the work. My two Tyrolese, however, Haller and Klotz, -possessed great endurance, Lukinovich and Cattarinch in a lesser degree; -as for Pospischill and Lettis, they would have done credit to Falstaff’s -corps. As Pospischill suffered from lung disease, Lukinovich from -palpitation of the heart, Haller from chronic rheumatism, and Lettis from -a tendency to bronchial catarrh, it may be inferred how necessity alone -enabled them to do what they did, when the temperature fell lower than we -expected. - -4. On the morning of the 10th of March we left the ship, and the “Flag of -the sledge journeys,” which had hung for so long a time over my berth, -now fluttered in the fresh breeze which blew from the north-west. So -much had this “at last,” excited me, that I could not sleep a wink, and -those who were starting on the expedition as well as those who remained -behind were as much agitated, as if the conquest of Peru or Ophir were -contemplated, and not the exploration of lands buried under snow and -ice. With indescribable joy we began the mechanical drudgery of dragging -the sledge, each of us at first wearing a mask, like the members of the -“Vehmgericht,” until we became habituated to the withering effects -of the wind. As we moved along the level surface of the land ice of -the preceding autumn, after forcing our way through the hummocky ice, -which had formed itself on the north of the ship, we saw behind us some -black spots approaching at full speed. These were the dogs we had left -behind, which insisted on travelling with us, and much craft and force, -supplemented by the logic of a few shots, were needed to force them to -return to the ship. My companions interpreted the conduct of the dogs -refusing to remain with the ship as a sign foreboding the death of our -engineer. As the lading of our sledge amounted to about 6 or 7 cwts. and -the snow was favourable for sledging, we were able to advance at the -unusual rate of 100 paces in a minute, and in two hours we passed the -south-west Cape of Wilczek Island. Close to this Cape we saw an iceberg -which had fallen on the ice and crushed it all round, and sheltering -ourselves from the wind under the lee of another, we took our mid-day -rest, with the thermometer at -15° F. As the sun at noon was so little -above the horizon that we got uncertain results for the determination -of the latitude, I preferred during this journey to begin the surveying -and, at the same time, the determination of the localities of Franz-Josef -Land, by a triangulation of elevated points, to which the measurement of -a base was afterwards to be added. Hence the ascent of high mountains -formed part of our programme. - -5. We continued our march till the ship disappeared from our eyes, and -the route now lost its level character and assumed the appearance of a -very chaos of ice. In the evening we reached a high rocky promontory -of Wilczek Island, near which rose some stranded icebergs, and against -which the ice-sheet of the sea, impelled by the waves, was dashed and -broken. Close in shore the ice was in violent motion, and as we passed -over the “ice-foot,” to the amazement of all, three of our men fell into -a fissure. All through the night we heard in our tent, which we erected -on the land, the cracking and crashing sounds emitted by the ice. Next -day—March 11th—making a very early start, the thermometer at -14° F., we -saw a water-sky to the south, and, after ascending a height, close before -us lay the sea, covered with young ice. Heavy mists were ascending from -fissures, and the level surface of the young ice glowed with the colours -of the morning. Immediately under the coast of the island lay a narrow -band of piled-up ice, with traces of recent pressures, and thinking that -the interior was impassable to a laden sledge, we began our toilsome -march along its rocky coasts. - -6. We were in no mood to observe the picturesque character of our -route, for our labours in dragging the sledge over the hummocky ice -were excessive. We had frequently to unload the sledge or dig away an -obstacle which could not be evaded. The conduct of the dogs was not -quite faultless; and as for my companions, if one of them turned round, -or if a bird flew past, this was enough to make the rest pause in their -pulling, with the ready excuse of surprise at the circumstance. If -in such cases Klotz failed to exert his strength, the sledge at once -came to a standstill. We pressed on through icebergs on each side of -us, shattered by the frost, and amid a constant noise of cracking and -splitting produced by the increasing cold. At length, after several -hours, we came out on an open level and crossed the gentle slope of a -snow-covered spit of land. The rugged mountainous front of Hall Island, -and the long glacier walls of M’Clintock Island, now rose before us. Our -course lay clearly marked out: it ran in a north-westerly direction over -a snow-covered level of old ice towards Cape Tegetthoff. Soon, however, -the mist began to rise, and floated over the wide expanse of ice, and -so obscured every object that we were able to continue our journey in -the twilight only by means of the compass. We determined our course by -the aid of small hummocks of ice, which rose above the general level -surface, but so great was the difficulty of keeping a definite line in -the mist, that we were compelled to halt every four hundred paces, and -correct our route by the larger compass, which often showed that we had -deviated 20° to 40° in azimuth from the true line, and in some cases the -error amounted to even 90°. To add to all this, snow began to fall, so -that we were almost blinded, and hence it was that a bear for some time -followed our footsteps, unseen by any of the party. When we first sighted -him, though he was at a little distance off, he looked enormously large -in the mist. We quickly seized our rifles, and one of our men firing -precipitately, the bear disappeared, leaving no track of blood to show -whether it had been wounded. But bears, even when severely wounded, often -leave no such trace; hence doubtless the origin of the assertion, that a -wounded bear can dress its own wound, using its paw to apply snow to the -injured part. - -7. It was our practice in this, as well as in the following expeditions, -to rest at noon for an hour or two, and putting up the tent take a -meal of hot boiled beef. But the inferiority of an untrained to a -well-trained sledge party was seen even in such operations. Much time -was wasted; in like manner and from the same cause, the coffee-making in -the morning, the preparation for the march, the taking down of the tent, -the loading of the sledge, occupied my party for hours, and the smallest -snow-drifting sufficed to blow away all their moral force. As we left -the tent, the bear stood again before us, but disappeared as suddenly -when we seized our rifles. In the course of a few hours we passed some -icebergs shaped like huge tables, and when the wind rose and lifted up -the mist for a few moments, we saw the rocky heights of Cape Tegetthoff -towering above us at no great distance. The snow began to drive directly -in our faces, and meanwhile the bear had followed our steps, often -hidden from our sight by the vehement gusts of snow, sometimes on our -flank, sometimes in our rear, keeping at about 200 paces distance from -us. By feigning unconcern we hoped to stimulate his courage to attack -us, reckoning on converting him into food. Suddenly, however, he ran -towards us, and our apparent indifference disappeared. In a moment we -stood ready to receive him; the sledge was drawn across the line of his -advance, and each casting off his drag-rope, knelt and aimed over the -sledge. The directions were to aim at the lower part of the skull, and -to fire only when he was quite close to us. The dogs were moved to the -further side of the sledge, and covered with its sail. Of the other four -men, two held the dogs, a third laid hold of a revolver, and the fourth -provided himself with some cartridges ready for contingencies. After -the completion of these preparations, no one either moved or spoke. The -bear meanwhile, moved steadily towards us, stopping for a moment at the -spot where a piece of bread had intentionally been placed. Just as he -stopped to examine it, three shots in rapid succession went off, and -the bear, hit in the head and chest, lay dead on the ground. The dogs, -being let loose, rushed on their fallen foe and began to tear his shaggy -skin. While we were cutting the bear up, they sat down and watched us, -occasionally dipping their tongues in the warm red blood and snapping -up the morsels which were thrown to them. The bear we had shot was a -female, six feet in length; and after cutting off the tongue and the best -portions for meat, we continued our march in the teeth of the driving -snow. One of our people had cut his finger badly in dressing the bear, -and as the application of chloride of iron did not suffice to stop the -violent bleeding, we were compelled to halt and erect our tent about six -o’clock in the evening. - -8. When we set out again on the morning of the 12th (the thermometer -marking -26° F.) all round us was a red undulating waste, and the driving -gusts of snow, which hid from our view the nearest rocky heights, pricked -us as if with countless sharp-pointed darts. Such drifting snow, although -it greatly impedes travelling, cannot be compared with the tremendous -snow-storms I had experienced in Greenland. The same precursory signs -were, however, common to both—extraordinary refractions, brilliant -auroras, perfect calms, and a dull close atmosphere. In taking down the -tent, which was covered with wreaths of snow, every article which fell -in it was at once buried under its drifting waves. Of all the tests of -endurance in Arctic journeys none exceeds that of continuing the march -amid driving snow at a low temperature. Some of my company who had not -been accustomed to walk in such tremendous weather, in attempting to -button on their wind-screens and nose-bands and fasten up their coats -after we had left the tent, at once had their fingers frozen. Our -sail-cloth boots were as hard as stone, and every one took to stamping to -preserve his feet from frost-bite. Under such circumstances the sledge -is not packed with that precision which is the only preservative against -the loss of the various articles of its contents. To watch against this -contingency is the special business of the man who pushes the sledge -from behind. Hurry and confusion were visible in the bag of provisions -being left open. At last everything was ready: the march began, men -and dogs, dragging the sledge along, all coated with snow and entirely -covered except the eyes. In a momentary lull of the wind, we discovered -that our march the day before had led us far too much to the south, and -Cape Tegetthoff now lay before us directly north. Thither we now directed -our steps, and as the wind still came from the north-west, we struck our -sledge sail. As a consequence of this marching against the wind, which is -most severely felt by the leaders of the team, all, even Klotz, had their -noses frost-bitten. We had much difficulty in persuading him to rub his -with snow, urging that his nose did not belong to himself alone, but that -seven noses and fourteen feet were under the general supervision of the -leader, and that each had a share in this general property. - -9. As we came under the land, the violence of the snow-drifting somewhat -abated, and in about two hours a calm set in. Close before us lay the -plateau of Cape Tegetthoff, with its steep precipitous sides. From its -summit a line of basalt rocks descended towards the east, ending in two -columns, each about two hundred feet high. We reached them just before -noon, and the weather being propitious we determined the latitude by -observation and found it to be 80° 6′ N.L. The force of the tide not -being able to raise or burst the bay-ice, the thaw-water of the spring -collects itself on the coast-edge in small lakes. Close under one of -these towers of dark-coloured basalt, we set up our tent; and while our -cook was preparing our dinner of bear’s flesh we lay in the sun under the -rocks in order to dry our clothes, which were coated all over with ice. - -[Illustration: CAPE TEGETTHOFF.] - -10. About one o’clock I set off with the Tyrolese to the plateau of Cape -Tegetthoff. Those who remained behind spent their time in rubbing their -feet with snow. Lettis had reserved for us the unpleasant surprise that -his feet had been frost-bitten for three hours, and that he had lost -all feeling in them. We marched for an hour on the snow, which lay in -tender azure-blue shadow under the long line of basalt rocks, and after -climbing for another hour over rosy-coloured masses of snow lying between -crystallized rocks, we reached the highest point of the undulating -plateau. No ascent could be more interesting, made, as it was, in a -country so utterly unknown. Haller and Klotz were born mountaineers, and -during my surveys in Tyrol I had made a hundred ascents of mountains of -10,000 feet, without the tension of expectation I now experienced, as -I mounted this summit. The ascent was not without difficulty, and it -taxed the extraordinary dexterity of the two Tyrolese to climb up steep -icy precipices in their sail-cloth boots. It was about three o’clock in -the afternoon when we reached the summit; the temperature had fallen to --30° F. (in the tent the thermometer at the same time marked -24° F. and -in the ship -20° F.). By a barometrical measurement we found the height -to be 2,600 feet. Contrary to expectation the view from the top proved -to be limited. In a northerly direction, the atmosphere, laden with -innumerable ice crystals, possessed so little transparency that Cape -Berghaus, at no distance off, appeared to be covered with a thick veil, -and all distant objects were enveloped in a dense mist. Fogs lay over the -interior to the west, and banks of reddish vapour covered the icy ocean -to the south. Some narrow strips of open water sparkled in the sun. After -making a sketch of all that could be distinctly seen, and determining the -bearings of some points, we returned to the tent. Here we found Lettis -and Cattarinch engaged in rubbing with snow the hands of Lukinovich, -which had been frost-bitten, while he was occupied in rubbing the feet of -Lettis. - -11. Nothing except the wind makes men so sensitive to cold as the want -of exercise. The fall of the temperature had been felt far more by those -who remained behind, than by ourselves. Even the wonderful beauty of -the snow-clad summit bathed in rosy light failed to modify their severe -judgment of Franz-Josef Land. Instead of greeting us with supper ready -at the appointed hour, which he ought to have prepared without the use -of spirit, the bewildered cook was vainly endeavouring to roast bear’s -flesh over smoky chips and sticks, and we got our supper only after I -had served out a bottle of alcohol. We then went to rest in the common -sleeping bag, but soon began to shake with cold, which threw Pospischill, -who took oil twice a day for lung-disease, into a fever. When I left the -tent to look at the thermometers, the mercury in one had gone down into -the bulb and was frozen, and the spirits of wine in the other showed 41° -below zero (C.). Some hot grog, for which a whole bottle of strong rum -was used, put us all right, raising the temperature of our bodies by one -or two degrees. After this refreshment we all fell into a deep sleep, -which was incommoded only by the increasing dampness of our clothes. - -12. We started again about six o’clock on the morning of March 13. The -sun had not risen, the spirit of wine thermometer indicated nearly 44° -(C.) below zero, and a piercingly cold breeze met us from the land. -Even on board the ship the temperature at the same time marked 37° (C.) -below zero, a difference to be ascribed to the influence of the land -in lowering the temperature. In Greenland we observed still greater -deviations of this nature, which seem to show that climatical influences -are subject to great variations, even in places which are in close -proximity. Cape Berghaus was our goal. From its summit a general view -of the distribution of the land under 80° N. lat. was reasonably to be -expected. Long before the rise of the sun, the hard snowy plains were -tinted with a pale green reflected light, and the icebergs wore a dull -silvery hue, while their outlines constantly changed and undulated. Our -road was formed from millions of glittering snow crystals, so hard that -the sledge glided over them with difficulty and with a creaking noise, -and after three hours, the exertion of dragging had so exhausted us that -we determined to unload the sledge, and, after melting some snow, to wet -its runners with water. A layer of ice was immediately formed on them, -which greatly facilitated the labour of dragging, till it was rubbed -off. A broad inlet surrounded by picturesque mountains—Nordenskjöld -Fiord—had opened out on our left, and as a large glacier formed the -background of this fiord, we took a westerly direction in order to study -the ice-formation. The heights surrounding this fiord seemed equally as -well fitted as Cape Berghaus for the object we had in view. The further -we penetrated into it, the deeper became the layer of fine powdery snow -which the wind had deposited in this hollow. At noon we reached the high -precipitous termination of Sonklar-Glacier, and pitched our tent by an -iceberg. - -[Illustration: MELTING SNOW DURING A HALT NEAR CAPE BERGHAUS.] - -13. In the afternoon, accompanied by the Tyrolese, I ascended a -mountain—Cape Littrow—whose height, by means of an aneroid barometer, -we ascertained to be 2,500 feet. From its summit we had a view of the -mountains of Hall Island, and of the islands which lay to the east. -Not a breath of wind was stirring, and the atmosphere was clearer than -usual, so that, without suffering in the least degree from cold, I could -work for three hours, first in sketching our surroundings and then in -taking observations. From south-west to north-east the peaks of distant -mountains rose above the summits of those in the foreground. This view, -while it assured us that the land we had named after our monarch must be -of great extent, stimulated our impatience to know its extent, and the -nature and relation of its constituent parts. The Wüllersdorf Mountains -were the extreme limits of what could be known for the present, and -their three peaks glowed in the setting sun above the dark edges of the -terraces of the Sonklar-Glacier, whose broad terminal front over-hung the -frozen bay of Nordenskjöld Fiord. It was eight o’clock in the evening -when we returned to our tent, not, however, before we had made suitable -preparations for the observation of the movement of the glacier. Sumbu -and Torossy were our companions; but we had to tie them with a rope both -in going up and coming down, and we ourselves only mastered the great -steepness of the cone of the mountain by steps which Klotz, who went -on before, hewed with incomparable dexterity and precision in the ice. -During the night the temperature fell to 46° below zero (C.) (-47° F. -in the ship), and I do not believe that we could have passed through it -without the help of grog. We drank it as we lay close together muffled up -in our sleeping bag. It was boiling hot, and so strong, that under other -circumstances it must have made us incapable of work, yet in spite of the -grog, we suffered much all through the night from cold and our frozen -clothes. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE COLD. - - -1. THE coldest day we had during this expedition was the 14th of March. -By six o’clock on the morning of that day the Tyrolese and I stood on -the summit of the precipitous face of the Sonklar-Glacier. The others -remained behind to clear the tent of snow, and to bury a small depôt of -provisions in an iceberg which was close at hand. The sun had not yet -risen, though a golden gleam behind the glaciers of Salm Island indicated -his near approach. At last the sun himself appeared, blood-red, glowing -with indistinct outline through the mists, and surrounded with parhelia, -which generally occur when the cold is great. The tops of the high snowy -mountains were first touched with rosy light, which gradually descended -and spread over the icy plains, and the sun like a ball of fire shone at -length clearly through the frosty mist, and everything around seemed on -fire. As the sun even at noon was but a few degrees above the horizon, -this wonderful colouring lasted throughout the day, and the mountains, -whose steepest sides were covered with a frosty efflorescence, shone -like glass in this radiant light. The alcohol thermometer soon after -we came on the glacier fell to 59° 1′ (F.) below zero,[34] and a light -breeze blowing from the interior, which would have been pleasant enough -on a March day in Europe, exposed me, while engaged in the indispensable -work of drawing and measuring, to such danger, that though I worked -under the shelter of my Tyrolese companions as a protection against the -cold, I was constantly compelled to rub my stiffened and benumbed hands -with snow. We had taken some rum with us, and as each took his share, -he knelt down and allowed another to shake it into his mouth, without -bringing the metal cup in contact with his lips. This rum, though it was -strong, seemed to have lost all its strength and fluidity. It tasted like -innocent milk, and its consistence was that of oil. The bread was frozen -so hard that we feared to break our teeth in biting it, and it brought -blood as we ate it. The attempt to smoke a cigar was a punishment rather -than an enjoyment, because the icicles on our beards always put them -out, and when we took them out of our mouths they were frozen. Even the -shortest pipes met the same fate. The instruments I used in surveying -seemed to burn when I touched them, and the medals which my companions -wore on their breasts felt like hot iron. - -[Illustration: ON THE SONKLAR-GLACIER.] - -2. The phenomena of cold which we had the opportunity of observing -during this journey, and which I immediately recorded, will perhaps -justify a short break in my narrative while I attempt to describe them. -The horrors of a Scythian winter are an ancient belief, and it used to -be counted wisdom to shun the zones where men were frozen, as well as -the zones where men were scorched. But it has been assumed, with great -exaggeration, that a hot climate makes men sensual and timid, while a -cold climate renders them virtuous and bold. There is far more truth in -the opinion held by some observers, and especially by Polar navigators, -that cold is depressing in its influence, and enfeebles the powers of -the will. At first it stimulates to action, but this vigour is quickly -followed by torpidity; exertion is soon succeeded by the desire to rest. -Persons exposed to these alternations of increased action and torpor feel -as if they were intoxicated. From the stiffness and trembling of their -jaws they speak with great effort, they display uncertainty in all their -movements and the stupor of somnambulists in their actions and thoughts. -Most of the circumpolar animals escape, as much as they can, the horrors -of the frost: some migrate; others, burying themselves in holes, sleep -throughout the winter. The fish, which are found in the small pools of -sweet water on the land are frozen in when these pools freeze, and awake -to life and movement again only when the pools are thawed. - -3. The human body, with an inner warmth amounting to 95°-100° F., is -exposed in the wastes of North America and Siberia to frightful cold, -the extremes of which have been noted by many different observers. Back -recorded in Fort Reliance, Jan. 17, 1833, the temperature -67° F.; Hayes, -March 17, 1861, -69° F.; Nevérow, in Jakutzk, Jan. 31, 1838, -74° F.; -Kane, -69° F.; Maclure, Jan. 1853, -73° F.; John Ross, 1831, -56° F.; and -Parry, 1821, -55° F.; while the lowest temperature which has hitherto been -observed in the Alpine countries of Europe is only -24° F. In consequence -of the difficulty of observing the extremes of cold, lower temperatures -than these can scarcely ever have been registered. - -4. In order to illustrate the effect of an extraordinarily low -temperature on the human frame, the best point to start from is the -imagination of a man exposed without clothes to its influence. At 37° or -50° (C.) of cold a misty halo would encompass him, the edges of which -would have, under certain circumstances, the colours of the rainbow. -It is evident that the moisture of the body rapidly coming forth and -becoming visible in the cold air would cause this mist, which would -decrease with the heat of the body, and disappear on the death of the -frozen man. The purpose of clothing is to counteract as much as possible -this twofold loss of warmth and moisture, which is the principal cause -of the fearful Arctic thirst. But even clothed men exposed to so low -a temperature present a strange appearance. When they are dragging a -sledge on the march their breath streams forth like smoke, which is soon -transformed into a mass of needles of ice, almost hiding their mouths -from view; and the snow on which they tread steams with the heat which it -receives from the snow beneath. The countless crystals of ice, which fill -the air and reduce the clearness of day to a dull yellow twilight, make -a continual rustling noise; their fall in the form of fine snow-dust, -or their floating as frosty vapour, is the cause of that penetrating -feeling of damp which is so perceptible when the cold is intense, and -which receives accretions from the vapours issuing from the open places -of the sea. Notwithstanding all this, there is an indescribable dryness -in the atmosphere, strongly contrasting with the feeling of dampness. -Heavy clouds are impossible; the heavens are covered only by mists, -through which the sun and the moon, surrounded by halos, glow blood-red. -Falls of snow, as we understand the expression, altogether cease; the -snow crystals, under the influence of cold, are so minute as to be -almost invisible. The land, the real home and source of cold, acts as -the great condenser of vapour, and snow and moisture of every kind, and -lies under a deep covering of frozen snow till the colour of its walls -and precipices reappears in April. The soil, in the stricter sense of -the word, is frozen as hard as iron wherever it appears through the -snow, and the mean temperature of Franz-Josef Land (about 3° F.) makes -it highly probable, that the frost penetrates to the depth of a thousand -feet. Great cold, calm weather, and clear atmosphere combined, are the -characteristics of the interior of Arctic countries. The nearer we -approach the sea, the rarer is this combination. Light breezes sometimes -occur with a temperature 37° (C.) below zero,[35] but the atmosphere is -then less transparent. - -5. It is well known that sound is propagated far more freely in -Polar regions than with us. When the cold was great, we could hear -conversations, carried on in the usual tone of voice, distinctly at the -distance of several hundred paces. Parry and Middendorf both assert that -the voice is more audible at a distance in cold weather. The propagation -of sound seems to find less hindrance from the irregular masses of ice -and cushions of snow, than from the curtains of our woods and the carpets -of our vegetation. In the mountainous districts of Europe many of the -characteristics of Polar regions, besides intense cold, are met with; yet -it is a fact, that the report of a gun can scarcely be heard in those -situations. Cold, however, can scarcely be regarded as the essential -condition of this phenomenon; for the propagation of sound, though in a -less striking degree, may be observed even in the summers there.[36] It -would seem rather that the amount of moisture in the atmosphere has a -more decided influence in the production of this phenomenon. - -6. When the snow becomes hard as rock, its surface takes a granular -consistence like sugar. Where it lies with its massive wreaths frozen in -the form of billows, our steps resound, as we walk over them, with the -sound as of a drum. The ice is so hard that it emits a ringing sound; -wood becomes wonderfully hard, splits, and is as difficult to cut as -bone; butter becomes like stone; meat must be split, and mercury may be -fired as a bullet from a gun.[37] - -7. If cold thus acts on things without life, how much more must it -influence living organisms and the power of man’s will! Cold lowers -the beat of the pulse, weakens the bodily sensations, diminishes the -capacity of movement and of enduring great fatigue. Of all the senses, -taste and smell most lose their force and pungency, the mucous membrane -being in a constant state of congestion and excessive secretion. After -a time a decrease of muscular power is also perceptible. If one is -exposed suddenly to an excessive degree of cold, involuntarily one -shuts the mouth and breathes through the nose; the cold air seems at -first to pinch and pierce the organs of respiration. The eyelids freeze -even in calm weather, and to prevent their closing we have constantly -to clear them from ice, and the beard alone is less frozen than other -parts of the body, because the breath as it issues from the mouth falls -down as snow. Snow-spectacles are dimmed by the moisture of the eyes, -and when the thermometer falls 37° (C.) below zero they are as opaque -as frost-covered windows. The cold, however, is most painfully felt in -the soles of the feet, when there is a cessation of exercise. Nervous -weakness, torpor, and drowsiness follow, which explains the connection -which is usually found between resting and freezing. The most important -point, in fact, for a sledge party, which has such exertions to make at -a very low temperature, is to stand still as little as possible. The -excessive cold which is felt in the soles of the feet during the noon-day -rest is the main reason why afternoon marches make such a demand on the -moral power. Great cold also alters the character of the excretions, -thickens the blood, and increases the need of nourishment from the -increased expenditure of carbon. And while perspiration ceases entirely, -the secretion of the mucous membranes of the nose and eyes is permanently -increased, and the urine assumes almost a deep red colour. At first the -bowels are much confined, a state which, after continuing for five and -sometimes eight days, passes into diarrhœa. The bleaching of the beard -under these influences is a curious fact. - -8. Although theoretically, the fat endure cold better than the lean, in -reality this is often reversed. Somewhat in the same way it might be -argued that the negro would have an advantage over the white man, for -the former as a living black bulb thermometer is more receptive of the -warmer waves of heat. But blackening the face or smearing the body with -grease are experiments which could only be recommended by those who have -never been in a position to try them. The only protection against cold -is clothing carefully chosen, and contrivances to avoid the condensation -of moisture. All articles of dress are made as stiff as iron by the -cold. If one puts off his fur coat and lays it down for a few minutes -on the ground, he cannot put it on again till it be thawed. The fingers -of woollen gloves become as unpliable as if they belonged to mailed -gauntlets, and therefore Arctic travellers, except when engaged in -hunting, prefer to use mittens. - -9. Constant precautions are needed against the danger of frost-bite, -and the nose of the Arctic voyager especially becomes a most serious -charge. But no sooner has its safety been secured, than the hands which -have rubbed it with snow are threatened with the same fate. The ears, -however, are well protected from frost by the hood. Frost-bite, which is -caused by the stoppage of blood in the capillaries, evinces itself by a -feeling of numbness, which, if not immediately attended to, increases to -a state of complete rigidity. Slight cases are overcome by rubbing the -part affected with snow. When the cold is excessive, feeling accompanied -with a prickling sensation only returns after rubbing for hours. Under -all circumstances, freezing water with an infusion of hydrochloric acid -is the best means of restoring circulation. When the frost-bitten member -is immersed in this, it is at once overspread with a coating of ice, -but as the temperature of the water slowly rises the frozen limb is -gradually thawed. The longer persons are exposed to a low temperature, -the greater becomes their sensitiveness under it. Their noses, lips and -hands swell, and the skin on those parts becomes like parchment, cracks, -and is most sensitive to pain from the least breath of wind. In cases of -neglected frost-bite, the violet colour of a nose or hand is perpetuated, -in spite of all the efforts made to banish it. Frost-bites of a more -severe character will not yield to mere rubbings with snow, but should -be treated with the kind of cold bath we have described, continued for -some days. The formation of blisters, the swelling of the parts affected, -great sensitiveness and liability to a recurrence of the malady, are the -consequences. In many cases a sensitiveness to changes of temperature -lasts for several years. Amputation is inevitable in severe and neglected -cases. When circulation has been restored, a mixture of iodine and -collodion—10 grains to an ounce—may, according to the experience of -Dr. Kepes, be advantageously applied to reduce the inflammation which -generally results. - -10. It is remarkable that great heat as well as great cold should -generate the great evil—thirst. It is also remarkable how rapidly the -demoralisation produced by thirst extends when any one of the party -begins to show signs of suffering from it. Habit, however, enables men -to struggle against thirst more successfully than against hunger. Many -try to relieve it by using snow; which is especially pernicious when -its temperature falls considerably below the point of liquefaction. -Inflammation of the mouth and tongue, rheumatic pains in the teeth, -diarrhœa, and other mischiefs, are the consequences, whenever a party -incautiously yields to the temptation of such a momentary relief. It is -in fact a mere delusion, because it is impossible to eat as much snow—say -a cubic foot—as would be requisite to furnish an adequate amount of -water. Snow of a temperature of 37° to 50° (C.) below zero feels in the -mouth like hot iron, and does not quench, but increases thirst, by its -inflammatory action on the mucous membranes of the parts it affects. -The Eskimos prefer to endure any amount of thirst rather than eat snow, -and it is only the Tschuktschees who indulge in it as a relish with -their food, which is always eaten cold. Snow-eaters during the march -were regarded by us as weaklings, much in the same way as opium-eaters -are. Catarrhs of every kind are less frequent in Polar expeditions, and -the chills to which we are exposed by passing suddenly from the cold of -the land journey to the warmer temperature of the ship, have no evil -consequences. It deserves to be investigated whether this arises from the -difference of the amount of ozone in the atmosphere of the respective -latitudes.—Now let us return to our journey. - -11. After crossing over the Sonklar-Glacier and measuring its slight -inclination of 1° 6′, we climbed an elevation to ascertain the most -promising route for penetrating in a northerly direction; and none -seemed better suited than that which lay over its back, which seemed -free from crevasses. But we looked in vain for the fancied paradise of -the interior, which had existed only in our desire to clothe in glowing -colours the Land, from which we had been so long held back. The true -character, however, of Kaiser Franz-Josef Land, so far as it could be -explored in this and the following sledge expeditions, will be the -subject of the next chapter. The accompanying sketch represents a block -of snow, about the height of a man, at the foot of the Sonklar-Glacier, -to which the winds had given a fanlike shape. In the afternoon, after -inspecting the stakes which we had fixed for measuring the motion of the -glacier, we came back to the tent and began our return march to Cape -Tegetthoff and the ship. A cutting wind compelled us to make constant -efforts against frost-bites. With a heavy creaking noise the sledge was -dragged over the hard snow, and to our reduced strength it seemed to be -laden with a double load. The night is generally the hardest part of -such expeditions, and our camping out during the night under the cliffs -of Cape Tegetthoff was especially bitter. Happy was he who, exhausted -by the labour of dragging, fell asleep at once. As usual, we dug a deep -hole in the snow and loosened it as much as possible, so that we might -profit by its property of being one of the worst conductors of heat. In -a short time the inside of the tent was covered with rime frost, and we -ourselves with ice. The tongue only seemed to recover its former mobility -with those who bewailed their loss of knives, stockings, gloves—yea, -of everything, even their place in the tent. They ate their portion of -bear’s flesh much as if they had been chloroformed, and dropping asleep -in their stiffened icy coat of mail, they were awoke by its gradual -thawing, to reiterate without cessation how cold it was; a fact which no -one present was prepared to dispute. The alcohol thermometer stood at --56° F. (-48° on board the ship), and when the warmth produced by the -exercise we had taken and by the effects of supper was gone, the feeling -of cold was so intense that it seemed far more probable that we should -be frozen to death than that we should sleep. The cook therefore received -orders to brew some strong grog, and forthwith six spirit-flames burnt -under the kettle filled with snow; but to make snow of such extreme -coldness boil quickly we should have had to place the kettle over -Vesuvius itself in the height of an eruption. - -[Illustration: BLOCK OF SNOW.] - -12. We now slept without stirring a limb, and about five o’clock in the -morning of the 15th of March we started to compass the twenty miles -which lay between us and the ship in one march, without encountering the -suffering of another night’s camping out in the snow. The weather was -as clear as it is possible to be at a temperature of -52° F., and going -along with a light breeze from the north, we made use of our sledge sail -to such advantage that we reached the gentle ascent of the west point of -Wilczek Island after a march of seven hours. We formed a second depôt of -provisions on the summit of a rocky promontory, whence we discerned with -a telescope the masts and yards of the ship lying behind an iceberg, and -our fears and anxieties lest it should have drifted away in our absence -were dissipated by this glad view. Our return to the ship could no longer -be a matter of choice; it had become a necessity. Lettis had been unable -for some days to take any share in the labour of dragging, and walked -along in shoes made of reindeer hide, on account of his frost-bitten -feet. Haller also wore similar shoes to save his swollen feet; -Cattarinch’s face was frost-bitten, and he too suffered from lameness; -Pospischill, who could no longer wear his shrunk-up fur coat, so suffered -from frost-bite in both hands, that I sent him on to the ship, that -he might have the help of the doctor as soon as possible. It was with -much effort that we made the last six hours’ march; and when at length, -stiff with ice, we passed between the hummocks that lay around the ship, -Weyprecht, Brosch, Orel, and eight sailors came to meet us, who, alarmed -at the inability of Pospischill to speak in answer to their questions, -had set out from the ship in order to find us. - -[Illustration: THE BURIAL OF KRISCH.] - -13. As I entered my berth I heard the hard breathing of our poor comrade -Krisch. For more than a week he had lain without consciousness; yet -death had not come to relieve him. On the afternoon of the 16th of -March a sudden cessation of all sound told us that he was no more! Next -day, his body, placed in a coffin, was brought on deck, and our flag -hoisted half-mast high. On the 19th, when the thermometer was at -13° -F., the body was committed to its lonely grave in the far north. A -mournful procession left the ship, with a sledge, on which rested the -coffin covered with a flag and cross, and wended its way to the nearest -elevation on the shore of Wilczek Island. Silently struggling against -the drifting snow, we marched on, dragging our burden through desolate -reaches of snow, till we arrived, after a journey of an hour and a half, -at the point we sought on the island. Here, in a fissure between basaltic -columns, we deposited his earthly remains, filling up the cavity with -stones, which we loosened with much labour, and which the wind, as we -stood there, covered with wreaths of snow. We read the prayer for the -dead over him who had shared in our sufferings and trials, but who was -not destined to return home with us with the news of our success; and -close by the spot, surrounded with every symbol of death and far from the -haunts of men, we raised as our farewell a simple wooden cross. Our sad -and solemn task done, there rose in our hearts the thought, whether we -ourselves should be permitted to return home, or whether we too should -find our resting-place in the unapproachable wastes of the icy north. -The wind blowing over the stiff and stark elevation where we stood, -covered us all with a thick coating of snow, and caused the appearance of -frost-bite in the faces and hands of some of our party. The decoration -of the grave of our comrade with a suitable inscription was therefore -deferred till the weather proved more favourable. We found considerable -difficulty in returning to the ship through an atmosphere filled with -snow.[38] - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -A GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF KAISER FRANZ-JOSEF LAND. - - -In now presenting a general view of those parts of Kaiser Franz-Josef -Land which were explored by us, I must be allowed to anticipate the -order of my narrative which describes the subsequent sledge expeditions, -by which our knowledge of the discovered country was so considerably -enlarged. - -1. The country, even in its already ascertained extent, is almost as -large as Spitzbergen, and consists of two main masses—Wilczek Land on the -east, and Zichy Land on the west, between which runs a broad sound called -Austria Sound, extending in a northerly direction from Cape Frankfort -till it forks at the extremity of Crown-Prince Rudolf’s Land, 80° 40′ -N. L. One branch of it, a broad arm running to the north-east—Rawlinson -Sound—we traced as far as Cape Buda-Pesth. Wilczek and Zichy Lands are -both intersected by many fiords, and numerous islands lie off their -coasts. - -2. A continuous surface of ice extends from the one land to the other. -At the time of our exploration, this expanse was formed of ice, for the -most part not more than a year in growth, but crossed in many places -with fissures and broad barriers of piled-up ice. Throughout its whole -extent we saw many icebergs, which we never did in the Novaya Zemlya -seas; whence it is to be inferred that they sail away in a northerly -direction.[39] Our track lay over this ice-sheet. As long as it remains -unbroken, every fiord might serve as a winter harbour; but if it should -break up, not a single locality suitable to form one presented itself -along the coasts we visited, which had no small indentations.[40] - -3. The map of this country, which we present, was designed and -constructed from fifteen observations of latitude, from many observations -made with the azimuth compass, from drawings, and from a system of -triangulation, which, from the nature of the circumstances under which it -was formed,[41] makes no pretensions to absolute exactitude. The heights -of the mountains were determined by the aneroid barometer. Near the ship -a base of 2170·8 metres was measured by Weyprecht and Orel, and connected -trigonometrically with the nearest promontories. This work of theirs -formed the basis of my surveys. - -4. It has always been a principle and a practice with Arctic explorers -to name their discoveries either after the promoters of their special -expeditions, or after their predecessors in the work of discovery. Though -they are never likely to become important to the material interests of -mankind, the naming the lands we discovered after those who promoted our -expedition, was, we considered, the most enduring form by which we could -express our gratitude for their efforts in furtherance of a great idea. -The localities, I may add, were named during the work of surveying. - -5. As I have had the privilege of visiting all the Arctic lands north -of the Atlantic, I have been able to compare them and observe their -resemblances as well as their differences. West Greenland is a high -uniform glacier-plateau; East Greenland is a magnificent Alpine land -with a comparatively rich vegetation and abundant animal life. How and -where the transition between these opposite characters takes place in -the interior is as yet utterly unknown. We may form some notion of -Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya, if we imagine a mountain-range, like that -of the Oetzthal with its glaciers, rising from the level of the sea, -if that level were raised about 9,000 feet. There is more softness, -however, in both these countries than is usual in the regions of the high -north. But Franz-Josef Land has all the severity of the higher Arctic -lands; it appears, especially in spring, to be denuded of life of every -kind. Enormous glaciers extend from the lofty solitudes of the mountains, -which rise in bold conical forms. A covering of dazzling whiteness is -spread over everything. The rows of basaltic columns, rising tier above -tier, stand out as if crystallized. The natural colour of the rocks was -not visible, as is usually the case: even the steepest walls of rock were -covered with ice, the consequence of incessant precipitation, and of the -condensation of the excessive moisture on the cold faces of the rock. -This moisture in a country whose mean annual temperature is about 3° F., -seems to indicate its insular character, for Greenland and Siberia are -both remarkable for the dryness of their cold, and it was singular that -even north winds occasioned a fall of temperature in Franz-Josef Land. In -consequence of their enormous glaciation, and of the frequent occurrence -of plateau forms, the new lands recalled the characteristic features of -West Greenland, in the lower level of the snow-line common to both, and -in their volcanic formation. Isolated groups of conical mountains and -table-lands, which are peculiar to the basaltic formation, constitute the -mountain-system of Franz-Josef Land; chains of mountains were nowhere -seen. These mountain forms are the results of erosion and denudation; -there were no isolated volcanic cones. The mountains, as a rule, are -about 2,000 or 3,000 feet high, except in the south-west, where they -attain the height of about 5,000 feet. - -6. The later Arctic expeditions have established the existence of vast -volcanic formations in the high north, and of very recent deposits -in their depressions. In fact, a vast volcanic zone seems to extend -from East Greenland, through Iceland, Jan Mayen and Spitzbergen, to -Franz-Josef Land. The geological features of the latter are at any rate -in harmony with those of North-east Greenland. The tertiary Brown-coal -sandstone of East Greenland is also found in Franz-Josef Land, though -Brown-coal itself is met with only in small beds, which, nevertheless, -may be reckoned among the many indications that the climate of Polar -lands must once have been as genial as the climate of Central Europe at -the present day. The kind of rock which predominates is a crystalline -aggregation called by the Swedes “Hyperstenite” (Hypersthene), identical -with the Dolerite of Greenland; but the Dolerite of Franz-Josef -Land is of a coarser-grained texture, and of a dark yellowish green -colour; according to Professor Tschermak (the Director of the Imperial -Mineralogical Museum at Vienna), it consists of Plagioclase, Augite, -Olivine, titaniferous Iron and ferruginous Chlorite. The mountains of -this system forming table-lands, with precipitous rocky sides, give to -the country we discovered its peculiar physiognomy. - -7. The Dolerite of Franz-Josef Land greatly resembles also the Dolerite -of Spitzbergen. After the return of the expedition I saw in London some -photographic views of the mountains of North-East Land, Spitzbergen, -taken by Mr. Leigh-Smith, and I was at once struck with the resemblance -between their forms and those of Franz-Josef Land. I learnt also from -Professor Nordenskjöld, the celebrated explorer of Spitzbergen, as -I passed through Sweden, that the rock of North-East Land was this -same Hyperstenite (Hypersthene). Hence the geological coincidence of -Spitzbergen and Franz-Josef Land would seem to be established; and this -geological affinity, viewed in connection with the existence of lands -more or less known, appears to indicate that groups of islands will be -found in the Arctic seas on the north of Europe, as we know that such -abound in the Arctic seas of North America. Gillis’ Land and King Karl’s -Land are, perhaps, the most easterly islands of the Spitzbergen group; -for it is not probable that these and the lands we discovered form one -continuous uninterrupted whole. - -8. Amygdaloids, so common in Greenland, were never found by us in -Franz-Josef Land; and while the rocks in the southern portions of the -country were often aphanitic and so far true basalt, in the north -they were coarse-grained and contained Nepheline. The other rocks -consisted of a whitish quartzose sandstone, with a clayey cement, and -of another finely-grained sandstone, containing small granules of -quartz and greenish-grey particles of chlorite, and also of yellowish -finely-laminated clay slate. Erratics, so far as my opportunities -permitted me to judge, were of rare occurrence; but we found many -smaller pieces of petrified wood, allied to lignite. - -9. Some of the islands of the Spitzbergen and Franz-Josef Land group must -be of considerable extent, because they bear enormous glaciers, which -are possible only in extensive countries. Their terminal precipices, -sometimes more than 100 feet high, form generally the coast-lines. The -colour of all the glaciers we visited inclined to grey, we seldom found -the dull green-blue hue; the granules of their ice were extraordinarily -large; there were few crevasses; and the moraines were neither large -nor frequent. Their movement was slow; and the snow-line commences at -about 1,000 feet above the level, whereas on the glaciers of Greenland -and Spitzbergen the like limit is generally 2,000 or even 3,000 feet, -and in these countries also, all below that line is free from snow in -summer. Franz-Josef Land, on the contrary, appears even in summer to be -buried under perpetual snow, interrupted only where precipitous rock -occurs. Almost all the glaciers reach down to the sea. Crevasses, even -when the angle of inclination of the glacier is very great, are much -less frequent than in our Alps, and in every respect the lower glacier -regions of Franz-Josef Land approach the character of the _névés_ of our -latitudes. There only was it possible to determine the thickness of the -annual deposits of snow and ice. In these lower portions, the layers were -from a foot to a foot-and-a-half thick; fine veins, about an inch wide, -of blue alternating with streaks of white ice ran through them, which -occurred with peculiar distinctness at the depth of about a fathom. On -the whole, this peculiar structure of alternating bands or veins was not -so distinctly marked as it is in the glaciers of the Alps, because the -alternations of temperature and of the precipitations are very much less -in such high latitudes. - -10. The glacier ice of Franz-Josef Land was far less dense than the -glacier ice of East Greenland; whence it appears that movement, as a -factor in the structure of the glacier, predominates in Franz-Josef-Land -more than the factor of regelation. Even at the very end of the glaciers, -granules an inch long are distinctly traceable in its layers, and in -the _névé_ region especially the glacier ice is exceedingly porous. The -great tendency of the climate of Franz-Josef Land to promote glaciation -is manifested in the fact, that all the smaller islands are covered with -glaciers with low rounded tops, so that a section through them would -present a regular defined segment of a circle; hence many ice-streams -descending from the summits of the plateaus spread themselves over the -mountain-slopes and need not to be concentrated in valleys and hollows -in order to become glaciers. Yet many glaciers occur—the Middendorf -Glaciers, for example—whose vertical depth amounts to many hundred -feet. Their fissures and the height of the icebergs show this. It was -unfortunately impossible for us to explore the Dove Glacier, the largest -of all we saw, owing to its great distance from the line of our route. -Evaporation from the surface of the glacier goes on with great intensity -during those summer months when the daylight is continual, and deep -water-courses show that streams of thaw-water then flow over it. - -11. The comparison of the temperature of the air within the crevasses -of the glaciers with the external air, invariably proved, that within -the crevasses the temperature was higher. The traces of liquefaction in -the glacier during winter, arising from the warmth of the earth, could -not be observed, because the sides and under-edge of the glaciers were -inaccessible from the enormous masses of snow, and the icicles of the -terminal arches and precipices could be ascribed only to the freezing of -the thaw-water of the preceding summer. - -12. The plasticity of the glaciers was so great, that branches of them, -separated by jutting-out rocks, flowed into each other again at their -base, without showing any considerable crevasses. We could only in a -few cases judge of their movement by direct measurement, and we had -never more than one day to test it. One observation made on the Sonklar -Glacier in the month of March did not seem to support the notion of the -advance of the glaciers; but the repetition of similar experiments, some -weeks later, made on two glaciers on the south of Austria Sound, gave -the mean of two inches as the daily movement. It is very probable that -their movement begins in the Arctic regions somewhat later than in our -latitudes, perhaps at the end of July or beginning of August, because the -period of the greatest liquefaction then ends, while it is at its minimum -in March and the beginning of April. The signs of glacier-movement -were apparent in the detachment of icebergs in the month of March, but -more frequently in the month of May—as at the Simony Glacier—and in the -crashing-in of the ice-sheet at their base in the month of April—as at -the Middendorf Glacier; and the appearance of “glacier dirt,” where -there is no material to furnish a moraine,—as on the Forbes Glacier—must -be regarded as a sign of its onward movement or lateral extension. The -infrequency of moraines may be explained by the resistance which Dolerite -offers to weathering, and may also be regarded as a sign of the slow -movement of the glaciers. Red snow was seen once only, in the month of -May, on the precipices westward of Cape Brünn. We never met with glacier -insects, although they are common in Greenland; and however diligently -I looked for them I never saw unmistakable traces of the grinding and -polishing of rocks by glacier action. - -13. It is well known that the north-east of Greenland as well as Novaya -Zemlya and Siberia are slowly rising from the sea, nay, that all the -northern regions of the globe have for ages participated in this -movement. It was, therefore, exceedingly interesting to observe the -characteristic signs of this upheaval in the terraced beaches, covered -with débris containing organic remains along the coast of Austria Sound. -The ebb and flow, which elevates and breaks up the bay-ice only at the -edge, is to be traced on the shores of Austria Sound by a tidal mark of -two feet. - -14. The vegetation was everywhere extremely scanty, crushed, not so -much by the intensity of the cold as by its long continuance, and is -far below the vegetation of Greenland, Spitzbergen, and Novaya Zemlya. -It resembled, not indeed in species but in its general character, the -vegetation of the Alps at an elevation of 9,000 or 10,000 feet, while the -Alpine region corresponding to the vegetation of East Greenland lies a -thousand feet lower. We found neither the stunted birches and willows, -nor the numerous phænogamous plants of East Greenland, Spitzbergen, and -Novaya Zemlya. The rare appearance of soil chiefly contributes to this -extremely sparse vegetation, the detritus of the country resembling -the meagre “dirt” layer on an old moraine, here and there enlivened -by a small patch of green. Although we visited Franz-Josef Land at the -season in which vegetation begins to stir, nowhere could there be seen -a patch of sward, even a few feet square, to recall the features of our -latitudes, although we examined depressions very favourably situated -and free from snow. Some level spots showed patches of thin meagre -grasses of _Catabrosa algida_ (Fries), a few specimens of _Saxifraga -oppositifolia_ and of _Silene acaulis_, rarely _Cerastium alpinum_ or -_Papaver nudicale_ (L.). Thick, cushion-like tufts of mosses were more -frequently discovered. There were abundance of lichens: _Imbricaria -stygia_ (Acharius), _Buellia stigmatea_ (Körber), _Gyrophora anthracina_ -(Wulfen), _Cetraria nivalis_ (Acharius), _Usnea melaxantha_ (Acharius), -_Bryopogon jubatus_ (Körber), _Rhizocarpon geographicum_ (Körber), -_Sporastatia Morio_ (Körber)—and the _Umbilicaria arctica_ of winter, -which we found in Greenland at an elevation of 7,000 feet. These -specifications I owe to the kindness of Professor Fenzl, director of -the Botanical Garden in Vienna, and of Professor Reichhardt. The museum -of this institution accepted the small collection of plants I was -able to bring to Europe. Of some of these there remained nothing but -withered roots, so that it was impossible to determine their character. -Nature in those regions, unable to deck herself with the colours of -plants, produces an imposing effect by her rigid forms, and in summer -by the glare of the ice and snow; and as there are lands which are -stifled by the excess of Nature’s gifts and blessings, so as even to -defy efforts of civilization, here in the high North another extreme -is displayed—absolute barrenness and nakedness, which render it quite -uninhabitable. - -15. Drift-wood, chiefly of an old date, we frequently found, but in -small quantities. On the shore of Cape Tyrol, we once saw a log of pine -or larch one foot thick and several feet long, lying a little above the -water-line, and which might have been driven thither by the wind, as the -_Tegetthoff_ was. The fragments of wood we found—the branches on which -showed that they did not come from a ship—were of the pine genus (_Pinus -picea_, Du Roy), and must have come from the southern regions of Siberia, -as the large broad rings of growth showed. - -16. Franz-Josef Land is, as may be supposed, entirely uninhabited, and we -never came on any traces of settlements. It is very questionable whether -Eskimos would have been able to find there the means of subsistence, and -if anywhere most likely on the western side of Wilczek Island, where an -“ice-hole” of considerable extent remained open for a great part of the -year. - -17. In the southern parts it is destitute of every kind of animal life, -with the exception of Polar bears and migratory birds. North of Lat. -81°, the snow bore numberless fresh tracks of foxes, but though their -footmarks were imprinted on the snow beyond the possibility of mistake, -we never saw one. Once we found their excrements, and on Hohenlohe Island -those of an Arctic hare. The scanty vegetation forbade the presence of -the reindeer and musk-ox. It is not, however, impossible that there may -be reindeer in the more westerly parts of the country, which we did not -visit. The character of that particular region approximates to that of -King Karl’s Land and Spitzbergen, on the pastures of which herds of these -animals live and thrive. - -[Illustration: LIPARIS GELATINOSUS.] - -18. Of the great marine Mammalia, seals only (_Phoca grœnlandica_ and -_Phoca barbata_) abounded; although we saw some White Whales. Walruses -we saw twice, but not close to the shore; it is, however, probable that -the absence of open water prevented us from seeing the walrus nearer the -shore, for the character of the sea-bottom would present no obstacle to -its existence. - -19. Of fish we saw only the species _Liparis gelatinosus_ (Pallas) and a -kind of cod (_Gadus_), which were taken with the drag-net. - -20. The birds, which we found in the region between Novaya Zemlya -and Franz-Josef Land were of the following species:—the long-tailed -Robber Gull (_Lestris_, K.); the black Robber Gull without the long -tail-feathers; the Burgomaster Gull (_Larus Glaucus_, B.); the Ice or -Ivory Gull (_Larus eburneus_); the Kittiwake (_Rissa tridactyla_, L.); -the Sea-swallow (_Sterna macrura_, N.); the Arctic Petrel or Mallemoke -(_Procellaria glacialis_); Ross’s Gull (_Rhotostetia rosea_); two species -of Auks (_Uria arra_, P., and _Uria mandtii_, L.); the Greenland Dove -(_Grylle columba_, Bp.); the Rotge (_Mergulus alle_, V.); the Lumme -(_Mormon arcticus_); the Eider-duck (_Somateria mollisima_, L.); the -Snowy Owl (_Strix nivea_); the Iceland Knot (_Tringa canutus_); the -Snow-bunting (_Plectrophanes nivalis_, M.). Most of these occurred also -on the coasts of Franz-Josef Land. - -21. We can here only allude generally to those forms of animal life which -were taken by the drag-net on the south of Franz-Josef Land, and brought -to Europe in the collection of Dr. Kepes, and of which I made seventy-two -drawings. To Professor Heller, of Innspruck, and Professor Marenzeller, -of Vienna, the expedition is indebted for the naming and arrangement of -those specimens, and while I refer my readers to their fuller account -in the _Mittheilungen_ of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of Vienna, -I limit myself here to a few of the results of their observations. -The investigation of the invertebrate Fauna of the sea through which -we passed was necessarily limited from the moment that the course of -the _Tegetthoff_ ceased to be under our control. We had, in the first -place, no zoologist on board, and from the drifting ship nothing more -could be done than letting down the net almost daily during the weeks of -summer—which Lieutenant Weyprecht did—and dragging it for some hours. -The greater part of the animals so taken were immediately sketched by -me, in order that, in the event of the loss of the original objects, -some sort of representation of the animal world of a region never before -investigated might be preserved. The issue justified a caution which must -always be kept in view in Polar expeditions. - -Of the abundant shrimp-family of the Arctic seas there are four species -among the collections we formed, namely:—_Hippolyte payeri_, Heller, -n. sp., _Hippolyte turgida_ (Kröyer), _Hippolyte polaris_ (Sabine), -and _Hippolyte borcalis_ (Owen). The _Hippolyte payeri_ was found at -the depth of 247 metres, and was of a beautiful pink colour and had -blue-black eyes. There were found besides: _Crangou boreas_ and _Pandalus -borealis_ (Kröyer). - -[Illustration: HIPPOLYTE PAYERI.] - -The group of Amphipoda was, comparatively, largely represented -among the Crustacea of the Arctic waters; we often called these -_Floh-krebse_—flea-crabs—because many of them used their hind legs to hop -along. Eleven species of this genus were brought home in our collections; -among these were _Amathillopsis spinigera_, a new species, _Cleïppides -quadricuspis_, also a new species, both described by Professor Heller; -_Acanthozone hystrix_ (Owen), &c. The group—Isopoda—is represented by the -interesting _Munnopsis typica_ (Sars), the _Idothea sabini_ (Kröyer), and -by a new variety, _Paranthura arctica_. - -[Illustration: HYALONEMA LONGISSIMUM.] - -Of the group Pycnogonida, our collection contained three varieties, of -which two are new. - -[Illustration: UMBELLULA.] - -Sponges were common; but we were obliged to leave behind the specimens -of the larger kinds on account of the room they took up. Among the -silicious sponges, those of the genus Hyalonema were the largest in -size, and included the forms described as _Hyalonema boreale_ (Lovèn), -and _Hyalonema longissimum_ (Sars). There was one specimen of the horny -sponge, so rare in those parts. The drag-net often brought up _Actiniæ_, -_Bryareum grandiflorum_ (Sars), and June 2, 1873, from a depth of 110 -fathoms, a specimen of the extremely rare _Umbellula_ described by -Mytius and Ellis, 1753. Since that date this animal had been lost sight -of, until it was found again by the Swedes—Gladans expedition 1871—in -Baffin’s Bay, and by the _Challenger_, 1873, between Portugal and Madeira -and between Prince Edward’s Island and Kerguelen’s Land. It may be -assumed that our Umbellula is identical with the form first described, -1758, by Linnæus as _Isis encrinus_. I regret to say that this, the -most interesting of all the objects we had collected, was left behind -in the _Tegetthoff_. The sketch of it made from life will facilitate a -comparison with the forms known in other regions and variously named. - -[Illustration: KORETHRASTES HISPIDUS.] - -[Illustration: NEPHTHYS LONGISETOSA.] - -Hydroid polypes, widely distributed in several varieties in the Atlantic -Ocean,—_Asteridæ_ and _Ophiuridæ_, the _Korethrastes hispidus_ (Wyv. -Thomson), a new variety discovered by the _Porcupine_ expedition -between the Faroe and Shetland islands, _Crinoidæ_, represented by two -species never before found so far north, and several _Holothuriæ_, were -also among the acquisitions brought home. Our collection was rich in -_Annelides_, containing seven-and-twenty varieties found in Greenland -and Spitzbergen. Fourteen varieties of _Bryozoa_ were found, and single -specimens of _Turbellaria_ and _Gephyrea_. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE SECOND SLEDGE EXPEDITION.—AUSTRIA SOUND. - - -1. The first sledge journey enabled me to draw up a plan for a more -extended expedition towards the north. It was not only a cherished -scheme of my own, but it became also the dominating interest on board -the _Tegetthoff_, although the other scientific investigations were -carried on uninterruptedly. Weyprecht and Brosch continued with admirable -perseverance the laborious observation of the Magnetic Constants, -and measured on the ice close to the ship a base of 2170·8 metres, -which served for all my trigonometrical surveys. The meteorological -observations also were carried on with the usual regularity. - -2. For some days the weather had been bad; its increasingly stormy -character excited our fears, lest the ice should break up and the floe -drift away with the ship. The danger of leaving her, in order to explore -the extent of the new country, increased also with the longer duration -of our proposed second journey. We were convinced, too, that the sea -within a few days had broken up the ice almost as far as Wilczek Island, -and a heavy water-sky was seen in the south at no great distance from -us. Discoveries of importance could only be expected from an expedition -of a month’s duration. But withal the venture must be made, and leaving -the dangers and perils to the chances of the future, I gathered together -the picked men who were to accompany me, to lay before them my plans. I -explained to them my design of penetrating in a northerly direction as -far as possible, and I put before them the danger of our being cut off -from the ship. But while I showed the perils, I stimulated them also by -the hope of reward. If the eighty-first degree of latitude were reached, -I guaranteed to them the sum of £100; if we attained the eighty-second -degree, £250; and I declared that merit, and merit alone, should regulate -the distribution of these sums. In order to make sure of reticence on -the part of my company and thus obviate ill-feeling among the rest of -the crew, which might easily have been called forth by this apparent -preference, they were told that the rewards would be forfeited, if any -of those who stayed behind in the ship should hear of these rewards. The -assembled company agreed also to my request never to mention dangers -during the journey, and, in the event of our not finding the ship on our -return, to take the whole blame of such an issue on our own shoulders. -With regard to the rewards, I must add that never was a secret better -kept. Immediately began on board a packing, a tailoring, a preparation as -if for a campaign, and under the tent-roof of the ship the rusty runners -of the sledges were polished, till they were as smooth as glass. - -3. Before we started, there was an interesting interruption in the -monotony of our lives, occasioned by a family of bears. While we were -absent in our first journey a bear had been shot from the ship, and -little Pekel had been wounded in the neck. On the 19th of March another -bear came close to us, which was scared away after some unsuccessful -shots had been fired at it. Three days afterwards a she-bear appeared -accompanied by her two cubs, of a darker colour than their mother, -rolling on after her. It was exceedingly interesting to watch the -actions of this family. The mother frequently stopped and snuffed the -air with uplifted snout; then she would lick her cubs, who fondly crept -up to their mother, behaving exactly like young poodles, which they -also resembled in size. Six shots were fired at seventy paces distance, -and the mother-bear, after running for about forty paces, fell dead. -Amazed at the reports of the rifles and the actions of their mother, -the little bears sat as if they were rooted in the snow, and looked -with astonishment at the dark forms which rushed out from the ship. One -of them suffered itself to be shaken by Pekel; and only when they were -seized by the nape of the neck and carried on board did they seem to -entertain the least surmise of mischief. At first they were shut up -separately in casks set on their end, and growled long and impatiently -till they were put together in the same cask. Sumbu alone was slow -to understand our suddenly-excited pity for his hereditary foes, and -scratched and barked at the cask for hours together, while the cubs -growled and threatened retaliation with their little paws. After looking -at this for some time, Gillis was moved to side with the bears, and a -battle ensued between him and Sumbu, in which the latter got the worst -of it. The little animals afforded us much amusement, and the crew were -seriously considering the feasibility of training them to draw in the -sledge, in the meditated return expedition to Europe. They ate bread, -sauerkraut, bacon—in short, everything that was given them. One morning, -however, the little rascals eluded the eye of the watch and got away. -They were immediately caught and killed, and appeared roasted on our -dinner-table. - -[Illustration: THE DOGS DIFFER AS TO THE TREATMENT OF YOUNG BEARS.] - -4. On the 25th of March our preparations for the extended journey -northwards were brought to an end. The sledge with its load weighed about -14 cwt. - - lbs. - The large sledge 150 - The dog sledge 37 - The provisions, including packing 620 - The tent, sleeping bags, tent-poles, alpine stocks 320 - Alcohol and rum 128 - Fur coats and fur gloves 140 - Instruments, rifles, ammunition, shovel, two cooking-machines, - drag-ropes, dog-tent, &c. 170 - ---- - Total 1565 - -Each of the four sacks of provisions—calculated for seven days and -seven men—contained 51 lbs. of boiled beef, 48 lbs. of bread, 8 lbs. of -pemmican, 7 lbs. of bacon, 2 lbs. of extract of meat, 4 lbs. of condensed -milk, 2 lbs. of coffee, 4 lbs. of chocolate, 7 lbs. of rice, 3 lbs. of -grits, 1 lb. of salt and pepper, 2 lbs. of peas-sausage, 4 lbs. of sugar, -besides a reserve bag with 20 lbs. of bread. We took boiled beef for -the dogs. We counted also on the produce of our guns as a considerable -supplement both for ourselves and them. - -5. The sledge party consisted of myself, Orel, Klotz and Haller, and -of three sailors, Zaninovich, Sussich, and Lukinovich; and we had with -us three dogs, Jubinal, Torossy, and Sumbu, and men and dogs together -dragged the large sledge. The duties were thus divided: Zaninovich -managed the packing and the giving out of the spirit and rum, Haller -served out the provisions, Klotz attended to the dogs and the arms, -Sussich was responsible for keeping everything in working order, and -at night Lukinovich acted as a wind-protector close to the door of the -tent. We started on the morning of the 26th of March with the thermometer -6° F. below zero, and amid snow driving from the north-west. For some -distance we were accompanied by Weyprecht and the rest of the crew. We -had scarcely gone a thousand paces from the ship, before the snow began -to drive to such an extent, that we could scarcely see our comrades close -to us and keep together. As it was impossible to go on until the storm -laid, we preferred, instead of returning to the _Tegetthoff_, which would -have been the simpler course, to erect the tent out of sight of the ship -behind some ice-hummocks, and pass twenty-four hours in it. Our only -employment except sleeping was to thaw the snow, which filled our clothes -and especially our pockets. On the 27th of March (the thermometer -varying between 2° and 22° F. below zero) we continued our journey amid a -slight fall of snow, and made an early start, in order that our halt of -yesterday should remain unknown to the crew of the ship. When we reached -the south-eastern point of Wilczek Island we lost sight of the ship, and -the driving snow with a falling thermometer increased to such an extent, -that Sussich’s hands were frost-bitten, and we were compelled to halt -for an hour to rub them with snow. Starting again, we all ran the risk -of having our faces frost-bitten, meeting as we did a strong wind. The -heavily-laden sledge, too, compelled us to make such exertions that our -faces were bathed in perspiration. On the 28th of March the wind fell to -a calm, and as we passed over the Sound between Salm and Wilczek Islands -in a north-westerly direction we advanced at the rate of eighty paces -a minute. The track, which we followed, consisted partly of bay-ice a -year old and partly of old floes, these together forming a continuous -surface, here and there broken by barriers of hummocks, miles in length, -due to ice-pressures. After we had passed the headlands south-west of -Salm Island, we came in sight of the Wüllersdorf mountains, which we had -hitherto seen only from a great distance, hoping from their summits to -determine the route which we should take northwards. - -6. At the distance of some miles right ahead of us lay several rocky -islands, with their outlines scarcely discernible owing to the dull thick -state of the atmosphere; but as they lay in the direction of our course, -we made for them. We now passed some icebergs and saw on their southern -sides the first signs of the process of liquefaction—new icicles. By and -by a wind from the south-west set in, raising the temperature gradually -to 6° F. and bringing with it fogs and then heavy snow-storms. Covered -with snow and running before the wind with a large sledge-sail set, we -came under the glacier-walls of Salm Island, among icebergs frozen fast -together, trudging along through wind and whirling snow. Occasionally -the wind was so strong, that the sail alone sufficed to impel the heavy -sledge, while a man in front, guided by a whistle from those behind, kept -it in its proper course. After a march of sixteen hours, the wind having -increased to a storm, which rendered it impossible to keep the track, we -determined to halt. Our clothes appeared to consist of nothing but snow, -our eyes were iced up, and our strength exhausted. In great haste we -erected the tent and took refuge within it; but our misery now properly -began. One scraped the thawing snow from the clothes of another, or -turned inside-out the pockets of his own trousers, filled with dissolving -snow-balls. At last the cooking-machine was lighted, and we began to -steam, and heartily wished that our miseries had arisen from cold instead -of moisture. The temperature in the tent rose at the distance of three -feet from the flame to 80°F., and twenty minutes after the production -of this artificial heat it fell seven degrees below zero. Early in the -morning of the 29th of March (Palm Sunday) the wind abated and the -temperature rose to 24·5°F., so that it began to rain in the tent as we -were preparing our breakfast. During the march of that day we ascended -the rocky heights of Koldewey Island, at the foot of which we had put up -the tent for the purpose of surveying. These rocks consisted of Dolerite, -over-spread with a close network of Lichens (_Cetraria nivalis_) and in -the clefts we found _Silene acaulis_. - -7. From the summit of this island we suddenly beheld, in the field -of view of the telescope of the theodolite, a bear, which had seized -Torossy and severely wounded him. But almost immediately again the -bear disappeared in the snow, and when we came to the place of his -disappearance, we discovered the winter retreat of a family of bears. It -was a cavity hollowed out in a mass of snow lying under a rocky wall. The -bear had shown herself only once, but resisted all our efforts to seduce -her to leave the shelter she had chosen, nor had we any special desire to -creep on all fours into the narrow dark habitation. Sumbu only was bold -enough to follow her, but he too saw things which led him to return very -quickly. From the snow which had been thrown up at the entrance of this -hole, we inferred that this had been the work of the bear in her efforts -to close the approach to her abode. It was the first time that we came -upon a family of bears in their winter quarters, or had the chance of -adding anything to our scanty knowledge as to the winter sleep of those -animals. Middendorff does not admit that they sleep during the winter; -he considers the bear far too lean to be able to do so. According to Dr. -Richardson it is only pregnant females who hibernate in a snow-hole, -while the males roam over the Arctic seas in search of places free from -ice. - -[Illustration: THE WINTER HOLE OF A BEAR.] - -8. As we advanced further, we went round Schönau Island[42] so remarkable -for its columnar structure and environed by ice which had been raised up -by pressure. In a cleft of its precipitous rocky walls we buried a depôt -of provisions and a supply of alcohol for two days, together with some -articles of clothing, covering them up with four feet of snow. We could -not, however, conceal from ourselves the danger of placing a depôt within -sight of a bear’s hole, and greatly deplored that we were not able, like -the fox in the fable, to obliterate the marks of our footsteps. Towards -evening the temperature fell to -10° F., and the tent was frozen as stiff -as a board. On the 30th of March the temperature fell to -22° F., and a -strong north wind was blowing as we came out of the tent, and curling -billows of snow, reddened by the rising sun, rolled round us, hiding from -us at last even the sun himself. A march in the teeth of a wind at so -low a temperature is quite useless and only exposes to the great danger -of frost-bite. This was now clearly seen when, the tent being taken down -as usual immediately after breakfast, the laggards, imperfectly clad, -faced the wild weather. One was binding a stocking round his face with -his braces, because his frozen fingers would not permit him to button on -his nose-band and wind-guard; another had put on reindeer shoes instead -of boots after a vain attempt to thaw them; a third had put on the wrong -boot, and I myself was obliged to wind a long rope round my body, because -I was unable to fasten my coat. Such a state of things is opposed to -order and safety, and may degenerate into serious mischief. There was -nothing for it therefore but to set up the tent again and to get back -into our sleeping-bag. But the damp tent was frozen hard, and we felt -much as if we were lying between two plates of cold metal. It would be -difficult to say whether we suffered more from cold than from vexation. -Zaninovich spread the sail over us, and shovelled down the snow from the -walls of the tent;—who could be so serviceable as this comrade of ours, -who on every occasion displayed such hardihood against cold? Orel and I -made vain attempts to shorten the time by reading a volume of Dessing -which we had brought with us; but we soon renounced the effort, finding -that we could not fix our attention in such a situation. We had some -compensation, however, in the amusement of listening to the Dalmatians -learning to speak German with Klotz, who was far from the weakness of -uttering a single word in Italian. As usual, when the weather was bad, -the dogs gathered close to the wind-sheltered side of our tent. Sumbu -forcing himself in among us had to be driven out, for he growled if he -had the faintest suspicion that we meant to move or to smoke; but failing -to make himself comfortable among the other dogs, he avenged himself by -again rushing in among us, shaking the snow from his coat, and forced us -to admit him. - -[Illustration: LIFE IN THE TENT.] - -9. On the 31st of March, the weather having cleared, we continued our -journey northwards, halting as usual at noon to refresh ourselves with -soup. We measured the meridian altitude of the sun with a theodolite, -and surveyed and sketched our surroundings. When we came to 80° 16′ N.L. -we found a broad barrier of hummocks piled one upon another. This was -succeeded by older ice, whose undulating surface was broken by numerous -icebergs and high black basaltic cliffs. Here ended the possibility of -determining the route to be taken; for although there was an opening -between Cape Frankfurt and the Wüllersdorf mountains, we could not enter -it, until we ascertained whether it led northwards. In order to settle -this point Haller and I left the sledge and made a forced march to Cape -Frankfurt, whence we hoped to discover the direction of our course. -Meanwhile Orel and the rest of the party dragged the sledge with great -exertions between hummocks and icebergs towards the north-east. Cape -Frankfurt is a promontory of Hall Island, 2,000 feet high and surrounded -with glaciers. The small difference of level in the sea-ice at the base -of its cliffs showed that the tide did not rise high. Its glaciers flowed -towards Markham Sound and Nordenskjöld fiord. When we arrived at the -summit everything lay steeped in the rosy mists of evening. Flocks of -birds flew from its massive basaltic crown, and as it was evident that -they had not come there to breed, we inferred that open water was not far -off. - -[Illustration: CAPE FRANKFURT, AUSTRIA SOUND, AND THE WÜLLERSDORF -MOUNTAINS.] - -10. Our attention was directed, however, especially to the configuration -of the country, and great was our delight when we beheld beneath us a -broad inlet, which promised to be of considerable extent and to run -towards the north. This inlet was covered with icebergs and could be -traced up to the faint outlines of a distant promontory (Cape Tyrol). -It now appeared certain, that we could reach the eighty-first degree -of latitude on an ice-covered sea, and the measurement of some angles -furnished us with a provisional guidance for penetrating into these -new regions. The coasts of Wilczek Land appeared to run in a northerly -direction, and then to trend gradually to the north-east. At a great -distance below us we saw a dark point moving over the dimly-seen plain -of sea-ice. Its advance was discernible only when for a short time it -disappeared behind an iceberg, and again reappeared. It was Orel with the -large sledge; but neither the snowy mountains bathed in carmine light, -which surrounded our point of view with picturesque effect, nor the -crimson veil spread over them, nor the profound solitude of the wastes -that lay around us, could so rivet our attention as that little point in -which lodged forces apparently so insignificant, but yet made potent by -human will. With pain and toil we descended the mountain in our canvas -boots between steep precipices of ice, and pressed on for six miles in -the rapidly-waning light over hummocky-ice to rejoin our companions, -whose position we had marked by the stars, from the elevation we had -ascended. We reached our friends before midnight and our news excited -great joy. - -11. On the 1st of April (the thermometer marking -20°F.) we penetrated -by Cape Hansa into the newly-discovered passage, which was covered -with heavy ice; I called it Austria Sound. The nearer we approached -the coast of Wilczek Land, the more unquestionable did it appear that -the Wüllersdorf mountains extended far into the interior; but it would -have cost more time than the attempt was worth to ascend them. The -latitude taken at noon was 80° 22′. Nothing can be more exciting than the -discovery of new countries. The combining faculty never tires in tracing -their configuration, and the fancy is restlessly busy in filling up the -gaps of what is as yet unseen, and though the next step may destroy its -illusions, it is ever prone to indulge in fresh ones. Herein lies the -great charm of sledge expeditions, as compared with the tiresome monotony -of life on board ship—a charm which is only then diminished when we -have to wander for days over wastes of snow, with the coasts at such a -distance, that they do not change sufficiently rapidly, or leave scope -for indulging in surmises and fancies of what is coming. The discomforts -incident to this mode of travelling are in this case doubly felt. The -sledge is dragged with great difficulty in the hours of the early -morning, for the hard edges of the snow crystals have not yet felt the -smoothing effects of evaporation under the power of the sun. The goal -itself appears as if it were never to be reached, because the limited -horizon of the travellers constantly retreats. Thirst and languor then -set in. The small quantity of water which we were able to prepare during -the march had no more effect than a drop on a plate of hot iron. Klotz -felt unwell to-day, and cured himself by swallowing his ration of rum at -one gulp. Even the dogs seemed languid, and crept along with drooping -heads and their tails between their legs. - -12. The land on our right was a monotonous waste of ridges and terraces -of parallel raised beaches, partially covered with snow. Following its -line as we marched onwards, we passed iceberg after iceberg. Towards -evening I ascended one of these, and made the joyful discovery that -Austria Sound stretched in a northerly direction at least as far as a -cape—afterwards called Cape Tyrol. In the midst of my observations Orel -called to me from below that a bear was coming near us. We awaited his -approach with the greed of cannibals, for his flesh would be priceless -while we were making such great exertions and had only the insufficient -nourishment of boiled beef. I promised Haller and Klotz the bear-money -of 30 gulden, usual in Tyrol, if the bear should be bagged. The animal -received three shots at the same moment and at first stood stock still, -but then began to drag himself slowly off. We rushed after him, and to -save our cartridges struck him with the butts of our rifles, and finished -him by thrusting our long knives into his body. We appropriated 50 lbs. -of his flesh to our own use, and gave the rest of his carcase to the -dogs, and deposited 50 lbs. of boiled beef on the iceberg, close by which -we erected our tent. - -13. On the 2nd of April (the thermometer marking -11 F.) we again started -with renewed vigour, though in the face of a strong north wind. I myself -left the sledge in order to examine the raised beach for some distance. -It was for the most part bare of snow, and exhibited laminæ of brown-coal -sandstone amid the Dolerite. Close beside the scanty remains of some -drift-wood, I was surprised to find a circle of large stones resembling -those erections which I had seen in East Greenland in deserted Eskimo -villages. As, however, there were no other marked traces of former -settlements, this circle of stones was no doubt something accidental. -The magnitude of Franz-Josef Land seemed to grow before our eyes, as we -saw the broad Markham Sound opening up towards the west, and ranges of -high mountains stretching away towards Cape Tyrol. The coasts abounded in -fiords, and glaciers were everywhere to be seen. Wilczek Land disappeared -under ice-streams, and only reappeared again in the rocky heights of Cape -Heller and Cape Schmarda, opposite Wiener-neustadt Island. In the evening -we reckoned that we had reached latitude 80° 42′. - -14. On the 3rd of April (the thermometer standing at -9° F.) we should -have reached Cape Tyrol, had not snow-storms from the south kept us -in the afternoon in our tent: a delay with which Lukinovich was by no -means displeased, for this being Good Friday he had counted on a day of -complete rest,—for our friend Lukinovich was prone to turn his eyes to -heaven, spoke constantly of the saints, could mention their festivals -as they occurred in the calendar; but, alas! was a snow-eater, and -could march not a whit better than Falstaff. On the 4th of April the -temperature, with constant driving storms of snow from the south, rose -from -4° to 23° F.; and the snow accumulated to such an extent even in -the tent, that it had to be shovelled out. It was towards the afternoon -before we could continue our march, the delay made being not so much on -account of the cold, as from dread of the moisture. Our start proved, -however, useless, for the snow began to drive so furiously, that, as -we dragged, those behind could scarcely see the men in front. We again -travelled by the compass and used our sledge-sail; but we constantly -deviated from the right course, though we pressed on, passing Cape -Tyrol without seeing it, and entered an unknown region in which we were -guided by mere chance—expecting every moment to stumble on a fissure in -the ice or open water. This day we sustained a painful loss—the loss of -my dog Sumbu. For two long years he had been almost our only source of -amusement by his cunning and his impudence. He had long been the rival -of the frolicsome Torossy, in dragging the sledge; and it was often -almost touching to see how at evening he would sink down exhausted in the -snow, in the very spot where he was unharnessed. It cannot well detract -from the merit of such services—and after all they were rendered in the -interests of science!—that they were those of an animal and sprang from -attachment.[43] To this vigorous lively animal, what more natural than -that he should be almost beside himself if in one of these vast solitudes -he should get sight of a living creature? So it happened to-day. A gull -flew over his head, and Sumbu burst away from the sledge. In hot pursuit -of the bird he disappeared from our sight and never returned again. All -our shouts were thrown away. Our track was soon covered over by the -drifting snow, and there cannot be a doubt that our faithful companion, -after wandering about for days, either died of hunger or fell a victim to -a bear. - -[Illustration: HOW SUMBU WAS LOST.] - -15. April 5, after a short rest, we again started about midnight in order -to economize our time (the thermometer being at 19° F.). The weather -had greatly improved. Klotz, who was the first to step out of the tent, -startled us by the information that some high land barred our further -progress. But when we followed him into the open air, we found that Klotz -had looked to the west instead of to the north, and we discovered the -true state of things, that Zichy Land ran on our left in a northerly -direction, while Wilczek Land trended towards the north-east. We pursued, -therefore, our course on the vast icy wastes, over which hung Cape Easter -(81° 1′), and Cape Hellwald shining in the sun, and hoisted the flag on -the sledge to celebrate our passage of the eighty-first degree of north -latitude, and in commemoration of Easter Sunday. - -[Illustration: CAPE EASTER AND STERNEK SOUND.] - -[Illustration: HOW WE RECEIVED BEARS. CAPE TYROL IN THE BACKGROUND.] - -16. During our march, spying us at a great distance, a bear approached us -at a rapid pace, but when he came within forty paces he fell, receiving -three bullets in his head. The accompanying illustration shows how we -received bears when they attacked us on our journey; it represents also -the fine forms of Cape Tyrol in the background. A few hours afterwards, -we observed a she-bear about 400 yards from us, apparently diligent in -burrowing in the snow; but as soon as she got wind of us she suddenly -turned, reared herself on her hind legs, and began to snuff the air. -She then came towards us, but as she advanced she rolled herself over -with evident pleasure on her back several times, then pushed on with -her snout and belly close to the ground, perfectly unconscious of the -three rifles which were levelled at her. At fifty paces distance we -fired, and brought her down. We immediately examined the place where we -had seen her so busy. We did not find poor Sumbu, as we half expected, -but a partially-consumed seal, and close to it a hole in the ice, into -which the creature no doubt would plunge when danger threatened; but -the bear had been sharper and cleverer than the seal, and had probably -seized it when asleep on the ice. Bear-flesh now formed our principal -food, and the sledge was heavily laden with it. We ate it both raw and -cooked, and when the flesh was badly cooked—especially if it were the -flesh of an old bear—it was less palatable than when uncooked. It may -be tolerable food for sea-gulls, but it is a diet hardly fit even for -devils on the fast-days of the infernal regions. Arctic lands certainly -do not furnish delicacies to gratify a refined taste; the best things -they have to offer are coarse and oily, and if ever they are eaten with -relish, it is a relish which comes from hunger alone. The desolate shores -of these lands are truly the very home of hunger, and nowhere else are -the calculations of travellers so much influenced and determined by -the stomach and its needs. Remains or fragments are unknown in Arctic -regions. The dead are consumed by the living, and the living find their -never-ceasing occupation in the toilsome search for food. In my three -Arctic expeditions, I very seldom indeed found the remains of animals, -never the remains of a bear or a fox. The man who visits these wastes -must do homage to the principle of eating everything, and throwing away -nothing. Franklin was unsurpassed in this, but I believe we were little -behind him. Franklin and his people found the flesh of a white fox as -pleasant to the taste as young geese—a proof how entirely they had -forgotten how geese taste. They preferred foxes, too, to lean reindeer; -and they considered the flesh of a grey bear exceedingly palatable, -though even the Eskimos eat it only in dire necessity. Reindeer marrow, -even raw, was to them a great delicacy, and they ate animals in a state -of decomposition. Barentz and his crew were very modest in their tastes; -they compared whale-flesh to beef, and foxes to rabbits, as articles -of diet; bears’ meat they utterly detested. Once only it seems they -partook of the liver of a bear, and three of his men became exceedingly -ill in consequence, their skin peeling off from head to foot. Kane was -prejudiced against bear, notwithstanding the great straits to which he -was reduced, and complains of this food as being absolutely uneatable. -The testimony of Dunér is more favourable. “If,” says he, “a bear has not -been eating walrus or seal in a state of semiputrefaction before he is -killed, his flesh, though somewhat coarse, is yet palatable, and not at -all prejudicial to health.” Parry thought whale-flesh and walrus-flesh -equally distasteful: he makes an exception in favour only of the heart of -the walrus; but he speaks of the tenderness and excellence of the flesh -of young seals. As for ourselves, we disdained nothing that we could get -hold of, after the manner of Sir John Ross, who thought the fox the best -of all food, better than the gull (_Larus tridactylus_). - -[Illustration: DINING ON BEARS’ FLESH.] - -17. The continued moisture of the last few days had completely saturated -our canvas boots; and those of several of us were besides nearly worn -out, and in the morning when completely frozen, to put the foot into one -was as bad as putting it into an ice-hole, so that we were obliged to -thaw them over a spirit-flame, and to knock their heels with a hammer -continually during the march. Sussich had made himself a pair of new -boots out of a cloth jacket. It would, however, be a mistake to think -that we should have been any better off with leather boots. In fact, we -could not have put them on, and in the increasing cold of the following -weeks our feet would certainly have been frost-bitten. Our clothes were -completely saturated in like manner, and whenever the temperature fell -they became stiff with ice. I suffered the least of any, for my bird-skin -garments were the best preservatives against the penetration of moisture. - -18. No kind of snow opposes such hindrances to sledge-dragging as the -snow with the thermometer not much below freezing-point, for at this -temperature it balls. This impediment we now encountered. The air, too, -became oppressively heavy; land and sky were suddenly overspread with -darkness; and, from behind thunderlike clouds, red rays of the sun fell -on the conical mountains of Kane Island. Falls of snow, calms, and -violent gusts of wind rapidly succeeded one another, and just before we -erected our tent it again became clear. Far to the north we saw two white -masses—Becker and Archduke-Rainer Islands, and an extensive inlet—Back -Inlet; but only within Austria Sound could we count on pursuing our -journey northwards without making any détours. On Easter Monday, April -7th (the thermometer varying between 9° and 19° below zero (C.)), we -approached Becker Island; but the atmosphere was on this day so moist and -thick, though without mist in the proper sense, that its existence might -be asserted or disputed according as the light changed; and it was only -when we were not further off than 100 paces that we could be positive -of the existence of land, rising gently at an angle of 1° 7′. Over this -ice-covered island we now dragged, and, full of expectation, mounted its -highest point. To the north lay an indescribable waste, more utterly -desolate than anything I had ever seen, even in the Arctic regions, -interspersed with snow-covered islands, all, big and little, of the same -low, rounded shape. The whole, at a distance, presented the appearance -of a chaos of icehills and icebergs scattered over a frozen sea. One -thing only in this view gave us much satisfaction. Austria Sound still -stretched uninterruptedly towards the north. Could we have forgotten how -the _Tegetthoff_ had drifted towards Franz-Josef Land, that Sound would -have seemed to us the true road to the Pole. Nor could we doubt that in -the immediate north open water would be found, for in no other way could -we interpret the indications we had observed in the course of the last -few days—the great moisture and high temperature, the dark colour of the -northern sky, the frequent flights of Auks, and Divers, grey and white -Gulls, which flew from the north southward, or _vice versâ_. - -19. After crossing Becker Island, we went on again on the frozen sea, -which was rough and undulating for some distance. From behind one of -the hummocks a bear suddenly emerged, and came towards us without any -fear or hesitation, his yellow colour forming a strong contrast with -the gleaming hills of ice. When he was thirty paces off we fired; but -though severely wounded he managed to get away. On the 7th of April (the -thermometer varying between 16° and 25° below zero (C.), and with a light -south-west wind), we passed close to Archduke-Rainer Island, a heavy rime -frost seriously impeding our progress. We were able, however, to turn to -good account the clear sunny weather of this day. We dried our clothes -and tent furniture, spreading them out in the sun over the sledge or -suspending them to its mast and yard. We had almost reached Cape Beurmann -at noon, and having taken our observations, we found our latitude to be -81° 23′. We had consequently gone beyond the latitude reached by Morton; -Hayes only having reached a slightly higher latitude than this. About -this time of the day the horizon towards the north became exceedingly -clear, and the steep rocks of Coburg Island were distinctly visible, -and behind them now rose the faint outlines of mountains—Crown-Prince -Rudolf’s Land. - -20. At this latitude it seemed as if Wilczek Land suddenly terminated, -but when the sun scattered the driving mist we saw the glittering -ranges of its enormous glaciers—the Dove[44] Glaciers—shining down on -us. Towards the north-east we could trace land trending to a cape lying -in the grey distance—Cape Buda Pesth, as it was afterwards called. -The prospect thus opened to us of a vast glacier land, conflicted -with the general impression we had formed of the resemblance between -the newly-discovered region and Spitzbergen; for glaciers of such -extraordinary magnitude presuppose the existence of a country stretching -far into the interior. As it appeared to us that Crown-Prince Rudolf’s -Land and Karl Alexander’s Land formed a continuous whole, we left Austria -Sound and diverged into Rawlinson Sound, and directed our course towards -Cape Rath. It was my intention, if this headland should be reached, to -leave behind the remainder of the party and push on with the dog-sledge -and two companions. We could count on finding deep snow-wreaths behind -the hummocks, and to dig out a snow-house would have been the labour of -an hour for three men. Previous experience had convinced us that such -a night encampment is warmer than the shelter which a tent can afford. -But though we were filled with zeal to extend our discoveries as much -as possible, we now felt that the excessive exertions we had made had -reduced our strength. We had slept on an average but five hours a day, -and marched the rest of the day, or at any rate had been occupied with -all manner of work. Our appetite too had increased with our labours, and -the partaking of bears’ flesh began to tell on some of us. The restricted -use of bread-stuff was especially felt, and the almost exclusive, use of -flesh produced diarrhœa and general debility. Nothing is more prejudicial -to those engaged in extended sledge journeys than great exertion with -insufficient sleep. The urgent reasons we had for losing no time in order -that we might return as soon as possible to the ship, constrained us -to depart from the rule of a ten hours’ sleep to a seven hours’ march -on sledge journeys. In consequence of our persistent adherence to this -principle during our return to Europe after abandoning the _Tegetthoff_, -the labours incident to it were far more easily performed. We did not -lose but gained strength; and some of us even grew stouter during it. - -[Illustration: CUTTING UP THE BEARS.] - -21. On the 8th of April we continued our journey, making an early start -as usual. Our track lay between countless hummocks, some of which were -forty feet high, while the depressions between them were filled with -deep layers of snow, and as we advanced into Rawlinson Sound, high -icebergs towered over a monotonous chaos of ice-forms. The ice resembled -that which surrounded the _Tegetthoff_ during our first winter, and -indicated a periodical, perhaps even an annual, breaking up. There -was nothing, however, to entitle us to infer that Rawlinson Sound was -navigable in summer. Like many of the passages of the northern coast -of North America, Austria and Rawlinson Sounds are too narrow for the -purposes of navigation. They are, however, well calculated for sledge -travelling. For some time we made use of our sledge-sail; but when the -wind shifted to E.S.E., it drove the sledge so much from its true course, -that we took it down. Our noses had become so susceptible, that we were -glad to put on our wind-protectors to save them from frost-bite. Then -followed snow-storms, alternating with brilliant sunshine which, however, -illuminated, partially only, some reaches of the hummocky ice, while the -distant land lay in shadow. It cost us excessive labour to get the sledge -on; we had occasionally to dig a lane for it, and we ran some risk of -breaking it. Our advance was one continual zig-zag, due to the confused -character of the ice on which we travelled and the untrustworthiness of -the compass in high latitudes. It seemed too, as if the declination of -the magnetic needle had considerably diminished since we left the ship. -Our labours were diversified by the visit of a bear, who, when we first -observed him, was standing on the top of one of the many ice-hummocks -about 300 paces distant. He then approached us, as was usually the case, -under the wind, and we at once drew up to receive him. He took no notice -of the bread we had laid down to gain his attention, but still pressed -on till he received three bullets in his head. Notwithstanding this he -ran for about seventy yards and then fell. To make sure, another bullet -was fired into his body, and thinking him dead, we forthwith began to -cut him up; but when his belly was being opened, he raised his head in a -fury, seized the butt-end of my rifle with his teeth and tore it from my -hand. My companions soon despatched him. The bear was eight feet long, -and therefore of unusual size. We might have cut off two or three cwt. -of flesh from his carcase, but in consideration of the heavy lading of -the sledge, we contented ourselves with appropriating sixty pounds. Both -Rawlinson and Austria Sounds were equally rich in fresh traces of bears, -which seemed to be those of whole families and not of individual animals. - -22. Our latitude from a meridian observation was found to be 81° 38′—and -though the sun shining dimly through the clouds might account for an -error of two or three minutes, we had certainly passed beyond the -latitude 81° 35′ reached by Hayes in Smith’s Sound in 1861.[45] Having no -conception at the time that Hall’s American expedition had penetrated, -the year before we achieved this result, to 82° 9′ on the land and 82° -22′ at sea, we hoisted our sledge-flag to commemorate our success. The -character of the ice now became so wild and confused that we wandered 45° -from one point of the compass to the other. We constantly expected to -come upon open fissures, and could not conceal from ourselves how easily -its loose connection might be broken up by a storm, and our return to -the ship exposed to great risks. The transport of our travelling gear -became increasingly difficult, and great were our fears lest, through the -constant heavy shocks which the sledge encountered, the case of spirit -should be crushed and destroyed. The difficulties too to be overcome amid -the multitude of hummocks were more depressing than the occurrence of -snow-storms, inasmuch as their number almost destroyed the possibility of -progress; and the monotonous uniformity which tired the eye tended also -to depress the spirits. - -23. On the 9th of April (the thermometer standing at 10° F., and a light -breeze blowing from the east) we continued our work of dragging between -the hummocks till noon. We then ascended an iceberg, and discovered -that the hummocks of ice in Rawlinson’s Sound appeared to stretch on -without end. We therefore altered our course and took a north-westerly -direction, in order to come under Crown-Prince Rudolf’s Land, whose noble -mountain forms and mighty glaciers shone forth in the light of the sun. -We expected to find smoother ice on its coast-line; but we were deceived -in this expectation, for the character of the ice remained unchanged. We -were compelled therefore to cross this Sound in a westerly direction to -Hohenlohe Island, and to select the rocky pyramid—visible from a great -distance—of Cape Schrötter as the point where our expedition should -divide into two parties; the larger party to remain behind, the smaller -to penetrate further towards the north over the glaciers of Rudolf’s -Land. By noon of this day we reached 81° 37′ N. L. and in the evening -arrived at Cape Schrötter. All the labours and efforts of the last few -days had consequently been without result. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -IN THE EXTREME NORTH. - - -1. Immediately after reaching Cape Schrötter, the east end of Hohenlohe -Island, we ascended the summit of this Dolerite rock, which was quite -free from snow, and covered with a sparse vegetation. We were surprised -to find here the excrement of a hare. The prospect which lay before us -convinced us of the necessity of our proposed temporary separation. The -mountains of Crown-Prince Rudolf’s Land, separated from us by an arm of -the sea covered with level ice, were so high (about 3,000 feet) that we -saw at once that we could pass over them only with the small dog-sledge. -The walking powers, moreover, of two of my companions had greatly -deteriorated, and for them rest was not an indulgence, but a necessity. -Austria Sound appeared to stretch still further to the north, but its -western coasts turned sharply to the left in the precipitous cliffs of -Cape Felder and Cape Böhm. The blue jagged line of mountains, towering -above snow-fields lying in the sun, stretched away to the north-west till -they were lost in dark streaks on the horizon, which our experience led -us to interpret as a water-sky above open spaces of the sea. - -2. I was greatly delighted by Orel’s readiness, though he was suffering -from inflamed eyes, to take part in the expedition to the extreme north; -and it only remained for us to select the fittest among the party and to -calm the apprehensions of those who were to remain behind. On our return -to the foot of the rocks, where the tent was already pitched, we found -the rest of the party sitting close to each other at the rocky wall on -which the sun was shining, in order to warm themselves,—like crickets on -the wall of a house. The success of an expedition like that we projected -depends chiefly on the mutual good feeling among its members, and he -who commands it, besides participating personally in all the labours to -be endured, must show himself a sympathetic friend even in cases where -strict duty does not enjoin it, so that confidence in him may grow into -a kind of belief in his infallibility. There could not be more devoted -or enduring men than those who were here lying in the sun, and whom we -now joined, in order to decide the question of the hour. I explained to -them the plans I meant to follow,—that I should be absent from five to -eight days, that if I should not return to them within fifteen days they -should march back to the ship with the sledge—sawn through the middle—and -the stock of provisions which should be placed at their disposal would -suffice for this emergency. I then asked each of them whether he could -dismiss fear, and remain behind in this desolation. Sussich answered: -“_Se uno de lori resta indietro, mi non go paura:_” so said the rest. By -the expression, however, “uno de lori” they meant Orel or one of the two -Tyrolese, and specially with an eye to the bears which might be prowling -about. I left it free to Klotz and Haller to decide which of them was the -fittest and most serviceable to accompany me: “You,” answered Haller, -“you, Klotz, are the better man to drag the sledge and endure fatigue.” -Accordingly Sussich and Lukinovich remained under Haller’s command. These -three were ordered not to go more than 300 yards from Cape Schrötter, -to remain on the defensive if attacked by bears, to spend their time in -drying their clothes and repairing their torn boots, and to go about -in wooden shoes to save wear and tear. Haller received as Governor of -Hohenlohe Island a pocket-compass, a watch, an aneroid barometer, and a -thermometer, and to them we left also our little medicine-chest. If Dr. -Kepes had once tried to make a doctor of me in one hour, in now repeating -the experiment on Haller I confined myself to ten minutes. - -3. On the morning of the 10th of April (the thermometer standing at 5° -F.) we divided the tent; one half was put on the dog-sledge, the other -was pitched, with its open side close under the rock. Before a caravan -takes the desert, the camels are watered, and we too, though in a -very different kind of desert, exposed to the constant evil of thirst, -would gladly have been treated in like fashion. But we had to content -ourselves with a pint of boiling water, served out to each of us every -morning, reminding us, indeed, of coffee, for 2 lbs. of it were boiled -in 105 gallons of water in the course of thirty days. The provisions -were divided, and enough for eight days was dealt out to the party -starting to the north, Orel, Zaninovitch, Klotz, myself, and two dogs. -The special requirements of our expedition, among which were a rifle and -a revolver, raised the weight of our sledge to about 4 cwt., which it was -the business of the dogs to draw without any assistance from us, and this -they did over the level snow with such zeal, that we had some trouble in -keeping up with them. - -4. The merits of our dogs I have hitherto left unnoticed, in order -emphatically to assert that we owed the passing beyond the eighty-second -degree of north latitude not to our own exertions, but to the endurance -and courage of these animals. No kind of life among dogs is comparable -for hardships with the life of a dog in an Arctic sledge. His tent is -scarcely the pretext of a shelter, and his natural coat is generally -covered by a thick rime. The snow when it drifts completely covers him, -though he constantly but vainly seeks to shake it off. He draws his -breath with difficulty, hunger gnaws at his bowels, and his wounded feet -colour the snow with blood. Often, too, these poor animals amid the -great cold must keep still; then they lift up their paws alternately, to -prevent frost-bite. The two dogs, which accompanied us to the extreme -North, were the noblest animals ever employed in a sledge expedition, -and when I recall the great services they rendered us, both now and -afterwards in the return to Europe, their sad end fills me with sincere -sorrow. Jubinal and Torossy were dogs of remarkable size and strength, -and escaped the epidemic diseases[46] which attacked the dogs of Hayes -and Kane; and though it has been thought that the dogs of the Eskimo and -of the Siberian people were alone adapted for Arctic expeditions, our -experience with our own dogs most of them brought from Vienna, proves -that they were not a whit less useful. Our dogs had only one defect: -they had not been trained to sledge-drawing from their youth, but had -been broken to it only during our expedition, and were therefore not -always amenable to discipline. When left to themselves in dragging the -sledge they went on, without turning to the right or left, from cape -to cape, and if they found themselves on a wide plain of ice, and far -from all striking landmarks, they ran either towards the sun or moon, or -some remarkable star. It was against the grain with them to have to drag -in the teeth of the wind, and if they had to push on amid hummocks of -ice, they immediately began to growl. They were fed in the morning, and -more particularly in the evening, and they showed a delicacy of taste -in discriminating between bear’s flesh and the despised seal’s flesh. -While they carefully avoided coming near us before our start, provided -they were not very hungry, in order to escape being harnessed, yet when -harnessed nothing could exceed their vigour and persistence in dragging. - -[Illustration: ICEBERGS AT THE BASE OF THE MIDDENDORF GLACIER.] - -5. As we approached the promontory on the south of Crown-Prince Rudolf’s -Land, we came upon innumerable icebergs, from one hundred to two hundred -feet high, which made an incessant cracking and snapping sound in the -sunshine. The Middendorf glacier, with an enormous sea-wall, ran towards -the north to a great distance. Deep layers of snow and great rents in -the sea-ice, the consequence of the falling-in of icebergs, filled the -intervening spaces between them. Into these fissures we were continually -falling, drenching our canvas boots and clothes with sea-water. But the -aspect of these colossal fragments of glaciers engrossed us to such an -extent, that we wandered a long time with unflagging interest among -these pyramids, tables, and cliffs. It was only when I sent on Klotz to -mark out by his footsteps a path by which we might ascend the Middendorf -glacier, that we came to a more open region, and, all putting their -strength to the work of dragging, we gained its summit, crossing in our -progress many crevasses bridged over with snow. Three of these yawned -across the lower part of the glacier, needing but a slight movement of -the ice to detach them and transform them into icebergs. Further on, the -glacier appeared smooth and free from crevasses, although its inclination -amounted to several degrees. Towards the north it seemed as if it might -be crossed without excessive exertion, if all took part in the work of -dragging. But before we began this part of the day’s work we rested, and -recruited ourselves with dinner, and setting up our little tent at about -400 paces above the edge of the glacier, we looked down with feelings of -delight on its semi-circular terminal precipice and the gleaming host -of icebergs which filled the indentations of the coast. While we were -sitting in the tent Klotz made the fatal communication to me, that he -was not the man he should be, that for some days his foot had swollen -and ulcerated, so that he could walk only in shoes made of hide. However -vexatious this mishap, there was nothing for it but to send him back to -Hohenlohe Island. Laden with a sack and carrying a revolver, he set off, -and soon disappeared from our eyes in the labyrinth of icebergs beneath -us. - -[Illustration: THE SLEDGE FALLS INTO A CREVASSE ON THE MIDDENDORF -GLACIER.] - -6. We had meanwhile again packed the sledge, harnessed the dogs, and -fastened the traces round us, when, just as we were setting off, the -snow gave way beneath the sledge, and down fell Zaninovich, the dogs, -and the sledge, and from an unknown depth I heard a man’s voice mingled -with the howling of dogs. All this was the impression of a moment, -while I felt myself dragged backwards by the rope. Staggering back, and -seeing the dark abyss beneath me, I could not doubt that I should be -precipitated into it the next instant. A wonderful providence arrested -the fall of the sledge; at a depth of about thirty feet it stuck fast -between the sides of the crevasse, just as I was being dragged to the -edge of the abyss by its weight. The sledge having jammed itself in, -I lay on my stomach close to the awful brink, the rope which attached -me to the sledge tightly strained, and cutting deep into the snow. -The situation was all the more dreadful as I, the only person present -accustomed to the dangers of glaciers, lay there unable to stir. When -I cried down to Zaninovich that I would cut the rope, he implored me -not to do it, for if I did, the sledge would turn over, and he would be -killed. For a time I lay quiet, considering what was to be done. By and -by it flashed into my memory, how I and my guide had once fallen down -a wall of ice in the Ortler Mountains, 800 feet high, and had escaped. -This inspired me with confidence to venture on a rescue, desperate as -it seemed under the circumstances. Orel had now come up, and although -he had never been on a glacier before, this gallant officer dauntlessly -advanced to the edge of the crevasse, and, laying himself on his stomach, -looked down into the abyss, and cried to me, “Zaninovich is lying on a -ledge of snow in the crevasse, with precipices all round him, and the -dogs are still attached to the traces of the sledge, which has stuck -fast.” I called to him to throw me his knife, which he did with such -dexterity, that I was able to lay hold of it without difficulty; and as -the only means of rescue, I severed the trace which was fastened round -my waist. The sledge made a short turn, and then stuck fast again. I -immediately sprang to my feet, drew off my canvas boots, and sprang over -the crevasse, which was about ten feet broad. I now caught sight of -Zaninovich and the dogs, and shouted to him, that I would run back to -Hohenlohe Island to fetch men and ropes for his rescue, and that rescued -he would be, if he could contrive for four hours to keep himself from -being frozen. I heard his answer: “Fate, Signore, fate pure!” and then -Orel and I disappeared. Heedless of the crevasses which lay in our path, -or of the bears which might attack us, we ran down the glacier back to -Cape Schrötter, six miles off. Only one thought possessed us—the rescue -of Zaninovich, the jewel and pride of our party, and the recovery of our -invaluable store of provisions, and of the book containing our journals, -which, if lost, could never be replaced. But even apart from my personal -feeling for Zaninovich, I keenly felt the reproaches to which I should be -exposed of incautious travelling on glaciers; and it gave me no comfort -to think that my previous experiences in this kind of travelling over -the glaciers of Greenland appeared to justify my proceedings. Stung with -these reflections, I pressed on at the top of my speed, leaving Orel far -behind me. Bathed in perspiration, I threw off my bird-skin garments, my -boots, my gloves, and my shawl, and ran in my stockings through the deep -snow. After passing the labyrinth of icebergs I saw the rocky pyramid -of Cape Schrötter before me in the distance. The success of my venture -depended on the weather. If snow-driving should set in, and footprints -should be obliterated, it would be impossible to find Hohenlohe Island. -All around me it was fearfully lonely. Encompassed by glaciers, I was -absolutely alone. At last I saw Klotz emerge from behind an iceberg -at some distance off, and though I continued to shout his name till -I almost reached him, I failed to rouse him from his usual reverie. -When at last he saw me breathlessly pushing on, scarcely clothed, and -constantly calling, his sack slipped from his back, and he stared at me -as if he had lost his senses. When the hardy son of the mountains came to -understand that Zaninovich with the sledge was buried in the crevasse, -he began to weep, in his simplicity of heart taking the blame of what -had happened on himself. He was so agitated and disturbed, that I made -him promise that he would do himself no mischief, and then, leaving him -to his moody silence, I ran on again towards the island. It seemed as if -I should never reach Cape Schrötter; with head bent down I trudged on, -counting my steps through the deep snow; when I raised it again, after a -little time, it was always the same black spot that I saw on the distant -horizon. At last I came near it, saw the tent, saw some dark spots creep -out of it, saw them gather together, and then run down the snow-slope. -These were the friends we had left behind. A few words of explanation, -with an exhortation to abstain from idle lamentation, were enough. They -at once detached a second rope from the large sledge, and got hold of a -long tent-pole. Meantime I had rushed upon the cooking-machine, quickly -melted a little snow to quench my raging thirst, and then we all set off -again—Haller, Sussich, Lukinovich, and myself—to the Middendorf glacier. -Tent and provisions were left unwatched; we ran back for three hours -and a half; fears for Zaninovich gave such wings to my steps, that my -companions were scarcely able to keep up with me. Ever and anon, I had -to stop to drink some rum. At the outset we met Orel, and rather later -Klotz, both making for Cape Schrötter, Klotz to remain behind there, and -Orel to return with us at once to Middendorf glacier. When we came among -the icebergs under Cape Habermann I picked up, one by one, the clothes I -had thrown away. Reaching the glacier, we tied ourselves together with a -rope. Going before the rest, I approached with beating heart the place, -where the sledge had disappeared four hours and a half ago. A dark abyss -yawned before us; not a sound issued from its depths, not even when I -lay on the ground and shouted. At last I heard the whining of a dog, -and then an unintelligible answer from Zaninovich. Haller was quickly -let down by a rope; he found him still living, but almost frozen, on -a ledge of snow forty feet down the crevasse. Fastening himself and -Zaninovich to the rope, they were drawn up after great exertion. A storm -of greetings saluted Zaninovich, stiff and speechless though he was, when -he appeared on the surface of the glacier. I need not add that we gave -him some rum to stimulate his vital energies. It was a noble proof how -duty and discipline assert themselves, even in such situations, that the -first word of this sailor, saved from being frozen to death, was not a -complaint, but thanks, accompanied with a request that I would pardon him -if he, in order to save himself from being frozen, had ventured to drink -a portion of the rum, which had fallen down in its case with the sledge -to his ledge of snow. Haller again descended, and fastened the dogs to -the rope. The clever animals had freed themselves from their traces in -some inexplicable way, and had sprung to a narrow ledge, where Haller -found them, close to where Zaninovich had lain. It was astonishing how -quickly they discerned the danger of the position, and how great was -their confidence in us. They had slept the whole time, as Zaninovich -afterwards told us, and he had carefully avoided touching them, lest -they should fall down deeper into the abyss. We drew them up with some -difficulty, and they gave expression to their joy, first by rolling -themselves vigorously in the snow, and then by licking our hands. We then -raised Haller by the rope some ten feet higher than the ledge on which -Zaninovich had lain, so that he might be able to cut the ropes which -fastened the loading of the firmly wedged-in sledge. At this moment Orel -arrived, and with his help we raised one by one the articles with which -the sledge was loaded. It was ten o’clock before we were convinced that -we had lost nothing of any importance in the crevasse. - -[Illustration: KLOTZ’S AMAZEMENT.] - -[Illustration: THE ALARM OF THE HOHENLOHE PARTY.] - -7. We now left the glacier and the icebergs, and by midnight had reached -Cape Habermann. Here we slept, and the dogs with us, as uncomfortably as -possible. On the morning of the 11th of April (the thermometer marking 3° -F.), we started at an hour when we would much rather have continued to -sleep. Our thirst was so great that we felt ourselves equal to drinking -up a stream. Haller, Sussich, Lukinovich had during the night returned -to Cape Schrötter. Before they started Haller earnestly besought me to -come back as soon as possible; for the recent event, he said, had not -been without its disquieting effects on the men. On the whole, we might -congratulate ourselves on being able to continue our journey, without -having received any serious damage, though no longer over the treacherous -glacier. - -[Illustration: HALT UNDER CROWN-PRINCE RUDOLF’S LAND.] - -8. A sharp turn to the left brought us to the west coast of Crown-Prince -Rudolf’s Land, along which we pursued our route northwards. When we -reached Cape Brorock, where by an observation we found our latitude -at noon to be 81° 45′, the weather became wonderfully bright, and the -warm sunlight lay on the broken summits of the Dolerite mountains, -which, though covered with gleaming ice, were free from snow. To the -north-west we saw at first nothing but ice up to the horizon; even with -the telescope of the theodolite I could not decide for the existence -of land, which Orel’s sharp eye discovered in the far distance. In the -Arctic regions, it often happens that banks of fog on the horizon assume -the character of distant ranges, for the small height to which these -banks rise in the cold air causes them to be very sharply defined. It is -very common also to make the same mistake in the case of mists arising -from the waste water of enormous glaciers. We marched on northward close -under the land, and for the first time over smooth undulating ice, in -high spirits at the increasing grandeur of the scenery and at the happy -issue of our adventure of yesterday. Thirst compelled us frequently to -halt in order to liquefy snow;[47] sometimes we melted it as we marched -along, and our sledge with smoke curling up from the cooking-machine then -resembled a small steamer. - -9. By and by we came to more snow, and the ice, through which many -fissures ran, became gradually thinner, but when we reached the imposing -headland, which we called Cape Auk, the ice lay in forced-up barriers. -A strange change had come over the aspect of nature. A dark water-sky -appeared in the north, and heavy mists rolled down to the steep -promontories of Karl Alexander Land; the temperature rose to 10° F.,[48] -our track became moist, the snow-drifts collapsed under us with a loud -noise, and if we had previously been surprised with the flight of birds -from the north, we now found all the rocky precipices of Rudolf’s Land -covered with thousands of auks and divers. Enormous flocks of birds flew -up and filled the air, and the whole region seemed alive with their -incessant whirring. We met everywhere with traces of bears and foxes. -Seals lay on the ice, but sprang into the water before we got within -shot of them. But notwithstanding these signs of a richer animal life, -we should not be justified in inferring, from what we saw in a single -locality, that life increases as we move northwards. It was a venial -exaggeration, if amid such impressions we pronounced for the nearness -of an open Polar sea, and without doubt all adherents of this opinion, -had they come with us to this point and no further, would have found in -these signs fresh grounds to support their belief. In enumerating these -observations, I am conscious what attractions they must have for every -one who still leans to the opinion that an open ocean will be found at -the Pole; subsequent experience, however, will show how little is their -value in support of this antiquated hypothesis. - -[Illustration: CAPE AUK.] - -10. Our track was now very unsafe; it was only the icebergs which -seemed to keep the ice in the bays. A strong east wind would certainly -have broken it up and cut off our return, at least with the sledge. -There were no longer the connected floes of winter, but young ice only, -covered with saline efflorescence, dangerously pliable, and strewn over -with the remains of recent pressures. The ice was broken through in -many places by the holes of seals. It was expedient therefore to tie -ourselves together with a long rope, and each of us, as he took his -turn in leading, constantly sounded the ice. Passing by Cape Auk, which -resembled a gigantic aviary, we followed the line of Teplitz Bay, into -which a stream of glaciers, descending from the high mountains in the -interior, discharged itself. Icebergs lay along the terminal glacier -wall which formed its shore. Ascending one of these masses, we found -granite erratics on its surface and saw the open sea stretching far to -the west. There seemed to be ice only on the extreme horizon. As the -ice-sheet over which our track lay became thinner and more pliable, and -constantly threatened to give way under us, the height and length of its -piled-up barriers increased also, and because the high glacier walls made -it impossible to travel over the land, we had no other resource than to -open up a track through the hummocky ice by pick and shovel. At last -even this expedient failed to help us; our sledge, constantly damaged, -and as constantly repaired, had to be unloaded, the dogs unharnessed, -and everything transported separately. Evening had now arrived; ahead -of us lay the two rock-towers, which we called Cape Säulen, and open -coast-water here began. - -[Illustration: CAPE SÄULEN.] - -11. Beautiful and sublime was this far-off world. From a height we looked -over a dark “ice-hole,” studded with icebergs like pearls, and over these -lay heavy clouds through which the sunbeams fell on the gleaming water. -Right over the true sun shone a second, though somewhat duller sun; the -icebergs of Crown-Prince Rudolf’s Land, appearing enormously high, sailed -through the still region amid rolling mist and surrounded by vast flocks -of birds. Close under Cape Säulen (the Cape of Columns) we came upon -the steep edge of the glaciers and dragged up our baggage with a long -rope. While Orel got ready our encampment for the night in the fissure -of a glacier, and completed as usual his meteorological observations -and soundings, I ascended a height to reconnoitre our track for the -next day. The sun was setting amid a scene of majestic wildness; its -golden rays shot through dark banks of mist and a gentle wind, playing -over the “ice-hole,” formed ever-widening circles on its mirror-like -surface. Land was no longer visible towards the north, it was covered -with a dense “water-sky.” A bird flew close past me; at first I took it -for a ptarmigan, but it was probably a snipe. It ought to be remarked -that during the two days which we spent near this “ice-hole” we never -once saw a whale. As soon as with half-closed eyes we had eaten our -supper, we fell fast asleep, for our longing to sleep was yet greater -than our exhaustion and our thirst. The dogs availed themselves of this -opportunity to devour several pounds of bear’s flesh and empty a tin -of condensed milk, which, however, did not prevent them from barking -impudently the next morning for more. - -12. The 12th of April was the last day of advance in a northerly -direction. Though the weather was not clear, yet it was clearer than it -had been for some time. When we started we buried our baggage in the -fissure of the glacier where we had slept, in order to protect it from -bears, which roamed about on all sides. Our march lay over snowy slopes -to the summits of the coast range—from 1,000 to 3,000 feet high. The -masses of mist lying on the horizon had retreated before the rays of the -morning sun, and all the region with its lines of ice-forms was bathed in -light; and southward, open water stretched to the shores of Cape Felder. -As we followed this lofty coast range, mountains with glaciers sloping -down their sides towards the sea seemed to rise before us. An hour before -noon we reached a rocky promontory 1,200 feet high, afterwards called -Cape Germania. Here we rested, and from a meridian observation we found -our latitude to be 81° 57′. Following the coast as it trended towards the -north-east, we came on a glacier with a steep inclination and frequent -crevasses, which compelled us to leave the sledge behind before we -attempted to cross it. But the increasing insecurity of our track over -fissures, our want of provisions, and the certainty that since noon we -had reached 82° 5′ N. L. by a march of five hours, at last brought our -advance northward to a close. With a boat we might certainly have gone -some miles further. - -[Illustration: THE AUSTRIAN FLAG PLANTED AT CAPE FLIGELY.] - -13. We now stood on a promontory about 1,000 feet high, which I named -Cape Fligely, as a small mark of respect and gratitude towards a man of -great distinction in geographical science. Rudolf’s Land still stretched -in a north-easterly direction towards a cape—Cape Sherard Osborne—though -it was impossible to determine its further course and connection. The -view we had from this height was of great importance in relation to the -question of an open Polar sea. Open water there was of considerable -extent and in very high latitudes: of this there could be no question. -But what was its character? From the height on which we stood we could -survey its extent. Our expectations had not been sanguine, but moderate -though they were, they proved to be exaggerated. No open sea was there, -but a “Polynia” surrounded by old ice, within which lay masses of younger -ice. This open space of water had arisen from the action of the long -prevalent E.N.E. winds. But of more immediate interest than the question -of an open Polar sea was the aspect of blue mountain-ranges lying in -the distant north, indicating masses of land, which Orel had partially -seen the day before, and which now lay before us with their outlines -more defined. These we called King Oscar Land and Petermann Land; the -mountainous extremity on the west of the latter lay beyond the 83rd -degree of north latitude. This promontory I have called Cape Vienna, -in testimony of the interest which Austria’s capital has ever shown in -geographical science, and in gratitude for the sympathy with which she -followed our wanderings, and finally rewarded our humble merits. - -14. Proudly we planted the Austro-Hungarian flag for the first time in -the high North, our conscience telling us that we had carried it as far -as our resources permitted. It was no act asserting a right of possession -in the name of a nation, as when Albuquerque or Van Diemen unfurled the -standards of their country on foreign soil, yet we had won this cold, -stiff, frozen land with no less difficulty than these discoverers had -gained those paradises. It was a sore trial to feel our inability to -visit the lands lying before us, but withal we were impressed with the -conviction that this day was the most important of our lives, and ever -since the memory of it has recurred unbidden to my recollection. - -15. The Dolerite of this region was of a very coarse-grained character, -and its rocks rose in terraces from out of the white mantle of snow; -_Umbilicaria arctica_, _Cetaria nivalis_, and _Rhyzocarpon geographicum_ -were the sole ornaments of its scanty vegetation. The following document -we inclosed in a bottle and deposited in a cleft of rock:— - -“Some members of the Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition have here -reached their highest point in 82·5° N. L., after a march of seventeen -days from the ship, lying inclosed in ice in 79° 51′ N. L. They observed -open water of no great extent along the coast, bordered by ice, reaching -in a north and north-westerly direction to masses of land, whose mean -distance from this highest point might be from sixty to seventy miles, -but whose connection it was impossible to determine. After their return -to the ship, it is the intention of the whole crew to leave this land and -return home. The hopeless condition of the ship and the numerous cases of -sickness constrain them to this step. - -“Cape Fligely, _April 12th, 1874_. - -“(Signed) - - “ANTONIO ZANINOVICH, _Seaman_. - “EDWARD OREL, _Midshipman_, - “JULIUS PAYER, _Commander_.” - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE RETURN TO THE SHIP. - - -1. This done, our thoughts now turned to the ship, between which and -ourselves lay 160 miles. But, the _Tegetthoff_—did she lie still where -we had left her, or had she drifted away? Fastened together by a rope, -we began our return by re-crossing the glaciers, and on reaching the -stores we had deposited at Cape Germania, the first thing we did was -to prepare some water, for the beverage we had taken with us in an -india-rubber bottle, made of coffee, rum, and extract of meat, had -only aggravated thirst, without adding to our strength. It was late in -the evening when we reached our night-encampment near Säulen Cap (Cape -Columns), in a state of great exhaustion, cheered and alleviated by the -thought of our success. The utter loneliness of our position could not -suppress the satisfaction we felt. After digging up our still untouched -stores, we went to rest for three hours. Longer we dared not sleep; the -least breeze might break up the ice and drive it out of the bight on the -north of Cape Auk. The insecurity of our position therefore impelled us -to make a very early start on the morning of the 13th of April, with -the thermometer at 12° F. As we started, we awoke also to the extreme -difficulties of the return route, difficulties which the excitement of -our advance had made light of. Orel, suffering from snow-blindness, -marched along with closed eyes, and want of sleep now began to tell on -us all. Even our dogs were all worn out, and whenever a halt was made -they lay down exhausted in the snow. The sledge had constantly to be -unloaded and reloaded, and its fractures repaired. The surface of the -smooth ice, encumbered by the snow-slush which had accumulated on it, -rendered our progress very burdensome. The dull dreary weather, however, -did not prevent the sea-birds from gathering and wheeling around us in -enormous flocks. During our noon-day halt, utterly distraught, I cooked -our dinner with sea-water; not one of us could touch it. Our road through -wastes of snow from Cape Brorock to Cape Schrötter, seemed as if it would -never end. However rapidly we advanced, constantly counting our steps as -we went along, that Cape remained for hours the same dark spot on the -gloomy and snowy horizon. It was evening before we approached it, and as -we came within 300 paces of his frontier, we were received and welcomed -by ambassadors from Haller. It was curious and also characteristic to -observe how a few days without active employment and without discipline -had demoralised our old companions; the party we left behind were -scarcely recognisable. Blackened by the oil used in cooking, wasted -with diarrhœa, these men crept out of their tent listlessly to greet us -on our arrival; a few more days would have sufficed to prostrate them -with sickness. Yet they had strictly followed the directions I had -given them, and had used with moderation their stock of provisions. As -I have already mentioned, I had furnished them, before I started on my -expedition northward, with all the means of ascertaining their position -by observations, and of enabling them to begin their return to the ship, -in the event of my failing to appear at the end of fifteen days; but -when I now asked them what direction they would have taken in order to -reach the _Tegetthoff_, to my horror they pointed, not to Austria, but to -Rawlinson Sound![49] - -[Illustration: MELTING SNOW ON CAPE GERMANIA.] - -2. The observations of temperature which Haller furnished me with, -scrawled in hieroglyphics on a peas-sausage case, showed a difference of -about 4½° in favour of the extreme north, and this difference was still -more marked, when we came to compare the readings which had been recorded -on board ship. The open water to the north was doubtless the cause of -this. But the same influence extended southward, and as the snow-drifts -over which we walked broke under us with a dull, heavy sound, we began -to fear lest the season when the snow suddenly thaws and the land-ice -breaks up had begun, and that our return would be a matter of extreme -difficulty. If there had been nothing else, this would have sufficed to -quicken our movements, but to this was added the discovery that our stock -of provisions, independent of depôts, would last only ten days more. By -ridding ourselves of all but absolutely necessary baggage, and leaving -behind our common sleeping bag and the tent for the dogs, we lightened -our sledge, so as to enable us to extend our day’s march considerably. - -3. On the 14th of April, the thermometer marking 4° F., we left Hohenlohe -Island in very bad weather, and made for the Coburg Islands, which were -scarcely visible. Our route ran between hummocks, which gave the dogs -an opportunity they were not slow to use, of taking it easy after their -recent exertions. It had been our intention that the large sledge should -keep the same line which we had taken in our journey northward, while -I with the dog-sledge should visit places to the right and left. This -plan, however, was found unfeasible; for in addition to the difficulties -and impediments incident to the march, we had an accumulation of evils -to contend with. Klotz’s foot had become much worse, and all those who -had been left behind at Cape Schrötter were more or less snow-blind, -though hitherto our party had suffered little from eye diseases. It was -surprising that our dogs did not suffer from this affection, close as -they were to the glare of the snow and without any protection against -it. Snow-blindness occurs even in Alpine regions. The severity of the -attack depends on the character of the snow; the harder and smoother it -is, the greater is the reflection and the danger of inflammation; the -retina of the eye is at last injured by the dazzling whiteness of the -snow. Various remedies have been employed to mitigate this evil; even -the rough-and-ready one of throwing snuff into the eyes has been tried. -In Europe, snow-blindness is cured in a day or two by wet applications, -but in the low temperatures of the high North such a remedy cannot be -applied; poultices are hardly possible in the tent, and a simple bandage -worn during the march is no preservative against the constant burning -sensations common to this affection. It is clear that the range of -remedies during a sledge expedition must be very limited. The crew of Sir -James Clark Ross suffered in an unusual manner from this cause in their -land expeditions. Richardson and Nordenskjöld dropped a weak tincture -of opium twice a day into the eye, and in about twenty-four hours the -patient recovered, provided he were not compelled to march. Parry on -board ship used a solution of sugar of lead and cold water, applied -constantly for three or four days—a somewhat questionable remedy, as -it is apt to injure the cornea of the eye. Another mode of treatment, -which should take effect in six hours, is unhappily not available in a -North Pole expedition, as it requires white of egg, sugar, and camphor, -beaten up till it becomes frothy, and laid as a compress on the eye. Some -tribes of North America use the steam of hot water, the Creek Indians a -decoction from the resinous buds of the Tacamahac—an application which -causes much suffering. The only real preservative is the constant use of -coloured spectacles, the metal mountings of which should be covered with -wool, on account of the cold. The ordinary network at the side should be -avoided, as this dims the glasses even when the cold is not considerable; -whereas open spectacles are only exposed to this inconvenience at very -low degrees of temperature, and can easily be cleared by the hand. - -[Illustration: ENCAMPING ON ONE OF THE COBURG ISLANDS.] - -4. But to return to our journey. It was evening when the Coburg Islands -(81° 35′ N. L.) were reached. The Dolerite rock of this small cluster of -islands was of a remarkably coarse-grained crystalline texture. We had -frequently come across the traces of bears and foxes during the march of -this day, though we actually saw neither bear nor fox. On the 15th of -April, after a severe march, we got clear of the region of ice-hummocks, -and continued our southerly course with our sledge-sail before the wind. -We encountered a bear this day, which, being allowed to approach within -the distance of thirty paces, fell dead under our fire. In a few minutes -we loaded the sledge with fresh meat, and again pursued our journey. But -excessive exertion, the want of sleep, and the exclusive use of a meat -diet, were meanwhile telling their tale of reduced strength, though our -appetites were great almost beyond belief. The excessive consumption -of animal food[50] without bread-stuff excited hunger and lowered our -muscular power, while it irritated our nervous system. Our supply of bark -was rapidly decreasing, and Haller, Sussich, and Lukinovich, who could -not endure bear-flesh, were often attacked with giddiness during the -march, and placed on “half-diet.” In the following week our miseries were -intensified by insufficiency of sleep; in fact, we could not spare time -to sleep it out. Hence the afternoon hours of the march were especially -oppressive, and though the sledge with its load was positively lighter, -our strength to drag it had diminished in still greater measure. It would -be a great mistake to imagine that exercise of itself, without necessary -rest, increases the capacity of marching. The loss of strength is almost -suddenly experienced, especially in return journeys, when the excitement -of discovery has passed away, and nothing is left but the animal-like -employment of dragging. - -5. Our course lay under Andrée Island; we crossed over the flat ice-dome -of Rainer Island, and on the west saw Back’s Inlet filled with many -icebergs. From this elevation we once more beheld the snowy ranges of -Crown-Prince Rudolf’s Land in the far distance, which soon, however, -disappeared in an ocean of mist, whose white waves rolled over the -intervening ice-levels. As we again descended to the icy surface of the -sea, to our great astonishment we fell into a hole covered over with -snow, and got thoroughly wet, and, after much wandering about, we found, -towards evening, a dry place (81° 20′ N. L.) on which to pitch our tent. -On the 16th of April we found our latitude by an observation taken at -noon to be 81° 12′, and when we reached, in the evening, a point four -miles to the north of Cape Hellwald, those whose appetite had failed them -could not march a step further. - -6. On the 17th of April, Orel, with the large sledge, continued the march -southwards, while I went on with the dog-sledge, in order to ascend Cape -Hellwald. The temperature had fallen in the morning to -18° F., and the -outlines of the icebergs vibrated and undulated under the influence -of refraction. Ice-hummocks, on the distant horizon, insignificant -in size, were magnified into gigantic proportions; then again many -of these phantasmagoria seemed to form a long line, which broke up at -the next step forward. Unyoking the dogs on the shore of the island, I -left the sledge behind, and climbed the steep sides of a precipice of -clay-slate, with its laminæ firmly frozen into a mass, and reached the -summit of the lofty promontory—Cape Hellwald—about 2,200 feet above -the level of the sea. On the tops of its basaltic columns great flocks -of divers congregated, which flew round me without fear as I set up my -theodolite, and then settled close to me on the snow. I might have killed -half-a-dozen of them at a single shot. By and by, these birds, scared -by the appearance of the dogs, who soon joined me, took refuge on some -inaccessible rocks, but were not in the least disturbed when I fired -at them. My lofty point of view enabled me to have a general survey of -the mountainous country lying on the north-west, and to ascertain that -I stood on an island separated from lands on the west by Sternek Fiord. -Meantime Orel, far below me, was moving on with the sledge, but so great -is the advantage of dog-sledging, that I descended and arrived at the -same time as he did at Cape Easter. By an observation taken at noon we -found our latitude to be 81°. In the afternoon the dogs in their own -sledge dragged half of our baggage, and notwithstanding got on more -quickly than we did with the large sledge. Henceforward the order of -the day was fasting, more or less absolute; for our stock of provisions -consisted of bread and bear’s flesh for two days and a half, and the dogs -could no longer be favoured as they had been. - -7. At a few miles’ distance there rose before us the rocky cones of -Wiener Neustadt Island, with large glaciers descending their sides. As -it was beyond a doubt that the ascent of one of these conical heights -would open up an extensive prospect, I fixed on the imposing Cape Tyrol -as the most promising for an ascent. Accordingly, on the 18th of April -Haller and I started, and after a toilsome march over glaciers, reached -its dark, weather-worn summit, 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. -Even here we perceived the traces of excrements of the fox, from whose -craft the birds were protected by the inaccessibility of the places where -they bred. Though we had cut up some bullets into slugs, we refrained -from shooting at the auks and divers perched on the rocks, as we saw -that our game could not be bagged even if we killed them. Over our heads -was spread the bright sky, below us a very sea of mist, in which, though -invisible to us, Orel was wending his way towards the south. The distant -glacier wastes of Wilczek Land towered aloft on the east; a cloudy shade -separated the heights of the peninsula of La Roncière from the colourless -icy wastes of Lindemann Bay, and beyond the picturesque Collinson Fiord -there seemed to be a maze of inlets and bights, bare rocks and broad -table-lands. We bitterly deplored that the necessity of returning to the -ship prevented us from penetrating into this labyrinth of mountains and -sounds. - -[Illustration: THE VIEW FROM CAPE TYROL. COLLINSON FIORD—WIENER NEUSTADT -ISLAND.] - -8. In our descent we passed over three basaltic terraces, and came -upon a rocky ledge covered with a thick carpet of _Usnea melaxantha_—a -fresh example of the great capability of lichens to bear extremes of -temperature, the great cold of winter and the burning heat of the rock in -summer. The mists now began to rise, and for the first time a greenish -landscape without snow gleamed out of the depth, on which lay the warm -glow of the sun. The scenery seemed to belong to the Alps, and not the -81st degree of North Latitude. The contrast became the more striking, -when the mists rolled away and unveiled the icebergs and the ice-filled -sound. When we reached these green mountain slopes we found ourselves -among grasses, the lower stalks of which were already beginning to be -green; the few flowering plants (_Saxifraga oppositifolia_, _Silene -acaulis_, _Papaver nudicale_) were clustered together in dense masses. -We were now able to form some conception of what summer might be here. -Countless streams issuing from the snow would force these spots to put -on the livery of summer, and rapid torrents would precipitate themselves -down gorges of snow and rock; but at present all was stiff and stark, -save that stunted green herbage seemed to show that we were in the -fancied paradise of Franz-Josef Land, though when compared even with -other Arctic lands it was but a scene of desolation. Closer to the shore -above the level of the sea, in a belt of yellow sandstone, we found much -lignite firmly frozen in the ground, resembling drift-wood a century old. - -9. The search for our companions was for some time fruitless; and a -driving snow might have separated us from them for ever. At last, -however, we found them gathered together in the tent near Forbes’ -Glacier, in about 80° 58′ N. L., and as the party had been without -tobacco for a fortnight, they greeted Haller’s collection of lichens as a -welcome substitute. - -10. During the last few days the cold had sensibly increased, and we -therefore determined to sleep during the day, and to walk during the -night. Our march in the night of April 18 was a memorable one to us. -We were trudging along in the face of a strong south-wester—which was -extremely distressing to our highly sensitive frozen noses—and striving -to protect the soles of our feet by the rapidity of our movement from -being frost-bitten. After succeeding to a certain extent in this, we -began to find the snow very deep, and so soft that we sank in at every -step. This grew worse and worse; water rose in the deeper layers of snow -and penetrated our boots, and as this could not be explained by the state -of the temperature, we had to step with distrust and hesitation, in -constant fear of unseen depths. At first we believed that the water arose -from streams flowing from underneath the glaciers, or from the movement -of these glaciers breaking up the surface of the ice. Hence we kept at -a distance from their terminal walls. But that the ice-sheet of the sea -itself had broken up, that unseen fissures surrounded us, and that the -water under the snow was nothing but the water of the sea forcing its way -in—of this we had not the least conception, till the sudden immersion -of the leader of the party left no doubt about the matter. Once Haller -would have utterly disappeared unless he had been quickly rescued. As we -picked our way along, even with a long pole we found every now and then -no bottom. Klotz now took the lead with a long “alpenstock,” guiding us -with the greatest dexterity among these fissures, though often himself -falling in. Greatly did we rejoice when we reached unbroken footing. Some -of the party on this occasion were frost-bitten in the feet, but we could -do little more for them than rub their feet with snow and improve as we -could their foot-covering. The sun was now visible at midnight, and the -mountains of Markham Sound were tinged with rosy light. - -[Illustration: BREAKING IN.] - -11. Ahead of us in the south lay a dark water-sky, while the land on -either side was veiled in mist and fog. We tried to persuade ourselves -that this phenomenon might be explained otherwise than by open water. -Soon, however, we heard the unambiguous sound of ice-pressure and of the -beating of the surf at no great distance, and when we went to rest, in -80° 36′ N. L., it was with the feeling that we needed new strength to -meet the dangers which unquestionably awaited us. We slept soundly for -some hours in spite of all our anxious fears, till we were aroused by -the increasing noise. We now advanced along the old sledge-track upon -which we had fallen. Orel and I went first, and after we had gone a few -hundred paces the truth burst upon us: we saw the sea ahead of us and -no white edge beyond. Walls of forced-up ice surrounded this water, -which, stirred by a heavy wind, threw up crested waves; the spray of its -surf dashed itself for a distance of thirty yards over the icy shore. -Forthwith ascending an iceberg, we looked over the dark waste of water, -in which the icebergs, under which we had passed a month before, were now -floating; the more distant of them stood out against the arch of light -on the horizon, and those nearer to us shone with a dazzling brilliancy -under the dark water-sky. That on which lay our depôt of provisions was -floating in the midst of them; and here we were, without a boat, almost -without provisions, and fifty-five miles distant from the ship! A strong -current was running southwards at the rate of three or four miles an -hour; fragments of ice were driving before the wind, as if they meant to -delight us by their movements, and as if there were no change for the -worse to a handful of men, who stood in reality before an impassable -abyss. - -[Illustration: ARRIVAL BEFORE THE OPEN SEA.] - -12. But what were we to do; what direction were we to follow? If we -killed and ate our dogs and broke up our sledge to find wood to melt the -snow, we might live for eight days longer. In this case we must ourselves -carry our baggage. But the most important question was, Whither? In -what direction did the ice lie still unbroken? Did the land on the west -afford a connected route to the ship? Did the sea before us communicate -further south with the sea where the _Tegetthoff_ lay? There was but one -alternative—escape by land and over land; and because open water could -be traced to the north-west beyond the bare reefs of the Hayes Islands, -and heavy clouds over Markham Sound seemed to indicate that the ice had -broken up in it also, I decided to try the way over the glaciers of -Wilczek Land. Everything depended on the unbroken state of the ice in the -southern parts of Austria Sound. Dejected as I was, I finished my sketch -of this dreadful scene, while Orel went back to caution the men against -venturing on the young ice and to tell them to keep to the old ice under -the land. While the men were struggling with the great sledge in the -snow, I descended from my higher point of view, and, soaked through by -the surf, went along the ice-strand in a south-easterly direction towards -Wilczek Land. The others followed, and though we came on many fissures -merely covered with snow, we yet reached _terra firma_ in safety, Orel -skilfully guiding the movements of the sledge according to the signs -agreed on. - -[Illustration: DRAGGING THE SLEDGE UNDER THE GLACIERS OF WILCZEK LAND.] - -13. But soon afterwards everything was veiled in mist; the temperature -rose to 7° F., then came driving snow, which gradually increased to a -snow-storm, and in order not to be cut off we were obliged once more to -keep together. Dreadful as the weather was, we could not venture to put -up the tent; march we must, in order to escape before the wind destroyed -the ice-bridges on the way back. We trudged along under enormous glacier -walls, enveloped in whirling snow. Sounding all round, we escaped the -abysses with difficulty. We could scarcely even breathe and make head a -against the wind. Our clothes were covered with snow, our faces were -crusted with ice, eyes and mouth were firmly closed, and the dark sea -beneath us was hidden from our view. We ceased to hear even its roar, -the might of the storm drowning everything else. Haller, a few paces -ahead, continually sounded, so as to keep us clear of fissures. We could -scarcely follow him or recognise his form. We saw nothing even of the -enormous glacier walls under which we toiled along, except that at times -we caught a glimpse of them towering aloft. At every hundred paces we -halted for a few minutes to remove the ice which formed itself on our -eyes and round our mouths. We stilled our hunger with the hope, that we -should find and dig out the body of the bear which we had shot a month -ago. But we dared not rest, nor await the abatement of the storm, until -we had crossed the glacier and felt the firm ground, free from ice, -beneath our feet. This we compassed after a march of seven hours. Utterly -exhausted, we then put up the tent on a stony slope, got beneath it, -white with snow, wet through and stiffened with ice; notwithstanding our -hunger, we lay down to sleep without eating. Not a morsel of bread could -we venture to serve out from the small stock of provisions that remained. -Our prospects were gloomy in the extreme. If open water, or even a broad -fissure at Cape Frankfort, separated us from the ship, we must inevitably -perish on the shores of Wilczek Land. - -[Illustration: THE SLEDGE IN A SNOW-STORM.] - -14. The snow-storm still continued to rage; hunger, cold, and moisture -forbade sleep, and the dogs, covered with snow, lay in front of the tent. -On the 20th of April (the thermometer marking 3° F.), after a breakfast -more suited for a patient under typhus fever than for men hungry as -wolves, we left the tent in our still wet clothes, and while standing -on its sheltered side to wait till it was cleared, our clothes froze -into coats of mail. As we went on, the terrible weather blew out of us -almost all that remained of our courage and resolution. It was evening -before the storm abated, but we had the good fortune to find the iceberg -with our last depôt in its former position close to the shore. There -were the 45 lbs. of boiled beef, and there, too, the bear lying two feet -deep in snow. It took us an hour to dig him out and load our sledge with -this frozen mass, which we were glad to call provision. After each of -us had devoured 3 lbs. of boiled beef and bear’s flesh, on we went. To -our inexpressible joy the open water had retreated to the west, and we -were able to get round it by making a considerable bend. The numerous -fissures which crossed our path we succeeded in evading, and by ascending -icebergs were able to pick our way, till at last we arrived safely at -Cape Frankfort (80° 20′ N. L.). At its base we found, to our great -satisfaction, the land-ice running without break towards the ship. This -amounted, in fact, to deliverance, and we celebrated our joy at the event -by a glass of grog. The next thing to be done was to search for the depôt -of provisions on Schönau Island. - -[Illustration: DIGGING OUT THE DEPÔT.] - -15. On the 21st of April (the thermometer marking -7° F.) Orel led -with the large sledge, while I remained behind with the dog-sledge, in -order, from an elevation at Cape Frankfort, to complete the measurement -of certain angles indispensable for the maps I was constructing. We -joined company again nearly opposite Cape Berghaus, and together crossed -a broad reach covered with ice-hummocks. The weather was clear, and -brilliantly-marked parhelia hung over the dark blue background of the -mountains. We again came on very deep snow, and as we advanced with -much difficulty and great exertion, we got rid of the bear, after we -had cut off from it every portion that could be used for food. The -relief, however, was not great, and we were repeatedly compelled to halt -and rest. Lukinovich and the much-enduring Zaninovich were taken with -fainting-fits, the consequence of their excessive exertions. Indeed we -were all more or less faint and emaciated. During one of these halts, -in order to quicken their failing energies, I held forth to them on the -astonishing example of MacClintock’s sledge journeys. The Dalmatians -freely expressed their admiration of those Englishmen, but the Tyrolese -were rather slow to believe. - -[Illustration: THE MIDNIGHT SUN BETWEEN CAPE BERGHAUS AND KOLDEWEY -ISLAND.] - -16. Soon after midnight on the 22nd of April (the thermometer standing -at -6° F.) we reached Schönau Island, round which the ice had broken -up, so that we frequently fell into the fissures. As we erected our -tent, the sun was setting behind the violet-coloured edges of the -ice-hummocks, while the lofty pinnacle of Cape Berghaus stood out -sharply marked against the sky. The situation of the island we had -reached being extremely favourable, on the highest point of it, I took -some observations, which completed the surveys which I had made during -this expedition. Close to the eastward of us, the ice had broken up -round Hochstetter Island. Orel had meanwhile put up the tent, and Klotz -had dug out the depôt of provisions, which, to our great joy, we found -had not been disturbed by bears. The danger of starvation was at an -end, and after satisfying the claims of hunger we enjoyed a delicious -sleep of seven hours, and again set forth. We were still twenty-five -miles from the ship. This distance I now determined to compass with the -dog-sledge with all the speed possible, in order to ascertain whether -the _Tegetthoff_ remained where we left her. Orel was to follow close -with the large sledge. The day was of unusual brightness. All the land, -which a month ago had been the home of storms and enveloped in snow, now -shone in the sunlight, and the walls of rock wore their natural brown -colour. My route lay close under Koldewey and Salm Islands. At first -every fragment which had fallen from a glacier on either of these islands -was used as a pretext by the dogs for turning out of the course, and the -trail of a bear seemed quite to distract them. It was to little purpose -that I went on first to show them the way. No sooner was the least -liberty allowed them, than they used it to make now for Cape Tegetthoff, -then for Cape Berghaus, and, in preference to every other point, for the -sun! Ever and anon Torossy dragged Jubinal out of the road, and this -unruliness lasted till we came on the old sledge track, which was almost -obliterated by the snow. Suddenly they seemed to feel as if they had -entered on a familiar region. With their heads raised, and tails in the -air, they now rushed along at the rate of 180 paces in a minute, though -I had now taken my place on the sledge. The south-west corner of Salm -Island was beset by a crowd of apparently stranded icebergs. Under the -sheltered side of one of these colossal masses I made a short halt, and -lighted the cooking-machine to thaw some boiled beef, and enjoy a meal -in common with my canine companions, who regarded all my movements with -fixed attention. Just as I was intently observing a small dark point -on the horizon advancing in my direction—it was Orel and his party—the -iceberg, in whose stability I was placing complete confidence, suddenly -capsized, and, rolling on to the ice, shivered into fragments. In an -instant I was surrounded by fissures, pools of water, and rolling pieces -of ice. Seizing the cooking-machine, which I had lighted, I escaped with -great difficulty. I had often observed, that icebergs were surrounded -by circles of shattered surface-ice, with sea-water standing in their -fissures. The overturning of icebergs, which occurs, I apprehend, more -frequently than is generally imagined, easily accounts for the fact. It -is therefore advisable to shun the immediate neighbourhood of an iceberg -when the tent has to be erected, and to avoid using the iceberg itself as -a place for a depôt of provisions. - -[Illustration: THE “TEGETTHOFF” DESCRIED.] - -17. When I turned into the narrow passage between Salm and Wilczek -Islands, Orgel Cape, visible at a great distance, was the only dark spot -in the scene. At once the dogs made for it, and about midnight I arrived -there. A few hundred steps further, and I should stand on the top of it, -and see the ship, if ship were there. With an anxious, heavy heart, I -then began the ascent. A stony plateau stretched before me. With every -advancing step, made with increasing difficulty, the land gradually -disappeared, and the horizon of the frozen sea expanded before me—an -immeasurable white waste. No ship was to be seen—no trace of man for -thousands of miles, save a cairn, with the fragments of a flag fluttering -in the breeze, and a grave covered with snow-drifts. Still I climbed on. -Suddenly three slender masts emerged—I had found the ship: there she lay -about three miles off, appearing on the frozen ocean no bigger than a -fly. The snow-drifts and icebergs around her had hitherto concealed her -from my eye. I directed my telescope towards her, and every spar and sail -I saw seemed to promise a happy conclusion to our expedition. I held the -heads of the dogs towards the ship, and pointed with my arm to where she -lay, that they might share in my joy. We soon descended, and took our -way towards her. At about a hundred yards off the watch detected us. All -on board but the men who composed it were asleep, for it was night. At -first they were exceedingly alarmed to see me alone, but having calmed -their apprehensions, I went down at once into the cabin to awaken the -sleepers. Great was the joy caused by the account of the high latitude we -had reached, and of the discoveries we had made, which I endeavoured to -explain by the rough outline of a map which I sketched. In a few hours -the stock of questions was answered and exhausted, and everyone now left -the ship to welcome the approaching party, which was soon descried with -the sledge-flag flying. Hearty and joyful were the mutual greetings; and -the appetite of the emaciated adventurers occupied this night and for a -week afterwards, all the attention of the rest of the crew.[51] We formed -a strange group to look upon, but Klotz carried off the palm from us -all. He had never shown any weakness in counteracting the effects of -weather and exposure on his motley garments. His cap, a wondrous piece -of patchwork, resembled the winged helmet of a knight-errant, and of his -boots nothing remained but the feet, over which hung the legs of them in -shreds and tatters. Carlsen, when he saw him stepping along proudly and -silently, forgot for a moment his walruses, and compared him to Saint -Olaf, who could find only one horse in “Gulbrandsdalen” strong enough to -carry him. - -[Illustration: KLOTZ.] - -18. During our absence the greatest activity had reigned on board ship. -Weyprecht and Brosch had finished their magnetical observations, and -measured on the ice the base, which I have already mentioned, for the -trigonometrical portion of my surveys. The crew had begun the equipment -of the boats for our return to Europe, and packed up the provisions in -water-tight cases. The number of the sick had diminished; the frost-bites -had yielded to a persevering course of poultices and baths. The only -unpropitious circumstance was the accident which had befallen Stiglich, -who had shattered his right arm by accidentally discharging a rifle. -Sores and wounds in Arctic regions are difficult to heal, and especially -during the winter. Thanks to the care of our physician, Stiglich’s severe -wound healed more quickly than many a slighter injury during the cold -period of the year. The sanitary condition had essentially improved, -owing to the rich supplies of fresh meat afforded by the chase. Even -before our arrival the ship’s company had killed several bears. Scarcely -a day now passed without a bear coming near the ship. On the 25th of -April we shot one in the act of tearing down with his fore-paws a cask -sticking in the ice, and on the following day another fell a victim to -the curious attention with which he was regarding some meat packed in a -tin case. Birds also, especially divers, appeared in greater numbers; the -cliffs of Wilczek Island were no longer desolate as before. Hence it was -that we indulged in dishes of stewed birds and roasted bear’s-flesh. We -had brought with us seven bears’ tongues; each day brought an accession, -and our culinary art exercised itself on the refined preparation of -bears’ tongues, which, together with the brains of this animal, were -esteemed the greatest delicacies. Weyprecht, according to agreement, -had caused a boat and provisions for three months to be put on shore, -intended for the use of the sledge-party in the event of the ship being -driven from her moorings. As these precautionary measures could now be -dispensed with, the boat and all these provisions were removed to the -ship. Later experience proved that the exploring party could not have -escaped in this manner, for the united strength of three-and-twenty men -was required to raise and place such a boat on a sledge. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE THIRD SLEDGE JOURNEY. - - -1. The weather during the last days of April was truly delightful; calms -and bright sunshine made work and exercise in the open air exceedingly -pleasant, and the temperature never fell below -2° F. But even this -amount of cold was sufficient to retard the softening of the snow for -some days, and favoured the carrying out of a third sledge expedition. -Its intention was the exploration of the western portions of Franz-Josef -Land; for the question of its extension towards Spitzbergen was scarcely -less interesting than its extension towards the North. I should have -liked to devote weeks to the undertaking, but our impending return left a -few days only at my disposal. - -2. On the 29th of April (the thermometer marking -2° F.) Lieutenant -Brosch, Haller, and myself left the ship. Jubinal and Torossy were -selected to drag the small sledge, which was equipped for a week’s -expedition; Pekel accompanied us as a volunteer. The measurement of -the angles necessary to complete my survey detained us so long on the -heights of Wilczek Island, that we could not make our start on the level -ice till the next morning. The power of the sun some days was so great, -that the temperature of the tent at noon, when there was no wind, rose -to 63° F., while in the two preceding months it was from 10° F. to -13° -F. If the temperature during the day did not fall more than 6° below -freezing-point, we required no clothes beyond our woollen underclothing -and stockings. As we started in the morning of April 30, some snow -fell, and the mountains were covered with masses of mist, which lay in -horizontal layers half way up their sides. Cape Brünn, however, which -was our goal, lay before us, clear and distinct, and the long glacier -walls, running to the west of it round the edge of MacClintock Island, -were under the constant play of refraction, and could be traced as far as -Cape Oppolzer, from which point they seemed to trend to the north-west. - -3. The snow-track of the Sound was still firm, so that our dogs needed -little help in dragging our baggage, especially after we had buried -provision for the return journey in an iceberg. We had scarcely finished -this labour when we discovered a bear’s hole in the layer of snow at its -base, and immediately afterwards we beheld its occupant coming furiously -towards us. Several hasty shots were fired at him, but the bear escaped, -though evidently wounded. The nearer we approached MacClintock Island, -the more frequently we found fissures in the ice running parallel to -the coast and communicating with a small “ice-hole” in the south about -four miles off. Trusting, however, that during the next few days these -fissures would not open so much as to prevent our re-crossing them, we -went on and pitched our encampment near the terminal front of one of the -glaciers of the island. - -4. Our dogs continued now, as before, the implacable enemies of bears. -Matotschkin’s sad end had not frightened them into prudence and caution, -doubtless because they counted on our prowess against the common foe. To -them nothing could be a more joyous spectacle than a wounded bear. If in -his flight he became faint and exhausted they surrounded him, bit at his -legs, and did all they could to prevent his getting away, and courage, -as well as love of mischief, was visible in all their actions. Pekel, -small as he was, was the leader in all attacks, and Torossy grew under -his tuition to be at length a formidable assailant. So things proved -now. While we were busily preparing our supper in the tent a young bear -appeared on the scene; before we could stop them, out rushed the dogs on -our visitor, who at first retreated, while the dogs followed hard on his -heels. As it generally happened that the bear, after a time, turned on -his pursuers and gave them chase, we were somewhat alarmed for the safety -of the dogs, especially of Torossy, who sometimes was so stupid as not -to find his way back to the tent without guidance. Just as we expected, -the bear turned and became the pursuer; Torossy taking the lead in the -retreat. Our small stock of cartridges and superfluity of bears’-flesh -might have induced us to gaze at him while he gazed on us, if he had -only kept at a respectful distance; but he would come too near, and -reluctantly we found ourselves under the necessity of killing him and -depriving him of the dainty morsel of his tongue. Forster says that the -flesh of the Polar bear tastes like bad beef, an opinion which we are -able to endorse and confirm, as we had consumed in this expedition about -four bears apiece. - -[Illustration: MARKHAM SOUND, RICHTHOFEN PEAK FROM CAPE BRÜNN.] - -5. On the 1st of May (the thermometer standing at 4° F.) we purposed to -cross the Simony glacier and ascend the pyramid-like Cape Brünn, whence -we might hope to see at a glance as much of the surrounding country as -would have required a journey of several days on the level to discover. -Unfavourable weather, however, prevented the execution of this project, -and we were obliged to keep in our tent. Lieutenant Brosch, whose duties -in taking magnetical observations stood in the way of his accompanying me -in the previous expeditions, had now the misfortune to injure his foot; -and in consequence of this accident I had to start next morning (May 2) -accompanied only by Haller, to attempt the ascent. Fastened together with -a rope, we passed over the Simony glacier amid heavy snow-storms from the -W.N.W., and in a zigzag course went up the steep pyramid of Cape Brünn. -Never have I made a more disagreeable ascent. A steep, snowy gorge led -through a crown of rocks to the summit, which we reached after a march -of five hours. By an aneroid observation we found the height to be 2,500 -feet. - -6. If the ascent of a mountain in the face of wind and penetrating cold -demands all the self-command even of men the most inured to fatigues, -it required the additional stimulus afforded by the view of an unknown -land to give us endurance and energy under such circumstances, to sketch, -to take azimuth measurements, and estimate the distances of important -localities. To add to our difficulties, the theodolite was constantly -shaken by the wind, so that every angle had to be observed repeatedly, in -order that an available mean value might be obtained. It was only after -several hours of the most severe labour that my work was completed. My -attention was directed chiefly to the southern parts of Zichy Land, which -formed a vast mountainous region beyond Markham Sound. Half the horizon -was bounded by cliffs and heights gleaming with snow. The conical shape -of the mountains prevailed here also; the only exception was Richthofen -Spitze, the loftiest summit, perhaps, we had seen in Franz-Josef Land, -which rose like a slender white pyramid to the height of about 5,000 -feet. The land was everywhere intersected by fiords and covered with -glaciers. Its boundaries towards Spitzbergen, or Gillis’ Land, could not -be determined, because even at the distance of seventy or ninety German -miles, mountain ranges were distinctly to be traced. It would appear, -therefore, that masses of land stretch in this direction to at least -the fiftieth degree, perhaps even to the forty-eighth degree, of east -longitude. We also discovered, that the lands on the south of Markham -Sound were separated by a fiord—Negri Sound. This was already open, and -since some darker spots indicated fissures in the ice in Markham Sound, -it is probable that sledge-journeys can be only undertaken early in the -spring in Franz-Josef Land without the danger of being cut off. At the -time when we made our observations, it was utterly impossible that such -waters could be navigated by any ship, not even if she could be placed -amid these small unconnected “ice-holes.” Haller, whose rheumatic -tendencies unfitted him to bear wind and cold, had, meanwhile, posted -himself in a cleft of rock sheltered from the wind beneath the summit, -but I was quite satisfied with his running to my help, in order to rub -my frozen hands with snow, when I was forced to drop the book in which I -recorded my labours. - -7. But however great our delight at the discovery of these unknown -lands—trophies of our endurance—we were much discouraged by the view -towards the south. An enormous surface of ice extended before us—a sad -outlook, as we thought of our return homeward. Although one single -serpentine thread of water, gleaming in the sun, stretched towards the -south-east, separating the land-ice from the field-ice, yet it was -but too certain that the next breeze from the south would again close -it. All save this was a close sheet of ice. We spent some time in -exploring the lower glacier region of the island, so that it was towards -evening before we reached the tent. Much as we desired to prosecute our -explorations, reflection forced us to limit them. In order to penetrate -in a north-westerly direction several days would have been needed; but -as it had been arranged that we must at once begin our return to Europe, -we were constrained to abandon the thought of such a scheme and return -at once to the ship. On the night of the 2nd of May we began our forced -march of two-and-twenty hours, during which we were often bathed in -perspiration, though the temperature on the 3rd of May varied between 5° -F. and -4° F. The dogs alone drew the sledge with ease, though it carried -a load of 3 cwt., giving us such a striking example of what they could -do, that we felt persuaded that a sledge, with a strong team of dogs, -must be the best form, beyond comparison, of sledge-travelling. In the -evening we reached the _Tegetthoff_ and our sledge expeditions came to a -close, after we had travelled in this fashion about 450 miles. - - - - -“TEGETTHOFF” ABANDONED: RETURN TO EUROPE. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -LAST DAYS ON THE “TEGETTHOFF.” - - -1. We could now return with honour. The observations and discoveries we -had made could not be wrested from us, and our many anxieties on this -ground were at an end, henceforth the greatest evil that could befall -us was death on our homeward voyage. The intervening days were given up -to the recruiting of our exhausted powers; Klotz called this time the -“plundering of the ship.” Not very much time, indeed, was left for this, -but the short spell of good living, in which we all shared, transformed -the ship into an abode of Epicureans. But withal we redoubled our -diligence to secure the results of our toils and labours. Lieutenant -Weyprecht deposited our meteorological and magnetical readings, the -log-books and the ship’s papers, in a chest lined with tin, and soldered -it down, and a few days afterwards I made exact duplicates of the -surveys, and of measurements, which I had taken. I took especial care so -to prepare these, that another person might be able to construct from -them a map of Franz-Josef Land, should I myself perish on the return -journey. These sheets also were packed in a chest lined with tin and -soldered, and along with them were placed our zoological drawings and -about 200 sketches of the country, of the Arctic Sea and our adventures, -the flag too of the sledge journeys, and my journals. Of the zoological -collection itself, only a small selection of the specimens most easy of -transport could be taken with us. - -2. The time passed away with unexpected rapidity; the days had scarcely -begun before they seemed to have come to an end. Everyone was busy in -getting his clothes ready. In the quarters of the crew, sewing went -on without intermission, and piles of thread disappeared under their -fingers, to appear again in the strangest patterns worked on the old -garments. Avalanches of cast-off clothes hung over the hull of the ship. -The vessel—no longer trim as before—came to wear the look befitting the -catastrophe that awaited her. A great number of bears’ carcases lay on -the ice,[52] for only the brain, the tongue, and the prime portions of -the flesh found their way to the kitchen, the remaining parts lay about -half buried under snow-drifts, given up to the dogs to tear to pieces, -who now for the first time found themselves exempted from rations served -out according to time and circumstances. A month later, and such a field -of carnage would have become a very home of pestilence. - -3. Short excursions with the dog-sledge enabled us to finish our -observations on the motion of glaciers, which the great depth of -the snow had hitherto made a matter of much difficulty. The last of -these expeditions took place on May 15th. On the spot on which we had -first set our foot, we took farewell of the grave of our departed -comrade and of the Land to which we had drifted through the happy -caprice of an ice-floe, and the discovery of which rendered a return -without humiliation possible. But with this farewell the business of -the expedition came to an end, all our thoughts were now occupied -with getting back to Europe. Of the issue we dared not form the least -conception; but whether it were deliverance or destruction, our lot must -at any rate be decided within three months, as for this period only we -could drag with us the most indispensable provisions. - -4. On our equipment Lieutenant Weyprecht and I bestowed much thought and -care, and our measures were carried out with the greatest exactness. -All these were based on the excellent apparatus for sledging already -described; the additional precautions were confined to the more -convenient stowing away of the provisions, and to the diminishing, as -much as possible, of the baggage. The rapid decrease of the cold and -the consequent rise of the temperature, even above the freezing point, -enabled us to reduce our clothing to a minimum without endangering our -health; and no more comfortable sleeping-place for Arctic explorers can -be conceived than the interior of a dry boat, covered in like a tent and -provided with bed-quilts. There was more danger that we should suffer -from heat than from cold; the apprehension of insufficient provisions was -better founded. - -5. Three boats were selected for the return expedition. Two of these were -Norwegian whale-boats, 20 feet long, 5 feet broad, and 2½ feet deep. -Lieutenant Weyprecht, Dr. Kepes, Lusina, Orasch, Latkovich, Palmich, -Vecerina and Klotz, formed the complement of the one; and Zaninovich, -Haller, Lukinovich, Scarpa, Stiglich, Pospischill, Midshipman Orel and I, -the complement of the other. The third and somewhat smaller boat carried -Lieutenant Brosch, Captain Carlsen, Cattarinich, Lettis, Sussich, Marola -and Fallesich. Each of these boats rested on a sledge, and was laden with -the following articles:— - - 10 light oars. - 2 long steering oars. - 1 sail and mast. - 1 ice-anchor. - 2 boat-hooks. - 1 harpoon and line. - 1 fishing-line. - 1 small hatchet. - 1 ice-borer. - 1 screw-driver. - 1 caulking-iron. - 1 saw. - 6 reserve sledge screws. - 1 bag of nails. - 2 Lefaucheux rifles. - 1 Werndl rifle. - 1 case with 100 shot cartridges. - 1 case with 50 ditto. - 2 cases of 50 Lefaucheux cartridges. - 25 Werndl cartridges. - 8 sledge traces. - 6 lamps. - 6 weights for measuring provisions. - 2 pairs of reindeer shoes. - 2 oil cans. - 1 bag of nails. - 20 boxes of lucifer matches. - 1 steel and tinder. - 1 compass. - 1 sextant. - 1 bundle of wicks. - 1 telescope. - 1 signal horn. - 1 50-fathom line. - 1 box of lard. - 1 pair of tin-cutters. - 1 grindstone. - 3 bungs. - - _Spare Clothes._ - - 1 pair of drawers. - 1 shirt. - 1 woollen undershirt. - 1 pair of trousers. - - 1 spirit measure. - 1 pair of scales. - 1 spirit can. - 1 lever. - 1 funnel. - -To each boat was attached a large sledge thus laden:— - - Pemmican—4 boxes of 50 lbs. 200 - ” 1 box of 25 lbs. 25 - ” 4 boxes of 5 lbs. 20 - ---- 245 - Peasmeal—2 chests of 100 lbs. packed in tin 200 - ” 1 chest of 100 lbs. packed in paper 100 - ---- 300 - Potted Meat—1 chest of 80 lbs. 80 - Boiled Beef—5 chests of 10 tins of 7½ lbs. 375 - ” ” 4 ” 7½ lbs. 30 - ---- 405 - Flour—3 boxes of 33 lbs. 99 - Bread—2 bags of 83 lbs. 166 - Chocolate—3 boxes of 30 lbs. 90 - Spirits—3 casks, each weighing 77 lbs. 231 - Salt—1 box of 12 lbs. 12 - Extract of Meat—2 boxes of 5 lbs. 10 - Tea—1 box of 3 lbs. 3 - ---- - Total 1641 - ==== - -To this must be added 100 lbs. of bread for the dogs, and a shovel and a -complete cooking apparatus for each sledge. Our load therefore amounted -in provisions alone to about 50 cwt., and including everything, to about -90 cwt. Parry, with twenty-eight men, in 1827 had for his journey of -sixty-one days two boats and four sledges, carrying a total weight of -75 cwt.—about 2½ cwt. therefore for each man. Notwithstanding great -obstacles from the ice, his expedition was, perhaps, more favoured than -ours, for he passed over 1½ degrees of latitude in thirty days. - -6. Of our dogs, two only, Jubinal and Torossy, were available to drag the -small sledge; 1 cwt. of bread was all we could take for them, and for the -rest they had to depend on the product of the chase. Gillis was shot on -account of his intractability, and Semlja because of her weakness. Only -Pekel was allowed to accompany us; he only of the dogs had the right -of going about at liberty; yet his life too was safe as long as our -provisions lasted. - -7. Our stock of clothes consisted of two woollen shirts, one pair of -woollen drawers, three pairs of stockings, leather water-boots, a -cap, and of a fur-coat to sleep in. Clean woollen under-garments were -much in request, and many a manœuvre was practised to get possession -of them. Each of the party carried besides a large knife, a spoon, and -a pair of snow-spectacles. Of luxuries none were permitted to us but a -tobacco-pouch to each man; but filled with such art that it was like a -stone in weight. We were not allowed to line our coats with tobacco. - -8. Our plan was simple—to reach the depôt of provisions on the Barentz -Islands, which lay in an almost directly southerly direction. After -replenishing our stores there, we proposed to follow the coast of Novaya -Zemlya with the hope of reaching one of those ships which the salmon -fishery in the rivers of that country detains there to the beginning -of harvest. It was also not impossible that we might be discovered -before this, on the more northern coast of Novaya Zemlya, by a Norwegian -seal-hunter. The boats were to keep together if possible; but in case -they should be separated, the Wilhelm Islands were fixed on as the place -of rendezvous up to the middle of August. At first, night was chosen for -the march, and day was devoted to sleep; the observance, however, of this -regulation was constantly prevented by special circumstances. The success -of the expedition depended on our crossing the ice-covered sea by the -end of August. The greatest difficulties were to be apprehended from the -melting of the snow, for although the thermometer at the beginning of May -fell 14° and even 17° below zero, and sharp north-east winds somewhat -retarded the thaw, the mean temperature during the day approximated to -zero, and on May 16 it actually rose above it. Two of our men, Stiglich -and Vecerina, were unfit for duty, and had often to be dragged in the -sledge. The rest of the men were healthy, and the swelling of the feet, -from which the sledge-party had suffered, had disappeared. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -ON THE FROZEN SEA. - - -1. The momentous day came at last—the 20th of May, the very day in 1855 -on which Kane abandoned his ship;[53] and we hailed with joy the advent -of the hour which was to terminate our life of inaction. Yet we could not -see without emotion the flags nailed to the masts of the _Tegetthoff_, -and the final preparations to leave the ship, which had been our home for -two weary years, and in which we had confronted the perils of the frozen -sea, its ice-pressures, its storms, and its cold. These recollections -crowded upon us as the moment came to abandon her. Now too we had to -part with our Zoological, Botanical, and Geological collections, the -result of so much labour; the ample collection of instruments, the -books which had helped us over many a weary hour, and the sixty-seven -bear-skins which we had so carefully prepared—all these had also to be -abandoned. The photographs of friends and acquaintances we hung on the -rocky walls ashore, preferring to leave them there rather than in the -ship, which must some time or other be driven ashore and go to pieces. A -document stating the grounds of our decision was laid on the table of the -mess-room. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST ABANDONMENT OF THE “TEGETTHOFF.” - -_To face_ p. 348.] - -2. We slept during this day, and in the evening sat down to the last -meal we were to enjoy on board the ship. About nine o’clock, P.M., we -assembled round the boats, ready for the start. Dark masses of clouds -obscured the sun, and our route southwards led us into the gloomy -monotonous region of ice-hummocks covered with snow—our world for the -next three months. The first day’s work for twenty-three men, harnessed -to boat or sledge, was the advance of one mile; and even this rate of -progress, small as it was, was not constant. Many days it did not amount -to half a mile; the sledge-sail was of little avail, for the deep snow -retarded our progress; the sledges sank deep into it, those on which the -boats were placed actually sticking fast. We had to pass three times -heavily laden, and twice empty, over every bit of the road, and half our -number were scarcely able to move a sledge or a boat. Such labours and -exertions in deep snow were truly distracting. Almost at every step we -sank knee-deep. Sometimes some unhappy fellows went in deeper still; of -Scarpa, it was asserted that scarcely anything but his head was visible -while he dragged. Constantly we had either to unload the sledge, or, -harnessing ourselves all together for a moment, drag it out of the deep -snow-drift. For one-half of the march we might get on without special -impediment, the other half was spent in vain efforts to push the load on, -amid “Aussingen,”[54] to time the strong pull and the pull all together. -The perspiration often streamed down our faces, for the sky was overcast, -and the air exceedingly sultry. After the exertion of some days, raw -wounds appeared on the shoulders of several. After a bit of our track -had been passed over three times in the way described, it was like a -path in the snow hollowed out by the shovel, so that we had spent our -strength in levelling it, but hardly in satisfactory progress. To add to -our trials, we suffered intensely from thirst, and those among us who -were unaccustomed to the fatigues of sledge-travelling, sank down in the -snow at every halt and greedily ate of it. If such were to be the course -of our journey, would escape be possible? Not a man among us imagined -that we could be saved, except by some extraordinary and happy turn of -fortune, small signs of which were at present to be seen. To escape from -this depressing fear, we deliberately avoided every allusion to the -future. - -3. The dogs, under the superintendence of Carlsen, took their part in -the transport of the baggage, but showed themselves very lazy and -intractable under his management, and seemed to take a pleasure in -plunging their loaded sledge deep into the snow, out of which it was -beyond the old man’s power to free them without help. Nor was their own -strength equal to going over the track twice at least, even with only -one cwt. each time. If, therefore, their services were to be turned -to account, they must be led by some one whom they obeyed, who could -help them by shoving or dragging, who could set up the sledge when it -overturned, and was strong enough to keep constantly lifting the heavy -bags, and who could pass over the same piece of road four or five times, -if necessary. This duty was taken in turn by Haller and myself, and -we succeeded in transporting in this way daily all the bread and the -spirits, weighing together from 8 to 10 cwt., and, in some cases, at a -later period, even the entire load of a great sledge divided into parts. -I mention this in order to show the great services which our dogs, though -their number was small, rendered during the march. - -4. In the first week after the _Tegetthoff_ was abandoned, whenever -Weyprecht encamped at the end of the day’s march, Haller, Zaninovich and -I returned in the dog-sledge to the ship in order to replenish the stores -we had consumed. The distance, which we had taken a week to pass with -all our baggage, was done by the help of the dogs in an hour or two. In -these different visits we did our utmost to fulfil the commissions of our -companions. We rummaged the hold, though in many of the cases we opened -nothing was to be seen but a dressed bear-skin. In one of these trips we -filled a small cask with a concentrated decoction of all the tea which -was left behind, and the rum we found was used to give it the proper -strength. When we returned to the boat-parties before the morning start, -this still lukewarm decoction of tea and rum met with great approbation, -but the greatest was reserved for the remains of the condensed milk we -brought with us, not merely because it was milk, but because to us it was -the only milk in the world. Round the remains of the bears we had killed -we always found flocks of sea-gulls screaming and quarrelling. Sometimes -too we saw bears prowling round the ship at a distance, waiting till -their time for plunder came. They seemed to wait for the moment when they -should be able to take permanent possession of a fortress which had been -so long hostile to their race. - -5. But we had the benefit of their company through the earlier part of -our journey. May 23, a bear was shot by Weyprecht, and forthwith the -gulls, who always turned up whenever there was anything eatable to be -got, consumed the remains with astonishing rapidity, even to the bones. -On the 26th, when I was about two miles from the advanced parties, -fetching something which had been left behind, I suddenly sighted a bear -at about 100 paces distant, lying in the snow and apparently asleep. -The dogs too got sight of him, and I had much trouble in keeping them -in, till I overturned the sledge to act as a breast-work. As the bear -rose and stood on his hind legs I fired, but though severely wounded, -he managed to crawl away. The dogs, rushing off with the sledge behind -them, assailed the wounded animal with a fury which would have been -fatal to them, if the sledge had been checked by any obstacle. Torossy -specially showed a complete ignorance of how matters stood, and was saved -by Jubinal from the paws of his assailant. Whenever the bear came up to -the sledge, Jubinal swung round with it, till I came up so close as to -make sure of killing it with my last cartridge. On the 31st, Klotz shot a -bear which came within ten paces of the boats; but notwithstanding this -addition of fresh meat, the stores we brought in the dog-sledge from the -ship maintained their charm. - -[Illustration: IN THE HARBOUR OF AULIS.] - -6. A few days after the abandonment of the ship, dark masses of clouds, -indicating open water, were seen in the south-west, which doubtless -proceeded from the fissures we had observed three weeks before from Cape -Brünn. There was good ground, therefore, to hope that we should get -beyond the land-ice in a few days, and reach the network of ever-changing -“leads.” If we succeeded in this, we might then launch the boats in -one of these water-ways, and following the windings of its course -between the fields of ice, escape to the south with greater rapidity. -Our most sanguine expectations were exceeded when, on the 28th, we -reached unexpectedly a small flat island, the very existence of which -was unknown to us—Lamont Island. Ascending the highest point of it, we -saw an “ice-hole” stretching to the south-east, in which was floating -an enormous table-shaped iceberg. This “ice-hole” was not more than a -mile from the southern extremity of the island, which was itself still -surrounded by forced-up blocks of ice. A driving snow-storm detained us -on the 29th on the island, and we contented ourselves with gathering -pieces of drift-wood lying on the shore. On the 30th we delayed no longer -in our attempt to advance to the edge of the floes and launch our boats. -But our calculations were doomed to disappointment; after a toilsome -search of several days to find a suitable spot from which to launch -our boats, we were convinced that this was for the present impossible, -because the edges of the “ice-hole” were surrounded with broad barriers -of broken ice, rendering the passage of the boats and sledges impossible. -Weyprecht and Klotz had meanwhile started to reconnoitre, and their -report on their return showed that sledging, for the present at least, -was at an end. The ice-hole before us extended far eastward, and the -attempt to outflank it would have led us through walls of ice piled up -to the height of fifty feet. We went back, therefore, to the more level -surface of ice we had left, and pitched our camp, which we called the -“Harbour of Aulis;” for, like the Greeks of old, we had here to wait for -more favourable winds. Winds only could open the ice before us and widen -the “leads” into a navigable condition. We had never kept at any great -distance from our boats while engaged in transporting their heavy loads, -but henceforward we were careful to keep close to them, as we had every -reason to look for the speedy breaking up and separation of the ice. We -were now in 79° 46′ N. L., and therefore only five miles from the ship. -Cape Tegetthoff was still distinctly visible on our northern horizon. - -7. The space in the boats being insufficient for the crew and all the -baggage we had to take, Weyprecht determined to send back Orel and nine -men to bring away the jolly-boat, which had been left behind, and I went -on in the dog-sledge to help in the work of removing more stores from -the ship. It took me just three hours to do the distance, which it had -cost the advanced parties eight days to accomplish. The activity of the -dogs received a fresh stimulus from their coming on the track of a bear -running in the direction of the ship, and when we came within 1,000 yards -of it, there we saw our enemy, who, however, thought it more prudent not -to await our attack. On the 7th of June the equipment of the jolly-boat -was completed, and we returned to our companions with a load of 3 cwt. -of boiled beef, shot, and other necessaries. The old track, now well -trodden down, proved a great advantage to us. If we had deviated a single -step, we should at once have stuck fast, for the character of the snow -had altered, and where it lay in masses it had become mere sludge. The -temperature, which at the end of May had varied between 25° and 19° F., -rose, on June 1, to freezing-point, and remained steady at that point -for some time. Even during the weeks of midsummer the temperature rose -only a few degrees above freezing-point. On the 3rd of June it rained for -the first time, and gradually the weather assumed the character of fogs -and driving mists so common to the Arctic Ocean. Clear days were of rare -occurrence, and, occasionally only, the sun shone for a few hours. On our -return to the boats we found their crews were sitting up and looking out, -like young birds in a nest, to see what we had brought from the ship. -Tobacco was regarded as a right royal gift, and Dr. Kepes, to whom I gave -a shirt-sleeve well stuffed out with the precious weed, regarded himself -as a Crœsus. - -8. Meantime our longings to launch grew apace; anxiously we looked for -the widening of a fissure to enable us to advance southward. We attempted -again and again to approach the “ice-hole,” but always found insuperable -difficulties to bar the way. The effort to get one of our boats into a -dock we had hewn in the ice nearly ended in its loss, and nothing was -left to us but to repeat the flank march along the fatal “ice-hole” -to the “harbour of Aulis,” there to watch for the breaking-up of the -ice. Throughout the day we sat penned up in the boats, worn-out with a -feeling of indescribable weariness, each morning longing for the end of -the day, and at every meal thinking when the next would be ready. It -seemed as if the time for launching the boats would never come. When the -hoarse melancholy scream of the burgomaster-gull sounded through the -stillness of the night, it seemed like a demon voice from another world, -proclaiming that all our efforts would avail nothing to deliver us from -the icy power which held us in its grasp. A visit from a bear was a -welcome change in the monotony of our life. - -9. We were now in the middle of June. Winds from the south still -prevailed, and we were close to the ship at the expiration of some -weeks; the third part of our provisions was consumed, and of the 250 -German miles between the ship and coast of Lapland we had accomplished -but one mile and a quarter. If this should continue to be the rate of -our progress, we had the prospect of reaching home in twenty years! -Yet gloomy as things appeared, there were moments when we were tempted -to think that the end of our trials had come at last. Thus, on the -17th of June, an “ice-hole” opened close to us; instantly we prepared -to take advantage of it. The day was perfectly clear, and though the -temperature in the shade stood at freezing-point (F.), it was to us an -African heat. We threw down the walls of ice, levelled a track for the -sledges, and that night we stood, with all our baggage, at the edge of -the open water, and, on the morning of the 18th of June, we at last -succeeded in launching our boats and putting all our baggage on board. -The sledges, fastened to the boats, were towed in their wake. The dogs -were put in the different boats, Jubinal alone taking kindly to his new -abode, seeing doubtless that he would have to sleep no longer on snow. -After drinking some tea with the last remains of our rum, we pushed off, -steering towards the south, and it was a sure sign of the elevation of -our spirits, that three-and-twenty tobacco-pipes were immediately put -into active operation. Our progress, however, was but small, scarcely -more than one mile an hour, which was fully accounted for by the deep -lading of the boats and the towing of the sledges. We might have sailed -about three miles, steering in a southerly direction, when a heavy floe -stopped us and progress for the time being impossible, we drew the boats -up on the ice and went to rest. Soon after snow began to fall and a west -wind set in which gradually veered to the south, and the floes were -again forced together, and we found all the “leads” closed up when we -attempted to move on in the morning. Again we had to wait, but with this -difference, that we were now at the mercy of the wind, which might drive -us with the floe, on which we happened to be, wherever it pleased. - -[Illustration: WE LAUNCH AT LAST.] - -10. On the 19th of June we had to lie still in our boats, but next day -we were able to push them to the edge of a fissure, into which we let -them down, unlading them and lading them afresh on the opposite side; -our progress during the day thus amounted to a mere change of encampment -from one floe to another floe. The absence of navigable “leads” prevented -our advancing further. Our position remained unaltered for the next two -days, the only event that occurred being the shooting of a seal (_Phoca -Grœnlandica_), which sufficed to make the soup we had for supper somewhat -more palatable. He had fallen to the gun of Weyprecht, who proved to be -the luckiest of us all in seal-hunting, in which only the persevering -succeed. Every seal that was shot was of course a saving of the stock of -our provisions, and hence the killing of these animals was a matter of -extreme importance to us, and the preservation of our lives depended in a -very great measure on our success. - -11. Nothing can give a better idea of our life at this period than a few -quotations from my journal:— - -“_June 23._—Things have improved a little towards the south; in the -forenoon of this day we passed over two water-holes and two floes, thus -advancing about a quarter of a mile. The intervention of a third floe -hindered us from penetrating into another ‘ice-hole.’ After midnight the -ice again opened, and we sailed several hundred paces further. - -“_June 24._—Early in the morning Orel shot a seal of unusual size. We -dragged on for half a mile over a large field of ice to its southern -edge, but found, on our arrival there, that an accumulation of smaller -floes barred our advance. - -“_June 25._—We could not sail a bit further; winds from the north-east -prevailed; our latitude was 79° 16′. After leaving the ice under the -land, the depth of the snow considerably diminished, so that the sledges -on which the boats were placed could be dragged on much more easily than -before. There were, however, no pools of thaw-water on the ice, though we -had observed such much earlier in the preceding year. - -“_June 26._—Several hours occupied in passing over ice-fields and small -‘ice-holes.’ During the halt at noon a bear came within twenty paces -of us, but seeing so many men in motion, ran off. The ice appeared -to be last year’s ice, and was much crushed. Orel at noon took the -latitude by sextant and artificial horizon, and found it 79° 41′—bitter -disappointment. - -“_June 27._—With a fresh north-east wind we-sailed to-day over a larger -‘ice-hole,’ our latitude at noon being 79° 39′. In the afternoon we -dragged our sledges for a quarter of a mile over an ice-field, and our -baggage had so diminished that I had to drag with the dog-sledge not -more than 7 cwt. In the lee of large ice-fields, which act like islands, -we find sometimes somewhat more open water-ways. - -“_June 28._—Two ice-fields and two ‘ice-holes’ were crossed to-day. -Progress, though small with the boats, would have been simply impossible -with a ship, which could not, like boats, be dragged over floes. Falls -of snow and gleams of sunshine alternate with each other. While the rest -slept a watch was always posted outside the boat to observe the behaviour -of the ice, and to give us timely notice of the approach of a bear. - -[Illustration: MARCHING THROUGH ICE-HUMMOCKS] - -“_June 29._—Two or three small ‘ice-holes’ and some ice-fields were -crossed to-day. The last ice-field we dragged over was of considerable -extent. To-day, for the first time, we made the attempt, with great -success, to force the boats through narrow ‘leads’ by means of poles. -Another seal was got. Every one of us had now learnt, by force of habit, -to eat half a pound of seal blubber with our tea at noon, and to eat it -with pleasure. It was some comfort to the more delicate and sensitive -to be assured that it tasted like butter, and many experiments had been -made on the edibility of the tins during the last few days. Kane came -to consider seal fin as a kind of salad. We cooked it in our soup, and -the dogs at last went beyond us in the high estimate they placed on -this article of diet. It is worth remarking, albeit it seems to be a -contradiction, that though we had all an abhorrence of fatty substances -during the sledge-journeys in the coldest period of the year, we now -took to them with great relish when the weather was warm. In fact we -never felt better than after a noon-day meal at which we had consumed -a considerable quantity of blubber. Our digestion was particularly -good, and those who suffered from stomach complaints, produced by the -continuous use of pease-sausage, ceased to be so affected. The real -ground of this abnormal preference of fatty substances was doubtless the -fact that we had now abundance of drinking water, and did not suffer -therefore from thirst. - -[Illustration: HALT AT NOON.] - -“_June 30._—A small ‘ice-hole,’ and then a large ice-field were crossed, -and as we were in the act of passing over a ‘lead’ filled with broken -ice, it suddenly closed, and we had to draw our boats up again, and to -wait till the ice should part asunder. The snow has become quite soft, -and we find water at the bottom of a hole, and employ it for the first -time for cooking. Cape Tegetthoff and Salm Island are still visible The -dogs to-day drew 12 cwt., and are quite exhausted. I had my hair cut by -Klotz, and, with many apologies for my poverty, offered him some water -in compensation—an offer he declined. In the Arctic Seas, even to the -doctor, a glass of water is a handsome fee.” - -So it runs on for weeks together in my journal; and if it be tiresome -for readers to follow such repetitions, how much more wearisome must it -have been to live through and experience them! Yet if it were possible -for our situation to become worse, it did so during the first half of the -following month. - -[Illustration: CROSSING A FISSURE.] - -12. On the 1st of July the whole of our day’s labour consisted in passing -over a fissure. The observations taken at noon gave 79° 38′ as our -latitude, so that during the last four days we had gained one single -minute only. Next day we lay amid fragments of floes closely packed -together, and there were neither “ice-holes” nor fields of ice over -which we could pass. On the 3rd of July we crossed some fissures with -great difficulty and traversed two small ice-fields, but a wind from the -S.E. set in, and our observations showed 79° 38′ N. latitude; while we -discovered from our longitude that we were only four miles to the east -of the ship. The small amount of drift discernible in the ice, with such -strong winds, was a sad sign of its closely packed condition. - -13. With imperturbable patience we continued to drag our heavy loads -over the ice, and on the 4th imagined that we had penetrated a mile in -a southerly direction; but the wind from the S.E. blew so persistently -that when we took our observations on the following day we found our -latitude 79° 40½′, and that we had thus been actually driven back towards -the north-west, and that the toils of the last three weeks had been -fruitless. On the 5th and 6th the ice lay before us in piled-up masses -rendering progress impossible, and we were compelled to rest, consuming -our provisions without getting one step further. Our seal-hunting also -on those days was seldom successful. For hours the hunters lurked round -the edges of ice-holes, sometimes without seeing a single seal come to -the surface; and when at last the animal did make its appearance, it very -often sunk after it was hit, before a boat could be launched. Those we -saw on the edges of ice-holes showed a dexterity in diving out of the -way of mischief which failed, as things were, to excite our admiration. -The bears, even more than the seals, showed a prudence and caution which -their previous behaviour had not led us to expect. On the first of those -days a bear came pretty near us, but the dogs, alas! rushed at him and -drove him away. Henceforward when the dogs were not dragging they were -secured with ropes, but our prudence came too late. - -14. On the 7th there was no change. The day passed away in moving from -one floe with rotten edges to another somewhat more firm. We only shoved -our boats a few hundred yards through the lakes of thaw water which had -formed themselves on the ice. Our latitude was 79° 43′. - -15. On the 8th we got away in a narrow “lead” a few hundred paces -southward, but after getting so far we were stopped by thickly-packed -ice, and again we had to draw our boats out of the water and recommence -our life of painful expectancy—watching for the ice to open. No one -of the party suffered so much from this depressing state of things as -Carlsen. For more than twenty years the old and tried “ice-master” had -lived amid floes and ice-blinks, manfully and successfully fighting -against the hardships of the Arctic Seas, and now that frailties had -increased on him, he saw himself compelled to such toils and privations -as would have taxed his strength even in his prime. The old polar -navigator bore his burthens without murmur or complaint, though it was -painful to others to see the signs of exhaustion in his appearance. He no -longer spoke of the polar bears and walruses, which he had entranced by a -glance of his eye or bewitched with one of his words of magic. Even the -puritanical zeal with which he once rebuked and lectured the Slavonians -for playing cards on “God’s holy day” had grown somewhat cold, and his -fears lest the conversations of the lively Southerners should end in -blows became even more intense. - -[Illustration: CARLSEN.] - -16. It was a strange life this abode for weeks of summer in boats covered -over with a low tent roof. Oars by way of furniture, and three pairs of -stockings for each man’s mattress and pillow. My journal describes these -days: “Four boats are lying on the ice, crammed with sleeping men: and -so great is the heat in them, that no one needs his fur coat, and snow -placed in any vessel becomes water in a few hours. If Torossy has not -ushered in the day by barking, the cooks do it when they bring the bowls -of soup to the boats with the cry ‘Quanta!’ Then ensues a short scene -of confusion: spoons and tin-pots have to be searched for and found, -till at length quiet is again restored, after a little ransacking, and -each man has his pot full of hot soup in his hand, consisting of meal, -pemmican, pease-sausage, bread-dust, boiled beef, seal, and bears’ flesh; -when the soup is flavoured with seal-blubber it is called ‘Gulyas.’ The -soup is consumed amid perfect silence—not a word is spoken; what indeed -was there to be said, which was not already known, or which had not been -said a hundred times before? Each one knows the other’s history from his -cradle downwards. A stillness like death reigns over all the surrounding -forms of ice, and the frozen ocean stretches out beneath a vast shroud. -A sunless leaden sky spreads over all, not a breath of air stirs, it is -neither warm nor cold, slowly melts the snow, and this pale realm of ice -forms a world of danger and difficulty, against which are matched the -strength and sagacity of three-and-twenty men! - -“Again all have taken their places in the boats to bale out the thaw -water, the great enemy of their health—and of their solitary pair of -boots. He whose turn it is to hunt the seal squats at the edge of a floe -before a fissure, which admits a few square feet of water, in which no -seal will show himself, because he has scarcely room to turn in it. - -“To the others, their abode in the boats is a time of manifest weariness -and ennui. Happy the man who has any tobacco, happy he who, after smoking -his pipe, does not fall into a faint; happy too the man who finds a -fragment of a newspaper in some corner or other, even if there should be -nothing contained in it but the money-market intelligence, or perhaps -directions to be followed in the preparation of pease-sausage. Enviable -is he who discovers a hole in his fur coat which he can mend; but -happiest of all are those who can sleep day and night. Of these latter -some have stowed themselves away under the rowing seats, and above them -reposes a second layer of sleepers, but nothing is visible of either -party but the soles of their feet. No paradise of bliss! Noon comes: a -little tea is made over the train-oil fire, each gets one cup of it and -a handful of hard bread-crumbs—a kind of dog’s food which the impartial -‘committee of provisions’ measures out with Argus-eyes. The fourth part -of the skin of a seal is thrown into each of the four boats, and the -blubber on it is eagerly devoured. Some, for the sake of the fins, the -ribs, or the head, become guests of the dogs. Flocks of gulls settle -impudently near us, screaming and fighting for every morsel they can -reach. Some of us try to catch them with nets, but no sooner are the nets -up than the gulls disappear. - -“The formality of dinner is over, and we have come to such a pass that -even the tea excites the nerves of the community, and some Troubadour -will then raise his voice with a _bravura_ such as might have been -heard on San Marco. The end of the Franklin expedition, and the history -of the two skeletons which were found in the boat, is told again for -the twentieth time—a story which never fails to produce a harrowing -effect, and to rouse the firm and resolute to yet greater efforts and -self-command. - -“The most animated conversation, however, or rather a constant -chattering, is going on meantime in the soot-begrimed tent of the cook. A -difference of opinion arises about the precise time when the kettle was -to be scraped out, or about the curtailing of the allowance in the last -distribution of salt, or as to the delinquent who made a wood-fire on a -cask of spirit, or who, instead of untying, cut the string of the sledge -packing; many flourishes of speech are bandied to and fro, which at any -rate speak well for the oratorical gifts of the disputants. - -“There is still, however, one solace left us, the solace of smoking. Some -indeed have already exhausted their whole stock of tobacco. He who has -half a pouch of it at his disposal is the object of general respect, and -the man who can invite his neighbour to a pipe of tobacco and a pot of -water is considered to do an act of profuse liberality. Tobacco becomes -a medium of exchange among us, and provisions are bought and paid for -with it, its value rising every day. There is no difference between day -and night, and Sundays are only distinguished by dressing the boats with -flags.” - -17. In this enforced idleness passed away the days between the 9th and -15th inst., save that on the 14th we changed our place by three hundred -yards, in order to select a more convenient spot for seal-hunting and to -keep up the appearance of travelling—but in truth only the appearance, -for in reality our situation had become truly dreadful. There were no -events of sudden occurrence either to excite or alarm us, but time flowed -on, and our constantly diminishing stock of provisions, like the steady -movement of the hands of a clock, spoke with a plainness of speech, -that could not be resisted, of the doom impending over us. Hitherto we -had patiently endured the severe labours of dragging our heavily-laden -boats and sledges from floe to floe, of launching the boats in the small -fissures, and again drawing them on to the floes, when the ice became -closely packed, often too carrying all the provisions and baggage as we -slowly crept along. The least progress was sufficient to fill us with -joy and thankfulness. Meanwhile the ice on all sides lay closely packed, -and many times we had to wait for a week in our boats on a floe, till -the “leads” were pleased to open, while every empty tin case proclaimed, -with fearful distinctness, the diminishing of our provisions and the -gloominess of our prospects; and now a steady wind from the south -destroyed the little progress we had made. _After the lapse of two months -of indescribable efforts, the distance between us and the ship was not -more than nine English miles!_ The heights of Wilczek Island were still -distinctly visible, and its lines of rocks shone with mocking brilliance -in the ever-growing day-light. All things seemed to say that after a -long struggle with the supremacy of the ice there remained for us but a -despairing return to the ship and a third winter there, stript of every -hope, and the Frozen Ocean for our grave! - -18. Such reflections and prospects were not calculated to raise our -spirits or promote calm and deliberate thought, and it was happy for us -that the earth was round, and that we were thus prevented from seeing how -much ice lay between us and the open sea. No measures were left untried -which promised to facilitate our progress or prolong our lives. We ceased -to cook with oil, and used spirit instead, in order to lighten the boats. -The rations of bread were diminished; even our faithful companion little -Pekel fell a victim to necessity. Seals played a greater part still in -our _cuisine_, and everything seemed to depend on the successful use of -the four hundred ball-cartridges which still remained in store. On the -15th of July a walrus showed himself close to the boats, but when we -made a rush upon him to finish him he disappeared under the waters, and -heavy rain drove us back again into the boats. Up to this time all signs -of a happy termination of our venture seemed to have disappeared; but the -hour of our liberation and escape was nearer than we thought. - -19. On the evening of the 15th of July, after finishing our supper, a -line of small “leads” running to the south-west opened itself, and we -forced our way for about a mile against wind and current coming from the -same direction. Next day, July 16, the wind blew from the north-west, -and after our boats had been nearly crushed by the ice closing in some -smaller “ice-holes,” we ran into a broader and longer “lead.” At noon -of this day our latitude was 79° 39′, and we had gone so far that -the highest points of Cape Tegetthoff and Wilczek Island were barely -discernible—blue shadows surrounded by an edge of yellow vapour, and over -the whole a heavy water sky. - -20. Up to this date we had been compelled to cross every fissure, a -procedure as exhausting for us as it was detrimental to the boats. The -least impediment, such as the stoppage of a “lead” by some pieces of ice, -had sufficed to cause us hours of laborious efforts. The ice lay thick -and close, and its floes were firmly frozen together. But now it was not -only somewhat opened, but seldom cemented by frost, and the efforts of -fifteen or twenty men generally sufficed to shove apart any two floes -with long poles, or remove any barrier which closed a “lead.” If the -“leads” closed in so that there was danger lest the boats should be -crushed, the crew jumped out and hauled them up on the ice. - -The accompanying sketch exhibits one of the scenes that occurred almost -daily—the pushing the floes asunder with long poles, in order that the -boat might pass between them, while the rotatory motion of the floe -closes the fissure in the foreground, so that another boat has to be -drawn on the ice as quickly as possible. The baggage of the boat is -represented partly as packed on a sledge, or partly lying on the snow, -and the men and dogs stand ready to drag it over the floe to the next -place of launching. Two other boats, which have found the “lead” open, -are on before, and one of them is lying at an ice-field which has to be -crossed, waiting for the others to come up. - -[Illustration: SCENE ON THE ICE.] - -21. It sometimes happened that we could not push the floes asunder, and -we were then compelled to cross them; and in those cases where the floes -were a mile or more in diameter, our progress took the form of sledging. -The provision was sent on for some distance to the nearest water, and -the boats, which remained behind under the care of the less able-bodied -of our party, were lifted on to the sledge when it returned by the rest -of the crew, and firmly secured. The smallest of our boats was shoved -through the snow while the dogs with their sledge transported the bags of -bread and the spirit. - -22. An advance of four miles a day now sufficed to satisfy us, and we had -acquired such precision in our arrangements before starting that three -hours sufficed to accomplish them. If the sledges came on obstacles from -the ice, the pioneers hurried on with picks and shovels to remove them. -Lakes on the ice were made little of; we waded through them with much -equanimity, and any one who fell into a “lead” while the day’s labour was -going on seemed to take the accident very coolly. On the 17th of July -we had passed, in the way I have described, three ice-fields and three -small “ice-holes;” but on the following day we made very little progress, -because a wind, setting in from the west, packed the ice closely. We -were therefore overjoyed to find our latitude to-day 79° 22′, a result -which could only be ascribed to the late north winds; but we could not -quiet our fears, lest a wind from the south should deprive us of our -dearly-bought advance. - -23. We now penetrated into a region full of icebergs, many of which -were covered with earth and moraine dirt, which made them look at a -distance, amid the dazzling uniformity of the ice, like rocky cliffs. In -the evening a she-bear was seen close to us, which came full tilt at our -dogs; at thirty paces off she was hit, but not mortally, and fell; but -getting up again, ran off to an ice-hole, and remained long enough on its -surface to be secured by the harpooners. She afforded us as much food as -four small seals, and some of our party, with the voracity of beasts of -prey, scraping the flesh off the bones for their private use, carried it -about with them wrapped in their pocket-handkerchiefs, and ate about a -pound of it raw every day at noon, as long as it lasted, after merely -washing the carrion in sea-water. - -24. On the 19th of July we again passed over several small ice-fields, -and on the 20th and 21st one several miles in diameter. We were favoured -with a north-west wind, and on the 20th of July our latitude was 79° -11′, our longitude 61° 3′, and our progress was so brilliant on the 22nd -(79° 1′ L.), that we were compelled to draw the boats twice only out -of the water, and warping through narrow “leads,” came again to larger -“ice-holes,” over which we were able to sail. Our spirits were greatly -raised, and we went on full of hope that we should soon come into longer -water-ways, which would exempt us from the toils of crossing floes with -the sledges. On the 23rd sudden squalls from the E.N.E., accompanied with -heavy showers of rain, detained us in our covered boats, and our whole -business on this day was collecting the rainwater in an empty spirit-cask -and drinking it as grog. On the 24th we again made good progress. The -rain fell in torrents, and we were wet through and through, and at night -we lay down to rest reeking. The rain continued, but good progress was -made almost without interruption during the next three days. We bore -all the discomforts with joy, because the rain powerfully and rapidly -dissolved the ice.[55] Our clothes were constantly wet, but we eagerly -snatched every gleam of sunshine to dry our stockings or our saturated -boots. - -25. The cooks, when they called us in the morning, now constantly drew -such pictures of the day’s prospects, that we might have been tempted -to believe that during the night all the ice had disappeared; but this -pleasing illusion was rudely dispelled whenever we stepped out of the -boats into the open air. These good men, having no compass to consult, -always flattered themselves with the notion that where water was to be -seen, there also lay the south. But, alas! there lay the ice-hummocks, -and there, too, lay the boats and sledges to be dragged as before. Klotz -went a little further; it was his opinion that we ought always to take to -the water without fear, even if it stretched to the north, in order, as -he said, to get home round the North Pole. - -26. On the 27th we had reached 78° 48′ N. L., but a wind from the -south-west set in, and after two days of constant toil, alternately -launching and drawing up the boats, we found, on the 29th, that we had -been driven back to 78° 50′ N. L. But in many cases the movement of ice -is unaccountable, and on the 30th this was verified; for, notwithstanding -the prevalence of the south-west wind, we had drifted to 78° 32′ N. L., -61° 3′ E. L. The weather at this time was thicker and duller than usual, -and the horizon from our boats extended but a few hundred paces, so that -we had considerable difficulty in choosing the most navigable “leads.” -The view did not extend above two miles, even when we climbed to the top -of one of the hummocks, and mists generally lay on its outskirts. In -clear weather we had always steered in the direction of a water-sky which -promised open sea, even though we had to make _détours_ to the south-west -or south-east. But now such a foggy obscurity lay over every “ice-hole,” -however small, that the outline of its edges was hardly discernible at -a few paces off, and, under these circumstances, we could only pull the -boats round, till we came to the first opening in the enclosing ice. - -27. Winds from the south continued during the following week, and heavy -rains again fell, and we had much laborious dragging through the fog -on the 31st of July and the 1st of August. Our stock of bread, which -had been reduced to powder by the constant lading and unlading, was -meanwhile so thoroughly soaked that on the 2nd of August we stopped for -half a day on a floe (78° 28′ N. L., 61° 49′ E. L.) to dry it in the -sun, which, after a long absence, gladdened us by showing himself. We -took the opportunity also to dry our clothes and our stockings. On such -a day as this the scene around us entirely lost its gloomy sepulchral -character; the heavens were brilliantly blue, the ice lay around us in -dazzling light, and the deep ultramarine of the sea-water peeped forth -from the “leads.” Henceforward we had less occasion to cross large floes. -Our route gradually changed its character; “leads” and “ice-holes” -occurred far more frequently, and the channels between them, winding -through drifting islands of ice, were sometimes three or four miles in -extent. Along these we glided under sail and oars, and when we came -to a temporary halt, Weyprecht, with his compass, mounted one of the -ice-hummocks to examine the water-ways and determine which we should -follow. Our rate of progress was much increased, an acceleration due to -the change in the ice, effected slowly but surely by sunshine and rain. -The enormous masses of snow were wasting away; the thaw-water, gathering -in countless streams, spread as lakes on the hollows of the floes, and -oozed through fissures in the ice into the sea. The edges of the floes, -undermined by the action of the waves, fell in, or were worn away by the -pressure, and a single warm day or shower of rain sufficed to dissolve -what remained of them. Hence, if the difficulty of drawing boats on to -the ice was lessened, the danger of breaking through it in the process -was greater, and we ran the risk of seeing all the cases containing our -provisions sink in the sea before our eyes. As the ice-fields diminished -in size and thickness, the number and breadth of the “leads” increased. -The alternation of heavy south-east winds and calms helped on the -destruction of the ice, and our progress was great in proportion. From -the 3rd to the 7th of August each day we accomplished greater distances. -The ice gradually changed from pack-ice to drift-ice, impenetrable only -where it lay in thicker masses. When fogs came on, we generally decided, -after wandering about for a little, to wait on or near a floe for finer -weather. We no longer restricted our labours to certain times of the day. -In the highest spirits, we toiled incessantly at rowing or dragging the -boats, or shoving the floes asunder with our long poles. - -28. On the 7th our progress might be estimated at twelve miles. It was -the first day we had got on without dragging the sledges and crossing -floes, and when we halted at noon amid some loose ice, we saw, to the -south, a fluctuation in the sea level, and the ice alternately rising and -falling. “The swell of the ocean!” exclaimed all with joy: “we are close -to the open sea”—the open sea, being to us at that moment deliverance. -Our amazement at finding it at such a latitude, 78° N. L., was so great -that, notwithstanding that indisputable sign, we could scarcely believe -our eyes, and we were filled with indescribable excitement. For a moment -only that excitement was diverted to other and very different objects—two -bears suddenly appeared on the scene, swimming about 100 paces from -us. Two boats were at once manned, and the chase began. But the bears -swam faster than the boats could be pulled by the four men in each boat; -sometimes they raised themselves high out of the water as they turned to -look at their pursuers. Suddenly one of them disappeared, while the other -made for a floe and climbed on to it. As he stood and impudently stared -at us, a shot was fired at him, and he immediately decamped, swimming -with great rapidity to another distant floe. But as no trace of blood -was to be seen on the ice, and our companions drinking their mid-day tea -were scarcely to be distinguished, we considered it unsafe to pursue him -further. In the evening we stopped again before a dense group of small -floes, which like the rest of the ice had become rotten; the one whereon -we were preparing to encamp for the night broke into several pieces just -as we were raising our boat on to it. We were, however, fortunate enough -to save our provisions. - -[Illustration: BEARS IN THE WATER.] - -29. Though we had been accustomed so long to oscillate between extremes, -we now felt that the hour had come, when we might count with certainty -on being liberated from the fetters of the ice, and all our hopes gained -new life. Yet once more they seemed doomed to be disappointed. On the -7th, before we turned into sleep, the prevailing north wind had gathered -so much ice around us that we were fairly shut in. Next day (August 8), -after the efforts of many hours to force through the multitude of small -floes by which we were jammed in, we discovered that we should be unable -to move, unless the wind changed to the south-west. Our exertions on the -9th were equally unsuccessful. It was not dense masses of ice, under -whose walls we had so often felt ourselves imprisoned, that now held -us captive, but miserable flat floes. Their diameter was from fifty to -sixty paces, and though they hardly appeared above water, they were not -the less impenetrable hindrances. The movement in the sea, that had so -elevated us, was scarcely perceptible, and our faith in the nearness of -the ocean was consequently much shaken. - -30. Again rain fell in abundance, and we remained in the boats waiting -for the breaking-up of the ice. It was scarcely possible to go any -distance from them, for the ice of the surrounding floes was so thin, -that we could not venture to walk on them lest we should break through. -Fissures abounded, but no seals were to be seen in them. This forced -abode in our boats was almost unendurable. We could not always sleep, and -only a frugal few had any tobacco left to smoke. Some of our party had -for a long time smoked dry tea-leaves in the form of cigarettes, or had -filled their pipes with match paper. All the tinder had been long used -up in this way, and a dreadful trial it had been to the olfactory nerves -of those who would not so indulge. Haller went further still, and smoked -paper in the close covered boat! besides many leaves of his note-books, -he still had a quantity of packing-paper, but, in the interest of the -community, I was compelled to interfere against its use in this fashion. -He found some compensation in another occupation, which had the merit at -least of being inoffensive to others—mixing together his rations of tea, -salt, and bread-dust, he converted the mixture into a soup. These days -seemed as though they would never end; there was a continual taking off -and pulling on of boots; some sat in the boats gaping about vacantly in -all directions; some standing on the ice gaped as vacantly; all mental -activity was concentrated in two wishes, that the ice would break up, and -that the time for the next meal would come round. No one had any private -reserve of provision. The days were gone when a stocking filled with -bread might be seen hanging from the belt of one, or the ribs of a bear -in the hand of another. And yet amidst all the hunger, which we felt the -more acutely from our abundant leisure, some among us had actually become -as plump as quails, and if we had been found dead on the floes, it would -have been thought, that we had died in consequence of over-eating, so -stout had most of us become. But dreadful was the solemn lapse of time. -August was well advanced; the knowledge that we had provisions for only -one month more, and the shortness of the season for action that still -remained, failed not to impress upon us all that the crisis of our fate -was at hand. For three weeks past the formation of young ice had begun, -both on the ice and on the sweet-water lakes on the floes. Even during -these summer months, the temperature in the night had frequently fallen -two or three degrees below freezing-point, and the cold now began to join -the fragments of old floes into formidable obstacles. The caprice of a -wind might again carry us off towards the north, as it had done two years -ago, but carry us too, to certain inevitable destruction. On the 9th of -August we found our latitude 78° 9′—a higher degree than we had expected. -But what would a lower degree have availed us, had not the open sea been -near us—the open sea, on which hung all our hopes, ever since the word -had been uttered? The joy of that day’s discovery was fed and sustained -by the low murmur of a distant surf, which either imagination or our -senses, rendered acute by the presence of danger, continued to hear in -the south. - -31. Thus passed the days from the 10th to the 13th of August, the calking -of our boats forming our only distraction. Eagerly and earnestly we gazed -on the water-sky in the south and on every change in the ice.[56] On the -10th our latitude was 78° 6′ and our longitude 60° 45′, E.; on the 13th -our latitude was 77° 58′, and our longitude 61° 10′ E. On the 12th the -ice had become somewhat looser. We advanced a mile to the south, but -were then again beset. It rained during the whole day, and in the night, -the temperature fell several degrees below freezing-point. Ice an inch -thick was formed on the 13th over the surface of the fresh-water lakes, -and when we went, either to drink from them or to perform our toilet, we -had to break through a coating of ice. All these were so many signs that -Summer had bid us adieu and that the short Autumn of the north had begun. -This day, too, we had the first impression of the returning cold. - -[Illustration: CALKING THE BOATS.] - -32. At last during the night of the 14th, the ice somewhat opened and -we could go on our way. Just before we started, in the early morning, -a seal was shot which the dogs had discovered and attacked: it was the -eighteenth and last we shot since we abandoned the ship. With much labour -in shoving we forced a passage through a long succession of “leads” and -halted for a short rest at midnight in front of a larger “ice-hole,” to -refresh our strength with some pieces of blubber, seasoned with alcohol -and thaw-water. Drift ice lay all round us, and we had the presentiment, -that the hour at last had come which was to set us free from the ice. All -things rise in our estimation, when we are about to bid them farewell, -and it was with some pain that we felt all at once, that in a few minutes -we should bid adieu to the realm of ice, which lay behind us in all its -magical grandeur. We now moved on under sail: the “ice-holes” increased -in size, the ice diminished, and the swell of the ocean was perceptibly -greater. Our latitude at noon next day was 77° 49′. A large “ice-hole” -opened before us, and with a sea running high, the boats, making a good -deal of water, we sailed into it—it was the last ice-hole. The last line -of ice lay ahead of us, and beyond it the boundless open sea! - -[Illustration: FAREWELL TO THE FROZEN OCEAN.] - -33. About six o’clock in the evening we had reached the extreme edge of -the ice-barrier, and once more, but for the last time, drew our boats on -a floe. Again our ears heard the noise of the waves—the voice of life -to us. Again we saw the white foam of the surge, and felt, as if we had -awoke from a death-like slumber of years to a new existence. But if our -joy at deliverance was great, not less great was our astonishment to have -reached the ice-barrier in the high latitude of 77° 40′, and with it the -hope of final escape. We went to rest for some hours, but were roused by -the watch about two o’clock in the morning. The east wind had gathered -some heavy masses of ice around us, which rose and fell with the swell -of the ocean, and we were already several hundred yards from the water’s -edge. Any delay in escaping as quickly as possible would require the -labours of many days to set us free again. After much shoving with the -poles, and lading and unlading, we again got beyond the line of ice. The -frozen ocean lay behind us, and on our last floe we made preparations for -our voyage on the open sea. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -ON THE OPEN SEA. - - -1. There lay the open Ocean before us; never were its sparkling waves -beheld with more sincere joy, than by the small band of men, who, -escaping from the prison house of the ice after fearful struggles, now -raised their arms on high to greet its glad waters. The 15th of August -was the day of our liberation—the festival of the Assumption of the -Virgin—and our boats were dressed with flags in its commemoration. But -it was no time for the rest and recreation of a Holy Day: graver duties -pressed upon us. The boats had to be ballasted, and were with difficulty -made to take on board the baggage, the water-casks, and the crews. Our -four sledges, to which we owed so much of our success so far, were of -course left behind. The dogs too were put on board, not, however, without -much hesitation, when the contingencies of the voyage were considered. - -2. With three hurrahs, we pushed off from the ice, and our voyage -commenced. Its happy issue depended on the weather and on incessant -rowing. If a storm should arise, the boats, laden as they were, must -sink. We were soon convinced that the dogs, which suffered greatly from -sea-sickness, would dangerously incommode us in the boats by destroying -their trim. There was, in fact, no room for them in our over-crowded -boats, nor water, nor provisions. We could not bring ourselves to abandon -them, and our only form of gratitude for their services was, alas! the -painful one of putting them to death. A floe, by which we passed, became -the grave of these our true friends, our companions in all situations, -and our helpers in all dangers! It was indeed a painful moment, when -Jubinal was taken out of the boat to meet his death. It was the loss of a -true comrade, who had never departed from my side, and who had patiently -borne all the labours and toils imposed on him. Poor Torossy too, born in -the Arctic regions, amid the ice-pressures, was not a little lamented. - -3. With boundless satisfaction, we saw the white edge of the ice -gradually become a line, and at last disappear. Every one felt, that -finding the ice-barrier in so high a latitude, was the crowning blessing -to which we must ascribe our liberation. At the distance of a mile from -the edge of the ice, the temperature of the water had risen to 30° F., -and that of the air to 39° F. The sunbeams were reflected with such -intensity from the smooth surface of the sea, that we felt the long -unknown sensation of heat, and were obliged to cast off some of our -garments. - -4. We shaped our course south-by-west, towards the Barentz Islands, -intending to take in supplies of provisions from the depôt formed by -Count Wilczek, and then to coast along Novaya Zemlya in search of a ship -engaged in the fisheries, which we hoped to find either at Admiralty -Peninsula, or Matoschkin Straits, or in Dunen Bay. Norwegian vessels, -engaged in the capture of the walrus, might be looked for as far south -as Matoschkin Straits, and the Russian salmon-fishers still further to -the south. The nearest land was fifty miles off, and everything depended -on our reaching its friendly shores before the weather changed for the -worse. In the event of stormy weather there would be no other alternative -than to throw our provisions overboard in order to lighten the boats. - -5. Putting forth all our strength, we rowed steadily for some days. -Weyprecht took the lead in his boat, and the others followed him as -quickly as possible. The crew of each boat was divided into two watches, -who were relieved every four hours. It frequently happened that one boat -fell behind the others, and was lost sight of in a fog or mist. Trumpets -and horns were then sounded, till the laggard boat, by renewed efforts -of her crew, came up with the others. On the 16th, a breeze from the -north sprang up, and we used our sails with good effect for some hours. -At last Novaya Zemlya was sighted—some silvery points above the level of -the sea, which our people took at first for the reappearance of the ice -in the south; they proved to be the snowy summits near Cape Nassau. At -this headland the mountains running along the coast suddenly cease, and -the land trending to the north-east, assumes the monotonous character of -glaciation almost without mountains, as far as the lonely shores where -three centuries ago Barentz slept his last sleep. - -6. Our progress had no longer the paralysing insignificance of former -days. This day at noon our latitude was 76° 46′, and on the 17th, the -picturesque range of mountains south of Cape Nassau, rose through the -morning mists close before us steeped in violet and crimson hues. A fog -arising, we rowed along by compass in the midst of it, the boats seemed -to float in the air amid the fog. During its continuance a current caused -us to deviate so much to the south-west, that when at noon the land was -again visible, we discovered that we had gone beyond the place where the -depôt had been formed, and found by the chart, that we were in 75° 40′ -lat. and 58° long. But as the loss of time, in going back a distance of a -hundred miles, was out of all proportion to the amount of provisions we -could have taken in our overladen boats, we determined at all risks to -hold on our course. - -7. Before us, in the far distance, now rose above the horizon the higher -parts of Admiralty Peninsula; to these we now steered. As we passed along -we made a vain attempt to land on the north of Gwosdarew Bay. We found -the shores full of cliffs, between which a heavy surf was breaking, and -could thus form some notion of the perils we should have encountered, had -we attempted to land on the Barentz Islands. Two years ago the edge of -this coast had been covered with firm ice, and the depôt had been formed -by the aid of sledges. But now not a fragment of ice was to be seen -on the west coast of Novaya Zemlya, and the rocky shore could only be -approached by boats. - -8. The differences between the climate in the years 1872 and 1874, were -also in other respects very remarkable. In 1872 the mountains of the -country were mostly covered with snow, but in 1874, it lay only on the -higher parts of its glaciers, and in latitude 76° N., where we had found -thick ice, the temperature of the sea was 39° F., and of the air 43° -F. The phenomena of the climate of 1871, as we observed them in the -voyage of the _Isbjörn_, were similar to those of 1874; and this peculiar -mildness was experienced on the eastern coasts of Novaya Zemlya by -Captain Wiggins, who when navigating the sea of Cara as far as the mouth -of the Ob, was shut in there by the ice for a few weeks only. - -[Illustration: LANDING ON THE COAST OF NOVAYA ZEMLYA.] - -9. The inaccessibility of most of the places on the coast had hitherto -obliged us to continue our course without going on shore to rest, -although our arms were stiff and swollen with our exertions in rowing. -No vessels as yet had been seen, and what we thought to be a ship turned -out, when we rowed closer to it, to be only a small iceberg. There -was therefore no other alternative than to coast along in a southerly -direction, cutting across the bays, and keeping as near the shore as -possible. On the night of the 17th we pulled over the broad Gwosdarew -Bay, which was filled with countless fragments of glaciers. Some of -the smallest of these we took on board our boats to replenish our fast -decreasing supplies of water. Ever since our coming under the coast of -Novaya Zemlya, we had entered a region where auks abounded which whizzed -over our heads with small crayfish in their bills in their flight to the -land, or sat so indolently on the water, that they seemed determined -not to get out of the way of the boats. Many were bagged, but we made no -halt to shoot them. Twice only in the day we rested for about ten minutes -to take our food. Onwards we pressed, each boat striving to get before -the others. On August 17 the sun set for the first time about midnight, -and in the afternoon of the 18th we landed at a spot to the south of -black Cape, remarkable for the luxuriance of its vegetation. To our eyes, -accustomed to the monotonous white of snow and ice, it appeared like a -garden. There was nothing to remind us of a polar region either in the -land, or in the temperature, or in the weather. Its broad bay, if it had -been without its circle of glaciers, would have appeared like an Italian -gulf. It was now ebb-tide, and wading in the water we shoved our boats, -using the oars as rollers, over the muddy shore. It was the birthday of -our gracious monarch, which we celebrated in the best manner we could—we -dressed the boats with flags, washed ourselves in a little fresh-water -lake, and flavoured our weak tea with a small quantity of alcohol. - -10. This was the first land on which we had set foot for months. -Completely exhausted we lay down on its damp turf and listened to the -pleasant sound of the surf. Flames soon rose from the pile of drift -wood we collected, while some of us ascended the neighbouring ravines, -and even gathered flowers.[57] There were quantities of forget-me-nots, -and of coltsfoot (_Tusselago farfara_), which was dried and smoked, and -pronounced to be excellent tobacco. But our paradisiacal happiness could -not be of long duration. The necessity of finding a ship as quickly as -possible was urgent, and soon roused us from our deep sleep, while the -thunders of the glaciers of Novaya Zemlya proclaimed to us that bad -weather was not far off. - -11. On the 19th, we coasted along Admiralty Peninsula; the thermometer -giving 50° F. in the air, and 43° F. in the sea. Its shores rising in -a succession of terraces were indisputable evidence of its gradual -elevation above the sea-level,[58] and the flatness of the shores and -the shallowness of the sea, interspersed with rocks, easily explain why -they have so often been dangerous to ships approaching them in a fog. -As we came further south the charts proved more trustworthy. At noon of -the 20th at Cape Tischernitzky we reached latitude 74° 21′. We passed a -number of picturesque bights on the coast, with mountains, whose tops -were covered with clouds, and whose green banks extended along the -shores. These are the favourite wintering spots of Russian expeditions, -and in some places we saw ruined huts. On the 21st a fresh wind sprung -up from the east. The sea rose, and as we sailed fast before the wind -the boats took in a good deal of water, and we were thoroughly wet; the -boats too got separated. We accordingly ran into the bay under “Suchoi -Nos” (73° 47′ L.) to wait till the wind fell and the other boats should -join us. The boat commanded by Lieutenant Brosch, was exposed to much -danger from the lowness of its gunwale, when the sea was at all high; an -addition made to it by a strip of canvas stretched round the boat proved -ineffectual. We quickly dried our clothes at a fire made of drift-wood -and erratics of brown coal which we found, but were much disappointed -that no reindeer were to be seen, though we were surrounded by excellent -feeding-grounds for these animals. The stew, which we made from the -spoonwort we gathered, and some pemmican, was but a poor substitute for -the venison we had hoped to enjoy. Neither were there any auks to be -seen, and the divers shot under the water like stones whenever we came -within distance. The other boats having joined us we again put to sea, -though the weather was threatening and a high sea running. In latitude -73° 20′ we ran into Matoschkin Bay, hoping and expecting to find a vessel -engaged in the fisheries. But no vessel was to be seen, nothing but the -outlines of an Arctic mountain-land. Carlsen also, whom Weyprecht had -despatched to explore the straits so full of turnings and windings, -returned without the intelligence we hoped for. Before Carlsen rejoined -us we ran into a cove—Altgläubigen Bucht—and erected, on a conspicuous -headland, a cairn, on which we placed a signal post made of drift-wood. -In this cairn we deposited a document, briefly describing the course -of our expedition up to that date, in order to leave some trace of it -in a region which is visited annually by ships. The discovery of this -statement in the course of the next summer would prevent our countrymen -at home from sending out vessels to rescue us in higher latitudes, if we -meanwhile should perish. - -12. The prospects of our being saved had, in fact, considerably -diminished, for all our hopes had been centred in finding a vessel in -Matoschkin Straits, and these, as I have just said, were doomed to be -disappointed. Carlsen now returned with the information, that, in the -narrow seas he had visited, he had met with nothing but a whale-boat, -lying keel upwards, round which were footmarks of not very recent date. -There was no doubt, therefore, that the fishing vessels had withdrawn -from our high latitudes. At night a storm from the north-east roared -over the cliffs surrounding the cove, and the surf breaking on the rocks -reached our boats. - -13. It was noon on the 23rd before we could continue our voyage. Our -provisions would last for only ten days more, so that our fate must -shortly be decided. Further delay was out of the question; there was but -one hope for us—to press on and find a ship in Dunen-Bai (the Bay of -Dunes). Should this too prove deceptive, we must then make the desperate -venture of crossing the White Sea, direct to Lapland—a distance of 520 -miles. To follow the vast circuit of the coast-line would have been -impossible to us with our stock of provisions, and at that season of the -year. The next days too plainly taught us what would have become of our -small boats had we been forced to attempt that passage. - -14. We now rowed and sailed alternately down the flat coasts towards -“Gänseland,” amid stormy weather, during which the boats were often -separated, and we almost exhausted our strength in baling out the water. -We lost sight completely of Weyprecht’s boat on the open sea, and of the -others under the coast. That in which Orel and I were, appeared to have -out-sailed them, and we, therefore, on the morning of the 24th drew to -shore in a dark rocky cove to await the approach of our missing friends. -Wet through and through we sprang into the shallow water, and by a great -effort drew the boat to land. We then kindled a fire with the drift-wood -we gathered, and after making and eating a kind of dumpling we sank down -to sleep on the wet stones, amid the smoke from our fire, thoroughly -exhausted. So passed away four hours. When we awoke we ascended a height, -and as there was not a single vestige of a boat to be seen, we determined -to put to sea again. Near Cape Britwin (Lat. 72° 40′), the wind and sea -fell, and the boats again joined company. It was now deemed necessary -to make an equitable division among the crews of the provisions that -remained, and this being done, we took to our oars once more, and pulled -into the boundless waste of waters—into the mystery that hung over our -destiny. - -15. But the hour of our deliverance was nearer than we thought. It was -evening as we glided past the black weather-worn rocks of Cape Britwin, -the ledges of which were covered with flocks of birds, revelling in the -spray of the surf. Then about seven o’clock a cry of joy as from one -voice arose from the boats. A fifth small boat with two men in it lay -before us, apparently engaged in bird catching. They pulled towards us, -not less amazed than we ourselves were, and before either party could -explain itself, we turned a corner of the rock—there lay two ships. - -16. It is with a certain kind of awe and reverence that a shipwrecked -man approaches a ship, whose slender build is to deliver him from the -capricious power of the elements. To him it is no lifeless machine, but -a friend in need, yea, a higher creation than himself. Such were our -feelings as we neared the two schooners which lay a few hundred yards off -in a rock-encircled bay. To us at that moment these vessels were the sum -total of the whole world! Dressing our boats with flags, we followed the -strangers in their boat, and made fast to the schooner _Nikolai_, whose -deck was in a moment crowded with bearded Russians, who stared at us -with mingled feelings of wonder and sympathy, and whose captain, Feodor -Voronin, stood like a patriarch among them to welcome us. Ten days sooner -and our poor dogs might have gambolled on the deck with us! - -[Illustration: THE BAY OF DUNES. THE RUSSIAN SCHOONERS.] - -17. No grandees could have been received with more dignity than we -were. At the sight of the two Ukases, which we had received from St. -Petersburg, and which required all inhabitants of the Russian Empire to -furnish us with all the help we needed, these humble seamen bared their -heads and bowed themselves to the earth. We had an example before us to -show how orders are obeyed by the subjects of that Empire a thousand -miles from the place where they were issued. But we were received not -only in this reverential manner, but were welcomed with the greatest -heartiness, and the best of everything on board was spread before -us—salmon, reindeer flesh, Eider-geese eggs, tea, bread, butter, brandy. -The second skipper then came on board, and invited us to visit him: the -first of a series of invitations. Dr. Kepes was very pressingly invited, -for he had a sick man on board his vessel, and our doctor returned with -an _honorarium_ of tobacco in his hand. These simple Russian seamen of -the Arctic seas freely produced their little stock of good things to give -us pleasure, and one of them after observing me for a long time, and -thinking that I did not express myself sufficiently strongly for a happy -man, persuaded himself that something was the matter with me, and that I -wanted something. Forthwith he went to his chest, and brought me all the -white bread he had and the whole remaining stock of his tobacco. Though I -did not understand a word he said, his address was full of unmistakable -heartiness, and so far needed no interpreter. - -18. Since we abandoned the _Tegetthoff_ we had passed ninety-six days -in the open air, and, including the sledge journeys which preceded the -abandonment of the ship, about five months. The impressions of a return -to life were felt by us with silent yet deep thankfulness of heart, for -as the poet says:— - - “Das Schweigen ist ihr bester Herold.” - -It gave us infinite satisfaction to gaze on things the most -insignificant, and as we thought of our adventures, our discoveries, and -our deliverance, many of us asked his heart in a whisper: What will -be said of this in Austria? Lusina, as the only one among us who spoke -Russian, was constituted our interpreter, and through him we learnt that -great events had happened during our absence: that there was general -peace in Europe; that Napoleon was dead; and we learnt too that the -greatest interest in our destiny had been excited in Austria; that the -Russian government had issued orders to all their vessels employed in -the Arctic fisheries to do their utmost to find us, and contribute to -our rescue; that Count Wilczek had returned in safety—the skipper of our -schooner having met him at the mouth of the Petschora, just as he was -setting out for Obdorsk, and lastly, that a Norwegian fishing vessel had -been beset in the ice in the autumn of 1872 at the Barentz islands—very -near to where we were, and had been crushed; that four of the crew had -escaped in a boat, and after the most dreadful sufferings, had travelled -over land to the country of the Samoyedes in the extreme north of the -Ural Mountains. - -19. The ships we found in “Dunen Bai,”—the Bay of Dunes—came from -Archangel, and were engaged in the salmon fishery, at the mouth of the -Puhova River. They had taken very little, and their purpose was to remain -where we found them for fourteen days’ longer, and to spend about the -same number in fishing and hunting at the southern extremity of Novaya -Zemlya. This programme was not exactly to our taste. To spend a month in -a fishing-vessel, just as we awoke to the remembrance of all the comforts -and pleasures there are in the world, to sleep in the hold where cholera -lurked among bear and reindeer hides, amid heaps of salmon and reindeer -flesh, among nets and oil casks—such a prospect was not to be thought of. -Accordingly, we agreed with Captain Voronin, that he should leave off his -fishing and take us without delay to Vardö, in Norway, that we should -give him in return for his services three of our boats, two Lefaucheur -rifles, and guarantee him the further compensation of 1,200 silver -roubles. - -20. At last we could go to sleep, the much-needed, much-desired sleep, -undisturbed by the fear lest we should be starved to death at last. On -that evening, when I opened my journal, I found these words: “Shall -we be saved this day? shall we be alive? Fifteenth May on board the -_Tegetthoff_.” I had written these words by the merest chance on the -blank leaf reserved for the 24th of August, and it was singular that we -should be rescued on that very day. For a long time I could not sleep -amid the murmur of Russian words, which I mechanically endeavoured to -imitate and to interpret as I lay amid the dead salmon, till at last -I fell asleep, my last connected thought being, that I had not to row -any more. Next day Voronin and his trusty harpooner, Maximin Iwanoff, -insisted on Weyprecht and myself occupying their own cabin, and as we -could utter no other Russian word than ‘khorosho’ (good), we were obliged -to do as they wished. The ship was now watered, and the nets which had -been stretched out were hauled on board, the crew, as they worked, -singing their wild “Volkslieder” excellently well. - -21. On the 26th we left the small quiet bay, the scene of our happy -rescue, and with a favourable wind from the north, the vessel ploughed -her way through the waves of the White Sea. Now began the time of letter -writing; many of us, indeed, had commenced this employment even before -we left the boats. On the 27th and 28th, we had stormy weather from -the north-west, and the high seas we saw told us what our fate would -have been had we tried to cross this sea in our small boats. On the -29th, we sighted Black Cape on the “Murmann coast,” and for two hundred -miles we ran under the low, rocky coast of Lapland. We often fell in -with ships sailing from or to Archangel, and in our own eyes we seemed -the only barbarians amid the commerce and civilization of the world. -We sent deputations to every ship that came within hailing distance to -beg tobacco or sheets of writing paper, without, however, betraying our -incognito. We desired to be the first to give news of ourselves by the -telegraph. Contrary winds compelled our captain to tack often, and the -delay seemed to our impatience purgatory itself. - -22. At length on the 3rd of September—the 812th day from the day we -sailed from Bremerhaven—we sighted the little seaport of Vardö. Forthwith -the Austrian flag was displayed at the foretop of the _Nikolai_, while -each of us, clad in his fur-coat, stood with beating hearts on deck ready -to land. Soon she ran into the little harbour, and about three o’clock -in the afternoon of that same day we put our feet on Norwegian soil with -the glad thought that our dangers and our toils were over at last. While -Weyprecht attended to our money affairs, I hastened, amid the wondering -looks of the inhabitants, to the telegraph station to despatch the news -of our happy rescue and safe arrival, and as each message sped on its -way, our hearts glowed with joy as we thought that in a few minutes -friends and countrymen would learn the good tidings and share in our joy. - -23. On the 5th the mail steamer from Vardö to Hamburg took us on board, -and stopping at Tromsö, we put ashore, with many adieus, our friend -and companion Captain Carlsen. He had been one of those who believed -that we should return home by Behring Straits; but here he landed, a -touching instance of the vanity of human hopes. Apart from his linguistic -acquirements—for he had learnt to speak several languages on board -the _Tegetthoff_—the hardy old Arctic voyager went ashore with three -things only; his carefully preserved reindeer coat, his wig, and trusty -walrus spear. But all our hearts burned to reach home—home for its own -sake; for no presentiment had any of us of the honours that awaited our -arrival there. The favours shown to us by our monarch, the enthusiasm -which greeted the news of the discoveries we had so marvellously made, -the sympathy so abundantly expressed for our sufferings, made us feel -that we were rewarded far beyond our deserts, and that we had gained -the highest men can gain—the recognition of their services by their -fellow-countrymen. - - - - -APPENDIX. - - - - -I. - -METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. - - -The meteorological observations were always taken by the officers of -the watch, by Lieutenant Brosch, Midshipman Orel, the boatswain Lusina, -and Captain Carlsen. Krisch, our engineer, who shared in this labour -during the first winter was exempted from it in the second year, owing -to his failing health. Readings of the thermometers were taken every -two hours; observations to ascertain the moisture of the air were made -by the psychrometer during the summer months; the direction and force -of the winds, the amount of precipitation, the form and character of -the clouds were carefully noted down. As their labours were zealously -and conscientiously carried out for one year and a half, and chiefly in -regions never before visited, the results are of peculiar importance.[59] -The direction and force of the winds seemed in the first year to be -nearly in equilibrium, save that in the south air-currents from the -south-west generally prevailed, while in the north the prevailing -air-currents were from the north-east. - -Thunder-storms never occurred; even on the northern shores of Siberia -they are seldom experienced. The forms of the clouds in Arctic regions -have never the sharply-defined contours of those in more southerly -latitudes. In summer they increase in fulness, and in winter they consist -chiefly of vapours and frosty mists which throw dark inky hues over the -brightness of the nights. The proverbial clearness of the heavens, of -which Koldewey, Kane, Middendorf, and Wrangel speak, is found in the -high north, as also in the tropics only over the greater masses of land. -“The clouds,” says Weyprecht, “have either the uniform dull grey aspect -of elevated fog, or they assume the cirrus form, and the latter is not -as with us the fleecy mass rising high above the horizon, but consists -of masses of mist rising little above it, which very seldom assume the -sharply-defined forms which are seen in more southern regions. Instead -of clouds gloomy fogs prevail, sometimes rising high, sometimes also -close to the ground as if they were nailed to it. Four-and-twenty hours -of clear weather rarely occur in summer; generally after shining for a -few hours the sun disappears behind dense fogs. Dull and gloomy as these -fogs are, they maintain the conditions which we find in the regions of -ice,—they prevent the escape of the sun’s heat and they act more potently -on the ice than its direct rays.” With respect to the winds he adds: -“Until the autumn of the second year, the winds were of a very variable -nature. In the neighbourhood of Novaya Zemlya we had many south-east and -south-west winds; in the spring the winds were more from the north-east. -A prevailing direction of the wind was only discernible when we lay in -our second winter under Franz-Josef Land. Here all snow-storms and about -50 per cent. of the winds come from east-north-east. These winds were -mostly accompanied by clouds, which were dispersed only when the wind -veered more to the north. The force of the wind is mitigated by the ice. -Very frequently fog masses are seen driving rapidly at no very great -height above the ice, while below them there is almost a calm. In the -January of the two years we passed in the north, it was very interesting -to observe the struggle between the cold winds from the north and the -warmer winds of the south. The approach of warm winds from the south and -south-west brought masses of snow, and in a short time produced a rise of -temperature amounting to 67° to 79° F.” - -Falls of snow take place at all seasons of the year; but as they -generally occur accompanied with strong winds, it is not very easy -to determine the depth of the layers. Apart from extreme cases of -snow-drifts the mean depth of the snow on the ice during winter was about -three feet, and it is more considerable under the land than at a distance -from it. Rain falls almost exclusively only during the few months of -summer, and generally in fine showers, never in the sudden torrents of -southern latitudes. More rain fell with us in our second than in our -first summer. - -I was impossible, owing to our continual change of place, to give the -barometrical means for any particular locality; in the following table, -therefore, the monthly mean only is noted. The thermometers we used were -placed at the distance of five-and-twenty paces from the ship, so that -they were pretty well isolated from any influence due to it, and they -were raised four feet above the surface of the snow.[60] - -Readings of the minimum thermometer were taken at noon every day in the -year, and of the black-bulb thermometer at different times of the day -during the summer. The time of the day when the temperature reached its -maximum was irregular during the winter; it occurred about two o’clock -in the afternoon when the spring was well advanced. As I have already -inserted in the course of the narrative the temperatures of each day in -the month, it will be enough for the purposes of a general survey to give -here a summary of the mean monthly temperatures and of the maximum and -minimum extremes:— - - +-------------+--------------+------------+---------+--------+ - | | Mean of the |Mean of the |Maximum. |Minimum.| - | |Barometrical | Monthly | R. | R. | - | |Measurements. |Temperature.| | | - +-------------+--------------+------------+---------+--------+ - | 1872. | | | | | - | | | | | | - |July | — | — | — | -2·4 | - |August | 750·99 | +0·41 | +6·5 | -5·6 | - |September | 748·92 | -7·34 | +0·4 | -18·6 | - |October | 751·8 | -13·5 | +2·0 | -26·5 | - |November | 757·27 | -19·52 | -2·3 | -28·7 | - |December | 757·11 | -23·95 | -14·9 | -28·7 | - | | | | | | - | 1873. | | | | | - | | | | | | - |January | 753·69 | -18·1 | -2·1 | -35·1 | - |February | 741·62 | -27·95 | -1·8 | -36·9 | - |March | 748·21 | -25·52 | -14·4 | -33·9 | - |April | 753·04 | -17·49 | -6·8 | -30·9 | - |May | 756·58 | -7·12 | -1·9 | -18·4 | - |June | 751·3 | -0·41 | +8·1 | -8·6 | - |July | 750·23 | +1·26 | +6·4 | -1·8 | - |August | 749·33 | +0·32 | +4·4 | -4·6 | - |September | 747·79 | -3·32 | +1·3 | -12·4 | - |October | 745·64 | -13·93 | -2·9 | -23·1 | - |November | 748·2 | -21·21 | -6·2 | -31·8 | - |December | 744·98 | -23·08 | -10·1 | -34 | - | | | | | | - | 1874. | | | | | - | | | | | | - |January | 732·97 | -19·6 | -1·7 | -36·7 | - |February | 744·92 | -22·83 | -1·7 | -35·5 | - |March | 742·25 | -18·46 | -1·0 | -36·9 | - |April | 751·15 | -12·32 | -2·8 | -22·8 | - +-------------+--------------+------------+---------+--------+ - -_Note._—The temperatures are given in Réaumur degrees. By adding -one-fourth, the numbers given in the three last columns will be reduced -to Centigrade degrees. - - - - -II. - -DIRECTION AND FORCE OF THE WIND, FROM OBSERVATIONS ON BOARD THE -“TEGETTHOFF.” - - - +------------+------------------+ - | |Mean Direction and| - | | Force. | - | +----------+-------+ - | |Direction.| Force.| - +------------+----------+-------+ - | | | | - |1872. | | | - | | | | - |July 15 | N53°E | 1·36 | - |August 31 | S56°W | 1·15 | - |September 30| S45°W | 0·54 | - |October 31 | S23°E | 0·43 | - |November 30 | S71°E | 0·26 | - |December 31 | S44°E | 0·64 | - | | | | - |1873. | | | - | | | | - |January 31 | S64°W | 1·24 | - |February 28 | N32°E | 0·26 | - |March 31 | N37°E | 0·63 | - |April 30 | N61°E | 0·53 | - |May 31 | N5°W | 0·53 | - |June 30 | S79°E | 0·97 | - |July 31 | N74°W | 0·82 | - |August 31 | S48°E | 0·31 | - |September 30| S53°E | 0·14 | - |October 31 | N42°E | 1·82 | - |November 30 | N54°E | 1·10 | - |December 31 | N66°E | 1·21 | - | | | | - | 1874. | | | - | | | | - |January 31 | S70°E | 0·93 | - |February 28 | N47°E | 1·16 | - |March 31 | N59°W | 0·83 | - |April 30 | N80°E | 0·94 | - +------------+----------+-------+ - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] _Polynia_, a Russian term for an open water space.—Glossary in Kane’s -_Arctic Explorations_, vol. i., p. 14. - -[2] Ice-fields have been seen there equal to the superficial extent of a -German principality, or even to the Duchy of Salzburg. - -[3] Geikie’s _Great Ice Age_, pp. 38, 39. - -[4] In the North Atlantic Ocean down to 40° N. L. - -[5] Parry’s _Journal of a Voyage for the Discovery of a North-West -Passage_, 1819-20, p. 298. 4to. London, 1821. - -[6] Sir J. C. Ross’s _Southern Antarctic Voyage_, vol. ii., p. 151. - -[7] Sir John Ross—_Second Voyage of Discovery to the Arctic Ocean_, p. -180; 4to. London, 1835. - -[8] The nautical mile or “knot,” which is about an ordinary mile and a -sixth, is meant. - -[9] _Dock_, an opening in the ice, artificial or natural, offering -protection. Kane’s _Glossary of Arctic Terms_, vol. i., p. 13. - -[10] Mercator was not an Englishman; he was a Dutchman, born 1512, died -1594. - -[11] Three centuries ago, Plancius, the Dutch geographer, devised this -for the North Pole, while Barros, the Portuguese historiographer, did the -same for the South Pole. - -[12] As a corrective to this rather extreme statement, see Clement -Markham’s _Threshold of the Unknown Region_, 4th Edition, pp. 383-393. - -[13] A decoction prepared by Dr. Kepes, the physician of the _Tegetthoff_. - -[14] Lieutenant Brosch had the entire care of the victualling department, -and deserved our heartiest thanks for the skill and self-sacrifice with -which he performed his duty. - -[15] Formerly Captain in the Austrian Merchant Service. - -[16] Our position was then in 76° 22′ N. Lat., 63° 3′ E. Long. - -[17] A decoction prepared by Kepes. - -[18] Parry mentions, as a fact illustrative of the increase of moisture -and its condensation into ice, that about a hundred hundredweights of -ice were once removed from the lower quarters of the _Hecla_, which had -accumulated there from the breath, the steam caused by cooking, and the -moisture brought down by the clothes of the men. - -[19] The noise produced by such collisions cannot be more fittingly -expressed. - -[20] Hall’s contemporaneous expedition excepted. - -[21] See Appendix. - -[22] I take this opportunity of stating that the originals of nearly all -the illustrations of this book were drawn on the spot from nature, and -that they have been reproduced as they were drawn. - -[23] On the 24th of November the thermometer marked -14° F. in the ship’s -hole. The screw propeller had been fast frozen a month before. - -[24] We had brought 1,400 lbs. of it from Bremerhaven. - -[25] Parry’s winter night of 1819-20 lasted eighty-four days; Ross’s, -in the Gulf of Boothia, fifty days; Kane’s, in Rennssalaer harbour, 113 -days, and Hayes’ 123. In the latter case, however, the mountains on his -southern horizon were the cause why the sun was not earlier visible. - -[26] It has often been asserted that sound accompanying the Aurora has -been heard in the Shetland Isles, and in Siberia; but all scientific -travellers protest against this. Franklin, who at first believed in this -alleged phenomenon, afterwards retracted his opinion, and was convinced -that the noise proceeded from terrestrial causes. - -[27] Experience acquired both in Greenland and in Franz-Josef Land -convinces me that autumn is to be preferred to spring for sledge-journeys. - -[28] This is the reason why the English North Pole Expedition has engaged -the services of two mountaineers accustomed to glacier travelling. - -[29] I take this opportunity of fulfilling a duty of gratitude, when I -add that in our equipment we followed, in every respect, the tried and -tested advice of Admiral McClintock, and that to this we owed for the -most part such successes as we achieved. - -[30] Broad runners facilitate progress through deep snow. March 7, 1874, -we scarcely could move a sledge of medium size with its load, though we -afterwards transported the same load easily with a sledge with broader -runners; and the former became available when we fastened a pair of Lapp -snow-shoes on its runners. - -[31] _Narrative of an Attempt to Reach the North Pole_, pp. 145, 146, -4to. London: 1828. - -[32] _Narrative_, &c. Intro. p. xiv. - -[33] See description of Parry’s Boats—_Narrative_, &c. Intro. pp. xi.-xii. - -[34] This was the maximum of cold I observed during my three Polar -expeditions. - -[35] Hayes mentions a storm occurring at -27° F.; but this is probably an -error of the press. - -[36] In Greenland I once heard at the distance of 800 paces a -conversation between Börgen and Copeland carried on in the usual tone. - -[37] Sir John Ross frequently did this, sending the bullet through a -solid board. The freezing point of quicksilver is -40° F. It varies -however between -40° and -45° F., according to the purity of the metal. - -[38] It may easily happen in such weather that travellers on the ice -should have great difficulty in finding the ship, though they should -pass by it at less than 200 paces distant. The direction of the wind -contributes but little towards the ascertaining of their position; amid -hummocks of ice the wind constantly changes. On the 6th of March, Haller -and I wandered about for hours amid drifting snow-storms. Pekel, who came -to us from the ship, guided us rightly. - -[39] There are no glaciers on the coast of Siberia, and the glaciers -of Spitzbergen are not, it seems, large enough to detach icebergs. May -not, therefore, the icebergs which gather at Hope Island, as well as -those which are met with on the northern coasts of Siberia, originate in -the glaciers of Franz-Josef Land? Barentz saw, in August, 1596, on the -northern coasts of Novaya Zemlya, as many as 400 icebergs. - -[40] This of course does not exclude the possibility of finding -appropriate winter harbours in those Sounds we were unable to visit; most -probably such occur in Markham Sound, which abounds in fiords. - -[41] This applies especially to the region lying to the north of 81° 10′. - -[42] Schönau, near Teplitz in Bohemia, my birthplace. - -[43] Sumbu and Pekel were my own dogs. - -[44] Named after Dove, the celebrated German physicist. - -[45] Parry reached, on the frozen sea to the north of Spitzbergen, 82° -45′ N.L. - -[46] Kane’s dogs died principally in consequence of being fed chiefly on -salt meat, and Hayes’s from a disease among dogs which spreads over all -West Greenland. Epidemics of this kind break out among the dogs of the -Eskimos and of the Siberian tribes. Middendorf mentions, however, that -canine madness never occurs among the dogs of the latter. - -[47] Snow-water was for two years the only water we used, and as none of -us became goîtred, we were a living refutation of the opinion shared by -many that its constant use generates this disease in the inhabitants of -the Alps. - -[48] On board the ship the temperature at the same time was -20° F. - -[49] It might have been expected that seamen would have been acquainted -with the use of the compass, though the instruments they had at their -command were too small to determine the declination with precision. - -[50] Franklin, speaking of his experience during his first journey, says -that their diet of animal food had rather weakened than strengthened -their powers. An Eskimo, on the other hand, often consumes 20 lbs. of the -flesh of a seal in a day, and seems to thrive on it—a proof how the mode -of living of a savage is no rule for civilized man. - -[51] Our food, which we always took as hot as possible, had made our -tongues and gums as hard as leather, so that we could not discriminate -what we ate. Our great desire was not for flesh, but for white bread, -potatoes, and milk. - -[52] On May 5 a bear got away from us through a bad shot, but a second -was killed just as he had attacked Torossy. May 9, again, a bad shot -scared away a bear; on the eleventh one was killed by Herr Orel. This -bear had already received a ball in his shoulder, and a second in his -head an inch and a half under the right eye. - -[53] With three boats, two of which were whale-boats, each 26 feet long -and 7 feet broad. His crew wore Eskimo clothing, and, strange to say, -some of them had gutta-percha masks. Parry’s towards the North Pole in -1827, Kane’s in 1855, and our own, have much in common: but the greatest -difficulties were on our side. - -[54] “Aussingen” is a sailor’s word for a particular rhythm to which they -pull in time. - -[55] It was Parry’s experience also that nothing melts the ice like rain. - -[56] The wind maintained its westerly character, and we drifted, as we -had so often before, to the _right_ of its direction. - -[57] Baer brought home from Novaya Zemlya ninety species of Phanerogams. -According to an observation of Mojssejew, June 18, 1839, the thermometer -in the sun stood at 93° F., and 59° F. in the shade. - -[58] On older charts it is still separated by a sound from the mainland. -The layers of drift-wood, which we found everywhere at a considerable -height above the level of the sea, show beyond a doubt that the coast of -Novaya Zemlya has gradually risen; but as in those latitudes this wood -rots only after centuries, we have no measure to estimate the rate of -this movement. - -[59] These have not as yet been published. - -[60] Thermometers should always hang freely; when they are enclosed -in cases they give false values, especially if the cases should be -filled with snow. In our first winter we were obliged on account of the -ice-pressures to suspend our thermometers on the ship in such cases, -and there can be no doubt that their readings were too high. Sometimes, -however, they were too low, when the thermometers came in contact with -the snow on the ship. Scoresby, Parry, and we ourselves observed that the -temperature of the snow-covering sometimes sunk in clear winter nights -some degrees below the temperature of the air. - - - - -INDEX. - - - A - - Actiniæ, 269 - - Alcohol, the best fuel, 225 - - Amphipoda, 268 - - Amygdaloids, 261 - - Annelides, 270 - - Antlers of reindeer, superstition respecting, 107 - - Arctic petrel, 267 - - Arctic sea, temperature of, 6, 68, 93 - - Ascent of Cape Brünn, 338 - - Auk, the, 267, 290, 380; - Cape, 306, 308 - - Aulis, the harbour of, 352 - - Auroras, 64, 120, 154, 179; - described, 202; - sign of bad weather, 203; - influence of, on the magnetic needle, 205; - described by Weyprecht, 206 - - Austria Sound, 271, 281, 289, 292 - - - B - - Balloon, use of, recommended, 36 - - Barentz, referred to, 12, 28; - food of his party, 288; - islands, described by Prof. Höfer, 86; - incorrect maps of, 100; - sighted, 378 - - Basaltic formation of Franz-Josef Land, 260 - - Bay-ice, 2 - - Beaches, raised, 264, 381 - - Bear Island, 56 - - Bears, 97, 119, 144, 151, 154, 158, 238, 240, 272, 276; - winter hole, 276, 282, 285, 288, 293, 318, 334, 337, 344, 353, 360, - 367, 370 - - Bears’ flesh, 338 - - Bessels, Dr., 51 - - Birds, 93, 154, 162, 179, 232, 266, 290, 306, 315, 320, 334 - - Black Cape, Novaya Zemlya, 381 - - Books in _Tegetthoff_, 129, 186 - - Boots, sail-cloth, 232 - - Bottles, thrown out, 148 - - Britwin, Cape, 384 - - Bryopogon jubatus, 265 - - Buellia stigmatea, 265 - - Bunting, snow, 267 - - - C - - Cairn erected, 383 - - Calking the boats, 373 - - Cape Look-out, 58; - Frankfurt, 280; - Nassau, 64; - North, 65 - - Carlsen, Captain Olaf, 29, 77, 124, 132, 182, 360, 389 - - Cartridges, 130 - - Catabrosa algida, 265 - - Cattarinich, 255 - - Cerastium alpinum, 265 - - Cetraria nivalis, 265, 313 - - Climate of Novaya Zemlya, 379 - - Clothes, suitable, 45, 232 - - Coal, consumption of, in _Tegetthoff_, 128; - brown, 61, 260, 282; - house broken up, 119 - - Coast-water, navigating in, 12 - - Coffins, the three, 89 - - Cold, 246, _et seqq._; - effect on man, 250, 251 - - Colour of ice, 5; - of sea, 14 - - Coltsfoot, gathered in Novaya Zemlya, 381 - - Commander, qualities requisite for, 37 - - Condensation, 44, 127, 195 - - Cooking apparatus for sledging, 224 - - Cost of Polar expedition, 45, 46 - - Constants, magnetic, 271 - - Course of _Tegetthoff_, 147 - - Crevasse, fall of sledge into, 300 - - Crew of _Tegetthoff_, 76, 135, 136, 137, 195 - - Crinoidæ, 270 - - Crown Prince Rudolf’s Land, 294 - - Crow’s-nest, erected in _Tegetthoff_, 18 - - Crustaceæ, 268 - - Currents, sea, 18; - of the Obi and Jenisej, 68; - air and equatorial, meeting of, 64; - warm, 67 - - Cyperacites, grass of, as foot-coverings, 233 - - - D - - Darkness, effects of, 133, 149, 190 - - Deflection on coast of Greenland, 18 - - Depôt of provisions, 327, 330 - - Diarrhœa, a consequence of extreme cold, 251 - - Divers, 290, 320 - - Divine service celebrated in _Tegetthoff_, 131 - - Docks in ice, 19 - - Dogs, 89, 103, 118, 161, 191, 193, 220, 233, 237, 297, 330, 337, 340, - 346, 359, 360; - death of, 377 - - Dolerite rocks, 181, 261, 276, 282, 305, 312, 318 - - Dove, Greenland, 267 - - Dove, Prof., on the temperature at the Pole, 27; - glaciers named after, 290 - - Dress of the Arctic sledger, 231 - - Driftwood, 61, 63, 66, 265, 383 - - Dunen Bay, 383, 387 - - - E - - Easter Sunday, 285 - - Eclipse of the sun, 160 - - Eider duck, 267 - - Equipment for return journey, 345 - - Erratics, 261, 308 - - Evaporation from ice, 7 - - Expedition, second German, 13; - cost of various expeditions, 45; - equipment of, 34 - - - F - - Fables of old navigators, 23, 26 - - Fenzl, Prof., 265 - - Finnmark, 52 - - Fish described, 266 - - Flag, Austro-Hungarian, planted, 82·5° N. L., 312 - - Flea crab, 268 - - Fligely, Cape, 311 - - Floe, or field-ice, 2, 3, 4; - age of, 4; - colour of, 5 - - Food, allowance, 42, 130, 131 - - Forget-me-nots in Novaya Zemlya, 381 - - Fossils in Spitzbergen, 60 - - Fox, white, as food, 288 - - Franklin, diet of his party, 288 - - Franz-Josef Land surveyed, 237; - climate, 260 - - Frost-bite, 151, 241, 252; - remedies for, 252 - - Fugloe, 54 - - Furs, 231 - - _Fury_, the, 42 - - - G - - Gadus, 266 - - Geikie’s _Great Ice Age_, extract from, 8 - - _Germania_, 15; - Cape, 310 - - Geological formation, Spitzbergen, 60 - - Gillis’ Land, 66 - - Glacier, Dove, 263; - Forbes, 264; - Middendorf, 263; - insects, 264 - - Glaciers, of Novaya Zemlya, 17; - of Spitzbergen, 60; - calving of, 8; - in Franz-Josef Land, 262; - height of, _ib._; - colour of, _ib._; - motion of, observed, 344 - - Gloves, 231 - - Grasses, 265 - - Greenland, described, 259 - - Grog, necessary, 245, 255, 329 - - Gulf stream, 28, 50, 51, 67, 68 - - Gull, burgomaster, 160, 267, 354; - robber, 162, 267; - Ross’s, 179, 267 - - Gulyas, soup, 362 - - Gyrophora anthracina, 265 - - - H - - Haller, 255, 304 - - _Hansa_, the, 15 - - Health in _Tegetthoff_, 134, 151, 154, 173, 201 - - Hellwald, Cape, 320 - - Hippolyte (Payeri), 267 - - Höfer, Prof., his description of Barentz Isles, 86 - - Hohenlohe Island, 295 - - Holothuriæ, 270 - - Hoods, knitted, 231 - - Hope Island, 57, 60 - - Horizon visible from _Tegetthoff_, 18 - - Hornsundstind, 58, 60 - - Hyalonema, 268 - - Hydrochloric acid as remedy for frost-bite, 252 - - Hyperstenite rocks, 261 - - - I - - Ice, bay, 2; - barrier, 62, 63; - blink, 7; - birds, 160; - bergs, height of, 9; - places where they collect, _ib._; - oversetting of, 10, 331; - drift southwards like biers, 81; - forty feet high, 84, 166; - in Austria Sound, 258; - detachment of, 264; - in Rudolf’s Land, 299, 308 - - Ice-fields, 2, 4 - - Ice-foot, 2 - - Ice-holes, 1, 28 - - Ice-needles, 5 - - Ice-pressures, 102, 103, 111, 139 - - Ice (sea), specific gravity of, 6 - - Ice-sheet over Arctic regions, 1 - - Iceland Knot, 267 - - Iceland moss, 88 - - Imbricaria stygia, 265 - - Instruments required for sledge journey, 221 - - _Isbjörn_, description of, 51; - beset, 55; - meets _Tegetthoff_, 85, 89 - - Isopoda, 268 - - - J - - Journal, passages from, 106, 356-359 - - Jurassic formation in Spitzbergen, 60 - - - K - - Kaiser Franz-Josef’s Land discovered, 175; - explored, 213, 253, 258-270 - - Kepes, Dr., 267 - - Kittiwake, 267 - - Klotz, his singular appearance, 334 - - Knot (Iceland), 267 - - Korethrastes, 270 - - Krisch, death of, 215, 255 - - - L - - Lamp used, 45 - - Land, new, discovered, 175; - visited, 181 - - Land-ice, 3 - - Languages, four, spoken in _Tegetthoff_, 132 - - Leads or waterways, 1 - - Leigh Smith, Mr., his photographs, 261 - - Lichens, 265, 276; - used as tobacco, 322 - - Lignite, 322 - - Liparis gelatinosus, 266 - - Littrow, Cape, 244 - - Lumme, the, 267 - - Lütke, 29 - - - M - - M’Clintock, on sledge travelling, 24; - his adventures related to the men, 330 - - Magnetic constants observed, 271 - - Magnetic readings, 343 - - Mallemoke, 267 - - Matoschkin Schar, 64 - - Meals, usual, 130 - - Medusæ (Beroë) found, 63 - - Mess-room described, 130 - - Meteorological observations, 343 - - Middendorf Glacier, 263, 299 - - Moss, 265 - - - N - - Navigation, in coast water, 12; - only possible in summer, 13; - best season for, 14 - - Nassau, Cape, 64 - - Night, the Polar, 190 - - _Nikolai_, rescue by the, 384 - - Noise made by ice-pressures, 110, 141, 178 - - Noon, December 21st 1873, 189 - - Nordenskjöld, Prof., 261; - Fiord, 244 - - Normans, the, the first Polar navigators, 21 - - North-East Passage, 21-23 - - North-West Passage, 21-24 - - Novaya Zemlya Sea, 65, 66, 67, 80, 99, 171; - survey of necessary, 99; - coast of, 379; - climate of, _ib._ - - Novaya Zemlya, glaciers of, 9 - - - O - - Orel, 274, 280, 281, 282, 295, 301, 308, 313, 314, 320, 326 - - Ostjak dogs, 234 - - Owl, snowy, 267 - - - P - - Pachtussow, 29, 228 - - Pack-ice, 2 - - Papaver nudicale, 265, 322 - - Paper smoked instead of tobacco, 372 - - Parhelia, 99, 156, 178, 329 - - Parry referred to and quoted, 12, 288, 317 - - Pay of different Arctic crews, 39 - - Penny, 29 - - Petermann, Dr., on the influence of the Gulf Stream, 28 - - Petroleum used, 128; - frozen in lamp, 146 - - Plancius, his theory of an open Polar sea, 28 - - Plants, collection of, 265; - tropical, found in Spitzbergen, 28 - - Plasticity of glacier ice, 263 - - Polar question, 33 - - Polar sea (open), its existence questioned, 25, 28; - Seas, North and South compared, 14 - - Pole, North, 20, 27 - - Polynia, 312 - - Polypes, hydroid, 270 - - Provisions fail, 373; - remnant of, divided, 384 - - Prince Charles’s foreland, 58 - - Pycnogonida, 268 - - Pyrites formed, 167 - - - R - - Rain, its effect in breaking up the ice, 368, 370 - - Return to Europe resolved on, 179, 200 - - Reward offered by the English and Dutch for the discovery of the - North-West Passage, 33 - - Rhizocarpon geographicum, 265, 313 - - Rocks of Franz-Josef Land, 261 - - Rorqual (whale), 63 - - Ross, Sir James, 13, 16 - - Ross, Sir John, 42, 44, 288 - - Rotge, 267 - - Russians, kindness of, 386 - - - S - - Salm Island, 275 - - Sandoe, Island of, 54 - - Saxifrage on the Barentz Isles, 87; - in Franz-Josef Land, 265 - - School on the _Tegetthoff_, 137 - - Scoresby, 29, 32 - - Scurvy, causes of, 134; - signs of, 196; - in various expeditions compared, 197 - - Sea-ice, specific gravity of, 6 - - Sea-swallow, 267 - - Sea-temperature, 5, 68 - - Seals, 173, 266, 356, 364, 374 - - Ship, best shape of, 15; - small preferred, 16; - tonnage of different Arctic ships, 41 - - Shrimps, 267 - - Silene acaulis, 265, 322 - - Sketches, 343 - - Sketching on the ice, 156 - - Sledge journey, first, 235; - second, 271; - third, 336 - - Sledge travelling, 216-221; - clothing for, 230 - - Sledges drawn by men and dogs, 219; - equipment of, 222-234; - description of, 223; - loading of, 226; - boats for, 229; - in a snow-storm, 327; - abandoned, 377 - - Sleeping bag described, 225 - - Smith’s Sound, route through, 35 - - Snow-blindness, 317 - - Snow-eaters, 253 - - Snow-huts described, 225 - - Snow-line, 60, 262 - - Snow, fallen, described, 5; - block, 254; - constant downfall of, 188; - in extreme cold, 250 - - Snow, red, 60 - - Sonklar glacier, 253 - - Sound propagated freely in Polar regions, 250 - - Sound, crackling at edge of ice, 6 - - Soundings, table of, 172 - - Speed, rate of, 15 - - Spitzbergen, 58, 259 - - Sponges, 268 - - Sporastatia Morio, 265 - - Spring (1873), 153 - - Stove used on _Tegetthoff_, 128 - - Summer (1873), 162; - end of second, 174 - - Sun-rise (1873), 149; - (1874), 219 - - Sun, power of, 163 - - Sweet-water ice, 2 - - Swell of the ocean, 13; - heard, 370 - - - T - - Tactics of a ship in ice, 15 - - Tea recommended, 228; - comfort of, 355 - - _Tegetthoff_, 15, 75; - leaves Bremerhaven, 74; - crew of, described, 76; - at Tromsoe, _ib._; - beset, 82; - meets the _Isbjörn_, 85; - finally beset, 92; - table of course of, 147; - shored up, 165; - abandoned, 348 - - Tegetthoff, Cape, 235, 239, 241, 254, 353 - - Temperature of sea, 5, 68, 93; - variations of, in ship, 128; - low, 188, 316 - - Thaw water, 263, 370 - - Thirst, Arctic, 253 - - Tobacco, valuable, 353, 363 - - Tonnage of different Arctic ships, 41 - - Torossy, 3, 234, 276 - - Trace for each sledge-dog, 233 - - Tromsoe, 54, 76, 77 - - Tropical plants found in Spitzbergen, 28 - - Tusselago farfara, 381 - - Tyrol, Cape, 265 - - - U - - Ukase granted by the Russian government, 77 - - Umbellula, 269 - - Umbilicaria arctica, 265, 313 - - Usnea melaxantha, 265, 321 - - - V - - Vegetation of Kaiser Franz-Josef Land, 264 - - _Victory_, stores of the, in 1829, 42 - - Vienna, Cape, 312 - - Volcanic formation of Arctic regions, 260 - - Voronin, Feodor, Captain of the _Nikolai_, 384, 388 - - - W - - Walrus, the, 266 - - Water-sky, 7 - - Weyprecht, Lieut., 65, 68, 259, 271, 334 - - Whales, 62, 63; - white, 266 - - White Sea crossed, 388 - - Willoughby, 26 - - Wilczek, Graf, 49, 69, 85; - Island, 181, 183, 255, 257, 275 - - Wine necessary, 43, 135; - chemical, 43; - increased allowance of, 214 - - Winter harbour, 19 - - Winter night, length of, 200; - darkness of, 186 - - Wintering spots of Russian expeditions, 382 - - Wüllersdorf, Urbair, Admiral, his remarks on the course of the - _Tegetthoff_, 168 - - - Z - - Zaninovich falls into a crevasse, 300 - - Zoological collection, 343 - - -THE END. - - - - -MR. 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