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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e6f72dc --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #60250 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60250) diff --git a/old/60250-0.txt b/old/60250-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 93bfbc3..0000000 --- a/old/60250-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25346 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and -Religion (Third Edition, Vol. 02 of 12, by James George Frazer - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion (Third Edition, Vol. 02 of 12) - -Author: James George Frazer - -Release Date: September 7, 2019 [EBook #60250] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOLDEN BOUGH: VOL 2 OF 12 *** - - - - -Produced by Susan Skinner, Suzanne Shell, David King, and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net. (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive.) - - - - - - - The Golden Bough, A Study in Magic and Religion - - The Golden Bough - - A Study in Magic and Religion - - By - - SIR James George Frazer, D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D. - - Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge - Professor of Social Anthropology in the University of Liverpool. - - Third Edition. - - Vol. II. - - Part I - - The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings - - Vol. II - - Macmillan and Co., Limited - St. Martin’s Street, London - - 1917 - - _Third Edition March 1911_ - - _Reprinted July 1911, 1913, 1917_ - - - - - CONTENTS - - -Chapter VIII.—Departmental Kings of Nature Pp. 1-6 - -The King of the Wood at Nemi probably a departmental king of nature; -Kings of Rain in Africa; Kings of Fire and Water in Cambodia. - - -Chapter IX.—The Worship of Trees Pp. 7-58 - -§ 1. _Tree-spirits_—Great forests of ancient Europe; tree-worship -practised by all Aryan races in Europe; trees regarded as animate; -tree-spirits, sacrifices to trees; trees sensitive to wounds; apologies -for cutting down trees; bleeding trees; trees threatened to make them -bear fruit; attempts to deceive spirits of trees and plants; trees -married to each other; trees in blossom and rice in bloom treated like -pregnant women; trees tenanted by the souls of the dead; trees as the -abode, not the body, of spirits; ceremonies at felling trees; -propitiating tree-spirits in house-timber; sacred trees the abode of -spirits; sacred groves. - -§ 2. _Beneficent Powers of Tree-spirits_—Tree-spirit develops into -anthropomorphic deity of the woods; tree-spirits give rain and sunshine; -tree-spirits make crops to grow; the Harvest May and kindred customs; -tree-spirits make herds and women fruitful; green boughs protect against -witchcraft; influence of tree-spirits on cattle among the Wends, -Esthonians, and Circassians; tree-spirits grant offspring or easy -delivery to women. - - -Chapter X.—Relics of Tree-worship in Modern Europe Pp. 59-96 - -May-trees in Europe, especially England; May-garlands in England; May -customs in France, Germany, and Greece; Whitsuntide customs in Russia; -May-trees in Germany and Sweden; Midsummer trees and poles in Sweden; -village May-poles in England and Germany; tree-spirit detached from tree -and represented in human form, Esthonian tale; tree-spirit represented -simultaneously in vegetable and human form; the Little May Rose; the -_Walber_; Green George; double representation of tree-spirit by tree and -man among the Oraons; double representation of harvest-goddess Gauri; W. -Mannhardt’s conclusions; tree-spirit or vegetation-spirit represented by -a person alone; leaf-clad mummers (Green George, Little Leaf Man, -Jack-in-the-Green, etc.); leaf-clad mummers called Kings or Queens (King -and Queen of May, Whitsuntide King, etc.); Whitsuntide Bridegroom and -Bride; Midsummer Bridegroom and Bride; the Forsaken Bridegroom or Bride; -St. Bride in Scotland and the Isle of Man; May Bride or Whitsuntide -Bride. - - -Chapter XI.—The Influence of the Sexes on Vegetation Pp. 97-119 - -The marriage of the King and Queen of May intended to promote the growth -of vegetation by homoeopathic magic; intercourse of the sexes practised -to make the crops grow and fruit-trees to bear fruit; parents of twins -supposed to fertilise the bananas in Uganda; relics of similar customs -in Europe; continence practised in order to make the crops grow; incest -and illicit love supposed to blight the fruits of the earth by causing -drought or excessive rain; traces of similar beliefs as to the blighting -effect of adultery and incest among the ancient Jews, Greeks, Romans, -and Irish; possible influence of such beliefs on the institution of the -forbidden degrees of kinship; explanation of the seeming contradiction -of the foregoing customs; indirect benefit to humanity of some of these -superstitions. - - -Chapter XII.—The Sacred Marriage Pp. 120-170 - -§ 1. _Diana as a Goddess of Fertility_—Dramatic marriages of gods and -goddesses as a charm to promote vegetation; Diana as a goddess of the -woodlands; sanctity of holy groves in antiquity; the breaking of the -Golden Bough a solemn rite, not a mere piece of bravado; Diana a goddess -of the teeming life of nature, both animal and vegetable; deities of -woodlands naturally the patrons of the beasts of the woods; the crowning -of hunting dogs on Diana’s day a purification for their slaughter of the -beasts of the wood; as goddess of the moon, especially the yellow -harvest moon, Diana a goddess of crops and of childbirth; as a goddess -of fertility Diana needed a male partner. - -§ 2. _The Marriage of the Gods_—Marriages of the gods in Babylonia and -Assyria; marriage of the god Ammon to the Queen of Egypt; Apollo and his -prophetess at Patara; Artemis and the Essenes at Ephesus; marriage of -Dionysus and the Queen at Athens; marriage of Zeus and Demeter at -Eleusis; marriage of Zeus and Hera at Plataea; marriage of Zeus and Hera -in other parts of Greece; the god Frey and his human wife in Sweden; -similar rites in ancient Gaul; marriages of gods to images or living -women among uncivilised peoples; custom of the Wotyaks; custom of the -Peruvian Indians; marriage of a woman to the Sun among the Blackfoot -Indians; marriage of girls to fishing-nets among the Hurons and -Algonquins; marriage of the Sun-god and Earth-goddess among the Oraons; -marriage of women to gods in India and Africa; marriage of women to -water-gods and crocodiles; virgin sacrificed as a bride to the jinnee of -the sea in the Maldive Islands. - -§ 3. _Sacrifices to Water-spirits_—Stories of the Perseus and Andromeda -type; water-spirits conceived as serpents or dragons; sacrifices of -human beings to water-spirits; water-spirits as dispensers of fertility; -water-spirits bestow offspring on women; love of river-spirits for women -in Greek mythology; the Slaying of the Dragon at Furth in Bavaria; St. -Romain and the Dragon at Rouen. - - -Chapter XIII.—The Kings of Rome and Alba Pp. 171-194 - -§ 1. _Numa and Egeria_—Egeria a nymph of water and the oak, perhaps a -form of Diana; marriage of Numa and Egeria a reminiscence of the -marriage of the King of Rome to a goddess of water and vegetation. - -§ 2. _The King as Jupiter_—The Roman king personated Jupiter and wore -his costume; the oak crown as a symbol of divinity; personation of the -dead by masked men among the Romans; the kings of Alba as -personifications of Jupiter; legends of the deaths of Roman kings point -to their connexion with the thunder-god; local Jupiters in Latium; the -oak-groves of ancient Rome; Latian Jupiter on the Alban Mount; woods of -Latium in antiquity; Latin worship of Jupiter like the Druidical worship -of the oak; sacred marriage of Jupiter and Juno; Janus and Carnathe -Flamen Dialis and Flaminica as representatives of Jupiter and Juno; -marriage of the Roman king to the oak-goddess. - - -Chapter XIV.—The King’s Fire Pp. 195-206 - -Sacred marriage of the Fire-god with a woman; legends of the birth of -Latin kings from Vestal Virgins impregnated by the fire; Vestal Virgins -as wives of the Fire-god; the Vestal fire originally the fire on the -king’s hearth; the round temple of Vesta a copy of the old round hut of -the early Latins; rude pottery used in Roman ritual; superstitions as to -the making of pottery; sanctity of the storeroom at Rome; the temple of -Vesta with its sacred fire a copy of the king’s house. - - -Chapter XV.—The Fire-drill Pp. 207-226 - -Vestal fire at Rome rekindled by the fire-drill; use of the fire-drill -by savages; the fire-sticks regarded by savages as male and female; -fire-customs of the Herero; sacred fire among the Herero maintained in -the chief’s hut by his unmarried daughter; the Herero chief as priest of -the hearth; sacred Herero fire rekindled by fire-sticks, which are -regarded as male and female, and are made from the sacred ancestral -tree; the sacred Herero hearth a special seat of the ancestral spirits; -sacred fire-sticks of the Herero represent deceased ancestors; sacred -fire-boards as family deities among the Koryaks and Chuckchees. - - -Chapter XVI.—Father Jove and Mother Vesta Pp. 227-252 - -Similarity between the fire-customs of the Herero and the ancient -Latins; rites performed by the Vestals for the fertility of the earth -and the fecundity of cattle; the Vestals as embodiments of Vesta, a -mother-goddess of fertility; the domestic fire as a fecundating agent in -marriage ritual; newborn children and the domestic fire; reasons for -ascribing a procreative virtue to fire; fire kindled by friction by -human representatives of the Fire-father and Fire-mother; fire kindled -by friction by boy and girl or by man and woman; human fire-makers -sometimes married, sometimes unmarried; holy fire and virgins of St. -Brigit in Ireland; the oaks of Erin; virgin priestesses of fire in -ancient Peru and Mexico; the _Agnihotris_ or fire-priests of the -Brahmans; kinds of wood employed for fire-sticks in India and ancient -Greece. - - -Chapter XVII.—The Origin of Perpetual Fires Pp. 253-265 - -Custom of perpetual fires probably originated in motives of convenience; -races reported to be ignorant of the means of making fire; fire probably -used by men before they knew how to kindle it; savages carry fire with -them as a matter of convenience; Prometheus the fire-bringer; perpetual -fires maintained by chiefs and kings; fire extinguished at king’s death. - - -Chapter XVIII.—The Succession to the Kingdom in Ancient Latium Pp. -266-323 - -The sacred functions of Latin kings in general probably the same as -those of the Roman kings; question of the rule of succession to the -Latin kingship; list of Alban kings; list of Roman kings; Latin kingship -apparently transmitted in female line to foreign husbands of princesses; -miraculous births of kings explained on this hypothesis; marriage of -princesses to men of inferior rank in Africa; traces of female descent -of kingship in Greece; and in Scandinavia; reminiscence of such descent -in popular tales; female descent of kingship among the Picts, the -Lydians, the Danes, and the Saxons; traces of female kinship or -mother-kin among the Aryans, the Picts, and the Etruscans; mother-kin -may survive in royal families after it has been superseded by father-kin -among commoners; the Roman kings plebeians, not patricians; the first -consuls at Rome heirs to the throne according to mother-kin; attempt of -Tarquin to change the line of succession from the female to the male -line; the hereditary principle compatible with the elective principle in -succession to the throne; combination of the hereditary with the -elective principle in succession to the kingship in Africa and Assam; -similar combination perhaps in force at Rome; personal qualities -required in kings and chiefs; succession to the throne determined by a -race; custom of racing for a bride; contests for a bride other than a -race; the Flight of the King (_Regifugium_) at Rome perhaps a relic of a -contest for the kingdom and the hand of a princess; confirmation of this -theory from the practice of killing a human representative of Saturn at -the Saturnalia; violent ends of Roman kings; death of Romulus on the -_Nonae Caprotinae_ (7th July), an old licentious festival like the -Saturnalia for the fertilisation of the fig; violent deaths of other -Roman kings; succession to Latin kingship perhaps decided by single -combat; African parallels; Greek and Italian kings may have personated -Cronus and Saturn before they personated Zeus and Jupiter. - - -Chapter XIX.—St. George and the Parilia Pp. 324-348 - -The early Italians a pastoral as well as agricultural people; the -shepherds’ festival of the Parilia on 21st April; intention of the -festival to ensure the welfare of the flocks and herds and to guard them -against witches and wolves; festival of the same kind still held in -Eastern Europe on 23rd April, St. George’s Day; precautions taken by the -Esthonians against witches and wolves on St. George’s Day, when they -drive out the cattle to pasture for the first time; St. George’s Day a -pastoral festival in Russia; among the Ruthenians, among the Huzuls of -the Carpathians; St. George as the patron of horses in Silesia and -Bavaria; St. George’s Day among the Saxons and Roumanians of -Transylvania; St. George’s Day a herdsman’s festival among the -Walachians, Bulgarians, and South Slavs; precautions taken against -witches and wolves whenever the cattle are driven out to pasture for the -first time, as in Prussia and Sweden; these parallels illustrate some -features of the Parilia; St. George as a personification of trees or -vegetation in general; St. George as patron of childbirth and love; St. -George seems to have displaced an old Aryan god of the spring, such as -the Lithuanian Pergrubiusk. - - -Chapter XX.—The Worship of the Oak Pp. 349-375 - -§ 1. _The Diffusion of the Oak in Europe_—Jupiter the god of the oak, -the sky, and thunder; of these attributes the oak is probably primary -and the sky and thunder secondary; Europe covered with oak forests in -prehistoric times; remains of oaks found in peat-bogs; ancient lake -dwellings built on oaken piles; evidence of classical writers as to oak -forests in antiquity; oak-woods in modern Europe. - -§ 2. _The Aryan God of the Oak and the Thunder_—Aryan worship of the oak -and of the god of the oak; Zeus as the god of the oak, the thunder, and -the rain in ancient Greece; Jupiter as the god of the oak, the thunder, -and the rain in ancient Italy; Celtic worship of the oak; Donar and Thor -the Teutonic gods of the oak and thunder; Perun the god of the oak and -thunder among the Slavs; Perkunas the god of the oak and thunder among -the Lithuanians; Taara the god of the oak and thunder among the -Esthonians; Parjanya, the old Indian god of thunder, rain, and -fertility; gods of thunder and rain in America, Africa, and the -Caucasus; traces of the worship of the oak in modern Europe; in the -great European god of the oak, the thunder, and the rain, the original -element seems to have been the oak. - - -Chapter XXI.—Dianus and Diana Pp. 376-387 - -Recapitulation: rise of sacred kings endowed with magical or divine -powers; the King of the Wood at Nemi seems to have personified Jupiter -the god of the oak and to have mated with Diana the goddess of the oak; -Dianus (Janus) and Diana originally dialectically different forms of -Jupiter and Juno; Janus (Dianus) not originally a god of doors; -double-headed figure of Janus (Dianus) derived from a custom of placing -him as sentinel at doorways; parallel custom among the negroes of -Surinam; originally the King of the Wood at Nemi represented Dianus -(Janus), a duplicate form of Jupiter, the god of the oak, the thunder, -and the sky. - -INDEX Pp. 389-417 - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - DEPARTMENTAL KINGS OF NATURE - - -The preceding investigation has proved that the same [Sidenote: -Departmental kings of nature.] union of sacred functions with a royal -title which meets us in the King of the Wood at Nemi, the Sacrificial -King at Rome, and the magistrate called the King at Athens, occurs -frequently outside the limits of classical antiquity and is a common -feature of societies at all stages from barbarism to civilisation. -Further, it appears that the royal priest is often a king, not only in -name but in fact, swaying the sceptre as well as the crosier. All this -confirms the traditional view of the origin of the titular and priestly -kings in the republics of ancient Greece and Italy. At least by shewing -that the combination of spiritual and temporal power, of which -Graeco-Italian tradition preserved the memory, has actually existed in -many places, we have obviated any suspicion of improbability that might -have attached to the tradition. Therefore we may now fairly ask, May not -the King of the Wood have had an origin like that which a probable -tradition assigns to the Sacrificial King of Rome and the titular King -of Athens? In other words, may not his predecessors in office have been -a line of kings whom a republican revolution stripped of their political -power, leaving them only their religious functions and the shadow of a -crown? There are at least two reasons for answering this question in the -negative. One reason is drawn from the abode of the priest of Nemi; the -other from his title, the King of the Wood. If his predecessors had been -kings in the ordinary sense, he would surely have been found residing, -like the fallen kings of Rome and Athens, in the city of which the -sceptre had passed from him. This city must have been Aricia, for there -was none nearer. But Aricia was three miles off from his forest -sanctuary by the lake shore. If he reigned, it was not in the city, but -in the greenwood. Again his title, King of the Wood, hardly allows us to -suppose that he had ever been a king in the common sense of the word. -More likely he was a king of nature, and of a special side of nature, -namely, the woods from which he took his title. If we could find -instances of what we may call departmental kings of nature, that is of -persons supposed to rule over particular elements or aspects of nature, -they would probably present a closer analogy to the King of the Wood -than the divine kings we have been hitherto considering, whose control -of nature is general rather than special. Instances of such departmental -kings are not wanting. - -[Sidenote: Kings of rain in Africa.] On a hill at Bomma near the mouth -of the Congo dwells Namvulu Vumu, King of the Rain and Storm.[1] Of some -of the tribes on the Upper Nile we are told that they have no kings in -the common sense; the only persons whom they acknowledge as such are the -Kings of the Rain, _Mata Kodou_, who are credited with the power of -giving rain at the proper time, that is in the rainy season. Before the -rains begin to fall at the end of March the country is a parched and -arid desert; and the cattle, which form the people’s chief wealth, -perish for lack of grass. So, when the end of March draws on, each -householder betakes himself to the King of the Rain and offers him a cow -that he may make the blessed waters of heaven to drip on the brown and -withered pastures. If no shower falls, the people assemble and demand -that the king shall give them rain; and if the sky still continues -cloudless, they rip up his belly, in which he is believed to keep the -storms. Amongst the Bari tribe one of these Rain Kings made rain by -sprinkling water on the ground out of a handbell.[2] - -[Sidenote: Priesthood of the Alfai.] Among tribes on the outskirts of -Abyssinia a similar office exists and has been thus described by an -observer. “The priesthood of the Alfai, as he is called by the Barea and -Kunama, is a remarkable one; he is believed to be able to make rain. -This office formerly existed among the Algeds and appears to be still -common to the Nuba negroes. The Alfai of the Barea, who is also -consulted by the northern Kunama, lives near Tembadere on a mountain -alone with his family. The people bring him tribute in the form of -clothes and fruits, and cultivate for him a large field of his own. He -is a kind of king, and his office passes by inheritance to his brother -or sister’s son. He is supposed to conjure down rain and to drive away -the locusts. But if he disappoints the people’s expectation and a great -drought arises in the land, the Alfai is stoned to death, and his -nearest relations are obliged to cast the first stone at him. When we -passed through the country, the office of Alfai was still held by an old -man; but I heard that rain-making had proved too dangerous for him and -that he had renounced his office.”[3] - -[Sidenote: Kings of Fire and Water in Cambodia.] In the backwoods of -Cambodia live two mysterious sovereigns known as the King of the Fire -and the King of the Water. Their fame is spread all over the south of -the great Indo-Chinese peninsula; but only a faint echo of it has -reached the West. Down to a few years ago no European, so far as is -known, had ever seen either of them; and their very existence might have -passed for a fable, were it not that till lately communications were -regularly maintained between them and the King of Cambodia, who year by -year exchanged presents with them. The Cambodian gifts were passed from -tribe to tribe till they reached their destination; for no Cambodian -would essay the long and perilous journey. The tribe amongst whom the -Kings of Fire and Water reside is the Chréais or Jaray, a race with -European features but a sallow complexion, inhabiting the forest-clad -mountains and high tablelands which separate Cambodia from Annam. Their -royal functions are of a purely mystic or spiritual order; they have no -political authority; they are simple peasants, living by the sweat of -their brow and the offerings of the faithful. According to one account -they live in absolute solitude, never meeting each other and never -seeing a human face. They inhabit successively seven towers perched upon -seven mountains, and every year they pass from one tower to another. -People come furtively and cast within their reach what is needful for -their subsistence. The kingship lasts seven years, the time necessary to -inhabit all the towers successively; but many die before their time is -out. The offices are hereditary in one or (according to others) two -royal families, who enjoy high consideration, have revenues assigned to -them, and are exempt from the necessity of tilling the ground. But -naturally the dignity is not coveted, and when a vacancy occurs, all -eligible men (they must be strong and have children) flee and hide -themselves. Another account, admitting the reluctance of the hereditary -candidates to accept the crown, does not countenance the report of their -hermit-like seclusion in the seven towers. For it represents the people -as prostrating themselves before the mystic kings whenever they appear -in public, it being thought that a terrible hurricane would burst over -the country if this mark of homage were omitted. Probably, however, -these are mere fables such as commonly shed a glamour of romance over -the distant and unknown. A French officer, who had an interview with the -redoubtable Fire King in February 1891, found him stretched on a bamboo -couch, diligently smoking a long copper pipe, and surrounded by people -who paid him no great deference. In spite of his mystic vocation the -sorcerer had no charm or talisman about him, and was in no way -distinguishable from his fellows except by his tall stature. Another -writer reports that the two kings are much feared, because they are -supposed to possess the evil eye; hence every one avoids them, and the -potentates considerately cough to announce their approach and to allow -people to get out of their way. They enjoy extraordinary privileges and -immunities, but their authority does not extend beyond the few villages -of their neighbourhood. Like many other sacred kings, of whom we shall -read in the sequel, the Kings of Fire and Water are not allowed to die a -natural death, for that would lower their reputation. Accordingly when -one of them is seriously ill, the elders hold a consultation and if they -think he cannot recover they stab him to death. His body is burned and -the ashes are piously collected and publicly honoured for five years. -Part of them is given to the widow, and she keeps them in an urn, which -she must carry on her back when she goes to weep on her husband’s grave. - -[Sidenote: Supernatural powers of the Kings of Fire and Water.] We are -told that the Fire King, the more important of the two, whose -supernatural powers have never been questioned, officiates at marriages, -festivals, and sacrifices in honour of the _Yan_ or spirit. On these -occasions a special place is set apart for him; and the path by which he -approaches is spread with white cotton cloths. A reason for confining -the royal dignity to the same family is that this family is in -possession of certain famous talismans which would lose their virtue or -disappear if they passed out of the family. These talismans are three: -the fruit of a creeper called _Cui_, gathered ages ago at the time of -the last deluge, but still fresh and green; a rattan, also very old but -bearing flowers that never fade; and lastly, a sword containing a _Yan_ -or spirit, who guards it constantly and works miracles with it. The -spirit is said to be that of a slave, whose blood chanced to fall upon -the blade while it was being forged, and who died a voluntary death to -expiate his involuntary offence. By means of the two former talismans -the Water King can raise a flood that would drown the whole earth. If -the Fire King draws the magic sword a few inches from its sheath, the -sun is hidden and men and beasts fall into a profound sleep; were he to -draw it quite out of the scabbard, the world would come to an end. To -this wondrous brand sacrifices of buffaloes, pigs, fowls, and ducks are -offered for rain. It is kept swathed in cotton and silk; and amongst the -annual presents sent by the King of Cambodia were rich stuffs to wrap -the sacred sword. - -[Sidenote: Gifts sent by the Kings of Fire and Water to the King of -Cambodia.] In return the Kings of Fire and Water sent him a huge wax -candle and two calabashes, one full of rice and the other of sesame. The -candle bore the impress of the Fire King’s middle finger, and was -probably thought to contain the seed of fire, which the Cambodian -monarch thus received once a year fresh from the Fire King himself This -holy candle was kept for sacred uses. On reaching the capital of -Cambodia it was entrusted to the Brahmans, who laid it up beside the -regalia, and with the wax made tapers which were burned on the altars on -solemn days. As the candle was the special gift of the Fire King, we may -conjecture that the rice and sesame were the special gift of the Water -King. The latter was doubtless king of rain as well as of water, and the -fruits of the earth were boons conferred by him on men. In times of -calamity, as during plague, floods, and war, a little of this sacred -rice and sesame was scattered on the ground “to appease the wrath of the -maleficent spirits.” Contrary to the common usage of the country, which -is to bury the dead, the bodies of both these mystic monarchs are burnt, -but their nails and some of their teeth and bones are religiously -preserved as amulets. It is while the corpse is being consumed on the -pyre that the kinsmen of the deceased magician flee to the forest and -hide themselves for fear of being elevated to the invidious dignity -which he has just vacated. The people go and search for them, and the -first whose lurking place they discover is made King of Fire or -Water.[4] - -These, then, are examples of what I have called departmental kings of -nature. But it is a far cry to Italy from the forests of Cambodia and -the sources of the Nile. And though Kings of Rain, Water, and Fire have -been found, we have still to discover a King of the Wood to match the -Arician priest who bore that title. Perhaps we shall find him nearer -home. - -Footnote 1: - - A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_, ii. 230. - -Footnote 2: - - “Excursion de M. Brun-Rollet dans la région supérieure du Nil,” - _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), IVme Série, iv. (1852) - pp. 421-423; _ib._ viii. (1854) pp. 387 _sq._; Brun-Rollet, _Le Nil - Blanc et le Soudan_ (Paris, 1855), pp. 227 _sqq._ As to the - rain-making chiefs of this region see above, vol. i. pp. 345 _sqq._ As - to the distress and privations endured by these people in the dry - season, see E. de Pruyssenaere, “Reisen und Forschungen im Gebiete des - Weissen und Blauen Nil,” _Petermann’s Mittheilungen_, _Ergänzungsheft_ - No. 50 (Gotha, 1877), p. 23. - -Footnote 3: - - W. Munzinger, _Ostafrikanische Studien_ (Schaffhausen, 1864), p. 474. - -Footnote 4: - - Mgr. Cuénot, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xiii. (1841) p. - 143; H. Mouhot, _Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China_ (London, - 1864), ii. 35; A. Bastian, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Gebirgsstämme - in Kambodia,” _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin_, - i. (1866) p. 37; J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i. - 432-436; E. Aymonier, “Notes sur les coutumes et croyances - superstitieuses des Cambodgiens,” in _Cochinchine Française: - Excursions et reconnaissances_, No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), pp. 172 _sq._; - _id._, _Notes sur le Laos_ (Saigon, 1885), p. 60; Le Capitaine Cupet, - “Chez les populations sauvages du Sud de l’Annam,” _Tour du monde_, - No. 1682, April 1, 1893, pp. 193-204; _id._, in _Mission Pavie, - Indo-Chine 1879-1895, Géographie et voyages_, iii. (Paris, 1900) pp. - 297-318; Tournier, _Notice sur le Laos Français_ (Hanoi, 1900), pp. - 111 _sq._; A. Lavallée, “Notes ethnographiques sur diverses tribus du - Sud-Est de l’Inde-Chine,” _Bulletin de l’École Française - d’Extrême-Orient_, i. (Hanoi, 1901) pp. 303 _sq._ Mgr. Cuénot mentions - only the King of Fire. Bastian speaks as if the King of Fire was also - the King of Water. Both writers report at second hand. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - THE WORSHIP OF TREES - - - § 1. Tree-spirits - - -[Sidenote: Great forests of ancient Europe.] In the religious history of -the Aryan race in Europe the worship of trees has played an important -part. Nothing could be more natural. For at the dawn of history Europe -was covered with immense primaeval forests, in which the scattered -clearings must have appeared like islets in an ocean of green. Down to -the first century before our era the Hercynian forest stretched eastward -from the Rhine for a distance at once vast and unknown; Germans whom -Caesar questioned had travelled for two months through it without -reaching the end.[5] Four centuries later it was visited by the Emperor -Julian, and the solitude, the gloom, the silence of the forest appear to -have made a deep impression on his sensitive nature. He declared that he -knew nothing like it in the Roman empire.[6] In our own country the -wealds of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex are remnants of the great forest of -Anderida, which once clothed the whole of the south-eastern portion of -the island. Westward it seems to have stretched till it joined another -forest that extended from Hampshire to Devon. In the reign of Henry II. -the citizens of London still hunted the wild bull and the boar in the -woods of Hampstead. Even under the later Plantagenets the royal forests -were sixty-eight in number. In the forest of Arden it was said that down -to modern times a squirrel might leap from tree to tree for nearly the -whole length of Warwickshire.[7] The excavation of ancient pile-villages -in the valley of the Po has shewn that long before the rise and probably -the foundation of Rome the north of Italy was covered with dense woods -of elms, chestnuts, and especially of oaks.[8] Archaeology is here -confirmed by history; for classical writers contain many references to -Italian forests which have now disappeared.[9] As late as the fourth -century before our era Rome was divided from central Etruria by the -dreaded Ciminian forest, which Livy compares to the woods of Germany. No -merchant, if we may trust the Roman historian, had ever penetrated its -pathless solitudes: and it was deemed a most daring feat when a Roman -general, after sending two scouts to explore its intricacies, led his -army into the forest and, making his way to a ridge of the wooded -mountains, looked down on the rich Etrurian fields spread out below.[10] -In Greece beautiful woods of pine, oak, and other trees still linger on -the slopes of the high Arcadian mountains, still adorn with their -verdure the deep gorge through which the Ladon hurries to join the -sacred Alpheus; and were still, down to a few years ago, mirrored in the -dark blue waters of the lonely lake of Pheneus; but they are mere -fragments of the forests which clothed great tracts in antiquity, and -which at a more remote epoch may have spanned the Greek peninsula from -sea to sea.[11] - -[Sidenote: Tree-worship practised by all the Aryan races in Europe.] -From an examination of the Teutonic words for “temple” Grimm has made it -probable that amongst the Germans the oldest sanctuaries were natural -woods.[12] However this may be, tree-worship is well attested for all -the great European families of the Aryan stock. Amongst the Celts the -oak-worship of the Druids is familiar to every one,[13] and their old -word for a sanctuary seems to be identical in origin and meaning with -the Latin _némus_, a grove or woodland glade, which still survives in -the name of Nemi.[14] Sacred groves were common among the ancient -Germans, and tree-worship is hardly extinct amongst their descendants at -the present day.[15] How serious that worship was in former times may be -gathered from the ferocious penalty appointed by the old German laws for -such as dared to peel the bark of a standing tree. The culprit’s navel -was to be cut out and nailed to the part of the tree which he had -peeled, and he was to be driven round and round the tree till all his -guts were wound about its trunk.[16] The intention of the punishment -clearly was to replace the dead bark by a living substitute taken from -the culprit; it was a life for a life, the life of a man for the life of -a tree. At Upsala, the old religious capital of Sweden, there was a -sacred grove in which every tree was regarded as divine.[17] The heathen -Slavs worshipped trees and groves.[18] The Lithuanians were not -converted to Christianity till towards the close of the fourteenth -century, and amongst them at the date of their conversion the worship of -trees was prominent. Some of them revered remarkable oaks and other -great shady trees, from which they received oracular responses. Some -maintained holy groves about their villages or houses, where even to -break a twig would have been a sin. They thought that he who cut a bough -in such a grove either died suddenly or was crippled in one of his -limbs.[19] Proofs of the prevalence of tree-worship in ancient Greece -and Italy are abundant.[20] In the sanctuary of Aesculapius at Cos, for -example, it was forbidden to cut down the cypress-trees under a penalty -of a thousand drachms.[21] But nowhere, perhaps, in the ancient world -was this antique form of religion better preserved than in the heart of -the great metropolis itself. In the Forum, the busy centre of Roman -life, the sacred fig-tree of Romulus was worshipped down to the days of -the empire, and the withering of its trunk was enough to spread -consternation through the city.[22] Again, on the slope of the Palatine -Hill grew a cornel-tree which was esteemed one of the most sacred -objects in Rome. Whenever the tree appeared to a passer-by to be -drooping, he set up a hue and cry which was echoed by the people in the -street, and soon a crowd might be seen running helter-skelter from all -sides with buckets of water, as if (says Plutarch) they were hastening -to put out a fire.[23] - -[Sidenote: Tree-worship among the Finnish-Ugrian peoples.] Among the -tribes of the Finnish-Ugrian stock in Europe the heathen worship was -performed for the most part in sacred groves, which were always enclosed -with a fence. Such a grove often consisted merely of a glade or clearing -with a few trees dotted about, upon which in former times the skins of -the sacrificial victims were hung. The central point of the grove, at -least among the tribes of the Volga, was the sacred tree, beside which -everything else sank into insignificance. Before it the worshippers -assembled and the priest offered his prayers, at its roots the victim -was sacrificed, and its boughs sometimes served as a pulpit. No wood -might be hewn and no branch broken in the grove, and women were -generally forbidden to enter it. The Ostyaks and Woguls, two peoples of -the Finnish-Ugrian stock in Siberia, had also sacred groves in which -nothing might be touched, and where the skins of the sacrificed animals -were suspended; but these groves were not enclosed with fences.[24] Near -Kuopio, in Finland, there was a famous grove of ancient moss-grown firs, -where the people offered sacrifices and practised superstitious customs -down to about 1650, when a sturdy veteran of the Thirty Years’ War dared -to cut it down at the bidding of the pastor. Sacred groves now hardly -exist in Finland, but sacred trees to which offerings are brought are -still not very uncommon. On some firs the skulls of bears are nailed, -apparently that the hunter may have good luck in the chase.[25] The -Ostyaks are said never to have passed a sacred tree without shooting an -arrow at it as a mark of respect. In many places they hung furs and -skins on the holy trees in the forest; but having observed that these -furs were often appropriated and carried off by unscrupulous travellers, -they adopted the practice of hewing the trunks into great blocks, which -they decked with their offerings and preserved in safe places. The -custom marks a transition from the worship of trees to the worship of -idols carved out of the sacred wood. Within their sacred groves no grass -or wood might be cut, no game hunted, no fish caught, not even a draught -of water drunk. When they passed them in their canoes, they were careful -not to touch the land with the oar, and if the journey through the -hallowed ground was long, they laid in a store of water before entering -on it, for they would rather suffer extreme thirst than slake it by -drinking of the sacred stream. The Ostyaks also regarded as holy any -tree on which an eagle had built its nest for several years, and they -spared the bird as well as the tree. No greater injury could be done -them than to shoot such an eagle or destroy its nest.[26] - -[Sidenote: Trees are regarded by the savage as animate.] But it is -necessary to examine in some detail the notions on which the worship of -trees and plants is based. To the savage the world in general is -animate, and trees and plants are no exception to the rule. He thinks -that they have souls like his own, and he treats them accordingly. “They -say,” writes the ancient vegetarian Porphyry, “that primitive men led an -unhappy life, for their superstition did not stop at animals but -extended even to plants. For why should the slaughter of an ox or a -sheep be a greater wrong than the felling of a fir or an oak, seeing -that a soul is implanted in these trees also?”[27] Similarly, the -Hidatsa Indians of North America believe that every natural object has -its spirit, or to speak more properly, its shade. To these shades some -consideration or respect is due, but not equally to all. For example, -the shade of the cottonwood, the greatest tree in the valley of the -Upper Missouri, is supposed to possess an intelligence which, if -properly approached, may help the Indians in certain undertakings; but -the shades of shrubs and grasses are of little account. When the -Missouri, swollen by a freshet in spring, carries away part of its banks -and sweeps some tall tree into its current, it is said that the spirit -of the tree cries while the roots still cling to the land and until the -trunk falls with a splash into the stream. Formerly the Indians -considered it wrong to fell one of these giants, and when large logs -were needed they made use only of trees which had fallen of themselves. -Till lately some of the more credulous old men declared that many of the -misfortunes of their people were caused by this modern disregard for the -rights of the living cottonwood.[28] The Iroquois believed that each -species of tree, shrub, plant, and herb had its own spirit, and to these -spirits it was their custom to return thanks.[29] The Wanika of Eastern -Africa fancy that every tree, and especially every coco-nut tree, has -its spirit; “the destruction of a cocoa-nut tree is regarded as -equivalent to matricide, because that tree gives them life and -nourishment, as a mother does her child.”[30] In the Yasawu islands of -Fiji a man will never eat a coco-nut without first asking its leave—“May -I eat you, my chief?”[31] Among the Thompson Indians of British Columbia -young people addressed the following prayer to the sunflower root before -they ate the first roots of the season: “I inform thee that I intend to -eat thee. Mayest thou always help me to ascend, so that I may always be -able to reach the tops of mountains, and may I never be clumsy! I ask -this from thee, Sunflower-Root. Thou art the greatest of all in -mystery.” To omit this prayer would have made the eater of the root -lazy, and caused him to sleep long in the morning. We are not told, but -may conjecture, that these Indians ascribed to the sunflower the sun’s -power of climbing above the mountain-tops and of rising betimes in the -morning; hence whoever ate of the plant, with all the due formalities, -would naturally acquire the same useful properties. It is not so easy to -say why women had to observe continence in cooking and digging the root, -and why, when they were cooking it, no man might come near the oven.[32] -The Dyaks ascribe souls to trees, and do not dare to cut down an old -tree. In some places, when an old tree has been blown down, they set it -up, smear it with blood, and deck it with flags “to appease the soul of -the tree.”[33] Siamese monks, believing that there are souls everywhere, -and that to destroy anything whatever is forcibly to dispossess a soul, -will not break a branch of a tree, “as they will not break the arm of an -innocent person.”[34] These monks, of course, are Buddhists. But -Buddhist animism is not a philosophical theory. It is simply a common -savage dogma incorporated in the system of an historical religion. To -suppose with Benfey and others that the theories of animism and -transmigration current among rude peoples of Asia are derived from -Buddhism, is to reverse the facts. Buddhism in this respect borrowed -from savagery, not savagery from Buddhism.[35] According to Chinese -belief, the spirits of plants are never shaped like plants but have -commonly the form either of human beings or of animals, for example -bulls and serpents. Occasionally at the felling of a tree the -tree-spirit has been seen to rush out in the shape of a blue bull.[36] -In China “to this day the belief in tree-spirits dangerous to man is -obviously strong. In southern Fuhkien it deters people from felling any -large trees or chopping off heavy branches, for fear the indwelling -spirit may become irritated and visit the aggressor or his neighbours -with disease and calamity. Especially respected are the green banyan or -_ch’îng_, the biggest trees to be found in that part of China. In Amoy -some people even show a strong aversion from planting trees, the -planters, as soon as the stems have become as thick as their necks, -being sure to be throttled by the indwelling spirits. No explanation of -this curious superstition was ever given us. It may account to some -extent for the almost total neglect of forestry in that part of China, -so that hardly any except spontaneous trees grow there.”[37] - -[Sidenote: Particular sorts of trees tenanted by spirits; sacrifices to -tree-spirits.] Sometimes it is only particular sorts of trees that are -supposed to be tenanted by spirits. At Grbalj in Dalmatia it is said -that among great beeches, oaks, and other trees there are some that are -endowed with shades or souls, and whoever fells one of them must die on -the spot, or at least live an invalid for the rest of his days. If a -woodman fears that a tree which he has felled is one of this sort, he -must cut off the head of a live hen on the stump of the tree with the -very same axe with which he cut down the tree. This will protect him -from all harm, even if the tree be one of the animated kind.[38] The -silk-cotton trees, which rear their [Sidenote: Silk-cotton trees in West -Africa.] enormous trunks to a stupendous height, far out-topping all the -other trees of the forest, are regarded with reverence throughout West -Africa, from the Senegal to the Niger, and are believed to be the abode -of a god or spirit. Among the Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast -the indwelling god of this giant of the forest goes by the name of -Huntin. Trees in which he specially dwells—for it is not every -silk-cotton tree that he thus honours—are surrounded by a girdle of -palm-leaves; and sacrifices of fowls, and occasionally of human beings, -are fastened to the trunk or laid against the foot of the tree. A tree -distinguished by a girdle of palm-leaves may not be cut down or injured -in any way; and even silk-cotton trees which are not supposed to be -animated by Huntin may not be felled unless the woodman first offers a -sacrifice of fowls and palm-oil to purge himself of the proposed -sacrilege. To omit the sacrifice is an offence which may be punished -with death.[39] [Sidenote: Sycamores in ancient Egypt.] Everywhere in -Egypt on the borders of the cultivated land, and even at some distance -from the valley of the Nile, you meet with fine sycamores standing -solitary and thriving as by a miracle in the sandy soil; their living -green contrasts strongly with the tawny hue of the surrounding -landscape, and their thick impenetrable foliage bids defiance even in -summer to the noonday sun. The secret of their verdure is that their -roots strike down into rills of water that trickle by unseen sluices -from the great river. Of old the Egyptians of every rank esteemed these -trees divine, and paid them regular homage. They gave them figs, -raisins, cucumbers, vegetables, and water in earthenware pitchers, which -charitable folk filled afresh every day. Passers-by slaked their thirst -at these pitchers in the sultry hours, and paid for the welcome draught -by a short prayer. The spirit that animated these beautiful trees -generally lurked unseen, but sometimes he would shew his head or even -his whole body outside the trunk, but only to retire into it again.[40] -People in Congo set calabashes of palm-wine at the foot of certain trees -for the trees to drink when they are thirsty.[41] The [Sidenote: Sacred -trees in Africa, Syria, and Patagonia.] Wanika of Eastern Africa pay -special honour to the spirits of coco-nut palms in return for the many -benefits conferred on them by the trees. To cut down a coco-nut palm is -an inexpiable offence, equivalent to matricide. They sacrifice to the -tree on many occasions. When a man in gathering the coco-nuts has fallen -from the palm, they attribute it to the wrath of the tree-spirit, and -resort to the oddest means of appeasing him.[42] The Masai particularly -reverence the _subugo_ tree, the bark of which has medical properties, -and a species of parasitic fig which they call _retete_. The green figs -are eaten by boys and girls, and older people propitiate the tree by -pouring the blood of a goat at the foot of the trunk and strewing grass -on the branches.[43] The natives of the Bissagos Islands, off the west -coast of Africa, sacrifice dogs, cocks, and oxen to their sacred trees, -but they eat the flesh of the victims and leave only the horns, fastened -to the trees, for the spirits.[44] In a Turkish village of Northern -Syria there is a very old oak-tree which the people worship, burning -incense to it and bringing offerings as they would to a shrine.[45] In -Patagonia, between the Rio Negro and the Rio Colorado, there stands -solitary an ancient acacia-tree with a gnarled and hollow trunk. The -Indians revere it as the abode of a spirit, and hang offerings of -blankets, ponchos, ribbons, and coloured threads on it, so that the tree -presents the aspect of an old clothes’ shop, the tattered, weather-worn -garments drooping sadly from the boughs. No Indian passes it without -leaving something, if it be only a little horse-hair which he ties to a -branch. The hollow trunk contains offerings of tobacco, beads, and -sometimes coins. But the best evidence of the sanctity of the tree are -the bleached skeletons of many horses which have been killed in honour -of the spirit; for the horse is the most precious sacrifice that these -Indians can offer. They slaughter the animal also to propitiate the -spirits of the deep and rapid [Sidenote: Sacrifices to trees.] rivers -which they have often to ford or swim.[46] The Kayans of Central Borneo -ascribe souls to the trees which yield the poison they use to envenom -their arrows. They think that the spirit of the _tasem_ tree (_Antiaris -toxicaria_) is particularly hard to please; but if the wood has a strong -and agreeable scent, they know that the man who felled the tree must -have contrived by his offerings to mollify the peevish spirit.[47] In -some of the Louisiade Islands there are certain large trees under which -the natives hold their feasts. These trees seem to be regarded as -endowed with souls; for a portion of the feast is set aside for them, -and the bones of pigs and of human beings are everywhere deeply imbedded -in their branches.[48] Among the Kangra mountains of the Punjaub a girl -used to be annually sacrificed to an old cedar-tree, the families of the -village taking it in turn to supply the victim. The tree was cut down -not very many years ago.[49] On Christmas Eve it is still customary in -some parts of Germany to gird fruit-trees with ropes of straw on which -the sausages prepared for the festival have lain. This is supposed to -make the trees bear fruit. In the Mark of Brandenburg the person who -ties the straw round the trees says, “Little tree, I make you a present, -and you will make me one.” The people say that if the trees receive -gifts, they will bestow gifts in return. The custom, which is clearly a -relic of tree-worship, is often observed on New Year’s night or at any -time between Christmas and Twelfth Night.[50] - -[Sidenote: Trees supposed to be sensitive and to feel wounds.] If trees -are animate, they are necessarily sensitive and the cutting of them down -becomes a delicate surgical operation, which must be performed with as -tender a regard as possible for the feelings of the sufferers, who -otherwise may turn and rend the careless or bungling operator. When an -oak is being felled “it gives a kind of shriekes or groanes, that may be -heard a mile off, as if it were the genius of the oake lamenting. E. -Wyld, Esq., hath heard it severall times.”[51] The Ojebways “very seldom -cut down green or living trees, from the idea that it puts them to pain, -and some of their medicine-men profess to have heard the wailing of the -trees under the axe.”[52] Trees that bleed and utter cries of pain or -indignation when they are hacked or burned occur very often in Chinese -books, even in Standard Histories.[53] Old peasants in some parts of -Austria still believe that forest-trees are animate, and will not allow -an incision to be made in the bark without special cause; they have -heard from their fathers that the tree feels the cut not [Sidenote: -Apologies offered to trees for cutting them down.] less than a wounded -man his hurt. In felling a tree they beg its pardon.[54] It is said that -in the Upper Palatinate also old woodmen still secretly ask a fine, -sound tree to forgive them before they cut it down.[55] So in Jarkino -the woodman craves pardon of the tree he fells.[56] Before the Ilocanes -of Luzon cut down trees in the virgin forest or on the mountains, they -recite some verses to the following effect: “Be not uneasy, my friend, -though we fell what we have been ordered to fell.” This they do in order -not to draw down on themselves the hatred of the spirits who live in the -trees, and who are apt to avenge themselves by visiting with grievous -sickness such as injure them wantonly.[57] When the Tagalogs of the -Philippines wish to pluck a flower, they ask leave of the genius -(_nono_) of the flower to do so; when they are obliged to cut down a -tree they beg pardon of the genius of the tree and excuse themselves by -saying that it was the priest who bade them fell it.[58] Among the -Tigre-speaking tribes in the north of Abyssinia people are afraid to -fell a green and fruit-bearing tree lest they incur the curse of God, -which is heard in the groaning of the tree as it sinks to the ground. -But if a man is bold enough to cut down such a tree, he will say to it, -“Thy curse abide in thee,” or he will allege that it was not he but an -elephant or a rhinoceros that knocked it down.[59] Amongst the Hos of -Togoland, in West Africa, when a man wishes to make palm-wine he hires -woodmen to fell the trees. They go into the palm-wood, set some meal on -the ground and say to the wood, “That is your food. The old man at home -sent us to cut you down. We are still children who know nothing at all. -The old man at home has sent us.” They say this because they think that -the wood is a spirit and that it is angry with them.[60] Before a Karo -Batak cuts down a tree, he will offer it betel and apologies; and if in -passing the place afterwards he should see the tree weeping or, as we -should say, exuding sap, he hastens to console it by sprinkling the -blood of a fowl on the stump.[61] The Basoga of Central Africa think -that when a tree is cut down the angry spirit which inhabits it may -cause the death of the chief and his family. To prevent this disaster -they consult a medicine-man before they fell a tree. If the man of skill -gives leave to proceed, the woodman first offers a fowl and a goat to -the tree; then as soon as he has given the first blow with the axe, he -applies his mouth to the cut and sucks some of the sap. In this way he -forms a brotherhood with the tree, just as two men become blood-brothers -by sucking each other’s blood. After that he can cut down his -tree-brother with impunity.[62] An ancient Indian ritual directs that in -preparing to fell a tree the woodman should lay a stalk of grass on the -spot where the blow is to fall, with the words, “O plant, shield it!” -and that he should say to the axe, “O axe, hurt it not!” When the tree -had fallen, he poured melted butter on the stump, saying, “Grow thou out -of this, O lord of the forest, grow with a hundred shoots! May we grow -with a thousand shoots!” Then he anointed the severed stem and wound a -rope of grass round it.[63] - -[Sidenote: Bleeding trees.] Again, when a tree or plant is cut it is -sometimes thought to bleed. Some Indians dare not cut a certain plant, -because there comes out a red juice which they take for the blood of the -plant.[64] In Samoa there was a grove of trees which no one dared hew -down. Once some strangers tried to do so, but blood flowed from the -tree, and the sacrilegious strangers fell ill and died.[65] Down to 1859 -there stood a sacred larch-tree at Nauders in the Tyrol which was -thought to bleed whenever it was cut; moreover people fancied that the -steel pierced the woodman’s body to the same depth that it pierced the -tree, and that the wound on his body would not heal until the bark -closed over the scar on the trunk. So sacred was the tree that no one -would gather fuel or cut timber near it; and to curse, scold, or quarrel -in its neighbourhood was regarded as a crying sin which would be -supernaturally punished on the spot. Angry disputants were often hushed -with the warning whisper, “Don’t, the sacred tree is here.”[66] - -[Sidenote: Trees threatened in order to make them bear fruit.] But the -spirits of vegetation are not always treated with deference and respect. -If fair words and kind treatment do not move them, stronger measures are -sometimes resorted to. The durian-tree of the East Indies, whose smooth -stem often shoots up to a height of eighty or ninety feet without -sending out a branch, bears a fruit of the most delicious flavour and -the most disgusting stench. The Malays cultivate the tree for the sake -of its fruit, and have been known to resort to a peculiar ceremony for -the purpose of stimulating its fertility. Near Jugra in Selangor there -is a small grove of durian-trees, and on a specially chosen day the -villagers used to assemble in it. Thereupon one of the local sorcerers -would take a hatchet and deliver several shrewd blows on the trunk of -the most barren of the trees, saying, “Will you now bear fruit or not? -If you do not, I shall fell you.” To this the tree replied through the -mouth of another man who had climbed a mangostin-tree hard by (the -durian-tree being unclimbable), “Yes, I will now bear fruit; I beg you -not to fell me.”[67] So in Japan to make trees bear fruit two men go -into an orchard. One of them climbs up a tree and the other stands at -the foot with an axe. The man with the axe asks the tree whether it will -yield a good crop next year and threatens to cut it down if it does not. -To this the man among the branches replies on behalf of the tree that it -will bear abundantly.[68] Odd as this mode of horticulture may seem to -us, it has its exact parallels in Europe. On Christmas Eve many a South -Slavonian and Bulgarian peasant swings an axe threateningly against a -barren fruit-tree, while another man standing by intercedes for the -menaced tree, saying, “Do not cut it down; it will soon bear fruit.” -Thrice the axe is swung, and thrice the impending blow is arrested at -the entreaty of the intercessor. After that the frightened tree will -certainly bear fruit next year.[69] So at the village of Ucria in -Sicily, if a tree obstinately refuses to bear fruit, the owner pretends -to hew it down. Just as the axe is about to fall, a friend intercedes -for the tree, begging him to have patience for one year more, and -promising not to interfere again if the culprit has not mended his ways -by then. The owner grants his request, and the Sicilians say that a tree -seldom remains deaf to such a menace. The ceremony is performed on -Easter Saturday.[70] In Armenia the same pantomime is sometimes -performed by two men for the same purpose on Good Friday.[71] In the -Abruzzi the ceremony takes place before sunrise on the morning of St. -John’s Day (Midsummer Day). The owner threatens the trees which are slow -to bear fruit. Thrice he walks round each sluggard repeating his threat -and striking the trunk with the head of an axe.[72] In Lesbos, when an -orange-tree or a lemon-tree does not bear fruit, the owner will -sometimes set a looking-glass before the tree; then standing with an axe -in his hand over against the tree and gazing at its reflection in the -glass he will feign to fall into a passion and will say aloud, “Bear -fruit, or I’ll cut you down.”[73] When cabbages merely curl their leaves -instead of forming heads as they ought to do, an Esthonian peasant will -go out into the garden before sunrise, clad only in his shirt, and armed -with a scythe, which he sweeps over the refractory vegetables as if he -meant to cut them down. This intimidates the cabbages and brings them to -a sense of their duty.[74] - -[Sidenote: Attempts to deceive the spirits of trees and plants.] If -European peasants thus know how to work on the fears of cabbages and -fruit-trees, the subtle Malay has learned how to overreach the simple -souls of the plants and trees that grow in his native land. Thus, when a -bunch of fruit hangs from an _aren_ palm-tree, and in reaching after it -you tread on some of the fallen fruit, the Galelareese say that you -ought to grunt like a wild boar in order that your feet may not itch. -The chain of reasoning seems weak to a European mind, but the natives -find no flaw in it. They have observed that wild boars are fond of the -fruit, and run freely about among it as it lies on the ground. From this -they infer that the animal’s feet are proof against the itch which men -suffer through treading on the fruit; and hence they conclude that if, -by grunting in a natural and life-like manner, you can impress the fruit -with the belief that you are a pig, it will treat your feet as tenderly -as the feet of his friends the real pigs.[75] Again, pregnant women in -Java sometimes take a fancy to eat the wild species of a particular -plant (_Colocasia antiquorum_), which, on account of its exceedingly -pungent taste, is not commonly used as food by human beings, though it -is relished by pigs. In such a case it becomes the husband’s duty to go -and look for the plant, but before he gathers it he takes care to grunt -loudly, in order that the plant may take him for a pig, and so mitigate -the pungency of its flavour.[76] Again, in the Madiun district of Java -there grows a plant of which the fruit is believed to be injurious for -men, but not for apes. The urchins who herd buffaloes, and to whom -nothing edible comes amiss, eat this fruit also; but before plucking it -they take the precaution of mimicking the voices of apes, in order to -persuade the plant that its fruit is destined for the maw of these -creatures.[77] Once more, the Javanese scrape the rind of a certain -plant (_Sarcolobus narcoticus_) into a powder, with which they poison -such dangerous beasts as tigers and wild boars. But the rind is believed -not to be a poison for men. Hence the person who gathers the plant has -to observe certain precautions in order that its baneful quality may not -be lost in passing through his hands. He approaches it naked and -creeping on all fours to make the plant think that he is a ravenous -beast and not a man, and to strengthen the illusion he bites the stalk. -After that the deadly property of the rind is assured. But even when the -plant has been gathered and the powder made from it in strict accordance -with certain superstitious rules, care is still needed in handling the -powder, which is regarded as alive and intelligent. It may not be -brought near a corpse, nor may a corpse be carried past the house in -which the powder is kept. For if either of these things were to happen, -the powder, seeing the corpse, would hastily conclude that it had -already done its work, and so all its noxious quality would be gone.[78] -The Indians of the Upper Orinoco extract a favourite beverage from -certain palm-trees which grow in their forests. In order to make the -trees bear abundance of fruit the medicine-men blow sacred trumpets -under them; but how this is supposed to produce the desired effect does -not appear. The trumpets (_botutos_) are objects of religious -veneration; no woman may look on them under pain of death. Candidates -for initiation into the mystery of the trumpets must be men of good -character and celibate. The initiated members scourge each other, fast, -and practise other austerities.[79] - -[Sidenote: Trees married to each other.] The conception of trees and -plants as animated beings naturally results in treating them as male and -female, who can be married to each other in a real, and not merely a -figurative or poetical sense of the word. The notion is not purely -fanciful, for plants like animals have their sexes and reproduce their -kind by the union of the male and female elements. But whereas in all -the higher animals the organs of the two sexes are regularly separated -between different individuals, in most plants they exist together in -every individual of the species. This rule, however, is by no means -universal, and in many species the male plant is distinct from the -female. The distinction appears to have been observed by some savages, -for we are told that the Maoris “are acquainted with the sex of trees, -etc., and have distinct names for the male and female of some -trees.”[80] The [Sidenote: Artificial fertilisation of the date-palm.] -ancients knew the difference between the male and the female date-palm, -and fertilised them artificially by shaking the pollen of the male tree -over the flowers of the female.[81] The fertilisation took place in -spring. Among the heathen of Harran the month during which the palms -were fertilised bore the name of the Date Month, and at this time they -celebrated the marriage festival of all the gods and goddesses.[82] -Different from this true and fruitful marriage of the palm are the false -and barren marriages of plants which play a part [Sidenote: Marriages of -trees in India.] in Hindoo superstition. For example, if a Hindoo has -planted a grove of mangos, neither he nor his wife may taste of the -fruit until he has formally married one of the trees, as a bridegroom, -to a tree of a different sort, commonly a tamarind-tree, which grows -near it in the grove. If there is no tamarind to act as bride, a jasmine -will serve the turn. The expenses of such a marriage are often -considerable, for the more Brahmans are feasted at it, the greater the -glory of the owner of the grove. A family has been known to sell its -golden and silver trinkets, and to borrow all the money they could in -order to marry a mango-tree to a jasmine with due pomp and ceremony.[83] -According to another account of the ceremony, a branch of a _bar_ tree -is brought and fixed near one of the mango trees in the grove to -represent the _bar_ or bridegroom, and both are wrapt round with the -same piece of cloth by the owner of the grove and his wife. To complete -the ceremony a bamboo basket containing the bride’s belongings and dowry -on a miniature scale is provided; and after the Brahman priest has done -his part, vermilion, the emblem of a completed marriage, is applied to -the mango as to a bride.[84] Another plant which figures as [Sidenote: -Marriage of the holy basil.] a bride in Hindoo rites is the _tulasi_ or -Holy Basil (_Ocymum sanctum_). It is a small shrub, not too big to be -grown in a large flower-pot, and is often placed in rooms; indeed there -is hardly a respectable Hindoo family that does not possess one. In -spite of its humble appearance, the shrub is pervaded by the essence of -Vishnu and his wife Lakshmi, and is itself worshipped daily as a deity. -The following prayer is often addressed to it: “I adore that _tulasi_ in -whose roots are all the sacred places of pilgrimage, in whose centre are -all the deities, and in whose upper branches are all the Vedas.” The -plant is especially a woman’s divinity, being regarded as an embodiment -of Vishnu’s wife Lakshmi, or of Rama’s wife Sita, or of Krishna’s wife -Rukmini. Women worship it by walking round it and praying or offering -flowers and rice to it. Now this sacred plant, as the embodiment of a -goddess, is annually married to the god Krishna in every Hindoo family. -The ceremony takes place in the month _Karttika_ or November. In Western -India they often bring an idol of the youthful Krishna in a gorgeous -palanquin, followed by a long train of attendants, to the house of a -rich man to be wedded to the basil; and the festivities are celebrated -with great pomp.[85] Again, as the wife of Vishnu, the holy basil is -married to the _Salagrama_, a black fossil ammonite which is regarded as -an embodiment of Vishnu. In North-Western India this marriage of the -plant to the fossil has to be performed before it is lawful to taste of -the fruit of a new orchard. A man holding the fossil personates the -bridegroom, and another holding the basil represents the bride. After -burning a sacrificial fire, the officiating Brahman puts the usual -questions to the couple about to be united. Bride and bridegroom walk -six times round a small spot marked out in the centre of the -orchard.[86] Further, no well is considered lucky until the _Salagrama_ -has been solemnly wedded to the holy basil, which stands for the garden -that the well is intended to water. The relations assemble; the owner of -the garden represents the bridegroom, while a kinsman of his wife -personates the bride. Gifts are given to the Brahmans, a feast is held -in the garden, and after that both garden and well may be used without -danger.[87] The same marriage of the sacred fossil to the sacred plant -is celebrated annually by the Rajah of Orchha at Ludhaura. A former -Rajah used to spend a sum equal to about thirty thousand pounds, being -one-fourth of his revenue, upon the ceremony. On one occasion over a -hundred thousand people are said to have been present at the rite, and -to have been feasted at the expense of the Rajah. The procession -consisted of eight elephants, twelve hundred camels, and four thousand -horses, all mounted and elegantly caparisoned. The most sumptuously -decorated of the elephants carried the fossil god to pay his bridal -visit to the little shrub goddess. On such an occasion all the rites of -a regular marriage are performed, and afterwards the newly-wedded couple -are left to repose together in the temple till the next year.[88] On -Christmas Eve German peasants used to tie fruit-trees together with -straw ropes to make them bear fruit, saying that the trees were thus -married.[89] - -[Sidenote: Trees in blossom and rice in bloom treated like pregnant -women.] In the Moluccas, when the clove-trees are in blossom, they are -treated like pregnant women. No noise may be made near them; no light or -fire may be carried past them at night; no one may approach them with -his hat on, all must uncover in their presence. These precautions are -observed lest the tree should be alarmed and bear no fruit, or should -drop its fruit too soon, like the untimely delivery of a woman who has -been frightened in her pregnancy.[90] So in the East the growing -rice-crop is often treated with the same considerate regard as a -breeding woman. Thus in Amboyna, when the rice is in bloom, the people -say that it is pregnant and fire no guns and make no other noises near -the field, for fear lest, if the rice were thus disturbed, it would -miscarry, and the crop would be all straw and no grain.[91] The Javanese -also regard the bloom on the rice as a sign that the plant is pregnant; -and they treat it accordingly, by mingling in the water that irrigates -the fields a certain astringent food prepared from sour fruit, which is -believed to be wholesome for women with child.[92] In some districts of -Western Borneo there must be no talk of corpses or demons in the fields, -else the spirit of the growing rice would be frightened and flee away to -Java.[93] The Toboongkoos of Central Celebes will not fire a gun in a -ricefield, lest the rice should be frightened away.[94] The Chams of -Binh-Thuan, in Cochin-China, do not dare to touch the rice in the -granary at mid-day, because the rice is then asleep, and it would be -both rude and dangerous to disturb its noonday slumber.[95] In Orissa -growing rice is “considered as a pregnant woman, and the same ceremonies -are observed with regard to it as in the case of human females.”[96] In -Poso, a district of Central Celebes, when the rice-ears are beginning to -form, women go through the field feeding the young ears with soft-boiled -rice to make them grow fast. They carry the food in calabashes, and -grasping the ears in their hands bend them over into the vessels that -they may partake of the strengthening pap. The reason for boiling the -rice soft is that the ears are regarded as young children who could not -digest rice cooked in the usual way.[97] The Tomori of Central Celebes -feed the ripening rice by touching it with the contents of a broken -egg.[98] When the grain begins to form, the people of Gayo, a district -of northern Sumatra, regard the rice as pregnant and feed it with a pap -composed of rice-meal, coco-nut, and treacle, which they deposit on -leaves in the middle and at the corners of the field. And when the crop -is plentiful and the rice has been threshed, they give it water to drink -in a pitcher, which they bury to the neck in the heap of grain.[99] - -[Sidenote: Trees supposed to be tenanted by the souls of the dead.] -Sometimes it is the souls of the dead which are believed to animate -trees. The Dieri tribe of South Australia regard as very sacred certain -trees which are supposed to be their fathers transformed; hence they -speak with reverence of these trees, and are careful that they shall not -be cut down or burned. If the settlers require them to hew down the -trees, they earnestly protest against it, asserting that were they to do -so they would have no luck, and might be punished for not protecting -their ancestors.[100] Some of the Philippine Islanders believe that the -souls of their ancestors are in certain trees, which they therefore -spare. If they are obliged to fell one of these trees, they excuse -themselves to it by saying that it was the priest who made them do it. -The spirits take up their abode, by preference, in tall and stately -trees with great spreading branches. When the wind rustles the leaves, -the natives fancy it is the voice of the spirit; and they never pass -near one of these trees without bowing respectfully, and asking pardon -of the spirit for disturbing his repose. Among the Ignorrotes, in the -district of Lepanto, every village has its sacred tree, in which the -souls of the dead forefathers of the hamlet reside. Offerings are made -to the tree, and any injury done to it is believed to entail some -misfortune on the village. Were the tree cut down, the village and all -its inhabitants would inevitably perish.[101] The natives of Bontoc, a -province in the north of Luzon, cut down the woods near their villages, -but leave a few fine trees standing as the abode of the spirits of their -ancestors (_anitos_); and they honour the spirits by depositing food -under the trees.[102] The Dyaks believe that when a man dies by -accident, as by drowning, it is a sign that the gods mean to exclude him -from the realms of bliss. Accordingly his body is not buried, but -carried into the forest and there laid down. The souls of such -unfortunates pass into trees or animals or fish, and are much dreaded by -the Dyaks, who abstain from using certain kinds of wood, or eating -certain sorts of fish, because they are supposed to contain the souls of -the dead.[103] Once, while walking with a Dyak through the jungle, Sir -Hugh Low observed that his companion, after raising his sword to strike -a great snake, suddenly arrested his arm and suffered the reptile to -escape. On asking the reason, he was told by the Dyak that the bush in -front of which they were standing had been a man, a kinsman of his own, -who, dying some ten years before, had appeared in a dream to his widow -and told her that he had become that particular bamboo-tree. Hence the -ground and everything on it was sacred, and the serpent might not be -interfered with. The Dyak further related that in spite of the warning -given to the woman in the vision, a man had been hardy enough to cut a -branch of the tree, but that the fool had paid for his temerity with his -life, for he died soon afterwards. A little bamboo altar stood in front -of the bush, on which the remnants of offerings presented to the spirit -of the tree were still visible when Sir Hugh Low passed that way.[104] - -In Corea the souls of people who die of the plague or by the roadside, -and of women who expire in childbed, invariably take up their abode in -trees. To such spirits offerings of cake, wine, and pork are made on -heaps of stones piled under the trees.[105] In China it has been -customary from time immemorial to plant trees on graves in order thereby -to strengthen the soul of the deceased and thus to save his body from -corruption; and as the evergreen cypress and pine are deemed to be -fuller of vitality than other trees, they have been chosen by preference -for this purpose. Hence the trees that grow on graves are sometimes -identified with the souls of the departed.[106] Among the Miao-Kia, an -aboriginal race of Southern and Western China, a sacred tree stands at -the entrance of every village, and the inhabitants believe that it is -tenanted by the soul of their first ancestor and that it rules their -destiny. Sometimes there is a sacred grove near a village, where the -trees are suffered to rot and die on the spot. Their fallen branches -cumber the ground, and no one may remove them unless he has first asked -leave of the spirit of the tree and offered him a sacrifice.[107] Among -the Maraves of Southern Africa the burial-ground is always regarded as a -holy place where neither a tree may be felled nor a beast killed, -because everything there is supposed to be tenanted by the souls of the -dead.[108] Trees supposed to be inhabited by spirits of the dead are -reported to be common in Southern Nigeria.[109] Thus in the Indem tribe -on the Cross River every village has a big tree into which the souls of -the villagers are believed to pass at death. Hence they will not allow -these trees to be cut, and they sacrifice to them when people are -ill.[110] Other natives of the Cross River say that the big tree of the -village is “their Life,” and that anybody who breaks a bough of it will -fall sick or die unless he pays a fine to the chief.[111] Some of the -mountaineers on the north-west coast of New Guinea think that the -spirits of their ancestors live on the branches of trees, on which -accordingly they hang rags of red or white cotton, always in the number -of seven or a multiple of seven; also, they place food on the trees or -hang it in baskets from the boughs.[112] Among the Buryats of Siberia -the bones of a deceased shaman are deposited in a hole hewn in the trunk -of a great fir, which is then carefully closed up. Thenceforth the tree -goes by the name of the shaman’s fir, and is looked upon as his abode. -Whoever cuts down such a tree will perish with all his household. Every -tribe has its sacred grove of firs in which the bones of the dead -shamans are buried. In treeless regions these firs often form isolated -clumps on the hills, and are visible from afar.[113] The Lkungen Indians -of British Columbia fancy that trees are transformed men, and that the -creaking of the branches in the wind is their voice.[114] In Croatia, -they say that witches used to be buried under old trees in the forest, -and that their souls passed into the trees and left the villagers in -peace.[115] A tree that grows on a grave is regarded by the South -Slavonian peasant as a sort of fetish. Whoever breaks a twig from it -hurts the soul of the dead, but gains thereby a magic wand, since the -soul embodied in the twig will be at his service.[116] This reminds us -of the story of Polydorus in Virgil,[117] and of the bleeding -pomegranate that grew on the grave of the fratricides Eteocles and -Polynices at Thebes[118]. Similar stories are told far away from the -classic lands of Italy and Greece. In an Annamite tale an old fisherman -makes an incision in the trunk of a tree which has drifted ashore; but -blood flows from the cut, and it appears that an empress with her three -daughters, who had been cast into the sea, are embodied in the -tree.[119] On the Slave Coast of West Africa the negroes tell how from -the mouldering bones of a little boy, who had been murdered by his -brother in the forest, there sprang up an edible fungus, which spoke and -revealed the crime to the child’s mother when she attempted to pluck -it.[120] - -[Sidenote: Trees sometimes conceived not as the body but merely as the -abode of spirits.] In most, if not all, of these cases the spirit is -viewed as incorporate in the tree; it animates the tree and must suffer -and die with it. But, according to another and probably later opinion, -the tree is not the body, but merely the abode of the tree-spirit, which -can quit it and return to it at pleasure. The inhabitants of Siaoo, an -island of the Sangi group in the East Indies, believe in certain sylvan -spirits who dwell in forests or in great solitary trees. At full moon -the spirit comes forth from his lurking-place and roams about. He has a -big head, very long arms and legs, and a ponderous body. In order to -propitiate the wood-spirits people bring offerings of food, fowls, -goats, and so forth to the places which they are supposed to haunt.[121] -The people of Nias think that, when a tree dies, its liberated spirit -becomes a demon, which can kill a coco-nut palm by merely lighting on -its branches, and can cause the death of all the children in a house by -perching on one of the posts that support it. Further, they are of -opinion that certain trees are at all times inhabited by roving demons -who, if the trees were damaged, would be set free to go about on errands -of mischief. Hence the people respect these trees, and are careful not -to cut them down.[122] On the Tanga coast of East Africa mischievous -sprites reside in great trees, especially in the fantastically shaped -baobabs. Sometimes they appear in the shape of ugly black beings, but as -a rule they enter unseen into people’s bodies, from which, after causing -much sickness and misery, they have to be cast out by the sorcerer.[123] -The Warramunga tribe of Central Australia believe that certain trees are -the abode of disembodied human spirits waiting to be born again. No -woman will strike one of these trees with an axe, lest the blow might -disturb one of the spirits, who might come forth from the tree and enter -her body.[124] In the Galla region of East Africa, where the vegetation -is magnificent, there are many sacred trees, the haunts of jinn. Most of -them belong to the sycamore and maple family, but they do not all exhale -an equal odour of sanctity. The _watêsa_, with its edible fruit, is -least revered; people climb it to get the fruit, and this disturbs the -jinn, who naturally do not care to linger among its boughs. The _gute -tubi_, which has no edible fruit, is more sacred. Every Galla tribe has -its sacred tree, which is always one individual of a particular species -called _lafto_. When a tree has been consecrated by a priest it becomes -holy, and no branch of it may be broken. Such trees are loaded with long -threads, woollen bands, and bracelets; the blood of animals is poured on -their roots and sometimes smeared on their trunks, and pots full of -butter, milk, and flesh are placed among the branches or on the ground -under them. In many Galla tribes women may not tread on the shadow of -sacred trees or even approach the trees.[125] - -[Sidenote: Ceremonies at felling trees.] Not a few ceremonies observed -at cutting down haunted trees are based on the belief that the spirits -have it in their power to quit the trees at pleasure or in case of need. -Thus when the Pelew Islanders are felling a tree, they conjure the -spirit of the tree to leave it and settle on another.[126] The wily -negro of the Slave Coast, who wishes to fell an _ashorin_ tree, but -knows that he cannot do it so long as the spirit remains in the tree, -places a little palm-oil on the ground as a bait, and then, when the -unsuspecting spirit has quitted the tree to partake of this dainty, -hastens to cut down its late abode.[127] The Alfoors of Poso, in Central -Celebes, believe that great trees are inhabited by demons in human form, -and the taller the tree the more powerful the demon. Accordingly they -are careful not to fell such trees, and they leave offerings at the foot -of them for the spirits. But sometimes, when they are clearing land for -cultivation, it becomes necessary to cut down the trees which cumber it. -In that case the Alfoor will call to the demon of the tree and beseech -him to leave his abode and go elsewhere, and he deposits food under the -tree as provision for the spirit on his journey. Then, and not till -then, he may fell the tree. Woe to the luckless wight who should turn a -tree-spirit out of his house without giving him due notice![128] When -the Toboongkoos of Central Celebes are about to clear a piece of forest -in order to plant rice, they build a tiny house and furnish it with tiny -clothes and some food and gold. Then they call together all the spirits -of the wood, offer them the little house with its contents, and beseech -them to quit the spot. After that they may safely cut down the wood -without fearing to wound themselves in so doing.[129] Before the Tomori -of Central Celebes fell a tall tree they lay a quid of betel at its -foot, and invite the spirit who dwells in the tree to change his -lodging; moreover, they set a little ladder against the trunk to enable -him to descend with safety and comfort.[130] The Sundanese of the -Eastern Archipelago drive golden or silver nails into the trunk of a -sacred tree for the sake of expelling the tree-spirit before they hew -down his abode.[131] They seem to think that, though the nails will hurt -him, his vanity will be soothed by the reflection that they are of gold -or silver. In Rotti, an island to the south of Timor, when they fell a -tree to make a coffin, they sacrifice a dog as compensation to the -tree-spirit whose property they are thus making free with.[132] Before -the Gayos of Northern Sumatra clear a piece of forest for the purpose of -planting tobacco or sugar-cane, they offer a quid of betel to the spirit -whom they call the Lord of the Wood, and beg his leave to quarter -themselves on his domain.[133] The Mandelings of Sumatra endeavour to -lay the blame of all such misdeeds at the door of the Dutch authorities. -Thus when a man is cutting a road through a forest and has to fell a -tall tree which blocks the way, he will not begin to ply his axe until -he has said: “Spirit who lodgest in this tree, take it not ill that I -cut down thy dwelling, for it is done at no wish of mine but by order of -the Controller.” And when he wishes to clear a piece of forest-land for -cultivation, it is necessary that he should come to a satisfactory -understanding with the woodland spirits who live there before he lays -low their leafy dwellings. For this purpose he goes to the middle of the -plot of ground, stoops down, and pretends to pick up a letter. Then -unfolding a bit of paper he reads aloud an imaginary letter from the -Dutch Government, in which he is strictly enjoined to set about clearing -the land without delay. Having done so, he says: “You hear that, -spirits. I must begin clearing at once, or I shall be hanged.”[134] When -the Tagales of the Philippines are about to fell a tree which they -believe to be inhabited by a spirit, they excuse themselves to the -spirit, saying: “The priest has ordered us to do it; the fault is not -ours, nor the will either.”[135] There is a certain tree called _rara_ -which the Dyaks believe to be inhabited by a spirit. Before they cut -down one of these trees they strike an axe into the trunk, leave it -there, and call upon the spirit either to quit his dwelling or to give -them a sign that he does not wish it to be meddled with. Then they go -home. Next day they visit the tree, and if they find the axe still -sticking in the trunk, they can fell the tree without danger; there is -no spirit in it, or he would certainly have ejected the axe from his -abode. But if they find the axe lying on the ground, they know that the -tree is inhabited and they will not fell it; for it must surely have -been the spirit of the tree in person who expelled the intrusive axe. -Some sceptical Europeans, however, argue that what casts out the axe is -strychnine in the sap rather than the tree-spirit. They say that if the -sap is running, the axe must necessarily be forced out by the action of -heat and the expansion of the exuding gutta; whereas if the axe remains -in the trunk, this only shews that the tree is not vigorous but ready to -die.[136] - -Before they cut down a great tree, the Indians in the neighbourhood of -Santiago Tepehuacan hold a festival in order to appease the tree and so -prevent it from hurting anybody in its fall.[137] In the Greek island of -Siphnos, if woodmen have to fell a tree which they regard as possessed -by a spirit, they are most careful, when it falls, to prostrate -themselves humbly and in silence lest the spirit should chastise them as -it escapes. Sometimes they put a stone on the stump of the tree to -prevent the egress of the spirit.[138] In some parts of Sumatra, so soon -as a tree is felled, a young tree is planted on the stump, and some -betel and a few small coins are also placed on it.[139] The purpose of -the ceremony seems plain. The spirit of the tree is offered a new home -in the young tree planted on the stump of the old one, and the offering -of betel and money is meant to compensate him for the disturbance he has -suffered. Similarly, when the Maghs of Bengal were obliged by Europeans -to cut down trees which the natives believed to be tenanted by spirits, -one of them was always ready with a green sprig, which he ran and placed -in the middle of the stump when the tree fell, “as a propitiation to the -spirit which had been displaced so roughly, pleading at the same time -the orders of the strangers for the work.”[140] In Halmahera, however, -the motive for placing a sprig on the stump is said to be to deceive the -spirit into thinking that the fallen stem is still growing in its old -place.[141] The Gilyaks insert a stick with curled shavings on the stump -of the tree which they have felled, believing that in this way they give -back to the dispossessed tree-spirit his life and soul.[142] German -woodmen make a cross upon the stump while the tree is falling, in the -belief that this enables the spirit of the tree to live upon the -stump.[143] Before the Katodis fell a forest tree, they choose a tree of -the same kind and worship it by presenting a coco-nut, burning incense, -applying a red pigment, and begging it to bless the undertaking.[144] -The intention, perhaps, is to induce the spirit of the former tree to -shift its quarters to the latter. In clearing a wood, a Galelareese must -not cut down the last tree till the spirit in it has been induced to go -away.[145] When the Dyaks fell the jungle on the hills, they often leave -a few trees standing on the hill-tops as a refuge for the dispossessed -tree-spirits.[146] Sailing up the Baram river in Sarawak you pass from -time to time a clearing in the forest where manioc is cultivated. In the -middle of every one of these clearings a solitary tree is always left -standing as a home for the ejected spirits of the wood. Its boughs are -stripped off, all but the topmost, and just under its leafy crown two -cross-pieces are fastened from which rags dangle.[147] Similarly in -India, the Gonds allow a grove of typical trees to remain as a home or -reserve for the woodland spirits when they are clearing away a -jungle.[148] The Mundaris have sacred groves which were left standing -when the land was cleared, lest the sylvan gods, disquieted at the -felling of the trees, should abandon the place.[149] The Miris in Assam -are unwilling to break up new land for cultivation so long as there is -fallow land available; for they fear to offend the spirits of the woods -by hewing down trees needlessly.[150] On the other hand, when a child -has been lost, the Padams of Assam think that it has been stolen by the -spirits of the wood; so they retaliate on the spirits by felling trees -till they find the child. The spirits, fearing to be left without a tree -in which to lodge, give up the child, and it is found in the fork of a -tree.[151] - -[Sidenote: Propitiating tree-spirits in house-timber.] Even when a tree -has been felled, sawn into planks, and used to build a house, it is -possible that the woodland spirit may still be lurking in the timber, -and accordingly some people seek to propitiate him before or after they -occupy the new house. Hence, when a new dwelling is ready the Toradjas -of Central Celebes kill a goat, a pig, or a buffalo, and smear all the -woodwork with its blood. If the building is a _lobo_ or spirit-house, a -fowl or a dog is killed on the ridge of the roof, and its blood allowed -to flow down on both sides. The ruder Tonapoo in such a case sacrifice a -human being on the roof. This sacrifice on the roof of a _lobo_ or -temple serves the same purpose as the smearing of blood on the woodwork -of an ordinary house. The intention is to propitiate the forest-spirits -who may still be in the timber; they are thus put in good humour and -will do the inmates of the house no harm. For a like reason people in -Celebes and the Moluccas are much afraid of planting a post upside down -at the building of a house; for the forest-spirit, who might still be in -the timber, would very naturally resent the indignity and visit the -inmates with sickness.[152] The Bahaus or Kayans of central Borneo are -of opinion that tree-spirits stand very stiffly on the point of honour -and visit men with their displeasure for any injury done to them. Hence -after building a house, whereby they have been forced to illtreat many -trees, these people observe a period of penance for a year, during which -they must abstain from many things, such as the killing of bears, -tiger-cats, and serpents. The period of taboo is brought to an end by a -ceremony at which head-hunting, or the pretence of it, plays a part. The -Ooloo-Ayar Dyaks on the Mandai river are still more punctilious in their -observance of taboos after building a house. The length of the penance -depends chiefly on the kind of timber used in the construction of the -dwelling. If the timber was the valuable ironwood, the inmates of the -house must deny themselves various dainties for three years. But the -spirits of humbler trees are less exacting.[153] When the Kayans have -felled an ironwood tree in order to cut it up into planks for a roof, -they will offer a pig to the spirits of the tree, hoping thus to prevent -the spirits from molesting the souls of persons assembled under the -roof.[154] - -[Sidenote: Sacred trees the abode of spirits.] Thus the tree is -regarded, sometimes as the body, sometimes as merely the house of the -tree-spirit; and when we read of sacred trees which may not be cut down -because they are the seat of spirits, it is not always possible to say -with certainty in which way the presence of the spirit in the tree is -conceived. In the following cases, perhaps, the trees are regarded as -the dwelling-place of the spirits rather than as their bodies. The Sea -Dyaks point to many a tree as sacred because it is the abode of a spirit -or spirits, and to cut one of these down would provoke the spirit’s -anger, who might avenge himself by visiting the sacrilegious woodman -with sickness.[155] The Battas of Sumatra have been known to refuse to -cut down certain trees because they were the abode of mighty spirits who -would resent the injury.[156] One of the largest and stateliest of the -forest trees in Perak is known as _toallong_; it has a very poisonous -sap which produces great irritation when it comes into contact with the -skin. Many trees of this species have large hollow knobs on their trunks -where branches have been broken off. These knobs are looked upon by the -Malays as houses of spirits, and they object strongly to cut down trees -that are thus disfigured, believing that the man who fells one of them -will die within the year. When clearings are made in the forest these -trees are generally left standing to the annoyance and expense of -planters.[157] The Siamese fear to cut down any very fine trees lest -they should incur the anger of the powerful spirits who inhabit -them.[158] The En, a tribe of Upper Burma, worship the spirits of hills -and forests, and over great tracts of country they will not lay out -fields for fear of offending the spirits. They say that if a tree is -felled a man dies.[159] In every Khond village a large grove, generally -of _sâl_ trees (_Shorea robusta_), is dedicated to the forest god, whose -favour is sought by the sacrifice of birds, hogs, and sheep, together -with an offering of rice and an addled egg. This sacred grove is -religiously preserved. The young trees are occasionally pruned, but not -a twig may be cut for use without the formal consent of the village and -the ceremonial propitiation of the god.[160] In some parts of Berar the -holy groves are so carefully preserved, that during the annual festivals -held in them it is customary to gather and burn solemnly all dead and -fallen branches and trees.[161] The Larka Kols of India believe that the -tops of trees are the abode of spirits who are disturbed by the felling -of the trees and will take vengeance.[162] The Parahiya, a Dravidian -tribe of Mirzapur, think that evil spirits live in the _sâl_, _pîpal_, -and _mahua_ trees; they make offerings to such trees and will not climb -into their branches.[163] In Travancore demons are supposed to reside in -certain large old trees, which it would be sacrilegious and dangerous to -hew down. A rough stone is generally placed at the foot of one of these -trees as an image or emblem, and turmeric powder is rubbed on it.[164] -Some of the Western tribes of British New Guinea dread certain female -devils who inhabit large trees and are very dangerous. Trees supposed to -be the abode of these demons are treated with much respect and never cut -down.[165] Near Old Calabar there is a ravine full of the densest and -richest vegetation, whence a stream of limpid water flows purling to the -river. The spot was considered by a late king to be hallowed ground, the -residence of Anansa, the tutelary god of Old Calabar. The people had -strict orders to revere the grove, and no branch of it might be -cut.[166] Among the Bambaras of the Upper Niger every village has its -sacred tree, generally a tamarind, which is supposed to be the abode of -the fetish and is carefully preserved. The fetish is consulted on every -important occasion, and sacrifices of sheep, dogs, and fowls, -accompanied with offerings of millet and fruits, are made under the -sacred tree.[167] In the deserts of Arabia a modern traveller found a -great solitary acacia-tree which the Bedouins believed to be possessed -by a jinnee. Shreds of cotton and horns of goats hung among the boughs -and nails were knocked into the trunk. An Arab strongly dissuaded the -traveller from cutting a branch of the tree, assuring him that it was -death to do so.[168] The Yourouks, who inhabit the southern coasts of -Asia Minor and the heights of Mount Taurus, have sacred trees which they -never cut down from fear of driving away the spirits that own them.[169] -The old Prussians believed that gods inhabited tall trees, such as oaks, -from which they gave audible answers to enquirers; hence these trees -were not felled, but worshipped as the homes of divinities. Amongst the -trees thus venerated by them was the elder-tree.[170] The Samagitians -thought that if any one ventured to injure certain groves, or the birds -or beasts in them, the spirits would make his hands or feet -crooked.[171] Down to the nineteenth century the Esthonians stood in -such awe of many trees, which they considered as the seat of mighty -spirits, that they would not even pluck a flower or a berry on the -ground where the shadow of the trees fell, much less would they dare to -break a branch from the tree itself.[172] - -[Sidenote: Sacred groves.] Even where no mention is made of -wood-spirits, we may generally assume that when trees or groves are -sacred and inviolable, it is because they are believed to be either -inhabited or animated by sylvan deities. In Central India the _bar_ tree -(_Ficus Indica_) and the _pipal_ (_Ficus religiosa_) are sacred, and -every child learns the saying that “it is better to die a leper than -pluck a leaf of a _pipal_, and he who can wound a _bar_ will kick his -little sister.”[173] In Livonia there is a sacred grove in which, if any -man fells a tree or breaks a branch, he will die within the year.[174] -The Wotyaks have sacred groves. A Russian who ventured to hew a tree in -one of them fell sick and died next day.[175] The heathen Cheremiss of -South-Eastern Russia have sacred groves, and woe to him who dares to -fell one of the holy trees. If the author of the sacrilege is unknown, -they take a cock or a goose, torture it to death and then throw it on -the fire, while they pray to the gods to punish the sinner and cause him -to perish like the bird.[176] Near a chapel of St. Ninian, in the parish -of Belly, there stood more than a century and a half ago a row of trees, -“all of equal size, thick planted for about the length of a butt,” which -were “looked upon by the superstitious papists as sacred trees, from -which they reckon it sacrilege to take so much as a branch or any of the -fruit.”[177] So in the island of Skye some two hundred and fifty years -ago there was a holy lake, “surrounded by a fair wood, which none -presumes to cut”; and those who ventured to infringe its sanctity by -breaking even a twig either sickened on the spot or were visited -afterwards by “some signal inconvenience.”[178] Sacrifices offered at -cutting down trees are doubtless meant to appease the wood-spirits. In -Gilgit it is usual to sprinkle goat’s blood on a tree of any kind before -felling it.[179] The Akikuyu of British East Africa hold the _mugumu_ or -_mugomo_ tree, a species of fig, sacred on account of its size and fine -appearance; hence they do not ruthlessly cut it down like all other -trees which cumber a patch of ground that is to be cleared for tillage. -Groves of this tree are sacred. In them no axe may be laid to any tree, -no branch broken, no firewood gathered, no grass burnt; and wild animals -which have taken refuge there may not be molested. In these sacred -groves sheep and goats are sacrificed and prayers are offered for rain -or fine weather or in behalf of sick children. The whole meat of the -sacrifices is left in the grove for God (_Ngai_) to eat; the fat is -placed in a cleft of the trunk or in the branches as a tit-bit for him. -He lives up in the boughs but comes down to partake of the food.[180] - - - § 2. Beneficent Powers of Tree-Spirits - - -[Sidenote: Transition of tree-spirit into anthropomorphic deity of the -woods.] When a tree comes to be viewed, no longer as the body of the -tree-spirit, but simply as its abode which it can quit at pleasure, an -important advance has been made in religious thought. Animism is passing -into polytheism. In other words, instead of regarding each tree as a -living and conscious being, man now sees in it merely a lifeless, inert -mass, tenanted for a longer or shorter time by a supernatural being who, -as he can pass freely from tree to tree, thereby enjoys a certain right -of possession or lordship over the trees, and, ceasing to be a -tree-soul, becomes a forest god. As soon as the tree-spirit is thus in a -measure disengaged from each particular tree, he begins to change his -shape and assume the body of a man, in virtue of a general tendency of -early thought to clothe all abstract spiritual beings in concrete human -form. Hence in classical art the sylvan deities are depicted in human -shape, their woodland character being denoted by a branch or some -equally obvious symbol.[181] But this change of shape does not affect -the essential character of the tree-spirit. The powers which he -exercised as a tree-soul incorporate in a tree, he still continues to -wield as a god of trees. This I shall now attempt to prove in detail. I -shall shew, first, that trees considered as animate beings are credited -with the power of making the rain to fall, the sun to shine, flocks and -herds to multiply, and women to bring forth easily; and, second, that -the very same powers are attributed to tree-gods conceived as -anthropomorphic beings or as actually incarnate in living men. - -[Sidenote: Trees supposed to give rain and sunshine.] First, then, trees -or tree-spirits are believed to give rain and sunshine. When the -missionary Jerome of Prague was persuading the heathen Lithuanians to -fell their sacred groves, a multitude of women besought the Prince of -Lithuania to stop him, saying that with the woods he was destroying the -house of god from which they had been wont to get rain and -sunshine.[182] The Mundaris in Assam think that if a tree in the sacred -grove is felled the sylvan gods evince their displeasure by withholding -rain.[183] In order to procure rain the inhabitants of Monyo, a village -in the Sagaing district of Upper Burma, chose the largest tamarind-tree -near the village and named it the haunt of the spirit (_nat_) who -controls the rain. Then they offered bread, coco-nuts, plantains, and -fowls to the guardian spirit of the village and to the spirit who gives -rain, and they prayed, “O Lord _nat_ have pity on us poor mortals, and -stay not the rain. Inasmuch as our offering is given ungrudgingly, let -the rain fall day and night.” Afterwards libations were made in honour -of the spirit of the tamarind-tree; and still later three elderly women, -dressed in fine clothes and wearing necklaces and earrings, sang the -Rain Song.[184] In Cambodia each village or province has its sacred -tree, the abode of a spirit. If the rains are late the people sacrifice -to the tree.[185] In time of drought the elders of the Wakamba in East -Africa assemble and take a calabash of cider and a goat to a -baobab-tree, where they kill the goat but do not eat it.[186] When -Ovambo women go out to sow corn they take with them in the basket of -seed two green branches of a particular kind of tree (_Peltophorum -africanum Sond._), one of which they plant in the field along with the -first seed sown. The branch is believed to have the power of attracting -rain; hence in one of the native dialects the tree goes by the name of -the “rain-bush.”[187] To extort rain from the tree-spirit a branch is -sometimes dipped in water, as we have seen above.[188] In such cases the -spirit is doubtless supposed to be immanent in the branch, and the water -thus applied to the spirit produces rain by a sort of sympathetic magic, -exactly as we saw that in New Caledonia the rain-makers pour water on a -skeleton, believing that the soul of the deceased will convert the water -into rain.[189] There is hardly room to doubt that Mannhardt is right in -explaining as a rain-charm the European custom of drenching with water -the trees which are cut at certain popular festivals, as midsummer, -Whitsuntide, and harvest.[190] - -[Sidenote: Tree-spirits supposed to make the crops grow.] Again, -tree-spirits make the crops to grow. Amongst the Mundaris every village -has its sacred grove, and “the grove deities are held responsible for -the crops, and are especially honoured at all the great agricultural -festivals.”[191] The negroes of the Gold Coast are in the habit of -sacrificing at the foot of certain tall trees, and they think that if -one of these were felled all the fruits of the earth would perish.[192] -Before harvest the Wabondëi of East Africa sacrifice a goat to the -spirit that lives in baobab-trees; the blood is poured into a hole at -the foot of one of the trees. If the sacrifice were omitted the spirit -would send disease and death among the people.[193] The Gallas dance in -couples round sacred trees, praying for a good harvest. Every couple -consists of a man and woman, who are linked together by a stick, of -which each holds one end. Under their arms they carry green corn or -grass.[194] Swedish peasants stick a leafy branch in each furrow of -their corn-fields, believing that this will [Sidenote: The Harvest-May.] -ensure an abundant crop.[195] The same idea comes out in the German and -French custom of the Harvest-May. This is a large branch or a whole -tree, which is decked with ears of corn, brought home on the last waggon -from the harvest-field, and fastened on the roof of the farmhouse or of -the barn, where it remains for a year. Mannhardt has proved that this -branch or tree embodies the tree-spirit conceived as the spirit of -vegetation in general, whose vivifying and fructifying influence is thus -brought to bear upon the corn in particular. Hence in Swabia the -Harvest-May is fastened amongst the last stalks of corn left standing on -the field; in other places it is planted on the corn-field and the last -sheaf cut is attached to its trunk.[196] The Harvest-May of Germany has -its counterpart in the _eiresione_ of ancient Greece.[197] The -_eiresione_ was a branch of olive or laurel, bound about with ribbons -and hung with a variety of fruits. This branch was carried in procession -at a harvest festival and was fastened over the door of the house, where -it remained for a year. The object of preserving the Harvest-May or the -_eiresione_ for a year is that the life-giving virtue of the bough may -foster the growth of the crops throughout the year. By the end of the -year the virtue of the bough is supposed to be exhausted and it is -replaced by a new one. Following a similar train of thought some of the -Dyaks of Sarawak are careful at the rice harvest to take up the roots of -a certain bulbous plant, which bears a beautiful crown of white and -fragrant flowers. These roots are preserved with the rice in the granary -and are planted again with the seed-rice in the following season; for -the Dyaks say that the rice will not grow unless a plant of this sort be -in the field.[198] - -[Sidenote: Customs like the Harvest-May in India and Africa.] Customs -like that of the Harvest-May appear to exist in India and Africa. At a -harvest festival of the Lhoosai of South-Eastern India the chief goes -with his people into the forest and fells a large tree, which is then -carried into the village and set up in the midst. Sacrifice is offered, -and spirits and rice are poured over the tree. The ceremony closes with -a feast and a dance, at which the unmarried men and girls are the only -performers.[199] Among the Bechuanas the hack-thorn is very sacred, and -it would be a serious offence to cut a bough from it and carry it into -the village during the rainy season. But when the corn is ripe in the -ear the people go with axes, and each man brings home a branch of the -sacred hack-thorn, with which they repair the village cattle-yard.[200] -According to another authority, it is a rule with the Bechuanas that -“neither the hook-thorn nor the milk-tree must be cut down while the -corn is on the ground, for this, they think, would prevent rain. When I -was at Lattakoo, though Mr. Hamilton stood in much need of some -milk-tree timber, he durst not supply himself till all the corn was -gathered in.”[201] Many tribes of South-Eastern Africa will not cut down -timber while the corn is green, fearing that if they did so, the crops -would be destroyed by blight, hail, or early frost.[202] The heathen -Cheremiss, in the Russian Government of Kasan, will not fell trees, mow -grass, or dig the ground while the corn is in bloom.[203] Again, the -fructifying power of the tree is put forth at seed-time as well as at -harvest. Among the Aryan tribes of Gilgit, on the north-western frontier -of India, the sacred tree is the _Chili_, a species of cedar (_Juniperus -excelsa_). At the beginning of wheat-sowing the people receive from the -rajah’s granary a quantity of wheat, which is placed in a skin mixed -with sprigs of the sacred cedar. A large bonfire of the cedar wood is -lighted, and the wheat which is to be sown is held over the smoke. The -rest is ground and made into a large cake, which is baked on the same -fire and given to the ploughman.[204] Here the intention of fertilising -the seed by means of the sacred cedar is unmistakable. - -[Sidenote: Fertilising virtue attributed to trees.] In all these cases -the power of fostering the growth of crops, and, in general, of -cultivated plants, is ascribed to trees. The ascription is not -unnatural. For the tree is the largest and most powerful member of the -vegetable kingdom, and man is familiar with it before he takes to -cultivating corn. Hence he naturally places the feebler and, to him, -newer plant under the dominion of the older and more powerful. - -[Sidenote: Tree-spirits make herds to multiply and women to bring -forth.] Again, the tree-spirit makes the herds to multiply and blesses -women with offspring. The sacred _Chili_ or cedar of Gilgit was supposed -to possess this virtue in addition to that of fertilising the corn. At -the commencement of wheat-sowing three chosen unmarried youths, after -undergoing daily washing and purification for three days, used to start -for the mountain where the cedars grew, taking with them wine, oil, -bread, and fruit of every kind. Having found a suitable tree they -sprinkled the wine and oil on it, while they ate the bread and fruit as -a sacrificial feast. Then they cut off the branch and brought it to the -village, where, amid general rejoicing, it was placed on a large stone -beside running water. “A goat was then sacrificed, its blood poured over -the cedar branch, and a wild dance took place, in which weapons were -brandished about, and the head of the slaughtered goat was borne aloft, -after which it was set up as a mark for arrows and bullet-practice. -Every good shot was rewarded with a gourd full of wine and some of the -flesh of the goat. When the flesh was finished the bones were thrown -into the stream and a general ablution took place, after which every man -went to his house taking with him a spray of the cedar. On arrival at -his house he found the door shut in his face, and on his knocking for -admission, his wife asked, ‘What have you brought?’ To which he -answered, ‘If you want children, I have brought them to you; if you want -food, I have brought it; if you want cattle, I have brought them; -whatever you want, I have it.’ The door was then opened and he entered -with his cedar spray. The wife then took some of the leaves, and pouring -wine and water on them placed them on the fire, and the rest were -sprinkled with flour and suspended from the ceiling. She then sprinkled -flour on her husband’s head and shoulders, and addressed him thus, ‘Ai -Shiri Bagerthum, son of the fairies, you have come from far!’ _Shiri -Bagerthum_, ‘the dreadful king,’ being the form of address to the cedar -when praying for wants to be fulfilled. The next day the wife baked a -number of cakes, and taking them with her, drove the family goats to the -Chili stone. When they were collected round the stone, she began to pelt -them with pebbles, invoking the Chili at the same time. According to the -direction in which the goats ran off, omens were drawn as to the number -and sex of the kids expected during the ensuing year. Walnuts and -pomegranates were then placed on the Chili stone, the cakes were -distributed and eaten, and the goats followed to pasture in whatever -direction they showed a disposition to go. For five days afterwards this -song was sung in all the houses:— - - ‘_Dread Fairy King, I sacrifice before you, - How nobly do you stand! you have filled up my house, - You have brought me a wife when I had not one, - Instead of daughters you have given me sons. - You have shown me the ways of right, - You have given me many children._’”[205] - -[Sidenote: Fertilising virtue attributed to trees.] Here the driving of -the goats to the stone on which the cedar had been placed is clearly -meant to impart to them the fertilising influence of the cedar. In -Northern India the _Emblica officinalis_ is a sacred tree. On the -eleventh of the month Phalgun (February) libations are poured at the -foot of the tree, a red or yellow string is bound about the trunk, and -prayers are offered to it for the fruitfulness of women, animals, and -crops.[206] Again, in Northern India the coco-nut is esteemed one of the -most sacred fruits, and is called Sriphala, or the fruit of Sri, the -goddess of prosperity. It is the symbol of fertility, and all through -Upper India is kept in shrines and presented by the priests to women who -desire to become mothers.[207] In the town of Qua, near Old Calabar, -there used to grow a palm-tree which ensured conception to any barren -woman who ate a nut from its branches.[208] In [Sidenote: Influence of -May-trees on cattle.] Europe the May-tree or May-pole is apparently -supposed to possess similar powers over both women and cattle. Thus in -some parts of Germany on the first of May the peasants set up May-trees -or May-bushes at the doors of stables and byres, one for each horse and -cow; this is thought to make the cows yield much milk.[209] Of the Irish -we are told that “they fancy a green bough of a tree, fastened on -May-day against the house, will produce plenty of milk that -summer.”[210] In Suffolk there was an old custom, observed in most -farm-houses, that any servant who could bring in a branch of hawthorn in -blossom on the first of May was entitled to a dish of cream for -breakfast.[211] Similarly, “in parts of Cornwall, till certainly ten -years ago, any child who brought to a dairy on May morning a piece of -hawthorn in bloom, or a piece of fresh bracken, long enough to surround -the earthenware bowl in which cream is kept, was given a bowl of -cream.”[212] On May Day English milkmaids used to dance with garlands on -their pails. One May morning long ago Pepys on his way to Westminster -saw many of them dancing thus to the music of a fiddle while pretty Nel -Gwynne, in her smock sleeves and bodice, watched them from the door of -her lodgings in Drury-lane.[213] - -[Sidenote: May-tree or May-bush a protection against witchcraft.] -However in these and similar European customs it seems that the -influence of the tree, bush, or bough is really protective rather than -generative; it does not so much fill the udders of the cows as prevent -them from being drained dry by witches, who ride on broomsticks or -pitchforks through the air on the Eve of May Day (the famous Walpurgis -Night) and make great efforts to steal the milk from the cattle. Hence -the many precautions which the prudent herdsman must take to guard his -beasts at this season from the raids of these baleful creatures. For -example, on May morning the Irish scatter primroses on the threshold, -keep a piece of red-hot iron on the hearth, or twine branches of -whitethorn and mountain-ash or rowan about the door. To save the milk -they cut and peel boughs of mountain-ash (rowan), and bind the twigs -round the milk-pails and the churn.[214] According to a writer of the -sixteenth century, whose description is quoted by Camden, the Irish -“account every woman who fetches fire on May-day a witch, nor will they -give it to any but sick persons, and that with an imprecation, believing -she will steal all the butter the next summer. On May day they kill all -the hares they find among their cattle, supposing them the old women who -have designs on the butter. They imagine the butter so stolen may be -recovered if they take some of the thatch hanging over the door and burn -it.”[215] In the north-east of Scotland pieces of rowan-tree and -woodbine, or of rowan alone, used to be placed over the doors of the -cow-houses on May Day to keep the witches from the kine; and a still -better way of attaining the same object was to tie a cross of rowan-tree -wood with a scarlet thread to each animal’s tail.[216] The Highlanders -of Scotland believe that on Beltane eve, that is the night before May -Day, the witches go about in the shape of hares and suck the milk from -the cows. To guard against their depredations tar was put behind the -ears of the cattle and at the root of the tail, and the house was hung -with rowan-tree.[217] For the same reason the Highlanders say that the -peg of the cow-shackle and the handle and cross of the churn-staff -should always be made of rowan, because that is the most potent charm -against witchcraft.[218] In the Isle of Man on May Day, old style, -people carried crosses of rowan in their hats and fastened May-flowers -over their doors as a protection against elves and witches, and for the -same purpose they tied crosses of rowan to the tails of the cattle. Also -women washed their faces in the dew early on May morning in order to -secure good luck, a fine complexion, and immunity from witches. Further, -the break of day on that morning was the signal for setting the ling or -gorse on fire, which was done for the sake of burning out the witches, -who are wont to take the shape of hares. In some places, indeed, as in -the Lezayre parish, the practice was to burn gorse in the hedge of every -field to drive away the witches, who are still feared in the Isle of -Man.[219] In Norway and Denmark branches of rowan are [Sidenote: -Precautions against witchcraft on May Day and Walpurgis Night.] -similarly used to protect houses and cattle-stalls against witches on -Walpurgis Night, and there, too, it is thought that the churn-staff -should be made of rowan.[220] In Germany a common way of keeping witches -from the cattle on Walpurgis Night is to chalk up three crosses on the -door of the cowhouse.[221] Branches of buckthorn stuck in the muck-heaps -on the eve of May Day answer the same purpose.[222] In Silesia the -precautions taken at this season against witches are many and various; -for example, pieces of buckthorn are nailed crosswise over the door of -the cowhouse; pitchforks and harrows, turned upside down, with the -prongs pointing outwards, are placed at the doors; and a sod of fresh -turf from a meadow is laid before the threshold and strewed with -marsh-marigolds. Before the witches can pass the threshold, they must -count every blade of grass in the turf and every petal of the marigolds; -and while they are still counting the day breaks and their power is -gone. For the same reason little birch-trees are set up at the -house-door, because the witches cannot enter the house till they have -counted all the leaves; and before they have done the sum it is broad -daylight, and they must flee away with the shadows.[223] On Walpurgis -Night the Germans of Moravia put knives under the threshold of the -cowhouse and twigs of birch at the door and in the muck-heap to keep the -witches from the cows.[224] For the same purpose the Bohemians at this -season lay branches of gooseberry bushes, hawthorn, and wild rose-trees -on the thresholds of the cowhouses, because the witches are caught by -the thorns and can get no farther.[225] We now see why thorny trees and -bushes, whether hawthorn, buckthorn, or what not, afford protection -against witchcraft: they serve as prickly hedges through which the -witches cannot force their way. But this explanation clearly does not -apply to the mountain-ash and the birch. - -[Sidenote: Influence of tree-spirits on cattle among the Wends, -Esthonians, and Circassians.] On the second of July some of the Wends -used to set up an oak-tree in the middle of the village with an iron -cock fastened to its top; then they danced round it, and drove the -cattle round it to make them thrive.[226] Some of the Esthonians believe -in a mischievous spirit called Metsik, who lives in the forest and has -the weal of the cattle in his hands. Every year a new image of him is -prepared. On an appointed day all the villagers assemble and make a -straw man, dress him in clothes, and take him to the common pasture-land -of the village. Here the figure is fastened to a high tree, round which -the people dance noisily. On almost every day of the year prayer and -sacrifice are offered to him that he may protect the cattle. Sometimes -the image of Metsik is made of a corn-sheaf and fastened to a tall tree -in the wood. The people perform strange antics before it to induce -Metsik to guard the corn and the cattle.[227] The Circassians regard the -pear-tree as the protector of cattle. So they cut down a young pear-tree -in the forest, branch it, and carry it home, where it is adored as a -divinity. Almost every house has one such pear-tree. In autumn, on the -day of the festival, the tree is carried into the house with great -ceremony to the sound of music and amid the joyous cries of all the -inmates, who compliment it on its fortunate arrival. It is covered with -candles, and a cheese is fastened to its top. Round about it they eat, -drink, and sing. Then they bid the tree good-bye and take it back to the -courtyard, where it remains for the rest of the year, set up against the -wall, without receiving any mark of respect.[228] - -[Sidenote: Tree-spirits grant offspring or an easy delivery to women.] -In the Tuhoe tribe of Maoris “the power of making women fruitful is -ascribed to trees. These trees are associated with the navel-strings of -definite mythical ancestors, as indeed the navel-strings of all children -used to be hung upon them down to quite recent times. A barren woman had -to embrace such a tree with her arms, and she received a male or a -female child according as she embraced the east or the west side.”[229] -The common European custom of placing a green bush on May Day before or -on the house of a beloved maiden probably originated in the belief of -the fertilising power of the tree-spirit.[230] In some parts of Bavaria -such bushes are set up also at the houses of newly-married pairs, and -the practice is only omitted if the wife is near her confinement; for in -that case they say that the husband has “set up a May-bush for -himself.”[231] Among the South Slavonians a barren woman, who desires to -have a child, places a new chemise upon a fruitful tree on the eve of -St. George’s Day. Next morning before sunrise she examines the garment, -and if she finds that some living creature has crept on it, she hopes -that her wish will be fulfilled within the year. Then she puts on the -chemise, confident that she will be as fruitful as the tree on which the -garment has passed the night.[232] Among the Kara-Kirghiz barren women -roll themselves on the ground under a solitary apple-tree, in order to -obtain offspring.[233] Some of the hill-tribes of India have a custom of -marrying the bride and bridegroom to two trees before they are married -to each other. For example, among the Mundas the bride touches with red -lead a _mahwá_-tree, clasps it in her arms, and is tied to it; and the -bridegroom goes through a like ceremony with a mango-tree.[234] The -intention of the custom may perhaps be to communicate to the -newly-wedded pair the vigorous reproductive power of the trees.[235] -Lastly, the power of granting to women an easy delivery at child-birth -is ascribed to trees both in Sweden and Africa. In some districts of -Sweden there was formerly a _bårdträd_ or guardian-tree (lime, ash, or -elm) in the neighbourhood of every farm. No one would pluck a single -leaf of the sacred tree, any injury to which was punished by ill-luck or -sickness. Pregnant women used to clasp the tree in their arms in order -to ensure an easy delivery.[236] In some negro tribes of the Congo -region pregnant women make themselves garments out of the bark of a -certain sacred tree, because they believe that this tree delivers them -from the dangers that attend child-bearing.[237] The story that Leto -clasped a palm-tree and an olive-tree or two laurel-trees, when she was -about to give birth to the divine twins Apollo and Artemis, perhaps -points to a similar Greek belief in the efficacy of certain trees to -facilitate delivery.[238] - -Footnote 5: - - Caesar, _Bell. Gall._ vi. 25. - -Footnote 6: - - Julian, Fragm. 4, ed. Hertlein, pp. 608 _sq._ On the vast woods of - Germany, their coolness and shade, see also Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. - 5. - -Footnote 7: - - Ch. Elton, _Origins of English History_ (London, 1882), pp. 3, 106 - _sq._, 224. - -Footnote 8: - - W. Helbig, _Die Italiker in der Poebene_ (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 25 _sq._ - -Footnote 9: - - H. Nissen, _Italische Landeskunde_, i. (Berlin, 1883) pp. 431 _sqq._ - -Footnote 10: - - Livy, ix. 36-38. The Ciminian mountains (_Monte Cimino_) are still - clothed with dense woods of majestic oaks and chestnuts. Modern - writers suppose that Livy has exaggerated the terrors and difficulties - of the forest. See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_, 3rd - Ed., i. 146-149. - -Footnote 11: - - C. Neumann und J. Partsch, _Physikalische Geographie von Griechenland_ - (Breslau, 1885), pp. 357 _sqq._ I am told that the dark blue waters of - the lake of Pheneus, which still reflected the sombre pine-forests of - the surrounding mountains when I travelled in Arcadia in the bright - unforgetable autumn days of 1895, have since disappeared, the - subterranean chasms which drain this basin having been, whether - accidentally or artificially, cleared so as to allow the pent-up - waters to escape. The acres which the peasants have thereby added to - their fields will hardly console future travellers for the loss of the - watery mirror, which was one of the most beautiful, as it was one of - the rarest, scenes in the parched land of Greece. - -Footnote 12: - - J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, 4th Ed., i. 53 _sqq._; O. Schrader, - _Reallexikon der indo-germanischen Altertumskunde_ (Strasburg, 1901), - _s.v._ “Tempel,” pp. 855 _sqq._ - -Footnote 13: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 249 _sqq._; Maximus Tyrius, _Dissert._ viii. - 8. - -Footnote 14: - - O. Schrader, _op. cit._ pp. 857 _sq._ - -Footnote 15: - - Tacitus, _Germania_, 9, 39, 40, 43; _id._, _Annals_, ii. 12, iv. 73; - _id._, _Hist._ iv. 14; J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, 4th Ed., pp. - 541 _sqq._; _Bavaria Landes- und Volkeskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, - iii. 929 _sq._ - -Footnote 16: - - J. Grimm, _Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer_, pp. 519 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, - _Baumkultus_ (Berlin, 1875), pp. 26 _sqq._ - -Footnote 17: - - Adam of Bremen, _Descriptio insularum Aquilonis_, 27 (Migne’s - _Patrologia Latina_, vol. cxlvi. col. 644). - -Footnote 18: - - L. Leger, _La Mythologie slave_ (Paris, 1901), pp. 73-75, 188-190. - -Footnote 19: - - Mathias Michov, “De Sarmatia Asiana atque Europea,” in Simon - Grynaeus’s _Novus Orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum_ - (Paris, 1532), pp. 455 _sq._ [wrongly numbered 445, 446]; Martin - Cromer, _De origine et rebus gestis Polonorum_ (Basel, 1568), p. 241; - Fabricius, _Livonicae historiae compendiosa series_ (_Scriptores rerum - Livonicarum_, ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) p. 441). - -Footnote 20: - - See C. Bötticher, _Der Baumkultus der Hellenen_ (Berlin, 1856); L. - Preller, _Römische Mythologie_, 3rd. Ed., i. 105-114. - -Footnote 21: - - _The Classical Review_, xix. (1905) p. 331, referring to an - inscription found in Cos some years ago. - -Footnote 22: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xv. 77; Tacitus, _Ann._ xiii. 58. The fig-tree is - represented on Roman coins and on the great marble reliefs which stand - in the Forum. See E. Babelon, _Monnaies de la République romaine_, ii. - 336 _sq._; R. Lanciani, _Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome_ - (London, 1897), p. 258; E. Petersen, _Vom alten Rom_ (Leipsic, 1900), - pp. 26, 27. - -Footnote 23: - - Plutarch, _Romulus_, 20. - -Footnote 24: - - K. Rhamm, “Der heidnische Gottesdienst des finnischen Stammes,” - _Globus_, lxvii. (1895) pp. 343, 348. This article is an abstract of a - Finnish book _Suomen suvun pakanillinen jumalen palvelus_, by J. Krohn - (Helsingfors, 1894). - -Footnote 25: - - “Heilige Haine und Bäume der Finnen,” _Globus_, lix. (1891) pp. 350 - _sq._ - -Footnote 26: - - P. S. Pallas, _Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen - Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), iii. 60 _sq._ - -Footnote 27: - - Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, i. 6. This was an opinion of the Stoic and - Peripatetic philosophy. - -Footnote 28: - - Washington Matthews, _Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa - Indians_ (Washington, 1877), pp. 48 _sq._ - -Footnote 29: - - L. H. Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_ (Rochester, 1851), pp. 162, - 164. - -Footnote 30: - - J. L. Krapf, _Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours during an - Eighteen Years’ Residence in Eastern Africa_ (London, 1860), p. 198. - -Footnote 31: - - Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter to the author dated November 3, 1898. - -Footnote 32: - - J. Teit, “The Thompson Indians of British Columbia,” p. 349 (_Memoir - of the American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific - Expedition_, vol. i. part iv.). - -Footnote 33: - - C. Hupe, “Over de godsdienst, zeden enz. der Dajakkers,” _Tijdschrift - voor Neêrlands Indië_, 1846 (Batavia), dl. iii. p. 158. - -Footnote 34: - - De la Loubere, _Du royaume de Siam_ (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 382. Compare - Mgr. Bruguière, in _Annales de l’Association de la Propagation de la - Foi_, v. (1831) p. 127. - -Footnote 35: - - The Buddhist conception of trees as animated often comes out in the - _Jatakas_. For examples see H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_, pp. - 259 _sqq._; _The Jātaka_, bk. xii. No. 465, vol. iv. pp. 96 _sqq._ - (English translation edited by E. B. Cowell). - -Footnote 36: - - J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, iv. (Leyden, 1901) - pp. 272 _sqq._ - -Footnote 37: - - J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, v. (Leyden, 1907) - p. 663. - -Footnote 38: - - F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_ - (Münster i. W., 1890), p. 33. - -Footnote 39: - - A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_ (London, - 1890), pp. 49 _sqq._ Compare _id._, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the - Gold Coast_ (London, 1887), pp. 34 _sqq._; _Missions Catholiques_, ix. - (1877) p. 71. - -Footnote 40: - - G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des peuples de l’Orient classique: les - origines_ (Paris, 1895), pp. 121 _sq._ - -Footnote 41: - - Merolla, “Voyage to Congo,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, xvi. - 236. - -Footnote 42: - - C. C. von der Decken, _Reisen in Ost-Afrika_ (Leipsic and Heidelberg, - 1869-1871), i. 216. The writer does not describe the mode of appeasing - the tree-spirit in the case mentioned. As to the Wanika beliefs, see - above, p. 12. - -Footnote 43: - - Sir Harry Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_ (London, 1902), ii. 832. - -Footnote 44: - - J. B. L. Durand, _Voyage au Sénégal_ (Paris, 1802), p. 119. - -Footnote 45: - - S. J. Curtiss, _Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_ (Chicago, 1902), p. - 94. - -Footnote 46: - - A. d’Orbigny, _Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale_ (Paris and - Strasburg, 1839-1843), ii. 157, 159 _sq._ - -Footnote 47: - - A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _In Centraal-Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 146. - -Footnote 48: - - H. H. Romilly, _From my Verandah in New Guinea_ (London, 1889), p. 86. - -Footnote 49: - - D. C. J. Ibbetson, _Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_ (Calcutta, 1883), - p. 120. - -Footnote 50: - - W. von Schulenberg, “Volkskundliche Mittheilungen aus der Mark,” - _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie - und Urgeschichte_ (1896), p. 189. Compare A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, - _Nord-deutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_, p. 407, § 142; E. Meier, - _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p. 463, § 208; A. - Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_, ii. pp. 108 _sq._, - §§ 326, 327, p. 116, §§ 356, 358; A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus - Schwaben_, i. pp. 464 _sq._, § 6; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und - Gebräuche aus Meklenburg_, ii. 228 _sq._; W. Kolbe, _Hessische - Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche_, 2nd Ed., p. 29; R. Andree, - _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), p. 234; R. Wuttke, - Sächsische Volkskunde 2nd Ed., (Dresden, 1901), p. 370. The custom has - been discussed by U. Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau - und Viehzucht_ (Breslau, 1884), pp. 214-220. He comes to the - conclusion, which I cannot but regard as erroneous, that the custom - was in origin a rational precaution to keep the caterpillars from the - trees. Compare the marriage of trees, below, pp. 24 _sqq._ - -Footnote 51: - - J. Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (London, 1881), p. - 247. - -Footnote 52: - - Peter Jones, _History of the Ojebway Indians_, p. 104. - -Footnote 53: - - J. J. M. de Groot, _Religious System of China_, iv. 274. - -Footnote 54: - - A. Peter, _Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau, - 1865-67), ii. 30. - -Footnote 55: - - P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_, ii. (Berlin, 1891) p. - 56 note 1. - -Footnote 56: - - A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. 154; compare _id._, _Die Völker des - östlichen Asien_, ii. 457 _sq._, iii. 251 _sq._, iv. 42 _sq._ - -Footnote 57: - - J. de los Reyes y Florentino, “Die religiosen Anschauungen der - Ilocanen (Luzon),” _Mittheilungen der k. k. Geograph. Gesellschaft in - Wien_, xxxi. (1888) p. 556. - -Footnote 58: - - F. Gardner, “Philippine (Tagalog) Superstitions,” _Journal of American - Folk-lore_, xix. (1906) p. 191. These superstitions are translated - from an old and rare work _La Pratica del ministerio_, by Padre Tomas - Ortiz (Manila, 1713). - -Footnote 59: - - Th. Nöldeke, “Tigre-Texte,” _Zeitschrift für Assyriologie_, xxiv. - (1910) p. 298, referring to E. Littmann, _Publications of the - Princeton Expedition to Abyssinia_ (Leyden, 1910). - -Footnote 60: - - J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 394-396. - -Footnote 61: - - J. H. Neumann, “De _tĕndi_ in verband met Si Dajang,” _Mededeelingen - van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlviii. (1904) pp. - 124 _sq._ - -Footnote 62: - - From a letter of the Rev. J. Roscoe, written in Busoga, 21st May, - 1908. - -Footnote 63: - - _Satapatha-Brâhmana_, translated by J. Eggeling, Part II. pp. 165 - _sq._ (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xxvi.); H. Oldenberg, _Die - Religion des Veda_, pp. 256 _sq._ - -Footnote 64: - - De la Loubere, _Du royaume de Siam_ (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 383. - -Footnote 65: - - G. Turner, _Samoa_, p. 63. - -Footnote 66: - - I. v. Zingerle, “Der heilige Baum bei Nauders,” _Zeitschrift für - deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859), pp. 33 _sqq._ - According to Lucan (_Pharsal._ iii. 429-431), the soldiers whom Caesar - ordered to cut down the sacred oak-grove of the Druids at Marseilles - believed that the axes would rebound from the trees and wound - themselves. - -Footnote 67: - - W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, pp. 198 _sq._ As to the durian-tree and - its fruit, see A. R. Wallace, _The Malay Archipelago_ 6th Ed., - (London, 1877), pp. 74 _sqq._ - -Footnote 68: - - W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), p. 165. - -Footnote 69: - - F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_, p. - 34; A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), p. 352. Compare R. F. - Kaindl, “Aus der Volksüberlieferung der Bojken,” _Globus_, lxxix. - (1901) p. 152. - -Footnote 70: - - G. Pitrè, _Spettacoli e feste popolari_ (Palermo, 1881), p. 221; - _id._, _Usi e costumi, credenze e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano_, - iii. (Palermo, 1889) p. 111; G. Vuillier, “Chez les magiciens et les - sorciers de la Corrèze,” _Tour du monde_, N.S. v. (1899) p. 512. - -Footnote 71: - - M. Tchéraz, “Notes sur la mythologie Arménienne,” _Transactions of the - Ninth International Congress of Orientalists_ (London, 1893), ii. 827. - Compare M. Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_ (Leipsic, 1899), p. - 60. - -Footnote 72: - - G. Finamore, _Credenze, usi, e costumi abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), pp. - 162 _sq._ - -Footnote 73: - - Georgeakis et Pineau, _Folk-lore de Lesbos_ (Paris, 1894), p. 354. - -Footnote 74: - - Boecler-Kreutzwald, _Der Ehsten abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und - Gewohnheiten_ (St. Petersburg, 1854), p. 134. - -Footnote 75: - - M. J. van Baarda, “Fabelen, Verhalen, en Overleveringen der - Galelareezen,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van - Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlv. (1895) p. 511. - -Footnote 76: - - A. G. Vorderman, “Planten-animisme op Java,” _Teysmannia_, No. 2, - 1896, pp. 59 _sq._; _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, ix. - (1896) p. 175. - -Footnote 77: - - A. G. Vorderman, _op. cit._ p. 60; _Internationales Archiv für - Ethnographie_, ix. (1896) p. 176. - -Footnote 78: - - A. G. Vorderman, _op. cit._ pp. 61-63. - -Footnote 79: - - A. de Humboldt, _Voyage aux régions équinoxiales du Nouveau - Continent_, ii. (Paris, 1819) pp. 369 _sq._, 429 _sq._ - -Footnote 80: - - Elsdon Best, “Maori Nomenclature,” _Journal of the Anthropological - Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 197. - -Footnote 81: - - Herodotus, i. 193; Theophrastus, _Historia plantarum_, ii. 8. 4; - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xiii. 31, 34 _sq._ In this passage Pliny states - that naturalists distinguished the sexes of all trees and plants. On - Assyrian monuments a winged figure is often represented holding an - object which looks like a pine-cone to a palm-tree. The scene has been - ingeniously and with great probability explained by Professor E. B. - Tylor as the artificial fertilisation of the date-palm by means of the - male inflorescence. See his paper in _Proceedings of the Society of - Biblical Archaeology_, xii. (1890) pp. 383-393. On the artificial - fertilisation of the date-palm, see C. Ritter, _Vergleichende Erdkunde - von Arabien_ (Berlin, 1847), ii. 811, 827 _sq._ - -Footnote 82: - - D. Chwolsohn, _Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus_ (St. Petersburg, 1856), - ii. 36, 251. Mohammed forbade the artificial fertilisation of the - palm, probably because of the superstitions attaching to the ceremony. - But he had to acknowledge his mistake. See D. S. Margoliouth, - _Mohammed and the Rise of Islam_, p. 230 (a passage pointed out to me - by Dr. A. W. Verrall). - -Footnote 83: - - Sir W. H. Sleeman, _Rambles and Recollections of an Indian Official_ - (Westminster, 1893), i. 38 _sq._; compare _Census of India, 1901_, - vol. xiii., _Central Provinces_, part i. p. 92. - -Footnote 84: - - _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxxii., part iii. - (Calcutta, 1904) p. 42. - -Footnote 85: - - J. A. Dubois, _Mœurs, institutions et cérémonies des peuples de - l’Inde_ (Paris, 1825), ii. 448 _sq._; Monier Williams, _Religious Life - and Thought in India_, pp. 333-335; W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and - Folklore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 110 _sq._ - According to another account, it is Vishnu, not Krishna, to whom the - holy plant is annually married in every pious Hindoo family. See - _Census of India, 1901_, vol. xviii., _Baroda_, p. 125. - -Footnote 86: - - Sir Henry M. Elliot, _Memoirs on the History, Folklore, and - Distribution of the Races of the North-western Provinces of India_, - edited by J. Beames (London, 1869), i. 233 _sq._ - -Footnote 87: - - W. Crooke, _op. cit._ i. 49. - -Footnote 88: - - Sir W. H. Sleeman, _Rambles and Recollections of an Indian Official_ - (Westminster, 1893), i. 147-149, 175. The _Salagrama_ is commonly - perforated in one or more places by worms or, as the Hindoos believe, - by the legendary insect Vajrakita or by Vishnu himself. The value of - the fossil shell depends on its colour, and the number of its - convolutions and holes. The black are prized as gracious embodiments - of Vishnu; the violet are shunned as dangerous avatars of the god. He - who possesses a black _Salagrama_ keeps it wrapped in white linen, - washes and adores it daily. A draught of the water in which the shell - has been washed is supposed to purge away all sin and to secure the - temporal and eternal welfare of the drinker. These fossils are found - in Nepaul, in the upper course of the river Gandaka, a northern - tributary of the Ganges. Hence the district goes by the name of - Salagrami, and is highly esteemed for its sanctity; a visit to it - confers great merit on a man. See Sonnerat, _Voyage aux Indes - Orientales et à la Chine_ (Paris, 1782), i. 173 _sq._; J. A. Dubois, - _Mœurs, institutions et cérémonies des peuples de l’Indie_ (Paris, - 1825), ii. 446-448; Sir W. H. Sleeman, _op. cit._ i. 148 _sq._, with - the editor’s notes; Monier Williams, _Religious Thought and Life in - India_, pp. 69 _sq._; G. Watt, _Dictionary of the Economic Products of - India_, vi. Part II. (London and Calcutta, 1893) p. 384; W. Crooke, - _op. cit._ ii. 164 _sq._; _Indian Antiquary_, xxv. (1896) p. 146; G. - Oppert, _On the Original Inhabitants of Bharatavarsa or India_ - (Westminster and Leipsic, 1893), pp. 337-359; _id._, “Note sur les - Sālagrāmas,” _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Inscriptions et - Belles-Lettres_ (Paris, 1900), pp. 472-485. The shell derives its name - of ammonite from its resemblance to a ram’s horn, recalling the - ram-god Ammon. - -Footnote 89: - - _Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie_ (Chemnitz, 1759), pp. 239 _sq._; - U. Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht_, - pp. 214 _sqq._ See above, p. 17. - -Footnote 90: - - Van Schmid, “Aanteekeningen nopens de zeden, gewoonten en gebruiken, - etc., der bevolking van de eilanden Saparoea, etc.” _Tijdschrift voor - Neêrlands Indië_, 1843 (Batavia), dl. ii. p. 605; A. Bastian, - _Indonesien_, i. 156. - -Footnote 91: - - G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoëvell, _Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de - Oeliasers_ (Dordrecht, 1875), p. 62. - -Footnote 92: - - G. A. Wilken, “Het animisme bij de volken van het Indischen archipel,” - _De Indische Gids_, June 1884, p. 958; _id._, _Handleiding voor de - vergelijkende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië_ (Leyden, 1893), pp. - 549 _sq._ - -Footnote 93: - - E. L. M. Kühr, “Schetsen uit Borneo’s Westerafdeeling,” _Bijdragen tot - de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlvii. (1897) - pp. 58 _sq._ - -Footnote 94: - - A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de - Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche - Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 221. - -Footnote 95: - - D. Grangeon, “Les Cham et leur superstitions,” _Missions Catholiques_, - xxviii. (1896) p. 83. - -Footnote 96: - - _Indian Antiquary_, i. (1872) p. 170. - -Footnote 97: - - A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en - maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege - het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 22, 138. - -Footnote 98: - - _Id._, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en - Tomori,” _ib._, xliv. (1900) p. 227. - -Footnote 99: - - C. Snouck Hurgronje, _Het Gajōland en zijne Bewoners_ (Batavia, 1903), - pp. 344, 345. - -Footnote 100: - - S. Gason, “The Dieyerie Tribe,” _Native Tribes of South Australia_, p. - 280; A. W. Howitt, “The Dieri and other kindred Tribes of Central - Australia,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p. - 89. - -Footnote 101: - - F. Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiöse Anschauungen der - Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” _Mittheilungen der Wiener Geogr. - Gesellschaft_ (1882), pp. 159 _sq._; _id._, _Versuch einer - Ethnographie der Philippinen_ (Gotha, 1882), pp. 13, 29 (_Petermann’s - Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft_, No. 67); J. Mallat, _Les Philippines_ - (Paris, 1846), i. 63 _sq._ - -Footnote 102: - - A. Schadenberg, “Beiträge zur Kenntnis der im Innern Nordluzons - lebenden Stämme,” _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für - Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_ (1888), p. 40. - -Footnote 103: - - F. Grabowsky, “Der Tod, etc., bei den Dajaken,” _Internationales - Archiv für Ethnographie_, ii. (1889) p. 181. - -Footnote 104: - - H. Low, _Sarawak_ (London, 1848), p. 264. - -Footnote 105: - - Mrs. Bishop, _Korea and her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), i. 106 _sq._ - -Footnote 106: - - J. J. M. de Groot, _Religious System of China_, ii. 462 _sqq._, iv. - 277 _sq._ - -Footnote 107: - - _La Mission lyonnaise d’exploration commerciale en Chine 1895-1897_ - (Lyons, 1898), p. 361. - -Footnote 108: - - “Der Muata Cazembe und die Völkerstämme der Maravis, Chevas, Muembas, - Lundas und andere von Süd-Afrika,” _Zeitschrift für allgemeine - Erdkunde_, vi. (1856) p. 273. - -Footnote 109: - - Major A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, 1906), - pp. 298 _sqq._ - -Footnote 110: - - Ch. Partridge, _Cross River Natives_ (London, 1905), pp. 272 _sq._ - -Footnote 111: - - Ch. Partridge, _op. cit._ pp. 5, 194, 205 _sq._ - -Footnote 112: - - F. S. A. de Clercq, “De Westen Noordkust van Nederlandsch - Nieuw-Guinea,” _Tijdschrift van het kon. Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig - Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 199. - -Footnote 113: - - “Shamanism in Siberia and European Russia,” _Journal of the - Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895) p. 136. - -Footnote 114: - - Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. - 28 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for - 1890_). - -Footnote 115: - - F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_, p. - 36. - -Footnote 116: - - F. S. Krauss, _loc. cit._ - -Footnote 117: - - _Aeneid_, iii. 22 _sqq._ - -Footnote 118: - - Philostratus, _Imagines_, ii. 29. - -Footnote 119: - - A. Landes, “Contes et légendes annamites,” No. 9, in _Cochinchine - française: excursions et reconnaissances_, No. 20 (Saigon, 1885), p. - 310. - -Footnote 120: - - A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West - Africa_, pp. 134-136. - -Footnote 121: - - B. C. A. J. van Dinter, “Eenige geographische en ethnographische - aanteekeningen betreffende het eiland Siaoe,” _Tijdschrift voor - Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xli. (1899) pp. 379 _sq._ - -Footnote 122: - - E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nías_ (Milan, 1890), p. 629. - -Footnote 123: - - O. Baumann, _Usambara und seine Nachbargebiete_ (Berlin, 1891), pp. 57 - _sq._ - -Footnote 124: - - Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 162, - 330 _sq._ - -Footnote 125: - - Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: Die geistige Cultur - der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1896), pp. 34 _sq._ On the - Galla worship of trees, see further Mgr. Massaja, in _Annales de la - Propagation de la Foi_, xxx. (1858) p. 50; Coulbeaux, “Au pays de - Menelik,” _Missions Catholiques_, xxx. (1898) p. 418. - -Footnote 126: - - J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus - Volks- und Menschenkunde_, i. 52; _id._, _Beiträge zur Kenntnis des - Karolinen Archipels_, iii. (Leyden, 1895) p. 228. - -Footnote 127: - - A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, p. 115. - -Footnote 128: - - A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en - maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege - het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xl. (1896) pp. 28 _sq._ - -Footnote 129: - - A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de - Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche - Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) pp. 220 _sq._ - -Footnote 130: - - A. C. Kruijt, _op. cit._ p. 242. - -Footnote 131: - - J. Habbema, “Bijgeloof in de Preanger-Regentschappen,” _Bijdragen tot - de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xli. (1900) pp. - 113, 115. - -Footnote 132: - - G. Heijmering, “Zeden en Gewoonten op het eiland Rottie,” _Tijdschrift - voor Neêrlands Indië_ (1844), dl. i. p. 358. - -Footnote 133: - - C. Snouck Hurgronje, _Het Gajōland en zijne Bewoners_ (Batavia, 1903), - p. 351. - -Footnote 134: - - Th. A. L. Heyting, “Beschrijving der onder-afdeeling Groot-mandeling - en Batang-natal,” _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig - Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, xiv. (1897) pp. 289 _sq._ - -Footnote 135: - - F. Blumentritt, _Versuch einer Ethnographie der Philippinen_ (Gotha, - 1882), p. 13 (_Petermanns Mittheilungen, Ergänzungheft_, No. 67). See - above, pp. 18 _sq._ - -Footnote 136: - - Crossland, quoted by H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British - North Borneo_, i. 286; compare _Journal of the Anthropological - Institute_, xxi. (1892) p. 114. - -Footnote 137: - - “Lettre du curé de Santiago Tepehuacan à son évêque,” _Bulletin de la - Société de Géographie_ (Paris), IIme. Série, ii. (1834) pp. 182 _sq._ - -Footnote 138: - - J. T. Bent, _The Cyclades_, p. 37. - -Footnote 139: - - A. L. Van Hasselt, _Volksbeschrijving van Midden-Sumatra_ (Leyden, - 1882), p. 156. - -Footnote 140: - - W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ - (Westminster, 1896), ii. 87. - -Footnote 141: - - I. M. van Baarda, “Île de Halma-heira,” _Bulletins de la Société - d’Anthropologie de Paris_, iv. (1893) p. 547. - -Footnote 142: - - L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Gilyak,” _Archiv für - Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1905) p. 246. - -Footnote 143: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 83. - -Footnote 144: - - _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, vii. (1843) p. 29. - -Footnote 145: - - A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. 17. - -Footnote 146: - - J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the - Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10 (Dec. 1882), p. 217; H. Ling Roth, _The - Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_, i. 184. - -Footnote 147: - - W. Kükenthal, _Forschungsreise in den Molukken und in Borneo_ - (Frankfort, 1896), pp. 265 _sq._ - -Footnote 148: - - _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxv. (1896) p. 170. - -Footnote 149: - - E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, pp. 186, 188; compare - A. Bastian, _Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra_, p. 9. - -Footnote 150: - - E. T. Dalton, _op. cit._ p. 33; A. Bastian, _op. cit._ p. 16. Compare - L. A. Waddell, “The Tribes of the Brahmaputra Valley,” _Journal of the - Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxix. (1901) Part III. p. 16; W. Robertson - Smith, _The Religion of the Semites_, 2nd Ed., pp. 132 _sq._ - -Footnote 151: - - E. T. Dalton, _op. cit._ p. 25; A. Bastian, _op. cit._ p. 37. - -Footnote 152: - - A. C. Kruijt, “Het koppensnellen der Toradja’s van Midden-Celebes en - zijne beteekenis,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der konink. Akademie - van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, IV. Reeks, iii. (1899) p. - 195. - -Footnote 153: - - A. W. Niewenhuis, _In Centraal-Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 146; _id._, - _Quer durch Borneo_, i. (Leyden, 1904) p. 107. - -Footnote 154: - - _Id._, “Tweede Reis van Pontianak naar Samarinda,” _Tijdschrift van - het konink. Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, II. Serie, - xvii. (1900) p. 427. - -Footnote 155: - - J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the - Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10 (December 1882), p. 217; H. Ling Roth, - _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_, i. 184. - -Footnote 156: - - B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” _Tijdschrift - voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxviii. 530, note. - -Footnote 157: - - W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, p. 202. - -Footnote 158: - - E. Young, _The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe_ (Westminster, 1898), pp. - 192 _sq._ - -Footnote 159: - - J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan - States_, Part I. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1900) pp. 518 _sq._ - -Footnote 160: - - Captain Macpherson, in _North Indian Notes and Queries_, ii. 112 § - 428. - -Footnote 161: - - W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ - (Westminster, 1896), ii. 91. - -Footnote 162: - - A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, i. 134. The authority - quoted by Bastian calls the people Curka Coles. As to the Larka Kols, - see E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, pp. 177 _sqq._ - -Footnote 163: - - W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and - Oudh_, iv. 130. - -Footnote 164: - - S. Mateer, _The Land of Charity_ (London, 1871), p. 206. - -Footnote 165: - - B. A. Hely, in _Annual Report on British New Guinea for 1894-95_, p. - 57. - -Footnote 166: - - T. J. Hutchinson, _Impressions of Western Africa_ (London, 1858), pp. - 130 _sq._ - -Footnote 167: - - Gallieni, “Mission dans le Haut Niger et à Ségou,” _Bulletin de la - Société de Géographie_ (Paris), viiime Série, v. (1883) pp. 577 _sq._ - -Footnote 168: - - Ch. M. Doughty, _Travels in Arabia Deserta_ (Cambridge, 1888), i. 365. - -Footnote 169: - - Th. Bent, “The Yourouks of Asia Minor,” _Journal of the - Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 275. - -Footnote 170: - - Erasmus Stella, “De Borussiae antiquitatibus,” in Simon Grynaeus’s - _Novus Orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum_ (Paris, - 1532), p. 510; J. Lasicius (Lasiczki), “De diis Samagitarum - caeterorumque Sarmatarum,” in _Respublica sive Status regni Poloniae, - Lituaniae, Prussiae, Livoniae, etc._ (Leyden, 1627), pp. 299 _sq._; M. - C. Hartknoch, _Alt und neues Preussen_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1684), - p. 120. Lasiczki’s work has been reprinted by W. Mannhardt, in - _Magazin herausgegeben von der lettisch-lite-rärischen Gesellschaft_, - xiv. 82 _sqq._ (Mitau, 1868). - -Footnote 171: - - Mathias Michov, in Simon Grynaeus’s _Novus Orbis regionum ac insularum - veteribus incognitarum_ (Paris, 1532), p. 457. - -Footnote 172: - - J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and - Leipsic, 1841), ii. 277. - -Footnote 173: - - Capt. E. C. Luard, _in Census of India, 1901_, xix. (Lucknow, 1902) p. - 76. - -Footnote 174: - - J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, 4th ed., i. 497; compare _id._ ii. - 540, 541. - -Footnote 175: - - Max Buch, _Die Wotjäken_ (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 124. - -Footnote 176: - - P. v. Stenin, “Ein neuer Beitrag zur Ethnographie der Tscheremissen,” - _Globus_, lviii. (1890) p. 204. - -Footnote 177: - - J. G. Dalyell, _Darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1834), - p. 400. - -Footnote 178: - - J. G. Dalyell, _loc. cit._ - -Footnote 179: - - J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_, p. 116. - -Footnote 180: - - H. R. Tate, “Further Notes on the Kikuyu Tribe of British East - Africa,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxiv. (1904) p. - 263; _id._ “The Native Law of the Southern Gikuyu of British East - Africa,” _Journal of the African Society_, No. 35 (April 1910), pp. - 242 _sq._ - -Footnote 181: - - On the representations of Silvanus, the Roman wood-god, see H. Jordan - in L. Preller’s _Römische Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., i. 393 note; A. - Baumeister, _Denkmäler des classischen Altertums_, iii. 1665 _sq._ A - good representation of Silvanus bearing a pine branch is given in the - Sale Catalogue of H. Hoffmann, Paris, 1888, pt. ii. - -Footnote 182: - - Aeneas Sylvius, _Opera_ (Bâle, 1571), p. 418 [wrongly numbered 420]; - compare Erasmus Stella, “De Borussiae antiquitatibus,” in _Novus Orbis - regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum_, p. 510. - -Footnote 183: - - E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 186. - -Footnote 184: - - J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burmah and the - Shan States_, Part II. vol. iii. (Rangoon, 1901), pp. 63 _sq._ - -Footnote 185: - - E. Aymonier, in _Cochinchine française: excursions et - reconnaissances_, No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), pp. 175 _sq._ - -Footnote 186: - - L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), p. 489. - -Footnote 187: - - H. Schinz, _Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika_, pp. 295 _sq._ - -Footnote 188: - - See above, vol. i. pp. 248, 250, 309. - -Footnote 189: - - Above, vol. i. p. 284. - -Footnote 190: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_ (Berlin, 1875), pp. 158, 159, 170, 197, - 214, 351, 514. - -Footnote 191: - - E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 188. - -Footnote 192: - - Villault, _Relation des costes appellées Guinée_ (Paris, 1669), pp. - 266 _sq._; _Labat, Voyage du chevalier des Marchais en Guinée, isles - voisines, et à Cayenne_ (Paris, 1730), i. 338. - -Footnote 193: - - O. Baumann, _Usambara und seine Nachbargebiete_ (Berlin, 1891), p. - 142. - -Footnote 194: - - C. E. X. Rochet d’Hericourt, _Voyage sur la côte orientale de la Mer - Rouge dans le pays d’Adel et le royaume de Choa_ (Paris, 1841), pp. - 166 _sq._ - -Footnote 195: - - L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 266. - -Footnote 196: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 190 _sqq._ - -Footnote 197: - - W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), pp. 212 - _sqq._ - -Footnote 198: - - H. Low, Sarawak, p. 274; _id._, in _Journal of the Anthropological - Institute_, xxv. (1896) p. 111. - -Footnote 199: - - T. H. Lewin, _Wild Races of South-Eastern India_ (London, 1870), p. - 270. - -Footnote 200: - - J. Mackenzie, _Ten Years North of the Orange River_ (Edinburgh, 1871), - p. 385. - -Footnote 201: - - J. Campbell, _Travels in South Africa, Second Journey_ (London, 1822), - ii. 203. - -Footnote 202: - - Rev. J. Macdonald, MS. notes; compare _id._, _Light in Africa_, p. - 210; _id._, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) - p. 140. The Nubas will not cut shoots of the _nabac_ (a thorn-tree) - during the rainy season (_Missions Catholiques_, xiv. (1882) p. 460). - Among some of the hill-tribes of the Punjaub no one is allowed to cut - grass or any green thing with an iron sickle till the festival of the - ripening grain has been celebrated; otherwise the field-god would be - angry and send frost to destroy or injure the harvest (D. C. J. - Ibbetson, _Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_, p. 121). - -Footnote 203: - - “Ueber die Religion der heidnischen Tscheremissen im Gouvernement - Kasan,” _Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde_, N. F. iii. (1857) p. - 150. - -Footnote 204: - - J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_, pp. 103 _sq._ - -Footnote 205: - - J. Biddulph, _op. cit._ pp. 106 _sq._ - -Footnote 206: - - W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ - (Westminster, 1896), ii. 102. See also Sir H. M. Elliot, _Memoirs on - the History, Folk-lore, and Distribution of the Races of the - North-Western Provinces of India_, edited by J. Beames, ii. 217, - where, however, the object of the prayers is said to be the - fruitfulness of the tree itself, not the fruitfulness of women, - animals, and cattle. - -Footnote 207: - - W. Crooke, _op. cit._ ii. 106. - -Footnote 208: - - Th. J. Hutchinson, _Impressions of Western Africa_, p. 128. - -Footnote 209: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 161; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten - und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p. 397; A. Peter, _Volksthümliches aus - Österreichisch-Schlesien_, ii. 286. - -Footnote 210: - - W. Camden, _Britannia_, ed. R. Gough (London, 1779), iii. 659. - Camden’s authority is Good, a writer of the sixteenth century. - -Footnote 211: - - _County Folk-lore: Suffolk_, collected and edited by Lady Eveline - Camilla Gurdon (London, 1893), p. 117. - -Footnote 212: - - Mr. E. F. Benson, in a letter to the author dated December 15, 1892. - -Footnote 213: - - _Memoirs of Samuel Pepys, Esq._, edited by Lord Braybrooke, Second - Edition (London, 1828), ii. 209, under May 1st, 1667. - -Footnote 214: - - Lady Wilde, _Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of - Ireland_ (London, 1887), i. 196 _sq._ If an Irish housewife puts a - ring of rowan-tree or quicken, as it is also called, on the handle of - the churn-dash when she is churning, no witch can steal her butter (P. - W. Joyce, _Social History of Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903), i. 236 - _sq._). - -Footnote 215: - - W. Camden, _loc. cit._ - -Footnote 216: - - W. Gregor, _Folk-lore of the North-east of Scotland_ (London, 1881), - p. 188. - -Footnote 217: - - J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and - Islands of Scotland_, p. 270, compare _ib._, pp. 7 _sqq._ - -Footnote 218: - - J. G. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 11 _sq._ In Germany also the rowan-tree - is a charm against witchcraft (A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche - Volksaberglaube_, 2nd Ed., p. 106, § 145). - -Footnote 219: - - Sir John Rhys, “The Coligny Calendar,” _Proceedings of the British - Academy_, vol. iv. pp. 55 _sq._ of the offprint. - -Footnote 220: - - A. Kuhn, _Herabkunft des Feuers_ 2nd Ed., (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 178 - _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_ (Berlin, 1858), pp. 17 _sq._ - -Footnote 221: - - J. D. H. Temme, _Die Volkssagen der Altmark_ (Berlin, 1839), p. 85; E. - Sommer, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen_ - (Halle, 1846), p. 149; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus - Westfalen_, ii. p. 154, § 432, p. 155, § 436; A. Schleicher, - _Volkstümliches aus Sonnenberg_ (Weimar, 1858), p. 139; A. Peter, - _Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau, 1865-67), ii. - 252; R. Eisel, _Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes_ (Gera, 1871), p. 210; - Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, p. 210; P. - Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, i. (Leipsic, - 1903) p. 109. - -Footnote 222: - - A. Kuhn, _Herabkunft des Feuers_, 2nd Ed., p. 166. - -Footnote 223: - - P. Drechsler, _op. cit._ i. 109 _sq._ Compare A. Peter, _loc. cit._ - -Footnote 224: - - W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna - and Olmütz, 1893), p. 324. - -Footnote 225: - - Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, p. 210. - -Footnote 226: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 174. - -Footnote 227: - - J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen - Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. No. 2 (Dorpat, 1872), pp. 10 _sq._; W. - Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 407 _sq._ - -Footnote 228: - - Potocki, _Voyage dans les steps d’Astrakhan et du Caucase_ (Paris, - 1829), i. 309. - -Footnote 229: - - W. Foy, in _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, x. (1907) p. 551. For - details of the evidence see W. H. Goldie, M.D., “Maori Medical Lore,” - _Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute_, xxxvii. - (1904) pp. 93-95. - -Footnote 230: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 163 _sqq._ To his authorities add for - France, A. Meyrac, _Traditions, coutumes, légendes et contes des - Ardennes_, pp. 84 _sqq._; L. F. Sauvé, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_, - pp. 131 _sq._; Bérenger-Féraud, _Superstitions et survivances_, v. 309 - _sq._; Ch. Beauquier, _Les Mois en Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), pp. - 69-72; F. Chapiseau, _Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_ (Paris, - 1902), ii. 109-111; for Silesia, F. Tetzner, “Die Tschechen und Mährer - in Schlesien,” _Globus_, lxxviii. (1900) p. 340; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, - Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, i. 112 _sq._; for Moravia, W. - Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_, p. 26; for - Sardinia, R. Tennant, _Sardinia and its Resources_ (Rome and London, - 1885), pp. 185 _sq._ In Brunswick the custom is observed at - Whitsuntide (R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_, p. 248). - -Footnote 231: - - _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, i. 373. - -Footnote 232: - - F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_, p. - 35. - -Footnote 233: - - W. Radloff, _Proben der Volkslitteratur der nördlichen Türkischen - Stämme_, v. 2 (St. Petersburg, 1885). - -Footnote 234: - - E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 194; a similar - custom is practised among the Kurmis, _ibid._, p. 319. Among the - Mundas the custom seems now to have fallen into disuse (H. H. Risley, - _Tribes and Castes of Bengal: Ethnographic Glossary_, ii. 102). - -Footnote 235: - - The explanation has been suggested by Mr. W. Crooke (_Journal of the - Anthropological Institute_, xxviii. (1899) p. 243). There are other - facts, however, which point to a different explanation, namely, that - the practice is intended to avert possible evil consequences from - bride or bridegroom. For example, “the superstition regarding a man’s - third marriage, prevalent in Barār and, I believe in other parts of - India, is not despised by the Vēlamās. A third marriage is unlucky. - Should a man marry a third wife, it matters not whether his former - wives be alive or not, evil will befall either him or that wife. No - father would give his girl to a man whose third wife she would be. A - man therefore, who has twice entered the married state and wishes to - mate yet once again, cannot obtain as a third wife any one who has - both the wit and the tongue to say no; a tree has neither, so to a - tree he is married. I have not been able to discover why the tree, or - rather shrub, called in Marāthī _ru’i_ and in Hindūstānī _madar_ - (_Asclepias gigantea_), is invariably the victim selected in Barār, - nor do I know whether the shrub is similarly favoured in other parts - of India. The ceremony consists in the binding of a _mangal sūtra_ - round the selected shrub, by which the bridegroom sits, while - turmeric-dyed rice (_akṣata_) is thrown over both him and the shrub. - This is the whole of the simple ceremony. He has gone through his - unlucky third marriage, and any lady whom he may favour after this - will be his fourth wife” (Captain Wolseley Haig, “Notes on the Vēlamā - Caste in Bārār,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxx. part - iii. (1901) p. 28). Again, the Vellalas of Southern India “observe a - curious custom (derived from Brāhmans) with regard to marriage, which - is not unknown in other communities. A man marrying a second wife - after the death of his first has to marry a plantain tree, and cut it - down before tying the _tāli_, and, in case of a third marriage, a man - has to tie a _tāli_ first to the erukkan (arka: _Calotropis gigantea_) - plant. The idea is that second and fourth wives do not prosper, and - the tree and the plant are accordingly made to take their places.” - (Mr. Hemingway, quoted by E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern - India_, vii. 387). Tying the _tali_ to the bride is the common Hindoo - symbol of marriage, like giving the ring with us. As to these Indian - marriages to trees see further my _Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 32 _sq._, - iv. 210 _sqq._; _Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. § 252, iii. §§ 12, 90, - 562, iv. § 396; _North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. § 110; D. C. J. - Ibbetson, _Settlement Report of the Karnal District_, p. 155; H. H. - Risley, _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, i. 531; Capt. E. C. Luard, in - _Census of India, 1901_, vol. xix. 76; W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes - of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh_, ii. 363; _id._, _Popular - Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. - 115-121. I was formerly disposed to connect the custom with totemism, - but of this there seems to be no sufficient evidence. - -Footnote 236: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 51 _sq._ - -Footnote 237: - - Merolla, “Voyage to Congo,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, xvi. - 236 _sq._ - -Footnote 238: - - C. Bötticher, _Der Baumkultus der Hellenen_ (Berlin, 1856), pp. 30 - _sq._ - - - - - CHAPTER X - RELICS OF TREE-WORSHIP IN MODERN EUROPE - - -[Sidenote: May-trees in Europe.] From the foregoing review of the -beneficent qualities commonly ascribed to tree-spirits, it is easy to -understand why customs like the May-tree or May-pole have prevailed so -widely and figured so prominently in the popular festivals of European -peasants. In spring or early summer or even on Midsummer Day, it was and -still is in many parts of Europe the custom to go out to the woods, cut -down a tree and bring it into the village, where it is set up amid -general rejoicings; or the people cut branches in the woods, and fasten -them on every house. The intention of these customs is to bring home to -the village, and to each house, the blessings which the tree-spirit has -in its power to bestow. Hence the custom in some places of planting a -May-tree before every house, or of carrying the village May-tree from -door to door, that every household may receive its share of the -blessing. Out of the mass of evidence on this subject a few examples may -be selected. - -[Sidenote: May-trees and May-bushes in England.] Sir Henry Piers, in his -_Description of Westmeath_, writing in 1682 says: “On May-eve, every -family sets up before their door a green bush, strewed over with yellow -flowers, which the meadows yield plentifully. In countries where timber -is plentiful, they erect tall slender trees, which stand high, and they -continue almost the whole year; so as a stranger would go nigh to -imagine that they were all signs of ale-sellers, and that all houses -were ale-houses.”[239] In Northamptonshire a young tree ten or twelve -feet high used to be planted before each house on May Day so as to -appear growing; flowers were thrown over it and strewn about the -door.[240] “Among ancient customs still retained by the Cornish, may be -reckoned that of decking their doors and porches on the first of May -with green boughs of sycamore and hawthorn, and of planting trees, or -rather stumps of trees, before their houses.”[241] In the north of -England it was [Sidenote: May garlands in England.] formerly the custom -for young people to rise a little after midnight on the morning of the -first of May, and go out with music and the blowing of horns into the -woods, where they broke branches and adorned them with nosegays and -crowns of flowers. This done, they returned about sunrise and fastened -the flower-decked branches over the doors and windows of their -houses.[242] At Abingdon in Berkshire young people formerly went about -in groups on May morning, singing a carol of which the following are two -of the verses:— - - “_We’ve been rambling all the night, - And sometime of this day; - And now returning back again, - We bring a garland gay._ - - _A garland gay we bring you here; - And at your door we stand; - It is a sprout well budded out, - The work of our Lord’s hand._”[243] - -At the towns of Saffron Walden and Debden in Essex on the first of May -little girls go about in parties from door to door singing a song almost -identical with the above and carrying garlands; a doll dressed in white -is usually placed in the middle of each garland.[244] Similar customs -have been and indeed are still observed in various parts of England. The -garlands are generally in the form of hoops intersecting each other at -right angles. Thus on May morning the girls of the neighbouring villages -used to flock into Northampton bringing their garlands, which they -exhibited from house to house. The skeleton of the garland was formed of -two hoops of osier or hazel crossing each other at right angles, and so -twined with flowers and ribbons that no part of them could be seen. In -the centre of the garlands were placed gaily dressed dolls, one, two, or -three in number according to the size of the garland. The whole was -fixed to a staff about five feet long, by which it was carried. In -shewing their garlands the children chanted some simple ditties and -received in return pennies, which furnished forth a feast on their -return to their homes. A merry dance round the garland concluded the -festivity.[245] At Uttoxeter groups of children carry garlands of -flowers about the town on May Day. “The garlands consist of two hoops, -one passing through the other, which give the appearance of four -half-circles, and they are decorated with flowers and evergreens, and -surmounted with a bunch of flowers as a sort of crown, and in the centre -of the hoops is a pendant orange and flowers.” One or more of the -children carry a little pole or stick upright with a bunch of flowers -fastened to the top. They are themselves decorated with flowers and -ribbons, and receive pence from the houses which they visit.[246] At -Watford in Hertfordshire, groups of children, almost entirely girls, go -about the streets from door to door on May Day singing some verses, of -which two agree almost verbally with those which, as we have seen, are -sung at Abingdon in Berkshire. They are dressed in white, and adorned -with gay ribbons and sashes of many hues. “Two of the girls carry -between them on a stick what they call ‘the garland,’ which in its -simplest form, is made of two circular hoops, intersecting each other at -right angles; a more elaborate form has, in addition, smaller -semicircles inserted in the four angles formed by the meeting of the -hoops at the top of ‘the garland.’ These hoops are covered with any -wild-flowers in season, and are further ornamented with ribbons. The -‘garland’ in shape reminds me of the ‘Christmas’ which used to form the -centre of the Christmas decorations in Yorkshire some few years ago, -except that the latter had a bunch of mistletoe inside the hoops.”[247] -A similar custom was observed at Bampton-in-the-Bush in Oxfordshire down -to about the middle of the nineteenth century. The garland consisted of -two crossed hoops covered with moss, flowers, and ribbons. Two girls, -known as the Lady and her Maid, bore the garland between them on a -stick; and a boy called the Lord, who carried a stick dressed with -ribbons and flowers, collected contributions from the spectators. From -time to time the Lady sang a few lines and was then kissed by the -Lord.[248] At Sevenoaks in Kent the children carry boughs and garlands -from door to door on May Day. The boughs consist of sticks carried -upright with bunches of leaves and wild-flowers fastened to the top. The -garlands are formed of two hoops interlaced cross-wise and covered with -blue and yellow flowers from the woods and hedges. Sometimes the -garlands are fastened to the end of a stick carried perpendicularly, -sometimes they hang from the middle of a stick borne horizontally by two -children.[249] In the streets of Cambridge little girls regularly make -their appearance every May Day with female dolls enclosed in hoops, -which are covered with ribbons and flowers. These they shew to -passers-by, inviting them to remember the May Lady by paying a small sum -to her bearers.[250] At Salisbury girls go through the streets on May -Day in pairs, carrying between them on a stick a circular garland or -hoop adorned with flowers and bows; they visit the shops asking for -money. A similar custom is observed at Wilton a few miles from -Salisbury.[251] At Cawthorne in Yorkshire “on the first of May the -school-children came with hoops to beg for artificial flowers; these my -mother’s maid used to sew on to the hoops, which with ribbons and other -decorations, were used in decking out a tall May-pole planted in the -village.”[252] It appears that a hoop wreathed with rowan and marsh -marigold, and bearing suspended within it two balls, is still carried on -May Day by villagers in some parts of Ireland. The balls, which are -sometimes covered with gold and silver paper, are said to have -originally represented the sun and moon.[253] - -[Sidenote: May customs in France, Germany, and Greece.] In some villages -of the Vosges Mountains on the first Sunday of May young girls go in -bands from house to house, singing a song in praise of May, in which -mention is made of the “bread and meal that come in May.” If money is -given them, they fasten a green bough to the door; if it is refused, -they wish the family many children and no bread to feed them.[254] In -the French department of Mayenne, boys who bore the name of _Maillotins_ -used to go about from farm to farm on the first of May singing carols, -for which they received money or a drink; they planted a small tree or a -branch of a tree.[255] Among the Germans of Moravia on the third Sunday -before Easter, which goes by the name of _Laetare_ Sunday, it is -customary in some places for young girls to carry a small fir-tree about -from door to door, while they sing songs, for which they receive -presents. The tree is tricked out with many-coloured ribbons, and -sometimes with flowers and dyed egg-shells, and its branches are twined -together so as to form what is called a crown.[256] In Corfu the -children go about singing May songs on the first of May. The boys carry -small cypresses adorned with ribbons, flowers, and the fruits of the -season. They receive a glass of wine at each house. The girls carry -nosegays. One of them is dressed up like an angel, with gilt wings, and -scatters flowers.[257] - -[Sidenote: Whitsuntide customs in Russia.] On the Thursday before -Whitsunday the Russian villagers “go out into the woods, sing songs, -weave garlands, and cut down a young birch-tree, which they dress up in -woman’s clothes, or adorn with many-coloured shreds and ribbons. After -that comes a feast, at the end of which they take the dressed-up -birch-tree, carry it home to their village with joyful dance and song, -and set it up in one of the houses, where it remains as an honoured -guest till Whitsunday. On the two intervening days they pay visits to -the house where their ‘guest’ is; but on the third day, Whitsunday, they -take her to a stream and fling her into its waters,” throwing their -garlands after her. “All over Russia every village and every town is -turned, a little before Whitsunday, into a sort of garden. Everywhere -along the streets the young birch-trees stand in rows, every house and -every room is adorned with boughs, even the engines upon the railway are -for the time decked with green leaves.”[258] In this Russian custom the -dressing of the birch in woman’s clothes shews how clearly the tree is -personified; and the throwing it into a stream is most probably a -rain-charm. In some villages of Altmark it was formerly the custom for -serving-men, grooms, and cowherds to go from farm to farm at Whitsuntide -distributing crowns made of birch branches and flowers to the farmers; -these crowns were hung up in the houses and left till the following -year.[259] - -[Sidenote: May-trees in Germany and Sweden.] In the neighbourhood of -Zabern in Alsace bands of people go about carrying May-trees. Amongst -them is a man dressed in a white shirt, with his face blackened; in -front of him is carried a large May-tree, but each member of the band -also carries a smaller one. One of the company bears a huge basket in -which he collects eggs, bacon, and so forth.[260] In some parts of -Sweden on the eve of May Day lads go about carrying each a bunch of -fresh-gathered birch twigs, wholly or partially in leaf. With the -village fiddler at their head, they make the round of the houses singing -May songs; the burden of their songs is a prayer for fine weather, a -plentiful harvest, and worldly and spiritual blessings. One of them -carries a basket in which he collects gifts of eggs and the like. If -they are well received they stick a leafy twig in the roof over the -cottage door.[261] - -[Sidenote: Midsummer trees and poles in Sweden.] But in Sweden midsummer -is the season when these ceremonies are chiefly observed. On the Eve of -St. John (the twenty-third of June) the houses are thoroughly cleansed -and garnished with green boughs and flowers. Young fir-trees are raised -at the doorway and elsewhere about the homestead; and very often small -umbrageous arbours are constructed in the garden. In Stockholm on this -day a leaf-market is held at which thousands of May-poles (_Maj -Stănger_), from six inches to twelve feet high, decorated with leaves, -flowers, slips of coloured paper, gilt egg-shells strung on reeds, and -so on, are exposed for sale. Bonfires are lit on the hills, and the -people dance round them and jump over them. But the chief event of the -day is setting up the May-pole. This consists of a straight and tall -spruce-pine tree, stripped of its branches. “At times hoops and at -others pieces of wood, placed cross-wise, are attached to it at -intervals; whilst at others it is provided with bows, representing, so -to say, a man with his arms akimbo. From top to bottom not only the ‘Maj -Stăng’ (May-pole) itself, but the hoops, bows, etc., are ornamented with -leaves, flowers, slips of various cloth, gilt egg-shells, etc.; and on -the top of it is a large vane, or it may be a flag.” The raising of the -May-pole, the decoration of which is done by the village maidens, is an -affair of much ceremony; the people flock to it from all quarters, and -dance round it in a great ring.[262] Midsummer customs of the same sort -used to be observed in some parts of Germany. Thus in the towns of the -Upper Harz Mountains tall fir-trees, with the bark peeled off their -lower trunks, were set up in open places and decked with flowers and -eggs, which were painted yellow and red. Round these trees the young -folk danced by day and the old folk in the evening. Many people -disguised themselves, and dramatic representations were given, amongst -others mock executions, at which the sufferer’s hat was knocked off -instead of his head. At the village of Lerbach in these fir-clad -mountains children would gather together on Midsummer Day, each with a -tiny fir-tree, which they made to revolve from left to right in the -direction of the sun, while they sang “The maiden turned herself about,” -or “Oh, thou dear Summertime! Oh, thou dear Summertime!”[263] In some -parts of Bohemia also a May-pole or midsummer-tree is erected on St. -John’s Eve. The lads fetch a tall fir or pine from the wood and set it -up on a height, where the girls deck it with nosegays, garlands, and red -ribbons. It is afterwards burned.[264] - -[Sidenote: Village May-poles in England.] It would be needless to -illustrate at length the custom, which has prevailed in various parts of -Europe, such as England, France, and Germany, of setting up a village -May-tree or May-pole on May Day.[265] A few examples will suffice. The -puritanical writer Phillip Stubbes in his _Anatomie of Abuses_, first -published at London in 1583, has described with manifest disgust how -they used to bring in the May-pole in the days of good Queen Bess. His -description affords us a vivid glimpse of merry England in the olden -time. “Against May, Whitsonday, or other time, all the yung men and -maides, olde men and wives, run gadding over night to the woods, groves, -hils, and mountains, where they spend all the night in plesant pastimes; -and in the morning they return, bringing with them birch and branches of -trees, to deck their assemblies withall. And no mervaile, for there is a -great Lord present amongst them, as superintendent and Lord over their -pastimes and sportes, namely, Sathan, prince of hel. But the chiefest -jewel they bring from thence is their May-pole, which they bring home -[Sidenote: Bringing in the May-pole.] with great veneration, as thus. -They have twentie or fortie yoke of oxen, every oxe having a sweet -nose-gay of flouers placed on the tip of his hornes, and these oxen -drawe home this May-pole (this stinkyng ydol, rather), which is covered -all over with floures and hearbs, bound round about with strings, from -the top to the bottome, and sometime painted with variable colours, with -two or three hundred men, women and children following it with great -devotion. And thus beeing reared up, with handkercheefs and flags -hovering on the top, they straw the ground rounde about, binde green -boughes about it, set up sommer haules, bowers, and arbors hard by it. -And then fall they to daunce about it, like as the heathen people did at -the dedication of the Idols, whereof this is a perfect pattern, or -rather the thing itself. I have heard it credibly reported (and that -_viva voce_) by men of great gravitie and reputation, that of fortie, -threescore, or a hundred maides going to the wood over night, there have -scaresly the third part of them returned home againe undefiled.”[266] Of -the Cornish people their historian Borlase says: “From towns they make -excursions, on May eve, into the country, cut down a tall elm, bring it -into town with rejoicings, and having fitted a straight taper pole to -the end of it, and painted it, erect it in the most publick part, and -upon holidays and festivals dress it with garlands of flowers, or -ensigns and streamers.”[267] In Northumberland, down apparently to near -the end of the eighteenth century, young people of both sexes used to go -out early on May morning to gather the flowering thorn and the dew off -the grass, which they brought home with music and acclamations; then, -having dressed a pole on the green with garlands, they danced about it. -The dew was considered as a great cosmetic, and preserved the face from -wrinkles, blotches, and the traces of old age. A syllabub made of warm -milk from the cow, sweet cakes, and wine was prepared for the feast; and -a kind of divination, to discover who should be wedded first, was -practised by dropping a marriage-ring into the syllabub and fishing for -it with a ladle.[268] At Padstow in Cornwall, when shipbuilding was a -thriving industry of the port, the shipwrights used to erect a tall -May-pole at the top of Cross Street in the middle of a cross inlaid with -stone. The pole was gaily decorated with spring flowers and so forth. -But the custom has long been abandoned. A great feature of the -celebration of May Day at Padstow used to be the Hobby Horse, that is, a -man wearing a ferocious mask, who went dancing and singing before the -chief houses, accompanied by a great flower-bedecked crowd of men and -women, while the men fired pistols loaded with powder in all -directions.[269] - -[Sidenote: Village May-trees and May-poles in Germany.] In Swabia on the -first of May a tall fir-tree used to be fetched into the village, where -it was decked with ribbons and set up; then the people danced round it -merrily to music. The tree stood on the village green the whole year -through, until a fresh tree was brought in next May Day.[270] In Saxony -“people were not content with bringing the summer symbolically (as king -or queen) into the village; they brought the fresh green itself from the -woods even into the houses: that is the May or Whitsuntide trees, which -are mentioned in documents from the thirteenth century onwards. The -fetching in of the May-tree was also a festival. The people went out -into the woods to seek the May (_majum quaerere_), brought young trees, -especially firs and birches, to the village and set them up before the -doors of the houses or of the cattle-stalls or in the rooms. Young -fellows erected such May-trees, as we have already said, before the -chambers of their sweethearts. Besides these household Mays, a great -May-tree or May-pole, which had also been brought in solemn procession -to the village, was set up in the middle of the village or in the -market-place of the town. It had been chosen by the whole community, who -watched over it most carefully. Generally the tree was stripped of its -branches and leaves, nothing but the crown being left, on which were -displayed, in addition to many-coloured ribbons and cloths, a variety of -victuals such as sausages, cakes, and eggs. The young folk exerted -themselves to obtain these prizes. In the greasy poles which are still -to be seen at our fairs we have a relic of these old May-poles. Not -uncommonly there was a race on foot or on horseback to the May-tree—a -Whitsuntide pastime which in course of time has been divested of its -goal and survives as a popular custom to this day in many parts of -Germany. In the great towns of our land the custom has developed into -sport, for our spring races are in their origin nothing but the old -German horse-races, in which the victor received a prize (generally a -red cloth) from the hand of a maiden, while the last rider was greeted -with jeers and gibes by the assembled community.”[271] The custom of the -May-tree is observed by the Wends of Saxony, as well as by the Germans. -The young men of the village choose the slimmest and tallest tree in the -wood, peel it and set it up on the village green. Its leafy top is -decked with cloths and ribbons presented by the girls. Here it stands, -towering high above the roofs, till Ascension Day, or in many places -till Whitsuntide. When it is being taken down, the young folk dance -round it, and the youth who catches and breaks off the leafy crown of -the falling tree is the hero of the day. Holding the green boughs aloft -he is carried shoulder-high, with music and joyous shouts, to the -ale-house, where the dance is resumed.[272] At Bordeaux on the -[Sidenote: May-poles and May-trees in France.] first of May the boys of -each street used to erect in it a May-pole, which they adorned with -garlands and a great crown; and every evening during the whole of the -month the young people of both sexes danced singing about the pole.[273] -Down to the present day May-trees decked with flowers and ribbons are -set up on May Day in every village and hamlet of gay Provence. Under -them the young folk make merry and the old folk rest.[274] The Red -Karens of [Sidenote: May-poles among the Karens of Burma.] Upper Burma -hold a festival in April, at which the chief ceremony is the erection of -a post on ground set apart for the purpose in or near each village. A -new post is set up every year; the old ones are left standing, but are -not renewed if they fall or decay. Omens are first drawn from chicken -bones as to which tree will be the best to fell for the post, which day -will be the luckiest, and so on. A pole some twenty or thirty feet long -is then hewn from the tree and ornamented with a rudely carved capital. -On the lucky day all the villagers assemble and drag the pole to the -chosen spot. When it has been set up, the people dance “a rude sort of -May-pole dance” to the music of drums and gongs. Much pork is eaten and -much liquor drunk on this festive occasion.[275] - -[Sidenote: Permanent May-poles.] In all these cases, apparently, the -custom is or was to bring in a new May-tree each year. However, in -England the village May-pole seems as a rule, at least in later times, -to have been permanent, not renewed annually.[276] Villages of Upper -Bavaria renew their May-pole once every three, four, or five years. It -is a fir-tree fetched from the forest, and amid all the wreaths, flags, -and inscriptions with which it is bedecked, an essential part is the -bunch of dark green foliage left at the top “as a memento that in it we -have to do, not with a dead pole, but with a living tree from the -greenwood.”[277] We can hardly doubt that originally the practice -everywhere was to set up a new May-tree every year. As the object of the -custom was to bring in the fructifying spirit of vegetation, newly -awakened in spring, the end would have been defeated if, instead of a -living tree, green and sappy, an old withered one had been erected year -after year or allowed to stand permanently. When, however, the meaning -of the custom had been forgotten, and the May-tree was regarded simply -as a centre for holiday merry-making, people saw no reason for felling a -fresh tree every year, and preferred to let the same tree stand -permanently, only decking it with fresh flowers on May Day. But even -when the May-pole had thus become a fixture, the need of giving it the -appearance of being a green tree, not a dead pole, was sometimes felt. -Thus at Weverham in Cheshire “are two May-poles, which are decorated on -this day (May Day) with all due attention to the ancient solemnity; the -sides are hung with garlands, and the top terminated by a birch or other -tall slender tree with its leaves on; the bark being peeled, and the -stem spliced to the pole, so as to give the appearance of one tree from -the summit.”[278] Thus the renewal of the May-tree is like the renewal -of the Harvest-May;[279] each is intended to secure a fresh portion of -the fertilising spirit of vegetation, and to preserve it throughout the -year. But whereas the efficacy of the Harvest-May is restricted to -promoting the growth of the crops, that of the May-tree or May-branch -extends also, as we have seen, to women and cattle. Lastly, [Sidenote: -The May-tree burnt at the end of the year.] it is worth noting that the -old May-tree is sometimes burned at the end of the year. Thus in the -district of Prague young people break pieces of the public May-tree and -place them behind the holy pictures in their rooms, where they remain -till next May Day, and are then burned on the hearth.[280] In Würtemberg -the bushes which are set up on the houses on Palm Sunday are sometimes -left there for a year and then burnt.[281] The _eiresione_ (the -Harvest-May of Greece) was perhaps burnt at the end of the year.[282] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: Tree-spirit detached from the tree and represented in human -form.] So much for the tree-spirit conceived as incorporate or immanent -in the tree. We have now to shew that the tree-spirit is often conceived -and represented as detached from the tree and clothed in human form, and -even as embodied in living men or women. The evidence for this -anthropomorphic representation of the tree-spirit is largely to be found -in the popular customs of European peasantry. These will be described -presently, but before examining them we may notice an Esthonian -folk-tale which illustrates the same train of thought very clearly. Once -upon a time, so runs [Sidenote: Esthonian story of a tree-elf.] the -tale, a young peasant was busy raking the hay in a meadow, when on the -rim of the horizon a heavy thunder-cloud loomed black and angry, warning -him to make haste with his work before the storm should break. He -finished in time, and was wending his way homeward, when under a tree he -espied a stranger fast asleep. “He will be drenched to the skin,” -thought the good-natured young fellow to himself, “if I allow him to -sleep on.” So he stepped up to the sleeper and shaking him forcibly -roused him from his slumber. The stranger started up, and at sight of -the thunder-cloud, which now darkened the sky, he blenched, fumbled in -his pockets, and finding nothing in them wherewith to reward the -friendly swain, he said, “This time I am your debtor. But the time will -come when I shall be able to repay your kindness. Remember what I tell -you. You will enlist. You will be parted from your friends for years, -and one day a feeling of homesickness will come over you in a foreign -land. Then look up, and you will see a crooked birch-tree a few steps -from you. Go to it, knock thrice on the trunk, and ask, ‘Is the Crooked -One at home?’ The rest will follow.” With these words the stranger -hastened away and was out of sight in a moment. The peasant also went -his way, and soon forgot all about the matter. Well, time went by and -part of the stranger’s prophecy came true. For the peasant turned -soldier and served in a cavalry regiment for years. One day, when he was -quartered with his regiment in the north of Finland, it fell to his turn -to tend the horses while his comrades were roistering in the tavern. -Suddenly a great yearning for home, such as he had never known before, -came over the lonely trooper; tears started to his eyes, and dear -visions of his native land crowded on his soul. Then he bethought him of -the sleeping stranger in the wood, and the whole scene came back to him -as fresh as if it had happened yesterday. He looked up, and there, -strange to tell, he was aware of a crooked birch-tree right in front of -him. More in jest than in earnest he went up to it and did as the -stranger had bidden him. Hardly had the words, “Is the Crooked One at -home?” passed his lips when the stranger himself stood before him and -said, “I am glad you have come. I feared you had forgotten me. You wish -to be at home, do you not?” The trooper said yes, he did. Then the -Crooked One cried into the tree, “Young folks, which of you is the -fleetest?” A voice from the birch replied, “Father, I can run as fast as -a moor-hen flies.” “Well, I need a fleeter messenger to-day.” A second -voice answered, “I can run like the wind.” “I need a swifter envoy,” -said the father. Then a third voice cried, “I can run like the thought -of man.” “You are after my own heart. Fill a bag full of gold and take -it with my friend and benefactor to his home.” Then he caught the -soldier by the hat, crying, “The hat to the man, and the man to the -house!” The same moment the soldier felt his hat fly from his head. When -he looked about for it, lo! he was at home in the old familiar parlour -wearing his old peasant clothes, and the great sack of money stood -beside him. Yet on parade and at the roll-call he was never missed. When -the man who told this story was asked, “Who could the stranger be?” he -answered, “Who but a tree-elf?”[283] - -[Sidenote: Tree-spirit represented simultaneously in vegetable and human -form.] There is an instructive class of cases in which the tree-spirit -is represented simultaneously in vegetable form and in human form, which -are set side by side as if for the express purpose of explaining each -other. In these cases the human representative of the tree-spirit is -sometimes a doll or puppet, sometimes a living person; but whether a -puppet or a person, it is placed beside a tree or bough; so that -together the person or puppet, and the tree or bough, form a sort of -bilingual inscription, the one being, so to speak, a translation of the -other. Here, therefore, there is no room left for doubt that the spirit -of the tree is actually represented in human form. Thus in Bohemia, on -the fourth Sunday in Lent, young people throw a puppet called Death into -the water; then the girls go into the wood, cut down a young tree, and -fasten to it a puppet dressed in white clothes to look like a woman; -with this tree and puppet they go from house to house collecting -gratuities and singing songs with the refrain:— - - “_We carry Death out of the village, - We bring Summer into the village._”[284] - -Here, as we shall see later on, the “Summer” is the spirit of vegetation -returning or reviving in spring. In some parts of our own country -children go about asking for pence with some small imitations of -May-poles, and with a finely-dressed doll which they call the Lady of -the May.[285] In these cases the tree and the puppet are obviously -regarded as equivalent. - -[Sidenote: The Little May Rose.] At Thann, in Alsace, a girl called the -Little May Rose, dressed in white, carries a small May-tree, which is -gay with garlands and ribbons. Her companions collect gifts from door to -door, singing a song:— - - “_Little May Rose turn round three times, - Let us look at you round and round! - Rose of the May, come to the greenwood away, - We will be merry all. - So we go from the May to the roses._” - -In the course of the song a wish is expressed that those who give -nothing may lose their fowls by the marten, that their vine may bear no -clusters, their tree no nuts, their field no corn; the produce of the -year is supposed to depend on the gifts offered to these May -singers.[286] Here and in the cases mentioned above, where children go -about with green boughs or garlands on May Day singing and collecting -money, the meaning is that with the spirit of vegetation they bring -plenty and good luck to the house, and they expect to be paid for the -service. In Russian Lithuania, on the first of May, they used to set up -a green tree before the village. Then the rustic swains chose the -prettiest girl, crowned her, swathed her in birch branches and set her -beside the May-tree, where they danced, sang, and shouted “O May! O -May!”[287] In Brie (Isle de France) a May-tree is set up in the midst of -the village; its top is crowned with flowers; lower down it is twined -with leaves and twigs, still lower with huge green branches. The girls -dance round it, and at the same time a lad wrapt in leaves and called -Father May is led about.[288] In the small towns of the Franken Wald -[Sidenote: The _Walber_.] mountains in Northern Bavaria, on the second -of May, a _Walber_ tree is erected before a tavern, and a man dances -round it, enveloped in straw from head to foot in such a way that the -ears of corn unite above his head to form a crown. He is called the -_Walber_, and used to be led in procession through the streets, which -were adorned with sprigs of birch.[289] - -[Sidenote: Green George in Carinthia.] Amongst the Slavs of Carinthia, -on St. George’s Day (the twenty-third of April), the young people deck -with flowers and garlands a tree which has been felled on the eve of the -festival. The tree is then carried in procession, accompanied with music -and joyful acclamations, the chief figure in the procession being the -Green George, a young fellow clad from head to foot in green birch -branches. At the close of the ceremonies the Green George, that is an -effigy of him, is thrown into the water. It is the aim of the lad who -acts Green George to step out of his leafy envelope and substitute the -effigy so adroitly that no one shall perceive the change. In many -places, however, the lad himself who plays the part of Green George is -ducked in a river or pond, with the express intention of thus ensuring -rain to make the fields and meadows green in summer. In some places the -cattle are crowned and driven from their stalls to the accompaniment of -a song:— - - “_Green George we bring, - Green George we accompany, - May he feed our herds well. - If not, to the water with him._”[290] - -Here we see that the same powers of making rain and fostering the -cattle, which are ascribed to the tree-spirit regarded as incorporate in -the tree, are also attributed to the tree-spirit represented by a living -man. - -[Sidenote: Green George among the gypsies.] Among the gypsies of -Transylvania and Roumania the festival of Green George is the chief -celebration of spring. Some of them keep it on Easter Monday, others on -St. George’s Day (the twenty-third of April). On the eve of the festival -a young willow tree is cut down, adorned with garlands and leaves, and -set up in the ground. Women with child place one of their garments under -the tree, and leave it there over night; if next morning they find a -leaf of the tree lying on the garment, they know that their delivery -will be easy. Sick and old people go to the tree in the evening, spit on -it thrice, and say, “You will soon die, but let us live.” Next morning -the gypsies gather about the willow. The chief figure of the festival is -Green George, a lad who is concealed from top to toe in green leaves and -blossoms. He throws a few handfuls of grass to the beasts of the tribe, -in order that they may have no lack of fodder throughout the year. Then -he takes three iron nails, which have lain for three days and nights in -water, and knocks them into the willow; after which he pulls them out -and flings them into a running stream to propitiate the water-spirits. -Finally, a pretence is made of throwing Green George into the water, but -in fact it is only a puppet made of branches and leaves which is ducked -in the stream.[291] In this version of the custom the powers of granting -an easy delivery to women and of communicating vital energy to the sick -and old are clearly ascribed to the willow; while Green George, the -human double of the tree, bestows food on the cattle, and further -ensures the favour of the water-spirits by putting them in indirect -communication with the tree. - -[Sidenote: Double representation of the tree-spirit by tree and man -among the Oraons.] An example of the double representation of the spirit -of vegetation by a tree and a living man is reported from Bengal. The -Oraons have a festival in spring while the sál-trees are in blossom, -because they think that at this time the marriage of earth is celebrated -and the sál flowers are necessary for the ceremony. On an appointed day -the villagers go with their priest to the Sarna, the sacred grove, a -remnant of the old sál forest in which a goddess Sarna Burhi, or woman -of the grove, is supposed to dwell. She is thought to have great -influence on the rain; and the priest arriving with his party at the -grove sacrifices to her five fowls, of which a morsel is given to each -person present. Then they gather the sál flowers and return laden with -them to the village. Next day the priest visits every house, carrying -the flowers in a wide open basket. The women of each house bring out -water to wash his feet as he approaches, and kneeling make him an -obeisance. Then he dances with them and places some of the sál flowers -over the door of the house and in the women’s hair. No sooner is this -done than the women empty their water-jugs over him, drenching him to -the skin. A feast follows, and the young people, with sál flowers in -their hair, dance all night on the village green.[292] Here, the -equivalence of the flower-bearing priest to the goddess of the flowering -tree comes out plainly. For she is supposed to influence the rain, and -the drenching of the priest with water is, doubtless, like the ducking -of the Green George in Carinthia and elsewhere, a rain-charm. Thus the -priest, as if he were the tree goddess herself, goes from door to door -dispensing rain and bestowing fruitfulness on each house, but especially -on the women. In some parts [Sidenote: Double representation of the -harvest-goddess Gauri by a bundle of plants and an unmarried girl.] of -India the harvest-goddess Gauri, the wife of Siva, is represented both -by an unmarried girl and by a bundle of the wild flowering balsam plant -touch-me-not (_Impatiens sp._), which is tied up in a mummy-like figure -with a woman’s mask, dress, and ornaments. Before being removed from the -soil to represent the goddess the plants are worshipped. The girl is -also worshipped. Then the bundle of plants is carried and the girl who -personates the goddess walks through the rooms of the house, while the -supposed footprints of Gauri herself are imprinted on the floor with red -paste. On entering each room the human representative of Gauri is asked, -“Gauri, Gauri, whither have you come and what do you see?” and the girl -makes appropriate replies. Then she is given a mouthful of sweets and -the mistress of the house says, “Come with golden feet and stay for -ever.” The plant-formed effigy of Gauri is afterwards worshipped as the -goddess herself and receives offerings of rice-cakes and pancakes. On -the third day it is thrown into a river or tank; then a handful of -pebbles or sand is brought home from the spot and thrown all over the -house and the trees to bring good luck to the house and to protect the -trees from vermin. A remarkable feature of the ceremonies is that the -goddess Gauri is supposed to be secretly followed by her husband Siva, -who remains hidden under the fold of her garment and is represented by a -_lôṭâ_, covered by a coco-nut and filled with rice, which is carefully -measured. After the image of Gauri has been thrown into the river or -tank, the rice in the _lôṭâ_ representing Siva is carefully measured -again, in order to see whether the quantity has increased or decreased, -and according to the result an abundant or a scanty harvest is -prognosticated.[293] Hence it appears that the whole ritual aims at -ensuring a plentiful crop of rice. In this case the spirit of vegetation -thus represented in duplicate by a living girl and the effigy of a woman -is a harvest goddess, not a tree-spirit, but the principle is the same. - -[Sidenote: W. Mannhardt’s summary of the evidence.] Without citing more -examples to the same effect, we may sum up the results of the preceding -pages in the words of Mannhardt: “The customs quoted suffice to -establish with certainty the conclusion that in these spring processions -the spirit of vegetation is often represented both by the May-tree and -in addition by a man dressed in green leaves or flowers or by a girl -similarly adorned. It is the same spirit which animates the tree and is -active in the inferior plants and which we have recognised in the -May-tree and the Harvest-May. Quite consistently the spirit is also -supposed to manifest his presence in the first flower of spring and -reveals himself both in a girl representing a May-rose, and also, as -giver of harvest, in the person of the _Walber_. The procession with -this representative of the divinity was supposed to produce the same -beneficial effects on the fowls, the fruit-trees, and the crops as the -presence of the deity himself. In other words, the mummer was regarded -not as an image but as an actual representative of the spirit of -vegetation; hence the wish expressed by the attendants on the May-rose -and the May-tree that those who refuse them gifts of eggs, bacon, and so -forth, may have no share in the blessings which it is in the power of -the itinerant spirit to bestow. We may conclude that these begging -processions with May-trees or May-boughs from door to door (‘bringing -the May or the summer’) had everywhere originally a serious and, so to -speak, sacramental significance; people really believed that the god of -growth was present unseen in the bough; by the procession he was brought -to each house to bestow his blessing. The names May, Father May, May -Lady, Queen of the May, by which the anthropomorphic spirit of -vegetation is often denoted, shew that the idea of the spirit of -vegetation is blent with a personification of the season at which his -powers are most strikingly manifested.”[294] - -[Sidenote: Tree-spirit or vegetation-spirit represented by a person -alone.] Thus far we have seen that the tree-spirit or the spirit of -vegetation in general is represented either in vegetable form alone, as -by a tree, bough, or flower; or in vegetable and human form -simultaneously, as by a tree, bough, or flower in combination with a -puppet or a living person. It remains to shew that the representation of -him by a tree, bough, or flower is sometimes entirely dropped, while the -representation of him by a living person remains. In this case the -representative character of the person is generally marked by dressing -him or her in leaves or flowers; sometimes too it is indicated by the -name he or she bears. - -[Sidenote: Green George in Russia.] Thus in some parts of Russia on St. -George’s Day (the twenty-third of April) a youth is dressed out, like -our Jack-in-the-Green, with leaves and flowers. The Slovenes call him -the Green George. Holding a lighted torch in one hand and a pie in the -other, he goes out to the corn-fields, followed by girls singing -appropriate songs. A circle of brushwood is then lighted, in the middle -of which is set the pie. All who take part in the ceremony then sit down -around the fire and divide the pie among them.[295] In this custom the -Green George dressed in leaves and flowers is plainly identical with the -similarly disguised Green George who is associated with a tree in the -Carinthian, Transylvanian, and Roumanian customs observed on the same -day. Again, [Sidenote: Whitsuntide customs in Russia.] we saw that in -Russia at Whitsuntide a birch-tree is dressed in woman’s clothes and set -up in the house. Clearly equivalent to this is the custom observed on -Whit-Monday by Russian girls in the district of Pinsk. They choose the -prettiest of their number, envelop her in a mass of foliage taken from -the birch-trees and maples, and carry her about through the village. In -a district of Little Russia they take round a “poplar,” represented by a -girl wearing bright flowers in her hair.[296] At Whitsuntide in Holland -poor women used to go about begging with a little girl called -Whitsuntide Flower (_Pinxterbloem_, perhaps a kind of iris); she was -decked with flowers and sat in a waggon. In North Brabant she wears the -flowers from which she takes her name and a song is sung:— - - “_Whitsuntide Flower, - Turn yourself once round._”[297] - -[Sidenote: May customs in France.] All over Provence on the first of May -pretty little girls are dressed in white, decked with crowns and wreaths -of roses, and set on seats or platforms strewn with flowers in the -streets, while their companions go about begging coppers for the Mayos -or Mayes, as they are called, from the passers-by.[298] In some parts of -the Ardennes on May Day a small girl, clad in white and wearing a -chaplet of flowers on her head, used to go from house to house with her -play-mates, collecting contributions and singing that it was May, the -month of May, the pretty month of May, that the wheat was tall, the -hawthorn in bloom, and the lark carolling in the sky.[299] - -[Sidenote: The Little Leaf Man.] In Ruhla (Thüringen) as soon as the -trees begin to grow green in spring, the children assemble on a Sunday -and go out into the woods, where they choose one of their play-mates to -be the Little Leaf Man. They break branches from the trees and twine -them about the child till only his shoes peep out from the leafy mantle. -Holes are made in it for him to see through, and two of the children -lead the Little Leaf Man that he may not stumble or fall. Singing and -dancing they take him from house to house, asking for gifts of food such -as eggs, cream, sausages, and cakes. Lastly, they sprinkle the Leaf Man -with water and feast on the food they have collected.[300] At -Röllshausen on the [Sidenote: Leaf-clad mummers at Whitsuntide.] -Schwalm, in Hesse, when afternoon service is over on Whitsunday, the -schoolboys and schoolgirls go out into the wood and there clothe a boy -from head to foot in leaves so that nobody would know him. He is called -the Little Whitsuntide Man. A procession is then formed. Two boys lead -their leaf-clad playfellow; two others precede him with a basket; and -two girls with another basket bring up the rear. Thus they go from house -to house singing hymns or popular songs and collecting eggs and cakes in -the baskets. When they have feasted on these, they strip their comrade -of his verdant envelope on an open place in front of the village.[301] -In some parts of Rhenish Bavaria at Whitsuntide a boy or lad is swathed -in the yellow blossom of the broom, the dark green twigs of the firs, -and other foliage. Thus attired he is known as the Quack and goes from -door to door, whirling about in the dance, while an appropriate song is -chanted and his companions levy contributions.[302] In the Fricktal, -Switzerland, at Whitsuntide boys go out into a wood and swathe one of -their number in leafy boughs. He is called the Whitsuntide-lout -(_Pfingstlümmel_), and being mounted on horseback with a green branch in -his hand he is led back into the village. At the village-well a halt is -called and the leaf-clad lout is dismounted and ducked in the trough. -Thereby he acquires the right of sprinkling water on everybody, and he -exercises the right specially on girls and street urchins. The urchins -march before him in bands begging him to give them a Whitsuntide -wetting.[303] - -[Sidenote: Jack-in-the-Green in England.] In England the best-known -example of these leaf-clad mummers is the Jack-in-the-Green, a -chimney-sweeper who walks encased in a pyramidal framework of -wickerwork, which is covered with holly and ivy, and surmounted by a -crown of flowers and ribbons. Thus arrayed he dances on May Day at the -head of a troop of chimney-sweeps, who collect pence.[304] The ceremony -was witnessed at Cheltenham on the second of May 1892, by Dr. W. H. D. -Rouse, who has described in detail the costume of the performers. They -were all chimney-sweeps of the town. Jack-in-the-Green or the -Bush-carrier was enclosed in a wooden framework on which leaves were -fastened so as to make a thick cone about six feet high, topped with a -crown, which consisted of two wooden hoops placed crosswise and covered -with flowers. The leafy envelope was unbroken except for a single -opening through which peered the face of the mummer. From time to time -in their progress through the streets the performers halted, and three -of them, dressed in red, blue, and yellow respectively, tripped lightly -round the leaf-covered man to the inspiring strains of a fiddle and a -tin whistle on which two of their comrades with blackened faces -discoursed sweet music. The leader of the procession was a clown -fantastically clad in a long white pinafore or blouse with coloured -fringes and frills, and wearing on his head a beaver hat of the familiar -pattern, the crown of which hung loose and was adorned with ribbons and -a bird or a bundle of feathers. Large black rings surrounded his eyes, -and a red dab over mouth and chin lent a pleasing variety to his -countenance. He contributed to the public hilarity by flapping the -yellow fringe of his blouse with quaint gestures and occasionally -fanning himself languidly. His efforts were seconded by another -performer, who wore a red fool’s cap, all stuck with flowers, and a -white pinafore enriched with black human figures in front and a black -gridiron-like pattern, crossed diagonally by a red bar, at the back. Two -boys in white pinafores, with similar figures, or stars, on the breast, -and a fish on the back, completed the company. Formerly there used to be -a man in woman’s clothes, who personated the clown’s wife.[305] In some -parts also of France a young fellow is encased in a wicker framework -covered with leaves and is led about.[306] In Frickthal, in the Swiss -[Sidenote: The Whitsuntide Basket in Switzerland.] canton of Aargau, a -similar frame of basketwork is called the Whitsuntide Basket. As soon as -the trees begin to bud, a spot is chosen in the wood, and here the -village lads make the frame with all secrecy, lest others should -forestall them. Leafy branches are twined round two hoops, one of which -rests on the shoulders of the wearer, the other encircles his calves; -holes are made for his eyes and mouth; and a large nosegay crowns the -whole. In this guise he appears suddenly in the village at the hour of -vespers, preceded by three boys blowing on horns made of willow bark. -The great object of his supporters is to set up the Whitsuntide Basket -on the village well, and to keep it and him there, despite the efforts -of the lads from neighbouring villages, who seek to carry off the -Whitsuntide Basket and set it up on their own well.[307] In the -neighbourhood of Ertingen (Würtemberg) a [Sidenote: The Lazy Man in -Würtemberg.] masker of the same sort, known as the Lazy Man -(_Latzmann_), goes about the village on Midsummer Day; he is hidden -under a great pyramidal or conical frame of wickerwork, ten or twelve -feet high, which is completely covered with sprigs of fir. He has a bell -which he rings as he goes, and he is attended by a suite of persons -dressed up in character—a footman, a colonel, a butcher, an angel, the -devil, the doctor, and so on. They march in Indian file and halt before -every house, where each of them speaks in character, except the Lazy -Man, who says nothing. With what they get by begging from door to door -they hold a feast.[308] - -In the class of cases of which the foregoing are specimens it is obvious -that the leaf-clad person who is led about is equivalent to the -May-tree, May-bough, or May-doll, which is carried from house to house -by children begging. Both are representatives of the beneficent spirit -of vegetation, whose visit to the house is recompensed by a present of -money or food. - -[Sidenote: Leaf-clad representative of vegetation sometimes called a -King or Queen.] Often the leaf-clad person who represents the spirit of -vegetation is known as the king or the queen; thus, for example, he or -she is called the May King, Whitsuntide King, Queen of May, and so on. -These titles, as Mannhardt observes, imply that the spirit incorporate -in vegetation is a ruler, whose creative power extends far and -wide.[309] - -[Sidenote: May-Kings at Whitsuntide in Germany and Bohemia.] In a -village near Salzwedel a May-tree is set up at Whitsuntide and the boys -race to it; he who reaches it first is king; a garland of flowers is put -round his neck and in his hand he carries a May-bush, with which, as the -procession moves along, he sweeps away the dew. At each house they sing -a song, wishing the inmates good luck, referring to the “black cow in -the stall milking white milk, black hen on the nest laying white eggs,” -and begging a gift of eggs, bacon, and so on.[310] At the village of -Ellgoth in Silesia a ceremony called the King’s Race is observed at -Whitsuntide. A pole with a cloth tied to it is set up in a meadow, and -the young men ride past it on horseback, each trying to snatch away the -cloth as he gallops by. The one who succeeds in carrying it off and -dipping it in the neighbouring Oder is proclaimed King.[311] Here the -pole is clearly a substitute for a May-tree. In some villages of -Brunswick at Whitsuntide a May King is completely enveloped in a -May-bush. In some parts of Thüringen also they have a May King at -Whitsuntide, but he is dressed up rather differently. A frame of wood is -made in which a man can stand; it is completely covered with birch -boughs and is surmounted by a crown of birch and flowers, in which a -bell is fastened. This frame is placed in the wood and the May King gets -into it. The rest go out and look for him, and when they have found him -they lead him back into the village to the magistrate, the clergyman, -and others, who have to guess who is in the verdurous frame. If they -guess wrong, the May King rings his bell by shaking his head, and a -forfeit of beer or the like must be paid by the unsuccessful -guesser.[312] At Wahrstedt in Brunswick the boys at Whitsuntide choose -by lot a king and a high-steward (_füstje-meier_). The latter is -completely concealed in a May-bush, wears a wooden crown wreathed with -flowers, and carries a wooden sword. The king, on the other hand, is -only distinguished by a nosegay in his cap, and a reed, with a red -ribbon tied to it, in his hand. They beg for eggs from house to house, -threatening that, where none are given, none will be laid by the hens -throughout the year. In this custom the high-steward appears, for some -reason, to have usurped the insignia of the king.[313] At Hildesheim, in -Hanover, five or six young fellows go about on the afternoon of -Whit-Monday cracking long whips in measured time and collecting eggs -from the houses. The chief person of the band is the [Sidenote: The Leaf -King.] Leaf King, a lad swathed so completely in birchen twigs that -nothing of him can be seen but his feet. A huge head-dress of birchen -twigs adds to his apparent stature. In his hand he carries a long crook, -with which he tries to catch stray dogs and children.[314] In some parts -of Bohemia on Whit-Monday the young fellows disguise themselves in tall -caps of birch bark adorned with flowers. One of them is dressed as a -king and dragged on a sledge to the village green, and if on the way -they pass a pool the sledge is always overturned into it. Arrived at the -green they gather round the king; the crier jumps on a stone or climbs -up a tree and recites lampoons about each house and its inmates. -Afterwards the disguises of bark are stripped off and they go about the -village in holiday attire, carrying a May-tree and begging. Cakes, eggs, -and corn are sometimes given them.[315] At Grossvargula, near -Langensalza, in [Sidenote: The Grass King.] the eighteenth century a -Grass King used to be led about in procession at Whitsuntide. He was -encased in a pyramid of poplar branches, the top of which was adorned -with a royal crown of branches and flowers. He rode on horseback with -the leafy pyramid over him, so that its lower end touched the ground, -and an opening was left in it only for his face. Surrounded by a -cavalcade of young fellows, he rode in procession to the town hall, the -parsonage, and so on, where they all got a drink of beer. Then under the -seven lindens of the neighbouring Sommerberg, the Grass King was -stripped of his green casing; the crown was handed to the Mayor, and the -branches were stuck in the flax fields in order to make the flax grow -tall.[316] In this last trait the fertilising influence ascribed to the -representative of the tree-spirit comes out clearly. In the -neighbourhood of Pilsen (Bohemia) a conical hut of green branches, -without any door, is erected at Whitsuntide in the midst of the village. -To this hut rides a troop of village lads with a king at their head. He -wears a sword at his side and a sugar-loaf hat of rushes on his head. In -his train are a judge, a crier, and a personage called the Frog-flayer -or Hangman. This last is a sort of ragged merryandrew, wearing a rusty -old sword and bestriding a sorry hack. On reaching the hut the crier -dismounts and goes round it looking for a door. Finding none, he says, -“Ah, this is perhaps an enchanted castle; the witches creep through the -leaves and need no door.” At last he draws his sword and hews his way -into the hut, where there is a chair, on which he seats himself and -proceeds to criticise in rhyme the girls, farmers, and farm-servants of -the neighbourhood. When this is over, the Frog-flayer steps forward and, -after exhibiting a cage with frogs in it, sets up a gallows on which he -hangs the frogs in a row.[317] In the neighbourhood of Plas the ceremony -differs in some points. The king and his soldiers are completely clad in -bark, adorned with flowers and ribbons; they all carry swords and ride -horses, which are gay with green branches and flowers. While the village -dames and girls are being criticised at the arbour, a frog is secretly -pinched and poked by the crier till it quacks. Sentence of death is -passed on the frog by the king; the hangman beheads it and flings the -bleeding body among the spectators. Lastly, the king is driven from the -hut and pursued by the soldiers.[318] The pinching and beheading of the -frog are doubtless, as Mannhardt observes,[319] a rain-charm. We have -seen that some Indians of the Orinoco beat frogs for the express purpose -of producing rain, and that killing a frog is a European -rain-charm.[320] - -[Sidenote: May-Queens and Whitsuntide Queens.] Often the spirit of -vegetation in spring is represented by a queen instead of a king. In the -neighbourhood of Libchowic (Bohemia), on the fourth Sunday in Lent, -girls dressed in white and wearing the first spring flowers, as violets -and daisies, in their hair, lead about the village a girl who is called -the Queen and is crowned with flowers. During the procession, which is -conducted with great solemnity, none of the girls may stand still, but -must keep whirling round continually and singing. In every house the -Queen announces the arrival of spring and wishes the inmates good luck -and blessings, for which she receives presents.[321] In German Hungary -the girls choose the prettiest girl to be their Whitsuntide Queen, -fasten a towering wreath on her brow, and carry her singing through the -streets. At every house they stop, sing old ballads, and receive -presents.[322] In the south-east of Ireland on May Day the prettiest -girl used to be chosen Queen of the district for twelve months. She was -crowned with wild flowers; feasting, dancing, and rustic sports -followed, and were closed by a grand procession in the evening. During -her year of office she presided over rural gatherings of young people at -dances and merry-makings. If she married before next May Day, her -authority was at an end, but her successor was not elected till that day -came round.[323] The May Queen is common in France[324] and familiar in -England. Thus at the adjoining [Sidenote: The May Queen in -Warwickshire.] villages of Cherrington and Stourton in south -Warwickshire, the Queen of May is still represented on May Day by a -small girl dressed in white and wearing a wreath of flowers on her head. -An older girl wheels the Queen in what is called a mail-cart, that is, a -child’s perambulator on two wheels. Another girl carries a money-box. -Four boys bear the May-pole, a conical framework formed of a high tripod -with a central shaft. The whole structure is encased in a series of five -hoops, which rise one above the other, diminishing in size from bottom -to top with the tapering of the cone. The hoops, as well as the tripod -and the central shaft, are all covered with whatever flowers happen to -be in bloom, such as marsh-marigolds, primroses, or blue-bells. To the -top of the central shaft is fastened a bunch of the flower called -crown-imperial, if it is in season. The lowest hoop is crossed by two -bars at right angles to each other, and the projecting ends of the bars -serve as handles, by which the four boys carry the May-pole. Each of the -bearers has a garland of flowers slung over his shoulder. Thus the -children go from house to house, singing their songs and receiving -money, which goes to provide a treat for them in the afternoon.[325] - -[Sidenote: Spirit of vegetation represented simultaneously by a King and -Queen or a Bridegroom and Bride.] Again the spirit of vegetation is -sometimes represented by a king and queen, a lord and lady, or a -bridegroom and bride. Here again the parallelism holds between the -anthropomorphic and the vegetable representation of the tree-spirit, for -we have seen above that trees are sometimes married to each other.[326] -At Halford in south Warwickshire the children go from house to house on -May Day, [Sidenote: Whitsuntide King and Queen.] walking two and two in -procession and headed by a King and Queen. Two boys carry a May-pole -some six or seven feet high, which is covered with flowers and greenery. -Fastened to it near the top are two cross-bars at right angles to each -other. These are also decked with flowers, and from the ends of the bars -hang hoops similarly adorned. At the houses the children sing May songs -and receive money, which is used to provide tea for them at the -school-house in the afternoon.[327] In a Bohemian village near -Königgrätz on Whit-Monday the children play the king’s game, at which a -king and queen march about under a canopy, the queen wearing a garland, -and the youngest girl carrying two wreaths on a plate behind them. They -are attended by boys and girls called groomsmen and bridesmaids, and -they go from house to house collecting gifts.[328] A regular feature in -the popular celebration of Whitsuntide in Silesia used to be, and to -some extent still is, the contest for the kingship. This contest took -various forms, but the mark or goal was generally the May-tree or -May-pole. Sometimes the youth who succeeded in climbing the smooth pole -and bringing down the prize was proclaimed the Whitsuntide King and his -sweetheart the Whitsuntide Bride. Afterwards the king, carrying the -May-bush, repaired with the rest of the company to the ale-house, where -a dance and a feast ended the merry-making. Often the young farmers and -labourers raced on horseback to the May-pole, which was adorned with -flowers, ribbons, and a crown. He who first reached the pole was the -Whitsuntide King, and the rest had to obey his orders for that day. The -worst rider became the clown. At the May-tree all dismounted and hoisted -the king on their shoulders. He nimbly swarmed up the pole and brought -down the May-bush and the crown, which had been fastened to the top. -Meantime the clown hurried to the ale-house and proceeded to bolt thirty -rolls of bread and to swig four quart bottles of brandy with the utmost -possible despatch. He was followed by the king, who bore the May-bush -and crown at the head of the company. If on their arrival the clown had -already disposed of the rolls and the brandy, and greeted the king with -a speech and a glass of beer, his score was paid by the king; otherwise -he had to settle it himself. After church time the stately procession -wound through the village. At the head of it rode the king, decked with -flowers and carrying the May-bush. Next came the clown with his clothes -turned inside out, a great flaxen beard on his chin, and the Whitsuntide -crown on his head. Two riders disguised as guards followed. The -procession drew up before every farmyard; the two guards dismounted, -shut the clown into the house, and claimed a contribution from the -housewife to buy soap with which to wash the clown’s beard. Custom -allowed them to carry off any victuals which were not under lock and -key. Last of all they came to the house in which the king’s sweetheart -lived. She was greeted as Whitsuntide Queen and received suitable -presents—to wit, a many-coloured sash, a cloth, and an apron. The king -got as a prize, a vest, a neckcloth, and so forth, and had the right of -setting up the May-bush or Whitsuntide-tree before his master’s yard, -where it remained as an honourable token till the same day next year. -Finally the procession took its way to the tavern, where the king and -queen opened the dance. Sometimes the Whitsuntide King and Queen -succeeded to office in a different way. A man of straw, as [Sidenote: -King and Queen of May.] large as life and crowned with a red cap, was -conveyed in a cart, between two men armed and disguised as guards, to a -place where a mock court was waiting to try him. A great crowd followed -the cart. After a formal trial the straw man was condemned to death and -fastened to a stake on the execution ground. The young men with bandaged -eyes tried to stab him with a spear. He who succeeded became king and -his sweetheart queen. The straw man was known as the Goliath.[329] Near -Grenoble, in France, a king and queen are chosen on the first of May and -are set on a throne for all to see.[330] At Headington, near Oxford, -children used to carry garlands from door to door on May Day. Each -garland was borne by two girls, and they were followed by a lord and -lady—a boy and girl linked together by a white handkerchief, of which -each held an end, and dressed with ribbons, sashes, and flowers. At each -door they sang a verse:— - - “_Gentlemen and ladies, - We wish you happy May; - We come to shew you a garland, - Because it is May-day._” - -On receiving money the lord put his arm about his lady’s waist and -kissed her.[331] At Fleuriers in Switzerland on the seventh of May 1843 -a May-bridegroom (_Époux de Mai_) and his bride were escorted in a -procession of over two hundred children, some of whom carried green -branches of beech. A number of May Fools were entrusted with the -delicate duty of going round with the hat. The proceeds of their tact -and industry furnished a banquet in the evening, and the day ended with -a children’s ball.[332] In some Saxon villages at Whitsuntide a lad and -a lass used to disguise themselves and hide in the bushes or high grass -outside the village. Then the whole village went out with music “to seek -the bridal pair.” When they found the couple they all gathered round -them, the music struck up, and the bridal pair was led merrily to the -village. In the evening they danced. In some places the bridal pair was -called the prince and the princess.[333] - -[Sidenote: Whitsuntide Bridegroom and Bride in Denmark.] In a parish of -Denmark it used to be the custom at Whitsuntide to dress up a little -girl as the Whitsun-bride (_pinse-bruden_) and a little boy as her -groom. She was decked in all the finery of a grown-up bride, and wore a -crown of the freshest flowers of spring on her head. Her groom was as -gay as flowers, ribbons, and knots could make him. The other children -adorned themselves as best they could with the yellow flowers of the -trollius and caltha. Then they went in great state from farmhouse to -farmhouse, two little girls walking at the head of the procession as -bridesmaids, and six or eight outriders galloping ahead on hobby-horses -to announce their coming. Contributions of eggs, butter, loaves, cream, -coffee, sugar, and tallow-candles were received and conveyed away in -baskets. When they had made the round of the farms, some of the farmers’ -wives helped to arrange the wedding feast, and the children danced -merrily in clogs on the stamped clay floor till the sun rose and the -birds began to sing. All this is now a thing of the past. Only the old -folks still remember the little Whitsun-bride and her mimic pomp.[334] - -[Sidenote: Midsummer Bridegroom and Bride in Sweden and Norway.] We have -seen that in Sweden the ceremonies associated elsewhere with May Day or -Whitsuntide commonly take place at Midsummer.[335] Accordingly we find -that in some parts of the Swedish province of Blekinge they still choose -a Midsummer’s Bride, to whom the “church coronet” is occasionally lent. -The girl selects for herself a Bridegroom, and a collection is made for -the pair, who for the time being are looked on as man and wife. The -other youths also choose each his bride.[336] A similar ceremony seems -to be still kept up in Norway, for a correspondent writes to me as -follows in reference to the Danish custom of the Whitsun-bride: “It may -interest you to know that on June 23, 1893, I witnessed at Ullensvang, -Hardanger, Norway, a ceremony almost exactly the same as that described -in your book. Wild flowers are scarce there, and the bride wore the -usual metal crown, the attendants for the most part wearing the pretty -Hardanger costume. The dancing took place in an unlighted barn, as the -farmer was afraid of fire. There were plenty of boys at the dance, but -so far as I can remember, none in the procession. The custom is clearly -dying out, and the somewhat reluctant bridegroom was the subject of a -good deal of chaff from his fellows.”[337] In Sardinia the Midsummer -couples are known as the Sweethearts of St. John, and their association -with the growth of plants is clearly brought out by the pots of -sprouting grain which form a principal part of the ceremony.[338] - -[Sidenote: Forsaken Bridegroom or Bride of May or Whitsuntide.] In the -neighbourhood of Briançon (Dauphiné) on May Day the lads wrap up in -green leaves a young fellow whose sweetheart has deserted him or married -another. He lies down on the ground and feigns to be asleep. Then a girl -who likes him, and would marry him, comes and wakes him, and raising him -up offers him her arm and a flag. So they go to the alehouse, where the -pair lead off the dancing. But they must marry within the year, or they -are treated as old bachelor and old maid, and are debarred the company -of the young folk. The lad is called the bridegroom of the month of May -(_le fiancé du mois de May_). In the alehouse he puts off his garment of -leaves, out of which, mixed with flowers, his partner in the dance makes -a nosegay, and wears it at her breast next day, when he leads her again -to the alehouse.[339] Like this is a Russian custom observed in the -district of Nerechta on the Thursday before Whitsunday. The girls go out -into a birch-wood, wind a girdle or band round a stately birch, twist -its lower branches into a wreath, and kiss each other in pairs through -the wreath. The girls who kiss through the wreath call each other -gossips. Then one of the girls steps forward, and mimicking a drunken -man, flings herself on the ground, rolls on the grass, and feigns to -fall fast asleep. Another girl wakens the pretended sleeper and kisses -him; then the whole bevy trips singing through the wood to twine -garlands, which they throw into the water. In the fate of the garlands -floating on the stream they read their own.[340] Here the part of the -sleeper was probably at one time played by a lad. In these French and -Russian customs we have a forsaken bridegroom, in the following a -forsaken bride. On Shrove Tuesday the Slovenes of Oberkrain drag a straw -puppet with joyous cries up and down the village; then they throw it -into the water or burn it, and from the height of the flames they judge -of the abundance of the next harvest. The noisy crew is followed by a -female masker, who drags a great board by a string and gives out that -she is a forsaken bride.[341] - -Viewed in the light of what has gone before, the awakening of the -forsaken sleeper in these ceremonies probably represents the revival of -vegetation in spring. But it is not easy to assign their respective -parts to the forsaken bridegroom and to the girl who wakes him from his -slumber. Is the sleeper the leafless forest or the bare earth of winter? -Is the girl who wakens him the fresh verdure or the genial sunshine of -spring? It is hardly possible, on the evidence before us, to answer -these questions. The Oraons of Bengal, it may be remembered, celebrate -the marriage of earth in the springtime, when the sál-tree is in -blossom.[342] But from this we can hardly argue that in the European -ceremonies the sleeping bridegroom is “the dreaming earth” and the girl -the spring blossoms. - -[Sidenote: St. Bride in Scotland and the Isle of Man.] In the Highlands -of Scotland the revival of vegetation in spring used to be graphically -represented on St. Bride’s Day, the first of February. Thus in the -Hebrides “the mistress and servants of each family take a sheaf of oats, -and dress it up in women’s apparel, put it in a large basket, and lay a -wooden club by it, and this they call Briid’s bed; and then the mistress -and servants cry three times, ‘Briid is come, Briid is welcome.’ This -they do just before going to bed, and when they rise in the morning they -look among the ashes, expecting to see the impression of Briid’s club -there; which if they do, they reckon it a true presage of a good crop -and prosperous year, and the contrary they take as an ill omen.”[343] -The same custom is described by another witness thus: “Upon the night -before Candlemas it is usual to make a bed with corn and hay, over which -some blankets are laid, in a part of the house, near the door. When it -is ready, a person goes out and repeats three times, ... ‘Bridget, -Bridget, come in; thy bed is ready.’ One or more candles are left -burning near it all night.”[344] Similarly in the Isle of Man “on the -eve of the first of February, a festival was formerly kept, called, in -the Manks language, _Laa’l Breeshey_, in honour of the Irish lady who -went over to the Isle of Man to receive the veil from St. Maughold. The -custom was to gather a bundle of green rushes, and standing with them in -the hand on the threshold of the door, to invite the holy Saint Bridget -to come and lodge with them that night. In the Manks language, the -invitation ran thus:—‘_Brede, Brede, tar gys my thie tar dyn thie ayms -noght. Foshil jee yn dorrys da Brede, as lhig da Brede e heet staigh._’ -In English: ‘Bridget, Bridget, come to my house, come to my house -to-night. Open the door for Bridget, and let Bridget come in.’ After -these words were repeated, the rushes were strewn on the floor by way of -a carpet or bed for St. Bridget. A custom very similar to this was also -observed in some of the Out-Isles of the ancient kingdom of Man.”[345] -In these Manx and Highland ceremonies it is obvious that St. Bride, or -St. Bridget, is an old heathen goddess of fertility, disguised in a -threadbare Christian cloak. Probably she is no other than the Celtic -goddess Brigit, who will meet us again later on.[346] - -[Sidenote: May Bride or Whitsuntide Bride.] Often the marriage of the -spirit of vegetation in spring, though not directly represented, is -implied by naming the human representative of the spirit, “the Bride,” -and dressing her in wedding attire. Thus in some villages of Altmark at -Whitsuntide, while the boys go about carrying a May-tree or leading a -boy enveloped in leaves and flowers, the girls lead about the May Bride, -a girl dressed as a bride with a great nosegay in her hair. They go from -house to house, the May Bride singing a song in which she asks for a -present, and tells the inmates of each house that if they give her -something they will themselves have something the whole year through; -but if they give her nothing they will themselves have nothing.[347] In -some parts of Westphalia two girls lead a flower-crowned girl called the -Whitsuntide Bride from door to door, singing a song in which they ask -for eggs.[348] At Waggum in Brunswick, when service is over on -Whitsunday, the village girls assemble, dressed in white or bright -colours, decked with flowers, and wearing chaplets of spring flowers in -their hair. One of them represents the May Bride, and carries a crown of -flowers on a staff as a sign of her dignity. As usual the children go -about from cottage to cottage singing and begging for eggs, sausages, -cakes, or money. In other parts of Brunswick it is a boy clothed all in -birch leaves who personates the May Bride.[349] In Bresse in the month -of May a girl called _la Mariée_ is tricked out with ribbons and -nosegays and is led about by a gallant. She is preceded by a lad -carrying a green May-tree, and appropriate verses are sung.[350] - -Footnote 239: - - Quoted by J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 246 (ed. Bohn). - -Footnote 240: - - T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. - 254. - -Footnote 241: - - W. Borlase, _The Natural History of Cornwall_ (Oxford, 1758), p. 294. - -Footnote 242: - - J. Brand, _op. cit._ i. 212 _sq._ - -Footnote 243: - - T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _Popular British Customs_, p. 233. - -Footnote 244: - - R. Chambers, _Book of Days_ (London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 578; T. - F. Thiselton Dyer, _op. cit._ pp. 237 _sq._ - -Footnote 245: - - W. Hone, _Every Day Book_ (London, N.D.), ii. 615 _sq._; T. F. - Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, pp. 251 _sq._ At Polebrook - in Northamptonshire the verses sung by the children on their rounds - include two which are almost identical with those sung at Abingdon in - Berkshire. See Dyer, _op. cit._ pp. 255 _sq._ The same verses were - formerly sung on May Day at Hitchin in Hertfordshire (Hone, _Every Day - Book_, i. 567 _sq._; Dyer, _op. cit._ pp. 240 _sq._). - -Footnote 246: - - Dyer, _op. cit._ p. 263. - -Footnote 247: - - Percy Manning, in _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893) pp. 403 _sq._ - -Footnote 248: - - _Id._, in _Folk-lore_, viii. (1897) p. 308. Customs of the same sort - are reported also from Combe, Headington, and Islip, all in - Oxfordshire (Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, pp. 261 _sq._). See - below, pp. 90 _sq._ - -Footnote 249: - - Dyer, _op. cit._ p. 243. - -Footnote 250: - - W. H. D. Rouse, in _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893) p. 53. I have witnessed the - ceremony almost annually for many years. Many of the hoops have no - doll, and ribbons or rags of coloured cloth are more conspicuous than - flowers in their decoration. - -Footnote 251: - - J. P. Emslie, in _Folk-lore_, xi. (1900) p. 210. - -Footnote 252: - - _Memoirs of Anna Maria Wilhelmina Pickering_, edited by her son, - Spencer Pickering (London, 1903), pp. 160 _sq._ - -Footnote 253: - - Lady Wilde, _Ancient Cures, Charms, and Usages of Ireland_ (London, - 1890), pp. 101 _sq._ At the ancient Greek festival of the Daphnephoria - or “Laurel-bearing” a staff of olive-wood, decked with laurels, purple - ribbons, and many-coloured flowers, was carried in procession, and - attached to it were two large globes representing the sun and moon, - together with a number of smaller globes which stood for the stars. - See Proclus, quoted by Photius, _Bibliotheca_, p. 321, ed. Bekker. - -Footnote 254: - - E. Cortet, _Essai sur les fêtes religieuses_ (Paris, 1867) pp. 167 - _sqq._ - -Footnote 255: - - _Revue des traditions populaires_, ii. (1887) p. 200. - -Footnote 256: - - W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Wien und - Olmütz, 1893), pp. 319 _sq._, 355-359. - -Footnote 257: - - _Folk-lore_, i. (1890) pp. 518 _sqq._ - -Footnote 258: - - W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_ 2nd Ed., (London, - 1872), pp. 234 _sq._ - -Footnote 259: - - A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 315. - -Footnote 260: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 162. - -Footnote 261: - - L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, p. 235. - -Footnote 262: - - L. Lloyd, _op. cit._ pp. 257 _sqq._ - -Footnote 263: - - H. Pröhle, _Harzbilder_ (Leipsic, 1855), pp. 19 _sq._ Compare _id._, - in _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) - pp. 81 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_, pp. 512 _sqq._; A. - Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ - (Leipsic, 1848), p. 390, § 80. - -Footnote 264: - - Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_ (Prague, N.D.), pp. - 308 _sq._ A fuller description of the ceremony will be given later. - -Footnote 265: - - For the evidence see J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 234 _sqq._; - W. Hone, _Every Day Book_, i. 547 _sqq._, ii. 574 _sqq._; R. Chambers, - _Book of Days_, i. 574 _sqq._; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular - Customs_, pp. 228 _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 168 _sqq._ - -Footnote 266: - - Phillip Stubbes, _The Anatomie of Abuses_, p. 149 (F. J. Furnivall’s - reprint). In later editions some verbal changes were made. - -Footnote 267: - - W. Borlase, _Natural History of Cornwall_ (Oxford, 1758), p. 294. - -Footnote 268: - - W. Hutchinson, _View of Northumberland_ (Newcastle, 1778), ii. - Appendix, pp. 13 _sq._; Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, p. 257. - -Footnote 269: - - “Padstow ‘Hobby Hoss,’” _Folklore_, xvi. (1905) pp. 59 _sq._ - -Footnote 270: - - E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ - (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 396. - -Footnote 271: - - E. Mogk, in R. Wuttke’s _Sächsische Volkskunde_ 2nd Ed., (Dresden, - 1901), pp. 309 _sq._ - -Footnote 272: - - M. Rentsch, in R. Wuttke’s _op. cit._ p. 359. - -Footnote 273: - - A. De Nore, _Coutumes, mythes et traditions des provinces de France_ - (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 137. - -Footnote 274: - - Bérenger-Féraud, _Superstitions et survivances_ (Paris, 1896), v. 308 - _sq._ Compare _id._, _Reminiscences populaires de la Provence_, pp. 21 - _sq._, 26, 27. - -Footnote 275: - - J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan - States_, part i. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1900) p. 529. - -Footnote 276: - - W. Hone, _Every Day Book_, i. 547 _sqq._; R. Chambers, _Book of Days_, - i. 571. - -Footnote 277: - - _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, i. 372. - -Footnote 278: - - W. Hone, _Every Day Book_, ii. 597 _sq._ Mr. G. W. Prothero tells me - that about the year 1875 he saw a permanent May-pole decked with - flowers on May Day on the road between Cambridge and St. Neot’s, not - far from the turning to Caxton. - -Footnote 279: - - See above, pp. 47 _sq._ - -Footnote 280: - - Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_, p. 217; W. - Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 566. - -Footnote 281: - - A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, - 1861-1862), ii. 74 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 566. - -Footnote 282: - - Aristophanes, _Plutus_, 1054; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und - Feldkulte_, pp. 222 _sq._ - -Footnote 283: - - Boecler-Kreutzwald, _Der Ehsten abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und - Gewohnheiten_, pp. 112-114. Some traits in this story seem to suggest - that the return of the trooper to his old home was, like that of the - war-broken veteran in Campbell’s poem, only a soldier’s dream. - -Footnote 284: - - Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_, pp. 86 _sqq._; W. - Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 156. - -Footnote 285: - - R. Chambers, _Book of Days_, i. 573. Compare the Cambridge custom, - described above, p. 62. - -Footnote 286: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 312. - -Footnote 287: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 313. - -Footnote 288: - - _Ibid._ p. 314. - -Footnote 289: - - _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iii. 357; W. - Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 312 _sq._ The word _Walber_ probably - comes from Walburgis, which is doubtless only another form of the - better known Walpurgis. The second of May is called Walburgis Day, at - least in this part of Bavaria. - -Footnote 290: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 313 _sq._ - -Footnote 291: - - H. von Wlislocki, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Zigeuner_ - (Münster i. W., 1891), pp. 148 _sq._ - -Footnote 292: - - E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 261. - -Footnote 293: - - B. A. Gupte, “Harvest Festivals in honour of Gauri and Ganesh,” - _Indian Antiquary_, xxxv. (1906) p. 61. - -Footnote 294: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 315 _sq._ - -Footnote 295: - - W. R. S. Ralston, _Russian Folk-tales_, p. 345. As to Green George see - above, pp. 75 _sq._ - -Footnote 296: - - W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 234. - -Footnote 297: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 318; J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, - 4th ed., ii. 657. - -Footnote 298: - - A. de Nore, _Coutumes, mythes et traditions des provinces de France_, - pp. 17 _sq._; Bérenger-Féraud, _Réminiscences populaires de la - Provence_, pp. 1 _sq._ - -Footnote 299: - - A. Meyrac, _Traditions, coutumes, légendes et contes des Ardennes_ - (Charleville, 1890), pp. 79-82. The girl was called the Trimouzette. A - custom of the same general character was practised down to recent - times in the Jura (Bérenger-Féraud, _Réminiscences populaires de la - Provence_, p. 18). - -Footnote 300: - - F. A. Reimann, _Deutsche Volksfeste im neunzehnten Jahrhundert_ - (Weimar, 1839), pp. 159 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 320; A. - Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, p. 211. - -Footnote 301: - - W. Kolbe, _Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche im Lichte der - heidnischen Vorzeit_ (Marburg, 1888), p. 70. - -Footnote 302: - - _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iv. 2, pp. - 359 _sq._ Similarly in the Département de l’Ain (France) on the first - of May eight or ten boys unite, clothe one of their number in leaves, - and go from house to house begging (W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. - 318). - -Footnote 303: - - E. Hoffmann-Krayer, “Fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen - Volksbrauch,” _Schweizerisches Archiv für Volkskunde_, xi. (1907) p. - 252. - -Footnote 304: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 322; W. Hone, _Every-Day Book_, i. 583 - _sqq._; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, pp. 230 _sq._ - -Footnote 305: - - W. H. D. Rouse, “May-Day in Cheltenham,” _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893) pp. - 50-53. On May Day 1891 I saw a Jack-in-the-Green in the streets of - Cambridge. - -Footnote 306: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 323. - -Footnote 307: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 323; H. Herzog, _Schweizerische - Volksfeste, Sitten und Gebräuche_ (Aarau, 1884), pp. 248 _sq._ - -Footnote 308: - - A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. 114 _sq._; W. - Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 325. - -Footnote 309: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 314 _sq._ - -Footnote 310: - - A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_, - p. 380. - -Footnote 311: - - F. Tetzner, “Die Tschechen und Mährer in Schlesien,” _Globus_, lxviii - (1900) p. 340. - -Footnote 312: - - A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _op. cit._ pp. 383 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, - _Baumkultus_, p. 342. - -Footnote 313: - - R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), pp. 249 - _sq._ - -Footnote 314: - - K. Seifart, _Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt und - Stift Hildesheim_, Zweite Auflage (Hildesheim, 1889), pp. 180 _sq._ - -Footnote 315: - - Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_, pp. 260 _sq._; W. - Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 342 _sq._ - -Footnote 316: - - F. A. Reimann, _Deutsche Volksfeste im neunzehnten Jahrhundert_, pp. - 157-159; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 347 _sq._; A. Witzschel, - _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 203. - -Footnote 317: - - Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_, pp. 253 _sqq._ - -Footnote 318: - - Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_, p. 262; W. - Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 353 _sq._ - -Footnote 319: - - _Baumkultus_, p. 355. - -Footnote 320: - - Above, vol. i. pp. 292, 293. - -Footnote 321: - - Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_, p. 93; W. - Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 344. - -Footnote 322: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 343 _sq._ - -Footnote 323: - - T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, pp. 270 _sq._ - -Footnote 324: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 344 _sqq._; E. Cortet, _Fêtes - religieuses_, pp. 160 _sqq._; D. Monnier, _Traditions populaires - comparées_, pp. 282 _sqq._; Bérenger-Féraud, _Réminiscences populaires - de la Provence_, pp. 17 _sq._; Ch. Beauquier, _Les Mois en - Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), pp. 65-69. In Franche-Comté she seems to - be generally known as _l’épousée_, “the spouse.” - -Footnote 325: - - From information given me by Mabel Bailey, in the service of Miss A. - Wyse of Halford. My informant’s father is a native of Stourton, and - she herself has spent much of her life there. I conjecture that the - conical flower-bedecked structure may once have been borne by a mummer - concealed within it. Compare the customs described above, pp. 82 _sq._ - -Footnote 326: - - Above, pp. 24 _sqq._ - -Footnote 327: - - From information given me by Miss A. Wyse of Halford. - -Footnote 328: - - Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_, pp. 265 _sq._; W. - Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 422. - -Footnote 329: - - P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, i. - (Leipsic, 1903) pp. 125-129. - -Footnote 330: - - D. Monnier, _Traditions populaires comparées_ (Paris, 1854), p. 304; - E. Cortet, _Fêtes religieuses_, p. 161; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. - 423. - -Footnote 331: - - J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 233 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, - _Baumkultus_, p. 424. We have seen (p. 62) that a custom of the same - sort used to be observed at Bampton-in-the-Bush in Oxfordshire. - -Footnote 332: - - E. Hoffmann-Krayer, “Fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen - Volksbrauch,” _Schweizerisches Archiv für Volkskunde_, xi. (1907) pp. - 257 _sq._ - -Footnote 333: - - E. Sommer, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen_ - (Halle, 1843), pp. 151 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 431 _sq._ - The custom is now obsolete (E. Mogk, in R. Wuttke’s _Sächsische - Volkskunde_, 2nd Ed., Dresden, 1901, p. 309). - -Footnote 334: - - H. F. Feilberg, in _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) pp. 194 _sq._ - -Footnote 335: - - See above, p. 65. - -Footnote 336: - - L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, p. 257. - -Footnote 337: - - Mr. W. C. Crofts, in a letter to me dated February 3, 1901, 9 - Northwich Terrace, Cheltenham. - -Footnote 338: - - For details see _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 202 _sq._ - -Footnote 339: - - This custom was told to W. Mannhardt by a French prisoner in the war - of 1870-71 (_Baumkultus_, p. 434). - -Footnote 340: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 434 _sq._ - -Footnote 341: - - _Ibid._ p. 435. - -Footnote 342: - - See above, pp. 76 _sq._ - -Footnote 343: - - M. Martin, _Description of the Western Islands of Scotland_ (London, - 1673 [1703]), p. 119; _id._ in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, iii. - 613; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 436. According to Martin, the - ceremony took place on Candlemas Day, the second of February. But this - seems to be a mistake. See J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second - Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_, pp. 247 _sq._ The - Rev. James Macdonald, of Reay in Caithness, was assured by old people - that the sheaf used in making Briid’s bed was the last sheaf cut at - harvest (J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_, p. 141). Later on we shall - see that the last sheaf is often regarded as embodying the spirit of - the corn, and special care is therefore taken of it. - -Footnote 344: - - John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth - Century_, edited by Alex. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 447. At - Ballinasloe in County Galway it is customary to fasten a cross of - twisted corn in the roof of the cottages on Candlemas Day. The cross - is fastened by means of a knife stuck through a potato, and remains in - its place for months, if not for a year. This custom (of which I was - informed by Miss Nina Hill in a letter dated May 5, 1898) may be - connected with the Highland one described in the text. - -Footnote 345: - - J. Train, _Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of Man_ - (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 116. - -Footnote 346: - - See below, pp. 240 _sqq._ Brigit is the true original form of the - name, which has been corrupted into Breed, Bride, and Bridget. See - Douglas Hyde, _A Literary History of Ireland_ (London, 1899), p. 53, - note 2. - -Footnote 347: - - A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_, pp. 318 _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, - _Baumkultus_, p. 437. - -Footnote 348: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 438. - -Footnote 349: - - R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), p. 248. - -Footnote 350: - - D. Monnier, _Traditions populaires comparées_, pp. 283 _sq._; E. - Cortet, _Fêtes religieuses_, pp. 162 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, - _Baumkultus_, pp. 439 _sq._ - - - - - CHAPTER XI - THE INFLUENCE OF THE SEXES ON VEGETATION - - -[Sidenote: The marriage of the King and Queen of May intended to promote -the growth of vegetation by homoeopathic magic.] From the preceding -examination of the spring and summer festivals of Europe we may infer -that our rude forefathers personified the powers of vegetation as male -and female, and attempted, on the principle of homoeopathic or imitative -magic, to quicken the growth of trees and plants by representing the -marriage of the sylvan deities in the persons of a King and Queen of -May, a Whitsun Bridegroom and Bride, and so forth. Such representations -were accordingly no mere symbolic or allegorical dramas, pastoral plays -designed to amuse or instruct a rustic audience. They were charms -intended to make the woods to grow green, the fresh grass to sprout, the -corn to shoot, and the flowers to blow. And it was natural to suppose -that the more closely the mock marriage of the leaf-clad or -flower-decked mummers aped the real marriage of the woodland sprites, -the more effective would be the charm. Accordingly we may assume with a -high degree of probability that the profligacy which notoriously -attended these ceremonies[351] was at one time not an accidental excess -but an essential part of the rites, and that in the opinion of those who -performed them the marriage of trees and plants could not be fertile -without the real union of the human sexes. At the present day it might -perhaps be vain to look in civilised Europe for customs of this sort -observed for the explicit purpose of promoting the growth of vegetation. -But ruder races in other parts of the world have consciously employed -the intercourse of the sexes as a means to ensure the fruitfulness of -the earth; and some rites which are still, or were till lately, kept up -in Europe can be reasonably explained only as stunted relics of a -similar practice. The following facts will make this plain. - -[Sidenote: Intercourse of the sexes practised in order to make the crops -grow.] For four days before they committed the seed to the earth the -Pipiles of Central America kept apart from their wives “in order that on -the night before planting they might indulge their passions to the -fullest extent; certain persons are even said to have been appointed to -perform the sexual act at the very moment when the first seeds were -deposited in the ground.” The use of their wives at that time was indeed -enjoined upon the people by the priests as a religious duty, in default -of which it was not lawful to sow the seed.[352] The only possible -explanation of this custom seems to be that the Indians confused the -process by which human beings reproduce their kind with the process by -which plants discharge the same function, and fancied that by resorting -to the former they were simultaneously forwarding the latter. In the -month of December, when the alligator pears begin to ripen, the Indians -of Peru used to hold a festival called _Acatay mita_ in order to make -the fruit grow mellow. The festival lasted five days and nights, and was -preceded by a fast of five days during which they ate neither salt nor -pepper and refrained from their wives. At the festival men and boys -assembled stark naked in an open space among the orchards, and ran from -there to a distant hill. Any woman whom they overtook on the way they -violated.[353] In some parts of Java, at the season when the bloom will -soon be on the rice, the husbandman and his wife visit their fields by -night and there engage in sexual intercourse for the purpose of -promoting the growth of the crop.[354] In the Leti, Sarmata, and some -other groups of islands which lie between the western end of New Guinea -and the northern part of Australia, the heathen population regard the -sun as the male principle by whom the earth or female principle is -fertilised. They call him Upu-lera or Mr. Sun, and represent him under -the form of a lamp made of coco-nut leaves, which may be seen hanging -everywhere in their houses and in the sacred fig-tree. Under the tree -lies a large flat stone, which serves as a sacrificial table. On it the -heads of slain foes were and are still placed in some of the islands. -Once a year, at the beginning of the rainy season, Mr. Sun comes down -into the holy fig-tree to fertilise the earth, and to facilitate his -descent a ladder with seven rungs is considerately placed at his -disposal. It is set up under the tree and is adorned with carved figures -of the birds whose shrill clarion heralds the approach of the sun in the -East. On this occasion pigs and dogs are sacrificed in profusion; men -and women alike indulge in a saturnalia; and the mystic union of the sun -and the earth is dramatically represented in public, amid song and -dance, by the real union of the sexes under the tree. The object of the -festival, we are told, is to procure rain, plenty of food and drink, -abundance of cattle and children and riches from Grandfather Sun. They -pray that he may make every she-goat to cast two or three young, the -people to multiply, the dead pigs to be replaced by living pigs, the -empty rice-baskets to be filled, and so on. And to induce him to grant -their requests they offer him pork and rice and liquor, and invite him -to fall to. In the Babar Islands a special flag is hoisted at this -festival as a symbol of the creative energy of the sun; it is of white -cotton, about nine feet high, and consists of the figure of a man in an -appropriate attitude.[355] Among the Tangkhuls of Manipur, before the -rice is sown and when it is reaped, the boys and girls have a tug-of-war -with a tough rope of twisted creeper. Great jars of beer are set ready, -and the strictness of their ordinary morality is broken by a night of -unbridled licence.[356] It would be unjust to treat these orgies as a -mere outburst of unbridled passion; no doubt they are deliberately and -solemnly organised as essential to the fertility of the earth and the -welfare of man. - -[Sidenote: Intercourse of the sexes practised in order to make trees -bear fruit.] The same means which are thus adopted to stimulate the -growth of the crops are naturally employed to ensure the fruitfulness of -trees. The work known as _The Agriculture of the Nabataeans_ contained -apparently a direction that the grafting of a tree upon another tree of -a different sort should be done by a damsel, who at the very moment of -inserting the graft in the bough should herself be subjected to -treatment which can only be regarded as a direct copy of the operation -she was performing on the tree.[357] In some parts of Amboyna, when the -state of the clove plantation indicates that the crop is likely to be -scanty, the men go naked to the plantations by night, and there seek to -fertilise the trees precisely as they would impregnate women, while at -the same time they call out for “More cloves!” This is supposed to make -the trees bear fruit more abundantly.[358] In Java when a palm tree is -to be tapped for wine, the man who proposes to relieve the tree of its -superfluous juices deems it necessary to approach the palm in the -character of a lover and a husband, as well as of a son. When he comes -upon a palm which he thinks suitable, he will not begin cutting at the -trunk until he has intimated as delicately as he can the reasons which -lead him to perform that surgical operation, and the ardent affection -which he cherishes for the tree. For this purpose he holds a dialogue -with the palm, in which he naturally speaks in the character of the tree -as well as in his own. “O mother _endang-reni_!” he begins, “for the -sake of you I have let myself be drenched by the rain and scorched by -the sun; long have I sought you! Now at last have I found you. How -ardently have I longed for you! Often before have you given me the -breast. Yet I still thirst. Therefore now I ask for four potfuls more.” -“Well, fair youth,” replies the tree, “I have always been here. What is -the reason that you have sought me?” “The reason I have sought you is -that I have heard you suffer from _incontinentia urinae_.” “So I do,” -says the tree. “Will you marry me?” says the man. “That I will,” says -the tree, “but first you must plight your troth and recite the usual -confession of faith.” On that the man takes a rattan leaf and wraps it -round the palm as a pledge of betrothal, after which he says the creed: -“There is no God but Allah, and Mohammed is his prophet.” The maidenly -and orthodox scruples of the tree having thus been satisfied, he -embraces it as his bride. At first he attaches only a small dish to the -trunk to receive the juices which exude from the cut in the bark; a -large dish might frighten the tree. In fastening the dish to the palm he -says, “_Bok-endang-reni!_ your child is languishing away for thirst. He -asks you for a drink.” The tree replies, “Let him slake his thirst! -Mother’s breasts are full to overflowing.”[359] We have already seen -that in some parts of Northern India a mock marriage between two actors -is performed in honour of a newly-planted orchard,[360] no doubt for the -purpose of making it bear fruit. In the Nicobar Islands a pregnant woman -is taken into the gardens in order to impart the blessing of fertility -to the plants.[361] - -[Sidenote: In Uganda parents of twins are supposed to fertilise the -plantains.] The Baganda of Central Africa believe so strongly in the -intimate relation between the intercourse of the sexes and the fertility -of the ground that among them a barren wife is generally sent away -because she is supposed to prevent her husband’s garden from bearing -fruit. On the contrary, a couple who have given proof of extraordinary -fertility by becoming the parents of twins are believed by the Baganda -to be endowed with a corresponding power of increasing the fruitfulness -of the plantain-trees, which furnish them with their staple food. Some -little time after the birth of the twins a ceremony is performed, the -object of which clearly is to transmit the reproductive virtue of the -parents to the plantains. The mother lies down on her back in the thick -grass near the house and places a flower of the plantain between her -legs; then her husband comes and knocks the flower away with his genital -member. Further, the parents go through the country, performing dances -in the gardens of favoured friends, apparently for the purpose of -causing the plantain-trees to bear fruit more abundantly. The same -belief in the fertilising power of such parents probably explains why in -Uganda the father of twins is inviolable and may go into anybody’s -garden and take the produce at will. To distinguish him from the common -herd his hair is cut in a special way, and he wears little bells at his -ankles which tinkle as he walks. His sacred character is further -manifested by a rule which he must observe after the round of visits has -been paid, and the dances in the gardens are over. He has to remain at -home until the next time that the army goes forth to battle, and in the -interval he may neither dress his hair nor cut his finger-nails. When -war has been proclaimed, his whole body is shaved and his nails cut. The -clipped hair and nails he ties up in a ball, which he takes with him to -the war, along with the bark cloth which he wore at the dances. When he -has killed a foe, he crams the ball into the dead man’s mouth, ties the -bark-cloth round his neck, and leaves them there on the -battlefield.[362] Apparently the ceremony is intended to rid him of the -peculiar sanctity or state of taboo which he contracted by the birth of -twins, and to facilitate his return to ordinary life. For, to the mind -of the savage, as we shall see later on, sanctity has its dangers and -inconveniences, and the sacred man may often be glad to divest himself -of it by stripping himself of those separable parts of his person—the -hair and nails—to which the holy contagion is apt to cling. - -[Sidenote: Relics of similar customs in Europe.] In various parts of -Europe customs have prevailed both at spring and harvest which are -clearly based on the same crude notion that the relation of the human -sexes to each other can be so used as to quicken the growth of plants. -For example, in the Ukraine on St. George’s Day (the twenty-third of -April) the priest in his robes, attended by his acolytes, goes out to -the fields of the village, where the crops are beginning to shew green -above the ground, and blesses them. After that the young married people -lie down in couples on the sown fields and roll several times over on -them, in the belief that this will promote the growth of the crops. In -some parts of Russia the priest himself is rolled by women over the -sprouting crop, and that without regard to the mud and holes which he -may encounter in his beneficent progress. If the shepherd resists or -remonstrates, his flock murmurs, “Little Father, you do not really wish -us well, you do not wish us to have corn, although you do wish to live -on our corn.”[363] In England it seems to have been customary for young -couples to roll down a slope together on May Day; on Greenwich-hill the -custom was practised at Easter and Whitsuntide,[364] as it was till -lately practised near Dublin on Whitmonday.[365] When we consider how -closely these seasons, especially May Day and Whitsuntide, are -associated with ceremonies for the revival of plant life in spring, we -shall scarcely doubt that the custom of rolling in couples at such times -had originally the same significance which it still has in Russia; and -when further we compare this particular custom with the practice of -representing the vernal powers of vegetation by a bridal pair, and -remember the traditions which even in our own country attach to May -Day,[366] we shall probably do no injustice to our forefathers if we -conclude that they once celebrated the return of spring with grosser -rites, of which the customs I have referred to are only a stunted -survival. Indeed, these rites in their grossest form are said to be -still observed in various parts of Holland at Whitsuntide.[367] In some -parts of Germany at harvest the men and women, who have reaped the corn, -roll together on the field.[368] This again is probably a mitigation of -an older and ruder custom designed to impart fertility to the fields by -methods like those resorted to by the Pipiles of Central America long -ago and by the cultivators of rice in Java at the present time. In Poso, -when the rice-crop is not thriving, the farmer’s wife sets bowls of rice -and betel in various parts of the field; then she lies down, draws her -petticoat over her head, and pretends to fall asleep. But one of her -children thereupon mimics the crowing of a cock, and at the sound she -gets up, “because a new day has dawned.” The intention of this ceremony, -which the natives could not or would not explain to the Dutch missionary -who reports it, may be to place the woman at the disposal of the god of -the field. We are expressly told that there is a special god of the -rice-fields named Puwe-wai, and that the ceremony in question is -performed in his honour.[369] - -[Sidenote: Continence practised in order to make the crops grow.] To the -student who cares to track the devious course of the human mind in its -gropings after truth, it is of some interest to observe that the same -theoretical belief in the sympathetic influence of the sexes on -vegetation, which has led some peoples to indulge their passions as a -means of fertilising the earth, has led others to seek the same end by -directly opposite means. From the moment that they sowed the maize till -the time that they reaped it, the Indians of Nicaragua lived chastely, -keeping apart from their wives and sleeping in a separate place. They -ate no salt, and drank neither cocoa nor _chicha_, the fermented liquor -made from maize; in short the season was for them, as the Spanish -historians observe, a time of abstinence.[370] To this day some of the -Indian tribes of Central America practise continence for the purpose of -thereby promoting the growth of the crops. Thus we are told that before -sowing the maize the Kekchi Indians sleep apart from their wives, and -eat no flesh for five days, while among the Lanquineros and Cajaboneros -the period of abstinence from these carnal pleasures extends to thirteen -days.[371] So amongst some of the Germans of Transylvania it is a rule -that no man may sleep with his wife during the whole of the time that he -is engaged in sowing his fields.[372] The same rule is observed at -Kalotaszeg in Hungary; the people think that if the custom were not -observed the corn would be mildewed.[373] Similarly a Central Australian -headman of the Kaitish tribe strictly abstains from marital relations -with his wife all the time that he is performing magical ceremonies to -make the grass grow; for he believes that a breach of this rule would -prevent the grass seed from sprouting properly.[374] In some of the -Melanesian islands, when the yam vines are being trained, the men sleep -near the gardens and never approach their wives; should they enter the -garden after breaking this rule of continence the fruits of the garden -would be spoilt.[375] In the Motu tribe of New Guinea, when rain has -fallen plentifully and there is promise of a good crop of bananas, one -of the chief men becomes holy or taboo, and must live apart from his -wife and eat only certain kinds of food. He bids the young men beat the -drum and dance, “in order that by so doing there may be a large harvest. -If the dancing is not given, there will be an end to the good growth; -but if it is continued, all will go well. People come in from other -villages to assist, and will dance all night.”[376] In the Mekeo -district of British New Guinea, when a taboo has been put on the -coco-nuts and areca-nuts to promote their growth, some fourteen or -fifteen men act as watchmen to enforce the taboo. Every evening they go -round the village armed with clubs and wearing masks or so covered with -leaves that nobody would know them. All the time they are in office they -may not chew betel nor drink coco-nut water, lest the areca-nuts (which -are eaten with betel) and the coco-nuts should fail. Moreover, they may -not live with their wives; indeed, they may not even look at a woman, -and if they pass one they must keep their eyes on the ground.[377] Among -the Kabuis of Manipur, before the rice is sown and when it is reaped, -the strictest chastity has to be observed, especially by the religious -head of the village, who, besides always taking the omens on behalf of -the villagers, is the first to sow and the first to reap.[378] Some of -the tribes of Assam believe that so long as the crops remain ungarnered, -the slightest incontinence might ruin all.[379] In the incense-growing -region of Arabia in antiquity there were three families charged with the -special care of the incense-trees. They were called sacred, and at the -time when they cut the trees or gathered the incense they were forbidden -to pollute themselves with women or with the contact of the dead; the -observance of these rules of ceremonial purity was believed to increase -the supply of incense.[380] Apparently the incense itself was deemed -holy, for on being gathered it was deposited in the sanctuary of the -Sun, where the merchants inspected and purchased it.[381] With ancient -Greek husbandmen it was a maxim that olives should always be planted and -gathered by pure boys and virgins; the uncommon fruitfulness of the -olive-trees at Anazarbus in Cilicia was attributed to their being tended -by young and innocent children. In default of such workers, the -olive-gatherer had to swear that he had been faithful to his own wife; -for his fidelity was believed to ensure an abundant crop of fruit the -following year.[382] - -[Sidenote: Illicit love supposed to blight the fruits of the earth.] -Again, the sympathetic relation supposed to exist between the commerce -of the sexes and the fertility of the earth manifests itself in the -belief that illicit love tends, directly or indirectly, to mar that -fertility and to blight the crops.[383] Such a belief prevails, for -example, among the Karens of Burma. They imagine that adultery or -fornication has a powerful influence to injure the harvest. Hence if the -crops have been bad for a year or two, and no rain falls, the villagers -set down the dearth to secret sins of this kind, and say that the God of -heaven and earth is angry with them on that account; and they all unite -in making an offering to appease him. Further, whenever adultery or -fornication is detected, the elders decide that the sinners must buy a -hog and kill it. Then the woman takes one foot of the hog, and the man -takes another, and they scrape out furrows in the ground with each foot, -and fill the furrows with the blood of the hog. Next they scratch the -ground with their hands and pray: “God of heaven and earth, God of the -mountains and hills, I have destroyed the productiveness of the country. -Do not be angry with me, do not hate me; but have mercy on me, and -compassionate me. Now I repair the mountains, now I heal the hills, and -the streams and the lands. May there be no failure of crops, may there -be no unsuccessful labours, or unfortunate efforts in my country. Let -them be dissipated to the foot of the horizon. Make thy paddy fruitful, -thy rice abundant. Make the vegetables to flourish. If we cultivate but -little, still grant that we may obtain a little.” After each has prayed -thus, they return to the house and say they have repaired the -earth.[384] The Battas of Sumatra think that if an unmarried woman is -big with child, it is necessary to give her in marriage at once, even to -a man of lower rank; for otherwise the people will be infested by -tigers, and the crops in the field will not yield an abundant return. -The crime of incest, in their opinion, would blast the whole harvest if -the wrong were not speedily repaired. Epidemics and other calamities -that affect the whole people are almost always traced by them to incest, -by which is to be understood any marriage that conflicts with their -customs.[385] - -[Sidenote: Dyak belief that lewdness may cause bad weather and spoil the -crops.] Similar views are held by various tribes of Borneo. Thus when -the rain pours down steadily day after day and week after week, and the -crops are rotting in the fields, the Dyaks of Borneo come to the -conclusion that some one has been indulging in fleshly lusts; so the -elders lay their heads together and adjudicate on all cases of incest -and bigamy, and purify the earth with the blood of pigs, which appears -to possess in a high degree the valuable property of atoning for moral -guilt. For three days the villages are tabooed and all labour -discontinued; the inhabitants remain at home, and no strangers are -admitted. Not long ago the offenders, whose lewdness had thus brought -the whole country into danger, would have been punished with death or at -least slavery. A Dyak may not marry his first cousin unless he first -performs a special ceremony called _bergaput_ to avert evil consequences -from the land. The couple repair to the water-side, fill a small pitcher -with their personal ornaments, and sink it in the river; or instead of a -jar they fling a chopper and a plate into the water. A pig is then -sacrificed on the bank, and its carcase, drained of blood, is thrown in -after the jar. Next the pair are pushed into the water by their friends -and ordered to bathe together. Lastly, a joint of bamboo is filled with -pig’s blood, and the couple perambulate the country and the villages -round about, sprinkling the blood on the ground. After that they are -free to marry. This is done, we are told, for the sake of the whole -country, in order that the rice may not be blasted.[386] The Bahaus or -Kayans, a tribe in the interior of Borneo, [Sidenote: Kayan belief that -adultery or fornication spoils the harvest.] believe that adultery is -punished by the spirits, who visit the whole tribe with failure of the -crops and other misfortunes. Hence in order to avert these calamities -from the innocent members of the tribe, the two culprits, with all their -possessions, are put in quarantine on a gravel bank in the middle of the -river; then in order thoroughly to disinfect them, pigs and fowls are -killed, and with the blood priestesses smear the property of the guilty -pair. Finally the two are set on a raft, with sixteen eggs, and allowed -to drift down the stream. They may save themselves by swimming ashore, -but this is perhaps a mitigation of an older sentence of death by -drowning. Young people shower long grass-stalks, which stand for spears, -at the shamefaced and dripping couple.[387] The Blu-u Kayans of the same -region similarly imagine that an intrigue between an unmarried pair is -punished by the spirits with failure of the harvest, of the fishing, and -of the hunt. Hence the delinquents have to appease the wrath of the -spirits by sacrificing a pig and some rice.[388] - -[Sidenote: Incest and seduction supposed to be a cause of bad weather -and failure of crops in Celebes.] Among the Macassars and Bugineese of -Southern Celebes incest is a capital crime. “In the Bugineese language -this misdeed is called _sâpa-tâna_, which, literally translated, -signifies that the _ground_ (_tâna_) which has been polluted with the -blood of such a person must above all be _shunned_ (_sâpa_). When we -remember how afraid of evil spirits a native is in passing even a spot -that has been stained with innocent blood, we can easily conceive what -passes in his mind at the thought of the blood of one who has been -guilty of such a crime. When the rivers dry up and the supply of fish -runs short, when the harvest and the produce of the gardens miscarry, -when edible fruits fail, and especially when sickness is rife among the -cattle and horses, as well as when civil strife breaks out and the -country suffers from any other widespread calamity, the native generally -thinks that earth and air have been sullied with the blood of persons -who have committed incest. The blood of such people should naturally not -be shed. Hence the punishment usually inflicted on them is that of -drowning. They are tied up in a sack and thrown into the sea. Yet they -get with them on their journey to eternity the necessary provisions, -consisting of a bag of rice, salt, dried fish, coco-nuts and so on, not -forgetting three quids of betel.”[389] Among the Tomori of Central -Celebes a person guilty of incest is throttled; no drop of his blood may -fall on the ground, for if it did, the rice would never grow again. The -union of uncle and niece is regarded by these people as incest, but it -can be expiated by an offering. A garment of the man and one of the -woman are laid on a copper vessel; the blood of a sacrificed animal, -either a goat or a fowl, is allowed to drip on the garments, and then -the vessel with its contents is suffered to float down the river.[390] -Among the Tolalaki, another tribe of Central Celebes, persons who have -defiled themselves with incest are shut up in a basket and drowned. No -drop of their blood may be spilt on the ground, for that would hinder -the earth from ever bearing fruit again.[391] When it rains in torrents, -the Galelareese of Halmahera say that brother and sister, or father and -daughter, or in short some near relations are having illicit relations -with each other, and that every human being must be informed of it, for -then only will the rain cease to descend. The superstition has -repeatedly caused blood relations to be accused, rightfully or -wrongfully, of incest. The people also regard other alarming natural -phenomena, for instance a violent earthquake or the eruption of a -volcano, as consequences of crimes of the same sort. Persons charged -with such offences are brought to Ternate; it is said that formerly they -were often drowned on the way or, on being haled thither, were condemned -to be thrown into the volcano.[392] - -[Sidenote: Breaches of sexual morality supposed to prevent rain and so -to blight the fruits of the earth in Africa.] In some parts of Africa, -also, it is believed that breaches of sexual morality disturb the course -of nature, particularly by blighting the fruits of the earth. Thus the -negroes of Loango suppose that the intercourse of a man with an immature -girl is punished by God with drought and consequent famine, until the -culprits atone for their sin by dancing naked before the king and an -assembly of the people, who throw hot gravel and bits of glass at the -pair. For example, in the year 1898, it was discovered that a long -drought was caused by the misconduct of three girls, who were with child -before they had passed through what is called the paint-house, that is, -before they had been painted red and secluded for a time in token that -they had attained to the age of puberty. The people were very angry and -tried to punish or even kill the girls.[393] Amongst the Bavili of -Loango, it is believed that if a man breaks the marriage law by marrying -a woman of his mother’s clan, God will in like manner punish the crime -by withholding the rains in their due season.[394] Similar notions of -the blighting influence of sexual crime appear to be entertained by the -Nandi of British East Africa, for amongst them a girl who has been -gotten with child by a warrior, may never look inside of a granary for -fear of spoiling the corn.[395] Among the Basutos likewise “while the -corn is exposed to view, all defiled persons are carefully kept from it. -If the aid of a man in this state is necessary for carrying home the -harvest, he remains at some distance while the sacks are filled, and -only approaches to place them upon the draught oxen. He withdraws as -soon as the load is deposited at the dwelling, and under no pretext can -he assist in pouring the corn into the baskets in which it is -preserved.”[396] The nature of the defilement which thus disqualifies a -man for handling the corn is not mentioned, but probably it would -include unchastity. We may conjecture that it was for a similar reason -that the Basoga of Central Africa used to punish severely the seduction -of a virgin. “If a man was convicted of such a crime, and the woman’s -guilt was discovered, he and she were sent at night time to Kaluba’s -village, where they were tied to a tree. This tall spreading -incense-tree was thought to be under the protection of a spirit called -_Kakua Kambuzi_. Next morning the erring couple were discovered by -people in the surrounding plantations, who released them. They were then -allowed to settle near the tree of the protecting spirit.” This practice -of tying the culprits to a sacred tree may have been thought to atone -for their crime and so to ensure the fertility of the earth which they -had imperilled. The notion perhaps was to deliver the criminals into the -power of the offended tree-spirit; if they were found alive in the -morning, it was a sign that he had pardoned them. “Curiously enough, the -Basoga also held in great abhorrence anything like incest amongst -domestic animals—that is to say, they greatly disapproved of intercourse -between a bull calf and its mother-cow, or between a bull and a cow that -were known to be brother and sister. If this occurred, the bull and cow -were sent by night to a fetish tree and tied there. The next morning the -chief of the district appropriated the animals and turned them to his -own use.”[397] Following out the same train of thought, the Toradjas of -Central Celebes ingeniously employ [Sidenote: Incest of animals employed -as a rain-charm in Africa.] the incest of animals as a rain-charm. For -they believe that the anger of the gods at incest or bestiality -manifests itself in the form of violent storms, heavy rain, or long -drought. Accordingly they think that it is always in their power to -enrage the gods by committing incest and so to procure rain when it is -needed. However, they abstain from perpetrating the crime among -themselves, first, because it would be necessary to put the culprits to -death, and second, because the storms thus raised would be so furious -that they would do more harm than good. But they fancy that the incest, -real or simulated, of animals is a lighter offence, which by -discomposing, without exasperating, the higher powers will disturb the -balance of nature just enough to improve the weather. A ceremony of this -sort was witnessed by a missionary. Rain was wanted, and the headman of -the village had to see that it fell. He took his measures accordingly. -Attended by a crowd he carried a cock and a little sow to the river. -Here the animals were killed, laid side by side in an intimate embrace, -and wrapped tightly up in a piece of cotton. Then the headman engaged in -prayer. “O gods above and gods below,” said he, “if you have pity on us, -and will that we eat food this year, give rain. If you will not give -rain, well we have here buried a cock and a sow in an intimate embrace.” -By which he meant to say, “Be angry at this abomination which we have -committed, and manifest your anger in storms.”[398] - -These examples suffice to prove that among many savage races breaches of -the marriage laws are thought to blast the fruits of the earth through -excessive rain or excessive drought. Similar notions of the disastrous -effects of sexual crimes may [Sidenote: Similar notions of the blighting -effect of sexual crime may be detected among the civilised races of -antiquity, for example, among the Jews.] be detected among some of the -civilised races of antiquity, who seem not to have limited the supposed -sterilising influence of such offences to the fruits of the earth, but -to have extended it also to women and cattle.[399] Thus among the -Hebrews we read how Job, passionately protesting his innocence before -God, declares that he is no adulterer; “For that,” says he, “were an -heinous crime; yea, it were an iniquity to be punished by the judges: -for it is a fire that consumeth unto Destruction, and would root out all -mine increase.”[400] In this passage the Hebrew word translated -“increase” commonly means “the produce of the earth;”[401] and if we -give the word its usual sense here, then Job affirms adultery to be -destructive of the fruits of the ground, which is just what many savages -still believe. This interpretation of his words is strongly confirmed by -two narratives in Genesis, where we read how Sarah, Abraham’s wife, was -taken into his harem by a king who did not know her to be the wife of -the patriarch, and how thereafter God visited the king and his household -with great plagues, especially by closing up the wombs of the king’s -wives and his maid-servants, so that they bore no children. It was not -till the king had discovered and confessed his sin, and Abraham had -prayed God to forgive him, that the king’s women again became -fruitful.[402] These narratives seem to imply that adultery, even when -it is committed in ignorance, is a cause of plague and especially of -sterility among women. Again, in Leviticus, after a long list of sexual -crimes, we read:[403] “Defile not ye yourselves in any of these things: -for in all these the nations are defiled which I cast out from before -you: and the land is defiled: therefore I do visit the iniquity thereof -upon it, and the land vomiteth out her inhabitants.” This passage -appears to imply that the land itself was somehow physically tainted by -sexual transgressions so that it could no longer support the -inhabitants. - -[Sidenote: Blighting effect attributed to incest by the ancient Greeks -and Irish.] It would seem that the ancient Greeks and Romans entertained -similar notions as to the wasting effect of incest. According to -Sophocles the land of Thebes suffered from blight, from pestilence, and -from the sterility both of women and of cattle under the reign of -Oedipus, who had unwittingly slain his father and wedded his mother, and -the Delphic oracle declared that the only way to restore the prosperity -of the country was to banish the sinner from it, as if his mere presence -withered plants, animals, and women.[404] No doubt the poet and his -hearers set down these public calamities in great part to the guilt of -parricide, which rested on Oedipus; but they can hardly have failed to -lay much also of the evil at the door of his incest with his mother. -Again, in ancient Italy, under the Emperor Claudius, a Roman noble was -accused of incest with his sister. He committed suicide, his sister was -banished, and the emperor ordered that certain ancient ceremonies -traditionally derived from the laws of King Servius Tullius should be -performed, and that expiation should be made by the pontiffs at the -sacred grove of Diana,[405] probably the famous Arician grove, which has -furnished the starting-point of our enquiry. As Diana appears to have -been a goddess of fertility in general and of the fruitfulness of women -in particular, the atonement made at her sanctuary for incest may -perhaps be accepted as evidence that the Romans, like other peoples, -attributed to sexual immorality a tendency to blast the fruits both of -the earth and of the womb. This inference is strengthened by a precept -laid down by grave Roman writers that bakers, cooks, and butlers ought -to be strictly chaste and continent, because it was most important that -food and cups should be handled either by persons under the age of -puberty, or at all events by persons who indulged very sparingly in -sexual intercourse; for which reason if a baker, a cook, or a butler -broke this rule of continence it was his bounden duty to wash in a river -or other running water before he applied himself again to his -professional duties. But for all such duties the services of a boy or of -a virgin were preferred.[406] The Celts of ancient Ireland similarly -believed that incest blighted the fruits of the earth. According to -legend Munster was afflicted in the third century of our era with a -failure of the crops and other misfortunes. When the nobles enquired -into the matter, they were told that these calamities were the result of -an incest which the king had committed with his sister. In order to put -an end to the evil they demanded of the king his two sons, the fruit of -his unholy union, that they might consume them with fire and cast their -ashes into the running stream. However, one of the sons, Corc by name, -is said to have been purged of his inherited taint by being sent out of -Ireland to an island, where a Druid purified him every morning, by -putting him on the back of a white cow with red ears, and pouring water -over him, till one day the cow jumped into the sea and became a rock, no -doubt taking the sin of Corc’s father away with her. After that the boy -was brought back to Erin.[407] - -[Sidenote: Belief in the blighting effect of incest may have helped to -institute the forbidden degrees.] Thus the belief that incest or sexual -crime in general has power to blast the fruits of the earth is -widespread and probably goes back to a very remote antiquity; it may -long have preceded the rise of agriculture. We may conjecture that in -its origin the belief was magical rather than religious; in other words, -that the blight was at first supposed to be a direct consequence of the -act itself rather than a punishment inflicted on the criminal by gods or -spirits. Conceived as an unnatural union of the sexes, incest might be -thought to subvert the regular processes of reproduction, and so to -prevent the earth from yielding its fruits and to hinder animals and men -from propagating their kinds. At a later time the anger of spiritual -beings would naturally be invoked in order to give a religious sanction -to the old taboo. If this was so, it is possible that something of the -horror which incest has excited among most, though by no means all, -races of men, sprang from this ancient superstition and has been -transmitted as an instinct in many nations long after the imaginary -ground of it had been forgotten. Certainly a course of conduct which was -supposed to endanger or destroy the general supply of food and therefore -to strike a blow at the very life of the whole people, could not but -present itself to the savage imagination as a crime of the blackest dye, -fraught with the most fatal consequences to the public weal. How far -such a superstition may in the beginning have operated to prevent the -union of near kin, in other words, to institute the system of prohibited -degrees which still prevails among the great majority of mankind, both -savage and civilised, is a question which deserves to be considered by -the historians of marriage.[408] - -[Sidenote: Explanation of the seeming contradiction in the foregoing -customs.] If we ask why it is that similar beliefs should logically -lead, among different peoples, to such opposite modes of conduct as -strict chastity and more or less open debauchery, the reason, as it -presents itself to the primitive mind, is perhaps not very far to seek. -If rude man identifies himself, in a manner, with nature; if he fails to -distinguish the impulses and processes in himself from the methods which -nature adopts to ensure the reproduction of plants and animals, he may -leap to one of two conclusions. Either he may infer that by yielding to -his appetites he will thereby assist in the multiplication of plants and -animals; or he may imagine that the vigour which he refuses to expend in -reproducing his own kind, will form as it were a store of energy whereby -other creatures, whether vegetable or animal, will somehow benefit in -propagating their species. Thus from the same crude philosophy, the same -primitive notions of nature and life, the savage may derive by different -channels a rule either of profligacy or of asceticism. - -[Sidenote: Indirect benefit of some of these superstitious customs.] To -readers bred in a religion which is saturated with the ascetic idealism -of the East, the explanation which I have given of the rule of -continence observed under certain circumstances by rude or savage -peoples may seem far-fetched [Sidenote: The ascetic view of chastity not -understood by the savage.] and improbable. They may think that moral -purity, which is so intimately associated in their minds with the -observance of such a rule, furnishes a sufficient explanation of it; -they may hold with Milton[409] that chastity in itself is a noble -virtue, and that the restraint which it imposes on one of the strongest -impulses of our animal nature marks out those who can submit to it as -men raised above the common herd, and therefore worthy to receive the -seal of the divine approbation. However natural this mode of thought may -seem to us, it is utterly foreign and indeed incomprehensible to the -savage. If he resists on occasion the sexual instinct, it is from no -high idealism, no ethereal aspiration after moral purity, but for the -sake of some ulterior yet perfectly definite and concrete object, to -gain which he is prepared to sacrifice the immediate gratification of -his senses. That this is or may be so, the examples I have cited are -amply sufficient to prove. They shew that where the instinct of -self-preservation, which manifests itself chiefly in the search for -food, conflicts or appears to conflict with the instinct which conduces -to the propagation of the species, the former instinct, as the primary -and more fundamental, is capable of over-mastering the latter. In short, -the savage is willing to restrain his sexual propensity for the sake of -food. Another object for the sake of which he consents to exercise the -same self-restraint is victory in war. Not only the warrior in the field -but his friends at home will often bridle their sensual appetites from a -belief that by so doing they will the more easily overcome their -enemies.[410] The fallacy of such a belief, like the belief that the -chastity of the sower conduces to the growth of the seed, is plain -enough to us; yet perhaps the self-restraint which these and the like -beliefs, vain and false as they are, have imposed on mankind, has not -been without its utility in bracing and strengthening the breed. For -strength of character in the race as in the individual consists mainly -in the power of sacrificing the present to the future, of disregarding -the immediate temptations of ephemeral pleasure for more distant and -lasting sources of satisfaction. The more the power is exercised the -higher and stronger becomes the character; till the height of heroism is -reached in men who renounce the pleasures of life and even life itself -for the sake of keeping or winning for others, perhaps in distant ages, -the blessings of freedom and truth. - -Footnote 351: - - See above, p. 67, and below, p. 104. - -Footnote 352: - - Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des nations civilisées du Mexique et - de l’Amérique Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), ii. 565; H. H. Bancroft, - _Native Races of the Pacific States_, ii. 719 _sq._, iii. 507; O. - Stoll, _Die Ethnologie der Indianerstämme von Guatemala_ (Leyden, - 1889), p. 47. - -Footnote 353: - - P. J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la idolatria del Piru_ (Lima, 1621), - pp. 36 _sq._ - -Footnote 354: - - G. A. Wilken, “Het animisme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” - _De Indische Gids_, June 1884, p. 958. - -Footnote 355: - - J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en - Papua_, pp. 337, 372-375, 410 _sq._; G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoëvell, in - _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) - pp. 204 _sq._, 206 _sq._; _id._, in _Internationales Archiv für - Ethnographie_, viii. (1895) p. 134; J. A. Jacobsen, _Reisen in die - Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres_ (Berlin, 1896), pp. 123, 125; J. H. de - Vries, “Reis door eenige eilandgroepen der Residentie Amboina,” - _Tijdschrift van het konink_. _Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig - Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, xvii. (1900) pp. 594, 612, 615 _sq._ The - name of the festival is variously given as _porĕke_, _porĕka_, - _porka_, and _purka_. In the island of Timor the marriage of the - Sun-god with Mother Earth is deemed the source of all fertility and - growth. See J. S. G. Gramberg, “Eene maand in de Binnenlanden van - Timor,” _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en - Wetenschappen_, xxxvi. 206 _sq._; H. Sondervan, “Timor en de - Timoreezen,” _Tijdschriftvan het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig - Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, dl. v. (1888), Afdeeling meer uitgebreide - artikelen, p. 397. - -Footnote 356: - - T. C. Hodson, “The Native Tribes of Manipur,” _Journal of the - Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. 307. - -Footnote 357: - - Maimonides, translated by D. Chwolsohn, _Die Ssabier und der - Ssabismus_, ii. 475. It is not quite clear whether the direction, - which Maimonides here attributes to the heathen of Harran, is taken by - him from the beginning of _The Agriculture of the Nabataeans_, which - he had referred to a few lines before. The first part of that work - appears to be lost, though other parts of it exist in manuscript at - Paris, Oxford, and elsewhere. See D. Chwolsohn, _op. cit._ i. 697 - _sqq._ The book is an early Mohammedan forgery; but the superstitions - it describes may very well be genuine. See A. von Gutschmid, _Kleine - Schriften_, ii. 568-713. - -Footnote 358: - - G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoëvell, _Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de - Oeliasers_ (Dordrecht, 1875), pp. 62 _sq._ - -Footnote 359: - - J. Kreemer, “Tiang-dèrès” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche - Zendelinggenootschap_, xxvi. (1882), pp. 128-132. This and the - preceding custom have been already quoted by G. A. Wilken (“Het - animisme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” _De Indische - Gids_, June 1884, pp. 962 _sq._; and _Handleiding voor de - vorgelijkende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_ (Leyden, 1893), p. - 550). - -Footnote 360: - - Above, p. 26. - -Footnote 361: - - W. Svoboda, “Die Bewohner des Nikobaren-Archipels,” _Internationales - Archiv für Ethnographie_, v. (1892) pp. 193 _sq._ For other examples - of a fruitful woman making trees fruitful, see above, vol. i. pp. 140 - _sq._ - -Footnote 362: - - J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” - _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 32-35, - 38, 80. The Peruvian custom described above (vol. i. p. 266) may in - like manner have been intended to promote the growth of beans through - the fertilising influence of the parents of twins. On the contrary - among the Bassari of Togo, in Western Africa, women who have given - birth to twins may not go near the farm at the seasons of sowing and - reaping, lest they should destroy the crop. Only after the birth of - another child does custom allow them to share again the labour of the - fields. See H. Klose, _Togo unter deutscher Flagge_ (Berlin, 1899), p. - 510. - -Footnote 363: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 480 _sq._; _id._, _Mythologische - Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), p. 341. - -Footnote 364: - - J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 181. - -Footnote 365: - - My informant is Prof. W. Ridgeway. The place was a field at the head - of the Dargle vale, near Enniskerry. - -Footnote 366: - - See above, p. 67. - -Footnote 367: - - G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoëvell, in _Internationales Archiv für - Ethnographie_, viii. (1895) p. 134 note. The custom seems to go by the - name of _dauwtroppen_ or “dew-treading.” As districts or places in - which the practice is still kept up the writer names South Holland, - Dordrecht, and Rotterdam. - -Footnote 368: - - L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_ - (Oldenburg, 1867), ii. p. 78, § 361; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. - 481; _id._, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 340. Compare Th. Siebs, - “Das Saterland,” _Zeitschrift für Volkskunde_, iii. (1893) p. 277. - -Footnote 369: - - A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en - maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege - het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) p. 138, _ibid._ - xl. (1896) pp. 16 _sq._ - -Footnote 370: - - G. F. Oviedo y Valdes, _Histoire du Nicaragua_ (published in - Ternaux-Compans’ _Voyages, relations et mémoires originaux_, etc.), - Paris, 1840, pp. 228 _sq._; A. de Herrera, _General History of the - Vast Continent and Islands called America_ (Stevens’s translation, - London, 1725-26), iii. 298. - -Footnote 371: - - C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der - Kekchi-Indianer,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, viii. - (1895) p. 203. Abstinence from women for several days is also - practised before the sowing of beans and of chilis, but only by - Indians who do a large business in these commodities (_ibid._ p. 205). - -Footnote 372: - - A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen - Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 7. - -Footnote 373: - - R. Temesvary, _Volksbräuche und Aberglauben in der Geburtshilfe und - der Pflege der Neugebornen in Ungarn_ (Leipsic, 1900), p. 16. - -Footnote 374: - - Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 293. - See above, vol. i. p. 88. - -Footnote 375: - - R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 134. - -Footnote 376: - - J. Chalmers, _Pioneering in New Guinea_ (London, 1887), p. 181. The - word which I have taken to mean “holy or taboo” is _helaga_. Mr. - Chalmers does not translate or explain it. Dr. C. G. Seligmann says - that the word “conveys something of the idea of ‘sacred,’ ‘set apart,’ - ‘charged with virtue’” (_The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p. - 101, note 2). - -Footnote 377: - - A. C. Haddon, _Head-hunters_ (London, 1901), pp. 270-272, 275 _sq._ - -Footnote 378: - - T. C. Hodson, “The Native Tribes of Manipur,” _Journal of the - Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. 307. - -Footnote 379: - - T. C. Hodson, “The _genna_ amongst the Tribes of Assam,” _Journal of - the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) p. 94. - -Footnote 380: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xii. 54; Solinus, xxxiii. 6 _sq._, p. 166, ed. Th. - Mommsen (first edition). - -Footnote 381: - - Theophrastus, _Histor. plant._ ix. 4. 5 _sq._ - -Footnote 382: - - Palladius, _De re rustica_, i. 6. 14; _Geoponica_, ix. 3. 5 _sq._ - -Footnote 383: - - With what follows compare _Psyche’s Task_, chapter iv. pp. 31 _sqq._, - where I have adduced the same evidence to some extent in the same - words. - -Footnote 384: - - F. Mason, “On dwellings, works of art, laws, etc., of the Karens,” - _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, xxxvii. (1868) Part ii. - pp. 147 _sq._ Compare A. R. M’Mahon, _The Karens of the Golden - Chersonese_ (London, 1876), pp. 334 _sq._ - -Footnote 385: - - J. B. Neumann, “Het Pane- en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland - Sumatra,” _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig - Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, dl. iii. Afdeeling, meer uitgebreide - artikelen, No. 3 (1886), pp. 514 _sq._; M. Joustra, “Het leven, de - zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,” _Mededeelingen van wege het - Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlvi. (1902) p. 411. - -Footnote 386: - - H. Ling Roth, “Low’s natives of Borneo,” _Journal of the - Anthropological Institute_, xxi. (1892) pp. 113 _sq._, 133, xxii. - (1893) p. 24; _id._, _Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_, i. - 401. Compare Rev. J. Perham, “Petara, or Sea Dyak Gods,” _Journal of - the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 8, December - 1881, p. 150; H. Ling Roth, _Natives of Sarawak and British North - Borneo_, i. 180. According to Archdeacon Perham, “Every district - traversed by an adulterer is believed to be accursed of the gods until - the proper sacrifice has been offered.” In respectable Dyak families, - when an unmarried girl is found with child and the father is unknown, - they sacrifice a pig and sprinkle the doors with its blood to wash - away the sin (Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_, - 2nd Ed., i. 64). In Ceram a person convicted of unchastity has to - expiate his guilt by smearing every house in the village with the - blood of a pig and a fowl. See A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. (Berlin, - 1884) p. 144. - -Footnote 387: - - A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 367. - -Footnote 388: - - A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, ii. 99; _id._, _In Centraal - Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), ii. 278. - -Footnote 389: - - B. F. Matthes, “Over de _âdá’s_ of gewoonten der Makassaren en - Boegineezen,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van - Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Derde Reeks, II. (Amsterdam, - 1885) p. 182. The similar Roman penalty for parricide (_Digest_, - xlviii. 9. 9; Valerius Maximus, i. 1. 13; J. E. B. Mayor’s note on - Juvenal _Sat._ viii. 214) may have been adopted for a similar reason. - But in that case the scourging which preceded the drowning can hardly - have been originally a part of the punishment. - -Footnote 390: - - A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de - Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche - Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 235. - -Footnote 391: - - A. C. Kruijt, “Van Posso naar Mori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het - Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 162. - -Footnote 392: - - M. J. van Baarda, “Fabelen, Verhalen en Overleveringen der - Galelareezen,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van - Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlv. (1895) p. 514. In the Banggai Archipelago, - to the east of Celebes, earthquakes are explained as punishments - inflicted by evil spirits for indulgence in illicit love (F. S. A. de - Clercq, _Bijdragen tot de Kennis der Residentie Ternate_ (Leyden, - 1890), p. 132). - -Footnote 393: - - O. Dapper, _Description de l’Afrique_ (Amsterdam, 1686), p. 326; R. E. - Dennett, _At the Back of the Black Man’s Mind_ (London, 1906), pp. 53, - 67-71. - -Footnote 394: - - R. E. Dennett, _op. cit._ p. 52. - -Footnote 395: - - A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi, their Language and Folk-lore_ (Oxford, - 1909), p. 76. - -Footnote 396: - - Rev. E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), p. 252. - -Footnote 397: - - Sir Harry Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_ (London, 1902), ii. 718 - _sq._ - -Footnote 398: - - A. C. Kruijt, “Regen lokken en regen verdrijven bij de Toradja’s van - Midden Celebes,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en - Volkenkunde_, xliv. (1901) p. 4. - -Footnote 399: - - Probably a similar extension of the superstition to animal life occurs - also among savages, though the authorities I have consulted do not - mention it. A trace, however, of such an extension appears in a belief - entertained by the Khasis of Assam, that if a man defies tribal custom - by marrying a woman of his own clan, the women of the tribe will die - in childbed and the people will suffer from other calamities. See - Colonel P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_ (London, 1907), pp. 94, 123. - -Footnote 400: - - Job xxxi. 11 _sq._ (Revised Version). - -Footnote 401: - - תבואה. See _Hebrew and English Lexicon_, by F. Brown, S. R. Driver, - and Ch. A. Briggs (Oxford, 1906), p. 100. - -Footnote 402: - - Genesis xii. 10-20, xx. 1-18. - -Footnote 403: - - Leviticus xviii. 24 _sq._ - -Footnote 404: - - Sophocles, _Oedipus Tyrannus_, 22 _sqq._, 95 _sqq._ - -Footnote 405: - - Tacitus, _Annals_, xii. 4 and 8. - -Footnote 406: - - Columella, _De re rustica_, xii. 2 _sq._, appealing to the authority - of M. Ambivius, Maenas Licinius, and C. Matius. See on this subject - below, p. 205. - -Footnote 407: - - G. Keating, _History of Ireland_, translated by J. O’Mahony (New York, - 1857), pp. 337 _sq._; P. W. Joyce, _Social History of Ancient Ireland_ - (London, 1903), ii. 512 _sq._; J. Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London - and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. 308 _sq._ - -Footnote 408: - - Compare _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv. 153 _sqq._ - -Footnote 409: - - “Next (for hear me out now, readers) that I may tell ye whither my - younger feet wandered; I betook me among those lofty fables and - romances which recount in solemn cantos the deeds of knighthood - founded by our victorious kings, and from hence had in renown over all - Christendom. There I read it in the oath of every knight that he - should defend to the utmost expense of his best blood, or of his life, - if it so befell him, the honour and chastity of virgin or matron; from - whence even then I learned what a noble virtue chastity sure must be, - to the defence of which so many worthies, by such a dear adventure of - themselves, had sworn; and if I found in the story afterward any of - them by word or deed breaking that oath, I judged it the same fault of - the poet as that which is attributed to Homer, to have written - indecent things of the gods. Only this my mind gave me, that every - free and gentle spirit, without that oath, ought to be born a knight, - nor needed to expect the gilt spur or the laying of a sword upon his - shoulder to stir him up both by his counsel and his arm, to secure and - protect the weakness of any attempted chastity” (Milton, “Apology for - Smectymnuus,” _Complete Collection of the Historical, Political, and - Miscellaneous Works of John Milton_ (London, 1738), vol. i. p. 111). - -Footnote 410: - - For examples of chastity observed at home by the friends of the absent - warriors, see above, vol. i. pp. 128, 131, 133. Examples of chastity - observed by the warriors themselves in the field will be given in the - second part of this work. Meanwhile see _The Golden Bough_, 2nd Ed., - i. 328, note 2. - - - - - CHAPTER XII - THE SACRED MARRIAGE - - - § 1. Diana as a Goddess of Fertility - - -[Sidenote: Dramatic marriages of gods and goddesses as a charm to -promote vegetation.] In the last chapter we saw that according to a -widespread belief, which is not without a foundation in fact, plants -reproduce their kinds through the sexual union of male and female -elements, and that on the principle of homoeopathic or imitative magic -this reproduction can be stimulated by the real or mock marriage of men -and women, who masquerade for the time being as spirits of vegetation. -Such magical dramas have played a great part in the popular festivals of -Europe, and based as they are on a very crude conception of natural law, -it is clear that they must have been handed down from a remote -antiquity. We shall hardly, therefore, err in assuming that they date -from a time when the forefathers of the civilised nations of Europe were -still barbarians, herding their cattle and cultivating patches of corn -in the clearings of the vast forests, which then covered the greater -part of the continent, from the Mediterranean to the Arctic Ocean. But -if these old spells and enchantments for the growth of leaves and -blossoms, of grass and flowers and fruit, have lingered down to our own -time in the shape of pastoral plays and popular merry-makings, is it not -reasonable to suppose that they survived in less attenuated forms some -two thousand years ago among the civilised peoples of antiquity? Or, to -put it otherwise, is it not likely that in certain festivals of the -ancients we may be able to detect the equivalents of our May Day, -Whitsuntide, and Midsummer celebrations, with this difference, that in -those days the ceremonies had not yet dwindled into mere shows and -pageants, but were still religious or magical rites, in which the actors -consciously supported the high parts of gods and goddesses? Now in the -first chapter of this book we found reason to believe that the priest -who bore the title of King of the Wood at Nemi had for his mate the -goddess of the grove, Diana herself. May not he and she, as King and -Queen of the Wood, have been serious counterparts of the merry mummers -who play the King and Queen of May, the Whitsuntide Bridegroom and Bride -in modern Europe? and may not their union have been yearly celebrated in -a _theogamy_ or divine marriage? Such dramatic weddings of gods and -goddesses, as we shall see presently, were carried out as solemn -religious rites in many parts of the ancient world; hence there is no -intrinsic improbability in the supposition that the sacred grove at Nemi -may have been the scene of an annual ceremony of this sort. Direct -evidence that it was so there is none, but analogy pleads in favour of -the view, as I shall now endeavour to shew. - -[Sidenote: Diana a goddess of the woodlands.] Diana was essentially a -goddess of the woodlands, as Ceres was a goddess of the corn and Bacchus -a god of the vine.[411] Her sanctuaries were commonly in groves, indeed -every grove was sacred to her,[412] and she is often associated with the -forest god Silvanus in dedications.[413] We must not [Sidenote: Sanctity -of holy groves in antiquity.] forget that to the ancients the sanctity -of a holy grove was very real and might not be violated with impunity. -For example, in Attica there was a sanctuary of Erithasean Apollo, and -it was enacted by law that any person caught in the act of cutting trees -in it, or carrying away timber, firewood, or fallen leaves, should be -punished with fifty stripes, if he was a slave, or with a fine of fifty -drachms, if he was a freeman. The culprit was denounced by the priest to -the king, that is, to the sacred official or minister of state who bore -the royal title.[414] Similarly it was the duty of the sacred men at -Andania, in Messenia, to scourge slaves and fine freemen who cut wood in -the grove of the Great Goddesses.[415] In Crete it was forbidden, under -pain of curses and fines, to fell timber, sow corn, and herd or fold -flocks within the precinct of Dictaean Zeus.[416] In Italy like customs -prevailed. Near Spoletium there was a sacred grove from which nothing -might be taken, and in which no wood might be cut except just so much as -was needed for the annual sacrifice. Any person who knowingly violated -the sanctity of the grove had to expiate his offence by sacrificing an -ox to Jupiter, and to pay besides a fine of three hundred pence.[417] In -his treatise on farming Cato directs that before thinning a grove the -Roman husbandman should offer a pig as an expiatory sacrifice to the god -or goddess of the place, and should entreat his or her favour for -himself, his children, and his household.[418] The _Fratres Arvales_ or -Brethren of the Tilled Fields were a Roman college of twelve priests, -who performed public religious rites for the purpose of making the crops -to grow, and they wore wreaths of ears of corn as a badge of their -office.[419] Their sacrifices were offered in the grove of the goddess -Dia, situated five miles down the Tiber from Rome. So hallowed was this -grove, which is known to have included laurels and holly-oaks, that -expiatory sacrifices of sows and lambs had to be offered when a rotten -bough fell to the ground, or when an old tree was laid low by a storm or -dragged down by a load of snow on its branches. And still more elaborate -expiation had to be made with the slaughter of sows, sheep, and bulls -when any of the sacred trees were struck by lightning and it was -necessary to dig them up by the roots, split them, burn them, and plant -others in their room.[420] At the annual festival of the Parilia, which -was intended to ensure the welfare of the flocks and herds, Roman -shepherds prayed to be forgiven if they had entered a hallowed grove, or -sat down under a sacred tree, or lopped a holy bough in order to feed a -sick sheep on the leaves.[421] - -[Sidenote: Sense of the divinity of woods shared by polite Roman -writers.] Nor was this sense of the indwelling divinity of the woods -confined to the simple rustics who, tending their flocks in the -chequered shade, felt the presence of spirits in the solemn stillness of -the forest, heard their voices in the sough of the wind among the -branches, and saw their handiwork in the fresh green of spring and the -fading gold of autumn. The feeling was shared by the most cultivated -minds in the greatest age of Roman civilisation. Pliny says that “the -woods were formerly the temples of the deities, and even now simple -country folk dedicate a tall tree to a god with the ritual of the olden -time; and we adore sacred groves and the very silence that reigns in -them not less devoutly than images that gleam with gold and ivory.”[422] -Similarly Seneca writes: “If you come upon a grove of old trees that -have shot up above the common height and shut out the sight of the sky -by the gloom of their matted boughs, you feel there is a spirit in the -place, so lofty is the wood, so lone the spot, so wondrous the thick -unbroken shade.”[423] - -[Sidenote: The breaking of the Golden Bough a rite of solemn -significance, not a mere piece of bravado.] Thus the ancients, like many -other people in various parts of the world, were deeply impressed with -the sanctity of holy groves, and regarded even the cutting of a bough in -them as a sacrilege which called for expiation. If therefore a candidate -for the priesthood of Diana at Nemi had to break a branch of a certain -tree in the sacred grove before he could fight the King of the Wood, we -may be sure that the act was a rite of solemn significance, and that to -treat it as a mere piece of bravado, a challenge to the priest to come -on and defend his domain, would be to commit the commonest of all errors -in dealing with the past, that, namely, of interpreting the customs of -other races and other generations by reference to modern European -standards. In order to understand an alien religion the first essential -is to divest ourselves, as well as we can, of our own familiar -prepossessions, and to place ourselves at the point of view of those -whose faith and practice we are studying. To do this at all is -difficult; to do it completely is perhaps impossible; yet the attempt -must be made if the enquiry is to progress instead of returning on -itself in a vicious circle. - -[Sidenote: Diana not a mere goddess of trees, but, like Artemis, a -personification of the teeming life of nature, both animal and -vegetable.] But whatever her origin may have been, Diana was not always -a mere goddess of trees. Like her Greek sister Artemis, she appears to -have developed into a personification of the teeming life of nature, -both animal and vegetable. As mistress of the greenwood she would -naturally be thought to own the beasts, whether wild or tame, that -ranged through it, lurking for their prey in its gloomy depths, munching -the fresh leaves and shoots among the boughs, or cropping the herbage in -the open glades and dells. Thus she might come [Sidenote: A deity of the -woods is naturally the patron of the beasts in the woods, both game and -cattle.] to be the patron goddess both of hunters and herdsmen,[424] -just as Silvanus was the god not only of woods, but of cattle.[425] -Similarly in Finland the wild beasts of the forest were regarded as the -herds of the woodland God Tapio and of his stately and beautiful wife. -No man might slay one of these animals without the gracious permission -of their divine owners. Hence the hunter prayed to the sylvan deities, -and vowed rich offerings to them if they would drive the game across his -path. And cattle also seem to have enjoyed the protection of those -spirits of the woods, both when they were in their stalls and while they -strayed in the forest.[426] So in the belief of Russian peasants the -spirit Leschiy rules both the wood and all the creatures in it. The bear -is to him what the dog is to man; and the migrations of the squirrels, -the field-mice, and other denizens of the woods are carried out in -obedience to his behests. Success in the chase depends on his favour, -and to assure himself of the spirit’s help the huntsman lays an -offering, generally of bread and salt, on the trunk of a tree in the -forest. In White Russia every herdsman must present a cow to Leschiy in -summer, and in the Government of Archangel some herdsmen have won his -favour so far that he even feeds and tends their herds for them.[427] -Similarly the forest-god of the Lapps ruled over all the beasts of the -forest; they were viewed as his herds, and good or bad luck in hunting -depended on his will.[428] So, too, the Samagitians deemed the birds and -beasts of the woods sacred, doubtless because they were under the -protection of the sylvan god.[429] Before the Gayos of Sumatra hunt -deer, wild goats, or wild pigs with hounds in the woods, they deem it -necessary to obtain the leave of the unseen Lord of the forest. This is -done according to a prescribed form by a man who has special skill in -woodcraft. He lays down a quid of betel before a stake which is cut in a -particular way to represent the Lord of the Wood, and having done so he -prays to the spirit to signify his consent or refusal.[430] - -[Sidenote: The crowning of hunting dogs on Diana’s day was probably a -purificatory ceremony to cleanse them from the guilt of having killed -game, the creatures of the goddess.] We have seen that at Diana’s -festival it was customary to crown hunting dogs, to leave wild beasts in -peace, and to perform a purificatory ceremony for the benefit of young -people.[431] Some light is thrown on the meaning of these customs by a -passage in Arrian’s treatise on hunting. He tells us that a good hound -is a boon conferred by one of the gods upon the huntsman, who ought to -testify his gratitude by sacrificing to the Huntress Artemis. Further, -Arrian goes on to say: “It is right that after a successful chase a man -should sacrifice and dedicate the first-fruits of his bag to the -goddess, in order to purify both the hounds and the hunters, in -accordance with old custom and usage.” He tells us that the Celts were -wont to form a treasury for the goddess Artemis, into which they paid a -fine of two obols for every hare they killed, a drachm for every fox, -and four drachms for every roe. Once a year, on the birthday of Artemis, -they opened the treasury, and with the accumulated fines purchased a -sacrificial victim, it might be a sheep, a goat, or a calf. Having slain -the animal and offered her share to the Huntress Artemis, they feasted, -both men and dogs; and they crowned the dogs on that day “in order to -signify,” says Arrian, “that the festival was for their benefit.”[432] -The Celts to whom Arrian, a native of Bithynia, here refers were -probably the Galatians of Asia Minor; but doubtless the custom he -describes was imported by these barbarians, along with their native -tongue[433] and the worship of the oak,[434] from their old home in -Central or Northern Europe. The Celtic divinity whom Arrian identifies -with Artemis may well have been really akin both to her and to the -Italian Diana. We know from other sources that the Celts revered a -woodland goddess of this type; thus Arduinna, goddess of the forest of -the Ardennes, was represented, like Artemis and Diana, with a bow and -quiver.[435] In any case the custom described by Arrian is good evidence -of a belief that the wild beasts belong to the goddess of the wilds, who -must be compensated for their destruction; and, taken with what he says -of the need of purifying the hounds after a successful chase, the Celtic -practice of crowning them at the annual festival of Artemis may have -been meant to purge them of the stain they had contracted by killing the -creatures of the goddess. The same explanation would naturally apply to -the same custom observed by the Italians at the festival of Diana. - -[Sidenote: Cattle crowned to protect them from witchcraft.] But why, it -may be asked, should crowns or garlands cleanse dogs from the taint of -bloodshed? An answer to this question is indicated by the reason which -the South Slavonian peasant assigns for crowning the horns of his cows -with wreaths of flowers on St. George’s Day, the twenty-third of April. -He does it in order to guard the cattle against witchcraft; cows that -have no crowns are regarded as given over to the witches. In the evening -the chaplets are fastened to the door of the cattle-stall, and remain -there throughout the year. A herdsman who fails to crown his beasts is -scolded and sometimes beaten by his master.[436] The German and French -custom of crowning cattle on Midsummer Day[437] probably springs from -the same motive. For on Midsummer Eve, just as on Walpurgis Night, -witches are very busy holding their nocturnal assemblies and trying to -steal the milk and butter from the cows. To guard against them some -people at this season lay besoms crosswise before the doors of the -stalls. Others make fast the doors and stop up the chinks, lest the -witches should creep through them on their return from the revels. In -Swabia all the church bells used to be kept ringing from nine at night -till break of day on Midsummer morning to drive away the infernal rout -from honest folk’s houses. South Slavonian peasants are up betimes that -morning, gather the dew from the grass, and wash the cows with it; that -saves their milk from the hellish charms of the witches.[438] - -[Sidenote: Similarly the crowning of hunting dogs may have been meant to -protect them against the angry spirits of the beasts they had killed.] -Now when we observe that garlands of flowers, like hawthorn and other -green boughs,[439] avail to ward off the unseen powers of mischief, we -may conjecture that the practice of crowning dogs at the festival of a -huntress goddess was intended to preserve the hounds from the angry and -dangerous spirits of the wild beasts which they had killed in the course -of the year. Fantastical as this explanation may sound to us, it is -perfectly in accordance with the ideas of the savage, who, as we shall -see later on, resorts to a multitude of curious expedients for disarming -the wrath of the animals whose life he has been obliged to take. Thus -conceived, the custom in question might still be termed a purification; -but its original purpose, like that of many other purificatory rites, -would be not so much to cleanse moral guilt, as to raise a physical -barrier against the assaults of malignant and mischievous spirits.[440] - -[Sidenote: Conceived as the moon, Diana was also a goddess of crops and -of childbirth.] But Diana was not merely a patroness of wild beasts, a -mistress of woods and hills, of lonely glades and sounding rivers; -conceived as the moon, and especially, it would seem, as the yellow -harvest moon, she filled the farmer’s grange with goodly fruits, and -heard the prayers of women in travail.[441] In her sacred grove at Nemi, -as we have seen, she was especially worshipped as a goddess of -childbirth, who bestowed offspring on men and women.[442] Thus Diana, -like the Greek Artemis, with whom she was constantly identified, may be -described as a goddess of nature in general and of fertility in -particular.[443] We need not wonder, therefore, that in her sanctuary on -the Aventine she was represented by an image copied from the -many-breasted idol of the Ephesian Artemis, with all its crowded emblems -of exuberant fecundity.[444] Hence too we can understand why an ancient -Roman law, attributed to King Tullius Hostilius, prescribed that, when -incest had been committed, an expiatory sacrifice should be offered by -the pontiffs in the grove of Diana.[445] For we know that the crime of -incest is commonly supposed to cause a dearth;[446] hence it would be -meet that atonement for the offence should be made to the goddess of -fertility. - -[Sidenote: As a goddess of fertility Diana had herself to be fertile, -and for that purpose needed a male partner.] Now on the principle that -the goddess of fertility must herself be fertile, it behoved Diana to -have a male partner. Her mate, if the testimony of Servius may be -trusted, was that Virbius who had his representative, or perhaps rather -his embodiment, in the King of the Wood at Nemi.[447] The aim of their -union would be to promote the fruitfulness of the earth, of animals, and -of mankind; and it might naturally be thought that this object would be -more surely attained if the sacred nuptials were celebrated every year, -the parts of the divine bride and bridegroom being played either by -their images or by living persons. No ancient writer mentions that this -was done in the grove at Nemi; but our knowledge of the Arician ritual -is so scanty that the want of information on this head can hardly count -as a fatal objection to the theory. That theory, in the absence of -direct evidence, must necessarily be based on the analogy of similar -customs practised elsewhere. Some modern examples of such customs, more -or less degenerate, were described in the last chapter. Here we shall -consider their ancient counterparts. - - - § 2. The Marriage of the Gods - - -[Sidenote: Marriages of the gods in Babylonia and Assyria.] At Babylon -the imposing sanctuary of Bel rose like a pyramid above the city in a -series of eight towers or stories, planted one on the top of the other. -On the highest tower, reached by an ascent which wound about all the -rest, there stood a spacious temple, and in the temple a great bed, -magnificently draped and cushioned, with a golden table beside it. In -the temple no image was to be seen, and no human being passed the night -there, save a single woman, whom, according to the Chaldean priests, the -god chose from among all the women of Babylon. They said that the deity -himself came into the temple at night and slept in the great bed; and -the woman, as a consort of the god, might have no intercourse with -mortal man.[448] As Bel at Babylon was identified with Marduk, the chief -god of the city,[449] the woman who thus shared his bed was doubtless -one of the “wives of Marduk” mentioned in the code of Hammurabi.[450] At -Calah, which was for some time the capital of Assyria before it was -displaced by Nineveh,[451] the marriage of the god Nabu appears to have -been annually celebrated on the third of the month Iyyar or Airu, which -corresponded to May. For on that day his bed was consecrated in the -city, and the god entered his bedchamber, to return to his place on the -following day. The ceremonies attending the consecration of the couch -are minutely described in a liturgical text. After the appropriate -offerings had been presented, the officiating priestess purified the -feet of the divine image with a sprig of reed and a vessel of oil, -approached the bed thrice, kissed the feet of the image, then retired -and sat down. After that she burned cedar wood dipped in wine, set -before the image the heart of a sheep wrapped in a cloth, and offered -libations. Aromatic woods were consecrated and burnt, more libations and -offerings were made, tables were spread for various divinities, and the -ceremony ended with a prayer for the King. The god also went in -procession to a grove, riding in a chariot beside his charioteer.[452] - -[Sidenote: Marriage of the god Ammon to the Queen of Egypt.] At Thebes -in Egypt a woman slept in the temple of Ammon as the consort of the god, -and, like the human wife of Bel at Babylon, she was said to have no -commerce with a man.[453] In Egyptian texts she is often mentioned as -“the divine consort,” and usually she was no less a personage than the -Queen of Egypt herself. For, according to the Egyptians, their monarchs -were actually begotten by the god Ammon, who assumed for the time being -the form of the reigning king, and in that disguise had intercourse with -the queen. The divine procreation is carved and painted in great detail -on the walls of two of the oldest temples in Egypt, those of Deir el -Bahari and Luxor; and the inscriptions attached to the paintings leave -no doubt as to the meaning of the scenes. The pictures at Deir el -Bahari, which represent the begetting and birth of Queen Hatshopsitou, -are the more ancient, and have been reproduced with but little change at -Luxor, where they represent the begetting and birth of King Amenophis -III. The nativity is depicted in about fifteen scenes, which may be -grouped in three acts: first, the carnal union of the god with the -queen; second, the birth; and third, the recognition of the infant by -the gods. The marriage of Ammon with the queen is announced by a -prologue in heaven; Ammon summons his assessors, the gods of Heliopolis, -reveals to them the future birth of a new Pharaoh, a royal princess, and -requests them to make ready the fluid of life and of strength, of which -they are masters. Then the god is seen approaching the queen’s -bedchamber; in front of him marches Thoth, with a roll of papyrus in his -hand, who, to prevent mistakes, recites the official names of the queen, -the spouse of the reigning king (Thothmes I. at Deir el Bahari, Thothmes -IV. at Luxor), the fairest of women. Then Thoth withdraws behind Ammon, -lifting his arm behind the god in order to renew his vital fluid at this -critical moment. Next, according to the inscription, the mystery of -incarnation takes place. Ammon lays aside his godhead and becomes flesh -in the likeness of the king, the human spouse of the queen. The -consummation of the divine union follows immediately. On a bed of state -the god and the queen appear seated opposite each other, with their legs -crossed. The queen receives from her husband the symbols of life and -strength, while two goddesses, Neit and Selkit, the patronesses of -matrimony, support the feet of the couple and guard them from harm. The -text which encloses the scene sets forth clearly the reality of this -mystic union of the human with the divine. “Thus saith Ammon-Ra, king of -the gods, lord of Karnak, he who rules over Thebes, when he took the -form of this male, the King of Upper and Nether Egypt, Thothmes I. (or -Thothmes IV.), giver of life. He found the queen then when she lay in -the glory of her palace. She awoke at the fragrance of the god, and -marvelled at it. Straightway his Majesty went towards her, took -possession of her, placed his heart in her, and shewed himself to her in -his divine form. And upon his coming she was uplifted at the sight of -his beauty, the love of the god ran through all her limbs, and the smell -of the god and his breath were full of the perfumes of Pounit. And thus -saith the royal spouse, the royal mother Ahmasi (or Moutemouaa), in -presence of the majesty of this glorious god, Ammon, lord of Karnak, -lord of Thebes, ‘Twice great are thy souls! It is noble to behold thy -countenance when thou joinest thyself to my majesty in all grace! Thy -dew impregnates all my limbs.’ Then, when the majesty of the god had -accomplished all his desire with her, Ammon, the lord of the two lands, -said to her: ‘_She who is joined to Ammon, the first of the nobles_, -verily, such shall be the name of the daughter who shall open thy womb, -since such is the course of the words that came forth from thy mouth. -She shall reign in righteousness in all the earth, for my soul is hers, -my heart is hers, my will is hers, my crown is hers, truly, that she may -rule over the two lands, that she may guide the souls of all living.’” - -[Sidenote: Nativity of the divine Egyptian kings represented on the -monuments.] After the begetting of the divine child—for we must remember -that the kings and queens of Egypt were regarded as divinities in their -lifetime—another series of scenes represents the fashioning of its body -and its birth. The god Khnoumou, who in the beginning of time moulded -gods and men on his potter’s wheel, is seen seated at his wheel -modelling the future king or queen and their doubles—those spiritual -duplicates or external souls which were believed to hover invisible -about both men and gods all through life. In front of Khnoumou kneels -Hiqit, the frog-headed goddess, “the great magician”; she is holding out -to the newly-created figures the symbol of life, the _crux ansata_ ♀, in -order that they may breathe and live. Another scene represents the -birth. At Deir el Bahari the queen has already been delivered, and is -presenting her daughter to several goddesses, who have acted the part of -midwives. At Luxor the double of the royal infant is born first; the -goddesses who serve as nurses have him in their arms, and the midwives -are preparing to receive the real child. Behind the queen are the -goddesses who watch over childbirth, led by Isis and Nephthys; and all -around the spirits of the East, the West, the North, and the South are -presenting the symbol of life or uttering acclamations. In a corner the -grotesque god Bes and the female hippopotamus Api keep off all evil -influence and every malignant spirit. - -[Sidenote: These representations probably copied from the life.] We -shall probably not err in assuming, with some eminent authorities, that -the ceremonies of the nativity of the Pharaohs, thus emblazoned on the -walls of Egyptian temples, were copied from the life; in other words, -that the carved and painted scenes represent a real drama, which was -acted by masked men and women whenever a queen of Egypt was brought to -bed. “Here, as everywhere else in Egypt,” says Professor Maspero, -“sculptor and painter did nothing but faithfully imitate reality. Theory -required that the assimilation of the kings to the gods should be -complete, so that every act of the royal life was, as it were, a tracing -of the corresponding act of the divine life. From the moment that the -king was Ammon, he wore the costume and badges of Ammon—the tall hat -with the long plumes, the cross of life, the greyhound-headed -sceptre—and thus arrayed he presented himself in the queen’s bedchamber -to consummate the marriage. The assistants also assumed the costume and -appearance of the divinities whom they incarnated; the men put on masks -of jackals, hawks, and crocodiles, while the women donned masks of cows -or frogs, according as they played the parts of Anubis, Khnoumou, -Sovkou, Hathor, or Hiqit; and I am disposed to believe that the doubles -of the new-born child were represented by as many puppets as were -required by the ceremonies. Some of the rites were complicated, and must -have tired excessively the mother and child who underwent them; but they -are nothing to those that have been observed in similar circumstances in -other lands. In general, we are bound to hold that all the pictures -traced on the walls of the temples, in which the person of the king is -concerned, correspond to a real action in which disguised personages -played the part of gods.”[454] - -[Sidenote: Human wives of Ammon in the decline of Egypt.] In the decline -of Egypt from the eleventh century onward, the wives of Ammon at Thebes -were called on to play a conspicuous part in the government of the -country. The strong grip of the Pharaohs was relaxed and under their -feeble successors the empire crumbled away into a number of petty -independent states. In this dissolution of the central authority the -crafty high priests of Ammon at Thebes contrived to usurp regal powers -and to reign far and wide in the name of the deity, veiling their -rescripts under the guise of oracles of the god, who, with the help of a -little jugglery, complacently signified his assent to their wishes by -nodding his head or even by speech. But curiously enough under this -pretended theocracy the nominal ruler was not the priest himself, but -his wife, the earthly consort of Ammon. Thus Thebes became for a time a -ghostly principality governed ostensibly by a dynasty of female popes. -Their office was hereditary, passing by rights from mother to daughter. -But probably the entail was often broken by the policy or ambition of -the men who stood behind the scenes and worked the religious puppet-show -by hidden wires to the awe and astonishment of the gaping vulgar. -Certainly we know that on one occasion King Psammetichus First foisted -his own daughter into the Holy See by dedicating her to Ammon under a -hypocritical profession of gratitude for favours bestowed on him by the -deity. And the female pope had to submit to the dictation with the best -grace she could assume, protesting her affection for the adopted -daughter who had ousted her own daughter from the throne.[455] - -[Sidenote: Human concubines of Ammon in Roman times.] At a later period, -when Egypt lay under the heel of Rome, the character of “the divine -consort” of Ammon at Thebes had greatly changed. For at the beginning of -our era the custom was to appoint a young and beautiful girl, the scion -of one of the noblest houses, to serve Ammon as his concubine. The -Greeks called these maidens Pallades, apparently after their own virgin -goddess Pallas; but the conduct of the girls was by no means maidenly, -for they led the loosest of lives till puberty. Then they were mourned -over and given in marriage.[456] Their graves were shown near -Thebes.[457] The reason why their services ended at puberty may have -been that as concubines of the god they might not bear children to -mortal fathers; hence it was deemed prudent to terminate their relations -with the divinity before they were of an age to become mothers. It was -an Egyptian doctrine that a mortal woman could conceive by a god, but -that a goddess could not conceive by a mortal man.[458] The certainty of -maternity and the uncertainty of paternity suggest an obvious and -probably sufficient ground for this theological distinction. - -[Sidenote: Apollo and his prophetess at Patara.] Apollo was said to -spend the winter months at Patara in Lycia and the summer months in the -island of Delos, and accordingly he gave oracles for one half of the -year in the one place, and for the other half in the other.[459] So long -as he tarried at Patara, his prophetess was shut up with him in the -temple every night.[460] At Ephesus there was a college [Sidenote: The -Essenes of Artemis at Ephesus.] of sacred men called Essenes or King -Bees who held office for a year, during which they had to observe strict -chastity and other rules of ceremonial purity.[461] How many of them -there were at a time we do not know, but there must have been several, -for in Ephesian inscriptions they are regularly referred to in the -plural. They cannot have been bound to lifelong celibacy, for in one of -the inscriptions an Essen mentions his wife.[462] Possibly they were -deemed the annual husbands of Artemis, the great many-breasted goddess -of fertility at Ephesus, whose association with the bee is vouched for -by the figures of bees which appear commonly both on her statues and on -the coins of Ephesus.[463] If this conjecture is right, the King Bees -and their bee-goddess Artemis at Ephesus would be closely parallel to -the King of the Wood and his woodland-goddess Diana at Nemi, as these -latter are interpreted by me. The rule of chastity imposed on the King -Bees during their year of office would be easily explicable on this -hypothesis. As the temporary husbands of the goddess they would be -expected for the time being to have no intercourse with mortal women, -just as the human wives of Bel and Ammon were supposed to have no -commerce with mortal men. - -[Sidenote: Marriage of Dionysus to the Queen at Athens.] At Athens the -god of the vine, Dionysus, was annually married to the Queen, and it -appears that the consummation of the divine union, as well as the -espousals, was enacted at the ceremony; but whether the part of the god -was played by a man or an image we do not know. Attic law required that -the Queen should be a burgess and should never have known any man but -her husband. She had to offer certain secret sacrifices on behalf of the -state, and was permitted to see what no foreign woman might ever behold, -and to enter where no other Athenian might set foot. She was assisted in -the discharge of her solemn functions by fourteen sacred women, one for -each of the altars of Dionysus. The old Dionysiac festival was held on -the twelfth day of the month Anthesterion, corresponding roughly to our -February, at the ancient sanctuary of Dionysus in the Marshes, which was -never opened throughout the year save on that one day. At this festival -the Queen exacted an oath of purity and chastity from the fourteen -sacred women at the altar. Possibly her marriage was celebrated on the -same day, though of that we have no positive evidence, and we learn from -Aristotle that the ceremony took place, not at the sanctuary in the -marshes, but in the old official residence of the King, known as the -Cattle-stall, which stood near the Prytaneum or Town-hall on the -north-eastern slope of the Acropolis.[464] But whatever the date of the -wedding, its object can hardly have been any other than that of ensuring -the fertility of the vines and other fruit-trees, of which Dionysus was -the god. Thus both in form and in meaning the ceremony would answer to -the nuptials of the King and Queen of May. Again, the story, dear to -poets and artists, of the forsaken and sleeping Ariadne, waked and -wedded by Dionysus, resembles so closely the little drama acted by -French peasants of the Alps on May Day,[465] that, considering the -character of Dionysus as a god of vegetation, we can hardly help -regarding it as the reflection of a spring ceremony like the French one. -In point of fact the [Sidenote: Dionysus and Ariadne.] marriage of -Dionysus and Ariadne was believed by Preller to have been acted every -spring in Crete.[466] His evidence, indeed, is inconclusive, but the -view itself is probable. If I am right in comparing the two, the chief -difference between the French and the Greek ceremonies appears to have -been that in the former the sleeper was a forsaken bridegroom, in the -latter a forsaken bride; and the group of stars in the sky, in which -fancy saw Ariadne’s wedding crown,[467] may have been only a translation -to heaven of the garland worn by the Greek girl who played the Queen of -May. - -[Sidenote: Marriage of Zeus with Demeter at Eleusis.] If at Athens, and -probably elsewhere, the vine-god was married to a queen in order that -the vines might be loaded with clusters of grapes, there is reason to -think that a marriage of a different kind, intended to make the fields -wave with yellow corn, was annually celebrated not many miles off, -beyond the low hills that bound the plain of Athens on the west. In the -great mysteries solemnised at Eleusis in the month of September the -union of the sky-god Zeus with the corn-goddess Demeter appears to have -been represented by the union of the hierophant with the priestess of -Demeter, who acted the parts of god and goddess. But their intercourse -was only dramatic or symbolical, for the hierophant had temporarily -deprived himself of his virility by an application of hemlock. The -torches having been extinguished, the pair descended into a murky place, -while the throng of worshippers awaited in anxious suspense the result -of the mystic congress, on which they believed their own salvation to -depend. After a time the hierophant reappeared, and in a blaze of light -silently exhibited to the assembly a reaped ear of corn, the fruit of -the divine marriage. Then in a loud voice he proclaimed, “Queen Brimo -has brought forth a sacred boy Brimos,” by which he meant, “The Mighty -One has brought forth the Mighty.” The corn-mother in fact had given -birth to her child, the corn, and her travail-pangs were enacted in the -sacred drama.[468] This revelation of the reaped corn appears to have -been the crowning act of the mysteries. Thus through the glamour shed -round these rites by the poetry and philosophy of later ages there still -looms, like a distant landscape through a sunlit haze, a simple rustic -festival designed to cover the wide Eleusinian plain with a plenteous -harvest by wedding the goddess of the corn to the sky-god, who -fertilised the bare earth with genial showers. - -[Sidenote: Marriage of Zeus and Hera at Plataea.] But Zeus was not -always the sky-god, nor did he always marry the corn-goddess. If in -antiquity a traveller, quitting Eleusis and passing through miles of -olive-groves and corn-fields, had climbed the pine-clad mountains of -Cithaeron and descended through the forest on their northern slope to -Plataea, he might have chanced to find the people of that little -Boeotian town celebrating a different marriage of the great god to a -different goddess. The ceremony is described by a Greek antiquary whose -note-book has fortunately preserved for us not a few rural customs of -ancient Greece, of which the knowledge would otherwise have perished. - -Every few years the people of Plataea held a festival which they called -the Little Daedala. On the day of the festival they went out into an -ancient oak forest, the trees of which were of gigantic girth. There -they set some boiled meat on the ground, and watched the birds that -gathered round it. When a raven was observed to carry off a piece of the -meat and perch on an oak, the people followed it and cut down the tree. -With the wood of the tree they made an image, dressed it as a bride, and -placed it on a bullock-cart with a bridesmaid beside it. It seems then -to have been drawn to the banks of the river Asopus and back to the -town, attended by a piping and dancing crowd. After the festival the -image was put away and kept till the celebration of the Great Daedala, -which fell only once in sixty years, and was held by all the people of -Boeotia. On this occasion all the images, fourteen in number, that had -accumulated from the celebrations of the Little Daedala were dragged on -wains in procession to the river Asopus, and then to the top of Mount -Cithaeron. There an altar had been constructed of square blocks of wood -fitted together, with brushwood heaped over it. Animals were sacrificed -by being burned on the altar, and the altar itself, together with the -images, was consumed by the flames. The blaze, we are told, rose to a -prodigious height and was seen for many miles. To explain the origin of -the festival a story ran that once upon a time Hera had quarrelled with -Zeus and left him in high dudgeon. To lure her back Zeus gave out that -he was about to marry the nymph Plataea, daughter of the river Asopus. -He had a fine oak cut down, shaped and dressed as a bride, and conveyed -on a bullock-cart. Transported with rage and jealousy, Hera flew to the -cart, and tearing off the veil of the pretended bride, discovered the -deceit that had been practised on her. Her rage now turned to laughter, -and she became reconciled to her husband Zeus.[469] - -[Sidenote: Resemblance of the Plataean ceremony to the spring and -midsummer festivals of modern Europe.] The resemblance of this festival -to some of the European spring and midsummer festivals is tolerably -close. We have seen that in Russia at Whitsuntide the villagers go out -into the wood, fell a birch-tree, dress it in woman’s clothes, and bring -it back to the village with dance and song. On the third day it is -thrown into the water.[470] Again, we have seen that in Bohemia on -Midsummer Eve the village lads fell a tall fir or pine-tree in the wood -and set it up on a height, where it is adorned with garlands, nosegays, -and ribbons, and afterwards burnt.[471] The reason for burning the tree -will appear afterwards; the custom itself is not uncommon in modern -Europe. In some parts of the Pyrenees a tall and slender tree is cut -down on May Day and kept till Midsummer Eve. It is then rolled to the -top of a hill, set up, and burned.[472] In Angoulême on St. Peter’s Day, -the twenty-ninth of June, a tall leafy poplar is set up in the -market-place and burned.[473] Near Launceston in Cornwall there is a -large tumulus known as Whiteborough, with a fosse round it. On this -tumulus “there was formerly a great bonfire on Midsummer Eve; a large -summer pole was fixed in the centre, round which the fuel was heaped up. -It had a large bush on the top of it. Round this were parties of -wrestlers contending for small prizes.” The rustics believed that giants -were buried in such mounds, and nothing would tempt them to disturb -their bones.[474] In Dublin on May-morning boys used to go out and cut a -May-bush, bring it back to town, and then burn it.[475] - -[Sidenote: All such ceremonies were originally magical rites intended to -bring about the effects which they dramatically represented.] Probably -the Boeotian festival belonged to the same class of rites. It -represented the marriage of the powers of vegetation—the union of the -oak-god with the oak-goddess[476]—in spring or midsummer, just as the -same event is represented in modern Europe by a King and Queen or a Lord -and Lady of the May. In the Boeotian, as in the Russian, ceremony the -tree dressed as a woman stands for the English May-pole and May-queen in -one. All such ceremonies, it must be remembered, are not, or at least -were not originally, mere spectacular or dramatic exhibitions. They are -magical rites designed to produce the effect which they dramatically set -forth. If the revival of vegetation in spring is mimicked by the -awakening of a sleeper, the mimicry is intended actually to quicken the -growth of leaves and blossoms; if the marriage of the powers of -vegetation is simulated by a King and Queen of May, the idea is that the -powers thus personated will really be rendered more productive by the -ceremony. In short, all these spring and midsummer festivals fall under -the head of homoeopathic or imitative magic. The thing which people wish -to bring about they represent dramatically, and the very representation -is believed to effect, or at least to contribute to, the production of -the desired result. In the case of the Daedala the story of Hera’s -quarrel with Zeus and her sullen retirement may perhaps without -straining be interpreted as a mythical expression for a bad season and -the failure of the crops. The same disastrous effects were attributed to -the anger and seclusion of Demeter after the loss of her daughter -Proserpine.[477] Now the institution of a festival is often explained by -a mythical story, which relates how upon a particular occasion those -very calamities occurred which it is the real object of the festival to -avert; so that if we know the myth told to account for the historical -origin of the festival, we can often infer from it the real intention -with which the festival was celebrated. If, therefore, the origin of the -Daedala was explained by a story of a failure of crops and consequent -famine, we may infer that the real object of the festival was to prevent -the occurrence of such disasters; and, if I am right in my -interpretation of the festival, the object was supposed to be effected -by dramatically representing the marriage of the divinities most -concerned with the production of trees and plants. The marriage of Zeus -and Hera was acted at annual festivals in various parts of Greece,[478] -and it is at least a fair conjecture that the nature and intention of -these ceremonies were such as I have assigned to the Plataean festival -of the Daedala; in other words, that Zeus and Hera at these festivals -were the Greek equivalents of the Lord and Lady of the May. Homer’s -glowing picture of Zeus and Hera couched on fresh hyacinths and -crocuses,[479] like Milton’s description of the dalliance of Zephyr with -Aurora, “as he met her once a-Maying,” was perhaps painted from the -life. - -[Sidenote: The god Frey and his human wife in Sweden.] The sacred -marriage of Zeus and Hera had, as was natural, its counterpart among the -northern kinsfolk of the Greeks. In Sweden every year a life-size image -of Frey, the god of fertility, both animal and vegetable, was drawn -about the country in a waggon attended by a beautiful girl who was -called the god’s wife. She acted also as his priestess in his great -temple at Upsala. Wherever the waggon came with the image of the god and -his blooming young bride, the people crowded to meet them and offered -sacrifices for a fruitful year. Once on a time a Norwegian exile named -Gunnar Helming gave himself out to be Frey in person, and rode about on -the sacred waggon dressed up in the god’s clothes. Everywhere the simple -folk welcomed him as the deity, and observed with wonder and delight -that a god walked about among men and ate and drank just like other -people. And when the months went by, and the god’s fair young wife was -seen to be with child, their joy waxed greatly, for they thought, -“Surely this is an omen of a fruitful season.” It happened that the -weather was then so mild, and the promise of a plenteous harvest so -fair, that no man ever remembered such a year before. But one night the -god departed in haste, with his wife and all the gold and silver and -fine raiment which he had got together; and though the Swedes made after -him, they could not catch him. He was over the hills and far away in -Norway.[480] Similar ceremonies appear to have been observed by the -[Sidenote: Similar customs in Gaul.] peasantry of Gaul in antiquity; for -Gregory of Tours, writing in the sixth century of our era, says that at -Autun the people used to carry about an image of a goddess in a waggon -drawn by oxen. The intention of the ceremony was to ensure the safety of -the crops and vines, and the rustics danced and sang in front of the -image.[481] The old historian identifies the goddess with Cybele, the -Great Mother goddess of Phrygia, and the identification would seem to be -correct. For we learn from another source that men wrought up to a pitch -of frenzy by the shrill music of flutes and the clash of cymbals, -sacrificed their virility to the goddess, dashing the severed portions -of themselves against her image.[482] Now this religious castration was -a marked feature of the Phrygian worship of Cybele, but it is alien to -Western modes of thought, although it still finds favour with a section -of the barbarous, fanatical, semi-Oriental peasantry of Russia.[483] But -whether of native or of Eastern origin the rites of the goddess of Autun -closely conformed to those of the great Phrygian goddess and appear to -have been, like them, a perverted form of the Sacred Marriage, which was -designed to fertilise the earth, and in which eunuchs, strange as it may -seem, personated the lovers of the goddess.[484] - -[Sidenote: The custom of marrying gods to images or to living persons is -found also among uncivilised peoples.] Thus the custom of marrying gods -either to images or to human beings was widespread among the nations of -antiquity. The ideas on which such a custom is based are too crude to -allow us to doubt that the civilised Babylonians, Egyptians, and Greeks -inherited it from their barbarous or savage forefathers. This -presumption is strengthened when we find rites of a similar kind in -vogue among the lower races. Thus, for example, we are told that once -upon a [Sidenote: Custom of the Wotyaks.] time the Wotyaks of the Malmyz -district in Russia were distressed by a series of bad harvests. They did -not know what to do, but at last concluded that their powerful but -mischievous god Keremet must be angry at being unmarried. So a -deputation of elders visited the Wotyaks of Cura and came to an -understanding with them on the subject. Then they returned home, laid in -a large stock of brandy, and having made ready a gaily decked waggon and -horses, they drove in procession with bells ringing, as they do when -they are fetching home a bride, to the sacred grove at Cura. There they -ate and drank merrily all night, and next morning they cut a square -piece of turf in the grove and took it home with them. After this, -though it fared well with the people of Malmyz, it fared ill with the -people of Cura; for in Malmyz the bread was good, but in Cura it was -bad. Hence the men of Cura who had consented to the marriage were blamed -and roughly handled by their indignant fellow-villagers. “What they -meant by this marriage ceremony,” says the writer who reports it, “it is -not easy to imagine. Perhaps, as Bechterew thinks, they meant to marry -Keremet to the kindly and fruitful Mukylćin, the Earth-wife, in order -that she might influence him for good.”[485] This carrying of turf, like -a bride, in a waggon from a sacred grove resembles the Plataean custom -of carting an oak log as a bride from an ancient oak forest; and we have -seen ground for thinking that the Plataean ceremony, like its Wotyak -counterpart, was intended as a charm to secure fertility. When wells are -dug in Bengal, a wooden image of a god is made and married to the -goddess of water.[486] - -[Sidenote: Custom of the Peruvian Indians.] Often the bride destined for -the god is not a log or a clod, but a living woman of flesh and blood. -The Indians of a village in Peru have been known to marry a beautiful -girl, about fourteen years of age, to a stone shaped like a human being, -which they regarded as a god (_huaca_). All the villagers took part in -the marriage ceremony, which lasted three days, and was attended with -much revelry. The girl thereafter remained a virgin and sacrificed to -the idol for the people. They shewed her the utmost reverence and deemed -her divine.[487] The Blackfoot Indians of North [Sidenote: Marriage of a -woman to the Sun among the Blackfoot Indians.] America used to worship -the Sun as their chief god, and they held a festival every year in his -honour. Four days before the new moon of August the tribe halted on its -march, and all hunting was suspended. Bodies of mounted men were on duty -day and night to carry out the orders of the high priest of the Sun. He -enjoined the people to fast and to take vapour baths during the four -days before the new moon. Moreover, with the help of his council, he -chose the Vestal who was to represent the Moon and to be married to the -Sun at the festival. She might be either a virgin or a woman who had had -but one husband. Any girl or woman found to have discharged the sacred -duties without fulfilling the prescribed conditions was put to death. On -the third day of preparation, after the last purification had been -observed, they built a round temple of the Sun. Posts were driven into -the ground in a circle; these were connected with cross-pieces, and the -whole was covered with leaves. In the middle stood the sacred pole, -supporting the roof. A bundle of many small branches of sacred wood, -wrapped in a splendid buffalo robe, crowned the summit of the temple. -The entrance was on the east, and within the sanctuary stood an altar on -which rested the head of a buffalo. Beside the altar was the place -reserved for the Vestal. Here, on a bed prepared for her, she slept “the -sleep of war,” as it was called. Her other duties consisted in -maintaining a sacred fire of fragrant herbs, in presenting a lighted -pipe to her husband the Sun, and in telling the high priest the dream -she dreamed during “the sleep of war.” On learning it the priest had it -proclaimed to the whole nation to the beat of drum.[488] Every year -about the middle of March, when the season for fishing with the drag-net -began, the [Sidenote: Marriage of girls to fishing nets among the Hurons -and Algonquins.] Algonquins and Hurons married their nets to two young -girls, aged six or seven. At the wedding feast the net was placed -between the two maidens, and was exhorted to take courage and catch many -fish. The reason for choosing the brides so young was to make sure that -they were virgins. The origin of the custom is said to have been this. -One year, when the fishing season came round, the Algonquins cast their -nets as usual, but took nothing. Surprised at their want of success, -they did not know what to make of it, till the soul or genius (_oki_) of -the net appeared to them in the likeness of a tall well-built man, who -said to them in a great passion, “I have lost my wife and I cannot find -one who has known no other man but me; that is why you do not succeed, -and why you never will succeed till you give me satisfaction on this -head.” So the Algonquins held a council and resolved to appease the -spirit of the net by marrying him to two such very young girls that he -could have no ground of complaint on that score for the future. They did -so, and the fishing turned out all that could be wished. The thing got -wind among their neighbours the Hurons, and they adopted the custom. A -share of the catch was always given to the families of the two girls who -acted as brides of the net for the year.[489] - -[Sidenote: Sacred Marriage of the Sun-god and Earth-goddess among the -Oraons.] The Oraons of Bengal worship the Earth as a goddess, and -annually celebrate her marriage with the Sun-god Dharmē at the time when -the _sāl_ tree is in blossom. The ceremony is as follows. All bathe, -then the men repair to the sacred grove (_sarnā_), while the women -assemble at the house of the village priest. After sacrificing some -fowls to the Sun-god and the demon of the grove, the men eat and drink. -“The priest is then carried back to the village on the shoulders of a -strong man. Near the village the women meet the men and wash their feet. -With beating of drums and singing, dancing, and jumping, all proceed to -the priest’s house, which has been decorated with leaves and flowers. -Then the usual form of marriage is performed between the priest and his -wife, symbolizing the supposed union between Sun and Earth. After the -ceremony all eat and drink and make merry; they dance and sing obscene -songs, and finally indulge in the vilest orgies. The object is to move -the mother earth to become fruitful.”[490] Thus the Sacred Marriage of -the Sun and Earth, personated by the priest and his wife, is celebrated -as a charm to ensure the fertility of the ground; and for the same -purpose, on the principle of homoeopathic magic, the people indulge in a -licentious orgy. Among the Sulka of New Britain, at the village of -Kolvagat, a certain man has charge of two stone figures which are called -respectively “Our grandfather” (_ngur es_) and “Our grandmother” (_ngur -pei_). They are said to be kept in a house built specially for the -purpose. Fruits of the field are offered to them and left beside them to -rot. When their guardian puts the two figures with their faces turned -towards each other, the plantations are believed to flourish; but when -he sets them back to back, there is dearth and the people suffer from -eruptions on the skin.[491] This turning of the two images face to face -may be regarded as a simple form of Sacred Marriage between the two -divine powers represented by them, who are clearly supposed to control -the fertility of the plantations. - -[Sidenote: Marriage of women to gods in India and Africa.] At the -village of Bas Doda, in the Gurgaon district of North-Western India, a -fair is held on the twenty-sixth of the month Chait and the two -following days. We are told that formerly girls of the Dhinwar class -used to be married to the god at these festivals, and that they always -died soon afterwards. Of late years the practice is said to have been -discontinued.[492] In Behar during the month of Sawan (August) crowds of -women, calling themselves Nagin or “wives of the snake,” go about for -two and a half days begging; during this time they may neither sleep -under a roof nor eat salt. Half the proceeds of their begging is given -to Brahmans, and the other half spent in salt and sweet-meats, which are -eaten by all the villagers.[493] Amongst the Ewe-speaking peoples of the -Slave Coast in West Africa human wives of gods are very common. In -Dahomey they swarm, and it has even been estimated that every fourth -woman is devoted to the service of some deity. The chief business of -these female votaries is prostitution. In every town there is at least -one seminary where the handsomest girls, between ten and twelve years of -age, are trained. They stay for three years, learning the chants and -dances peculiar to the worship of the gods, and prostituting themselves -to the priests and the inmates of the male seminaries. At the end of -their noviciate they become public harlots. But no disgrace attaches to -their profession, for it is believed that they are married to the god, -and that their excesses are caused and directed by him. Strictly -speaking, they should confine their favours to the male worshippers at -the temple, but in practice they bestow them indiscriminately. Children -born of such unions belong to the deity. As the wives of a god, these -sacred women may not marry. But they are not bound to the service of the -divinity for life. Some only bear his name and sacrifice to him on their -birthdays.[494] Amongst these polygamous West African gods the sacred -python seems to be particularly associated with the fertility of the -earth; for he is invoked in excessively wet, dry, and barren seasons, -and the time of year when young girls are sought out to be his brides is -when the millet is beginning to sprout.[495] - -[Sidenote: Women married to water-gods.] It deserves to be remarked that -the supernatural being to whom women are married is often a god or -spirit of water. Thus Mukasa, the god of the Victoria Nyanza lake, who -was propitiated by the Baganda every time they undertook a long voyage, -had virgins provided for him to serve as his wives. Like the Vestals -they were bound to chastity, but unlike the Vestals they seem to have -been often unfaithful. The custom lasted until Mwanga was converted to -Christianity.[496] The Akikuyu of British East Africa worship the snake -of a certain river, and at intervals of several years they marry the -snake-god to women, but especially to young girls. For this purpose huts -are built by order of the medicine-men, who there consummate the sacred -marriage with the credulous female devotees. If the girls do not repair -to the huts of their own accord in sufficient numbers, they are seized -and dragged thither to the embraces of the deity. The offspring of these -mystic unions appears to be fathered on God (_Ngai_); certainly there -are children among the Akikuyu who pass for children of God.[497] In -Kengtung, one of the principal Shan states of Upper Burma, the spirit of -the Nawng Tung lake is regarded as very powerful, and is propitiated -with offerings in the eighth month (about July) of each year. A -remarkable feature of the worship of this spirit consists in the -dedication to him of four virgins in marriage. Custom requires that this -should be done once in every three years. It was actually done by the -late king or chief (Sawbwa) in 1893, but down to 1901 the rite had not -been performed by his successor. The following are the chief features of -the ceremony. The virgins who are to wed the spirit of the lake must be -of pure Hkön race. Orders are sent out for all the Hkön of the valley to -attend. From the unmarried women of suitable age, ten are selected. -These are as beautiful as may be, and must be without spot or blemish. -Four maidens out of the ten are chosen by lot, and carefully dressed in -new garments. A festival is held, usually at the house of the Chief -Minister, where the girls sit on a raised platform. Four old women, -thought to be possessed by spirits, enter and remain as long as the -feast lasts. During this time anything they may want, such as food, -betel, or cheroots, is handed to them by the four girls. Apparently the -old women pass for representatives of the spirit, and hence they are -waited on by the maidens destined to be his wives. Dotage, blindness, or -any great infirmity of age seems to be accounted possession by a spirit -for the purposes of this function. When the feast is over, the maidens -are formally presented to the spirit, along with the various sacrifices -and offerings. They are next taken to the chief’s residence, where -strings are tied round their wrists by the ministers and elders to guard -them against ill-luck. Usually they sleep a night or two at the palace, -after which they may return to their homes. There seems to be no -objection to their marrying afterwards. If nothing happens to any of the -four, it is believed that the spirit of the lake loves them but little; -but if one of them dies soon after the ceremony, it shews that she has -been accepted by him. The spirit is propitiated with the sacrifice of -pigs, fowls, and sometimes a buffalo.[498] - -[Sidenote: Egyptian custom of drowning a girl as a sacrifice to the -Nile.] In this last custom the death of the woman is regarded as a sign -that the god has taken her to himself. Sometimes, apparently, it has not -been left to the discretion of the divine bridegroom to take or leave -his human bride; she was made over to him once for all in death. When -the Arabs conquered Egypt they learned that at the annual rise of the -Nile the Egyptians were wont to deck a young virgin in gay apparel and -throw her into the river as a sacrifice, in order to obtain a plentiful -inundation. The Arab general abolished the barbarous custom.[499] It is -said that under the Tang dynasty the Chinese used to marry a young girl -to the Yellow River once a year by drowning her in the water. For this -purpose the witches chose the fairest damsel they could find and -themselves superintended the fatal marriage. At last the local mandarin, -a man of sense and humanity, forbade the custom. But the witches -disregarded his edicts and made their preparations for the usual murder. -So when the day was come, the magistrate appeared on the scene with his -soldiers and had all the witches bound and thrown into the river to -drown, telling them that no doubt the god would be able to choose his -bride for himself from among them.[500] The princes of Koepang, a state -in the East Indian island of Timor, deemed themselves descended from -crocodiles; and on [Sidenote: Girls sacrificed as brides of crocodiles.] -the coronation of a new prince a solemn sacrifice was made to the -crocodiles in presence of the people. The offerings consisted of a pig -with red bristles and a young girl prettily dressed, perfumed, and -decked with flowers. She was taken down to the bank of the river and set -on a sacred stone in a cave. Then one of the prince’s guards summoned -the crocodiles. Soon one of the beasts appeared and dragged the girl -down into the water. The people thought that he married her, and that if -he did not find her a maid he would bring her back.[501] On festal -occasions in the same state a new-born girl was sometimes dedicated to a -crocodile, and then, with certain ceremonies of consecration, brought up -to be married to a priest.[502] It is said that once, when the -inhabitants of Cayeli in Buru—another East Indian island—were threatened -with destruction by a swarm of crocodiles, they ascribed the misfortune -to a passion which the prince of the crocodiles had conceived for a -certain girl. Accordingly, they compelled the damsel’s father to dress -her in bridal array and deliver her over to the clutches of her -crocodile lover.[503] - -[Sidenote: Virgin sacrificed as a bride to a jinnee of the sea in the -Maldive Islands.] A usage of the same sort is reported to have prevailed -in the Maldive Islands before the conversion of the inhabitants to -Islam. The famous Arab traveller Ibn Batutah has described the custom -and the manner in which it came to an end. He was assured by several -trustworthy natives, whose names he gives, that when the people of the -islands were idolaters there appeared to them every month an evil spirit -among the jinn, who came from across the sea in the likeness of a ship -full of burning lamps. The wont of the inhabitants, as soon as they -perceived him, was to take a young virgin, and, having adorned her, to -lead her to a heathen temple that stood on the shore, with a window -looking out to sea. There they left the damsel for the night, and when -they came back in the morning they found her a maid no more, and dead. -Every month they drew lots, and he upon whom the lot fell gave up his -daughter to the jinnee of the sea. In time there came to them a Berber -named Abu ’lberecat, who knew the Coran by heart. He lodged in the house -of an old woman of the isle of Mahal. One day, visiting his hostess, he -found that she had gathered her family about her, and that the women -were weeping as if there were a funeral. On enquiring into the cause of -their distress, he learned that the lot had fallen on the old woman, and -that she had an only daughter, who must be slain by the evil jinnee. Abu -’lberecat said to the old dame, “I will go this night instead of thy -daughter.” Now he was quite beardless. So when the night was come they -took him, and after he had performed his ablutions, they put him in the -temple of idols. He set himself to recite the Coran; then the demon -appeared at the window, but the man went on with his recitation. No -sooner was the jinnee within hearing of the holy words than he dived -into the sea. When morning broke, the old woman and her family and the -people of the island came, according to their custom, to carry away the -girl and burn her body. They found the stranger repeating the Coran, and -took him to their king, whose name was Chenourazah, and made him relate -his adventure. The king was astonished at it. The Berber proposed to the -king that he should embrace Islam. Chenourazah said to him, “Tarry with -us till next month; if thou shalt do what thou hast done, and shalt -escape from the evil jinnee, I will be converted.” The stranger abode -with the idolaters, and God disposed the king’s heart to receive the -true faith. So before the month was out he became a Mussalman, he and -his wives and his children and the people of his court. And when the -next month began, the Berber was conducted to the temple of idols; but -the demon did not appear, and the Berber set himself to recite the Coran -till break of day. Then the Sultan and his subjects broke the idols and -demolished the temple. The people of the island embraced Islam and sent -messengers to the other isles, and their inhabitants were converted -likewise. But by reason of the demon many of the Maldive Islands were -depopulated before their conversion to Islam. When Ibn Batutah himself -landed in the country he knew nothing of these things. One night, as he -was going about his business, he heard of a sudden people saying in a -loud voice, “There is no God but God,” and “God is great.” He saw -children carrying copies of the Coran on their heads, and women beating -on basins and vessels of copper. He was astonished at what they did, and -he said, “What has happened?” They answered, “Dost thou not behold the -sea?” He looked towards the sea, and beheld in the darkness, as it were, -a great ship full of burning lamps and cressets. They said to him, “That -is the demon. It is his wont to shew himself once a month; but after we -have done that which thou hast seen, he returns to his place and does us -no manner of harm.”[504] - -[Sidenote: The story based on the phosphorescence of the sea.] It -occurred to me that this myth of the demon lover may have been based on -some physical phenomenon, electrical, lunar, or otherwise, which is -periodically seen at night in the Maldive Islands. Accordingly I -consulted Professor J. Stanley Gardiner, our foremost authority on the -archipelago. His answer, which confirms my conjecture, runs thus: “A -peculiar phosphorescence, like the glow of a lamp hidden by a roughened -glass shade, is occasionally visible on lagoon shoals in the Maldives. I -imagine it to have been due to some single animal with a greater -phosphorescence than any at present known to us. A periodical appearance -at some phase of the moon due to reproduction is not improbable and has -parallels. The myth still exists in the Maldives, but in a rather -different form.” He adds that “a number of these animals might of course -appear on some shoal near Male,” the principal island of the group. To -the eyes of the ignorant and superstitious such a mysterious glow, -suddenly lighting up the sea in the dusk of the evening, might well -appear a phantom ship, hung with burning lamps, bearing down on the -devoted islands, and in the stillness of night the roar of the surf on -the barrier reef might sound in their ears like the voice of the demon -calling for his prey.[505] - - - § 3. Sacrifices to Water-spirits - - -[Sidenote: Stories of the Perseus and Andromeda type.] Ibn Batutah’s -narrative of the demon lover and his mortal brides closely resembles a -well-known type of folk-tale, of which versions have been found from -Japan and Annam in the East to Senegambia, Scandinavia, and Scotland in -the West. The story varies in details from people to people, but as -commonly told it runs thus. A certain country is infested by a -many-headed serpent, dragon, or other monster, which would destroy the -whole people if a human victim, generally a virgin, were not delivered -up to him periodically. Many victims have perished, and at last it has -fallen to the lot of the king’s own daughter to be sacrificed. She is -exposed to the monster, but the hero of the tale, generally a young man -of humble birth, interposes in her behalf, slays the monster, and -receives the hand of the princess as his reward. In many of the tales -the monster, who is sometimes described as a serpent, inhabits the water -of a sea, a lake, or a fountain. In other versions he is a serpent or -dragon who takes possession of the springs of water, and only allows the -water to flow or the people to make use of it on condition of receiving -a human victim.[506] - -[Sidenote: Water-spirits conceived as serpents or dragons.] It would -probably be a mistake to dismiss all these tales as pure inventions of -the story-teller. Rather we may suppose that they reflect a real custom -of sacrificing girls or women to be the wives of water-spirits, who are -very often conceived as great serpents or dragons. Elsewhere I have -cited many instances of this belief in serpent-shaped spirits of -water;[507] here it may be worth while to add a few more. Thus the -Warramunga of Central Australia perform elaborate ceremonies to appease -or coerce a gigantic, but purely mythical water-snake who is said to -have destroyed a number of people.[508] Some of the natives of western -Australia fear to approach large pools, supposing them to be inhabited -by a great serpent, who would kill them if they dared to drink or draw -water there by night.[509] The Indians of New Granada believed that when -the mother of all mankind, named Bachue, was grown old, she and her -husband plunged into the Lake of Iguague, where they were changed into -two enormous serpents, which still live in the lake and sometimes shew -themselves.[510] The Oyampi Indians of French Guiana imagine that each -waterfall has a guardian in the shape of a monstrous snake, who lies -hidden under the eddy of the cascade, but has sometimes been seen to -lift up its huge head. To see it is fatal. Canoe and Indians are then -dragged down to the bottom, where the monster swallows all the men, and -sometimes the canoe also. Hence the Oyampis never name a waterfall till -they have passed it, for fear that the snake at the bottom of the water -might hear its name and attack the rash intruders.[511] The Huichol -Indians of Mexico adore water. Springs are sacred, and the gods in them -are mothers or serpents, that rise with the clouds and descend as -fructifying rain.[512] The Tarahumares, another Indian tribe of Mexico, -think that every river, pool, and spring has its serpent, who causes the -water to come up out of the earth. All these water-serpents are easily -offended; hence the Tarahumares place their houses some little way from -the water, and will not sleep near it when they are on a journey. -Whenever they construct weirs to catch fish, they take care to offer -fish to the water-serpent of the river; and when they are away from home -and are making pinole, that is, toasted maize-meal, they drop the first -of the pinole into the water as an offering to the serpents, who would -otherwise try to seize them and chase them back to their own land.[513] -In Basutoland the rivers Ketane and Maletsunyane tumble, with a roar of -waters and a cloud of iridescent spray, into vast chasms hundreds of -feet deep. The Basutos fear to approach the foot of these huge falls, -for they think that a spirit in the shape of a gigantic snake haunts the -seething cauldron which receives the falling waters.[514] - -[Sidenote: Sacrifices of human beings to water-spirits.] The perils of -the sea, of floods, of rapid rivers, of deep pools and lakes, naturally -account for the belief that water-spirits are fickle and dangerous -beings, who need to be appeased by sacrifices. Sometimes these -sacrifices consist of animals, such as horses and bulls,[515] but often -the victims are human beings. Thus at the mouth of the Bonny River there -is a dangerous bar on which vessels trading to the river have been lost. -This is bad for business, and accordingly the negroes used to sacrifice -a young man annually to the spirit of the bar. The handsomest youth was -chosen for the purpose, and for many months before the ceremony he -lodged with the king. The people regarded him as sacred or ju-ju, and -whatever he touched, even when he passed casually through the streets, -shared his sanctity and belonged to him. Hence whenever he appeared in -public the inhabitants fled before him, lest he should touch their -garments or anything they might be carrying. He was kept in ignorance of -the fate in store for him, and no one might inform him of it under pain -of death. On an appointed day he was taken out to the bar in a canoe and -induced to jump into the water. Then the rowers plied their paddles and -left him to drown. A similar ceremony used to be performed at the New -Calabar River, but the victim was a culprit. He was thrown into the -water to be devoured by the sharks, which are there the principal fetish -or ju-ju.[516] The chiefs of Duke Town, on the same coast of Guinea, -were wont to make an annual offering to the river. A young woman of a -light colour, or an albino, was chosen as the victim. On a set day they -decked her with finery, took her down to Parrot Island, and with much -ceremony plunged her in the stream. The fishermen of Efiat, at the mouth -of the river, are said still to observe the rite in order to ensure a -good catch of fish.[517] The King of Dahomey used to send from time to -time a man, dressed out with the insignia of office, to Whydah to be -drowned at the mouth of the river. The intention of the sacrifice was to -attract merchant ships.[518] When a fisherman has been carried off by a -crocodile, some of the natives on the banks of Lake Tanganyika take this -for a sign that the spirit deems himself slighted, since he is obliged -to come and find victims for himself instead of having them presented to -him. Hence the sorcerers generally decide that a second victim is -wanted; so, having chosen one, they bind him hand and foot and fling him -into the lake to feed the crocodiles.[519] The crater of the volcano -Tolucan in Mexico encloses two lakes of clear cold water, surrounded by -gloomy forests of pine. Here, in the eighteenth month of the Toltec -year, answering to February, children beautifully dressed and decked -with flowers and gay feathers used to be drowned as an offering to -Tlaloc, the god of the waters, who had a fine temple on the spot.[520] -The Chams of Annam have traditions of a time when living men were thrown -into the sea every year in order to propitiate the deities who looked -after the fishing, and when children of good family were drowned in the -water-channels in order that the rice-fields might be duly -irrigated.[521] - -[Sidenote: Water-spirits conceived as beneficent beings who dispense -fertility.] This last instance brings out a more kindly aspect of the -water-spirits. If these beings are dreaded by the fisherman and the -mariner who tempt the angry sea, and by the huntsman who has to swim or -ford the rushing rivers, they are viewed in a different light by the -shepherd and the husbandman in hot and arid lands, where the pasture for -the cattle and the produce of the fields alike depend on the supply of -water, and where prolonged drought means starvation and death for man -and beast. To men in such circumstances the spirits of the waters are -beneficent beings, the dispensers of life and fertility, whether their -blessings descend as rain from heaven or well up as springs of bubbling -water in the parched desert. In the Semitic East, for example, where the -rainfall is precarious or confined to certain seasons, the face of the -earth is bare and withered for most of the year, except where it is kept -fresh by irrigation or by the percolation of underground water. Here, -accordingly, the local gods or Baalim had their seats originally in -spots of natural fertility, by fountains and the banks of rivers, in -groves and tangled thickets and green glades of mountain hollows and -deep watercourses. As lords of the springs and subterranean waters they -were supposed to be the sources of all the gifts of the land, the corn, -the wine and the oil, the wool and the flax, the vines and the -fig-trees.[522] - -[Sidenote: Water-spirits conceived as bestowing offspring on women.] -Where water-spirits are thus conceived as the authors of fertility in -general, it is natural that they should be held to extend the sphere of -their operations to men and animals; in other words, that the power of -bestowing offspring on barren women and cattle should be ascribed to -them. This ascription comes out clearly in a custom observed by Syrian -women at the present day. Some of the channels of the Orontes are used -for irrigation, but at a certain season of the year the streams are -turned off and the dry bed of the channels is cleared of mud and any -other matter that might clog the flow of the water. The first night that -the water is turned on again, it is said to have the power of -procreation. Accordingly barren women take their places in the channel, -waiting for the embrace of the water-spirit in the rush of the -stream.[523] Again, a pool of water in a cave at Juneh enjoys the same -reputation. The people think a childless couple who bathe in the water -will have offspring.[524] In India many wells are supposed to cure -sterility, which is universally attributed to the agency of evil -spirits. The water of seven wells is collected on the night of the -Diwali or feast of lamps, and barren women bathe in it in order to -remove their reproach. There is a well in Orissa where the priests throw -betel-nuts into the mud. Childless women scramble for the nuts, and she -who finds them will be a happy mother before long. For the same reason, -after childbirth an Indian mother is taken to worship the village well. -She walks round it in the course of the sun and smears the platform with -red lead, which may be a substitute for blood. A Khandh priest will take -a childless woman to the meeting of two streams, where he makes an -offering to the god of births and sprinkles the woman with water in -order to rid her of the influence of the spirit who hinders -conception.[525] In the Punjaub a barren woman who desires to become a -mother will sometimes be let down into a well on a Sunday or Tuesday -night during the Diwali festival. After stripping herself of her clothes -and bathing in the water, she is drawn up again and performs the -_chaukpurna_ ceremony with incantations taught by a wizard. When this -ceremony has been performed, the well is supposed to run dry; its -quickening and fertilising virtue has been abstracted by the woman.[526] -The Indian sect of the Vallabhacharyas or Maharajas believe that bathing -in a sacred well is a remedy for barrenness in women.[527] In antiquity -the waters of Sinuessa in Campania were thought to bless childless wives -with offspring.[528] To this day Syrian women resort to hot springs in -order to obtain children from the saint or jinnee of the waters.[529] In -Scotland the same fertilising virtue used to be, and probably still is, -ascribed to certain springs. Wives who wished to become mothers formerly -resorted to the well of St. Fillan at Comrie, and to the wells of St. -Mary at Whitekirk and in the Isle of May.[530] In the Aran Islands, off -the coast of Galway, women desirous of children pray at St. Eany’s Well, -by the Angels’ Walk, and the men pray at the rag well by the church of -the Four Comely Ones at Onaght.[531] Child’s Well in Oxford was supposed -to have the virtue of making barren women to bring forth.[532] Near -Bingfield in Northumberland there is a copious sulphur spring known as -the Borewell. On the Sunday following the fourth day of July, that is -about Midsummer Day, according to the old style, great crowds of people -used to assemble at the well from all the surrounding hamlets and -villages. The scene was like a fair, stalls for the sale of refreshments -being brought and set up for the occasion. The neighbouring slopes were -terraced, and seats formed for the convenience of pilgrims and visitors. -Barren women prayed at the well that they might become mothers. If their -faith was strong enough, their prayers were heard within the year.[533] - -[Sidenote: Love of river-spirits for women in Greek mythology.] In Greek -mythology similar ideas of the procreative power of water meet us in the -stories of the loves of rivers for women and in the legends which traced -the descent of heroes and heroines from river-gods.[534] In Sophocles’s -play of _The Trachinian Women_ Dejanira tells how she was wooed by the -river Achelous, who came to her father and claimed her hand, appearing -in the likeness now of a bull, now of a serpent, and now of a being with -the body of a man and the front of an ox, while streams of water flowed -from his shaggy beard. She relates, too, how glad she was when Hercules -presented himself and vanquished the river-god in single combat and took -her to wife.[535] The legend perhaps preserves a reminiscence of that -custom of providing a water-god with a human wife which has been -practised elsewhere. The motive of such a custom may have varied with -the particular conception which happened to prevail of the character of -the water-god. Where he was supposed to be a cruel and destructive -being, who drowned men and laid waste the country, a wife would be -offered simply to keep him in good humour, and so prevent him from doing -mischief. But where he was viewed as the procreative power on whom the -fertility of the earth and the fecundity of men and animals depended, -his marriage would be deemed necessary for the purpose of enabling him -to discharge his beneficent functions. This belief in the amorous -character of rivers comes out plainly in a custom which was observed at -Troy down to classical times. Maidens about to marry were wont to bathe -in the Scamander, saying as they did so, “Scamander, take my virginity.” -A similar custom appears to have been observed at the river Maeander, -and perhaps in other parts of the Greek world. Occasionally, it would -seem, young men took advantage of the practice to ravish the girls, and -the offspring of such a union was fathered on the river-god.[536] The -bath which a Greek bride and bridegroom regularly took before marriage -appears to have been intended to bless their union with offspring -through the fertilising influence of the water-nymphs.[537] - -Thus it would appear that in many parts of the world a custom has -prevailed of sacrificing human beings to water-spirits, and that in not -a few cases the ceremony has taken the form of making over a woman to -the spirit to be his wife, in order either to pacify his fury or to give -play to his generative powers. Where the water-spirit was regarded as -female, young men might be presented to her for a similar purpose, and -this may be the reason why the victims sacrificed to water-spirits are -sometimes males. Among civilised peoples these customs survive for the -most part only in popular tales, of which the legend of Perseus and -Andromeda, with its mediaeval counterpart of St. George and the Dragon, -is the most familiar example. But occasionally they appear to have left -traces of themselves in ceremonies and pageants. Thus at Furth in -Bavaria a [Sidenote: Midsummer custom of slaying the dragon at Furth in -Bavaria.] drama called the Slaying of the Dragon used to be acted every -year about Midsummer, on the Sunday after Corpus Christi Day. Crowds of -spectators flocked from the neighbourhood to witness it. The scene of -the performance was the public square. On a platform stood or sat a -princess wearing a golden crown on her head, and as many silver -ornaments on her body as could be borrowed for the purpose. She was -attended by a maid of honour. Opposite her was stationed the dragon, a -dreadful monster of painted canvas stretched on a wooden skeleton and -moved by two men inside. From time to time the creature would rush with -gaping jaws into the dense crowd of spectators, who retreated hastily, -tumbling over each other in their anxiety to escape. Then a knight in -armour, attended by his men-at-arms, rode forth and asked the princess -what she did “on this hard stone,” and why she looked so sad. She told -him that the dragon was coming to eat her up. On that the knight bade -her be of good cheer, for that with his sword he would rid the country -of the monster. With that he charged the dragon, thrusting his spear -into its maw and taking care to stab a bladder of bullock’s blood which -was there concealed. The gush of blood which followed was an -indispensable part of the show, and if the knight missed his stroke he -was unmercifully jeered and taunted by the crowd. Having despatched the -monster with sword and pistol, the knight then hastened to the princess -and told her that he had slain the dragon who had so long oppressed the -town. In return she tied a wreath round his arm, and announced that her -noble father and mother would soon come to give them half the kingdom. -The men-at-arms then escorted the knight and the princess to the tavern, -there to end the day with dance and revelry. Bohemians and Bavarians -came from many miles to witness this play of the Slaying of the Dragon, -and when the monster’s blood streamed forth they eagerly mopped it up, -along with the blood-soaked earth, in white cloths, which they -afterwards laid on the flax-fields, in order that the flax might thrive -and grow tall. For the “dragon’s blood” was thought to be a sure -protection against witchcraft.[538] This use of the blood suffices to -prove that the Slaying of the Dragon at Furth was not a mere popular -spectacle, but a magical rite designed to fertilise the fields. As such -it probably descended from a very remote antiquity, and may well have -been invested with a character of solemnity, if not of tragedy, long -before it degenerated into a farce. - -[Sidenote: St. Romain delivers Rouen from a dragon.] More famous was the -dragon from which, according to legend, St. Romain delivered Rouen, and -far more impressive was the ceremony with which, down to the French -Revolution, the city commemorated its deliverance. The stately and -beautiful edifices of the Middle Ages, which still adorn Rouen, formed a -fitting background for a pageant which carried the mind back to the days -when Henry II. of England and Richard Cœur-de-Lion, Dukes of Normandy, -still had their palace in this ancient capital of their ancestral -domains. Legend ran that about the year 520 A.D. a forest or marsh near -the city was infested by a monstrous beast in the shape of a serpent or -dragon, which every day wrought great harm to Rouen and its -neighbourhood, devouring man and beast, causing boats and mariners on -the river Seine to perish, and inflicting other woes innumerable on the -commonwealth. At last the archbishop, St. Romain, resolved to beard the -monster in his den. He could get none to accompany him but a prisoner -condemned to death for murder. On their approach the dragon made as -though he would swallow them up; but the archbishop, relying on the -divine help, made the sign of the cross, and at once the monster became -so gentle that he suffered the saint to bind him with his stole and the -murderer to lead him like a lamb to the slaughter. Thus they went in -procession to a public place in Rouen, where the dragon was burnt in the -presence of the people and its ashes cast into the river. The murderer -was pardoned for his services; and the fame of the deed having gone -abroad, St. Romain, or his successor St. Ouen, whose memory is enshrined -in a church of dreamlike beauty at Rouen, obtained from King Dagobert in -perpetuity a privilege for the archbishop, dean, and canons of the -cathedral, to wit, that every year on Ascension Day, the anniversary of -the miracle, they should [Sidenote: In memory of this deliverance the -archbishop and chapter of Rouen were annually allowed to pardon a -malefactor on Ascension Day.] pardon and release from prison a -malefactor, whomsoever they chose, and whatever the crime of which he -had been guilty. This privilege, unique in France, was claimed by the -chapter of the cathedral as early as the beginning of the thirteenth -century; for in 1210, the governor of the castle of Rouen having boggled -at giving up a prisoner, the chapter appealed to King Philip Augustus, -who caused an enquiry to be made into the claim. At this enquiry nine -witnesses swore that never in the reigns of Henry II. and Richard -Cœur-de-Lion, Dukes of Normandy, had there been any difficulty raised on -the point in question. Henceforward the chapter seems to have enjoyed -the right without opposition down to 1790, when it exercised its -privilege of mercy for the last time. Next year the face of things had -changed; there was neither archbishop nor chapter at Rouen. A register -of the names of the prisoners who were pardoned, together with an -account of their crimes, was kept and still exists. Only a few of the -names in the thirteenth century are known, and there are many gaps in -the first half of the fourteenth century; but from that time onward the -register is nearly complete. Most of the crimes appear to have been -murder or homicide. - -[Sidenote: Ceremony of the annual pardon and release of a prisoner at -Rouen.] The proceedings, on the great day of pardon, varied somewhat in -different ages. The following account is based in great part on a -description written in the reign of Henry III. and published at Rouen in -1587. Fifteen days before Ascension Day the canons of the cathedral -summoned the king’s officers to stop all proceedings against criminals -detained in prison. Afterwards, on the Monday of Rogations, two canons -examined the prisoners and took their confessions, going from prison to -prison till Ascension Day. On that day, about seven o’clock in the -morning, all the canons assembled in the chapter-house and invoked the -grace of the Holy Spirit by the hymn _Veni creator Spiritus_, and other -prayers. Also they made oath to reveal none of the depositions of the -criminals, but to hold them sacred under the seal of confession. The -depositions having been taken and the commissioners heard, the chapter, -after due deliberation, named him or her among the prisoners who was to -receive the benefit of the privilege. A card bearing the prisoner’s name -and sealed with the seal of the chapter was then sent to the members of -parliament, who were sitting in full assembly, clad in their red robes, -in the great hall of the palace to receive the nomination of the -prisoner and to give it legal effect. The criminal was then released and -pardoned. Immediately the minster bells began to ring, the doors of the -cathedral were flung open, the organ pealed, hymns were sung, candles -lit, and every solemnity observed in token of joy and gladness. Further, -in presence of the conclave all the depositions of the other prisoners -were burnt on the altar of the chapter-house. Then the archbishop and -the whole of the clergy of the cathedral went in procession to the great -square known as the Old Tower near the river, carrying the shrines and -reliquaries of the minster, and accompanied by the joyous music of -hautboys and clarions. Apparently the Old Tower occupies the site of the -ancient castle of the Dukes of Normandy, and the custom of going thither -in procession came down from a time when the prisoners were detained in -the castle-dungeons. In the square there stood, and still stands, a -platform of stone raised high above the ground and approached by flights -of steps. Thither they brought the shrine (_fierte_) of St. Romain, and -thither too was led the pardoned prisoner. He ascended the platform, and -after confessing his sins and receiving absolution he thrice lifted the -shrine of St. Romain, while the innumerable multitude assembled in the -square cried aloud, each time the shrine was lifted, “_Noel! Noel! -Noel!_” which was understood to mean “God be with us!” That done, the -procession re-formed and returned to the cathedral. At the head walked a -beadle clad in violet, who bore on a pole the wicker effigy of the -winged dragon of Notre Dame, holding a large fish in its mouth. The -whispers and cries excited by the appearance of the monster were drowned -in the loud fanfares of cornets, clarions, and trumpets. Behind the -musicians, who wore the liveries of the Master of the Brotherhood of -Notre Dame with his arms emblazoned on an ensign of taffeta, came the -carved silver-gilt shrine of Notre Dame. After it followed the clergy of -the cathedral to the number of two hundred, clad in robes of violet or -crimson silk, bearing banners, crosses, and shrines, and chanting the -hymn _De resurrectione Domini_. Then came the archbishop, giving his -blessing to the great multitude who thronged the streets. The prisoner -himself walked behind, bareheaded, crowned with flowers, carrying one -end of the litter which supported the shrine of St. Romain; the fetters -he had worn hung from the litter; and with him paced, with lighted -torches in their hands, the men or women who, for the last seven years, -had in like manner received their pardon. Another beadle, in a violet -livery, marched behind bearing aloft on a pole the wicker effigy of the -dragon (_Gargouille_) destroyed by St. Romain; in its mouth the dragon -sometimes held a live animal, such as a young fox, a rabbit, or a -sucking pig, and it was attended by the Brotherhood of the -Gargouillards. The clergy of the thirty-two parishes of Rouen also took -part in the procession, which moved from the Old Tower to the cathedral -amid the acclamations of the crowd, while from every church tower in the -city the bells rang out a joyous peal, the great _Georges d’Amboise_ -thundering above them all. After mass had been performed in the -cathedral, the prisoner was taken to the house of the Master of the -Brotherhood of St. Romain, where he was magnificently feasted, lodged, -and served, however humble his rank. Next morning he again presented -himself to the chapter, where, kneeling in the presence of a great -assembly, he was severely reproved for his sins and admonished to give -thanks to God, to St. Romain, and to the canons for the pardon he had -received in virtue of the privilege. - -[Sidenote: History and meaning of the privilege of the _Fierte_ or -shrine of St. Romain at Rouen.] What was the origin and meaning of this -remarkable privilege of the _Fierte_, as the shrine of St. Romain was -called? Its history has been carefully investigated by A. Floquet, Chief -Registrar of the Royal Court of Rouen, with the aid of all the -documentary evidence, including the archives both at Rouen and Paris. He -appears to have shewn conclusively that the association of St. Romain -with the custom is comparatively late. We possess a life of the saint in -Latin verse, dating from the eighth century, in which the miracles said -to have been wrought by him are set forth in a strain of pompous eulogy. -Yet neither in it nor in any of the other early lives of St. Romain and -St. Ouen, nor in any of the older chronicles and martyrologies, is a -single word said about the destruction of the dragon and the deliverance -of the prisoner. It is not till 1394 that we meet for the first time -with a mention of the miracle. Moreover, the deliverance of the prisoner -can hardly have been instituted in honour of St. Romain, else it would -have taken place on the twenty-third of October, the day on which the -Church of Rouen celebrates the translation of the saint’s bones to the -cathedral. St. Romain died in 638, and his bones were transferred to the -cathedral of Rouen at the end of the eleventh or the beginning of the -twelfth century. Further, Floquet has adduced strong grounds for -believing that the privilege claimed by the chapter of Rouen of annually -pardoning a condemned criminal on Ascension Day was unknown in the early -years of the twelfth century, and that it originated in the reign of -Henry I. or Stephen, if not in that of Henry II. He supposes the -ceremony to have been in its origin a scenic representation of the -triumph of Christ over sin and death, the deliverance of the condemned -prisoner symbolising the deliverance of man from the yoke of corruption, -and bringing home to the people in a visible form the great mystery -which the festival of the Ascension was instituted to commemorate. Such -dramatic expositions of Christian doctrine, he points out, were common -in the Middle Ages. - -[Sidenote: Suggested origin of the custom.] Plausible as is this -solution of the problem, it can scarcely be regarded as satisfactory. -Had this been the real origin of the privilege, we should expect to find -the Ascension of Christ either plainly enacted, or at least distinctly -alluded to in the ceremony; but this, so far as we can learn, was not -so. Again, would it not savour of blasphemy to represent the sinless and -glorified Redeemer by a ruffian stained with the blackest crimes? -Moreover, the part played by the dragon in the legend and in the -spectacle seems too important to allow us to explain it away, with -Floquet, as a mere symbol of the suppression of paganism by St. Romain. -The tale of the conquest of the dragon is older than Christianity, and -cannot be explained by it. At Rouen the connexion of St. Romain with the -story seems certainly to be late, but that does not prove the story -itself to be late also. Judging from the analogy of similar tales -elsewhere, we may conjecture that in the Rouen version the criminal -represents a victim annually sacrificed to a water-spirit or other -fabulous being, while the Christian saint has displaced a pagan hero, -who was said to have delivered the victim from death and put an end to -the sacrifice by slaying the monster. Thus it seems possible that the -custom of annually pardoning a condemned malefactor may have superseded -an older practice of treating him as a public scapegoat, who died to -save the rest of the people. In the sequel we shall see that such -customs have been observed in many lands. It is not incredible that at -Rouen a usage of this sort should have survived in a modified shape from -pagan times down to the twelfth century, and that the Church should at -last have intervened to save the wretch and turn a relic of heathendom -to the glory of God and St. Romain. But this explanation of the famous -privilege of the _Fierte_ is put forward with a full sense of the -difficulties attending it, and with no wish to dogmatise on so obscure a -subject.[539] - -Footnote 411: - - Speaking of the one God who reveals himself in many forms and under - many names, Augustine says: “_Ipse in aethere sit Jupiter, ipse in - aëre Juno, ipse in mare Neptunus ... Liber in vineis, Ceres in - frumentis, Diana in silvis_,” etc. (_De civitate Dei_, iv. 11). - -Footnote 412: - - Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ iii. 332: “_Nam, ut diximus, et omnis - quercus Jovi est consecrata, et omnis lucus Dianae._” - -Footnote 413: - - W. H. Roscher, _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, i. 1005; H. - Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae selectae_, Nos. 3266-3268. - -Footnote 414: - - Dittenberger, _Sylloge inscriptionum Graecarum_, 2nd Ed., No. 568; Ch. - Michel, _Recueil d’inscriptions grecques_, No. 686; E. S. Roberts, - _Introduction to Greek Epigraphy_, ii., No. 139. - -Footnote 415: - - Dittenberger, _op. cit._ No. 653, lines 79 _sqq._; Ch. Michel, _op. - cit._, No. 694. As to the grove see Pausanias, iv. 33. 4 _sq._ - -Footnote 416: - - Dittenberger, _op. cit._, No. 929, lines 80 _sqq._ Compare _id._ No. - 569; Pausanias, ii. 28. 7. - -Footnote 417: - - H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae selectae_, No. 4911. - -Footnote 418: - - Cato, _De agri cultura_, 139. - -Footnote 419: - - Varro, _De lingua Latina_, v. 85, ed. C. O. Müller; Pliny, _Nat. - Hist._ xviii. 6. - -Footnote 420: - - G. Henzen, _Acta Fratrum Arvalium_ (Berlin, 1874), pp. 136-143; H. - Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae selectae_, ii., Nos. 5042, 5043, 5045, - 5046, 5048. - -Footnote 421: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 749-755. - -Footnote 422: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xii. 3. - -Footnote 423: - - Seneca, _Epist._ iv. 12. 3. See further L. Preller, _Römische - Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., i. 108 _sqq._ For evidence of the poets he - refers to Virgil, _Georg._ iii. 332 _sqq._; Tibullus, i. 1. 11; Ovid, - _Amores_, iii. 1. 1 _sq._ - -Footnote 424: - - On Diana as a huntress see H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae - selectae_, Nos. 3257-3266. For indications of her care for domestic - cattle see Livy, i. 45; Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 4; and above, - vol. i. p. 7. - -Footnote 425: - - Virgil, _Aen._, viii. 600 _sq._, with Servius’s note. - -Footnote 426: - - M. A. Castren, _Vorlesungen über die finnische Mythologie_ (St. - Petersburg, 1853), pp. 92-99. - -Footnote 427: - - P. v. Stenin, “Über den Geisterglauben in Russland,” _Globus_, lvii. - (1890), p. 283. - -Footnote 428: - - J. Abercromby, _The Pre- and Proto-historic Finns_ (London, 1898), i. - 161. - -Footnote 429: - - Mathias Michov, “De Sarmatia Asiana atque Europea,” in _Novus Orbis - regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum_, p. 457. - -Footnote 430: - - C. Snouck Hurgronje, _Het Gajōland en zijne Bewoners_ (Batavia, 1903), - pp. 351, 359. - -Footnote 431: - - See vol. i. p. 14. - -Footnote 432: - - Arrian, _Cynegeticus_, 33 _sq._ - -Footnote 433: - - The Galatians retained their Celtic speech as late as the fourth - century of our era, for Jerome says that in his day their language - hardly differed from that of the Treveri, a Celtic tribe on the - Moselle, whose name survives in _Treves_. See Jerome, _Commentar. in - Epist. ad Galatas_, lib. ii. praef. (Migne’s _Patrologia Latina_, vol. - xxvi. col. 357). - -Footnote 434: - - See below, p. 363. - -Footnote 435: - - H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae selectae_, No. 4633; Ihm, - in Pauly-Wissowa’s _Real-Encyclopädie der classischen - Altertumswissenschaft_, ii. 616, _s.v._ “Arduinna”; compare _id._ i. - 104, _s.v._ “Abnoba.” - -Footnote 436: - - F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_ - (Münster i. W., 1890), p. 125. - -Footnote 437: - - J. H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Bräuche, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel - des Eifler Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 42 _sq._; A. Kuhn und W. - Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_, pp. 393 _sq._; - Ch. Beauquier, _Les Mois en Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), p. 90. In - Sweden and parts of Germany cattle are crowned on the day in spring - when they are first driven out to pasture, which is sometimes at - Whitsuntide (A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers_, 2nd Ed., pp. 163 - _sq._; L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, pp. 246 _sq._; A. Kuhn, - _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_, pp. 315 sq., 327 _sq._; P. Drechsler, - _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, i. 123). Amongst the - Romans cattle were crowned at the Ambarvalia (Tibullus, ii. 1. 7 - _sq._; Ovid, _Fasti_, i. 663); and asses and mill-stones were crowned - at Vesta’s festival on the ninth of June (Propertius, v. 1. 21; Ovid, - _Fasti_, vi. 311 _sq._). The original motive of all these customs may - have been the one indicated in the text. Perhaps the same explanation - might be found to apply to certain other cases of wearing wreaths or - crowns. - -Footnote 438: - - Tettau und Temme, _Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und - Westpreussens_, pp. 263 _sq._; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche - Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_, p. 392; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Das - festliche Jahr_, p. 181; _id._, _Calendrier belge_, i. 423 _sq._; A. - Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, i. p. 278, § 437; R. Eisel, - _Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes_, p. 210; F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren - und äusseren Leben der Ehsten_, p. 363; F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und - religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_, p. 128. - -Footnote 439: - - See above, pp. 52-55. - -Footnote 440: - - In Nepaul a festival known as Khichâ Pûjâ is held, at which worship is - offered to dogs, and garlands of flowers are placed round the necks of - every dog in the country (W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore - of Northern India_, Westminster, 1896, ii. 221). But as the custom is - apparently not limited to hunting dogs, the explanation suggested - above would hardly apply. - -Footnote 441: - - Catullus, xxxiv. 9-20; Cicero, _De natura deorum_, ii. 26. 68 _sq._; - Varro, _De lingua Latina_, v. 68 _sq._ It deserves to be remembered - that Diana’s day was the thirteenth of August, which in general would - be the time when the splendid harvest moon was at the full. Indian - women in Peru used to pray to the moon to grant them an easy delivery. - See P. J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la idolatria del Piru_ (Lima, - 1621), p. 32. - -Footnote 442: - - See above, vol. i. p. 12. - -Footnote 443: - - In like manner the Greeks conceived of the goddess Earth as the mother - not only of corn but of cattle and of human offspring. See the Homeric - _Hymn to Earth_ (No. 30). - -Footnote 444: - - Strabo, iv. 1. 4 and 5, pp. 179 _sq._ The image on the Aventine was - copied from that at Marseilles, which in turn was copied from the one - at Ephesus. - -Footnote 445: - - Tacitus, _Annals_, xii. 8. The Romans feared that the marriage of - Claudius with his paternal cousin Agrippina, which they regarded as - incest, might result in some public calamity (Tacitus, _Annals_, xii. - 5). - -Footnote 446: - - See above, pp. 107 _sqq._ - -Footnote 447: - - See above, vol. i. pp. 20 _sq._, 40. - -Footnote 448: - - Herodotus, i. 181 _sq._ - -Footnote 449: - - M. Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 117 _sq._; L. W. - King, _Babylonian Mythology and Religion_, pp. 18, 21. - -Footnote 450: - - H. Winckler, _Die Gesetze Hammurabis_ 2nd Ed., (Leipsic, 1903), p. 31 - § 182. The expression is translated “votary of Marduk” by Mr C. H. W. - Johns (_Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, Contracts, and Letters_, - Edinburgh, 1904, p. 60). “The votary of Marduk is the god’s wife vowed - to perpetual chastity, and is therefore distinct from the devotees of - Ištar. Like the ordinary courtesan, these formed a separate class and - enjoyed special privileges” (S. A. Cook, _The Laws of Moses and the - Code of Hammurabi_, London, 1903, p. 148). - -Footnote 451: - - M. Jastrow, _op. cit._ pp. 42 _sq._ - -Footnote 452: - - C. Johnston in _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, xviii. - First Half (1897), pp. 153-155; R. F. Harper, _Assyrian and Babylonian - Literature_ (New York, 1901), p. 249. For the equivalence of Iyyar or - Airu with May see _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, _s.v._ “Months,” iii. coll. - 3193 _sq._ - -Footnote 453: - - Herodotus, i. 182. - -Footnote 454: - - G. Maspero, in _Journal des Savants_, année 1899, pp. 401-406; A. - Moret, _Du caractère religieux de la royauté Pharaonique_ (Paris, - 1902), pp. 48-73; A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch_ (Leipsic, - 1890), pp. 268 sq. M. Moret shares the view of Prof. Maspero that the - pictures, or rather painted reliefs, were copied from masquerades in - which the king and other men and women figured as gods and goddesses. - As to the Egyptian doctrine of the spiritual double or external soul - (_Ka_), see A. Wiedemann, _The Ancient Egyptian Doctrine of the - Immortality of the Soul_ (London, 1895), pp. 10 _sqq._ - -Footnote 455: - - A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_ (Berlin, 1905), pp. 75, 165 _sq._; - compare _id._, _Ägypten und ägyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 400 - _sq._ As to the ghostly rule of the high priests of Ammon at Thebes - see further G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des peuples de l’Orient - classique, les premières mêlées des peuples_ (Paris, 1897), pp. 559 - _sqq._; J. H. Breasted, _A History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, - 1908), pp. 350 _sq._, 357 _sq._; C. P. Tiele, _Geschichte der Religion - im Altertum_, i. (Gotha, 1896), p. 66. - -Footnote 456: - - Strabo, xvii. 1. 46, p. 816. - -Footnote 457: - - Diodorus Siculus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 47. - -Footnote 458: - - Plutarch, _Quaestiones conviviales_, viii. 1. 6 sq.; id., _Numa_, 4. - -Footnote 459: - - Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ iv. 143. Compare Horace, _Odes_, iii. 62 - _sqq._ - -Footnote 460: - - Herodotus, i. 182. - -Footnote 461: - - Pausanias, viii. 13. 1. As to the meaning of the title Essen see - Callimachus, _Hymn to Zeus_, 16; Hesychius, Suidas, and _Etymologicum - Magnum_, _s.v._ Ἕσσην. The ancients mistook the Queen bee for a male, - and hence spoke of King bees. See Aristotle, _Histor. animal._ v. 21 - _sq._, ix. 40, pp. 553, 623 _sqq._, ed. Bekker; id., _De animalium - generatione_, iii. 10, p. 760, ed. Bekker; Aelian, _Nat. animal._ i. - 10, v. 10 _sq._; Virgil, _Georg._ iv. 21, 68; W. Walter-Tornow, _De - apium mellisque apud veteres significatione_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 30 - _sqq._ The Essenes or King Bees are not to be confounded with the - nominal kings (_Basileis_) of Ephesus, who probably held office for - life. See above, vol. i. p. 47. - -Footnote 462: - - J. T. Wood, _Discoveries at Ephesus, Inscriptions from the Temple of - Diana_, pp. 2, 14; _Inscriptions from the Augusteum_, p. 4; - _Inscriptions from the City and Suburbs_, p. 38. - -Footnote 463: - - See B. V. Head, _Coins of Ephesus_ (London, 1880), and above, vol. i. - pp. 37 _sq._ Modern writers sometimes assert that the priestesses of - the Ephesian Artemis were called Bees. Certain other Greek priestesses - were undoubtedly called Bees, and it seems not improbable that the - priestesses of the Ephesian Artemis bore the same title and - represented the goddess in her character of a bee. But no ancient - writer, so far as I know, affirms it. See my note on Pausanias, viii. - 13. 1. - -Footnote 464: - - Demosthenes, _Contra Neaer._ 73-78, pp. 1369-1371; Aristotle, - _Constitution of Athens_, iii. 5; Hesychius, _s.vv._ Διονύσου γάμος - and γεραραί; _Etymologicum Magnum_, _s.v._ γεραῖραι; Pollux, viii. - 108; K. F. Hermann, _Gottesdienstliche Alterthümer_, 2nd Ed., § 32. - 15, § 58. 11 _sqq._; Aug. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_ - (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 391 _sqq._ From Demosthenes, _l.c._, compared - with Thucydides, ii. 15, it seems certain that the oath was - administered by the Queen at the time and place mentioned in the text. - Formerly it was assumed that her marriage to Dionysus was celebrated - at the same place and time; but the assumption as to the place was - disproved by the discovery of Aristotle’s _Constitution of Athens_, - and with it the assumption as to the time falls to the ground. As the - Greek months were commonly named after the festivals which were held - in them, it is tempting to conjecture that the sacred marriage took - place in the Marriage Month (_Gamelion_), answering to our January. - But more probably that month was named after the sacred marriage of - Zeus and Hera, which was celebrated at Athens and elsewhere. See - below, p. 143. This is the view of W. H. Roscher (_Juno und Hera_, p. - 73, n. 217) and Aug. Mommsen (_Feste der Stadt Athen_, p. 383). From - the name Cattle-stall, applied to the scene of the marriage, Miss J. - E. Harrison ingeniously conjectured that in the rite Dionysus may have - been represented as a bull (_Prolegomena to the Study of Greek - Religion_, p. 537). The conjecture was anticipated by Prof. U. von - Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, _Aristoteles und Athen_ (Berlin, 1893), ii. - 42. Dionysus was often conceived by the Greeks in the form of a bull. - -Footnote 465: - - Above, pp. 92 _sq._ - -Footnote 466: - - L. Preller, _Ausgewählte Aufsätze_ (Berlin, 1864), pp. 293-296; - compare his _Griechische Mythologie_, 4th ed., ed. C. Robert, i. 681 - _sqq._ - -Footnote 467: - - Hyginus, _Astronomica_, i. 5. - -Footnote 468: - - Tertullian, _Ad nationes_, ii. 7, “_Cur rapitur sacerdos Cereris si - non tale Ceres passa est?_” Asterius Amasenus, _Encomium in sanctos - martyres_, in Migne’s _Patrologia Graeca_, xl. col. 324, Οὐκ ἐκεῖ (at - Eleusis) τὸ καταβάσιον τὸ σκοτεινόν, καὶ αἱ σεμναὶ τοῦ ἱεροφάντου πρὸς - τὴν ἱερείαν συντυχίαι, μόνου πρὸς μόνην; Οὐχ αἱ λαμπάδες σβέννυνται, - καὶ ὁ πολὺς καὶ ἀναρίθμητος δῆμος τὴν σωτηρίαν αὐτῶν εἶναι νομίζουσι - τὰ ἐν τῷ σκότῳ παρὰ τῶν δύο πραττόμενα; Psellus, _Quaenam sunt - Graecorum opiniones de daemonibus_, p. 39. ed. J. F. Boissonade, τὰ δέ - γε μυστήρια τούτων, οἷα αὐτίκα τὰ Ἐλευσίνια, τὸν μυθικὸν ὑποκρίνεται - Δία μιγνύμενον τῇ Δηοῖ, ἤγουν τῇ Δήμητρι ... Ὕποκρίνεται δὲ καὶ τὰς - τῆς Δηοῦς ὠδῖνας. Ἱκετηρίαι γοῦν αὐτίκα Δηοῦς καὶ χολῆς πόσις καὶ - καρδιαλγίαι. Ἐφ’ οἷς καί τι τραγοσκελὲς μίμημα παθαινόμενον περὶ τοῖς - διδύμοις, ὅτιπερ ὁ Ζεύς, δίκας ἀποτιννὺς τῆς βίας τῇ Δήμητρι, τράγου - ὄρχεις ἀποτεμών, τῷ κόλπῳ ταύτης κατέθετο ὥσπερ δὴ καὶ ἑαυτοῦ (compare - Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, v. 20-23); Schol. on Plato, _Gorgias_, - p. 497 c, Ἐτελεῖτο δὲ ταῦτα (the Eleusinian mysteries) καὶ Δηοῖ καὶ - Κορῇ, ὅτι ταύτην μὲν Πλούτων ἁρπάξειε, Δηοῖ δὲ μιγείη Ζεύς; - Hippolytus, _Refutatio omnium haeresium_, v. 8, pp. 162, 164, ed. - Duncker and Schneidewin, Λέγουσι δὲ αύτον (God), φησί, Φρύγες καὶ - χλοερὸν στάχυν τεθερισμένον, καὶ μετὰ τοὺς Φρύγας Ἀθηναῖοι μυοῦντες - Ἐλευσίνια, καὶ ἐπιδεικνύντες τοῖς ἐποπτεύουσι τὸ μέγα καὶ θαυμαστὸν - καὶ τελειότατον ἐποπτικὸν ἐκεῖ μυστήριον ἐν σιωπῇ, τεθερισμένον - στάχυν. Ὁ δὲ στάχυς οὗτός ἐστι καὶ παρὰ Ἀθηναίοις ὁ παρὰ τοῦ - ἀχαρακτηρίστου φωστὴρ τέλειος μέγας, καθάπερ αὐτὸς ὁ ἱεροφάντης, οὐκ - ἀποκεκομμένος μέν, ὡς ὁ Ἄττις, εὐνουχισμένος δὲ διὰ κωνείου καὶ πᾶσαν - παρῃτημένος τὴν σαρκικὴν γένεσιν, νυκτὸς ἐν Ἐλευσῖνι ὑπὸ πολλῷ πυρὶ - τελῶν τὰ μεγάλα καὶ ἄρρητα μυστήρια βοᾷ καὶ κέκραγε λέγων· ἱερὸν ἔτεκε - πότνια κοῦρον Βριμὼ Βριμόν, τουτέστιν ἰσχυρὰ ἰσχυρόν. In combining and - interpreting this fragmentary evidence I have followed Mr. P. Foucart - (_Recherches sur l’origine et la nature des mystères d’Eleusis_, - Paris, 1895, pp. 48 _sq._; _id._, _Les Grands Mystères d’Eleusis_, - Paris, 1900, p. 69), and Miss J. E. Harrison (_Prolegomena to the - Study of Greek Religion_, pp. 549 _sqq._). In antiquity it was - believed that an ointment or plaster of hemlock applied to the genital - organs prevented them from discharging their function. See - Dioscorides, _De materia medica_, iv. 79; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxv. - 154. Dr. J. B. Bradbury, Downing Professor of Medicine in the - University of Cambridge, informs me that this belief is correct. - “Although _conium_ [hemlock] is not used as an anaphrodisiac at the - present day, there can be no doubt that it has this effect. When - rubbed into the skin it depresses sensory nerve-endings and is - absorbed. After absorption it depresses all sympathetic nerve-cells. - Both these effects would tend to diminish organic reflexes such as - aphrodisia” (Dr. W. E. Dixon, Pharmacological Laboratory, Cambridge). - Pausanias seems to imply that the hierophant was forbidden to marry - (ii. 14. 1). It may have been so in his age, the second century of our - era; but an inscription of the first century B.C. shews that at that - time it was lawful for him to take a wife. See P. Foucart, _Les Grands - Mystères d’Eleusis_, pp. 26 _sqq._ (extract from the _Mémoires de - l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, vol. xxxvii.). - -Footnote 469: - - Pausanias, ix. 3; Plutarch, quoted by Eusebius, _Praepar. Evang._ iii. - 1 _sq._ - -Footnote 470: - - Above, p. 64. - -Footnote 471: - - Above, p. 66. - -Footnote 472: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 177. - -Footnote 473: - - W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 177 _sq._ - -Footnote 474: - - J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 318 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, - _Baumkultus_, p. 178. - -Footnote 475: - - W. Hone, _Every Day Book_, ii. 595 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, - p. 178. - -Footnote 476: - - With regard to Zeus as an oak-god see below, pp. 358 _sq._ Hera - appears with an oak-tree and her sacred bird the peacock perched on it - in a group which is preserved in the Palazzo degli Conservatori at - Rome. In the same group Pallas is represented with her olive-tree and - her owl; so that the conjunction of the oak with Hera cannot be - accidental. See W. Helbig, _Führer durch die öffentlichen Sammlungen - klassischen Altertümer in Rom_ 2nd Ed., (Leipsic, 1899), i. 397, No. - 587. - -Footnote 477: - - Pausanias, viii. 42. - -Footnote 478: - - At Cnossus in Crete, Diodorus Siculus, v. 72; at Samos, Lactantius, - _Instit._ i. 17 (compare Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vi. 7); at - Athens, Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ ἱερὸν γάμον; _Etymologicum Magnum_, - _s.v._ ἱερομνήμονες, p. 468. 52. A fragment of Pherecydes relating to - the marriage of Zeus and Hera came to light some years ago. See - Grenfell and Hunt, _New Classical and other Greek and Latin Papyri_ - (Oxford, 1897), p. 23; H. Weil, in _Revue des Études grecques_, x. - (1897) pp. 1-9. The subject has been discussed by W. H. Roscher (_Juno - und Hera_, Leipsic, 1875, pp. 72 _sqq._). From the wide prevalence of - the rite he infers that the custom of the sacred marriage was once - common to all the Greek tribes. - -Footnote 479: - - _Iliad_, xiv. 347 _sqq._ Hera was worshipped under the title of - Flowery at Argos (Pausanias, ii. 22. 1; compare _Etymol. Magn._ _s.v._ - Ἄνθεια, p. 108, line 48), and women called Flower-bearers served in - her sanctuary (Pollux, iv. 78). A great festival of gathering flowers - was celebrated by Peloponnesian women in spring (Hesychius, _s.v._ - ἠροσάνθεια, compare Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ Ἠροάνθια). The first of - May is still a festival of flowers in Peloponnese. See _Folk-lore_, i. - (1890) pp. 518 _sqq._ - -Footnote 480: - - J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, 4th ed., i. 176; P. Herrmann, - _Nordische Mythologie_ (Leipsic, 1903), pp. 198 _sqq._, 217, 520, 529; - E. H. Meyer, _Mythologie der Germanen_ (Strasburg, 1903), pp. 366 - _sq._ The procession of Frey and his wife in the waggon is doubtless - the same with the procession of Nerthus in a waggon which Tacitus - describes (_Germania_, 40). Nerthus seems to be no other than Freya, - the wife of Frey. See the commentators on Tacitus, _l.c._, and - especially K. Müllenhoff, _Deutsche Altertumskunde_, iv. (Berlin, - 1900) pp. 468 _sq._ - -Footnote 481: - - Gregory of Tours, _De gloria confessorum_, 77 (Migne’s _Patrologia - Latina_, lxxi. col. 884). Compare Sulpicius Severus, _Vita S. - Martini_, 12: “_Quia esset haec Gallorum rusticis consuetudo, - simulacra daemonum candido tecta velamine misera per agros suos - circumferre dementia_.” - -Footnote 482: - - “Passio Sancti Symphoriani,” chs. 2 and 6 (Migne’s _Patrologia - Graeca_, v. 1463, 1466). - -Footnote 483: - - These crazy wretches castrate men and mutilate women. Hence they are - known as the Skoptsy (“mutilated”). See N. Tsakni, _La Russie - sectaire_, pp. 74 _sqq._ - -Footnote 484: - - As to this feature in the ritual of Cybele, see _Adonis, Attis, - Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 219 _sqq._ - -Footnote 485: - - Max Buch, _Die Wotjäken_ (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 137. - -Footnote 486: - - E. A. Gait, in _Census of India, 1901_, vol. vi. part i. p. 190. - -Footnote 487: - - P. J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la idolatria del Piru_ (Lima, 1621), - p. 20. - -Footnote 488: - - Father Lacombe, in _Missions Catholiques_, ii. (1869) pp. 359 _sq._ - -Footnote 489: - - _Relations des Jésuites, 1636_, p. 109, and _1639_, p. 95 (Canadian - reprint); Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, v. 225; - Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_ (Paris, 1870), pp. 140-142. - -Footnote 490: - - Rev. F. Hahn, “Some Notes on the Religion and Superstitions of the - Orāos,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxxii. part iii. - (Calcutta, 1904) p. 12. For another account of the ceremonies held by - the Oraons in spring see above, pp. 76 _sq._ - -Footnote 491: - - P. Rascher, “Die Sulka,” _Archiv für Anthropologie_, xxix. (1904) p. - 217. - -Footnote 492: - - W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ - (Westminster, 1896), ii. 118. - -Footnote 493: - - W. Crooke, _op. cit._ ii. 138. - -Footnote 494: - - A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, pp. - 139-142. - -Footnote 495: - - _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 58 _sq._ - -Footnote 496: - - Sir Harry Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_ (London, 1902), ii. 677. - -Footnote 497: - - From notes sent to me by Mr. A. C. Hollis, 21st May 1908. - -Footnote 498: - - J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan - States_, part ii. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1901) p. 439. - -Footnote 499: - - E. W. Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (Paisley and - London, 1895), chap. xxvi. p. 500. The authority for the statement is - the Arab historian Makrizi. - -Footnote 500: - - _The North China Herald_, 4th May 1906, p. 235. - -Footnote 501: - - G. A. Wilken, “Het animisme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” - _De Indische Gids_, June 1884, p. 994 (referring to Veth, _Het eiland - Timor_, p. 21); A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, ii. (Berlin, 1885) p. 8. - -Footnote 502: - - A. Bastian, _op. cit._ p. 11. - -Footnote 503: - - A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. (Berlin, 1884) p. 134. - -Footnote 504: - - _Voyages d’Ibn Batoutah, texte arabe, accompagné d’une traduction_, - par C. Defrémery et B. R. Sanguinetti (Paris, 1853-1858), iv. 126-130. - -Footnote 505: - - The Thanda Pulayans, on the west coast of India, think that the - phosphorescence on the surface of the sea indicates the presence of - the spirits of their ancestors, who are fishing in the backwaters. See - E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_, p. 293. Similarly - the Sulkas of New Britain fancy that the mysterious glow comes from - souls bathing in the water. See P. Rascher, “Die Sulka,” _Archiv für - Anthropologie_, xxix. (1904) p. 216. - -Footnote 506: - - For a list of these tales, with references to the authorities, see my - note on Pausanias, ix. 26. 7. To the examples there referred to add I. - V. Zingerle, _Kinder- und Hausmärchen aus Tirol_, Nos. 8, 21, 35, pp. - 35 _sqq._, 100 _sqq._, 178 _sqq._; G. F. Abbott, _Macedonian - Folk-lore_, pp. 270 _sqq._ This type of story has been elaborately - investigated by Mr. E. S. Hartland (_The Legend of Perseus_, London, - 1894-1896), but he has not discussed the custom of the sacred - marriage, on which the story seems to be founded. - -Footnote 507: - - Note on Pausanias, ix. 10. 5. - -Footnote 508: - - Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 226 - _sqq._ - -Footnote 509: - - R. Salvado, _Mémoires historiques sur l’Australie_ (Paris, 1854), p. - 262. - -Footnote 510: - - H. Ternaux-Compans, _Essai sur l’ancien Cundinamarca_, pp. 6 _sq._ - -Footnote 511: - - H. Coudreau, _Chez nos Indiens_ (Paris, 1895), pp. 303 _sq._ - -Footnote 512: - - C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), ii. 57. - -Footnote 513: - - C. Lumholtz, _op. cit._ i. 402 _sq._ - -Footnote 514: - - T. I. Fairclough, “Notes on the Basutos,” _Journal of the African - Society_, No. 14, January 1905, p. 201. - -Footnote 515: - - To the examples given in my note on Pausanias viii. 7. 2, add Ph. - Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas, die geistige Cultur - der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1896), pp. 46, 50; “De - Dajaks op Borneo,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche - Zendelinggenootschap_, xiii. (1869) p. 72; A. D’Orbigny, _Voyage - dans l’Amérique Méridionale_, ii. 93, 160 (see above, pp. 16 - _sq._); F. Blumentritt, “Über die Eingeborenen der Insel Palawan - und der Inselgruppe der Talamianen,” _Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 167; - W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ - (Westminster, 1896), i. 46; Father Guillemé, in _Annales de la - Propagation de la Foi_, lx. (1888) p. 252. - -Footnote 516: - - W. F. W. Owen, _Narrative of Voyages to explore the Shores of Africa, - Arabia, and Madagascar_ (London, 1833), ii. 354 _sq._ - -Footnote 517: - - H. Goldie, _Calabar and its Mission_, New Edition (Edinburgh and - London, 1901), p. 43. - -Footnote 518: - - _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xxxiii. (1861) p. 152. - -Footnote 519: - - Father Guillemé, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, lx. (1888) - p. 253. - -Footnote 520: - - Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des nations civilisées du Mexique et - de l’Amérique-Centrale_, i. 327 _sq._ - -Footnote 521: - - E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” _Revue de l’histoire - des religions_, xxiv. (1891) p. 213. - -Footnote 522: - - W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2nd Ed., pp. 96-104. - -Footnote 523: - - S. I. Curtiss, _Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_ (Chicago, 1902), p. - 117. - -Footnote 524: - - S. I. Curtiss, _op. cit._ p. 119. - -Footnote 525: - - W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ - (Westminster, 1896), ii. 50 _sq._, 225 _sq._ - -Footnote 526: - - _Census of India, 1901_, vol. xvii., _Punjab_, p. 164. - -Footnote 527: - - W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and - Oudh_, iv. 425. As to the sect of the Maharajas, see above, vol. i. - pp. 406 _sq._ - -Footnote 528: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxi. 8. - -Footnote 529: - - S. I. Curtiss, _Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_, pp. 116 _sq._; - Mrs. H. H. Spoer, “The Powers of Evil in Jerusalem,” _Folk-lore_, - xviii. (1907) p. 55; A. Jaussen, _Coutumes des Arabes au pays de Moab_ - (Paris, 1908), p. 360. - -Footnote 530: - - J. M. Mackinlay, _Folk-lore of Scottish Lochs and Springs_ (Glasgow, - 1893), p. 112. - -Footnote 531: - - A. C. Haddon and C. R. Browne, “The Ethnography of the Aran Islands,” - _Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy_, ii. (1893), p. 819. - -Footnote 532: - - R. C. Hope, _The Legendary Lore of the Holy Wells of England_ (London, - 1893), p. 122. - -Footnote 533: - - R. C. Hope, _op. cit._ pp. 107 _sq._ - -Footnote 534: - - See, for example, Pausanias, ii. 15. 5, v. 7. 2 _sq._, vi. 22. 9, vii. - 23. 1 _sq._, viii. 43. 1, ix. 1. 1 _sq._, ix. 34. 6 and 9. - -Footnote 535: - - Sophocles, _Trachiniae_, 6 _sqq._ The combat of Hercules with the - bull-shaped river-god in presence of Dejanira is the subject of a - red-figured vase painting. See Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to - the Study of Greek Religion_ 2nd Ed., (Cambridge, 1908), Fig. 133, p. - 434. - -Footnote 536: - - Aeschines, _Epist._ x. The letters of Aeschines are spurious, but - there is no reason to doubt that the custom here described was - actually observed. - -Footnote 537: - - See the evidence collected by Mr. Floyd G. Ballentine, “Some Phases of - the Cult of the Nymphs,” _Harvard Studies in Classical Philology_, xv. - (1904) pp. 97 _sqq._ - -Footnote 538: - - F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. 107-110, ii. 550. At - Ragusa in Sicily an enormous effigy of a dragon, with movable tail and - eyes, is carried in procession on St. George’s Day (April 23rd); and - along with it two huge sugar loaves, decorated with flowers, figure in - the procession. At the end of the festival these loaves are broken - into little bits, and every farmer puts one of the pieces in his sowed - fields to ensure a good crop. See G. Pitrè, _Feste patronali in - Sicilia_ (Turin and Palermo, 1900), pp. 323 _sq._ In this custom the - fertility charm remains, though the marriage ceremony appears to be - absent. As to the mummers’ play of St. George, see E. K. Chambers, - _The Mediaeval Stage_ (Oxford, 1903), i. 205 _sqq._; A. Beatty, “The - St. George, or Mummers’, Plays,” _Transactions of the Wisconsin - Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters_, xv. part ii. (October, 1906) - pp. 273-324. A separate copy of the latter work was kindly sent to me - by the author. - -Footnote 539: - - See F. N. Taillepied, _Recueil des Antiquitez et singularitez de la - ville de Rouen_ (Rouen, 1587), pp. 93-105; A. Floquet, _Histoire du - privilége de Saint Romain_ (2 vols. 8vo, Rouen, 1833). Briefer notices - of the custom and legend will be found in A. Bosquet’s _La Normandie - romanesque et merveilleuse_ (Paris and Rouen, 1845), pp. 405-409; and - A. de Nore’s _Coutumes, mythes, et traditions des provinces de France_ - (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 245-250. The gilt _fierte_, or portable - shrine of St. Romain, is preserved in the Chapter Library of the - Cathedral at Rouen, where I saw it in May 1902. It is in the form of a - chapel, on the roof of which the saint stands erect, trampling on the - winged dragon, while the condemned prisoner kneels in front of him. - This, however, is not the original shrine, which was so decayed that - in 1776 the Chapter decided to replace it by another. See Floquet, - _op. cit._ ii. 338-346. The custom of carrying the dragons in - procession was stopped in 1753 because of its tendency to impair the - solemnity of the ceremony (Floquet, _op. cit._ ii. 301). Even more - famous than the dragon of Rouen was the dragon of Tarascon, an effigy - of which used to be carried in procession on Whitsunday. See A. de - Nore, _op. cit._ pp. 47 _sqq._ As to other French dragons see P. - Sébillot, _Le Folk-lore de France_, i. (Paris, 1904) pp. 468-470. - - - - - CHAPTER XIII - THE KINGS OF ROME AND ALBA - - - § 1. Numa and Egeria - - -[Sidenote: Egeria at Nemi a nymph of water and of the oak, perhaps a -form of Diana.] From the foregoing survey of custom and legend we may -infer that the sacred marriage of the powers both of vegetation and of -water has been celebrated by many peoples for the sake of promoting the -fertility of the earth, on which the life of animals and men ultimately -depends, and that in such rites the part of the divine bridegroom or -bride is often sustained by a man or woman. The evidence may, therefore, -lend some countenance to the conjecture that in the sacred grove at -Nemi, where the powers of vegetation and of water manifested themselves -in the fair forms of shady woods, tumbling cascades, and glassy lake, a -marriage like that of our King and Queen of May was annually celebrated -between the mortal King of the Wood and the immortal Queen of the Wood, -Diana. In this connexion an important figure in the grove was the -water-nymph Egeria, who was worshipped by pregnant women because she, -like Diana, could grant them an easy delivery.[540] From this it seems -fairly safe to conclude that, like many other springs, the water of -Egeria was credited with a power of facilitating conception as well as -delivery. The votive offerings found on the spot, which clearly refer to -the begetting of children,[541] may possibly have been dedicated to -Egeria rather than to Diana, or perhaps we should rather say that the -water-nymph Egeria is only another form of the great nature-goddess -Diana herself, the mistress of sounding rivers as well as of umbrageous -woods,[542] who had her home by the lake and her mirror in its calm -waters, and whose Greek counterpart Artemis loved to haunt meres and -springs.[543] The identification of Egeria with Diana is confirmed by a -statement of Plutarch that Egeria was one of the oak-nymphs[544] whom -the Romans believed to preside over every green oak-grove;[545] for -while Diana was a goddess of the woodlands in general she appears to -have been intimately associated with oaks in particular, especially at -her sacred grove of Nemi.[546] Perhaps, then, Egeria was the fairy of a -spring that flowed from the roots of a sacred oak. Such a spring is said -to have gushed from the foot of the great oak at Dodona, and from its -murmurous flow the priestess drew oracles.[547] Among the Greeks a -draught of water from certain sacred springs or wells was supposed to -confer prophetic powers.[548] This would explain the more than mortal -wisdom with which, according to tradition, Egeria inspired her royal -husband or lover Numa.[549] When we remember how very often in early -society the king is held responsible for the fall of rain and the -fruitfulness of the earth, it seems hardly rash to conjecture that in -the legend of the nuptials of Numa and [Sidenote: The legend of the -nuptials of Numa and Egeria may be a reminiscence of a sacred marriage -which the kings of Rome contracted with a goddess of water and of -vegetation.] Egeria we have a reminiscence of a sacred marriage which -the old Roman kings regularly contracted with a goddess of vegetation -and water for the purpose of enabling him to discharge his divine or -magical functions. In such a rite the part of the goddess might be -played either by an image or a woman, and if by a woman, probably by the -Queen. If there is any truth in this conjecture, we may suppose that the -King and Queen of Rome masqueraded as god and goddess at their marriage, -exactly as the King and Queen of Egypt appear to have done.[550] The -legend of Numa and Egeria points to a sacred grove rather than to a -house as the scene of the nuptial union, which, like the marriage of the -King and Queen of May, or of the vine-god and the Queen of Athens, may -have been annually celebrated as a charm to ensure the fertility not -only of the earth but of man and beast. Now, according to some accounts, -the scene of the marriage was no other than the sacred grove of Nemi, -and on quite independent grounds we have been led to suppose that in -that same grove the King of the Wood was wedded to Diana. The -convergence of the two distinct lines of enquiry suggests that the -legendary union of the Roman king with Egeria may have been a reflection -or duplicate of the union of the King of the Wood with Egeria or her -double Diana. This does not imply that the Roman kings ever served as -Kings of the Wood in the Arician grove, but only that they may -originally have been invested with a sacred character of the same -general kind, and may have held office on similar terms. To be more -explicit, it is possible that they reigned, not by right of birth, but -in virtue of their supposed divinity as representatives or embodiments -of a god, and that as such they mated with a goddess, and had to prove -their fitness from time to time to discharge their divine functions by -engaging in a severe bodily struggle, which may often have proved fatal -to them, leaving the crown to their victorious adversary. Our knowledge -of the Roman kingship is far too scanty to allow us to affirm any one of -these propositions with confidence; but at least there are some -scattered hints or indications of a similarity in all these respects -between the priests of Nemi and the kings of Rome, or perhaps rather -between their remote predecessors in the dark ages which preceded the -dawn of legend.[551] - - -§ 2. The King as Jupiter - - -[Sidenote: The Roman king seems to have personated Jupiter and worn his -costume.] In the first place, then, it would seem that the Roman king -personated no less a deity than Jupiter himself. For down to imperial -times victorious generals celebrating a triumph, and magistrates -presiding at the games in the Circus, wore the costume of Jupiter, which -was borrowed for the occasion from his great temple on the Capitol; and -it has been held with a high degree of probability both by ancients and -moderns that in so doing they copied the traditionary attire and -insignia of the Roman kings.[552] They rode a chariot drawn by four -laurel-crowned horses through the city, where every one else went on -foot;[553] they wore purple robes embroidered or spangled with gold; in -the right hand they bore a branch of laurel and in the left hand an -ivory sceptre topped with an eagle; a wreath of laurel crowned their -brows; their face was reddened with vermilion; and over their head a -slave held a heavy crown of massy gold fashioned in the likeness of oak -leaves.[554] In this attire the assimilation of the man to the god comes -out above all in the eagle-topped sceptre, the oaken crown, and the -reddened face. For the eagle was the bird of Jove, the oak was his -sacred tree, and the face of his image standing in his four-horse -chariot on the Capitol was in like manner regularly dyed red on -festivals; indeed, so important was it deemed to keep the divine -features properly rouged that one of the first duties of the censors was -to contract for having this done.[555] The Greeks sometimes painted red -the face or the whole body of the wine-god Dionysus.[556] These customs -may have been a substitute for an older practice of feeding a god by -smearing the face, and especially the lips, of his idol with the blood -of a sacrificial victim. Many examples of such a practice might be -adduced from the religion of barbarous peoples.[557] As the triumphal -procession always ended in the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, it was -peculiarly appropriate that the head of the victor should be graced by a -crown of oak leaves, for not only was every oak consecrated to -Jupiter,[558] but the Capitoline temple of the god was said to have been -built by Romulus beside a sacred oak, venerated by shepherds, to which -the king attached the spoils won by him from the enemy’s general in -battle.[559] We are expressly told that the oak crown was [Sidenote: The -oak crown as an emblem of Jupiter and of the Roman emperors.] sacred to -Capitoline Jupiter;[560] a passage of Ovid proves that it was regarded -as the god’s special emblem. Writing in exile on the shores of the Black -Sea, the poet sends the book which he has just composed to Rome to be -published there; he personifies the volume and imagines it passing along -the Sacred Way and up to the door of the emperor’s stately palace on the -Palatine hill. Above the portal hung shining arms and a crown of oak -leaves. At the sight the poet starts: “Is this, quoth I, the house of -Jove? For sure to my prophetic soul the oaken crown was reason good to -think it so.”[561] The senate had granted Augustus the right to have the -wreath of oak always suspended over his door;[562] and elsewhere Ovid -counts this among the more than mortal honours bestowed on the -emperor.[563] On the Capitol at Cirta there stood a silver image of -Jupiter wearing a silver crown of oak leaves and acorns.[564] Similarly -at Dodona, the most famous sanctuary of the oak in Greece, the image of -Zeus appears to have worn a chaplet of oak leaves; for the god is -constantly thus portrayed on coins of Epirus.[565] And just as Roman -kings appear to have personated the oak-god Jupiter, so Greek kings -appear to have personated the oak-god Zeus. The legendary Salmoneus of -Elis is certainly reported to have done so;[566] Periphas, an ancient -king of Athens, is said to have been styled Zeus by his people, and to -have been changed into an eagle by his jealous name-sake.[567] In Homer -kings are often spoken of as nurtured by Zeus and divine.[568] Indeed we -are told that in ancient days every Greek king was called Zeus.[569] - -[Sidenote: To the Romans the breach between the human and the divine was -not so wide as it seems to us.] Thus we may fairly assume that on -certain solemn occasions Roman generals and magistrates personated the -supreme god, and that in so doing they revived the practice of the early -kings. To us moderns, for whom the breach which divides the human and -the divine has deepened into an impassable gulf, such mimicry may appear -impious, but it was otherwise with the ancients. To their thinking gods -and men were akin, for many families traced their descent from a -divinity, and the deification of a man probably seemed as little -extraordinary to them as the canonisation of a saint seems to a modern -Catholic. The Romans in particular were quite familiar with the -spectacle of men masquerading as spirits; for at the funerals of great -houses all the illustrious dead of the family were personated by men -specially chosen for their resemblance to the departed. These -representatives wore [Sidenote: Roman custom of representing dead -ancestors by masked men.] masks fashioned and painted in the likeness of -the originals: they were dressed in rich robes of office, resplendent -with purple and gold, such as the dead nobles had worn in their -lifetime: like them, they rode in chariots through the city preceded by -the rods and axes, and attended by all the pomp and heraldry of high -station; and when at last the funeral procession, after threading its -way through the crowded streets, defiled into the Forum, the maskers -solemnly took their seats on ivory chairs placed for them on the -platform of the Rostra, in the sight of the people, recalling no doubt -to the old, by their silent presence, the memories of an illustrious -past, and firing the young with the ambition of a glorious future.[570] - -[Sidenote: The kings of Alba seem also to have claimed to represent -Jupiter.] According to a tradition which we have no reason to reject, -Rome was founded by settlers from Alba Longa, a city situated on the -slope of the Alban hills, overlooking the lake and the Campagna.[571] -Hence if the Roman kings claimed to be representatives or embodiments of -Jupiter, the god of the sky, of the thunder, and of the oak, it is -natural to suppose that the kings of Alba, from whom the founder of Rome -traced his descent, may have set up the same claim before them. Now the -Alban dynasty bore the name of Silvii or Wood, and it can hardly be -without significance that in the vision of the historic glories of Rome -revealed to Aeneas in the underworld, Virgil, an antiquary as well as a -poet, should represent all the line of Silvii as crowned [Sidenote: The -Silvii and the Julii.] with oak.[572] A chaplet of oak leaves would thus -seem to have been part of the insignia of the old kings of Alba Longa as -of their successors the kings of Rome; in both cases it marked the -monarch as the human representative of the oak-god. With regard to -Silvius, the first king of the Alban dynasty, we are told that he got -his name because he had been born or brought up in the forest, and that -when he came to man’s estate he contested the kingdom with his kinsman -Julus, whose name, as some of the ancients themselves [Sidenote: Julus, -the little Jupiter.] perceived, means the Little Jupiter. The people -decided in favour of Silvius, but his rival Julus was consoled for the -loss of the crown by being invested with religious authority and the -office of chief pontiff, or perhaps rather of Flamen Dialis, the highest -dignity after the kingship. From this Julus or Little Jupiter, the noble -house of the Julii, and hence the first emperors of Rome, believed -themselves to be sprung.[573] The legend of the dispute between Silvius -and Julus may preserve a reminiscence of such a partition of spiritual -and temporal powers in Alba Longa as afterwards took place in Rome, when -the old regal office was divided between the Consuls and the King of the -Sacred Rites.[574] Many more instances of such a schism will meet us -later on. That the Julian house worshipped Vejovis, the Little Jupiter, -according to the ancient rites of Alba Longa, is proved by the -inscription on an altar which they dedicated to him at their ancestral -home of Bovillae, a colony of Alba Longa, situated at the foot of the -Alban hills.[575] The Caesars, the most illustrious family of the Julian -house, took their name from their long hair (_caesaries_),[576] which -was probably in those early days, as it was among the Franks long -afterwards, a symbol of royalty.[577] - -[Sidenote: The Alban kings seem to have been expected to make thunder -and rain for the good of their subjects.] But in ceding the pontificate -to their rivals, it would seem that the reigning dynasty of the Silvii -or Woods by no means renounced their own claim to personate the god of -the oak and the thunder; for the Roman annals record that one of them, -Romulus, Remulus, or Amulius Silvius by name, set up for being a god in -his own person, the equal or superior of Jupiter. To support his -pretensions and overawe his subjects, he constructed machines whereby he -mimicked the clap of thunder and the flash of lightning. Diodorus -relates that in the season of fruitage, when thunder is loud and -frequent, the king commanded his soldiers to drown the roar of heaven’s -artillery by clashing their swords against their shields. But he paid -the penalty of his impiety, for he perished, he and his house, struck by -a thunderbolt in the midst of a dreadful storm. Swollen by the rain, the -Alban lake rose in flood and drowned his palace. But still, says an -ancient historian, when the water is low and the surface unruffled by a -breeze, you may see the ruins of the palace at the bottom of the clear -lake.[578] Taken along with the similar story of Salmoneus, king of -Elis,[579] this legend points to a real custom observed by the early -kings of Greece and Italy, who like their fellows in Africa down to -modern times may have been expected to produce rain and thunder for the -good of the crops.[580] The priestly king Numa passed for an adept in -the art of drawing down lightning from the sky.[581] Mock thunder, we -know, has been made by various peoples as a rain-charm in modern -times;[582] why should it not have been made by kings in antiquity? - -[Sidenote: The legends of the deaths of Roman kings point to a close -connexion between the king and the thunder-god.] In this connexion it -deserves to be noted that, according to the legend, Salmoneus, like his -Alban counterpart, was killed by a thunderbolt; and that one of the -Roman kings, Tullus Hostilius, is reported to have met with the same end -in an attempt to draw down Jupiter in the form of lightning from the -sky.[583] Aeneas himself, the legendary ancestor both of the Alban and -the Roman kings, vanished from the world in a violent thunderstorm, and -was afterwards worshipped as Jupiter Indiges. A mound of earth, -encircled with fine trees, on the bank of the little river Numicius was -pointed out as his grave.[584] Romulus, too, the first king of Rome, -[Sidenote: Death and deification of Romulus.] disappeared in like -manner. It was the seventh of July, and the king was reviewing his army -at the Goat’s Marsh, outside the walls of the city. Suddenly the sky -lowered and a tempest burst, accompanied by peals of thunder. Soon the -storm had swept by, leaving the brightness and serenity of the summer -day behind. But Romulus was never seen again. Those who had stood by him -said they saw him caught up to heaven in a whirlwind; and not long -afterwards a certain Proculus Julius, a patrician of Alban birth and -descent, declared on oath that Romulus had appeared to him clad in -bright armour, and announced that the Romans were to worship him as a -god under the name of Quirinus, and to build him a temple on the spot. -The temple was built and the place was henceforth known as the Quirinal -hill.[585] In this legend it is significant that the annunciation of the -king’s divinity should be put in the mouth of a member of the Julian -house, a native of Alba; for we have seen reason to believe that at Alba -the Julii had competed with the Silvii, from whom Romulus was descended, -for the kingship, and with it for the honour of personating Jupiter. If, -as seems to be philologically possible, the word Quirinus is derived -from the same root as _quercus_, “an oak,” the name of the deified -Romulus would mean no more than “the oak-god,” that is, Jupiter.[586] -Thus the tradition would square perfectly with the other indications of -custom and legend which have led us to conclude that the kings both of -Rome and of Alba claimed to embody in their own persons the god of the -sky, of thunder, and of the oak. Certainly the stories which associated -the deaths of so many of them with thunderstorms point to a close -connexion with the god of thunder and lightning. A king who had been -wont to fulminate in his lifetime might naturally be supposed at death -to be carried up in a thunderstorm to heaven, there to discharge above -the clouds the same duties which he had performed on earth. Such a tale -would be all the more likely to attach itself to the twin Romulus, if -the early Romans shared the widespread superstition that twins have -power over the weather in general and over rain and wind in -particular.[587] That tempests are caused by the spirits of the dead is -a belief of the Araucanians of Chili. Not a storm bursts upon the Andes -or the ocean which these Indians do not ascribe to a battle between the -souls of their fellow-countrymen and the dead Spaniards. In the roaring -of the wind they hear the trampling of the ghostly horses, in the peal -of the thunder the roll of the drums, and in the flashes of lightning -the fire of the artillery.[588] - -[Sidenote: Every Latin town probably had its local Jupiter.] Thus, if -the kings of Alba and Rome imitated Jupiter as god of the oak by wearing -a crown of oak leaves, they seem also to have copied him in his -character of a weather-god by pretending to make thunder and lightning. -And if they did so, it is probable that, like Jupiter in heaven and many -kings on earth, they also acted as public rain-makers, wringing showers -from the dark sky by their enchantments whenever the parched earth cried -out for the refreshing moisture. At Rome the sluices of heaven were -opened by means of a sacred stone, and the ceremony appears to have -formed part of the ritual of Jupiter Elicius, the god who elicits from -the clouds the flashing lightning and the dripping rain.[589] And who so -well fitted to perform the ceremony as the king, the living -representative of the sky-god? - -[Sidenote: Many local Jupiters in Latium.] The conclusion which we have -reached as to the kings of Rome and Alba probably holds good of all the -kings of ancient Latium: each of them, we may suppose, represented or -embodied the local Jupiter. For we can hardly doubt that of old every -Latin town or settlement had its own Jupiter, as every town and almost -every church in modern Italy has its own Madonna; and like the Baal of -the Semites the local Jupiter was commonly worshipped on high places. -Wooded heights, round which the rain-clouds gather, were indeed the -natural sanctuaries for a god of the sky, the rain, and the oak. At Rome -he occupied one summit of the Capitoline hill, while the other summit -was assigned to his wife Juno, whose temple, with the long flight -[Sidenote: Capitoline Jupiter and Juno.] of stairs leading up to it, has -for ages been appropriately replaced by the church of St. Mary “in the -altar of the sky” (_in Araceli_).[590] That both heights were originally -wooded seems certain, for down to imperial times the saddle which joins -them was known as the place “between the two groves.”[591] Virgil tells -us that the hilltop where gilded temples glittered in his day had been -covered of old by shaggy thickets, the haunt of woodland elves and -savage men, “born of the tree-trunks and the heart of oak.”[592] These -thickets were probably composed of oaks, for the oak crown [Sidenote: -The hills of Rome once wooded with oaks.] was sacred to Capitoline Juno -as well as to Jupiter;[593] it was to a sacred oak on the Capitol that -Romulus fastened the spoils,[594] and there is evidence that in early -times oak-woods clothed other of the hills on which Rome was afterwards -built. Thus the Caelian hill went originally by the name of the Mountain -of the Oak Grove on account of the thickets of oak by which it was -overgrown,[595] and Jupiter was here worshipped in his character of the -oak-god;[596] one of the old gates of Rome, apparently between the -Caelian and the Esquiline hills, was called the Gate of the Oak Grove -for a similar reason;[597] and within the walls hard by was a Chapel of -the Oak Grove dedicated to the worship of the oak-nymphs.[598] These -nymphs appear on coins of the Accoleian family as three women supporting -on their shoulders a pole from which rise leafy branches.[599] The -Esquiline hill seems also to have derived its name from its oaks. After -mentioning the Chapel of the Oak and other hallowed groves which still -dotted the hill in his time, the antiquary Varro tells us that their -bounds were now much curtailed, adding with a sigh that it was no wonder -the sacred old trees should give way to the modern worship of -Mammon.[600] Apparently the Roman nobles of those days sold the ancient -woods, as their descendants sell their beautiful gardens, for -building-land. To this list of oak-clad hills on the left bank of the -Tiber must be added the Quirinal, if Quirinus, who had a very ancient -shrine on the hill, was the oak-god.[601] Under the Aventine was a grove -of evergreen oaks,[602] which appears to have been no other than the -grove of Egeria outside the Porta Capena.[603] The old grove of Vesta, -which once skirted the foot of the Palatine hill on the side of the -Forum,[604] must surely have been a grove of oaks; for not only does an -oak appear growing beside the temple of Vesta on a fine relief preserved -in the gallery of the Uffizi at Florence, but [Sidenote: The sacred -Vestal fire fed with oak-wood.] charred embers of the sacred Vestal fire -have in recent years been discovered at the temple of Vesta in the -Forum, and a microscopic analysis of them has proved that they consist -of the pith or heart of trunks or great branches of oak -(_quercus_).[605] The full significance of this discovery will appear -later on. When the plebeians seceded to the Janiculum in the third -century before Christ, the dictator Q. Hortensius summoned a meeting of -the people and passed a law in an oak grove, which perhaps grew on the -hill.[606] In this neighbourhood there was a street called the Street of -the Oak Grove; it is mentioned in an inscription found in its original -position near the modern Garibaldi bridge.[607] On the Vatican hill -there stood an evergreen oak which was believed to be older than Rome; -an inscription in Etruscan letters on a bronze tablet proclaimed the -sanctity of the tree.[608] Finally, that oak woods existed at or near -Rome in the earliest times has lately been demonstrated by the discovery -in the Forum itself of a prehistoric cemetery, which contains amongst -other sepultures the bones of several young children deposited in rudely -hollowed trunks of oak.[609] With all this evidence before us we need -not wonder that Virgil should speak of the primitive inhabitants of Rome -as “born of the tree-trunks and the heart of oak,” and that the Roman -kings should have worn crowns of oak leaves in imitation of the oak-god -Jupiter, who dwelt in his sacred grove on the Capitol. - -[Sidenote: The Alban kings may have imitated Latian Jupiter, who dwelt -on the top of the Alban Mount.] If the kings of Rome aped Capitoline -Jove, their predecessors the kings of Alba probably laid themselves out -to mimic the great Latian Jupiter, who had his seat above the city on -the summit of the Alban Mountain. Latinus, the legendary ancestor of the -dynasty, was said to have been changed into Latian Jupiter after -vanishing from the world in the mysterious fashion characteristic of the -old Latin kings.[610] The sanctuary of the god on the top of the -mountain was the religious centre of the Latin League, as Alba was its -political capital till Rome wrested the supremacy from its ancient -rival. Apparently no temple, in our sense of the word, was ever erected -to Jupiter on this his holy mountain; as god of the sky and thunder he -appropriately received the homage of his worshippers in the open air. -The massive wall, of which some remains still enclose the old garden of -the Passionist monastery, seems to have been part of the sacred precinct -which Tarquin the Proud, the last king of Rome, marked out for the -solemn annual assembly of the Latin League.[611] The god’s oldest -sanctuary on this airy mountain-top was a grove;[612] and bearing in -mind not merely the special consecration of the oak to Jupiter, but also -the traditional oak crown of the Alban kings and the analogy of the -Capitoline Jupiter at Rome, we may suppose that the trees in the grove -were oaks.[613] We know that in antiquity Mount Algidus, an outlying -group of the Alban hills, was covered with dark forests of oak;[614] and -among the tribes who belonged to the Latin League in the earliest days, -and were entitled to share the flesh of the white bull sacrificed on the -Alban Mount, there was one whose members styled themselves the Men of -the Oak,[615] doubtless on account of the woods among which they dwelt. - -[Sidenote: Theophrastus’s description of the woods of Latium.] But we -should err if we pictured to ourselves the country as covered in -historical times with an unbroken forest of oaks. Theophrastus has left -us a description of the woods of Latium as they were in the fourth -century before Christ. He says: “The land of the Latins is all moist. -The plains produce laurels, myrtles, and wonderful beeches; for they -fell trees of such a size that a single stem suffices for the keel of a -Tyrrhenian ship. Pines and firs grow in the mountains. What they call -the land of Circe is a lofty headland thickly wooded with oak, myrtle, -and luxuriant laurels. The natives say that Circe dwelt there, and they -shew the grave of Elpenor, from which grow myrtles such as wreaths are -made of, whereas the other myrtle-trees are tall.”[616] Thus the -prospect from the top [Sidenote: The prospect from the Alban Mount in -antiquity.] of the Alban Mount in the early days of Rome must have been -very different in some respects from what it is to-day. The purple -Apennines, indeed, in their eternal calm on the one hand, and the -shining Mediterranean in its eternal unrest on the other, no doubt -looked then much as they look now, whether bathed in sunshine, or -chequered by the fleeting shadows of clouds; but instead of the desolate -brown expanse of the fever-stricken Campagna, spanned by its long lines -of ruined aqueducts, like the broken arches of the bridge in the vision -of Mirza, the eye must have ranged over woodlands that stretched away, -mile after mile, on all sides, till their varied hues of green or -autumnal scarlet and gold melted insensibly into the blue of the distant -mountains and sea. - -Thus the Alban Mount was to the Latins what Olympus was to the Greeks, -the lofty abode of the sky-god, who hurled his thunderbolts from above -the clouds. The white steers which were here sacrificed to him in his -sacred grove, as in the Capitol at Rome,[617] remind us of the white -bulls which the Druids of Gaul sacrificed under the holy oak when -[Sidenote: Resemblance between the Latin worship of Jupiter and the -Druidical worship of the oak.] they cut the mistletoe;[618] and the -parallel would be all the closer if, as we have seen reason to think, -the Latins worshipped Jupiter originally in groves of oak. Other -resemblances between ancient Gaul and Latium will meet us later on. When -we remember that the ancient Italian and Celtic peoples spoke languages -which are nearly related to each other,[619] we shall not be surprised -at discovering traces of community in their religion, especially in what -concerns the worship of the god of the oak and the thunder. For that -worship, as we shall see presently, belongs to the oldest stratum of -Aryan civilisation in Europe. - -[Sidenote: Sacred marriage of Jupiter and Juno.] But Jupiter did not -reign alone on the top of his holy mountain. He had his consort with -him, the goddess Juno, who was worshipped here under the same title, -Moneta, as on the Capitol at Rome.[620] As the oak crown was sacred to -Jupiter and Juno on the Capitol,[621] so we may suppose it was on the -Alban Mount, from which the Capitoline worship was derived. Thus the -oak-god would have his oak-goddess in the sacred oak grove. So at Dodona -the oak-god Zeus was coupled with Dione, whose very name is only a -dialectically different form of Juno;[622] and so on the top of Mount -Cithaeron he was periodically wedded to an oaken image of Hera.[623] It -is probable, though it cannot be positively proved, that the sacred -marriage of Jupiter and Juno was annually celebrated by all the peoples -of the Latin stock in the month which they named after the goddess, the -midsummer month of June.[624] Now on the first of June the Roman -pontiffs performed certain rites in the grove of Helernus beside the -Tiber, and on the same day, and perhaps in the same place, a nymph of -the grove, by name Carna, received offerings of lard and bean-porridge. -She was said to be a huntress, chaste and coy, who gave [Sidenote: Janus -and Carna.] the slip to her lovers in the depths of the wood, but was -caught by Janus. Some took her to be Diana herself.[625] If she were -indeed a form of that goddess, her union with Janus, that is, Dianus, -would be appropriate; and as she had a chapel on the Caelian hill, which -was once covered with oak-woods,[626] she may have been, like Egeria, an -oak-nymph. Further, Janus, or Dianus, and Diana, as we shall see later -on, were originally mere doubles of Jupiter and Juno, with whom they -coincide in name and to some extent in function. Hence it appears to be -not impossible that the rite celebrated by the pontiffs on the first of -June in the sacred grove of Helernus was the marriage of Jupiter and -Juno under the forms of Janus and Diana. It would be some confirmation -of this view if we could be sure that, as Ovid seems to imply, the -Romans were in the habit of placing branches of white thorn or buckthorn -in their [Sidenote: Ancient use of white thorn or buckthorn to ward off -witchcraft.] windows on the first of June to keep out the witches;[627] -for in some parts of Europe precisely the same custom is observed, for -the same reason, a month earlier, on the marriage day of the King and -Queen of May.[628] The Greeks certainly believed that branches of white -thorn or buckthorn fastened to a door or outside the house had power to -disarm the malignant arts of sorcerers[629] and to exclude spirits. -Hence they hung up branches of it before the door when sacrifices were -being offered to the dead, lest any of the prowling ghosts should be -tempted to revisit their old homes or to invade those of other -people.[630] When the atheist Bion lay adying, he not only caused -sacrifices to be offered on his behalf to the gods whose existence he -had denied, but got an old hag to mumble incantations over him and to -bind magical thongs about his arms, and he had boughs of buckthorn and -laurel attached to the lintel to keep out death.[631] However, the -evidence as to the rites observed by the Romans on the first of June is -too slight and dubious to allow us to press the parallel with May Day. - -[Sidenote: At the sacred marriage of Jupiter and Juno in later times the -parts of the deities may have been acted by the Flamen Dialis and the -Flaminica.] If at any time of the year the Romans celebrated the sacred -marriage of Jupiter and Juno, as the Greeks commonly celebrated the -corresponding marriage of Zeus and Hera,[632] we may suppose that under -the Republic the ceremony was either performed over images of the divine -pair or acted by the Flamen Dialis and his wife the Flaminica. For the -Flamen Dialis was the priest of Jove; indeed, ancient and modern writers -have regarded him, with much probability, as a living image of Jupiter, -a human embodiment of the sky-god.[633] In earlier times the Roman king, -as representative of Jupiter, would naturally play the part of the -heavenly bridegroom at the sacred marriage, while his queen would figure -as the heavenly bride, just as in Egypt [Sidenote: The Flamen and -Flaminica may have been the deputies of the king and queen.] the king -and queen masqueraded in the character of deities, and as at Athens the -queen annually wedded the vine-god Dionysus. That the Roman king and -queen should act the parts of Jupiter and Juno would seem all the more -natural because these deities themselves bore the title of King and -Queen.[634] Even if the office of Flamen Dialis existed under the kings, -as it appears to have done, the double representation of Jupiter by the -king and the flamen need not have seemed extraordinary to the Romans of -the time. The same sort of duplication, as we saw, appears to have taken -place at Alba, when the Julii were allowed to represent the supreme god -in the character of Little Jupiters, while the royal dynasty of the -Silvii continued to wield the divine thunder and lightning.[635] And -long ages afterwards, history repeating itself, another member of the -Julian house, the first emperor of Rome, was deified in his lifetime -under the title of Jupiter, while a flamen was appointed to do for him -what the Flamen Dialis did for the heavenly Jove.[636] It is said that -Numa, the typical priestly king, at first himself discharged the -functions of Flamen Dialis, but afterwards appointed a separate priest -of Jupiter with that title, in order that the kings, untrammeled by the -burdensome religious observances attached to the priesthood, might be -free to lead their armies to battle.[637] The tradition may be -substantially correct; for analogy shews that the functions of a -priestly king are too harassing and too incongruous to be permanently -united in the same hands, and that sooner or later the holder of the -office seeks to rid himself of part of his burden by deputing to others, -according to his temper and tastes, either his civil or his religious -duties. Hence we may take it as probable that the fighting kings of -Rome, tired of parading as Jupiter and of observing all the elaborate -ritual, all the tedious restrictions which the character of godhead -entailed on them, were glad to relegate these pious mummeries to a -substitute, in whose hands they left the crosier at home while they went -forth to wield the sharp Roman sword abroad. This would explain why the -traditions of the later kings, from Tullus Hostilius onwards, exhibit so -few traces of sacred or priestly functions adhering to their office. -Among the ceremonies which they henceforward performed by deputy may -have been the rite of the sacred marriage. - -[Sidenote: At the sacred marriage the King and Queen of Rome probably -personated the god and goddess of the oak.] Whether that was so or not, -the legend of Numa and Egeria appears to embody a reminiscence of a time -when the priestly king himself played the part of the divine bridegroom; -and as we have seen reason to suppose that the Roman kings personated -the oak-god, while Egeria is expressly said to have been an oak-nymph, -the story of their union in the sacred grove raises a presumption that -at Rome in the regal period a ceremony was periodically performed -exactly analogous to that which was annually celebrated at Athens down -to the time of Aristotle.[638] The marriage of the King of Rome to the -oak-goddess, like the wedding of the vine-god to the Queen of Athens, -must have been intended to quicken the growth of vegetation by -homoeopathic magic. Of the two forms of the rite we can hardly doubt -that the Roman was the older, and that long before the northern invaders -met with the vine on the shores of the Mediterranean their forefathers -had married the tree-god to the tree-goddess in the vast oak forests of -Central and Northern Europe. In the England of our day the forests have -mostly disappeared, yet still on many a village green and in many a -country lane a faded image of the sacred marriage lingers in the rustic -pageantry of May Day. - -Footnote 540: - - See above, vol. i. pp. 17 _sq._ - -Footnote 541: - - See above, vol. i. p. 12. - -Footnote 542: - - Catullus, xxxiv. 9 _sqq_. - -Footnote 543: - - Wernicke, in Pauly-Wissowa, _Real-Encyklopädie der classischen - Altertumswissenschaft_, ii. coll. 1343, 1351. - -Footnote 544: - - Plutarch, _De fortuna Romanorum_, 9. This statement would be strongly - confirmed by etymology if we could be sure that, as Mr. A. B. Cook has - suggested, the name Egeria is derived from a root _aeg_ meaning “oak.” - The name is spelt _Aegeria_ by Valerius Maximus (i. 2. 1). See A. B. - Cook, “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” _Classical Review_, xviii. (1904) - p. 366; _id_. “The European Sky-God,” _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) pp. 283 - _sq._; and as to the root _aeg_ see O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der - indogermanischen Atertumskunde_ (Strasburg, 1901), p. 164. - -Footnote 545: - - Festus, _s.v._ “Querquetulanae,” pp. 260, 261, ed. C. O. Müller. - -Footnote 546: - - See below, p. 380. - -Footnote 547: - - Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ iii. 466. - -Footnote 548: - - Tacitus, _Annals_, ii. 54; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 232; Pausanias, ix. - 2. 11, x. 24. 7; Lucian, _Bis accusatus_, 1. - -Footnote 549: - - See above, vol. i. p. 18. - -Footnote 550: - - See above, pp. 130 _sqq._ - -Footnote 551: - - The first, I believe, to point out a parallelism in detail between - Rome and Aricia was Mr. A. B. Cook (_Classical Review_, xvii. (1902) - pp. 376 _sqq._); but from the similarity he inferred the humanity of - the Arician priests rather than the divinity of the Roman kings. A - fuller consideration of all the evidence has since led him, rightly as - I conceive, to reverse the inference. See his articles “Zeus, Jupiter, - and the Oak,” _The Classical Review_, xviii. (1904) pp. 360-375; “The - European Sky-God,” _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) pp. 260-332. In the first - and second editions of this work I had suggested that the _regifugium_ - at Rome may have been a relic of a rule of succession to the throne - like that which obtained at Nemi. The following discussion of the - religious position of the old Latin kings owes much to Mr. Cook’s - sagacity and learning, of which he freely imparted to me. - -Footnote 552: - - Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ iii. 61 _sq._, iv. 74, v. - 35; B. G. Niebuhr, _History of Rome_, ii. 36; Th. Mommsen, _History of - Rome_, New Edition (London, 1894), i. 83; A. J. H. Greenidge, _Roman - Public Life_ (London, 1901), pp. 44 _sq._ But Mommsen, while he held - that the costume of a Roman god and of the Roman king was the same, - denied that the king personated the god. A truer historical insight is - displayed by K. O. Müller in his treatment of the subject (_Die - Etrusker_, Stuttgart, 1877, i. 348 _sq._). For a discussion of the - evidence see Th. Mommsen, _Römisches Staatsrecht_, 3rd Ed., i. 372 - _sq._, ii. 5 _sq._; J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, ii. 566 - _sq._, iii. 2nd Ed., 507 _sq._; _id._, _Privatleben der Römer_, 2nd - Ed., 542 _sq._; K. O. Müller, _op. cit._ i. 344-350, ii. 198-200; - Aust, _s.v._ “Juppiter,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. u. - röm. Mythologie_, ii. coll. 633, 725-728. Among the chief passages of - ancient authors on the subject are Dionysius Halicarnasensis, - _ll.cc._; Strabo, v. 2. 2, p. 220; Diodorus Siculus, v. 40; Appian, - _Pun._ 66; Zonaras, _Annal._ vii. 8 and 21; Livy, i. 8. 1 _sq._, v. - 23. 4 _sq._, v. 41. 2, x. 7. 9 _sq._; Florus, i. 5. 6; Pliny, _Nat. - Hist._ viii. 195, xv. 127, 130, 137, xxxiii. 11. 111 _sq._; Juvenal, - x. 36-43; Ovid, _Ex Ponto_, ii. 57 _sq._; Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 6. - 7-9; Servius on Virgil, _Ecl._ vi. 22, x. 27; Ael. Lampridius, - _Alexander Severus_, 40. 8; Jul. Capitolinus, _Gordiani tres_, 4. 4; - Aulus Gellius, v. 6. 5-7; Tertullian, _De corona militis_, 13. The - fullest descriptions of a Roman triumph are those of Appian and - Zonaras (vii. 21). - -Footnote 553: - - Camillus triumphed in a chariot drawn by white horses like the sacred - white horses of Jupiter and the Sun. His Republican contemporaries - were offended at what they regarded as a too close imitation of the - gods (Livy, v. 23. 5 _sq._; Plutarch, _Camillus_, 7; Dio Cassius, lii. - 13); but the Roman emperors followed his example, or perhaps revived - the old custom of the kings. See Dio Cassius, xliii. 14; Suetonius, - _Nero_, 25; Pliny, _Panegyric_, 22; Propertius, v. 1. 32; Ovid, _Ars - amat._ i. 214. On the sanctity of white horses among various branches - of the Aryan stock, see J. von Negelein, “Die volksthümliche Bedeutung - der weissen Farbe,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxxiii. (1901) pp. - 62-66; W. Ridgeway, _The Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred - Horse_ (Cambridge, 1905), pp. 105, 186, 187, 294, 295, 419. As to the - horses of the Sun, see above, vol. i. pp. 315 _sq._ - -Footnote 554: - - Tertullian, _De corona militis_, 13, “_Coronant et publicos ordines - laureis publicae causae magistratus vero insuper aureis. Praeferuntur - etiam illis Hetruscae. Hoc vocabulum est coronarum, quas gemmis et - foliis ex auro quercinis ob Jovem insignes ad deducendas thensas cum - palmatis togis sumunt._” The _thensae_ were the sacred cars in which - the images of the gods were carried at the procession of the - Circensian games (see W. Smith’s _Dictionary of Greek and Roman - Antiquities_, 3rd Ed., _s.v._). That the Etruscan crown described by - Tertullian was the golden crown held by a slave over the head of a - general on his triumph may be inferred from Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ - xxxiii. 11, “_Vulgoque sic triumphabant, et cum corona ex auro Etrusca - sustineretur a tergo, anulus tamen in digito ferreus erat aeque - triumphantis et servi fortasse coronam sustinentis._” Compare Zonaras, - _Annal._ vii. 21; Juvenal, x. 38 _sqq._ Mommsen says that the - triumphal golden crown was made in the shape of laurel leaves - (_Römisches Staatsrecht_, i. 3rd Ed., 427); but none of the ancient - authors cited by him appears to affirm this, with the exception of - Aulus Gellius (v. 6. 5-7, “_Triumphales coronae sunt aureae, quae - imperatoribus ob honorem triumphi mittuntur. Id vulgo dicitur aurum - coronarium. Haec antiquitus e lauru erant, post fieri ex aura - coeptae_”). Gellius may have confused the wreath of real laurel which - the general wore on his head (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxiii. 127, 130, - 137) with the golden crown which was held over him by a slave. The two - crowns are clearly distinguished by Zonaras (_l.c._), though he does - not describe the shape of the golden crown. Thus there is no good - ground for rejecting the express testimony of Tertullian that the - golden crown was shaped like oak-leaves. This seems to have been - Mommsen’s own earlier opinion, since he mentions “a chaplet of oaken - leaves in gold” as part of the insignia of the Roman kings (_Roman - History_, London, 1894, i. 83). - -Footnote 555: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxiii. 111 _sq._; Servius on Virgil, _Ecl._ vi. - 22, x. 27. - -Footnote 556: - - Pausanias, ii. 2. 6, vii. 26. 11, viii. 39. 6. For other examples of - idols painted red see my note on Pausanias, ii. 2. 6. - -Footnote 557: - - For instances see Fr. Kunstmann, “Valentin Ferdinand’s Beschreibung - der Serra Leoa,” _Abhandlungen d. histor. Classe d. kön. Bayer. - Akademie d. Wissenschaften_, ix. (Munich, 1866) p. 131; J. B. Labat, - _Relation historique de l’Éthiopie Occidentale_ (Paris, 1732), i. 250; - Gmelin, _Reise durch Sibirien_, ii. 476; “Ueber den religiösen Glauben - und die Ceremonien der heidnischen Samojeden im Kreise Mesen,” - _Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde_, N.F. viii. (1860) p. 59; E. - Rae, _The White Sea Peninsula_, p. 150; J. B. Müller, “Les Mœurs et - usages des Ostiackes,” _Recueil de voiages au Nord_, viii. (Amsterdam, - 1727) pp. 414 _sq._; Delamare, in _Annales de la Propagation de la - Foi_, xii. (1840) p. 482; Sahagun, _Histoire générale des choses de la - Nouvelle-Espagne_ (Paris, 1880), p. 185; J. de Velasco, _Histoire du - royaume de Quito_, p. 121 (Ternaux-Compans, _Voyages, relations et - mémoires_, xviii., Paris, 1840); E. J. Payne, _History of the New - World called America_, i. 374 n. 1; F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the - History of Religion_ (London, 1896), p. 158. Often we are merely told - that the blood is smeared or sprinkled on the image. See A. B. Ellis, - _Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, pp. 42, 79; _id._, - _Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, pp. 102, 106; A. F. - Mockler-Ferryman, _British Nigeria_ (London, 1902), p. 255; Fr. - Kramer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische - Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) p. 496. For more examples - see my note on Pausanias, ii. 2. 6. - -Footnote 558: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xii. 3; Phaedrus, iii. 17. 1 _sqq._; Servius on - Virgil, _Georg._ iii. 332, and on _Ecl._ i. 17. - -Footnote 559: - - Livy, i. 10. 4 _sqq._ - -Footnote 560: - - Plutarch, _Quaest. Rom._ 92. - -Footnote 561: - - Ovid, _Tristia_, iii. 31 _sqq._ - -Footnote 562: - - Dio Cassius, liii. 19. - -Footnote 563: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, i. 607 _sqq._, iv. 953 _sq._ Tiberius refused a similar - honour (Suetonius, _Tiberius_, 26); but Domitian seems to have - accepted it (Martial, viii. 82. 7). Two statues of Claudius, one in - the Vatican, the other in the Lateran Museum, represent the emperor as - Jupiter wearing the oak crown (W. Helbig, _Führer durch die - öffentlichen Sammlungen klassischer Altertümer in Rom_, 2nd Ed., i. - Nos. 312, 673). - -Footnote 564: - - _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, viii. No. 6981. - -Footnote 565: - - J. Overbeck, _Griechische Kunstmythologie_, Besonderer Theil, i. 232 - _sqq._; L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, i. 107 _sq._ - -Footnote 566: - - See above, vol. i. p. 310. - -Footnote 567: - - Antoninus Liberalis, _Transform._ 6. For this and the two following - passages of Tzetzes I am indebted to Mr. A. B. Cook. See further his - articles, “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” _Classical Review_, xvii. - (1903) p. 409; “The European Sky-god,” _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) pp. 299 - _sqq._ - -Footnote 568: - - H. Ebeling, _Lexicon Homericum_, _s.vv._ βασιλεύς, διοτρεφής, and - θεῖος. - -Footnote 569: - - J. Tzetzes, _Antehomerica_, 102 _sq._: - - οἱ πρὶν γάρ τε Δίας πάντας κάλεον βασιλῆας, - οὕνεκά μιν καλὸς Διὸς ἀστὴρ σκῆπτρον ὀπάζει. - - _id._, _Chiliades_, i. 474: - - τοὺς βασιλεῖς δ’ ἀνέκαθε Δίας ἐκάλουν πάντας. - -Footnote 570: - - Polybius, vi. 53 _sq._ - -Footnote 571: - - As to the situation, see Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Ant. Rom._ i. 66; - H. Nissen, _Italische Landeskunde_, ii. 582 _sq._ - -Footnote 572: - - Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 772. I have to thank Mr. A. B. Cook for directing - my attention to the Alban kings and their interesting legends. See his - articles “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” _Classical Review_, xviii. - (1904) pp. 363 _sq._; “The European Sky-god,” _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) - pp. 285 _sqq._ - -Footnote 573: - - Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 760 _sqq._, with the commentary of Servius; Livy, - i. 3. 6 _sqq._; Ovid, _Metam._ xiv. 609 _sqq._; _id._, _Fasti_, iv. 39 - _sqq._; Festus, _s.v._ “Silvi,” p. 340, ed. C. O. Müller; Aurelius - Victor, _Origo gentis Romanae_, 15-17; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, - _Antiquit. Rom._ i. 70; Diodorus Siculus, in Eusebius, _Chronic._ i. - coll. 285, 287, ed. A. Schoene; Diodorus Siculus, vii. 3a and 3b, vol. - ii. pp. 110-112, ed. L. Dindorf (Teubner edition); Joannes Lydus, _De - magistratibus_, i. 21. As to the derivation of the name Julus, see - Aurelius Victor, _op. cit._ 15, “_Igitur Latini Ascanium ob insignem - virtutem non solum Jove ortum crediderunt, sed etiam per diminutionem, - declinato paululum nomine, primo Jobum, dein postea Julum - appellarant_”; also Steuding, in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon d. griech. - u. röm. Mythologie_, ii. 574. Compare W. M. Lindsay, _The Latin - Language_ (Oxford, 1894), p. 250. According to Diodorus, the - priesthood bestowed on Julus was the pontificate; but the name Julus - or Little Jupiter suggests that the office was rather that of Flamen - Dialis, who was a sort of living embodiment of Jupiter (see below, pp. - 191 _sq._), and whose name of _Dialis_ is derived from the same root - as Julus. On the Julii and their relation to Vejovis see R. H. - Klausen, _Aeneas und die Penaten_, ii. 1059 _sqq._ - -Footnote 574: - - See above, p. 1, and vol. i. p. 44. - -Footnote 575: - - _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, xiv. No. 2387; L. Preller, _Römische - Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., i. 263 _sq._ On Vejovis as the Little Jupiter - see Festus, _s.v._ “Vesculi,” p. 379, “_Ve enim syllabam rei parvae - praeponebant, unde Veiovem parvum Iovem et vegrandem fabam minutam - dicebant_”; also Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 429-448. At Rome the sanctuary of - Vejovis was on the saddle between the two peaks of the Capitoline hill - (Aulus Gellius, v. 12. 1 _sq._; Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 429 _sq._); thus - he appropriately dwelt on the same hill as the Great Jupiter, but - lower down the slope. On coins of the Gargilian, Ogulnian and - Vergilian houses Vejovis is represented by a youthful beardless head, - crowned with oak. See E. Babelon, _Monnaies de la République Romaine_, - i. 532, ii. 266, 529. On other Republican coins his head is crowned - with laurel. See E. Babelon, _op. cit._ i. 77, 505-508, ii. 6, 8. - Circensian games were held at Bovillae in honour of the Julian family, - and Tiberius dedicated a chapel to them there. See Tacitus, _Annals_, - ii. 41, xv. 23. - -Footnote 576: - - Festus, _s.v._ “Caesar,” p. 57, ed. C. O. Müller. Other but less - probable explanations of the name are suggested by Aelius Spartianus - (_Helius_, ii. 3 _sq._). - -Footnote 577: - - As to the Frankish kings see Agathias, _Hist._ i. 3; J. Grimm, - _Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer_, pp. 239 _sqq._; _The Golden Bough_, - Second Edition, i. 368 _sq._ - -Footnote 578: - - Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Roman._ i. 71; Diodorus Siculus, - in Eusebius, _Chronic._ bk. i. coll. 287, 289, ed. A. Schoene; - Diodorus Siculus, vii. 3a and 4, ed. L. Dindorf; Zonaras, _Annal._ - vii. 1; Aurelius Victor, _Origo gentis Romanae_, 18; Ovid, _Metam._ - xiv. 616-618; _id._, _Fasti_, iv. 50; Livy, i. 3. 9. The king is - called Romulus by Livy, Remulus by Ovid, Aremulus by Aurelius Victor, - Amulius by Zonaras, Amulius or Arramulius by Diodorus, and Allodius by - Dionysius. A tale of a city submerged in the Alban lake is still - current in the neighbourhood. See the English translators’ note to - Niebuhr’s _History of Rome_, 3rd Ed., i. 200. Similar stories are told - in many lands. See my note on Pausanias, vii. 24. 6. - -Footnote 579: - - See above, vol. i. p. 310. - -Footnote 580: - - See above, vol. i. pp. 342 _sqq._ - -Footnote 581: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 140, xxviii. 13 _sq._ Other writers speak only - of Numa’s skill in expiating the prodigy or evil omen of thunderbolts. - See Livy, i. 20. 7; Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 285-348; Plutarch, _Numa_, 15; - Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, v. 1-4. - -Footnote 582: - - See above, vol. i. pp. 248, 251. - -Footnote 583: - - Apollodorus, i. 9. 7; Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 592 _sqq._; Pliny, _Nat. - Hist._ ii. 140, xxviii. 14 (referring to the first book of L. Piso’s - _Annals_); Livy, i. 31. 8; Aurelius Victor, _De viris illustribus_, 4; - Zonaras, _Annal._ vii. 6. According to another account Tullus - Hostilius was murdered by his successor Ancus Martius during a violent - storm (Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ iii. 35; Zonaras, - _l.c._). - -Footnote 584: - - Livy, i. 2. 6; Ovid, _Metam._ xiv. 598-608; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ iii. - 56; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ i. 64; Servius on - Virgil, _Aen._ i. 259; Aurelius Victor, _Origo gentis Romanae_, 14. - Only the last writer mentions the thunderstorm. - -Footnote 585: - - Livy, i. 16; Cicero, _De legibus_, i. 1. 3; _id._, _De re publica_, i. - 16. 25, ii. 10. 20; Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 475-512; Plutarch, _Romulus_, - 27 _sq._; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ ii. 56 and 63; - Zonaras, _Annal._ vii. 4; Aurelius Victor, _De viris illustribus_, 2; - Florus, _Epitoma_, i. 1. 16-18. From Cicero (_De legibus_, i. 1. 3) we - learn that the apparition of Romulus to Proculus Julius took place - near the spot where the house of Atticus afterwards stood, and from - Cornelius Nepos (_Atticus_, 13. 2) we know that Atticus had an - agreeable villa and shady garden on the Quirinal. As to the temple of - Quirinus see also Varro, _De lingua Latina_, v. 51; Festus, pp. 254, - 255, ed. C. O. Müller; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xv. 120. As to the site of - the temple and the question whether it was identical with the temple - dedicated by L. Papirius Cursor in 293 B.C. (Livy, x. 46. 7; Pliny, - _Nat. Hist._ vii. 213) see O. Richter, _Topographie der Stadt Rom_, - 2nd Ed., pp. 286 _sqq._; G. Wissowa, _Gesammelte Abhandlungen_ - (Munich, 1904), pp. 144 _sqq._ - -Footnote 586: - - See A. B. Cook, “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” _Classical Review_, - xviii. (1904) pp. 368 _sq._; _id._ “The European Sky-god,” - _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) p. 281. But a serious argument against the - proposed derivation of Quirinus from _quercus_ is that, as I am - informed by my learned philological friend the Rev. Prof. J. H. - Moulton, it is inconsistent with the much more probable derivation of - Perkunas from _quercus_. See below, p. 367, note 3. - -Footnote 587: - - See above, vol. i. pp. 262 _sqq._ - -Footnote 588: - - J. I. Molina, _Geographical, Natural, and Civil History of Chili_ - (London, 1809), ii. 92 _sq._ The savage Conibos of the Ucayali river - in eastern Peru imagine that thunder is the voice of the dead (W. - Smyth and F. Lowe, _Journey from Lima to Para_, London, 1836, p. 240); - and among them when parents who have lost a child within three months - hear thunder, they go and dance on the grave, howling turn about (De - St. Cricq, “Voyage du Pérou au Brésil,” _Bulletin de la Société de - Géographie_, ivme série, vi., Paris, 1853, p. 294). The Yuracares of - eastern Peru threaten the thunder-god with their arrows and defy him - when he thunders (A. D’Orbigny, _L’Homme américain_, i. 365), just as - the Thracians did of old (Herodotus, iv. 94). So the Kayans of Borneo, - on hearing a peal of thunder, have been seen to grasp their swords for - the purpose of keeping off the demon who causes it (A. W. Nieuwenhuis, - _In Centraal Borneo_, i. 140 _sq._, 146 _sq._). - -Footnote 589: - - See above, vol. i. p. 310; and for the connexion of the rite with - Jupiter Elicius see O. Gilbert, _Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt - Rom im Altertum_, ii. 154 _sq._; Aust, in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der - griech. und röm. Mythologie_, ii. 657 _sq._ As to the connexion of - Jupiter with the rain-making ceremony (_aquaelicium_), the combined - evidence of Petronius (_Sat._ 44) and Tertullian (_Apologeticus_, 40) - seems to me conclusive. - -Footnote 590: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, i. 637 _sq._, vi. 183 _sqq._; Livy, vii. 28. 4 _sq._; - Cicero, _De divinatione_, i. 45. 101; Solinus, i. 21. Although the - temple was not dedicated until 344 B.C., the worship of the goddess of - the hill appears to have been very ancient. See H. Jordan, - _Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum_, i. 2, pp. 109 _sq._; W. H. - Roscher, _Lexikon d. griech. u. röm. Mythologie_, ii. coll. 592 _sq._ - -Footnote 591: - - Livy, i. 8. 5; Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 430; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, - _Antiquit. Rom._ ii. 15. - -Footnote 592: - - Virgil, _Aen._ viii. 314-318, 347-354. - -Footnote 593: - - Plutarch, _Quaest. Rom._ 92. - -Footnote 594: - - Livy, i. 10. 5. - -Footnote 595: - - _Mons Querquetulanus_; see Tacitus, _Annals_, iv. 65. - -Footnote 596: - - A monument found at Rome represents Jupiter beside an oak, and - underneath is the dedication: _Jovi Caelio_. See H. Dessau, - _Inscriptiones Latinae selectae_, No. 3080. - -Footnote 597: - - _Porta Querquetulana_ or _Querquetularia_; see Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ - xvi. 37; Festus, pp. 260, 261, ed. C. O. Müller. - -Footnote 598: - - Festus, _ll.cc._; Varro, _De lingua Latina_, v. 49. - -Footnote 599: - - E. Babelon, _Monnaies de la République Romaine_, i. 99 _sq._ - -Footnote 600: - - Varro, _De lingua Latina_, v. 49, where, however, “_alii ab - aesculetis_” is a conjecture of C. O. Müller’s. I do not know what - authority O. Richter has for reading _aesculis consitae_ (“planted - with oaks”) for _excultae_ in this passage (_Topographie der Stadt - Rom_, 2nd Ed., p. 302, n. 4). Modern topographers prefer to derive the - name from _ex-colere_ in the sense of “the hill outside the city” (O. - Richter, _l.c._; O. Gilbert, _Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom - im Altertum_, i. 166 _sq._). - -Footnote 601: - - See above, p. 182. - -Footnote 602: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 295 _sq._ - -Footnote 603: - - See above, vol. i. p. 18; and for the identification, O. Gilbert, - _Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum_, ii. 152 - _sqq._; A. B. Cook, “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” _Classical Review_, - xviii. (1904) p. 366. - -Footnote 604: - - Cicero, _De divinatione_, i. 45, 101. - -Footnote 605: - - G. Boni, in _Notizie degli Scavi_, May 1900, pp. 161, 172; _id._, - _Aedes Vestae_, p. 14 (extract from the _Nuova Antologia_, 1st August - 1900). Copies of these and other papers containing Commendatore Boni’s - account of his memorable excavations and discoveries were kindly given - me by him during my stay in Rome in the winter of 1900-1901. That the - fire in question was a sacrificial one is proved by the bones, - potsherds, and rude copper money found among the ashes. Commend. Boni - thinks that the charred remains of the wood prove that the fire was - extinguished, probably by libations, and that therefore it cannot have - been the perpetual holy fire of Vesta, which would have burned up - completely all the fuel. But a new fire was annually lit on the first - of March (Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 143 _sq._; Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 12. - 6), which may imply that the old fire was ceremonially extinguished, - as often happens in such cases. - -Footnote 606: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 37. - -Footnote 607: - - O. Richter, _Topographie der Stadt Rom_, 2nd Ed., p. 211. - -Footnote 608: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 237. The inscription was probably not in the - Etruscan language, but only in an archaic alphabet like that employed - in the inscription on the pyramidal stone which has been found under - the Black Stone in the Forum. - -Footnote 609: - - G. Boni, “Bimbi Romulei,” _Nuova Antologia_, 16th February 1904, pp. 5 - _sqq._ (separate reprint); E. Burton-Brown, _Recent Excavations in the - Roman Forum_ (London, 1904), p. 150. - -Footnote 610: - - Festus, _s.v._ “Oscillantes,” p. 194, ed. C. O. Müller. - -Footnote 611: - - Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ iv. 49; A. Schwegler, - _Römische Geschichte_, i. 341; H. Nissen, _Italische Landeskunde_, ii. - 580. It is to be observed that Dionysius does not here speak of the - dedication of a temple to Jupiter; when he describes the foundation of - the temple of Capitoline Jupiter by Tarquin (iv. 59 and 61) his - language is quite different. The monastery, founded in 1777 by - Cardinal York, the last of the Stuarts, has now been converted into a - meteorological station and an inn (K. Baedeker, _Central Italy and - Rome_, 13th Ed., p. 400). It is fitting enough that the atmospheric - phenomena should be observed by modern science on the spot where they - were worshipped by ancient piety. - -Footnote 612: - - Livy, i. 31. 3. - -Footnote 613: - - According to tradition, the future site of Alba Longa was marked out - by a white sow and her litter, which were found lying under evergreen - oaks (Virgil, _Aen._ viii. 43), as Mr. A. B. Cook has pointed out - (_Classical Review_, xviii. 363). The tradition seems to shew that the - neighbourhood of the city was wooded with oaks. - -Footnote 614: - - See below, p. 380. - -Footnote 615: - - Querquetulani. See Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ iii. 69; Dionysius - Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ v. 61. As to the white bulls - sacrificed at the great Latin festival and partaken of by the members - of the League, see Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, ii. 68; Dionysius - Halicarnasensis, _Ant. Rom._ iv. 49. Compare Cicero, _Pro Plancio_, - ix. 23; Varro, _De lingua Latina_, vi. 25. - -Footnote 616: - - Theophrastus, _Histor. plant._ v. 8. 3. - -Footnote 617: - - Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, ii. 68; Livy, xxii. 10. 7; Ovid, _Ex - Ponto_, iv. 4. 31; Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ ii. 146; Horace, - _Carmen Saeculare_, 49. - -Footnote 618: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 250 _sq._ - -Footnote 619: - - “Italic and Keltic are so closely bound together by important phonetic - and morphological affinities that they are sometimes spoken of as one - branch” of Aryan speech (J. H. Moulton, _Two Lectures on the Science - of Language_, Cambridge, 1903, p. 6, note). “The connection of the - Celtic and Italic languages is structural. It is much deeper than that - of Celts and Teutons, and goes back to an earlier epoch. Celts and - Latins must have dwelt together as an undivided people in the valley - of the Danube, and it must have been at a much later time—after the - Umbrians and Latins had crossed the Alps—that the contact of Celts and - Teutons came about” (Isaac Taylor, _The Origin of the Aryans_, p. 192; - compare _id._ p. 257). See also P. Giles, _Manual of Comparative - Philology_ 2nd Ed., (London, 1901), p. 26. - -Footnote 620: - - Livy, xlii. 7. 1, xlv. 15. 10. Compare Dio Cassius, xxxix. 20. 1. The - temple on the Alban Mount was dedicated in 168 B.C., but the worship - was doubtless far older. - -Footnote 621: - - See above, pp. 176, 184. - -Footnote 622: - - Strabo, vii. 7. 12, p. 329; Hyperides, _Or._ iii. coll. 35-37, pp. 43 - _sq._, ed. Blass; G. Curtius, _Griech. Etymologie_, 5th Ed., p. 236; - W. H. Roscher, _Juno und Hera_ (Leipsic, 1875), pp. 17 _sq._; _id._, - _Lexikon d. griech. u. röm. Mythologie_, ii. coll. 576, 578 _sq._ See - below, p. 381. - -Footnote 623: - - See above, pp. 140 _sqq._ - -Footnote 624: - - W. H. Roscher, _Juno und Hera_, pp. 64 _sqq._; _id._, _Lexikon d. - griech. u. röm. Mythologie_, ii. 575 _sq._, 591 _sqq._ At Falerii the - image of Juno was annually carried in procession from her sacred - grove, and in some respects the ceremony resembled a marriage - procession (Ovid, _Amores_, iii. 13; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, - _Antiquit. Rom._ i. 21). The name of June was _Junius_ at Rome, - _Junonius_ at Aricia, Laurentum and Lavinia, and _Junonalis_ at Tibur - and Praeneste (Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 59-63; Macrobius, _Sat._ i. 12. 30). - The forms _Junonius_ and _Junonalis_ are recognised by Festus (p. 103, - ed. C. O. Müller). Their existence among the Latins seems to render - the derivation of _Junius_ from Juno quite certain, though that - derivation is doubted by Mr. W. Warde Fowler (_Roman Festivals of the - Period of the Republic_, pp. 99 _sq._). - -Footnote 625: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 101-168; Macrobius, _Sat._ i. 12. 31-33; - Tertullian, _Ad nationes_, ii. 9; Varro, quoted by Nonius Marcellus, - _De compendiosa doctrina_, p. 390, ed. L. Quicherat. There was a - sacred beechen grove of Diana on a hill called Corne near Tusculum - (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 242). But _Corne_ has probably no connection - with _Carna_. The grove of Helernus was crowded with worshippers on - the first of February (Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 67, where _Helerni_ is a - conjectural emendation for _Averni_ or _Asyli_). Nothing else is known - about Helernus, unless with Merkel (in his edition of Ovid’s _Fasti_, - pp. cxlviii. _sq._) we read _Elerno_ for _Eterno_ in Festus, p. 93, - ed. C. O. Müller. In that case it would seem that black oxen were - sacrificed to him. From the association of Carna with Janus it was - inferred by Merkel (_l.c._) that the grove of Helernus stood on or - near the Janiculum, where there was a grove of oaks (see above, p. - 186). But the language of Ovid (_Fasti_, ii. 67) points rather to the - mouth of the Tiber. - -Footnote 626: - - See above, p. 185. - -Footnote 627: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 129-168. A Roman bride on the way to her husband’s - house was preceded by a boy bearing a torch of buckthorn (_spina - alba_, Festus, _s.v._ “Patrimi,” p. 245, ed. C. O. Müller; Varro, - quoted by Nonius Marcellus, _De compendiosa doctrina_, _s.v._ “Fax,” - p. 116, ed. L. Quicherat). The intention probably was to defend her - from enchantment and evil spirits. Branches of buckthorn were also - thought to protect a house against thunderbolts (Columella, _De re - rustica_, x. 346 _sq._). - -Footnote 628: - - See above, p. 54. - -Footnote 629: - - Dioscorides, _De arte medica_, i. 119. - -Footnote 630: - - Scholiast on Nicander, _Theriaca_, 861. - -Footnote 631: - - Diogenes Laertius, _Vitae philosophorum_, iv. 54-57. - -Footnote 632: - - See above, p. 143. - -Footnote 633: - - Plutarch, _Quaest. Rom._ 111 εἰκὸς μὲν οὖν ἐστι καὶ τὸν ἱερέα τοῦ Διὸς - ὥσπερ ἔμψυχον καὶ ἱερὸν ἄγαλμα καταφύξιμον ἀνεῖσθαι τοῖς δεομένοις; L. - Preller, _Römische Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., i. 201; F. B. Jevons, - _Plutarch’s Romane Questions_, p. lxxiii.; C. Julian, in Daremberg et - Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines_, ii. 1156 - _sqq._ - -Footnote 634: - - Cicero, _De re publica_, iii. 13. 22; Virgil, _Aen._ x. 112; Horace, - _Sat._ ii. 1. 42 _sq._; Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 37; Varro, _De lingua - Latina_, v. 6. 7; Livy, v. 21. 2, v. 23. 7; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxv. - 115; Flavius Vopiscus, _Probus_, xii. 7; L. Preller, _Römische - Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., i. 205, 284; W. H. Roscher, _Lexikon d. griech. - u. röm. Mythologie_, ii. 600 _sqq._ - -Footnote 635: - - See above, pp. 179 _sq._ - -Footnote 636: - - Cicero, _Philippics_, ii. 43. 110; Suetonius, _Divus Julius_, 76; Dio - Cassius, xliv. 6. The coincidence has been pointed out by Mr. A. B. - Cook (_Classical Review_, xviii. 371). - -Footnote 637: - - Livy, i. 20. 1 _sq._ - -Footnote 638: - - Numa was not the only Roman king who is said to have enjoyed the - favours of a goddess. Romulus was married to Hersilia, who seems to - have been a Sabine goddess. Ovid tells us how, when the dead Romulus - had been raised to the rank of a god under the name of Quirinus, his - widow Hersilia was deified as his consort. Thus, if Quirinus was a - Sabine oak-god, his wife would be an oak-goddess, like Egeria. See - Ovid, _Metam._ xiv. 829-851. Compare Livy, i. 11. 2; Plutarch, _Numa_, - 14. On Hersilia as a goddess see A. Schwegler, _Römische Geschichte_, - i. 478, note 10; L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., i. 372. - Again, of King Servius Tullius we read how the goddess Fortuna, - smitten with love of him, used to enter his house nightly by a window. - See Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 569 _sqq._; Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, - 36; _id._, _De fortuna Romanorum_, 10. However, the origin and nature - of Fortuna are too obscure to allow us to base any conclusions on this - legend. For various more or less conjectural explanations of the - goddess see W. Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals of the Period of the - Republic_, pp. 161-172. - - - - - CHAPTER XIV - THE KING’S FIRE - - -[Sidenote: Sacred Marriage of the Fire-god with a woman.] Thus far we -have dealt mainly with those instances of the Sacred Marriage in which a -human being is wedded to the divine powers of vegetation or water. Now -we pass to the consideration of a different class of cases, in which the -divine bridegroom is the fire and his bride a human virgin. And these -cases are particularly important for our present enquiry into the early -Latin kingship, since it appears that the old Latin kings were commonly -supposed to be the offspring of the fire-god by mortal mothers. The -evidence which points to this conclusion is as follows. - -[Sidenote: Legend of the birth of King Servius Tullius from the fire.] -First, let us take the legend of the birth of King Servius Tullius. It -is said that one day the virgin Ocrisia, a slave-woman of Queen -Tanaquil, the wife of King Tarquin the elder, was offering as usual -cakes and libations of wine on the royal hearth, when a flame in the -shape of the male member shot out from the fire. Taking this for a sign -that her handmaiden was to be the mother of a more than mortal son, the -wise Queen Tanaquil bade the girl array herself as a bride and lie down -beside the hearth. Her orders were obeyed; Ocrisia conceived by the god -or spirit of the fire, and in due time brought forth Servius Tullius, -who was thus born a slave, being the reputed son of a slave mother and a -divine father, the fire-god. His birth from the fire was attested in his -childhood by a lambent flame which played about his head as he slept at -noon in the king’s palace.[639] This story, as others have pointed out -before,[640] seems clearly to imply that the mother of Servius was a -Vestal Virgin charged with the care and worship of the sacred fire in -the king’s house. Now, in Promathion’s _History of Italy_, cited by -Plutarch, a similar tale was told of the birth of Romulus himself. It is -[Sidenote: Legend of the birth of Romulus from the fire.] said that in -the house of the King of Alba a flame like to the male organ of -generation hung over the hearth for many days. Learning from an oracle -that a virgin should conceive by this phantom and bear a son of great -valour and renown, the king bade one of his daughters submit to its -embraces, but she disdained to do so, and sent her handmaid instead. -Angry at her disobedience, her father ordered both the maidens to be put -to death. But Vesta appeared to him in a dream, forbade the execution, -and commanded that both the girls should be imprisoned until they had -woven a certain web, after which they were to be given in marriage. But -the web was never finished, for as fast as they wove it by day, other -maidens, in obedience to the king’s orders, unwove it at night. Meantime -the handmaiden conceived by the flame of fire, and gave birth to Romulus -and Remus.[641] In this legend, as in the story of the birth of Servius -Tullius, it is plain that the mother of the future King of Rome was both -a slave and a priestess of Vesta. Orthodox Roman tradition always -admitted that she was a Vestal, but naturally enough represented her as -the king’s daughter rather than his slave. The god Mars, it was said, -got her with child as she drew water in his sacred grove.[642] However, -when we compare this legend with the similar story of the birth of -Servius, we may suspect that Promathion has preserved, though perhaps in -a perverted form, an old feature of the Latin kingship, namely, that one -of the king’s parents might be, and sometimes was, a slave. Whether that -was so or not, such tales at least bear witness to an old belief that -the early Roman kings were born of virgins and of the fire. Similarly -Caeculus, the founder of Praeneste, passed for a [Sidenote: Legend of -the birth of Caeculus from the fire.] son of Vulcan. It was said that -his mother conceived him through a spark, which leapt from the fire and -struck her as she sat by the hearth. She exposed the child near a temple -of Jupiter, and he was found there beside a fire by some maidens who -were going to draw water. In after-life he proved his divine birth by -working an appropriate miracle. When an infidel crowd refused to believe -that he was the son of a god, he prayed to his father, and immediately -the unbelievers were surrounded with a flame of fire.[643] More than -this, the whole of the Alban dynasty appear to have traced their descent -from a Vestal, for the wife of King Latinus, their legendary ancestor, -was named Amata[644] or Beloved, and this was the regular title bestowed -on a Vestal after her election,[645] a title which cannot be fully -understood except in the light of the foregoing traditions, which seem -to shew that the Vestals were regularly supposed to be beloved by the -fire-god. Moreover, fire is said to have played round the head of -Amata’s daughter Lavinia,[646] just as it played round the head of the -fire-born Servius Tullius. As the same prodigy was reported of Julus or -Ascanius, the son of Aeneas,[647] we may suspect that a similar legend -was told of his miraculous conception at the hearth. - -[Sidenote: The Vestal Virgins seem to have been regarded as the wives of -the fire-god.] Now we may take it as certain that the Romans and Latins -would never have traced the descent of their kings from Vestal Virgins -unless they had thought that such a descent, far from being a stain, -was, under certain circumstances, highly honourable. What the -circumstances were that permitted a Vestal to become a mother, not only -with impunity but with honour and glory, appear plainly from the stories -of the birth of Caeculus, Romulus, and Servius Tullius. If she might not -know a mortal man, she was quite free, and indeed was encouraged, to -conceive and bear a son to the fire-god. In fact the legends suggest -that the Vestals were regularly regarded as the fire-god’s wives. This -would explain why they were bound to chastity during their term of -service: the bride must be true to her divine bridegroom. And the theory -of chastity could be easily reconciled with the practice of maternity by -allowing a man to masquerade as the fire-god at a sacred marriage, just -as in Egypt the king disguised himself as the god Ammon when he wedded -the queen,[648] or as among the Ewe tribes the priest poses as the -python-god when he goes in to the human brides of the serpent.[649] Thus -the doctrine of the divine birth of kings presents no serious difficulty -to people who believe that a god may be made flesh in a man, and that a -virgin may conceive and bear him a son. Of course the theory of the -divine motherhood of the Vestals applies only to the early regal and -therefore prehistoric period. Under the Republic the demand for kings -had ceased, and with it, therefore, the supply. Yet a trace of the old -view of the Vestals as virgin mothers lingered down to the latest times -in the character of Vesta herself, their patroness and type; for Vesta -always bore the official title of Mother, never that of Virgin.[650] We -may surmise that a similar belief and practice once obtained in Attica. -For Erichthonius, king of Athens, is said to have been a son of the -fire-god Hephaestus by the virgin goddess Athena: the story told of his -miraculous birth from the ground, which had been impregnated by the seed -of the fire-god, is clearly a later version devised to save the -virginity of his mother.[651] The perpetual lamp of Athena, which burned -in the Erechtheum or house of Erechtheus (who was identical with -Erichthonius) on the acropolis of Athens,[652] may have answered to the -perpetual fire of Vesta at Rome; and it is possible that the maidens -called Arrephoroi or Errephoroi, who dwelt close to the Erechtheum,[653] -may at one time have personated Athena and passed, like the Vestals, for -wives of the fire-god. - -[Sidenote: Rationalistic theory of the duties of the Vestals rejected.] -It has, indeed, been held that the Vestals were of old the king’s -daughters, who were kept at home and forbidden to marry for no other -reason than that they might devote themselves to the domestic duties of -drawing water, mopping the house, tending the fire, and baking -cakes.[654] But this rationalistic theory could hardly explain the -superstitious horror which the infidelity of a Vestal always excited in -the Roman mind. Customs which begin in reason seldom end in -superstition. It is likely, therefore, that the rule of chastity imposed -on the Vestals was based from the first on a superstition rather than on -a mere consideration of practical convenience. The belief that the -Vestals were the spouses of the fire-god would explain the rule.[655] We -have seen that the practice of marrying women to gods has been by no -means uncommon. If the spirit of the water has his human wife, why not -the spirit of the fire? Indeed, primitive man has a special reason for -thinking that the fire-god should always be married. What that reason -is, I will now try to explain. - -[Sidenote: The Vestal fire of later times was a continuation of the fire -on the king’s hearth.] But first it is necessary to apprehend clearly -that the Vestal fire of republican and imperial Rome was strictly the -successor or continuation of the fire which in the regal period had -burned on the king’s hearth. That it was so appears plainly from the -stories of the birth of Romulus and Servius Tullius, which shew that -Vesta was believed to be worshipped at the royal fireside by maidens who -were either the king’s daughters or his slaves. This conclusion is amply -confirmed by a study of the temple of Vesta and the adjoining edifices -in the Roman Forum. For the so-called temple of the goddess never was, -strictly speaking, a temple at all. This fact we have on the authority -of Varro himself, the greatest of Roman antiquaries.[656] The little -round building in which the sacred fire always burned was merely a copy -of the round hut in which the king, like his [Sidenote: The round temple -of Vesta a copy of the ancient Italian hut.] subjects, had dwelt in days -of old. Tradition preserved a memory of the time when its walls were -made of wattled osiers and the roof was of thatch;[657] indeed, with -that peculiar clinging to the forms of the past which is characteristic -of royalty and religion, the inmost shrine continued down even to late -times to be fashioned of the same simple materials.[658] The hut of -Romulus, or what passed for it, constructed of wood, reeds, and straw, -was always preserved and carefully repaired in the original style. It -stood on the side of the Palatine hill facing the Circus Maximus.[659] A -similar hut, roofed with thatch, was in like manner maintained on the -Capitoline hill, and traditionally associated with Romulus.[660] The -so-called temple of Vesta in historical times stood not on any of the -hills, but in the Forum, at the northern foot of the Palatine. Its -situation in the flat ground is quite consistent with the view that the -building represents the king’s house of early, though not of the very -earliest, times; for, according to tradition, it was built by Numa in -this position between the Palatine and the Capitol, at the time when he -united the two separate towns on these hills and turned the low swampy -ground between them into their common place of assembly. Here, too, -beside the temple of Vesta, the king built himself a house, which was -ever afterwards known as the Regia or palace; formerly he had dwelt on -the Quirinal.[661] In after-times this old palace of the kings was -perhaps the official residence of their successor, the King of the -Sacred Rites.[662] Adjoining it was the house of the Vestals,[663] at -first, no doubt, a simple and unpretentious edifice, but afterwards a -stately pile gathered round a spacious open court which must have -resembled the cloister of a mediaeval monastery. We may assume that the -kernel of this group of buildings was the round temple of Vesta, and -that the hearth in it, on which burned the sacred fire, was originally -the hearth of the king’s house. That the so-called temple was built on -the model of the round huts of the old Latins is proved by the -discoveries made at an ancient necropolis near Albano. The ashes of the -dead were here deposited in urns, which are shaped like [Sidenote: -Hut-urns found at Albano and Rome.] little round huts with conical -roofs, obviously in order that the souls of the dead might live in -houses such as they had inhabited during life. The roofs of these -miniature dwellings are raised on cross-beams, sometimes with one or -more holes to let out the smoke. The door is fastened by a crossbar, -which is passed through a ring on the outside and tied to the two -side-posts. In some of these hut-urns the side-posts are duplicated, or -even triplicated, for the sake of ornament; and it is probable that the -ring of columns which encircled the little temple of Vesta in historical -times was merely an extension of the door-posts of the prehistoric hut. -The necropolis in which these urns were found must be very ancient, -since it was buried under the streams of lava vomited by the Alban -Mountain in eruption. But the mountain has not been an active volcano -within historical times, unless, indeed, the showers of stones and the -rain of blood often recorded as ominous prodigies by Roman writers may -be explained as jets of pumice and red volcanic dust discharged by one -of the craters.[664] The prehistoric burial-ground lately discovered in -the Roman Forum has yielded several hut-urns of precisely the same shape -as those of the Alban cemetery. Hence we may infer with tolerable -certainty that the earliest Latin settlers both on the Alban hills and -at Rome dwelt in round huts built of wattle and dab, with peaked roofs -of thatch.[665] - -[Sidenote: “Numa’s crockery,” the primitive earthenware vessels used by -the Vestals.] If further evidence were needed to convince us that the -round temple of Vesta merely reproduced a Roman house of the olden time, -it might be supplied by the primitive vessels of coarse earthenware in -which the Vestals always presented their offerings, and which, in memory -of the artlessness of an earlier age, went by the name of “Numa’s -crockery.”[666] A Greek historian, writing when Rome was at the height -of her power and glory under Augustus, praises the Romans for the -austere simplicity with which, in an age of vulgar wealth and -ostentation, they continued to honour the gods of their fathers. “I have -seen,” said he, “meals set before the gods on old-fashioned wooden -tables, in mats and earthenware dishes, the food consisting of barley -loaves and cakes and spelt and firstfruits and such-like things, all -plain and inexpensive and free from any touch of vulgarity. And I have -seen libations offered, not in vessels of silver and gold, but in little -earthen cups and jugs; and I heartily admired a people which thus walked -in the ways of their fathers, not deviating from the ancient rites into -extravagance and display.”[667] Specimens of this antique pottery have -come to light of late years at the house of the Vestals, the temple of -Vesta, and other religious centres in the Forum;[668] others had been -found previously on the Esquiline hill and in the necropolis of Alba -Longa.[669] We may conjecture that if the Romans continued to serve the -gods their meals in simple earthenware dishes long after they themselves -quaffed their wine from goblets of crystal and gold or from murrhine -cups with their cloudy iridescent hues of purple and white,[670] they -did so, not from any principle of severe good taste, but rather from -that superstitious fear of innovation which has embalmed in religious -ritual, as in amber, so many curious relics of the past. The old forms -and materials of the vessels were consecrated by immemorial usage and -might not be changed with impunity. Indeed, in the ritual of the Arval -Brothers the holy pots themselves appear to have been an object of -worship.[671] Specimens of these pots have been found on the site of the -sacred grove where the Brothers performed their quaint service, and they -shed an interesting light on the conservatism of the Roman religion. -Some of them are moulded in the most primitive fashion by [Sidenote: -Rude pottery used by the Arval Brothers.] the hand without any -mechanical appliance. But most of them belong to a stage of art, later -indeed than this rude beginning, yet earlier than the invention of the -potter’s wheel. In order to give the vessels their proper shape and -prevent the sides from collapsing, wooden hoops were inserted in them, -and the marks made by these hoops in the soft clay may still be seen on -the inside of most of the pots found in the grove. We may suppose that -when the potter’s wheel came into universal use, the old art of making -pottery by the hand was lost; but as religion would have nothing to do -with pots made in the new-fangled way, the pious workman had to imitate -the ancient ware as well as he could, eking out his imperfect skill with -the aid of wooden hoops.[672] Perhaps the _fictores Vestalium_ and the -_fictores Pontificum_, of whom we read in inscriptions,[673] were those -potters who, combining a retrograde art with sound religious principles, -provided the Vestals and Pontiffs with the coarse crockery so dear to -gods and to antiquaries. If that was so, they may have had in the -exercise of their craft to observe some such curious rules as are still -[Sidenote: Savage superstitions as to the making of pottery.] observed -in similar circumstances by the savage Yuracares, a tribe of Indians -living dispersed in the depths of beautiful tropical forests, at the -eastern foot of the Bolivian Andes. We are told by an explorer that “the -manufacture of pottery is not an everyday affair with this superstitious -people, and accordingly they surround it with singular precautions. The -women, who alone are entrusted with the duty, go away very solemnly to -look for the clay, but they do so only when there is no crop to be -gathered. In the fear of thunder they betake themselves to the most -sequestered spots of the forest in order not to be seen. There they -build a hut. While they are at work they observe certain ceremonies and -never open their mouth, speaking to each other by signs, being persuaded -that one word spoken would infallibly cause all their pots to break in -the firing; and they do not go near their husbands, for if they did, all -the sick people would die.”[674] Among the Ba-Ronga of South Africa -pottery is made by women only, and they prefer to employ a child under -puberty to light the fire in which the pots are to be baked, because the -child has pure hands and the pots are therefore less likely to crack in -the furnace than if the woman lit the fire herself.[675] If the reader -objects that Roman potters cannot have been trammelled by superstitions -like those which hamper the savage potters of America and Africa, I -would remind him of the rules laid down by grave Roman writers for the -moral guidance of cooks, bakers, and butlers. After mentioning a number -of these writers by name, Columella informs us that “all of them are of -opinion that he who engages in any one of these occupations is bound to -be [Sidenote: Chastity required in persons who handle dishes and food.] -chaste and continent, since everything depends on taking care that -neither the dishes nor the food should be handled by any one above the -age of puberty, or at least by any one who is not exceedingly abstemious -in sexual matters. Therefore a man or woman who is sexually unclean -ought to wash in a river or running water before he touches the contents -of the storeroom. That is why there should be a boy or a maid to fetch -from the storeroom the things that are needed.”[676] When Roman cooks, -bakers, and butlers were expected to be so strict in the service of -their human masters, it might naturally be thought that the potters -should be not less so whose business it was to fashion the rude yet -precious vessels meet for the worship of the gods. - -[Sidenote: Sanctity of the storeroom (_penus_) and of the Penates in a -Roman house.] If the storeroom (_penus_) of a Roman house was deemed so -holy that its contents could only be handled by persons ceremonially -clean, the reason was that the Penates or gods of the storeroom dwelt in -it.[677] The domestic hearth, where the household meals were cooked in -the simple days of old, was the natural altar of the Penates;[678] their -images, together with those of the Lares, stood by it and shone in the -cheerful glow of the fire, when the family gathered round it in the -evening.[679] Thus in every house Vesta, the goddess of the hearth, was -intimately bound up with the Penates or gods of the storeroom; indeed, -she was reckoned one of them.[680] Now the temple of Vesta, being -nothing more than a type of the oldest form of Roman house, naturally -had, like an ordinary house, its sacred storeroom, and its Penates or -gods of the storeroom.[681] Hence if in every common house strict -chastity was, theoretically at least, expected of all who entered the -storeroom, we can well understand why such an obligation should have -been laid on the Vestals, who had in their charge the holiest of all -storerooms, the chamber in which were popularly supposed to be preserved -the talismans on which the safety of the state depended.[682] - -[Sidenote: Thus the temple of Vesta, with its perpetual fire and its -sacred storeroom, was merely a copy of the Roman king’s house.] Thus on -the whole we may regard it as highly probable that the round temple of -Vesta in the Forum, with its sacred storeroom and perpetual fire, was -merely a survival, under changed conditions, of the old house of the -Roman kings, which again may have been a copy of the still older house -of the kings of Alba. Both were modelled on the round huts of wattled -osiers in which the early Latins dwelt among the woods and hills of -Latium in the days when the Alban Mountain was still an active volcano. -Hence it is legitimate to compare the old legends of the royal hearth -with the later practice in regard to the hearth of Vesta, and from the -comparison to explain, if we can, the meaning both of the legends and of -the practice. - -Footnote 639: - - Plutarch, _De fortuna Romanorum_, 10; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, - _Antiquit. Rom._ iv. 1 _sq._; Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 627-636; Pliny, _Nat. - Hist._ ii. 241, xxxvi. 204; Livy, i. 39; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ ii. - 683; Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, v. 18. According to the Etruscan - annals, Servius Tullius was an Etruscan by name Mastarna, who came to - Rome with his friend Caeles Vibenna, and, changing his name, obtained - the kingdom. This was stated by the Emperor Claudius in a speech of - which fragments are engraved on a bronze tablet found at Lyons. See - Tacitus, _Annals_, ed. Orelli, 2nd Ed., p. 342. As the emperor wrote a - history of Etruria in twenty books (Suetonius, _Divus Claudius_, 42) - he probably had some authority for the statement, and the historical, - or at least legendary, character of Mastarna and Caeles Vibenna is - vouched for by a painting inscribed with their names, which was found - in 1857 in an Etruscan tomb at Vulci. See G. Dennis, _Cities and - Cemeteries of Etruria_, 3rd Ed., ii. 506 _sq._ But from this it by no - means follows that the identification of Mastarna with Servius Tullius - was correct. Schwegler preferred the Roman to the Etruscan tradition - (_Römische Geschichte_, i. 720 _sq._), and so, after long hesitation, - did Niebuhr (_History of Rome_, 3rd Ed., i. 380 _sqq._). It is fair to - add that both these historians wrote before the discovery of the tomb - at Vulci. - -Footnote 640: - - A. Schwegler, _Römische Geschichte_, i. 715; L. Preller, _Römische - Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., ii. 344. - -Footnote 641: - - Plutarch, _Romulus_, 2. - -Footnote 642: - - Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Ant. Rom._ i. 76 _sq._; Livy, i. 3 _sq._; - Plutarch, _Romulus_, 3; Zonaras, _Annal._ vii. 1; Justin, xliii. 2. - 1-3. - -Footnote 643: - - Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 678. - -Footnote 644: - - Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 343. - -Footnote 645: - - Aulus Gellius, i. 12, 14 and 19. Compare L. Preller, _Römische - Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., ii, 161, 344. There was a very ancient worship - of Vesta at Lavinium, the city named after Amata’s daughter Lavinia, - the ancestress of the Alban kings. See above, vol. i. p. 14. - -Footnote 646: - - Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 71-77. - -Footnote 647: - - Virgil, _Aen._ ii. 680-686. We may compare the halo with which the - vainglorious and rascally artist of genius, Benvenuto Cellini, - declared his head to be encircled. “Ever since the time of my strange - vision until now,” says he, “an aureole of glory (marvellous to - relate) has rested on my head. This is visible to every sort of men to - whom I have chosen to point it out; but those have been very few. This - halo can be observed above my shadow in the morning from the rising of - the sun for about two hours, and far better when the grass is drenched - with dew. It is also visible at evening about sunset. I became aware - of it in France at Paris; for the air in those parts is so much freer - from mist, that one can see it there far better manifested than in - Italy, mists being far more frequent among us.” See _The Life of - Benvenuto Cellini_, translated by J. Addington Symonds 3rd Ed., - (London, 1889), pp. 279 _sq._ - -Footnote 648: - - See above, pp. 131 _sqq._ - -Footnote 649: - - A. B. Ellis, The _Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast of West - Africa_, p. 60. See above, pp. 149 _sq._ - -Footnote 650: - - See below, p. 229. - -Footnote 651: - - Apollodorus iii. 14. 6; Schol. on Homer, _Iliad_, ii. 547; J. Tzetzes, - _Chiliades_, v. 669 _sq._; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, xviii. 12. - -Footnote 652: - - Pausanias i. 26. 6 _sq._; Strabo ix. 1. 16, p. 396; Plutarch, _Numa_, - 9; _id._, _Sulla_, 13. As to the identity of Erechtheus and - Erichthonius see my note on Pausanias, i. 18. 2 (vol. ii. p. 169). - -Footnote 653: - - Pausanias, i. 27. 3, with my note. - -Footnote 654: - - The theory was formerly advocated by me (_Journal of Philology_, xiv. - (1885) pp. 154 _sqq._) As to the duties of the Vestals see J. - Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. 2nd Ed., pp. 342 _sqq._ - -Footnote 655: - - This explanation was first, so far as I know, given by me in my - _Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship_ (London, 1905), p. - 221. It has since been adopted by Mr. E. Fehrle (_Die kultische - Keuschheit im Altertum_, Giessen, 1910, pp. 210 _sqq._). - -Footnote 656: - - Aulus Gellius, xiv. 7. 7. Compare Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 153, - ix. 4. - -Footnote 657: - - _Ovid_, Fasti, vi. 261 _sq._ - -Footnote 658: - - Festus, _s.v._ “penus,” p. 250, ed. C. O. Müller, where for _saepius_ - we must obviously read _saeptus_. - -Footnote 659: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, i. 199, iii. 183 _sq._; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, - _Antiquit. Rom._ i. 79. 11. For the situation of the hut see also - Plutarch, _Romulus_, 20. - -Footnote 660: - - Conon, _Narrationes_, 48; Vitruvius, ii. 1. 5, p. 35, ed. Rose and - Müller-Strübing; Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 15. 10. Compare Virgil, - _Aen._ viii. 653 _sq._ As to the two huts on the Palatine and the - Capitol see A. Schwegler, _Römische Geschichte_, i. 394; L. Jahn on - Macrobius, _l.c._ - -Footnote 661: - - Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Ant. Rom._ ii. 66; Plutarch, _Numa_, 11 - and 14; Solinus, i. 21; Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 263 _sqq._; _id._, - _Tristia_, iii. 1. 29 _sq._; Tacitus, _Annals_, xv. 41. - -Footnote 662: - - Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ viii. 363. Festus, however, distinguishes - the old royal palace (_Regia_) from the house of the King of the - Sacred Rites (_s.v._ “Sacram viam,” pp. 290, 293, ed. C. O. Müller). - In classical times the _Regia_ was the residence or office of the - Pontifex Maximus; but we can hardly doubt that formerly it was the - house of the _Rex Sacrorum_. See O. Gilbert, _Geschichte und - Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum_, i. 225, 235 _sq._, 341, 344. - As to the existing remains of the _Regia_, the temple of Vesta, and - the house of the Vestals, see O. Richter, _Topographie der Stadt Rom_, - 2nd Ed., pp. 88 _sqq._; Ch. Huelsen, _Die Ausgrabungen auf dem Forum - Romanum_ 2nd Ed., (Rome, 1903), pp. 62 _sqq._, 88 _sqq._; Mrs. E. - Burton-Brown, _Recent Excavations in the Roman Forum_ (London, 1904), - pp. 26 _sqq._ - -Footnote 663: - - Dio Cassius, liv. 27, who tells us that Augustus annexed the house of - the King of the Sacred Rites to the house of the Vestals, on which it - abutted. - -Footnote 664: - - Many such phenomena are noted by Julius Obsequens in his book of - prodigies, appended to W. Weissenborn’s edition of Livy, vol. x. 2, - pp. 193 _sqq._ (Berlin, 1881). - -Footnote 665: - - W. Helbig, _Die Italiker in der Poebene_, pp. 50-55; E. Burton-Brown, - _Recent Excavations in the Roman Forum_, pp. 30, 152, 154. For - pictures of these hut-urns see G. Boni in _Notizie degli Scavi_, May - 1900, p. 191, fig. 52; _id._, in _Nuova Antologia_, August 1900, p. - 22. - -Footnote 666: - - Valerius Maximus, iv. 4. 11; Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 310; Acron on Horace, - _Odes_, i. 31, quoted by G. Boni in _Notizie degli Scavi_, May 1900, - p. 179; Cicero, _Paradoxa_, i. 2; _id._, _De natura deorum_, iii. 17. - 43; Persius, _Sat._ ii. 59 _sq._; Juvenal, _Sat._ vi. 342 _sqq._ - -Footnote 667: - - Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Ant. Rom._ ii. 23. On earthenware vessels - used in religious rites see also Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxv. 108, “_In - sacris quidem etiam inter has opes hodie non murrinis crystallinisve, - sed fictilibus prolibatur simpulis_”; Apuleius, _De magia_, 18, - “_Eadem paupertas etiam populo Romano imperium a primordio fundavit, - proque eo in hodiernum diis immortalibus simpuvio et catino fictili - sacrificat._” - -Footnote 668: - - G. Boni in _Notizie degli Scavi_, May 1900, p. 179; E. Burton-Brown, - _Recent Excavations in the Roman Forum_, pp. 23 _sq._, 41. - -Footnote 669: - - W. Helbig, _Die Italiker in der Poebene_, pp. 82 _sqq._ - -Footnote 670: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxvii. 21 _sq._ - -Footnote 671: - - G. Henzen, _Acta Fratrum Arvalium_ (Berlin, 1874), pp. 26, 30; H. - Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae selectae_, No. 5039; J. Marquardt, - _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. 2nd Ed., 456. - -Footnote 672: - - W. Helbig, _Die Italiker in der Poebene_, p. 87. - -Footnote 673: - - G. Wilmanns, _Exempla inscriptionum Latinarum_, Nos. 311, 986, 1326, - 1331; H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae selectae_, Nos. 456, 3314, - 4926, 4933, 4936, 4942, 4943. Modern writers, following Varro (_De - lingua Latina_, vii. 44, “_fictores dicti a fingendis libis_”), - explain these _fictores_ as bakers of sacred cakes. See Ch. A. Lobeck, - _Aglaophamus_, pp. 1084 _sq._; J. Marquardt, _Römische - Staatsverwaltung_, iii. 2nd Ed., 249. They may be right, but it is to - be observed that Varro does not expressly refer to the _fictores_ of - the Vestals and Pontiffs, and further, that in Latin _fictor_ commonly - means a potter, not a baker, for which the regular word is _pistor_. - -Footnote 674: - - A. d’Orbigny, _Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale_, iii. (Paris and - Strasburg, 1844) p. 194. Much of d’Orbigny’s valuable information as - to this tribe was drawn from the manuscript of Father Lacueva, a - Spanish Franciscan monk of wealthy family and saint-like character, - who spent eighteen or twenty years among the Yuracares in a vain - attempt to convert them. With regard to the crops mentioned in the - text, these savages plant banana-trees, manioc, sugar-cane, and - vegetables round about their huts, which they erect in clearings of - the forest. See d’Orbigny, _op. cit._ iii. 196 _sq._ - -Footnote 675: - - H. A. Junod, “Les Conceptions physiologiques des Bantou Sud-Africains - et leurs tabous,” _Revue d’Ethnographie et de Sociologie_, i. (1910), - p. 147. - -Footnote 676: - - Columella, _De re rustica_, xii. 4. 2 _sq._ - -Footnote 677: - - Cicero, _De natura deorum_, ii. 27. 68. - -Footnote 678: - - Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ xi. 211. - -Footnote 679: - - Horace, _Epodes_, ii. 65 _sq._; Martial, iii. 58. 3 _sq._; L. Preller, - _Römische Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., ii. 105 _sqq._, 155 _sqq._ See also A. - De-Marchi, _Il Culto privato di Roma antica_, i. (Milan, 1896) p. 67, - with plate iii. - -Footnote 680: - - Macrobius, _Saturn._ iii. 4. 11; G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der - Römer_, pp. 145 _sq._ - -Footnote 681: - - Festus, _s.v._ “penus,” pp. 250, 251, ed. C. O. Müller; Tacitus, - _Annals_, xv. 41; J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. 2nd - Ed., 252 _sq._ - -Footnote 682: - - Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ ii. 66; Livy, xxvi. 27. - 14; J. Marquardt, _op. cit._ iii. 2nd Ed., 250 _sq._ - - - - - CHAPTER XV - THE FIRE-DRILL - - -[Sidenote: Mode of rekindling the Vestal fire at Rome by means of the -fire-drill.] In historical times, whenever the Vestal fire at Rome -happened to be extinguished, the virgins were beaten by the pontiff; -after which it was their custom, apparently with the aid of the pontiff, -to rekindle the fire by drilling a hole in a board of lucky wood till a -flame was elicited by friction. The new fire thus obtained was carried -into the temple of Vesta by one of the virgins in a bronze sieve.[683] -As this mode of producing fire is one of the most primitive known to -man, and has been commonly employed by many savage [Sidenote: Use of the -fire-drill by savages.] tribes down to modern times,[684] we need have -no difficulty in believing that its use in the worship of Vesta was a -survival from prehistoric ages, and that whenever the fire on the hearth -of the Latin kings went out it was regularly relit in the same fashion. -In its simplest form the fire-drill, as the apparatus has been -appropriately named by Professor E. B. Tylor, consists of two sticks, -the one furnished with a point and the other with a hole. The point of -the one stick is inserted into the hole of the other, which is laid flat -on the ground, while the operator holds the pointed stick upright in -position and twirls it rapidly between his hands till the rubbing of the -two sticks against each other produces sparks and at last a flame. - -[Sidenote: Many savages regard the two sticks of the fire-drill as male -and female, and the rubbing of the two together as a sexual union.] Many -savages see in this operation a resemblance to the union of the sexes, -and have accordingly named the pointed stick the man and the holed stick -the woman. Thus we are told that among the Thompson Indians of British -Columbia “fire was obtained by means of the fire-drill, which consisted -of two dried sticks, each over a foot in length, and rounded off to less -than an inch in diameter. One stick was sharpened at one end; while the -other was marked with a couple of notches close to each other—one on the -side, and the other on top. The sharpened end of the first stick was -placed in the top notch of the other stick, and turned rapidly between -the straightened palms of both hands. The heat thus produced by the -friction of the sticks caused sparks to fall down the side notch upon -tinder placed underneath, which, when it commenced to smoke, was taken -in the hands, and blown upon until fanned into a flame. The tinder was -dry grass, the shredded dry bark of the sagebrush, or cedar-bark. The -sharpened stick was called the ‘man,’ and was made of black-pine root, -tops of young yellow pine, heart of yellow-pine cones, service-berry -wood, etc. The notched stick was called the ‘woman,’ and was generally -made of poplar-root. However, many kinds of wood were used for this -purpose. When hot ashes or a spark fell upon the tinder, they said, ‘The -woman has given birth.’”[685] The Hopi Indians kindle fire ceremonially -by the friction of two sticks, which are regarded respectively as male -and female. The female stick has a notch in it and is laid flat on the -floor; the point of the male stick is inserted in the notch of the -female stick and is made to revolve rapidly by twirling the stick -between the hands. Pollen is added as a male symbol, and the spark is -caught in a tinder of shredded cedar bark.[686] The Urabunna tribe of -Central Australia, who also make fire by means of the fire-drill, call -the upright piece “the child-stick,” while they give to the horizontal -or notched piece the name of “the mother-stick” or “the mother of the -fire.”[687] So in the Murray Islands, Torres Straits, the upright stick -is called the child (_werem_), and the horizontal stick the mother -(_apu_). In Mabuiag, Torres Straits, on the other hand, the vertical -stick is known as the male organ (_ini_), and the horizontal stick as -the hole (_sakai_).[688] - -[Sidenote: The fire-drill among the Arabs.] “The ancient Bedouins -kindled fire by means of the fire-drill, which was composed of a -horizontal stick, the _zenda_, and an upright stick, the _zend_. The -science of language furnishes us with many parallels for this mode of -regarding the two parts as male and female; the two parts of the lock -are distinguished in like manner; the spark is then the child, _tifl_; -compare also our German _Schraubenmutter_, _Muttergewinde_. The sticks -for making fire by friction are not taken from the same tree; on the -contrary, they choose one as hard and tough as possible, and the other -soft, which allows the hard one to fit into it more easily and catches -fire the quicker on account of its loose texture. The soft wood was -naturally the horizontal stick, the _zenda_, which the Arabs made out of -_Calotropis procera_ (_’oshar_), while for the upright stick they used a -hard branch of _markh_.”[689] - -[Sidenote: The fire-drill in Africa.] The Ngumbu of South Cameroons, in -West Africa, formerly made fire by rubbing two sticks against each -other. Of the sticks the one, called the male _nschio_, was put into a -hole of the other, which was called the female _nschio_.[690] In East -Africa the Masai men make fire by drilling a hole in a flat piece of -wood with a hard pointed stick. They say that the hard pointed stick is -a man and that the flat piece of wood is his wife. The former is cut -from _Ficus sycomorus_ and _Ekebergia sp._, the latter from any fibrous -tree, such as _Kigelia africana_, _Cordia ovalis_, or _Acacia albida_. -The women get their fire from the one which has thus been kindled by the -men.[691] The Nandi similarly produce fire by rapidly drilling a hard -pointed stick into a small hole in a flat piece of soft wood. The hard -stick is called the male (_kirkit_) and the piece of soft wood the -female (_kôket_). Among the Nandi, as apparently among the Masai, -fire-making is an exclusive privilege of the men of the tribe.[692] The -Baganda of Central Africa also made fire by means of the fire-drill; -they called the upright stick the male, and the horizontal stick the -female.[693] Among the Bantu tribes of south-eastern Africa, “when the -native Africans use special fire, either in connection with sacrifice or -the festival of first-fruits, it is produced by a doctor, and in the -following manner:—Two sticks, made of the _Uzwati_ tree, and called the -‘husband and wife,’ are given to him by the chief. These sticks are -prepared by the magicians, and are the exclusive property of the chief, -the ‘wife’ being the shorter of the two. The doctor cuts a piece off -each stick, and proceeds to kindle fire in the usual manner, by -revolving the one rapidly between the palms of his hands, while its end -rests in a small hollow dug in the side of the other. After he has -obtained fire, he gives it to his attendant, who gets the pots in order, -and everything ready for cooking the newly-reaped fruits. The sticks are -handed back to the chief by the doctor—no other hand must touch them—and -put away till they are required next season. They are regarded as in a -measure sacred, and no one, except the chief’s personal servant, may go -to the side of the hut where they are kept. After being repeatedly used -for fire-making, the doctor disposes of what remains, and new ones are -made and consecrated by the magician. A special pot is used for the -preparation of the feast, and no other than it may be set on a fire -produced from the ‘husband and wife.’ When the feast is over, the fire -is carefully extinguished, and the pot placed along with the sticks, -where it remains untouched for another year.”[694] But even for the -purposes of daily life these tribes still kindle fire in this manner, if -they happen to be without matches. “A native takes two special sticks, -made of a light wood. One of these he points: this is called the male -stick. He then makes a conical hole in the centre of the other stick, -which is called the female. Placing the female stick on the ground, he -holds it firmly by his feet—a native finds no difficulty in this, as he -can easily pick things off the ground with his toes if his hands are -full. He then places the pointed stick into the conical hole, and slowly -twirls the male stick between his hands. He does this while using a good -deal of pressure, and the wood becomes powdered, lying round the -revolving point in a little heap of dust. When he thinks he has made -sufficient of the wood dust, he twirls the stick very fast, and in a -moment the powder bursts into flame, which he uses to set fire to some -dried grass.”[695] - -[Sidenote: Fire-customs of the Herero.] The Damaras or Herero of -Damaraland, in south-western Africa, maintain sacred fires in their -villages, and their customs and beliefs in this respect present a close -resemblance to the Roman worship of Vesta. Fortunately the Herero -fire-worship has been described by a number of independent witnesses, -and as their accounts agree substantially with each other, we may assume -that they are correct. The people are a tall, finely-built race of -nomadic herdsmen belonging to the Bantu stock, who seem to have migrated -into their present country from the north and east about a hundred and -fifty or two hundred years ago. The desert character of the country and -its seclusion from the outer world long combined to preserve the -primitive manners of the inhabitants.[696] In their native state the -Herero are a purely pastoral people, possessing [Sidenote: The Herero a -pastoral people.] immense herds of cattle and flocks of sheep and goats, -which are the pride and joy of their hearts, almost their idols. They -subsist chiefly on the milk of their herds, which they commonly drink -sour. Of the flesh they make but little use, for they seldom kill any of -their cattle, and never a cow, a calf, or a lamb. Even oxen and weathers -are only slaughtered on solemn and festal occasions, such as visits, -burials, and the like. Such slaughter is a great event in a village, and -young and old flock from far and near to partake of the meat.[697] Their -huts are of a round [Sidenote: Huts and villages of the Herero.] beehive -shape, about ten feet in diameter. The framework consists of stout -branches, of which the lower ends are rammed into the ground, while the -upper ends are bent together and tied with bark. A village is composed -of a number of these round huts arranged in a circle about the calves’ -pen as a centre and surrounded by an artificial hedge of -thorn-bushes.[698] At night the cattle are driven in through the hedge -and take up their quarters in the open space round the calves’ pen.[699] - -[Sidenote: Sacred fire of the Herero village maintained in or before the -hut of the chief’s principal wife.] The hut of the great or principal -wife of the chief, built and furnished in a more elaborate style than -the rest, regularly stands to the east of the calves’ pen, in the -direction of sunrise, so that from its position we can always learn -approximately the season of the year when the village was founded. The -chief or headman of the village has no special hut of his own; he passes -the day in the hut of the great wife, and the night commonly in one of -the huts of his other wives in the northern semicircle. Between the -house of the great wife and the calves’ pen, but somewhat nearer to the -pen, is a large heap of ashes on which, in good weather, a small, -faintly glimmering fire may be seen to burn at any time of the day. The -heap of ashes is the sacred hearth (_okuruo_); the fire is the holy fire -(_omurangere_ or _omurangerero_) of the village. The open space between -the sacred hearth and the house of the great wife is known as the holy -ground or the holy house (_otyizero_).[700] Betwixt the hearth and the -calves’ fold stands a great withered branch of the _omumborombonga_ -(_Combretum primigenum_), the sacred tree of the Herero, from which they -believe that both they and their cattle are descended. When a branch of -this tree cannot be obtained its place is taken by a bough of the -_omwapu_ tree (_Grevia spec._)[701] At night and in rainy weather the -fire is transferred to the hut of the great wife, where it is carefully -kept alight.[702] According to another account, the fire is regularly -preserved in the house, and a brand is only brought out into the open -air when the cattle are being milked at morning and evening in order -that in presence of the fire the cow may be healthy and give much -milk.[703] The custom in this respect perhaps varies in different -villages, and may be determined in some measure by the climate. The -sacred fire is regarded as the centre of the village; from it at evening -the people fetch a light to kindle the fire on their own hearths, for -every householder has his own private hearth in front of his hut. At the -holy hearth are kept the most sacred possessions of the tribe, to wit, -the bundle of sticks which represent their ancestors; here sacrifices -are offered and enchantments performed; here the flesh of the victims is -cooked; here is the proper place of the chief; here the elders assemble -in council, and judgment is given; here strangers are received and -ambassadors entertained. At the banquets held on solemn occasions all -may partake of the flesh, whether they be friends or foes; the -stranger’s curse would rest on the churl who should refuse him his just -share; and this curse the Herero dreads above everything because he -believes its effect to be infallible. So great is the veneration felt by -the natives for the sacred hearth, with its hallowed bough, that they -dare not approach it without testifying the deepest respect. They take -off their sandals, throw themselves on the ground, and pray their great -ancestor (_Tate Mukuru_) to be gracious to them. The horns of the oxen -slaughtered at festivals lie beside the hearth; the chief sits on the -largest pair when he is engaged in performing his magical rites. Near -the fire, too, is a stone on which none but the chief has the right to -sit.[704] - -[Sidenote: The sacred fire among the Herero is watched and fed by -the chief’s eldest unmarried daughter, who performs other priestly -duties.] The duty of maintaining the sacred fire and preserving it -from extinction is entrusted to the eldest unmarried daughter of -the chief by his great wife; if he has no daughter, the task -devolves on the unmarried girl who is next of kin to him. She -bears the title of _ondangere_, derived from the name of the -sacred fire (_omurangere_).[705] Besides keeping up the fire she -has other priestly functions to discharge. Before the men start on -a dangerous expedition, she rubs the holy ashes on their -foreheads.[706] When a woman brings her new-born infant to the -sacred hearth to receive its name, the maiden priestess or Vestal, -as we may call her, sprinkles water on both mother and child.[707] -Every morning, when the cattle walk out of the fold, she -besprinkles the fattest of them with a brush dipped in water.[708] -When an ox dies by accident at the village, she lays a piece of -wood on its back, praying at the same time for long life, plenty -of cattle, and so forth. Moreover, she ties a double knot in her -apron for the dead beast, for a curse would follow if she -neglected to do so.[709] Lastly, when the site of the village is -changed, the priestess walks at the head of the people and of the -herds, carrying a firebrand from the old sacred hearth and taking -the utmost care to keep it alight.[710] - -The chief or headman of the village is also the priest; [Sidenote: The -Herero chief acts as a priest.] he alone may perform religious -ceremonies except such as fall within the province of the Vestal -priestess, his daughter. In his capacity of priest he keeps the sacred -bundle of sticks which represent the ancestors, and at sacrifices he -offers meat to them that they may consecrate it. When the old village is -abandoned, it is his duty to carry, like Aeneas quitting the ruins of -Troy,[711] these rude penates to the new home. However, it is deemed -enough if he merely places the holy bundle on his back, and then hands -it to a servant, who carries it for him. As a priest he introduces the -newborn children to the spirits of the ancestors at the sacred hearth, -and gives the infants their names; and as a priest he has a cow to -himself, whose milk no one else may drink. This milk is kept in vessels -which differ from the ordinary milk vessels, not only in shape and size, -but also in being marked with the badge of his paternal clan. When a man -goes forth from the village with his family and servants to herd the -cattle on a distant pasture, or to found another village, he takes with -him a burning brand from the sacred hearth wherewith to kindle the holy -fire in his new home. By [Sidenote: Fire taken from the chief’s hearth -by the founder of a new village.] doing so he acknowledges himself the -vassal of the chief from whose hearth he took the fire. In this way a -single village may give out swarm after swarm, till it has become the -metropolis or capital of a whole group of villages, the inhabitants of -which recognise the supremacy of the parent community, and regard -themselves as all sitting round its sacred fire. It is thus that a -village may grow into a tribe and its headman into a powerful chief, -who, by means of marriage alliances and the adhesion of weaker rivals, -may extend his sway over alien communities, and so gradually acquire the -rank and authority of a king.[712] The political evolution of the Herero -has indeed stopped short of this final stage; but among the more -advanced branches of the Bantu race, such as the Zulus and the -Matabeles, it is possible that the kingship has developed along these -lines. - -[Sidenote: The combined office of chief and priest among the Herero -descends in the male line.] The possession of the sacred fire and of the -ancestral sticks, carrying with it both political authority and priestly -dignity, descends in the male line, and hence generally passes from -father to son. In any case, whether the deceased had a son or not, the -double office of chief and priest must always remain in his paternal -clan (_oruzo_). If it should happen that the clan becomes extinct by his -death, the [Sidenote: A chief’s sacred hearth abandoned for some time -after his death.] sacred fire is put out, the hearth destroyed, no brand -is taken from it, and the sticks representing the ancestors are laid -with the dead man in the grave. But should there be an heir, as usually -happens, he takes a fire-brand from the sacred hearth and departs with -all the people to seek a new home, abandoning the old village for years. -In time, however, they return to the spot, rebuild the huts on the same -sites, and inhabit them again. But in the interval none of the kinsmen -of the deceased may approach the deserted village under pain of -incurring the wrath of the ghost. When the return at last takes place, -and the people have announced their arrival to the dead chief at his -grave, which is generally in the cattle-pen, they make a new fire by the -friction of the two sacred fire-sticks on the old hearth; for it is not -lawful to bring with them a brand from their last settlement.[713] - -[Sidenote: The sacred Herero fire rekindled by the fire-drill.] If the -sacred fire should go out through the neglect of the priestess, a sudden -shower of rain, or any other accident, the Herero deem it a very evil -omen. The whole tribe is immediately summoned and large offerings of -cattle are made as an expiation. Then the fire is relit by means of the -friction of two sacred fire-sticks, which have been handed down from -father to son. Every chief possesses such fire-sticks, and keeps them -tied up with the bundle of holy sticks that represent the ancestors. One -of the fire-sticks is pointed, the other has a hole in the middle, and -sometimes also a notch cut round it. In the notch some fungus or rotten -wood is placed as tinder. The holed stick is held fast on the ground by -the knees of the operator, who inserts the point of the other stick in -the hole and twirls it rapidly between the palms of his hands in the -usual way. As soon as a spark is emitted it catches the tinder, which -can then easily be blown up into a flame. Thus it is from the tinder, we -are told, and not from the sticks, that the flame is elicited. In this -fashion, if everything is very dry, as it generally is in Hereroland, -the native gets fire in about a minute. The names applied to the two -sticks indicate that the pointed stick (_ondume_) is regarded as male -and the holed stick (_otyiya_) as female, and that the process of making -fire by the friction of the two is compared to the intercourse of the -sexes. As to the wood of which the fire-sticks are made accounts differ. -According to Dr. H. Schinz the holed or female stick is of a soft wood, -the pointed or male stick of a hard wood, generally of the [Sidenote: -The male fire-stick made of the sacred _omumborombonga_ tree.] sacred -_omumborombonga_ tree (_Combretum primigenum_). According to Mr. C. G. -Büttner, neither of the sticks need be of a special tree, and any wood -that happens to be at hand may be employed for the purpose; only the -wood of the thorny acacias, which abound in the country, appears to be -unsuitable.[714] Probably the rule mentioned by Dr. Schinz is the -original one, and if in some places the wood of the sacred tree has -ceased to be used to light the holy fire, the reason may be simply that -the tree does not grow there, and that accordingly the people are -obliged to use such wood as they can find. We have seen that a branch of -the sacred _omumborombonga_ tree is regularly planted beside the village -hearth, but that in default of it the people have to put up with a bough -of another kind of tree, the _omuwapu_ (_Grevia spec_).[715] Such -substitutions were especially apt to be forced on the Herero in the -southern part of the country, where the _omumborombonga_ tree is very -rare and forests do not exist, the larger trees growing singly or in -clumps. In the north, on the other hand, vegetation is much richer, and -regular woods are to be found. Here, in particular, the _omumborombonga_ -tree is one of the ornaments of the landscape. It grows only beside -water-courses, and generally stands solitary, surpassing a tall oak in -height, and rivalling it in girth; indeed, so thick is the trunk that -were it hollowed out a family could lodge in it. Unlike most trees in -the country it is thornless. Whole forests of it grow to the eastward of -Hereroland, in the direction of Lake Ngami. So close is the grain and so -heavy the wood that some of the early explorers gave it the name of the -“iron tree.”[716] Hence it is well adapted to form the upright stick of -the fire-drill, for which a hard wood is required. - -[Sidenote: Herero tradition of the origin of men and cattle from the -sacred _omumborombonga_ tree.] The Herero have a tradition that in the -beginning they and their cattle and all four-footed beasts came forth -from the _omumborombonga_ tree in a single day, whereas birds, fish, and -creeping things sprang from the rain. However, slightly different -versions of the Herero genesis appear to be current. As to the origin of -men and cattle from the tree, public opinion is unanimous; but some -dissenters hold that sheep and perhaps goats, but certainly sheep, -issued from a flat rock in the north of the country. For some time past, -unfortunately, the tree has ceased to be prolific; it is of no use -waiting beside it in the hope of capturing such oxen and sheep as it -might bear. Yet still the Herero testify great respect for the tree -which they regard as their ancestor (_omukuru_). To injure it is deemed -a sacrilege which the ancestor will punish sooner or later. In passing -it they bow reverently and stick a bunch of green twigs or grass into -the trunk or throw it down at the foot. They address the tree, saying, -“_U-zera tate mukururume_, Thou art holy, grandfather!” and they even -enter into conversation with it, giving the answers themselves in a -changed voice. They hardly dare to sit down in its shadow. All this -reverence they display for every tree of the species.[717] - -[Sidenote: Migration from one country to another sometimes involves a -change of sacred tree.] On the whole, then, we may infer that so long as -the Herero dwelt in a land where their ancestral tree abounded, they -made the male fire-stick from its wood; but that as they gradually -migrated from a region of tropical rains and luxuriant forests to the -arid mountains, open grass lands, and dry torrid climate of their -present country,[718] they had in some places to forgo its use and to -take another tree in its stead. Similarly the Aryan invaders of Greece -and Italy were obliged, under a southern sky, to seek substitutes for -the sacred oak of their old northern home; and more and more, as time -went on and the deciduous woods retreated up the mountain slopes, they -found what they sought in the laurel, the olive, and the vine. Zeus -himself had to put up with the white poplar at his great sanctuary of -Olympia in the hot lowlands of Elis;[719] and on summer days, when the -light leaves of the poplar hardly stirred in the languid air and the -buzz of the flies was more than usually exasperating, he perhaps looked -wistfully away to the Arcadian mountains, looming blue in the distance -through a haze of heat, and sighed for the shadow and the coolness of -their oak woods. - -[Sidenote: The worship of the chief’s fire a form of ancestor-worship.] -Thus it appears that the sanctity ascribed by the Herero to the chief’s -fire springs from a custom of kindling it with the wood of their -ancestral tree; in fact, the cult of the fire resolves itself into a -form of ancestor-worship. For the religion of the Herero, like that of -all Bantu peoples, is first and foremost a propitiation of the spirits -of their forefathers conceived as powerful beings able and willing to -harm them. From youth to death the Herero live in constant dread of -their ancestors (_ovakuru_, plural of _omukuru_), who, sometimes seen -and sometimes unseen, return to earth and play their descendants many a -spiteful trick. They glide into the village, steal the milk, drive the -cattle from the fold, and waylay women. More than that, they can inflict -disease and death, decide the issue of war, and send or withhold rain at -pleasure. They are the cause of every vexation and misfortune, and the -whole aim of the living is by frequent sacrifices to mollify and appease -the dead.[720] - -[Sidenote: The sacred hearth a special seat of the ancestral spirits.] -Now the sacred hearth seems to be in a special sense the seat of the -worship paid to the ancestral spirits. Here the head of the family sits -and communes with his forefather, giving himself the answers he thinks -fit.[721] Hither the newborn child is brought with its mother to be -introduced to the spirits and to receive its name, and the chief, -addressing his ancestors, announces, “To you a child is born in your -village; may this village never come to an end!”[722] Hither the bride -is conducted at her marriage, and a sheep having been sacrificed, its -flesh is placed on the holy bushes at the hearth.[723] Hither the sick -are carried to be commended to the care of their ghostly kinsmen, and as -the sufferer is borne round and round the fire his friends chant:— - - “_See, Father, we have come here, - With this sick man to you, - That he may soon recover._”[724] - -[Sidenote: Sacred sticks representing the deceased ancestors of the -Herero.] But the most tangible link between the worship of the fire and -the worship of the dead is furnished by the sacred sticks representing -the ancestors, which are kept in a bundle together with the two sticks -used for kindling the fire by friction. Each of these rude idols or -Lares, as we may call them, “symbolises a definite ancestor of the -paternal clan, and, taken together, they may be regarded as the most -sacred possession of a family. They stand in the closest relation to the -holy hearth, or rather to the priestly dignity, and must therefore -always remain in the same paternal clan.”[725] These sticks “are cut -from trees or bushes which are dedicated to the ancestors, and they -represent the ancestors at the sacrificial meals, for the cooked flesh -of the victims is always set before them first. Many people always keep -these sticks, tied up in a bundle with straps and hung with amulets, in -the branches of the sacrificial bushes which stand on the sacred hearth -(_okuruo_). The sacrificial bush serves to support the severed pieces of -the victim, and thus in a measure represents an altar or table of -sacrifice.”[726] When after an absence of years the people return to a -village where a chief died and was buried, a new fire is kindled by -friction on the old hearth, the flesh of the first animal slaughtered -here is cooked in a particular vessel, and the chief hands a portion of -it to every person present. “An image, consisting of two pieces of wood, -supposed to represent the household deity, or rather the deified parent, -is then produced, and moistened in the platter of each individual. The -chief then takes the image, and, after affixing a piece of meat to the -upper end of it, he plants it in the ground, on the identical spot where -his parent was accustomed to sacrifice. The first pail of milk produced -from the cattle is also taken to the grave; a small quantity is poured -on the ground, and a blessing asked on the remainder.” Each clan, the -writer adds, has a particular tree or shrub consecrated to it, and of -this tree or shrub the two sticks representing the deceased are -made.[727] - -[Sidenote: The sacred sticks representing the ancestors are probably the -fire-sticks which were used to kindle fresh fire in the village after a -death.] In these accounts the sacred sticks which stand for the -ancestors, and to which the meat of sacrifices is first offered, are -distinguished, expressly or implicitly, from the sacred sticks which are -used to make the holy fire.[728] Other writers, however, identify the -two sets of sticks. Thus we are told that the Herero “make images of -their ancestors as follows. They take the two sticks with which they -make fire and tie them together with a fresh wisp of corn. Then they -worship this object as their ancestor. They may approach it only on -their knees. For hours together they sit before it and talk with it. If -you ask them where they imagine their ancestors to be, since they cannot -surely be these sticks, they answer that they do not know. The sticks -are kept in the house of the great wife.”[729] Again, another writer -defines the _ondume_ or male fire-stick as a “stick representing an -_omukuru_, _i.e._ ancestor, deity, with which and the _otyiza_ the holy -fire is made.”[730] Again, the Rev. G. Viehe, in describing the -ceremonies observed at the return to a deserted village where an -ancestor (_omukuru_) is buried, tells us that they bring no fire with -them, “but holy fire must now be obtained from the _omukuru_. This is -done with the _ondume_ and the _otyiza_. The meaning of these two words -plainly shows that the first represents the _omukuru_, and the other his -wife.”[731] The same excellent authority defines the _ozondume_ as -“sticks which represent the _ovakuru_, _i.e._ ancestors, deities”;[732] -and _ozondume_ is simply the plural of _ondume_, the male -fire-stick.[733] Hence it appears highly probable that the sticks -representing the ancestors are, in fact, nothing but the male -fire-sticks, each of which was cut to make a new fire on the return to -the old village after a chiefs death. The stick would be an appropriate -emblem of the deceased, who had been in his lifetime the owner of the -sacred fire, and who now after his death bestowed it on his descendants -by means of the friction of his wooden image. And the symbolism will -appear all the more natural when we remember that the male fire-stick is -generally made from the ancestral tree, that the process of fire-making -is regarded by the Herero as the begetting of a child, and that their -name for the stick, according to the most probable etymology, signifies -“the begetter.” Such sticks would be far too sacred to be thrown away -when they had served their immediate purpose of kindling a new fire, and -thus in time a whole bundle of them would accumulate, each of them -recalling, and in a sense representing, one of the great forefathers of -the tribe. When the old sticks had ceased to be used as fire-lighters, -and were preserved merely as memorials of the dead, it is not surprising -that their original function should be overlooked by some European -observers, who have thus been led to distinguish them from the sticks by -which the fire is actually produced at the present day.[734] Amongst the -[Sidenote: Sacred fire-boards among the Koryaks and Chuckchees of -north-eastern Asia.] Koryaks of north-eastern Asia, when the sacred -fire-boards, roughly carved in human form, are so full of holes that -they can no longer be used for the purpose of kindling fire, they are -still kept as holy relics in a shrine near the door of the house; and a -stranger who observed the respect with which they are treated, but who -did not know their history, might well mistake them for figures of -worshipful ancestors and never guess the practical purpose which they -once served as fire-lighters. A Koryak family regards its sacred -fire-board not only as the deity of the household fire, the guardian of -the family hearth, but also as the guardian of the reindeer, and they -call it the “master of the herd.” It is supposed to protect the reindeer -from wolves and from sickness and to prevent the animals from straying -away and being lost. When a reindeer is slaughtered, the sacred -fire-board is taken out and smeared with the blood. The maritime -Koryaks, who do not live by reindeer, regard the sacred fire-board as -the master of the underground house and the helper in the hunt of -sea-mammals. They call it “father” and feed it from time to time with -fat, which they smear on its mouth.[735] Among the neighbouring -Chuckchees in the north-eastern extremity of Asia similar ideas and -customs obtain in respect of the fire-boards. These are roughly carved -in human form and personified, almost deified, as the supernatural -guardians of the reindeer. The holes made by drilling in the board are -deemed the eyes of the figure and the squeaking noise produced by the -friction of the fire-drill in the hole is thought to be its voice. At -every sacrifice the mouth of the figure is greased with tallow or with -the marrow of bones. When a new fire-board is made, it is consecrated by -being smeared with the blood of a slaughtered reindeer, and the owner -says, “Enough! Take up your abode here!” Then the other fire-boards are -brought to the same place and set side by side on the ground. The owner -says, “Ho! these are your companions. See that I always find easily -every kind of game!” Next he slaughters another reindeer and says, “Hi! -Since you are one of my young men, go and drive the herd hither!” Then -after a pause he asks the fire-board, “Have you brought it?” to which in -the name of the fire-board he answers, “I have.” Thereupon, speaking in -his own person, he says, “Then catch some reindeer! It seems that you -will keep a good watch over the herd. There, from the actual chief of -the fire-boards, you may learn wisdom.” These sacred fire-boards are -often handed down from generation to generation as family heir-looms. -During the calving-season they are taken from their bag and placed -behind the frame in the outer tent in order that they may protect the -dams.[736] - -[Sidenote: The evolution of a fire-god or fire-goddess.] These Koryak -and Chuckchee customs illustrate the evolution of a fire-god into the -patron deity of a family and his representation in human form by the -board which is used in fire-making. As the fire-board is that part of -the kindling apparatus which is commonly regarded as female in -contradistinction to the drill, which is regarded as male, we can easily -understand why the deity of the fire should sometimes, as at Rome, be -conceived as a goddess rather than as a god; whereas if the drill itself -were viewed as the essential part of the apparatus we should expect to -find a fire-god and not a fire-goddess. - -Footnote 683: - - Festus, _s.v._ “Ignis,” p. 106, ed. C. O. Müller: “_Ignis Vestae si - quando interstinctus esset, virgines verberibus afficiebantur a - pontifice, quibus mos erat tabulam felicis materiae tamdiu terebrare, - quousque exceptum ignem cribro aeneo virgo in aedem ferret_.” In this - passage it is not clear whether _quibus_ refers to the virgins alone - or to the virgins and the pontiff together; but the strict grammatical - construction is in favour of the latter interpretation. The point is - not unimportant, as we shall see presently. From a passage of Plutarch - (_Numa_, 9) it has sometimes been inferred that the Vestal fire was - rekindled by sunlight reflected from a burning-glass. But in this - passage Plutarch is describing a Greek, not a Roman, mode of making - fire, as has been rightly pointed out by Professor M. H. Morgan (“De - ignis eliciendi modis apud antiquos,” _Harvard Studies in Classical - Philology_, i. (1890) pp. 56 _sqq._). In this memoir Professor Morgan - has collected and discussed the passages of Greek and Latin writers - which refer to the kindling of fire. - -Footnote 684: - - See E. B. Tylor, _Early History of Mankind_, 3rd Ed., pp. 238 _sqq._ - More evidence might easily be given. See, for example, J. Dawson, - _Australian Aborigines_, pp. 15 _sq._; C. Lumholtz, _Among Cannibals_, - p. 191; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, pp. - 770-773; Maximilian Prinz zu Wied-Newied, _Reise nach Brasilien_, ii. - 18 _sq._; E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_, pp. 257-259; - K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens_, pp. - 223 _sqq._; H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North - Borneo_, i. 375 _sqq._; A. Maass, _Bei liebenswürdigen Wilden, ein - Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Mentawai-Insulaner_ (Berlin, 1902), pp. 114, - 116; Mgr. Le Roy, “Les Pygmées,” _Missions Catholiques_, xxix. (1897), - p. 137; E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_ (Madras, - 1906), pp. 464-470; W. A. Reed, _Negritos of Zambales_ (Manila, 1904), - p. 40. - -Footnote 685: - - J. Teit, “The Thompson Indians of British Columbia,” pp. 203, 205 - (_Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North - Pacific Expedition_, vol. i. part 4). - -Footnote 686: - - J. Walter Fewkes, “The Lesser New-fire Ceremony at Walpi,” _American - Anthropologist_, N.S. iii. (1901) p. 445. - -Footnote 687: - - Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 621. - -Footnote 688: - - For this information I am indebted to Mr. S. H. Ray. - -Footnote 689: - - G. Jacob, _Altarabisches Beduineneben_ 2nd Ed., (Berlin, 1897), p. 91. - In his _Arabic-English Lexicon_, book i. p. 1257, E. W. Lane gives the - following account of the subject: “_zand_, a piece of stick or wood, - for producing fire; the upper one of the two pieces of stick, or wood, - with which fire is produced: ... and _zanda_ is the appellation of the - lower one thereof, in which is the notch or hollow, or in which is a - hole.... One end of the _zand_ is put into the _fard_ (notch) of the - _zanda_, and the _zand_ is then rapidly twirled round in producing - fire.... The best kind of _zand_ is made of _’afār_ and the best kind - of _zanda_ of _markh_.” It will be observed that the two writers - differ as to _markh_ wood, Jacob saying that it is used to make the - upright (male) stick, and Lane that it is used to make the horizontal - (female) stick. My learned friend Professor A. A. Bevan, who directed - my attention to both passages and transliterated for me the Arabic - words in Lane, has kindly consulted the original authorities on this - point and informs me that Lane is right. - -Footnote 690: - - L. Concradt, “Die Ngumbu in Südkamerun,” _Globus_, lxxxi, (1902) p. - 354. - -Footnote 691: - - A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), p. 342. - -Footnote 692: - - A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 85. - -Footnote 693: - - Letter of the Rev. J. Roscoe, dated Mengo, Uganda, 3rd August 1904. - -Footnote 694: - - J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_ 2nd Ed., (London, 1890), pp. 216 _sq._ - -Footnote 695: - - Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), pp. 51 _sq._ - -Footnote 696: - - J. Irle, _Die Herero_ (Gütersloh, 1906), pp. 49 _sqq._, 53 _sqq._ - Compare Josaphat Hahn, “Die Ovaherero,” _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft - für Erdkunde zu Berlin_, iv. (1869) pp. 227 _sqq._; H. Schinz, - _Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika_ (Oldenburg and Leipsic, N.D.), pp. 142 _sq._; - E. Dannert, _Zum Rechte der Herero_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 1 _sqq._ The - people call themselves _Ovaherero_ (plural); the singular form is - _Omuherero_. The name Damaras was given them by the English and Dutch. - Under the influence of the missionaries most of the heathen customs - described in the text seem now to have disappeared. See P. H. - Brincker, “Character, Sitten, und Gebräuche, speciell der Bantu - Deutsch-Südwest-afrikas,” _Mittheilungen des Seminars für - Orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin_, iii. (1900) Dritte Abtheilung, p. - 72. - -Footnote 697: - - C. J. Andersson, _Lake Ngami_ (London, 1856), p. 230; J. Chapman, - _Travels in the Interior of South Africa_ (London, 1868), i. 325; J. - Hahn, “Die Ovaherero,” _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu - Berlin_, iv. (1869) pp. 244-247, 250; C. J. Büttner, _Das Hinterland - von Walfischbai und Angra Pequena_ (Heidelberg, 1884), pp. 228 _sq._; - H. Schinz, _Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika_, pp. 158-161; J. Irle, _Die - Herero_, pp. 32 _sqq._, 113. - -Footnote 698: - - Francis Galton, _Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical South Africa_ - 3rd Ed., (London, 1890), p. 116; J. Hahn, _op. cit._ iv. (1869), p. - 247; H. Schinz, _op. cit._ p. 155; J. Irle, _Die Herero_, pp. 111 - _sq._ - -Footnote 699: - - H. Schinz, _op. cit._ p. 159. - -Footnote 700: - - H. Schinz, _op. cit._ pp. 155-157; compare J. Hahn, _op. cit._ iv. - (1869) p. 499; J. Irle, _Die Herero_, p. 78; E. Dannert, _Zum Rechte - der Herero_, pp. 4 _sq._ At first sight Dr. Schinz’s account appears - to differ slightly from that given by the Rev. G. Viehe, who says: “In - the werfts of the Ovaherero, the houses of the chief are on the - eastern side. Next to these, towards the west, follow, one after - another, the holy house (_otyizero_), the place of the holy fire - (_okuruo_), and the kraal [_i.e._ the calves’ pen] (_otyunda_); thus - the _otyizero_ is on the east, and the _otyunda_ on the west side of - the _okuruo_” (“Some Customs of the Ovaherero,” _South African - Folk-lore Journal_, i. (1879) p. 62). But it seems clear that by the - chief’s house Mr. Viehe means what Dr. Schinz calls the house of the - great wife; and that what Mr. Viehe calls the holy house is the open - space between the sacred hearth and the house of the great wife or - chief. That space is described as the holy ground by Dr. Schinz, who - uses that phrase (“_der geweihte Boden_”) as the equivalent of the - native _otyizero_. Thus the two writers are in substantial agreement - with each other. On the other hand Dr. C. H. Hahn gives the name of - _otyizero_ or sacred house to “the chief house of the chief, in front - of which is the place of the holy fire.” He adds that “the chief has - several houses, according to the number of wives, each wife having her - own hut” (_South African Folk-lore Journal_, ii. (1880) p. 62, note - 1.) The name _otyizero_ seems to be derived from _zera_, “sacred,” - “taboo.” See G. Viehe, _op. cit._ pp. 39, 41, 43; Rev. E. Dannert, in - (_South African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, ii. (1880) pp. 63, 65, 105, and - the editor’s note, _ib._ p. 93. - -Footnote 701: - - H. Schinz, _op. cit._ p. 155. - -Footnote 702: - - C. J. Andersson, _Lake Ngami_, p. 223; J. Hahn, _op. cit._ iv. (1869) - p. 500; H. Schinz, _op. cit._ p. 165. - -Footnote 703: - - H. Brincker, _Wörterbuch und kurzgefasste Grammatik des Otjiherero_ - (Leipsic, 1886), _s.v._ “_okuruo_”; _id._ “Pyrolatrie in Südafrika,” - _Globus_, lxvii. (January 1895) p. 97; Meyer, quoted by J. Kohler, - “Das Recht der Herero,” _Zeitschrift für vergleichende - Rechtswissenschaft_, xiv. (1900) p. 315. - -Footnote 704: - - J. Hahn, _op. cit._ iv. (1869) pp. 499 _sq._; Rev. H. Beiderbecke, in - (_South African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, ii. (1880) p. 84; C. G. - Büttner, “Ueber Handwerke und technische Fertigkeiten der Eingeborenen - in Damaraland,” _Ausland_, 7th July 1884, p. 522; P. H. Brincker, in - _Mittheilungen des Seminars für Orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin_, - iii. (1900) Dritte Abtheilung, p. 75; _id._, _Wörterbuch des - Otjiherero_, _s.v._ “_okuruo_”; _id._, “Pyrolatrie in Südafrika,” - _Globus_, lxvii. (January 1895) p. 97; H. Schinz, _op. cit._ p. 183; - Meyer, _l.c._ - -Footnote 705: - - C. J. Andersson, _op. cit._ p. 223; J. Hahn, _op. cit._ iv. (1869) p. - 500; Rev. E. Dannert, in (_South African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, ii. - (1880) p. 66; Rev. H. Beiderbecke, _ibid._ p. 83, note 4; C. G. - Büttner, _l.c._; H. Schinz, _op. cit._ p. 165; J. Irle, _Die Herero_, - pp. 78 _sq._; E. Dannert, _Zum Rechte der Herero_, p. 5. According to - Meyer (_l.c._) and E. Dannert (_Zum Rechte der Herero_, p. 5), if the - chief’s eldest daughter marries, the duty of tending the fire passes - to his eldest wife. This statement is at variance with all the other - testimony on the subject, and for reasons which will appear presently - I regard it as improbable. At least it can hardly represent the - original custom. - -Footnote 706: - - Rev. H. Beiderbecke, in (_South African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, ii. - (1880) p. 84. - -Footnote 707: - - Rev. E. Dannert, in (_South African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, ii. (1880) - p. 66; H. Schinz, _op. cit._ p. 168. - -Footnote 708: - - Francis Galton, _op. cit._ p. 115. - -Footnote 709: - - C. J. Andersson, _Lake Ngami_, p. 223. - -Footnote 710: - - C. J. Andersson, _l.c._; J. Hahn, _op. cit._ iv. (1869) p. 500; H. - Schinz, _op. cit._ p. 167. - -Footnote 711: - - Virgil, _Aen._ ii. 717 _sqq._, 747. - -Footnote 712: - - C. J. Andersson, _Lake Ngami_, p. 224; Rev. G. Viehe, in (_South - African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, i. (1879) p. 43; Rev. E. Dannert, in - (_South African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, ii. (1880) p. 67; C. G. - Büttner, _l.c._; H. Schinz, _op. cit._ pp. 166, 167, 186; Meyer, - quoted by J. Kohler, _op. cit._ p. 315; P. H. Brincker, in - _Mittheilungen des Seminars für Orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin_, - iii. (1900) Dritte Abtheilung, pp. 75 _sq._; J. Irle, _Die Herero_, p. - 80; E. Dannert, _Zum Rechte der Herero_ (Berlin, 1906), p. 5. - -Footnote 713: - - C. J. Andersson, _Lake Ngami_, pp. 228 _sq._; Rev. G. Viehe, _op. - cit._ i. (1879) pp. 61 _sq._; C. G. Büttner, _l.c._; H. Schinz, _op. - cit._ pp. 165, 180. The Herero have a curious twofold system of - paternal clans (_otuzo_, plural; _oruzo_, singular) and maternal clans - (_omaanda_, plural; _eanda_, singular). Every person inherits an - _oruzo_ from his father and an _eanda_ from his mother. See my - _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 357 _sqq._ - -Footnote 714: - - C. J. Andersson, _Lake Ngami_, pp. 223 _sq._; J. Hahn, _op. cit._ iv. - (1869) p. 500; Rev. G. Viehe, _op. cit._ i. (1879) pp. 39, 61; C. G. - Büttner, _l.c._; H. Brincker, _Wörterbuch des Otji-herero_, _s.vv._ - _ondume_ and _otjija_; _id._ “Character, Sitten, und Gebräuche, - speciell der Bantu Deutsch-Südwest-afrikas,” _Mittheilungen des - Seminars für Orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin_, iii. (1900) Dritte - Abtheilung, p. 75; _id._ “Pyrolatrie in Südafrika,” _Globus_, lxvii. - (January, 1895) p. 96; H. Schinz, _op. cit._ pp. 165 _sq._; J. Kohler, - _op. cit._ pp. 305, 315; J. Irle, _Die Herero_, pp. 79 _sq._ According - to Dr. Schinz, the meaning of the names applied to the fire-sticks has - been much disputed; he himself adopts the view given in the text, and - supports it by weighty reason which, taken along with analogous - designations in many other parts of the world, may be regarded as - conclusive. He tells us that _otyiza_ means _pudendum muliebre_, and - this is actually the name of the holed stick according to Mr. Viehe - (_ll.cc._), though Dr. Schinz gives _otyia_ as the name. I have - followed Dr. Brincker in accepting _otyiya_ (_otjija_) as the correct - form of the word. Further, Dr. Schinz derives _ondume_, the name of - the pointed stick, from a verb _ruma_, meaning “to have intercourse - with a woman.” Moreover, he reports that the Ai San Bushmen, near - Noihas, in the Kalahari desert, call the vertical fire-stick _tau - doro_ and the horizontal fire-stick _gai doro_, where _tau_ is the - masculine prefix and _gai_ the feminine. Finally, a Herero explained - to him the significance of the names by referring in an unmistakable - manner to the corresponding relations in the animal kingdom. That the - two sticks are regarded as male and female is positively affirmed by - Mr. Viehe, Mr. Meyer (quoted by J. Kohler), and Dr. Brincker. - -Footnote 715: - - See above, pp. 213 _sq._ Mr. G. Viehe says that the _omuwapu_ tree - “acts a very important part in almost all the religious ceremonies” of - the Herero (_op. cit._ i. 45). Probably it is only used where the - _omumborombonga_ cannot be had. - -Footnote 716: - - J. Hahn, “Das Land der Herero,” _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für - Erdkunde zu Berlin_, iii. (1868) pp. 200, 213, 214 _sq._; C. J. - Andersson, _Lake Ngami_, pp. 218, 221; _id._, _The Okavango River_ - (London, 1861), pp. 21 _sq._; H. Schinz, _op. cit._ p. 182. - -Footnote 717: - - C. J. Andersson, _Lake Ngami_, p. 221; Francis Galton, _op. cit._ p. - 115; J. Hahn, _op. cit._ iii. (1868) p. 215, iv. (1869) p. 498, note; - Rev. H. Beiderbecke, in _(South African) Folk-lore Journal_, ii. - (1880) pp. 92 _sq._; H. Schinz, _op. cit._ pp. 182 _sq._; Meyer, - quoted by J. Kohler, _op. cit._ p. 297; P. H. Brincker, in - _Mittheilungen des Seminars für Orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin_ - (1900), Dritte Abtheilung, p. 73; J. Irle, _Die Herero_, pp. 75 _sq._, - 77; E. Dannert, _Zum Rechte der Herero_, pp. 3 _sq._ - -Footnote 718: - - On the evidence for this migration see J. Chapman, _Travels in the - Interior of South Africa_, i. 325-327; J. Hahn, _op. cit._ iii. (1868) - pp. 227 _sqq._ As to the physical features and climate of Hereroland, - see J. Hahn, “Das Land der Ovaherero,” _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft - für Erdkunde zu Berlin_, iii. (1868) pp. 193 _sqq._; J. Irle, _Die - Herero_, pp. 9 _sqq._, 19 _sqq._ - -Footnote 719: - - Pausanias, v. 13. 3, v. 14. 2. On the substitution of the poplar for - the oak, see Mr. A. B. Cook in _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) pp. 297 _sq._ - -Footnote 720: - - Rev. G. Viehe, “Some Customs of the Ovaherero,” (_South African_) - _Folk-lore Journal_, i. (1879) pp. 64-66; Rev. H. Beiderbecke, in - (_South African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, ii. (1880) p. 91; H. Schinz, - _op. cit._ pp. 183 _sq._; P. H. Brincker, in _Mittheilungen des - Seminars für Orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin_, iii. (1900) Dritte - Abtheilung, pp. 89 _sq._; J. Irle, _Die Herero_, pp. 74, 75, 77. - Apparently it is only a powerful or eminent man who becomes an - _omukuru_ after his death. Or rather, perhaps, though all dead men - become _ovakuru_, only the strong and brave are feared and worshipped. - -Footnote 721: - - H. Schinz, _op. cit._ p. 183. - -Footnote 722: - - Rev. E. Dannert, “Customs of the Ovaherero at the Birth of a Child,” - (_South African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, ii. (1880) pp. 66 _sq._ Compare - Rev. G. Viehe, _op. cit._ i. (1879) p. 41; H. Schinz, _op. cit._ p. - 168. - -Footnote 723: - - Rev. G. Viehe, in (_South African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, i. (1879) pp. - 49 _sq._ - -Footnote 724: - - Rev. G. Viehe, _op. cit._ i. 51. - -Footnote 725: - - H. Schinz, _op. cit._ p. 166. Compare J. Irle, _Die Herero_, p. 77. - -Footnote 726: - - J. Hahn, _op. cit._ iv. (1869) p. 500, note. - -Footnote 727: - - C. J. Andersson, _Lake Ngami_, pp. 228 _sq._ The ceremony is described - more fully by the Rev. G. Viehe, “Some Customs of the Ovaherero,” - (_South African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, i. (1879) pp. 61 _sq._, from - whose account some of the details in the text are borrowed. - -Footnote 728: - - The distinction is made also by Mr. J. Irle. According to him, while - the fire-sticks are called _ozondume_ (plural of _ondume_), the sticks - which represent the ancestors are called _ozohongue_ and are made from - the _omuvapu_ bush. In every chief’s house there is a bundle of about - twenty of these ancestral sticks. When a chief dies, the sticks are - wrapped in a portion of the sacred bull (_omusisi_) which is - slaughtered on this occasion, and a new stick is added to the bundle. - At the same time Mr. Irle tells us that the fire-sticks (_ozondume_) - also represent the ancestors and are made like them from the _omuvapu_ - bush. See J. Irle, _Die Herero_, pp. 77, 79. - -Footnote 729: - - Bensen, quoted by J. Kohler, “Das Recht der Herero,” _Zeitschrift für - vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft_, xiv. (1900) p. 305. - -Footnote 730: - - Rev. G. Viehe, or his editor, _op. cit._ i. (1879) p. 39. The _otyiza_ - (_otyiya_) is the female fire-stick. See above, p. 218 note 1. - -Footnote 731: - - Rev. G. Viehe, in (_South African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, i. (1879) p. - 61. - -Footnote 732: - - _Ibid._ p. 43, compare p. 50. - -Footnote 733: - - J. Irle, _Die Herero_, p. 79. - -Footnote 734: - - I have assumed that the ancestral sticks, whatever their origin, - represent only men. This is plainly implied by Dr. Brincker, who tells - us that “each of these sticks represents the male member of generation - and in the Bantu sense a personality, which stands for the presence of - the deceased chief on all festive occasions and especially at - religious ceremonies” (“Character, Sitten, und Gebräuche, speciell der - Bantu Deutsch-Südwestafrikas,” _Mittheilungen des Seminars für - Orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin_, iii. (1900) Dritte Abtheilung, p. - 74). In savage society women are of too little account for their - ghosts to be commonly worshipped. Speaking of the Bantu peoples, a - writer who knows them well observes: “This lack of respect for old - women is a part of the natives’ religious system, and is connected - with their conception of a future life, in which women play a - subordinate part, their spirits not being able to cause much trouble, - and therefore not being of much account” (Dudley Kidd, _The Essential - Kafir_, p. 23). - -Footnote 735: - - W. Jochelson, “The Koryak,” pp. 32-36 (_Memoir of the American Museum - of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vi., - Leyden and New York, 1908). - -Footnote 736: - - W. Bogaras, “The Chukchee Religion,” pp. 349-353 (_Memoir of the - American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific - Expedition_, vol. vii. part ii., Leyden and New York, 1904). - - - - - CHAPTER XVI - FATHER JOVE AND MOTHER VESTA - - -[Sidenote: Similarity between the fire-customs of the Herero and the -ancient Latins.] The reader may remember that the preceding account of -the fire-customs of the Herero was introduced for the sake of comparison -with the Latin worship of Vesta. The points of similarity between the -two will now be indicated. In the first place we have seen reason to -hold that the ever-burning Vestal fire at Rome was merely a survival of -the fire on the king’s hearth. So among the Herero the sacred fire of -the village is the chief’s fire, which is kept burning or smouldering in -his house by day and by night. In Rome, as in Hereroland, the extinction -of the fire was regarded as an evil omen, which had to be expiated by -sacrifices,[737] and new fire was procured in primitive fashion by -twirling the point of one stick in the hole of another. The Roman fire -was fed with the wood of the sacred oak tree, just as the African fire -is kindled with the wood of the sacred _omumborombonga_ tree. Beside -both were kept the images of the ancestors, the Lares at Rome, the -_ozondume_ in Hereroland. The king’s house which sheltered the fire and -the images was originally in Italy what the chief’s hut still is in -Hereroland, a circular hut of osiers, not as ancient dreamers thought, -because the earth is round,[738] nor yet because a circle is the symbol -of rest, but simply because it is both easier and cheaper to build a -round hut than a square.[739] - -[Sidenote: The Roman Vestals, or some of them, appear to have been -originally the king’s daughters.] Further, in Rome the sacred fire was -tended, as it still is in Hereroland, by unmarried women, and as the -Herero priestesses are the chiefs daughters, so, we may conjecture, it -was with some at least of the Vestals among the ancient Latins. The -Roman Vestals appear to have been under the _patria potestas_ of the -king, and, in republican times, of the Pontifex Maximus, who succeeded -to some of the king’s functions.[740] But if they were under the _patria -potestas_ of the king, they must have been either his wives or -daughters; as virgins they cannot have been his wives; it remains, -therefore, that they were his daughters. Various circumstances confirm -this view. Their house at Rome, as we saw, always adjoined the Regia, -the old palace of the kings; they were treated with marks of respect -usually accorded to royalty;[741] and the most famous of all the -Vestals, the mother of Romulus, was said to be a daughter of the King of -Alba.[742] The custom of putting an unfaithful Vestal to death by -immuring her in a subterranean chamber[743] may have been adopted in -order to avoid the necessity of taking the life of a princess by -violence;[744] for, as we shall learn later on, there is a very -widespread reluctance to spill royal blood. - -[Sidenote: Rites performed by the Vestals for the fertility of the earth -and the fecundity of cattle.] Amongst the Herero the chief’s daughter -who tends the holy fire has also to perform certain priestly rites, -which have for their object the prosperity and multiplication of the -cattle.[745] So, too, it was with the Roman Vestals. On the fifteenth of -April every year pregnant cows were sacrificed to the Earth goddess; the -unborn calves were torn from their mothers’ wombs, the chief Vestal -burned them and kept their ashes for use at the shepherds’ festival of -the Parilia. This sacrifice of pregnant cows was a fertility charm -designed, by a curious application of homoeopathic magic, to quicken -both the seed in the ground and the wombs of the cows and the ewes.[746] -At the Parilia, held on the twenty-first of April, the Vestals mixed the -ashes of the unborn calves with the blood of a horse which had been -sacrificed in October, and this mixture they distributed to shepherds, -who fumigated their flocks with it as a means of ensuring their -fecundity and a plentiful supply of milk.[747] - -[Sidenote: The Vestals were probably regarded as embodiments of Vesta, -who was a mother-goddess, the bestower of offspring on cattle and -women.] Strange as at first it may seem to find holy virgins assisting -in operations intended to promote the fertility of the earth and of -cattle, this reproductive function accords perfectly with the view that -they were of old the wives of the fire-god and the mothers of kings. On -that view, also, we can understand why down to imperial times the -Vestals adored the male emblem of generation,[748] and why Vesta -herself, the goddess of whom they were the priestesses and probably the -embodiments, was worshipped by the Romans not as a virgin but as a -mother.[749] She was sometimes identified with Venus.[750] Like Diana, -with whom she was identified at Nemi, she appears to have been a goddess -of fecundity, who bestowed offspring both on cattle and on women. That -she was supposed to multiply cattle is indicated by the ceremonies which -the Vestals performed in April; that she made women to be mothers is -hinted at not obscurely by the legends of the birth of the old Latin -kings.[751] The ancient Aryan practice of leading a bride thrice round -the hearth of her new home[752] may have been intended not merely to -introduce her to the ancestral spirits who had their seats there, but -also to promote conception, perhaps by allowing one of these very -spirits to enter into her and be born again. When the ancient Hindoo -bridegroom led his bride round the fire, he addressed the fire-god -[Sidenote: Custom of leading a bride round the fire perhaps a fertility -charm.] Agni with the words, “Mayst thou give back, Agni, to the husband -the wife together with offspring.”[753] When a Slavonian bride enters -her husband’s house after marriage she is led thrice round the hearth; -then she must stir the fire with the poker, saying, “As many sparks -spring up, so many cattle, so many male children shall enliven the new -home.”[754] At Mostar, in Herzegovina, the bride seats herself on a bag -of fruit beside the hearth in her new home and pokes the fire thrice. -While she does so, they bring her a small boy and set him on her lap. -She turns the child thrice round in order that she may give birth to -male children.[755] Still more clearly does belief in the impregnation -of a woman by fire come out in another South Slavonian custom. When a -wife wishes to have a child, she will hold a vessel full of water beside -the fire on the hearth, while her husband knocks two burning brands -together so that the sparks fly out. When some of them have fallen into -the vessel, the woman drinks the water which has thus been fertilised by -the fire.[756] The same belief seems still to linger in England; for -there is a Lincolnshire saying that if a woman’s apron is burned above -the knee by a spark or red-hot cinder flying out of a fire, she will -become a mother.[757] Thus the superstition which gave rise to the -stories of the birth of the old Roman kings holds its ground to this day -in Europe, even in our own country. So indestructible are the crude -fancies of our savage forefathers. Thus we may safely infer that the old -practice of leading a bride formally to or round the hearth was designed -to make her fruitful through the generative virtue ascribed to the fire. -The custom is not confined to peoples of the Aryan stock, for it is -observed also by the Esthonians and the Wotyaks of Russia[758] and, as -we have seen, by the Herero of South Africa.[759] It expresses in daily -life the same idea which is embodied in the myths of the birth of -Servius Tullius and the other Latin kings, whose virgin mothers -conceived through contact with a spark or tongue of fire.[760] - -[Sidenote: New-born children brought to the hearth as a mode of -introducing them to the ancestral spirits.] Accordingly, where beliefs -and customs of this sort have prevailed, it is easy to understand why -new-born children should be brought to the hearth, and why their birth -should there be solemnly announced to the ancestors. This is done by the -Herero,[761] and in like manner on the fifth or seventh day after a -birth the ancient Greeks used to run naked round the hearth with the -new-born babe in their arms.[762] This Greek ceremony may perhaps be -regarded as merely a purification, in other words as a means of keeping -at bay the demons who lie in wait for infants. Certainly in other parts -of the world a custom has prevailed of passing a newly born child -backwards and forwards through the smoke of the fire for the express -purpose of warding off evil spirits or other baleful influences.[763] -Yet on the analogy of the preceding customs we may conjecture that a -practice of solemnly bringing infants to the domestic hearth has also -been resorted to as a mode of introducing them to the spirits of their -fathers.[764] In Russia the old belief that the souls of the ancestors -were somehow in the fire on the hearth has left traces of itself down to -the present time. Thus in the Nijegorod Government it is still forbidden -to break up the smouldering faggots in a stove, because to do so might -cause the ancestors to fall through into hell. And when a Russian family -moves from one house to another, the fire is raked out of the old stove -into a jar and solemnly conveyed to the new one, where it is received -with the words, “Welcome, grandfather, to the new home!”[765] - -[Sidenote: Reasons why a procreative virtue was ascribed to fire.] But -why, it may be asked, should a procreative virtue be attributed to the -fire, which at first sight appears to be a purely destructive agent? and -why in particular should the ancestral spirits be conceived as present -in it? Two different reasons perhaps led savage philosophers to these -conclusions. In the first place the common mode of making fire by means -of the fire-drill has suggested, as we have seen, to many savages the -notion that fire is the child of the fire-sticks, in other words that -the rubbing of the fire-sticks together is a sexual union which begets -offspring in the shape of a flame. This of itself suffices to impress on -the mind of a savage the idea that a capacity of reproduction is innate -in the fire, and consequently that a woman may conceive by contact with -it. Strictly speaking, he ought perhaps to refer this power of -reproduction not to the fire but to the fire-sticks; but savage thought -is in general too vague to distinguish clearly between cause and effect. -If he thinks the matter out, as he may do if he is more than usually -reflective, the savage will probably conclude that fire [Sidenote: The -process of making fire by friction seems to the savage an act of -generation.] exists unseen in all wood, and is only elicited from it by -friction,[766] so that the spark or flame is the child, not so much of -the fire-sticks, as of the parent fires in them. But this refinement of -thought may well be above the reach even of a savage philosopher. The -second reason which seems to have led early man to associate the fire -with the souls of his ancestors was a superstitious veneration for the -ancestral tree which furnished either the fuel for the sacred fire or -the material out of which he carved one or both of the fire-sticks. -Among the Herero, as we [Sidenote: Again, the fire was associated with -the ancestors through the sacred ancestral tree which furnished either -the fuel or the fire-sticks.] saw, the male fire-stick commonly is, or -used to be, made out of the holy _omumborombonga_ tree, from which they -believe that they and their cattle sprang in days of old. Hence nothing -could be more natural than that they should regard the fire produced by -the friction of a piece of the ancestral tree, as akin to themselves, -the offspring of the same mighty forefather, to wit, the sacred tree. -Similarly, the Vestal fire at Rome was fed with the wood of the oak, the -sacred tree of Jupiter, and the first Romans are described as “born of -the tree trunks and the heart of oak.”[767] No wonder, then, that the -Latin kings, who claimed to represent Jupiter, and in that capacity -masqueraded in his costume and made mock thunder, should have prided -themselves on being sprung from a fire which was fed with the wood of -the god’s holy tree; such an origin was only another form of descent -from the oak and from the god of the oak, Jupiter himself. - -[Sidenote: Esthonian marriage custom.] The theory that impregnation by -fire is really impregnation by the wood of the tree with which the fire -is kindled, derives some confirmation from a custom which is observed at -marriage by some of the Esthonians in the neighbourhood of Oberpahlen. -The bride is escorted to a tree, which is thereupon cut down and burned. -When the fire blazes up, she is led thrice round it and placed between -three armed men, who clash their swords over her head, while the women -sing a song. Then some coins are thrown into the fire, and when it has -died out they are recovered and knocked into the stump of the tree, -which was cut down to serve as fuel.[768] This is clearly a mode of -rewarding, first the fire, and next the tree, for some benefit they have -conferred on the bride. But in early society husband and wife desire -nothing so much as offspring; this therefore may very well be the -benefit for which the Esthonian bride repays the tree. - -[Sidenote: The conception of the Fire-mother intimately bound up with -that of the female fire-stick in the fire-drill.] Thus far we have -regarded mainly the paternal aspect of the fire, which the Latins -mythically embodied in Jupiter, that is literally Father Jove, the god -of the oak. The maternal aspect of the fire was for them represented by -Mother Vesta, as they called her; and as the Roman king stood for Father -Jove, so his wife or daughter—the practice on this point appears to have -varied—stood for Mother Vesta. Sometimes, as we have seen, the Vestal -virgins, the priestesses or rather incarnations of Vesta, appear to have -been the daughters, not the wives, of the king. But, on the other hand, -there are grounds for thinking that the wife of King Latinus, the -legendary ancestor of the Latins, was traditionally regarded as a -Vestal,[769] and the analogy of the Flamen Dialis with his wife the -Flaminica, as I shall shew presently, points also to a married pair of -priestly functionaries concerned with the kindling and maintenance of -the sacred fire. However that may have been, we may take it as probable -that the notion of the fire-mother was intimately associated with, if it -did not spring directly from, the female fire-stick of the fire-drill, -just as the conception of the fire-father was similarly bound up with -the male fire-stick. - -[Sidenote: The Fire-father and the Fire-mother represented by a priest -and priestess who together made the sacred fire by means of the -fire-drill.] Further, it seems that these mythical beings, the -fire-father and the fire-mother, were represented in real life by a -priest and a priestess, who together made the sacred fire, the priest -appropriately twirling the pointed male stick, while the priestess held -fast on the ground the holed female stick, ready to blow up into a flame -the spark which fell on the tinder. In the composite religion of Rome, -formed like the Roman state by the fusion of several tribes, each with -its own gods and priests, such pairs of fire-priests may at first have -been duplicated. In one or more of the tribes which afterwards made up -the Roman commonwealth the function of kindling the holy fire of oak was -perhaps assigned to the Flamen Dialis and his wife the Flaminica, the -living representatives of Jupiter and Juno; and if, as some scholars -think, the name _flamen_ comes from _flare_, “to blow up,”[770] the -derivation would fit well with this theory. But in historical Rome the -duty of making the sacred fire lay with the Vestal virgins and the chief -pontiff.[771] The mode in which they shared the work between them is not -described by ancient writers, but we may suppose that one of the virgins -held the board of lucky wood on the ground while the pontiff inserted -the point of a peg into the hole of the board and made the peg revolve -rapidly between the palms of his hands. When the likeness of this mode -of producing fire to the intercourse of the sexes had once struck -people, they would deem it unnatural, and even indecent, for a woman to -usurp the man’s function of twirling the pointed male stick. But the -Vestals certainly helped to make fire by friction; it would seem, -therefore, that the part they took in the process can only have been the -one I have conjecturally assigned to them. At all events, the conjecture -is supported by the following analogies. - -[Sidenote: Among the Djakuns fire is made by the leader and his -unmarried daughter.] The Djakuns, a wild tribe of the Malay Peninsula, -are in the habit of making fire by friction. A traveller has described -the custom as follows: “When a troop was on a journey and intended -either to pitch a temporary camp, or to make a longer settlement, the -first camp fire was kindled for good luck by an unmarried girl with the -help of the fire-drill. Generally this girl was the daughter of the man -who served the troop as leader. It was deemed of special importance that -on the first night of a settlement the fire of every band should be lit -by the unmarried daughter of a leader. But she might only discharge this -duty if she had not her monthly sickness on her at the time. This custom -is all the more remarkable inasmuch as the Djakuns in their migrations -always carried a smouldering rope of bark with them.” “When the fire was -to be kindled, the girl took the piece of soft wood and held it on the -ground, while her father, or any other married man, twirled the vertical -borer upon it. She waited for the spark to spring from the wood, and -fanned it into a flame either by blowing on it or by waving the piece of -wood quickly about in her hand. For this purpose she caught the spark in -a bundle of teased bark and exposed it to a draught of air.” “Fire so -produced was employed to kindle the other fires for that night. They -ascribed to it good luck in cooking and a greater power of keeping off -tigers and so forth, than if the first fire had been kindled by a spark -from the smouldering bark rope.”[772] This account suggests a reason why -a holy fire should be tended by a number of virgins: one or more of them -might at any time be incapacitated by a natural infirmity for the -discharge of the sacred duty. - -[Sidenote: Among the Slavs of the Balkans fire is made by a young girl -and boy.] Again, the Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula ascribe a healing or -protective power to “living fire,” and when an epidemic is raging in a -village they will sometimes extinguish all the fires on the hearths and -procure a “living fire” by the friction of wood. At the present day this -is done by various mechanical devices, but the oldest method, now almost -obsolete, is said to be as follows:—A girl and a boy between the ages of -eleven and fourteen, having been chosen to make the fire, are led into a -dark room, where they must strip themselves of all their clothes without -speaking a word. Then two perfectly dry cylindrical pieces of lime-wood -are given them, which they must rub rapidly against each other, turn -about, till they take fire. Tinder is then lit at the flame and used for -the purpose of healing. This mode of kindling the “living fire” is still -practised in the Schar Mountains of Old Servia. The writer who describes -it witnessed some years ago the use of the sacred fire at the village of -Setonje, at the foot of the Homolye Mountains, in the heart of the great -Servian forest. But on that occasion the fire was made in the manner -described, not by a boy and girl, but by an old woman and an old man. -Every fire in the village had previously been extinguished, and was -afterwards relit with the new fire.[773] - -[Sidenote: Among the Kachins fire is made by a man and woman jointly.] -Among the Kachins of Burma, when people take solemn possession of a new -house, a new fire is made in front of it by a man and woman jointly. A -dry piece of bamboo is pegged down on the ground; the two fire-makers -sit down facing each other at either end of it, and together rub another -piece of bamboo on the horizontal piece, one of them holding the wrists -of the other and both pressing down firmly till fire is elicited.[774] - -[Sidenote: Thus the conception of the fire-sticks as male and female is -carried out by requiring the male stick to be worked by a man and the -female stick to be worked by a woman.] In the first at least of these -customs, it is plain, the conception of the fire-sticks as male and -female has been logically carried out by requiring the male fire-stick -to be worked by a man and the female fire-stick to be held by a woman. -But opinions seem to differ on the question whether the fire-makers -[Sidenote: But opinions differ as to whether the fire-makers should be -married or single.] should be wedded or single. The Djakuns prefer that -the man should be married and the woman unmarried; on the other hand, -the Slavs of the Schar Mountains clearly think it better that both -should be single, since they entrust the duty of making the fire to a -boy and girl. In so far as the man’s part in the work is concerned, some -of our Scottish Highlanders agree with the Djakuns at the other end of -the world; for the natives of Lewis “did also make use of a fire called -_Tin-egin_, _i.e._ a forced fire, or fire of necessity, which they used -as an antidote against the plague or murrain in cattle; and it was -performed thus: all the fires in the parish were extinguished, and then -eighty-one married men, being thought the necessary number for effecting -this design, took two great planks of wood, and nine of them were -employed by turns, who by their repeated efforts rubbed one of the -planks against the other until the heat thereof produced fire; and from -this forced fire each family is supplied with new fire, which is no -sooner kindled than a pot full of water is quickly set on it, and -afterwards sprinkled upon the people infected with the plague, or upon -the cattle that have the murrain. And this they all say they find -successful by experiment: it was practised in the main land, opposite to -the south of Skie, within these thirty years.”[775] On the other hand, -the Germans of Halberstadt sided with the South Slavs on this point, for -they caused the forced fire, or need fire, as it is commonly called, to -be made by two chaste boys, who pulled at a rope which ran round a -wooden cylinder.[776] The theory and practice of the Basutos in South -Africa were similar. After a birth had taken place they used to kindle -the fire of the hut afresh, and “for this purpose it was necessary that -a young man of chaste habits should rub two pieces of wood quickly one -against another, until a flame sprung up, pure as himself. It was firmly -believed that a premature death awaited him who should dare to take upon -himself this office, after having lost his innocence. As soon, -therefore, as a birth was proclaimed in the village, the fathers took -their sons to undergo the ordeal. Those who felt themselves guilty -confessed their crime, and submitted to be scourged rather than expose -themselves to the consequences of a fatal temerity.”[777] - -[Sidenote: Reasons for entrusting the making of fire to unmarried boys -and girls.] It is not hard to divine why the task of twirling the male -fire-stick in the hole of the female fire-stick should by some people be -assigned to married men. The analogy of the process to the intercourse -of the sexes furnishes an obvious reason. It is less easy to understand -why other people should prefer to entrust the duty to unmarried boys. -But probably the preference is based on a belief that chastity leaves -the boys with a stock of reproductive energy which they may expend on -the operation of fire-making, whereas married men dissipate the same -energy in other channels. A somewhat similar train of thought may -explain a rule of virginity enjoined on women who assist in the -production of fire by holding the female fire-stick on the ground. As a -virgin’s womb is free to conceive, so, it might be thought, will be the -womb of the female fire-stick which she holds; whereas had the female -fire-maker been already with child, she could not be reimpregnated, and -consequently the female fire-stick could not give birth to a spark. -Thus, in the sympathetic connexion between the fire-sticks and the -fire-makers we seem to reach the ultimate origin of the order of the -Vestal Virgins: they had to be chaste, because otherwise they could not -light the fire. Once when the sacred fire had gone out, the Vestal in -charge of it was suspected of having brought about the calamity by her -unchastity, but she triumphantly repelled the suspicion by eliciting a -flame from the cold ashes.[778] Ideas of the same primitive kind still -linger among the French peasantry, who think that if a girl can blow up -a smouldering candle into a flame she is a virgin, but that if she fails -to do so, she is not.[779] In ancient Greece none but persons of pure -life were allowed to blow up the holy fire with their mouths; a vile man -who had polluted his lips was deemed unworthy to discharge the -duty.[780] - -[Sidenote: The holy fire and virgins of St. Brigit in Ireland.] The -French superstition, which I have just mentioned, may well date from -Druidical times, for there are some grounds for thinking that among the -old Celts, as among their near kinsmen the Latins, holy fires were -tended by virgins. In our own country perpetual fires were maintained in -the temple of a goddess whom the Romans identified with Minerva,[781] -but whose native Celtic name seems to have been Brigit. Like Minerva, -Brigit was a goddess of poetry and wisdom, and she had two sisters also -called Brigit, who presided over leechcraft and smithcraft respectively. -This appears to be only another way of saying that Brigit was the -patroness of bards, physicians, and smiths.[782] Now, at Kildare in -Ireland the nuns of St. Brigit tended a perpetual holy fire down to the -suppression of the monasteries under Henry VIII.; and we can hardly -doubt that in doing so they merely kept up, under a Christian name, an -ancient pagan worship of Brigit in her character of a fire-goddess or -patroness of smiths. The nuns were nineteen in number. Each of them had -the care of the fire for a single night in turn; and on the twentieth -evening the last nun, having heaped wood on the fire, used to say, -“Brigit, take charge of your own fire; for this night belongs to you.” -She then went away, and next morning they always found the fire still -burning and the usual quantity of fuel consumed. Like the Vestal fire at -Rome in the old days, the fire of St. Brigit burned within a circular -enclosure made of stakes and brushwood, and no male might set foot -inside the fence. The nuns were allowed to fan the fire or blow it up -with bellows, but they might not blow on it with their breath.[783] -[Sidenote: Not to breathe on a holy fire.] Similarly it is said that the -Balkan Slavs will not blow with their mouths on the holy fire of the -domestic hearth;[784] a Brahman is forbidden to blow a fire with his -mouth;[785] and among the Parsees the priests have to wear a veil over -their mouth lest they should defile the sacred fire by their -breath.[786] The custom of maintaining a perpetual fire was not peculiar -[Sidenote: Other perpetual fires in Ireland.] to Kildare, but seems to -have been common in Ireland, for the native records shew that such fires -were kept up in several monasteries, in each of which a small church or -oratory was set apart for the purpose. This was done, for example, at -the monasteries of Seirkieran, Kilmainham, and Inishmurray.[787] We may -conjecture that these holy fires were merely survivals of the perpetual -fires which in pagan [Sidenote: St. Brigit’s fire perhaps fed with -oak-wood.] times had burned in honour of Brigit. The view that Brigit -was a fire-goddess is confirmed by the observation that in the Christian -calendar her festival falls the day before Candlemas, and the customs -observed at that season by Celtic peasantry seem to prove that she was a -goddess of the crops as well as of fire.[788] If that was so, it is -another reason for comparing her to Vesta, whose priestesses performed -ceremonies to fertilise both the earth and the cattle.[789] Further, -there are some grounds for connecting Brigit, like Vesta, with the oak; -for at Kildare her Christian namesake, St. Brigit, otherwise known as -St. Bride or St. Bridget, built her church under an oak-tree, which -existed till the tenth century, and gave its name to the spot, for -Kildare is _Cilldara_, “the church of the oak-tree.”[790] The “church of -the oak” may well have displaced a temple or sanctuary of the oak, where -in Druidical days the holy fire was fed, like the Vestal fire at Rome, -with the wood of the sacred tree. - -[Sidenote: Early Irish monasteries built in oak groves.] We may suspect -that a conversion of this sort was often effected in Ireland by the -early Christian missionaries. The monasteries of Derry and Durrow, -founded by St. Columba, were both named after the oak groves amidst -which they were built; and at Derry the saint spared the beautiful trees -and strictly enjoined his successors to do the same. In his old age, -when he lived an exile on the shores of the bleak storm-swept isle of -Iona, his heart yearned to the home of his youth among the oak groves of -Ireland, and he gave expression to the yearning in passionate verse:— - - “_That spot is the dearest on Erin’s ground, - For the treasures that peace and purity lend, - For the hosts of bright angels that circle it round, - Protecting its borders from end to end._ - - “_The dearest of any on Erin’s ground, - For its peace and its beauty I gave it my love; - Each leaf of the oaks around Derry is found - To be crowded with angels from heaven above._ - - “_My Derry! my Derry! my little oak grove, - My dwelling, my home, and my own little cell, - May God the Eternal in Heaven above - Send death to thy foes, and defend thee well._”[791] - -A feeling of the same sort came over a very different exile in a very -different scene, when growing old amid the turmoil, the gaieties, the -distractions of Paris, he remembered the German oak woods of his youth. - - “_Ich hatte einst ein schönes Vaterland. - Der Eichenbaum - Wuchs dort so hoch, die Veilchen nickten sanft. - Es war ein Traum._” - -[Sidenote: Virgin priestesses of fire among the Incas of Peru.] Far from -the oaks of Erin and the saint’s last home among the stormy Hebrides, a -sacred fire has been tended by holy virgins, with statelier rites and in -more solemn fanes, under the equinoctial line. The Incas of Peru, who -deemed themselves the children of the Sun, procured a new fire from -their great father at the solstice in June, our Midsummer Day. They -kindled it by holding towards the sun a hollow mirror, which reflected -his beams on a tinder of cotton wool. But if the sky happened to be -overcast at the time, they made the new fire by rubbing two sticks -against each other; and they looked upon it as a bad omen when they were -obliged to do this, for they said the Sun must be angry with them, since -he refused to kindle the flame with his own hand. The sacred fire, -however obtained, was deposited at Cuzco, the capital of Peru, in the -temple of the Sun, and also in a great convent of holy virgins, who -guarded it carefully throughout the year, and it was an evil augury if -they suffered it to go out. These [Sidenote: Wives of the Sun in Peru.] -virgins were regarded as the wives of the Sun, and they were bound to -perpetual chastity. If any of them proved unfaithful to her husband the -Sun, she was buried alive, like a Roman Vestal, and her paramour was -strangled. The reason for putting her to death in this manner was -probably, as at Rome, a reluctance to shed royal blood; for all these -virgins were of the royal family, being daughters of the Incas or of his -kinsmen. Besides tending the holy fire, they had to weave and make all -the clothes worn by the Inca and his legitimate wife, to bake the bread -that was offered to the Sun at his great festivals, and to brew the wine -which the Inca and his family drank on these occasions. All the -furniture of the convent, down to the pots, pans, and jars, were of gold -and silver, just as in the temple of the Sun, because the virgins were -deemed to be his wives. And they had a golden garden, where the very -clods were of fine gold; where golden maize reared its stalks, leaves -and cobs, all of the precious metal; and where golden shepherds, with -slings and crooks of gold, tended golden sheep and lambs.[792] The -analogy of these virgin guardians of the sacred flame furnishes an -argument in favour of the view set forth in the preceding pages; for if -the Peruvian Vestals were the brides of the Sun, may not the Roman -Vestals have been the brides of the Fire? - -[Sidenote: Virgin priestesses of fire in Mexico and Yucatan.] On the -summit of the great pyramidal temple at Mexico two fires burned -continually on stone hearths in front of two chapels, and dreadful -misfortunes were supposed to follow if the fires were allowed to go out. -They were kept up by priests and maidens, some of whom had taken a vow -of perpetual virginity. But most of these girls seem to have served only -for a year or more until their marriage. They offered incense to the -idols, wove cloths for the service of the temple, swept the sacred area, -and baked the cakes which were presented to the gods but eaten by their -priests. They were clad all in white, without any ornament. A broom and -a censer were their emblems. Death was the penalty inflicted on the -faithless virgin who polluted by her incontinence the temple of the -god.[793] In Yucatan there was an order of Vestals instituted by a -princess, who acted as lady-superior and was deified after her death -under the title of the Virgin of the Fire. The members enrolled -themselves voluntarily either for life or for a term of years, after -which they might marry. Their duty was to tend the sacred fire, the -emblem of the sun. If they broke their vow of chastity or allowed the -fire to go out, they were shot to death with arrows.[794] - -[Sidenote: Virgin priestesses of fire among the Baganda.] Amongst the -Baganda of Central Africa there used to be an order of Vestal Virgins -(_bakaja_) who were attached to the temples of the gods. Their duties -were to keep the fire of the god burning all night, to see that there -was a good supply of firewood, and to watch that the suppliants did not -bring to the deity anything that was tabooed to him. These maidens are -also said to have had charge of some of the vessels. All of them were -young girls; no man might touch them; and when they reached the age of -puberty, the god ordered them to be given in marriage. The place of a -girl who thus vacated office had to be supplied by another girl taken -from the same clan.[795] - -[Sidenote: Resemblance between the Flamen Dialis of the Romans and the -_Agnihotri_ or fire-priest of the Brahmans.] We have seen that some -people commit the task of making fire by friction to married men; and -following the opinion of other scholars I have conjectured that in some -of the Latin tribes the duty of kindling and feeding the sacred fire may -have been assigned to the Flamen Dialis, who had always to be married; -if his wife died, he vacated his office.[796] The sanctity of his fire -is proved by the rule that no brand might be taken from his house except -for the purpose of a sacrifice.[797] Further, the importance ascribed to -the discharge of his duties is attested by another old rule which -forbade him to be absent from his house in Rome for a single night.[798] -The prohibition would be intelligible if one of his duties had formerly -been to superintend the maintenance of a perpetual fire. However that -may have been, the life of the priest was regulated by a whole code of -curious restrictions or taboos, which rendered the office so burdensome -and vexatious that, in spite of the high honours attached to the post, -for a period of more than seventy years together no man was found -willing to undertake it.[799] Some of these restrictions will be -examined later on.[800] Their similarity to the rules of life still -observed in India by the Brahmans who are fire-priests (_Agnihotris_) -seems to confirm the view that the Flamen also was originally a -fire-priest. The parallel between the two priesthoods would be all the -more remarkable if, as some scholars hold, the very names Brahman and -Flamen are philologically identical.[801] As to these Brahmanical -fire-priests or Agnihotris we are told that the number of them nowadays -is very limited, because the ceremonies involve heavy expenditure, and -the rules which regulate them are very elaborate and difficult. The -offering of food to the fire at meals is, indeed, one of the five daily -duties of every Brahman; but the regular fire-service is the special -duty of the Agnihotri. In order that he may be ceremonially pure he is -bound by certain obligations not to travel or remain away from home for -any long time; to sell nothing which is produced by himself or his -family; to pay little attention to worldly affairs; to speak the truth; -to bathe and worship the deities in the afternoon as well as in the -morning; and to sacrifice to his deceased ancestors on the fifteenth of -every month. He is not allowed to take food at night. He may not eat -alkaline salt, meat, honey, and inferior grain, such as some varieties -of pulse, millet, and the egg plant. He never wears shoes nor sleeps on -a bed, but always on the ground. He is expected to keep awake most of -the night and to study the Shâstras. He may have no connexion with, nor -unholy thoughts regarding, any woman but his wife; and he must abstain -from every other act that involves personal impurity.[802] With these -rules we may compare some of the obligations laid on the Flamen Dialis. -In the old days, as we saw, he was bound never to be absent from his -house for a single night. He might not touch or even name raw meat, -beans, ivy, and a she-goat; he might not eat leavened bread, nor touch a -dead body; and the feet of his bed had always to be smeared with -mud.[803] This last rule seems to be a mitigation of an older custom of -sleeping on the ground, a custom which is still observed by the -fire-priest in India, as it was in antiquity by the priests of Zeus at -Dodona.[804] Similarly the priest of the old Prussian god Potrimpo was -bound to sleep on the bare earth for three nights before he sacrificed -to the deity.[805] - -[Sidenote: Mode in which the _Agnihotri_ procures fresh fire by the -friction of fire-sticks.] Every Agnihotri has a separate room in his -house where the sacred fire is kept burning in a small pit of a cubit -square. Should the fire chance to go out, the priest must get fresh fire -from another priest or procure it by the friction of fire-sticks -(_arani_). These comprise, first, a block of _sami_ wood (_Prosopis -spicigera_) in which a small hole is made emblematical of the female -principle (_sakti yoni_), and, second, an upright shaft which is made to -revolve in the hole of the block by means of a rope. The point in the -drill where the rope is applied to cause it to revolve is called _deva -yoni_. Two priests take part in the operation. Before they begin they -sing a hymn in honour of the fire-god Agni. When the fire has been -kindled they place it in a copper vessel and sprinkle it with powdered -cow-dung. When it is well alight, they cover it with another copper -vessel, sprinkle it with drops of water, and sing another hymn in honour -of Agni. Finally, the new fire is consigned to the fire-pit.[806] -According to another description of the modern Indian fire-drill, the -lower block is usually made of the hard wood of the _khadira_ or _khair_ -tree (_Acacia catechu_), and it contains two shallow holes. In one of -these holes the revolving drill works and produces sparks by friction; -the other hole contains tinder which is ignited by means of the sparks. -This latter hole is known as the _yoni_, the female organ of generation. -The upper or revolving portion of the drill is called the _pramantha_. -It consists of a round shaft of hard wood, with a spike of softer wood -inserted in its lower end. One priest causes the shaft to revolve by -pulling a cord, while another priest presses the spike down into the -hole in the block by leaning hard upon a flat board placed on the top of -the shaft. The spike is generally made of the peepul or sacred fig-tree. -When it has become charred by friction, it is replaced by another.[807] -According to one account, the fire is made in this fashion, not by two -priests, but by the Brahman and his wife; she pulls the cord, while he -holds the borer in the hole and recites the spells necessary for the -production of the fire.[808] - -[Sidenote: The Indian fire-sticks made from the sacred fig and _sami_ -wood.] This practice of the modern Agnihotri or fire-priest of India is -in general accord with the precepts laid down in the ancient sacred -books of his religion. For these direct that the upper or male stick of -the fire-drill should be made of the sacred fig-tree (_asvattha_), and -the lower or female stick of _sami_ wood (_Prosopis spicigera_); and -they draw out the analogy between the process of fire-making and the -intercourse of the sexes in minute detail.[809] It deserves to be -[Sidenote: The male fire-stick made by preference from a sacred fig-tree -growing as a parasite on the female _sami_ tree.] noted that the male -fire-stick was cut by preference from a sacred fig-tree which grew as a -parasite on a _sami_ or female tree. The reason for this preference is -obvious to the primitive mind. A parasite clasping a tree with its -tendrils is conceived as a man embracing a woman, hence a pair of -fire-sticks made from a pair of trees thus interlaced will naturally -possess the power of procreating fire by friction in an unusually high -degree.[810] So completely, in the Hindoo mind, does the process of -making fire by friction blend with the union of the human sexes that it -is actually employed as part of a charm to procure male offspring.[811] -Such a confusion of thought helps us to understand the part played by -the domestic fire in the ritual of marriage and birth as well as in the -legends of the miraculous origin of the Latin kings.[812] In ancient -India the male and the female fire-stick were identified with King -Pururavas and the nymph Urvasi, whose loves and sorrows formed the theme -of a beautiful tale.[813] - -[Sidenote: The Greeks also preferred to make one of the fire-sticks from -a parasitic plant.] Like the ancient Indians, the Greeks seem to have -preferred that one of the two fire-sticks should be made from a -parasitic or creeping plant. They recommended that the borer of the -fire-drill should be made of laurel and the board of ivy or another -creeper, apparently a kind of wild vine which grew like ivy upon trees; -but in practice both the borer and the board were sometimes made of -other woods, among which buckthorn, the evergreen oak, and the lime are -particularly mentioned.[814] When we consider the analogy of the Indian -preference for a borer made from a parasite, and remember how deeply -rooted in the primitive mind is the comparison of the friction of the -fire-sticks to the union [Sidenote: The reason for such a preference is -the analogy of the union of the sexes.] of the sexes, we shall hardly -doubt that the Greeks originally chose the ivy or wild vine for a -fire-stick from motives of the sort which led the Hindoos to select the -wood of a parasitic fig-tree for the same purpose. But while the Hindoos -regarded the parasite as male and the tree to which it clung as female, -the Greeks of Theophrastus’s time seem to have inverted this conception, -since they recommended that the board, which plays the part of the -female in the fire-drill, should be made of ivy or another creeper, -whereas the borer, which necessarily represents the male, was to be -fashioned out of laurel. This would imply that the ivy was a female and -the laurel a male. Yet in Greek, on the contrary, the word for ivy is -masculine, and the plant was identified mythologically with the male god -Dionysus;[815] whereas the word for laurel is feminine and the tree was -identified with a nymph. Hence we may conjecture that at first the -Greeks, like the Hindoos, regarded the clinging creeper as the male and -the tree which it embraced as the female, and that of old, therefore, -they made the borer of the fire-drill out of ivy and the board out of -laurel. If this was so, the reasons which led them to reverse the usage -can only be guessed at. Perhaps practical convenience had a share in -bringing about the change. For the laurel is, as the late Professor H. -Marshall Ward kindly informed me, a harder wood than the ivy, and to -judge by general, though not universal, practice most people find it -easier to make fire by the friction of a hard borer on a soft board than -by rubbing a hard board with a soft point. This, therefore, would be a -reason for making the borer of laurel and the board of ivy. If such a -change took place in the history of the Greek fire-drill, it would be an -interesting example of superstition modified, if not vanquished, by -utility in the struggle for existence. - -Footnote 737: - - Livy, xxviii. 11. 6 _sq._; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ - ii. 67. 5. - -Footnote 738: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 265 _sqq._; Festus, p. 262, ed. C. O. Müller. - -Footnote 739: - - Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, pp. 11 _sq._ On the diffusion of - the round hut in Africa Sir H. H. Johnston says: “The original form of - house throughout all British Central Africa was what the majority of - the houses still are—circular and somewhat like a beehive in shape, - with round walls of wattle and daub and thatched roof. This style of - house is characteristic of (_a_) all Africa south of the Zambezi; - (_b_) all British Central Africa; as much of the Portuguese provinces - of Zambezia and Moçambique as are not under direct Portuguese or - Muhammedan influence which may have introduced the rectangular - dwelling; (_c_) all East Africa up to and including the Egyptian - Sudan, where Arab influence has not introduced the oblong rectangular - building; (_d_) the Central Nigerian Sudan, much of Senegambia, and - perhaps the West Coast of Africa as far east and south as the Gold - Coast, subject, of course, to the same limitations as to foreign - influence” (_British Central Africa_, London, 1897, P. 453). - -Footnote 740: - - J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. 2nd Ed., pp. 250, 341 - _sq._ - -Footnote 741: - - J. Marquardt, _op. cit._ iii. 2nd Ed., pp. 340 _sq._; _Journal of - Philology_, xiv. (1885) pp. 155 _sq._ - -Footnote 742: - - Livy, i. 3 _sq._; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ i. 76 - _sq._; Plutarch, _Romulus_, 3. - -Footnote 743: - - Plutarch, _Numa_, 10; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Ant. Rom._ ii. 67. - 4, viii. 89. 5. - -Footnote 744: - - The suggestion is due to Mr. M. A. Bayfield (_Classical Review_, xv. - 1901, p. 448). He compares the similar execution of the princess - Antigone (Sophocles, _Antigone_, 773 _sqq._). However, we must - remember that a custom of burying people alive has been practised as a - punishment or a sacrifice by Romans, Persians, and Germans, even when - the victims were not of royal blood. See Livy, xxii. 57. 6; Pliny, - _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 12; Plutarch, _Marcellus_, 3; _id._, _Quaest. - Rom._ 83; Herodotus, vii. 114; J. Grimm, _Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer_, - 3rd Ed., pp. 694 _sq._ As to the objection to spill royal blood, see - _The Golden Bough_, Second Edition, i. 354 _sq._ - -Footnote 745: - - See above, p. 215. - -Footnote 746: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 629-672. Compare Varro, _De lingua Latina_, vi. 15; - Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 49. - -Footnote 747: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 731-782. See below, p. 326. - -Footnote 748: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 39; “_Quamquam religione tutatur et - fascinus, imperatorum quoque, non solum infantium custos, qui deus - inter sacra Romana Vestalibus colitur_.” - -Footnote 749: - - Virgil, _Georg._ i. 498; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 828; G. Henzen, _Acta - fratrum Arvalium_, pp. 124, 147; H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae - selectae_, Nos. 5047, 5048. Ennius represented Vesta as the mother of - Saturn and Titan. See Lactantius, _Divin. inst._ i. 14. - -Footnote 750: - - Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, iv. 10. - -Footnote 751: - - See above, pp. 195 _sqq._ - -Footnote 752: - - _Grihya Sûtras_, translated by H. Oldenberg, vol. i. pp. 37, 168, 279, - 283, 382, 384, vol. ii. pp. 46, 191, 260; M. Winternitz, “Das - altindische Hochzeitsrituell,” pp. 4, 56-62 (_Denkschriften der - kaiserl. Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien_, xl., Vienna, 1892); H. - Zimmer, _Altindisches Leben_, p. 312; G. A. Grierson, _Bihār Peasant - Life_ (Calcutta, 1885), p. 368; F. S. Krauss, _Sitte und Brauch der - Südslaven_, pp. 386, 436, cp. 430; J. Lasicius, “De diis Samagitarum - caeterorumque Sarmatarum,” in _Magazin herausgegeben von der - Lettisch-Literarischen Gesellschaft_, xiv. 99; J. Maeletius - (Maletius), “De sacrificiis et idolatria veterum Borussorum Livonum - aliarumque vicinarum gentium,” in _Mitteilungen der Litterarischen - Gesellschaft Masovia_, viii. (1902) pp. 191, 204 (this work is also - reprinted under the name of J. Menecius in _Scriptores rerum - Livonicarum_, ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) pp. 389-392); F. Woeste, in - _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, ii. (1855) p. - 91; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und - Gebräuche_, pp. 433, 522; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus - Westfalen_, ii. 38; J. H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen, etc., des Eifler - Volkes_, i. 67; Montanus, _Die deutsche Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und - deutscher Volksglaube_, p. 85; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Hochzeitsbuch_ - (Leipsic, 1871), p. 222; L. v. Schroeder, _Die Hochzeitsbräuche der - Esten_ (Berlin, 1888), pp. 127 _sqq._; E. Samter, _Familienfeste der - Griechen und Römer_ (Berlin, 1901), pp. 59-62; O. Schrader, - _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_, pp. 356 _sq._ This - evidence proves that the custom has been practised by the Indian, - Slavonian, Lithuanian, and Teutonic branches of the Aryan race, from - which we may fairly infer that it was observed by the ancestors of the - whole family before their dispersion. - -Footnote 753: - - _Grihya-Sûtras_, translated by H. Oldenberg, vol. i. p. 283 (_Sacred - Books of the East_, vol. xxix.). - -Footnote 754: - - Prof. Vl. Titelbach, “Das heilige Feuer bei den Balkanslaven,” - _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, xiii. (1900) p. 1. - -Footnote 755: - - F. S. Krauss, _Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven_ (Vienna, 1885), p. 430. - -Footnote 756: - - F. S. Krauss, _op. cit._ p. 531. - -Footnote 757: - - This saying was communicated to me by Miss Mabel Peacock in a letter - dated Kirton-in-Lindsey, Lincolnshire, 30th October 1905. - -Footnote 758: - - Max Buch, _Die Wotjäken_ (Stuttgart, 1882), pp. 52, 59; L. v. - Schroeder, _op. cit._ pp. 129, 132. - -Footnote 759: - - Above, pp. 221 _sq._ - -Footnote 760: - - As it is believed that fire may impregnate human beings, so conversely - some people seem to imagine that it may be impregnated by them. Thus - Mr. T. R. Glover, Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge, writes to - me (18th June 1906): “A curious and not very quotable instance of (I - suppose) Sacred Marriage was brought to my notice by Mr. Brown of the - Canadian Baptist Mission to the Telugus. He said that in Hindoo - temples (in South India chiefly?) sometimes a scaffolding is erected - over a fire. A man and a woman are got to copulate on it and allow the - human seed to fall into the fire.” But perhaps this ceremony is only - another way of conveying the fertilising virtue of the fire to the - woman, in other words, of getting her with child. - -Footnote 761: - - Above, pp. 215, 221. - -Footnote 762: - - Suidas, Harpocration, and _Etymologicum Magnum_, _s.v._ Ἀμφιδρόμια; - Hesychius, _s.v._ δρομάφιον ἧμαρ; Schol. on Plato, _Theaetetus_, p. - 160 E. On this custom see S. Reinach, _Cultes, mythes, et religions_, - i. (Paris, 1905) pp. 137-145. He suggests that the running of the - naked men who carried the babies was intended, by means of sympathetic - magic, to impart to the little ones in after-life the power of running - fast. But this theory does not explain why the race took place round - the hearth. - -Footnote 763: - - The custom has been practised with this intention in Scotland, China, - New Britain, the Tenimber and Timorlaut Islands, and by the Ovambo of - South Africa. See Pennant’s “Second Tour in Scotland,” Pinkerton’s - _Voyages and Travels_, iii. 383; Miss C. F. Gordon Cumming, _In the - Hebrides_, ed. 1883, p. 101; _China Review_, ix. (1880-1881) p. 303; - R. Parkinson, _Im Bismarck-Archipel_, pp. 94 _sq._; J. G. F. Riedel, - _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, p. 303; - H. Schinz, _Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika_, p. 307. A similar custom was - observed, probably for the same reason, in ancient Mexico and in - Madagascar. See Clavigero, _History of Mexico_, translated by Cullen, - i. 31; W. Ellis, _History of Madagascar_, i. 152. Compare my note, - “The Youth of Achilles,” _Classical Review_, vii. (1893) pp. 293 _sq._ - -Footnote 764: - - Compare E. Samter, _Familienfeste der Griechen und Römer_ (Berlin, - 1901), pp. 59-62. - -Footnote 765: - - W. R. S. Ralston, _The Songs of the Russian People_, pp. 120 _sq._ - Ralston held that the Russian house-spirit Domovoy, who is supposed to - live behind the stove, is the modern representative of an ancestral - spirit. Compare _ibid._ pp. 84, 86, 119. - -Footnote 766: - - Evidence of this view will be adduced later on. See _The Golden - Bough_, Second Edition, iii. 456. - -Footnote 767: - - See above, pp. 185 _sq._ - -Footnote 768: - - L. v. Schroeder, _Die Hochzeitsbräuche der Esten_ (Berlin, 1888), pp. - 129 _sq._ - -Footnote 769: - - See above, p. 197. - -Footnote 770: - - Th. Mommsen, _History of Rome_, New Edition (London, 1894), i. 215 - _sq._; J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. 2nd Ed., p. - 326; W. Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_, - p. 147. For another derivation of their name see below, p. 247. - -Footnote 771: - - See above, p. 207. - -Footnote 772: - - H. Vaughan Stevens, “Mitteilungen aus dem Frauenleben der Ôrang - Belendas, der Ôrang Djâkun und der Ôrang Lâut,” bearbeitet von Dr. Max - Bartels, _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxviii. (1896) pp. 168 _sq._ - The writer adds that any person, boy, man, or woman (provided she was - not menstruous) might light the fire, if it were more convenient that - he or she should do so. Thus the co-operation of a married man and an - unmarried girl, though apparently deemed the best, was not the only - permissible way of igniting the wood. The good faith or at all events - the accuracy of the late German traveller H. Vaughan Stevens is not, I - understand, above suspicion; but Mr. Nelson Annandale, joint author of - _Fasciculi Malayenses_, writes to me of him that “he certainly had a - knowledge and experience of the wild tribes of the Malay region which - few or none have excelled, for he lived literally as one of - themselves.” - -Footnote 773: - - Prof. Vl. Titelbach, “Das heilige Feuer bei den Balkanslaven,” - _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, xiii. (1900) pp. 2-4. The - ceremony witnessed by Prof. Titelbach will be described later on in - this work. Kinglake rode through the great Servian forest on his way - from Belgrade to Constantinople, and from his description (_Eothen_, - ch. ii.) we gather that it is chiefly composed of oak. He says: - “Endless and endless now on either side the tall oaks closed in their - ranks, and stood gloomily lowering over us.” - -Footnote 774: - - Ch. Gilhodes, “La Culture matérielle des Katchins (Birmanie),” - _Anthropos_, v. (1910) p. 629. - -Footnote 775: - - M. Martin’s “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in - Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, iii. 611. The first edition of - Martin’s work was published in 1703, and the second in 1716. - -Footnote 776: - - J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, 4th ed., i. 504. - -Footnote 777: - - E. Casalis, _The Basutos_, pp. 267 _sq._ - -Footnote 778: - - Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ ii. 68; Valerius Maximus, - i. 1. 7. - -Footnote 779: - - J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, ii. (Condé-sur-Noireau, - 1887) p. 27; B. Souché, _Croyances, présages et traditions diverses_ - (Niort, 1880), p. 12. - -Footnote 780: - - Polybius, xii. 13. In Darfur a curious power over fire is ascribed to - women who have been faithful to their husbands. “It is a belief among - the Forians, that if the city takes fire, the only means of arresting - the progress of the flames is to bring near them a woman, no longer - young, who has never been guilty of intrigue. If she be pure, by - merely waving a mantle, she puts a stop to the destruction. Success - has sometimes rewarded a virtuous woman” (_Travels of an Arab - Merchant_ [Mohammed Ibn-Omar El-Tounsy] _in Soudan_, abridged from the - French by Bayle St. John (London, 1854), p. 112). Compare R. W. - Felkin, “Notes on the For Tribe of Central Africa,” _Proceedings of - the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, xiii. (1884-1886) p. 230. - -Footnote 781: - - Solinus, xxii. 10. The Celtic Minerva, according to Caesar (_De bello - Gallico_, vi. 17), was a goddess of the mechanical arts. - -Footnote 782: - - J. Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, pp. 73-77; P. W. Joyce, _Social History - of Ancient Ireland_, i. 260 _sq._ - -Footnote 783: - - Giraldus Cambrensis, _The Topography of Ireland_, chaps. - xxxiv.-xxxvi., translated by Thomas Wright; P. W. Joyce, _Social - History of Ancient Ireland_, i. 334 _sq._ It is said that in the - island of Sena (the modern _Sein_), off the coast of Brittany, there - was an oracle of a Gallic deity whose worship was cared for by nine - virgin priestesses. They could raise storms by their incantations, and - turn themselves into any animals they pleased (_Mela_, iii. 48); but - it is not said that they maintained a perpetual holy fire, though Ch. - Elton affirms that they did (_Origins of English History_, p. 27). M. - Salomon Reinach dismisses these virgins as a fable based on Homer’s - description of the isle of Circe (_Odyssey_, x. 135 _sqq._), and he - denies that the Gauls employed virgin priestesses. See his article, - “Les Vierges de Sena,” _Revue Celtique_, xviii. (1897) pp. 1-8; _id._, - _Cultes, mythes, et religions_, i. (Paris, 1905) pp. 195 _sqq._ To me - the nuns of St. Brigit seem to be most probably the successors of a - Celtic order of Vestals. That there were female Druids is certain, but - it does not appear whether they were virgins. See Lampridius, - _Alexander Severus_, 60; Vopiscus, _Aurelianus_, 44; _id._, - _Numerianus_, 14 _sq._ - -Footnote 784: - - Prof. Vl. Titelbach, “Das heilige Feuer bei den Balkanslaven,” - _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, xiii. (1900) p. 1. - -Footnote 785: - - _Laws of Manu_, iv. 53, translated by G. Bühler (_Sacred Books of the - East_, vol. xxv. p. 137). - -Footnote 786: - - Martin Haug, _Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings, and Religion of - the Parsees_ 3rd Ed., (London, 1884), p. 243, note 1. Strabo describes - the mouth-veil worn by the Magian priests in Cappadocia (xiv. 3. 15, - p. 733). At Arkon, in the island of Rügen, there was a shrine so holy - that none but the priest might enter it, and even he might not breathe - in it. As often as he needed to draw in or give out breath, he used to - run out of the door lest he should taint the divine presence with his - breath. See Saxo Grammaticus, _Historia Danica_, bk. xiv. p. 824, ed. - P. E. Müller (p. 393 of Elton’s English translation). - -Footnote 787: - - P. W. Joyce, _Social History of Ancient Ireland_, i. 335 _sq._; - Standish H. O’Grady, _Sylva Gadelica_, translation (London, 1892), pp. - 15, 16, 41. - -Footnote 788: - - See above, pp. 94 _sq._ - -Footnote 789: - - See above, p. 229. - -Footnote 790: - - Douglas Hyde, _A Literary History of Ireland_ (London, 1899), p. 158. - The tradition of the oak of Kildare survives in the lines, - - “_That oak of Saint Bride, which nor Devil nor Dane - Nor Saxon nor Dutchman could rend from her fane_,” - - which are quoted by Mr. D. Fitzgerald in _Revue Celtique_, iv. - (1879-1880) p. 193. - -Footnote 791: - - Douglas Hyde, _op. cit._ pp. 169-171. At Kells, also, St. Columba - dwelt under a great oak-tree. The writer of his Irish life, quoted by - Mr. Hyde, says that the oak-tree “remained till these latter times, - when it fell through the crash of a mighty wind. And a certain man - took somewhat of its bark to tan his shoes with. Now, when he did on - the shoes, he was smitten with leprosy from his sole to his crown.” - -Footnote 792: - - Garcilasso de la Vega, _Royal Commentaries of the Yncas_, pt. i. bk. - iv. chaps. 1-3, bk. vi. chaps. 20-22 (vol. i. pp. 292-299, vol. ii. - pp. 155-164, Markham’s translation); P. de Cieza de Leon, _Travels_, - p. 134 (Markham’s translation); _id._, _Second Part of the Chronicle - of Peru_, pp. 85 _sq._ (Markham’s translation); Acosta, _Natural and - Moral History of the Indies_, bk. v. chap. 15 (vol. ii. pp. 331-333, - Hakluyt Society). Professor E. B. Tylor discredits Garcilasso’s - description of these Peruvian priestesses on the ground that it - resembles Plutarch’s account of the Roman Vestals (_Numa_, 9 _sq._) - too closely to be independent; he thinks that “the apparent traces of - absorption from Plutarch invalidate whatever rests on Garcilasso de la - Vega’s unsupported testimony.” See his _Researches into the Early - History of Mankind_, 3rd Ed., pp. 249-253. In particular, he stumbles - at the statement that an unfaithful Peruvian priestess was buried - alive. But that statement was made by Cieza de Leon, who travelled in - Peru when Garcilasso was a child, and whose book, or rather the first - part of it, containing the statement, was published more than fifty - years before that of Garcilasso. Moreover, when we understand that the - punishment in question was based on a superstition which occurs - independently in many parts of the world, the apparent improbability - of the coincidence vanishes. As to the mode of kindling the sacred - fire, Professor Tylor understands Plutarch to say that the sacred fire - at Rome was kindled, as in Peru, by a burning-glass. To me it seems - that Plutarch is here speaking of a Greek, not a Roman usage, and this - is made still clearer when his text is read correctly. For the words - ὑπὸ Μήδων, περὶ δὲ τὰ Μιθριδιατικά should be altered to ὑπὸ Μαίδων - περὶ τὰ Μιθριδιατικά. See H. Pomtow in _Rheinisches Museum_, N. F. li. - (1896) p. 365, and my note on Pausanias, x. 19. 4 (vol. v. p. 331). - Thus Plutarch gives two instances when a sacred fire was extinguished - and had to be relit with a burning-glass; but both instances are - Greek, neither is Roman. The Greek mode of lighting a sacred fire by - means of a crystal is described also in the Orphic poem on precious - stones, verses 177 _sqq._ (_Orphica_, ed. E. Abel, p. 115). Nor were - the Greeks and Peruvians peculiar in this respect. The Siamese and - Chinese have also been in the habit of kindling a sacred fire by means - of a metal mirror or burning-glass. See Pallegoix, _Description du - royaume Thai ou Siam_, ii. 55; A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen - Asien_, iii. 516; J. H. Plath, “Die Religion und der Cultus der alten - Chinesen,” _Abhandlungen der k. bayer. Akademie der Wissen_, i. Cl. - ix. (1863) pp. 876 _sq._ Again, the full description of the golden - garden of the Peruvian Vestals, which may sound to us fabulous, is - given by Cieza de Leon in a work (the _Second Part of the Chronicle of - Peru_) which it is unlikely that Garcilasso ever saw, since it was not - printed till 1873, centuries after his death. Yet Garcilasso’s brief - description of the garden agrees closely with that of Cieza de Leon, - differing from it just as that of an independent witness naturally - would—namely, in the selection of some other details in addition to - those which the two have in common. He says that the virgins “had a - garden of trees, plants, herbs, birds and beasts, made of gold and - silver, like that in the temple” (vol. i. p. 298, Markham’s - translation). Thus the two accounts are probably independent and - therefore trustworthy, for a fiction of this kind could hardly have - occurred to two romancers separately. A strong confirmation of - Garcilasso’s fidelity is furnished by the close resemblance which the - fire customs, both of Rome and Peru, present to the well-authenticated - fire customs of the Herero at the present day. There seems to be every - reason to think that all three sets of customs originated - independently in the simple needs and superstitious fancies of the - savage. On the whole, I see no reason to question the good faith and - accuracy of Garcilasso. - -Footnote 793: - - B. de Sahagun, _Histoire des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_, pp. 196 - _sq._, 386; Acosta, _Natural and Moral History of the Indies_, bk. v. - ch. 15 (vol. ii. pp. 333 _sq._, Hakluyt Society); A. de Herrera, - _General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America_, iii. - 209 _sq._, Stevens’s translation (London, 1725, 1726); Clavigero, - _History of Mexico_, i. 264, 274 _sq._; Brasseur de Bourbourg, - _Histoire des nations civilisées du Mexique et de l’Amérique - Centrale_, i. 289, iii. 661; H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the - Pacific States_, ii. 204 _sqq._, 245, 583, iii. 435 _sq._ However, - Sahagun (pp. 186, 194), Acosta (vol. ii. p. 336) and Herrera seem to - imply that the duty of maintaining the sacred fire was discharged by - men only. - -Footnote 794: - - Brasseur de Bourbourg, _op. cit._ ii. 6; H. H. Bancroft, _op. cit._ - iii. 473. Fire-worship seems to have lingered among the Indians of - Yucatan down to about the middle of the nineteenth century, and it may - still survive among them. See D. G. Brinton, “The Folk-lore of - Yucatan,” _Folk-lore Journal_, i. (1883) pp. 247 _sq._ - -Footnote 795: - - Letter of the Rev. J. Roscoe, dated Kampala, Uganda, 9th April 1909. - -Footnote 796: - - Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 22; Ateius Capito, cited by Plutarch, _Quaest. - Rom._ 50. On the other hand, Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ iv. 29, says - that the Flamen might marry another wife after the death of the first. - But the statement of Aulus Gellius and Ateius Capito is confirmed by - other evidence. See J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. - 2nd Ed., 329, note 8. As to the rule see my note, “The Widowed - Flamen,” _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 407 _sqq._ - -Footnote 797: - - Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 7; Festus, p. 106, ed. C. O. Müller. - -Footnote 798: - - Livy, v. 52. 13 _sq._ In later times the rule was so far relaxed that - he was allowed to be absent from Rome for two nights or even longer, - provided he got leave from the chief pontiff on the score of - ill-health. See Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 14; Tacitus, _Annals_, iii. 71. - -Footnote 799: - - Tacitus, _Annals_, iii. 58; Dio Cassius, liv. 36. As to the honours - attached to the office, see Livy, xxvii. 8. 8; Plutarch, _Quaest. - Rom._ 113. - -Footnote 800: - - See _The Golden Bough_, Second Edition, i. 241 _sqq._ - -Footnote 801: - - P. Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_ - (Göttingen, 1896), pp. 127 _sqq._; O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der - indogermanischen Altertumskunde_, pp. 637 _sq._ For a different - derivation of the name Flamen see above, p. 235. Being no philologer, - I do not pretend to decide between the rival etymologies. My friend - Prof. J. H. Moulton prefers the equation _Flamen_ = _Brahman_, which - he tells me is philologically correct, because if _Flamen_ came from - _flare_ we should expect a form like _flator_ rather than _flamen_. - The form _flator_ was used in Latin, though not in this sense. - -Footnote 802: - - W. Crooke, _The Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and - Oudh_, i. 30-32. Compare Monier Williams, _Religious Thought and Life - in India_, pp. 364, 365, 392. - -Footnote 803: - - Aulus Gellius, x. 15. - -Footnote 804: - - Homer, _Iliad_, xvi. 233-235; Sophocles, _Trachiniae_, 1166 _sq._; - Callimachus, _Hymn to Delos_, 284-286. - -Footnote 805: - - Ch. Hartknoch, _Selectae dissertationes historicae de variis rebus - Prussicis_, p. 163 (bound up with his edition of Düsburg’s _Chronicon - Prussiae_, Frankfort and Leipsic, 1679); Simon Grunau, _Preussischer - Chronik_, ed. M. Perlbach, i. (Leipsic, 1876) p. 95. - -Footnote 806: - - W. Crooke, _op. cit._ i. 31-33. - -Footnote 807: - - W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ - (Westminster, 1896), ii. 194 _sq._ - -Footnote 808: - - J. C. Nesfield, in _Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. p. 12, § 77. - -Footnote 809: - - _Rigveda_, iii. 29, translated by R. T. H. Griffith (Benares, - 1889-1892), vol. ii. pp. 25-27; _Satapatha Brâhmana_, translated by J. - Eggeling, part i. p. 389, note 3, part ii. pp. 90 _sq._, part v. pp. - 68-74; _Hymns of the Atharva-Veda_, translated by M. Bloomfield, pp. - 91, 97 _sq._, 334, 460; W. Caland, _Altindisches Zauberritual_, pp. - 115 _sq._; A. Kuhn, _Herabkunft des Feuers_, 2nd Ed., pp. 40, 64-78, - 183-185; H. Zimmer, _Altindisches Leben_, pp. 58, 59. The _sami_ wood - is sometimes identified with the _Acacia Suma_ (_Mimosa Suma_); but - the modern Bengalee name of _Prosopis spicigera_ is _shami_ or _somi_, - which seems to be conclusive evidence of the identity of _Prosopis - spicigera_ with _sami_. The _Prosopis spicigera_ is a deciduous thorny - tree of moderate size, which grows in the arid zones of the Punjaub, - Rajputana, Gujarat, Bundelcund, and the Deccan. The heart of the wood - is of a purplish brown colour and extremely hard. It is especially - valued for fuel, as it gives out much heat. See G. Watt, _Dictionary - of the Economic Products of India_, _s.v._ “Prosopis spicigera.” For a - reference to this work I am indebted to the kindness of the late - Professor H. Marshall Ward. - -Footnote 810: - - A. Kuhn, _op. cit._ pp. 40, 66, 175. - -Footnote 811: - - _Hymns of the Atharva-Veda_, translated by M. Bloomfield, pp. 97 - _sq._, 460; W. Caland, _Altindisches Zauberritual_, pp. 115 _sq._ - -Footnote 812: - - See above, pp. 195 _sqq._, 230 _sqq._ - -Footnote 813: - - _Rigveda_, x. 95, translated by R. T. H. Griffith, _Satapatha - Brâhmana_, translated by J. Eggeling, part v. pp. 68-74. Compare H. - Oldenberg, _Die Literatur des alten Indien_ (Stuttgart and Berlin, - 1903), pp. 53-55. On the story see A. Kuhn, _Herabkunft des Feuers_, - 2nd Ed., pp. 71 _sqq._; F. Max Müller _Selected Essays on Language, - Religion, and Mythology_ (London, 1881), i. 408 _sqq._; Andrew Lang, - _Custom and Myth_ (London, 1884), pp. 64 _sqq._; K. F. Pischel and - Geldner, _Vedische Studien_, i. (Stuttgart, 1889), pp. 243-295. It - belongs to the group of tales which describe the marriage of a human - with an animal mate, of a mortal with a fairy, and often, though not - always, their unhappy parting. The story seems to have its roots in - totemism. See my _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 566 _sqq._ It will be - illustrated more at length in a later part of _The Golden Bough_. - -Footnote 814: - - Homer, _Hymn to Mercury_, 108-111 (where a line has been lost; see the - note of Messrs. Allen and Sikes); Theophrastus, _Histor. plant._ v. 9. - 6; _id._, _De igne_, ix. 64; Hesychius, _s.v._ στορεύς; Schol. on - Apollonius Rhodius, _Argon._ i. 1184; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 208; - Seneca, _Nat. Quaest._ ii. 22; A. Kuhn, _Herabkunft des Feuers_, 2nd - Ed., pp. 35-41; H. Blumner, _Technologie und Terminologie der Gewerbe - und Künste_, ii. 354-356. Theophrastus gives the name of _athragene_ - to the plant which, next to or equally with ivy, makes the best board; - he compares it to a vine. Pliny (_l.c._) seems to have identified it - with a species of wild vine. According to Sprengel, the _athragene_ is - the _Clematis cirrhosa_ of Linnaeus, the French _clématite à vrilles_. - See Dioscorides, ed. C. Sprengel, vol. ii. p. 641. As to the kinds of - wood employed by the Romans in kindling fire we have no certain - evidence, as Pliny and Seneca may have merely copied from - Theophrastus. - -Footnote 815: - - Pausanias, i. 31. 6, with my note. - - - - - CHAPTER XVII - THE ORIGIN OF PERPETUAL FIRES - - -[Sidenote: The custom of maintaining a perpetual fire probably -originated in the difficulty of making fire by friction.] Whatever -superstitions may have gathered about it in the course of ages, the -custom of maintaining a perpetual fire probably sprang from a simple -consideration of practical convenience. The primitive mode of making -fire by the friction of wood is laborious at all times, and it is -especially so in wet weather. Hence the savage finds it convenient to -keep a fire constantly burning or smouldering in order to spare himself -the troubling of kindling it. This convenience becomes a necessity with -people who do not know how to make fire. That there have been such -tribes down to our own time is affirmed by witnesses whose evidence we -have no reason to doubt. Thus Mr. E. H. Man, who resided eleven years in -the Andaman Islands and was intimately acquainted with the natives, -tells us that, being ignorant of [Sidenote: Some races said to be -ignorant of the means of making fire.] the art of making fire, they take -the utmost pains to prevent its extinction. When they leave a camp -intending to return in a few days, they not only take with them one or -more smouldering logs, wrapped in leaves if the weather be wet, but they -also place a large burning log or faggot of suitable wood in some -sheltered spot, where it smoulders for several days and can be easily -rekindled when it is needed. While it is the business of the women to -gather the wood, the duty of keeping up the fires both at home and in -travelling by land or sea is not confined to them, but is undertaken by -persons of either sex who have most leisure or are least burdened.[816] -The Russian traveller, Baron Miklucho-Maclay, who lived among the -natives of the Maclay coast of northern New Guinea at a time when they -had hardly come into contact with Europeans, writes: “It is remarkable -that here almost all the inhabitants of the coast possess no means -whatever of making fire, hence they always and everywhere carry burning -or glowing brands about with them. If they go in the morning to the -plantation they carry a half-burnt brand from their hearth in order to -kindle a fire at the corner of the plantation. If they go on a longer -journey into the mountains, they again take fire with them for the -purpose of smoking, since their cigars, wrapped in green leaves, -continually go out. On sea voyages they usually keep glowing coals in a -half-broken pot partly filled with earth. The people who remain behind -in the village never forget to keep up the fire.” They repeatedly told -him that they had often to go to other villages to fetch fire when the -fires in all the huts of their own village had chanced to go out. Yet -the same traveller tells us that the mountain tribes of this part of New -Guinea, such as the Englam-Mana and Tiengum-Mana, know how to make fire -by friction. They partially cleave a log of dry wood with a stone axe -and then draw a stout cord, formed of a split creeper, rapidly to and -fro in the cleft, till sparks fly out and set fire to a tinder of dry -coco-nut fibres.[817] It is odd that the people of the coast should not -have learned this mode of producing fire from their neighbours in the -mountains. The Russian explorer’s observations, however, have been -confirmed by German writers. One of them, a Mr. Hoffmann, says of these -people: “In every house care is taken that fire burns day and night on -the hearth. For this purpose they choose a kind of wood which burns -slowly, but glimmers for a long time and retains its glow. When a man -sets out on a journey or goes to the field he has always a glimmering -brand with him. If he wishes to make fire, he waves the smouldering wood -to and fro till it bursts into a glow.” On frequented paths, crossways, -and so forth, you may often see trunks of trees lying which have been -felled for the purpose of being ignited and furnishing fire to -passers-by. Such trees continue to smoulder for weeks.[818] Similarly -the dwarf tribes of Central Africa “do not know how to kindle a fire -quickly, and in order to get one readily at any moment they keep the -burning trunks of fallen trees in suitable spots, and watch over their -preservation like the Vestals of old.”[819] It seems to be at least -doubtful whether these dwarfs of the vast and gloomy equatorial forests -are acquainted with the art of making fire at all. A German traveller -observes that the care which they take to preserve fire is extremely -remarkable. “It appears,” he says, “that the pygmies, as other -travellers have reported, do not know how to kindle fire by rubbing -sticks against each other. Like the Wambuba of the forest, in leaving a -camp, they take with them a thick glowing brand, and carry it, often for -hours, in order to light a fire at their next halting place.”[820] - -[Sidenote: Fire kindled by natural causes was probably used by men long -before they learned to make it for themselves.] Whether or not tribes -ignorant of the means of making fire have survived to modern times, it -seems likely that mankind possessed and used fire long before they -learned how to kindle it. In the violent thunderstorms which accompany -the end of the dry season in Central and Eastern Africa, it is not -uncommon for the lightning to strike and ignite a tree, from which the -fire soon spreads to the withered herbage, till a great conflagration is -started. From a source of this sort a savage tribe may have first -obtained fire, and the same thing may have happened independently in -many parts of the world.[821] Other people, perhaps, procured fire from -volcanoes, the lava of which will, under favourable circumstances, -remain hot enough to kindle shavings of wood years after an eruption has -taken place.[822] Others again may have lit their first fire at the jets -of inflammable gas which spring from the ground in various parts of the -world, notably at Baku on the Caspian, where the flames burn day and -night, summer and winter, to a height of fifteen or twenty feet.[823] It -is harder to conjecture how man first learned the great secret of making -fire by friction. The discovery was perhaps made by jungle or forest -races, who saw dry bamboos or branches thus ignited by rubbing against -each other in a high wind. Fires are sometimes started in this way in -the forests of New Zealand.[824] It has also been suggested that savages -may have accidentally elicited a flame for the first time in the process -of chipping flints over dry moss, or boring holes with hard sticks in -soft wood.[825] - -[Sidenote: Many savages carry fire constantly with them as a matter of -convenience.] But even when the art of fire-making has been acquired, -the process itself is so laborious that many savages keep fire always -burning rather than be at the trouble of extracting it by friction. -This, for example, was true of the roving Australian aborigines before -they obtained matches from the whites. On their wanderings they carried -about with them pieces of smouldering bark or cones of the Banksia tree -wherewith to kindle their camp fires.[826] The duty of thus transporting -fire from one place to another seems commonly to have fallen to the -women. “A stick, a piece of decayed wood, or more often the beautiful -seed-stem of the Banksia, is lighted at the fire the woman is leaving; -and from her bag, which, in damp weather, she would keep filled with dry -cones, or from materials collected in the forest, she would easily, -during her journey, preserve the fire got at the last encampment.”[827] -Another writer tells us that the Australian native always had his -fire-stick with him, and if his wife let it go out, so much the worse -for her. The dark brown velvety-looking core of the Banksia is very -retentive of fire and burns slowly, so that one of these little -fire-sticks would last a considerable time, and a bag of them would -suffice for a whole day.[828] The Tasmanians knew how to make fire by -twirling the point of a stick in a piece of soft bark; “but as it was -difficult at times to obtain fire by this means, especially in wet -weather, they generally, in their peregrinations, carried with them a -fire-stick lighted at their last encampment.”[829] With them, as with -the Australians, it was the special task of the women to keep the -fire-brand alight and to carry it from place to place.[830] When the -natives of Materbert, off New Britain, are on a voyage they carry fire -with them. For this purpose they press some of the soft fibrous husk of -the ripe coco-nut into a coco-nut shell, and then place a red-hot ember -in the middle of it. This will smoulder for three or four days, and from -it they obtain a light for their fires wherever they may land.[831] The -Polynesians made fire by the friction of wood, rubbing a score in a -board with a sharp-pointed stick till the dust so produced kindled into -sparks, which were caught in a tinder of dry leaves or grass. While they -rubbed, they chanted a prayer or hymn till the fire appeared. But in wet -weather the task of fire-making was laborious, so at such times the -natives usually carried fire about with them in order to avoid the -trouble of kindling it.[832] The Fuegians make fire by striking two -lumps of iron pyrites together and letting the sparks fall on birds’ -down or on dry moss, which serves as tinder. But rather than be at the -pains of doing this they carry fire with them everywhere, both by sea -and land, taking great care to prevent its extinction.[833] The Caingua -Indians of Paraguay make fire in the usual way by the fire-drill, but to -save themselves trouble they keep fire constantly burning in their huts -by means of great blocks of wood.[834] The Indians of Guiana also -produce fire by twirling the point of one stick in the hole of another, -but they seldom need to resort to this laborious process, for they keep -fire burning in every house, and on long journeys they usually carry a -large piece of smouldering timber in their canoes. Even in walking -across the savannah an Indian will sometimes take a fire-brand with -him.[835] The Jaggas, a Bantu tribe in the Kilimanjaro district of East -Africa, keep up fire day and night in their huts on account of their -cattle. If it goes out, the women fetch glowing brands from a -neighbour’s house; these they carry wrapped up in banana leaves. Thus -they convey fire for great distances, sometimes the whole day long. -Hence they seldom need to kindle fire, though the men can make it -readily by means of the fire-drill.[836] The tribes of British Central -Africa also know how to produce fire in this fashion, but they do not -often put their knowledge in practice. For there is sure to be a burning -brand on one or other of the hearths of the village from which a fire -can be lit; and when men go on a journey they take smouldering sticks -with them and nurse the glowing wood rather than be at the trouble of -making fire by friction.[837] In the huts of the Ibos on the lower Niger -burning embers are always kept and never allowed to go out.[838] And -this is the regular practice among all the tribes of West Africa who -have not yet obtained matches. If the fire in a house should go out, a -woman will run to a neighbour’s hut and fetch a burning stick from the -hearth. Hence in most of their villages fire has probably not needed to -be made for years and years. Among domesticated tribes, like the Effiks -or Agalwa, when the men are going out to the plantation they will -enclose a burning stick in a hollow piece of a certain kind of wood, -which has a lining of its pith left in it, and they will carry this -“fire-box” with them.[839] - -[Sidenote: The theft of fire by Prometheus.] Before the introduction of -matches Greek peasants used to convey fire from place to place in a -stalk of giant fennel. The stalks of the plant are about five feet long -by three inches thick, and are encased in a hard bark. The core of the -stalk consists of a white pith which, when it is dry, burns slowly like -a wick without injury to the bark.[840] Thus when Prometheus, according -to the legend, stole the first fire from heaven and brought it down to -earth hidden in a stalk of giant fennel,[841] he carried his fire just -as every Greek peasant and mariner did on a journey. - -[Sidenote: When people settled in villages, it would be convenient to -keep up a perpetual fire in the house of the head man.] When a tribe -ceased to be nomadic and had settled in more or less permanent villages, -it would be a convenient custom to keep a fire perpetually burning in -every house. Such a custom, as we have seen, has been observed by -various peoples, and it appears to have prevailed universally among all -branches of the Aryans.[842] Arnobius implies that it was formerly -practised by the Romans, though in his own time the usage had fallen -into abeyance.[843] But it would be obviously desirable that there -should be some one place in the village where every housewife could be -sure of obtaining fire without having to kindle it by friction, if her -own should chance to go out. The most natural spot to look for it would -be the hearth of the head man of the village, who would come in time to -be regarded as responsible for its maintenance. This is what seems to -have happened not only among the Herero of South Africa and the Latin -peoples of Italy, but also among the ancestors of the Greeks; for in -ancient Greece the perpetual fire kept up in the Prytaneum, or -town-hall, was at first apparently the fire on the king’s hearth.[844] -From this simple origin may have sprung the custom which in various -parts of the world associates the maintenance of a perpetual fire with -chiefly or royal dignity. Thus it was a distinguishing mark of the -[Sidenote: Hence the maintenance of a perpetual fire came to be -associated with chiefly or royal dignity.] chieftainship of one of the -Samoan nobility, that his fire never went out. His attendants had a -particular name, from their special business of keeping his fire ablaze -all night long while he slept.[845] Among the Gallas the maintenance of -a perpetual fire, even when it serves no practical purpose, is a -favourite mode of asserting high rank, and the chiefs often indulge in -it.[846] The Chitomé, a grand pontiff in the kingdom of Congo, of whom -we shall hear more hereafter, kept up in his hut, day and night, a -sacred fire, of which he dispensed brands to such as came to ask for -them and could pay for them. He is said to have done a good business in -fire, for the infatuated people believed that it preserved them from -many accidents.[847] In Uganda a perpetual sacred fire, supposed to have -come down to earth with the first man Kintu, is maintained by a chief, -who is put to death if he suffers it to be extinguished. From this -sacred fire the king’s fire (_gombolola_) is lighted and kept constantly -burning at the gate of the royal enclosure during the whole of his -reign. By day it burns in a small hut, but at night it is brought out -and set in a little hole in the ground, where it blazes brightly till -daybreak, whatever the weather may be. When the king journeys the fire -goes with him, and when he dies it is extinguished. The death of a king -is indeed announced to the people by the words, “The fire has gone out.” -A man who bears a special title is charged with the duty of maintaining -the fire, and of looking after all the fuel and torches used in the -royal enclosure. When the king dies the guardian of his fire is -strangled near the hearth.[848] Similarly in Dageou, a country to the -west of Darfur, it is said that a custom prevailed of kindling a fire on -the inauguration of a king and keeping it alight till his death.[849] -Among the Mucelis of Angola, when the king of Amboin or Sanga dies, all -fires in the kingdom are extinguished. Afterwards the new king makes new -fire by rubbing two sticks against each other.[850] Such a custom is -probably nothing more than an extension of the practice of putting out a -chief’s own fire at his death. Similarly, when a new Muata Jamwo, a -great potentate in the interior of Angola, comes to the throne, one of -his first duties is to make a new fire by the friction of wood, for the -old fire may not be used.[851] Before the palace gate of the king of -Siam there burns, or used to burn, a perpetual fire, which was said to -have been lit from heaven with a fiery ball.[852] - -[Sidenote: Perpetual fire maintained by the chief called the Great Sun -among the Natchez Indians.] Among the Natchez Indians of the lower -Mississippi a perpetual fire, supposed to have been brought down from -the sun, was maintained in a square temple which stood beside the hut of -the supreme chief of the nation. He bore the title of the Great Sun, and -believed himself to be a descendant or brother of the luminary his -namesake. Every morning when the sun rose he blew three whiffs of his -pipe towards it, and raising his hands above his head, and turning from -east to west, he marked out the course which the bright orb was to -pursue in the sky. The sacred fire in the temple was fed with logs of -walnut or oak, and the greatest care was taken to prevent its -extinction; for such an event would have been thought to put the whole -nation in jeopardy. Eight men were appointed to guard the fire, two of -whom were bound to be always on watch; and the Great Sun himself looked -to the maintenance of the fire with anxious attention. If any of the -guardians of the fire failed to do his duty, the rule was that he should -be put to death. When the great chief died his bones were deposited in -the temple, along with the bones of many attendants who were strangled -in order that their souls might wait upon him in the spirit land. On -such an occasion the chief’s fire was extinguished, and this was the -signal for putting out all the other fires in the country. Every village -had also its own temple in which a perpetual fire was maintained under -the guardianship of a subordinate chief. These lesser chiefs also bore -the title of Suns, but acknowledged the supremacy of the head chief, the -Great Sun. All of these Suns were supposed to be descended from a man -and woman who had come down from the luminary from which they took their -names. There were female Suns as well as male Suns, but they might not -marry among themselves; they had always to mate with a woman or a man of -lower rank. Their nobility was transmitted in the maternal line; that -is, the children of a female Sun, both sons and daughters, were Suns, -but the children of a male Sun were not. Hence a chief was never -succeeded by his own son, but always by the son either of his sister or -of his nearest female relation. The Natchez knew how to produce fire by -means of the fire-drill; but if the sacred fire in the temple went out, -they relit it, not by the friction of wood, but by a brand brought from -another temple or from a tree which had been ignited by lightning.[853] -In these customs of the Natchez we have clearly fire-worship and -sun-worship of the same general type which meets us again at a higher -state of evolution among the Incas of Peru. Both sets of customs -probably sprang originally from the perpetual fire on the chief’s -domestic hearth. - -[Sidenote: Fire carried before chiefs and kings as a symbol of royalty.] -When a perpetual fire has thus become a symbol of royalty, it is natural -that it should be carried before the king or chief on the march. Among -the Indians of the Mississippi a lighted torch used to be borne in front -of a chief, and no commoner would dare to walk between a chief and his -torch-bearer.[854] A sacred fire, supposed to have descended from -heaven, was carried in a brazier before the Persian kings,[855] and the -custom was adopted as a badge of imperial dignity by later Roman -emperors.[856] The practice appears to have been especially observed in -time of war. Amongst the Ovambo of South Africa the chief appoints a -general to lead the army to battle, and next to the general the greatest -officer is he who carries a fire-brand at the head of the warriors. If -the fire goes out on the march, it is an evil omen and the army beats a -retreat.[857] When the king of Monomotapa, or Benomotapa, was at war, a -sacred fire was kept burning perpetually in a hut near his tent.[858] In -old days it is said that the king of Mombasa in East Africa could put an -army of eighty thousand men in the field. On the march his guards were -preceded by men carrying fire.[859] High above the tent of Alexander the -Great hung a fiery cresset on a pole, and “the flame of it was seen by -night, and the smoke by day.”[860] When a Spartan king was about to lead -an army abroad he first sacrificed at home to Zeus the Leader. Then a -man called the fire-bearer took fire from the altar and marched with it -at the head of the troops to the frontier. There the king again -sacrificed to Zeus and Athena, and if the omens were favourable, he -crossed the border, preceded by the fire from the sacrifices, which -thenceforth led the way and might not be quenched. To perform such -sacrifices the king always rose very early in the morning, while it was -still dark, in order to get the ear of the god before the enemy could -forestall him.[861] - -[Sidenote: The custom of keeping up a perpetual fire during a king’s -reign and extinguishing it at his death, might lead to a belief that his -life was bound up with the fire.] A custom of maintaining a fire during -a king’s reign and extinguishing it at his death, even if it did not -originate in a superstition, would naturally lend itself to a -superstitious interpretation. The distinction between the sign and the -cause of an event is not readily grasped by a dull mind; hence the -extinction of the king’s fire, from being merely a signal of his death, -might come in time to be regarded as a cause of it. In other words, a -vital connexion might be supposed to exist between the king and the -fire, so that if the fire were put out the king would die. That a -sympathetic bond of some sort united the king’s life with the fire on -his hearth was apparently believed by the ancient Scythians. For their -most solemn oath was by the king’s hearth, and if any man who had taken -this oath forswore himself, they believed that the king would fall -ill.[862] The story of Meleager,[863] whose life was said to be bound up -with a brand plucked from the fire on the hearth, belongs to the same -class of ideas, which will be examined at large in a later part of this -work. Wherever a superstition of this sort gathered round the king’s -hearth, it is obvious that he would be moved to watch over the fire with -redoubled vigilance. On a certain day the Vestal Virgins at Rome used to -go to the King of the Sacred Rites, the successor of the old Roman -kings, and say to him, “Watchest thou, O King? Watch.”[864] The ceremony -may have been a reminiscence or survival of a time when the king’s life -as well as the general safety was supposed to hang on the maintenance of -the fire, to the guardianship of which he would thus be impelled by the -motive of self-preservation as well as of public duty. When natives of -the Kei Islands in the East Indies are away on a long voyage, a sacred -fire is kept up the whole time of their absence by their friends at -home. Three or four young girls are appointed to feed it and watch over -it day and night with a jealous care lest it should go out; its -extinction would be deemed a most evil omen, for the fire is the symbol -of the life of the absent ones.[865] This belief and this practice may -help us to understand the corresponding beliefs and practices concerned -with the maintenance of a perpetual fire at Rome. - -Footnote 816: - - E. H. Man, _On the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands_ - (London, N.D.), p. 82. Mr. Man’s evidence is confirmed by a German - traveller, Mr. Jagor, who says of the Andaman Islanders: “The fire - must never go out. Here also I am again assured that the Andamanese - have no means of making fire.” See _Verhandlungen der Berliner - Gesellschaft für Anthropologie_, 1877, p. (54) (bound with - _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, ix.). I regret that on this subject I - did not question Mr. A. R. Brown, Fellow of Trinity College, - Cambridge, who resided for about two years among the Andaman - Islanders, studying their customs and beliefs. Mr. Brown is now - (December 1910) in West Australia. - -Footnote 817: - - N. von Miklucho-Maclay, “Ethnologische Bemerkungen über die Papuas der - Maclay-Küste in Neu-Guinea,” _Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor - Nederlandsch Indie_, xxxv. (1875), pp. 82, 83. Compare C. Hager, - _Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und der Bismarck-Archipel_, p. 69; M. Krieger, - _Neu-Guinea_, p. 153. The natives of the Maclay Coast are said to have - traditions of a time when they were ignorant even of the use of fire; - they ate fruits raw, which set up a disease of the gums, filling their - mouths with blood; they had a special name for the disease. See N. von - Miklucho-Maclay, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für - Anthropologie_, 1882, p. (577) (bound with _Zeitschrift für - Ethnologie_, xiv.). The reports of people living in ignorance of the - use of fire have hitherto proved, on closer examination, to be fables. - See E. B. Tylor, _Researches into the Early History of Mankind_, 3rd - Ed., pp. 229 _sqq._ The latest repetition of the story that I know of - is by an American naturalist, Mr. Titian R. Peale, who confirms the - exploded statement that down to 1841 the natives of Bowditch Island - had not seen fire. See _The American Naturalist_, xviii. (1884) pp. - 229-232. - -Footnote 818: - - B. Hagen, _Unter den Papuas_ (Wiesbaden, 1899), pp. 203 _sq._ Mr. - Hagen’s account applies chiefly to the natives of Astrolabe Bay. He - tells us that for the most part they now use Swedish matches. - -Footnote 819: - - G. Casati, _Ten Years in Equatoria_ (London and New York, 1891), i. - 157. Another writer says that these dwarfs “keep fire alight - perpetually, starting it in some large tree, which goes on smouldering - for months at a time” (Captain Guy Burrows, _The Land of the Pigmies_ - (London, 1898), p. 199). - -Footnote 820: - - F. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894), - pp. 451 _sq._ - -Footnote 821: - - Sir Harry H. Johnston, _British Central Africa_ (London, 1897), p. - 439; _id._, _The Uganda Protectorate_ (London, 1902), ii. 540. If we - may trust Diodorus Siculus (i. 13. 3), this was the origin of fire - alleged by the Egyptian priests. Among the Winamwanga and Wiwa tribes - of East Africa, to the south of Lake Tanganyika, “when lightning sets - fire to a tree, all the fires in a village are put out, and fireplaces - freshly plastered, while the head men take the fire to the chief, who - prays over it. It is then sent to all his villages, the people of the - villages rewarding his messengers.” See Dr. J. A. Chisholm, “Notes on - the Manners and Customs of the Winamwanga and Wiwa,” _Journal of the - African Society_, No. 36 (July 1910), p. 363. The Parsees ascribe - peculiar sanctity to fire which has been obtained from a tree struck - by lightning. See D. J. Karaka, _History of the Modern Parsis_ - (London, 1884), ii. 213. In Siam and Cambodia such fire is carefully - preserved and used to light the funeral pyres of kings and others. See - Pallegoix, _Description du royaume Thai ou Siam_, i. 248; J. Moura, - _Le Royaume du Cambodge_, i. 360. - -Footnote 822: - - Oscar Peschel, _Völkerkunde_ 6th Ed. (Leipsic, 1885), p. 138. Mr. Man - thinks it likely that the Andaman Islanders got their fire from one of - the two volcanoes which exist in their island (_On the Aboriginal - Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands_, p. 82). The Creek Indians of - North America have a tradition that some of their ancestors procured - fire from a volcano. See A. S. Gatschet, _A Migration Legend of the - Creek Indians_, ii. (St. Louis, 1888) p. 11 (43). - -Footnote 823: - - O. Peschel, _loc. cit._ As to the fires of Baku see further, _Adonis, - Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 159. - -Footnote 824: - - R. Taylor, _Te Ika A Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_, 2nd - Ed., p. 367; W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern - India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 194; A. Kuhn, _Herabkunft des Feuers_, - 2nd Ed., pp. 92, 102. Lucretius thought that the first fire was - procured either from lightning or from the mutual friction of trees in - a high wind (_De rerum natura_, v. 1091-1101). The latter source was - preferred by Vitruvius (_De architectura_, ii. 1. 1). - -Footnote 825: - - Sir Harry H. Johnston, _ll.cc._ Professor K. von den Steinen - conjectures that savages, who already possessed fire, and were wont to - use tinder to nurse a smouldering brand into a blaze, may have - accidentally discovered the mode of kindling fire in an attempt to - make tinder by rubbing two dry sticks or reeds against each other. See - K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens_, pp. - 219-228. - -Footnote 826: - - J. Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du monde et à la recherche de la - Perouse_, i. (Paris, 1832) pp. 95, 194; Scott Nind, “Description of - the Natives of King George’s Sound,” _Journal of the Royal - Geographical Society_, i. (1832) p. 26; E. J. Eyre, _Journals of - Expeditions of Discovery into Central Australia_, ii. 357; A. - Oldfield, “The Aborigines of Australia,” _Transactions of the - Ethnological Society of London_, N.S., iii. (1865) pp. 283 _sq._; J. - Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 15; _Annales de la Propagation de - la Foi_, xvii. (1845) pp. 76 _sq._ - -Footnote 827: - - R. Brough Smyth, _The Aborigines of Victoria_, i. 396. - -Footnote 828: - - R. Taylor, _Te Ika A Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_, 2nd - Ed., p. 567. Other writers confirm the statement that the carrying of - the fire-sticks is the special duty of the women. See W. Stanbridge, - “On the Aborigines of Victoria,” _Transactions of the Ethnological - Society of London_, N.S., i. (1861) p. 291; J. F. Mann, “Notes on the - Aborigines of Australia,” _Proceedings of the Geographical Society of - Australasia_, i. (1885) p. 29. - -Footnote 829: - - Melville, quoted by H. Ling Roth, _The Aborigines of Tasmania_ - (London, 1890), p. 97. It has sometimes been affirmed that the - Tasmanians did not know how to kindle fire; but the evidence collected - by Mr. Ling Roth (_op. cit._, pp. xii. _sq._, 96 _sq._), proves that - they were accustomed to light it both by the friction of wood and by - striking flints together. - -Footnote 830: - - Mr. Dove, quoted by James Bonwick, _Daily Life and Origin of the - Tasmanians_, p. 20. - -Footnote 831: - - Wilfred Powell, _Wanderings in a Wild Country_ (London, 1883), p. 196. - -Footnote 832: - - Captain J. Wilson, _Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean_ - (London, 1799), p. 357. - -Footnote 833: - - J. G. Wood, _Natural History of Man_, ii. 522; J. G. Garson, “On the - Inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego,” _Journal of the Anthropological - Institute_, xv. (1886). p. 145; _Mission scientifique du Cap Horn_, - 1882-1883, vii. (Paris, 1891) p. 345. - -Footnote 834: - - J. B. Ambrosetti, “Los Indios Caingua del alto Paraná (misiones),” - _Boletino del Instituto Geografico Argentino_, xv. (1895) pp. 703 - _sq._ - -Footnote 835: - - E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_, pp. 257 _sq._ - -Footnote 836: - - A. Widenmann, _Die Kilimandscharo-Bevölkerung_ (Gotha, 1899), pp. 68 - _sq._ (_Petermann’s Mittheilungen: Ergänzungsheft_, No. 129). - -Footnote 837: - - Sir Harry H. Johnston, _British Central Africa_ (London, 1897), p. - 438. - -Footnote 838: - - A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, _Up the Niger_ (London, 1892), p. 37. - -Footnote 839: - - Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_, pp. 599 _sq._ - -Footnote 840: - - P. de Tournefort, _Relation d’un voyage du Levant_ (Amsterdam, 1718), - i. 93 (Lettre vi.); Sibthorp, in R. Walpole’s _Memoirs relating to - European and Asiatic Turkey_ (London, 1817), pp. 284 _sq._; W. G. - Clark, _Peloponnesus_ (London, 1858), p. 111; J. T. Bent, _The - Cyclades_ (London, 1885), p. 365. The giant fennel (_Ferula communis_, - L.) is still known in Greece by its ancient name, hardly modified - (_nartheka_ instead of _narthex_), though W. G. Clark says the modern - name is _kalami_. Bent speaks of the plant as a reed, which is a - mistake. The plant is described by Theophrastus (_Histor. plant._ vi. - 2. 7 _sq._). - -Footnote 841: - - Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 50-52; _id._, _Theogony_, 565-567; - Aeschylus, _Prometheus Bound_, 107-111; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. - 7. 1; Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 144; _id._, _Astronomica_, ii. 15. - -Footnote 842: - - See my article, “The Prytaneum, the Temple of Vesta, the Vestals, - Perpetual Fires,” _Journal of Philology_, xiv. (1885) pp. 169-171. - -Footnote 843: - - Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, ii. 67. - -Footnote 844: - - See my article, “The Prytaneum, the Temple of Vesta, the Vestals, - Perpetual Fires,” _Journal of Philology_, xiv. (1885) pp. 145 _sqq._ - -Footnote 845: - - G. Turner, _Nineteen Years in Polynesia_ (London, 1861), p. 326. - -Footnote 846: - - Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas, die materielle Cultur - der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1893), p. 145. - -Footnote 847: - - J. B. Labat, _Relation historique de l’Éthiopie Occidentale_, i. 256 - _sq._ - -Footnote 848: - - J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” - _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 43, 51 - _sq._; _id._, in a letter to me dated Mengo, Uganda, 3rd August 1904. - -Footnote 849: - - W. G. Browne, _Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria_ (London, 1799), p. - 306. - -Footnote 850: - - J. J. Monteiro, _Angola and the River Congo_ (London, 1875), ii. 167. - -Footnote 851: - - P. Pogge, _Im Reiche des Muata Jamwo_ (Berlin, 1880), p. 234. - -Footnote 852: - - A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, iii. 515 _sq._ - -Footnote 853: - - Du Pratz, _History of Louisiana_ (London, 1774), pp. 330-334, 346 - _sq._, 351-358; Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, vi. 172 - _sqq._; Lafitau, _Mœurs des sauvages Ameriquains_, i. 167 _sq._; - _Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition, vii. (Paris, - 1781) pp. 7-16 (reprinted in _Recueil de voyages au nord_, ix. - Amsterdam, 1737, pp. 3-13); “Relation de la Louisianne,” _Recueil de - voyages au Nord_, v. (Amsterdam, 1734) pp. 23 _sq._; Bossu, _Nouveaux - Voyages aux Indes Occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), i. 42-44; - Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_ (Paris, 1870), pp. 227 _sqq._; H. - R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, v. 68. The accounts differ from each - other in some details. Thus Du Pratz speaks as if there were only two - fire-temples in the country, whereas the writer in the _Lettres - édifiantes_ says that there were eleven villages each with its - fire-temple, and that formerly there had been sixty villages and - temples. The account in the text is based mainly on the authority of - Du Pratz, who lived among the Natchez on terms of intimacy for eight - years, from the end of 1718 to 1726. - -Footnote 854: - - Hennepin, _Nouvelle Découverte d’un très grand pays situé dans - l’Amérique_ (Utrecht, 1697), p. 306. - -Footnote 855: - - Xenophon, _Cyropaedia_, viii. 3. 12; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxiii. 6. - 34; Quintus Curtius, iii. 3. 7. - -Footnote 856: - - Dio Cassius, lxxi. 35. 5; Herodian, i. 8. 4, i. 16. 4, ii. 3. 2, ii. - 8. 6, vii. 1. 9, vii. 6. 2. - -Footnote 857: - - H. Schinz, _Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika_, p. 320. - -Footnote 858: - - O. Dapper, _Description de l’Afrique_ (Amsterdam, 1686), p. 392. - -Footnote 859: - - O. Dapper, _op. cit._ p. 400. - -Footnote 860: - - Quintus Curtius, v. 2. 7. Curtius represents this as a signal adopted - by Alexander, because the sound of the bugle was lost in the trampling - and hum of the great multitude. But this maybe merely the historian’s - interpretation of an old custom. - -Footnote 861: - - Xenophon, _Respublica Lacedaemoniorum_, xiii. 2 _sq._; Nicolaus - Damascenus, quoted by Stobaeus, _Florilegium_, xliv. 41 (vol. ii. p. - 188 ed. Meineke); Hesychius, _s.v._ πυρσοφόρος. - -Footnote 862: - - Herodotus, iv. 68. - -Footnote 863: - - Aeschylus, _Choëph._ 604 _sqq._; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 8. 2 - _sq._; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 34. 6 _sq._; Ovid, _Metamorph._ viii. 445 - _sqq._; Hyginus, _Fab._ 171 and 174. - -Footnote 864: - - Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ x. 228. - -Footnote 865: - - Le P. H. Geurtjens, “Le Cérémonial des Voyages aux Îles Keij,” - _Anthropos_, v. (1910) pp. 337 _sq._ - - - - - CHAPTER XVIII - THE SUCCESSION TO THE KINGDOM IN ANCIENT LATIUM - - -[Sidenote: The Vestal fire and the great priesthoods appear to have been -institutions common to the whole Latin race.] Thus it appears that a -variety of considerations combined to uphold, if not to originate, the -custom of maintaining a perpetual fire. The sanctity of the wood which -fed it, the belief in the generative virtue of the process by which it -was kindled, the supposed efficacy of fire in repelling the powers of -evil, the association of the hearth with the spirits of the dead and -with the majesty or even the life of the king all worked together to -invest the simple old custom with a halo of mystery and romance. If this -was so at Rome we may assume that matters were not very different in the -other Latin towns which kept up a Vestal fire. These too had their kings -of the Sacred Rites, their flamens, and their pontiffs, as well as their -Vestal Virgins.[866] All the great priesthoods of Rome appear, in fact, -to have had their doubles in the other ancient cities of Latium; all -were probably primitive institutions common to the whole Latin -race.[867] - -[Sidenote: Priestly or divine functions of the Roman kings, including -the maintenance of the Vestal fire.] Accordingly, whatever is true or -probable of the Roman priesthoods, about which we know most, may -reasonably be regarded as true or probable of the corresponding -priesthoods elsewhere in Latium, about which for the most part we know -nothing more than the names. Now in regard to the Roman king, whose -priestly functions were inherited by his successor the king of the -Sacred Rites, the foregoing discussion has led us to the following -conclusions. He represented and indeed personated Jupiter, the great god -of the oak, the sky, and the thunder, and in that character made rain, -thunder, and lightning for the good of his subjects, like many more -kings of the weather in other parts of the world. Further, he not only -mimicked the oak-god by wearing an oak wreath and other insignia of -divinity, but he was married to an oak-nymph Egeria, who appears to have -been merely a local form of Diana in her character of a goddess of -woods, of waters, and of childbirth. Moreover, he was descended from the -oak, since he was born of a virgin who conceived by contact with a fire -of sacred oak-wood. Hence he had to guard the ancestral fire and keep it -constantly burning, inasmuch as on its maintenance depended the -continuance of the royal family. Only on certain stated occasions was it -lawful and even necessary to extinguish the old fire in order to revive -it in a purer and more vigorous form by the friction of the sacred wood. -This was done once a year on the first of March,[868] and we may -conjecture that it was also done by the new king on his accession to -power; for, as we have seen, it has been customary in [Sidenote: But the -fire was formally extinguished and rekindled on certain occasions, -perhaps on the death of the king.] various places to extinguish the -king’s fire at his death.[869] Among the ancient Persians the perpetual -sacred fire was put out on the death of a king and remained unlit until -after his funeral.[870] It is a common practice to extinguish the fire -in any house where a death has taken place,[871] apparently from a fear -that the ghost may scorch or singe himself at it, like a moth at the -flame of a candle; and the custom of putting out the king’s fire at his -decease may in its origin have been nothing more than this. But when the -fire on the king’s hearth came to be viewed as bound up in a mysterious -fashion with his life, it would naturally be extinguished at his death, -not to spare his fluttering ghost the risk and pain of falling into it, -but because, as a sort of life-token or external soul, it too must die -at his death and be born again from the holy tree. At all events, it -seems probable that whenever and from whatever cause it became necessary -to rekindle the royal and sacred fire by the friction of wood, the -operation was performed jointly by the king and the Vestals, one or more -of whom may have been his daughters or the daughters of his predecessor. -Regarded as impersonations of Mother Vesta herself, these priestesses -would be the chosen vessels, not only to bring to birth the seed of fire -in working the fire-drill, but also to receive the seed of the fire-god -in their chaste wombs, and so to become the mothers of fire-begotten -kings. - -[Sidenote: What is true of the Roman kings is probably true of the Latin -kings in general.] All these conclusions, which we have reached mainly -by a consideration of the Roman evidence, may with great probability be -applied to the other Latin communities. They too probably had of old -their divine or priestly kings, who transmitted their religious -functions, without their civil powers, to their successors the kings of -the Sacred Rites. - -[Sidenote: What was the rule of succession to the Latin kingship?] But -we have still to ask, What was the rule of succession to the kingdom -among the old Latin tribes? We possess two lists of Latin kings both -professedly complete. One is the list of the kings of Alba, the other is -the list of the [Sidenote: The list of the Alban kings seems to imply -that the kingship was hereditary in the male line.] kings of Rome. If we -accept as authentic the list of the Alban kings, we can only conclude -that the kingdom was hereditary in the male line, the son regularly -succeeding his father on the throne.[872] But this list, if it is not, -as Niebuhr held, a late and clumsy fabrication, has somewhat the -appearance of an elastic cord which ancient historians stretched in -order to link Aeneas to Romulus.[873] Yet it would be rash to set these -names wholly aside as a chronological stop-gap deliberately foisted in -by later annalists. In early monarchies, before the invention of -writing, tradition is remarkably retentive of the names of kings. The -Baganda of Central Africa, for example, remember the names of more than -thirty of their kings in an unbroken chain of twenty-two -generations.[874] Even the occurrence of foreign names among the Alban -kings is not of itself sufficient to condemn the list as a forgery; for, -as I shall shew presently, this feature is explicable by a rule of -descent which appears to have prevailed in many ancient monarchies, -including that of Rome. Perhaps the most we can say for the history of -the Alban kings is that their names may well be genuine, and that some -general features of the monarchy, together with a few events which -happened to strike the popular imagination, may have survived in the -memory of the people till they found their way into written history. But -no dependence can be placed either on the alleged years of their reigns, -or on the hereditary principle which is assumed to have connected each -king with his predecessor. - -When we come to the list of the Roman kings we are on much firmer, -though still slippery ground. According to tradition there were in all -eight kings of Rome,[875] and with regard to the five last of them, at -all events, we can hardly doubt that they actually sat on the throne, -and that the traditional history of their reigns is, in its main -outlines, correct.[876] Now it is very remarkable that though the first -king of Rome, Romulus, is said to have been descended from the royal -house of Alba, in which the kingship is represented as hereditary in the -male line, not one of the [Sidenote: On the other hand none of the Roman -kings was immediately succeeded by his son, but three were succeeded by -their sons-in-law, who were foreigners.] Roman kings was immediately -succeeded by his son on the throne. Yet several left sons or grandsons -behind them.[877] On the other hand, one of them was descended from a -former king through his mother, not through his father,[878] and three -of the kings, namely Tatius, the elder Tarquin, and Servius Tullius, -were succeeded by their sons-in-law,[879] who were all either foreigners -or of foreign descent.[880] This [Sidenote: This suggests that the -kingship was transmitted in the female line and was held by foreigners -who married the royal princesses.] suggests that the right to the -kingship was transmitted in the female line, and was actually exercised -by foreigners who married the royal princesses. To put it in technical -language, the succession to the kingship at Rome and probably in Latium -generally would seem to have been determined by certain rules which have -moulded early society in many parts of the world, namely exogamy, -_beena_ marriage, and female kinship or mother-kin. Exogamy is the rule -which obliges a man to marry a woman of a different clan from his own; -_beena_ marriage is the rule that he must leave the home of his birth -and live with his wife’s people;[881] and female kinship or mother-kin -is the system of tracing relationship and transmitting the family name -through women instead of through men.[882] If these principles regulated -descent of the kingship among the ancient Latins, the state of things in -this respect would be somewhat as follows. The political and religious -centre of each community would be the perpetual fire on the king’s -hearth tended by Vestal Virgins of the royal clan. The king would be a -man of another clan, perhaps of another town or even of another race, -who had married a daughter of his predecessor and received the kingdom -with her. The children whom he had by her would inherit their mother’s -name, not his; the daughters would remain at home; the sons, when they -grew up, would go away into the world, marry, and settle in their wives’ -country, whether as kings or commoners. Of the daughters who stayed at -home, some or all would be dedicated as Vestal Virgins for a longer or -shorter time to the service of the fire on the hearth, and one of them -would in time become the consort of her father’s successor. - -[Sidenote: This hypothesis explains some obscure features in the -traditional history of the Latin kings, such as the stories of their -miraculous birth.] This hypothesis has the advantage of explaining in a -simple and natural way some obscure features in the traditional history -of the Latin kingship. Thus the legends which tell how Latin kings were -born of virgin mothers and divine fathers become at least more -intelligible. For, stripped of their fabulous element, tales of this -sort mean no more than that a woman has been gotten with child by a man -unknown; and this uncertainty as to fatherhood is more easily compatible -with a system of kinship which ignores paternity than with one which -makes it all-important. If at the birth of the Latin kings their fathers -were really unknown,[883] the fact points either to a general looseness -of life in the royal family or to a special relaxation [Sidenote: The -Latin kings perhaps begotten at a Saturnalia.] of moral rules on certain -occasions, when men and women reverted for a season to the licence of an -earlier age. Such Saturnalias are not uncommon at some stages of social -evolution. In our own country traces of them long survived in the -practices of May Day and Whitsuntide, if not of Christmas. Children born -of the more or less promiscuous intercourse which characterises -festivals of this kind would naturally be fathered on the god to whom -the particular festival was dedicated. - -[Sidenote: The Roman festival of Midsummer was a kind of Saturnalia, and -was specially associated with the fire-born King Servius Tullius.] In -this connexion it may not be without significance that a festival of -jollity and drunkenness was celebrated by the plebeians and slaves at -Rome on Midsummer Day, and that the festival was specially associated -with the fire-born King Servius Tullius, being held in honour of -Fortuna, the goddess who loved Servius as Egeria loved Numa. The popular -merrymakings at this season included foot-races and boat-races; the -Tiber was gay with flower-wreathed boats, in which young folk sat -quaffing wine.[884] The festival appears to have been a sort of -Midsummer Saturnalia answering to the real Saturnalia which fell at -Midwinter. In modern Europe, as we shall learn later on, the great -Midsummer festival has been above all a festival of lovers and of fire; -one of its principal features is the pairing of sweethearts, who leap -over the bonfires hand in hand or throw flowers across the flames to -each other. And many omens of love and marriage are drawn from the -flowers which bloom at this mystic season.[885] It is the time of the -roses and of love. Yet the innocence and beauty of such festivals in -modern times ought not to blind us to the likelihood that in earlier -days they were marked by coarser features, which were probably of the -essence of the rites. Indeed, among the rude Esthonian peasantry these -features seem to have lingered down to our own generation, if not to the -present day. One other feature in the Roman celebration of Midsummer -deserves to be specially noticed. The custom of rowing in flower-decked -boats on the river on this day proves that it was to some extent a water -festival; and, as we shall learn later on, water has always, down to -modern times, played a conspicuous part in the rites of Midsummer Day, -which explains why the Church, in throwing its cloak over the old -heathen festival, chose to dedicate it to St. John the Baptist.[886] - -[Sidenote: But the uncertainty as to the paternity of the Roman kings -may only mean that in later times the names of their fathers were -forgotten.] The hypothesis that the Latin kings may have been begotten -at an annual festival of love is necessarily a mere conjecture, though -the traditional birth of Numa on the festival of the Parilia, when -shepherds leaped across the spring bonfires,[887] as lovers leap across -the Midsummer fires, may perhaps be thought to lend it a faint colour of -probability. But it is quite possible that the uncertainty as to their -fathers may not have arisen till long after the death of the kings, when -their figures began to melt away into the cloudland of fable, assuming -fantastic shapes and gorgeous colouring as they passed from earth to -heaven. If they were alien immigrants, strangers and pilgrims in the -land they ruled over, it would be natural enough that the people should -forget their lineage, and forgetting it should provide them with -another, which made up in lustre what it lacked in truth. The final -apotheosis, which represented the kings as not merely sprung from gods -but as themselves deities incarnate, would be much facilitated if in -their lifetime, as we have seen reason to think, they had actually laid -claim to divinity. - -[Sidenote: Where descent is traced through women only, girls of the -highest rank may be married to men of humble birth, even to aliens and -slaves.] If among the Latins the women of royal blood always stayed at -home and received as their consorts men of another stock, and often of -another country, who reigned as kings in virtue of their marriage with a -native princess, we can understand not only why foreigners wore the -crown at Rome, but also why foreign names occur in the list of the Alban -kings. In a state of society where nobility is reckoned only through -women—in other words, where descent through the mother is everything, -and descent through the father is nothing—no objection will be felt to -uniting girls of the highest rank to men of humble birth, even to aliens -or slaves, provided that in themselves the men appear to be suitable -mates. What really matters is that the royal stock, on which the -prosperity and even the existence of the people is supposed to depend, -should be perpetuated in a vigorous and efficient form, and for this -purpose it is necessary that the women of the royal family should bear -children to men who are physically and mentally fit, according to the -standard of early society, to discharge the important duty of -procreation. Thus the personal qualities of the kings at this stage of -social evolution are deemed of vital importance. If they, like their -consorts, are of royal and divine descent, so much the better; but it is -not essential that they should be so. - -[Sidenote: In Ashantee, where the kingdom descends through women, the -rank of the king’s father is not regarded.] The hypothesis which we have -been led to frame of the rule of succession to the Latin kingship will -be confirmed by analogy if we can shew that elsewhere, under a system of -female kinship, the paternity of the kings is a matter of -indifference—nay, that men who are born slaves may, like Servius -Tullius, marry royal princesses and be raised to the throne. Now this is -true of the Tshi-speaking peoples of the Gold Coast in West Africa. Thus -in Ashantee, where the kingdom descends in the female line to the king’s -brothers and afterwards to the sons of his sister in preference to his -own sons, the sisters of the reigning monarch are free to marry or -intrigue with whom they please, provided only that their husband or -lover be a very strong and handsome man, in order that the kings whom he -begets may be men of finer presence than their subjects. It matters not -how low may be the rank and position of the king’s father. If the king’s -sisters, however, have no sons, the throne will pass to the king’s own -son, and failing a son, to the chief vassal or the chief slave. But in -the Fantee country the principal slave succeeds to the exclusion of the -son. So little regard is paid by these people to the lineage, especially -the paternal lineage, of their kings.[888] Yet Ashantee has attained a -barbaric civilisation as high perhaps as that of any negro state, and -probably not at all inferior to that of the petty Latin kingdoms at the -dawn of history. - -[Sidenote: Traces of a similar state of things in Uganda.] A trace of a -similar state of things appears to survive in Uganda, another great -African monarchy. For there the queen dowager and the queen sister are, -or were, allowed to have as many husbands as they choose, without going -through any marriage ceremony. “Of these two women it is commonly said -all Uganda is their husband; they appear to be fond of change, only -living with a man for a few days and then inviting some one else to take -his place.” We are reminded of the legends of the lustful queen -Semiramis, and the likeness may be more than superficial. Yet these -women are not allowed, under pain of death, to bear children; hence they -practise abortion.[889] Both the licence and the prohibition may be -explained if we suppose that formerly the kingdom descended, as it still -does in Ashantee, first to the king’s brothers and next to the sons of -his sisters. For in that case the next heirs to the throne would be the -sons of the king’s mother and of his sisters, and these women might -accordingly be allowed, as the king’s sisters still are allowed in -Ashantee, to mate with any handsome men who took their fancy, in order -that their offspring might be of regal part. But when the line of -descent was changed from the female to the male line, in other words, -when the kings were succeeded by their sons instead of by their brothers -or their sisters’ sons, then the king’s mother and his sisters would be -forbidden to bear children lest the descent of the crown to the king’s -own children should be endangered by the existence of rivals who, -according to the old law of the kingdom, had a better right to the -throne. We may surmise that the practice of putting the king’s brothers -to death at the beginning of his reign, which survived till Uganda -passed under English protection,[890] was instituted at the same time as -the prohibition of child-bearing laid on the king’s mother and sisters. -The one custom got rid of existing rivals; the other prevented them from -being born. That the kingship in Uganda was formerly transmitted in the -female line is strongly indicated by the rule that the kings and the -rest of the royal family take their totems from their mothers, whereas -all the other people of the country get their totems from their -fathers.[891] - -[Sidenote: In Loango also, where the blood royal is traced in the female -line, the princesses are free to cohabit with whom they please, and -their consorts are practically their slaves.] In Loango the blood royal -is traced in the female line, and here also the princesses are free to -choose and divorce their husbands at pleasure, and to cohabit at the -same time with other men. These husbands are nearly always plebeians, -for princes and princesses, who are very numerous and form a ruling -caste in the country, may not marry each other. The lot of a prince -consort is not a happy one, for he is rather the slave and prisoner than -the mate of his imperious princess. In marrying her he engages never -more to look at a woman during the whole time he cohabits with his royal -spouse. When he goes out he is preceded by guards who drive away all -females from the road where he is to pass. If in spite of these -precautions he should by ill-luck cast his eyes on a woman, the princess -may have his head chopped off, and commonly exercises, or used to -exercise, the right. This sort of libertinism, sustained by power, often -carries the princesses to the greatest excesses, and nothing is so much -dreaded as their anger. No wonder that commoners in general avoid the -honour of a royal alliance. Only poor and embarrassed men seek it as a -protection against their creditors and enemies. All the children of such -a man by such a wife are princes and princesses, and any one of the -princes may in time be chosen king; for in Loango the crown is not -hereditary but elective.[892] Thus it would seem that the father of the -King of Loango is nearly always a plebeian, and often little better than -a slave. - -[Sidenote: Similar rights enjoyed by queens in Central Africa.] Near the -Chambezi river, which falls into Lake Bengweolo in Central Africa, there -is a small state governed by a queen who belongs to the reigning family -of Ubemba. She bears the title of _Mamfumer_ or Mother of Kings. “The -privileges attached to this dignity are numerous. The most singular is -that the queens may choose for themselves their husband among the common -people. The chosen man becomes prince-consort without sharing in the -administration of affairs. He is bound to leave everything to follow his -royal and often but little accommodating spouse. To shew that in these -households the rights are inverted and that a man may be changed into a -woman, the queen takes the title of _Monsieur_ and her husband that of -_Madame_.”[893] - -[Sidenote: Traces of female descent of the kingship in ancient Greece.] -At Athens, as at Rome, we find traces of succession to the throne by -marriage with a royal princess; for two of the most ancient kings of -Athens, namely Cecrops and Amphictyon, are said to have married the -daughters of their predecessors.[894] This tradition is confirmed by the -evidence, which I shall adduce presently, that at Athens male kinship -was preceded by female kinship. - -[Sidenote: With this rule of descent of the kingship males rule over -different kingdoms in successive generations.] Further, if I am right in -supposing that in ancient Latium the royal families kept their daughters -at home and sent forth their sons to marry princesses and reign among -their wives’ people, it will follow that the male descendants would -reign in successive generations over different kingdoms. Now this seems -to have happened both in ancient Greece and in ancient Sweden; from -which we may legitimately infer that it was a custom practised by more -than one branch of the Aryan stock in Europe. Take, for instance, the -great house of Aeacus, the grandfather of Achilles and Ajax. Aeacus -himself reigned in Aegina, but his descendants, as has been justly -observed, “from the beginning went forth to other lands.”[895] His son -Telamon migrated to the [Sidenote: Migrations of the male descendants of -Aeacus.] island of Salamis, married the king’s daughter, and reigned -over the country.[896] Telamon’s son Teucer, in his turn, migrated to -Cyprus, wedded the king’s daughter, and succeeded his father-in-law on -the throne.[897] Again, Peleus, another son of Aeacus, quitted his -native land and went away to Phthia in Thessaly, where he received the -hand of the king’s daughter, and with her a third of the kingdom.[898] -Of Achilles, the son of Peleus, we are told that in his youth he was -sent to the court of Lycomedes, King of Scyros, where he got one of the -princesses with child.[899] The tradition seems to shew that Achilles -followed the custom of his family in seeking his fortune in a foreign -land. His son Neoptolemus, after him, went away to Epirus, where he -settled and became the ancestor of the kings of the country.[900] - -[Sidenote: Migrations of the male descendants of Tydeus and Pelops.] -Again, Tydeus was a son of Oeneus, the King of Calydon in Aetolia, but -he went to Argos and married the king’s daughter.[901] His son Diomede -migrated to Daunia in Italy, where he helped the king in a war with his -enemies, receiving as his reward the king’s daughter in marriage and -part of the kingdom.[902] As another example we may take the family of -the Pelopidae, whose tragic fortunes the Greek poets never wearied of -celebrating. Their ancestor was Tantalus, King of Sipylus in Asia Minor. -But his son Pelops passed into Greece, won Hippodamia, the daughter of -the King of Pisa, in the famous chariot-race, and succeeded his -father-in-law on the throne.[903] His son Atreus did not remain in Pisa, -but migrated to Mycenae, of which he became king;[904] and in the next -generation Menelaus, son of Atreus, went to Sparta, where he married -Helen, the king’s daughter, and himself reigned over the country.[905] -Further, it is very notable that, according to the old lyric poets, -Agamemnon himself, the elder brother of Menelaus, reigned not at Mycenae -but in Lacedaemon, the native land of his wife Clytaemnestra, and that -he was buried at Amyclae, the ancient capital of the country.[906] - -[Sidenote: These migrations not understood in later times.] Various -reasons are assigned by ancient Greek writers for these migrations of -the princes. A common one is that the king’s son had been banished for -murder. This would explain very well why he fled his own land, but it is -no reason at all why he should become king of another. We may suspect -that such reasons are afterthoughts devised by writers who, accustomed -to the rule that a son should succeed to his father’s property and -kingdom, were hard put to it to account for so many traditions of kings’ -sons who quitted the land of their birth to reign over a foreign -kingdom. - -[Sidenote: Traces of similar migrations in Scandinavian tradition.] In -Scandinavian tradition we meet with traces of similar customs. For we -read of daughters’ husbands who received a share of the kingdoms of -their royal fathers-in-law, even when these fathers-in-law had sons of -their own; in particular, during the five generations which preceded -Harold the Fair-haired, male members of the Ynglingar family, which is -said to have come from Sweden, are reported in the _Heimskringla_ or -_Sagas of the Norwegian_ Kings to have obtained at least six provinces -in Norway by marriage with the daughters of the local kings.[907] - -[Sidenote: A reminiscence of the transmission of the kingship through -women is preserved in popular tales.] Thus it would seem that among some -Aryan peoples, at a certain stage of their social evolution, it has been -customary to regard women and not men as the channels in which royal -blood flows, and to bestow the kingdom in each successive generation on -a man of another family, and often of another country, who marries one -of the princesses and reigns over his wife’s people. A common type of -popular tale, which relates how an adventurer, coming to a strange land, -wins the hand of the king’s daughter and with her the half or the whole -of the kingdom, may well be a reminiscence of a real custom.[908] - -[Sidenote: Where such customs prevail, the kingship is an appanage of -marriage with a princess.] Where usages and ideas of this sort prevail, -it is obvious that the kingship is merely an appanage of marriage with a -woman of the blood royal. The old Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus puts -this view of the kingship very clearly in the mouth of Hermutrude, a -legendary queen of Scotland, and her statement is all the more -significant because, as we shall see presently, it reflects the actual -practice of the Pictish kings. “Indeed she was a queen,” says -Hermutrude, “and but that her sex gainsaid it, might be deemed a king; -nay (and this is yet truer), whomsoever she thought worthy of her bed -was at once a king, and she yielded her kingdom with herself. Thus her -sceptre and her hand went together.”[909] Wherever a custom of this sort -is observed, a man may clearly acquire the kingdom just as well by -marrying the widow as the daughter of his predecessor. This is what -Aegisthus did at Mycenae, and what Hamlet’s uncle Feng and Hamlet’s -successor Wiglet did in Denmark; all three slew their predecessors, -married their widows, and then sat peacefully on the throne.[910] The -tame submission of the people to their rule would be intelligible, if -they regarded the assassins, in spite of their crime, as the lawful -occupants of the throne by reason of their marriage with the widowed -queens. Similarly, Gyges murdered Candaules, King of Lydia, [Sidenote: -The Lydian kingship apparently transmitted through women.] married his -queen, and reigned over the country.[911] Nor was this the only instance -of such a succession in the history of Lydia. The wife of King Cadys -conspired against his life with her paramour Spermus, and though her -husband recovered from the dose of poison which she administered to him, -he died soon afterwards, and the adulterer married his leman and -succeeded to the throne.[912] These cases excite a suspicion that in the -royal house of Lydia descent was traced in the female line, and the -suspicion is strengthened by the legendary character of Omphale, the -ancestress of the dynasty. For she is represented as a masculine but -dissolute queen of the Semiramis type, who wore male attire and put all -her favoured lovers to death, while on the other hand her consort -Hercules was her purchased slave, was treated with indignity, and went -about dressed as a woman.[913] This plainly implies that the queen was a -far more powerful and important personage than the king, as would -naturally happen wherever it is the queen who confers royalty on her -consort at marriage instead of receiving it from him. The story that she -prostituted the daughters of the Lydians to their male slaves[914] is of -a piece with the tradition that she herself married her slave Hercules. -It may mean little more than that the Lydians were indifferent to -paternity, and that the children of freewomen by slaves ranked as free. -Such an indifference to fatherhood, coupled with the ancient accounts of -the loose morals of the Lydian girls, who were accustomed to earn a -dowry by prostitution,[915] is a mark of the system of female kinship. -Hence we may conjecture that Herodotus was wrong in saying that from -Hercules to Candaules the crown of Lydia had descended for twenty-two -generations from father to son.[916] The old mode of transmitting the -crown of Lydia through women probably did not end with Candaules. At -least we are told that his murderer and successor Gyges, like Hercules, -the mythical founder of the dynasty, gave himself and his kingdom into -the hands of the woman he loved, and that when she died he collected all -the slaves from the country round about and raised in her memory a mound -so lofty that it could be seen from every part of the Lydian plain, and -for centuries after was known as the Harlot’s Tomb.[917] - -[Sidenote: Marriage of Canute with the widow of his predecessor.] When -Canute the Dane had been acknowledged King of England, he married Emma, -the widow of his predecessor Ethelred, whose throne he had overturned -and whose children he had driven into exile. The marriage has not -unnaturally puzzled the historians, for Emma was much older than her -second husband, she was then living in Normandy, and it is very doubtful -whether Canute had ever seen her before she became his bride. All, -however, becomes plain if, as the cases of Feng and Wiglet seem to shew, -it was an old Danish custom that marriage with a king’s widow carried -the kingdom with it as a matter of right. In that case the young but -prudent Canute married the mature widow merely out of policy in order to -clinch, according to Danish notions, by a legal measure his claim to -that crown which he had already won for himself by the sword.[918] Among -the Saxons and their near kinsmen the Varini it appears to have been a -regular custom for the new king to marry his stepmother. Thus -Hermegisclus, King of the Varini, on his deathbed enjoined his son -Radigis to wed his stepmother in accordance with their ancestral -practice, and his injunction was obeyed.[919] Edbald, King of Kent, -married his stepmother after the death of his father Ethelbert;[920] and -as late as the ninth century Ethelbald, King of the West Saxons, wedded -Judith, the widow of his father Ethelwulf.[921] Such marriages are -intelligible if we suppose that old Saxon as well as old Danish law gave -the kingdom to him who married the late king’s widow. - -[Sidenote: Traces of the system of female kinship among the Aryans.] To -the view that the right to the Latin kingship was derived from women and -not from men, it may be objected that the system of female kinship or -mother-kin is unknown among the Aryans,[922] and that even if faint -traces of it may be met with elsewhere, the last place in the world -where we should look for it would be Rome, the stronghold of the -patriarchal family. To meet this objection it is necessary to point to -some facts which appear to be undoubted survivals among Aryan peoples of -a custom of tracing descent through the mother only. - -[Sidenote: Female kinship among the Athenians, the Epizephyrian -Locrians, the Cantabrians, and the Germans.] In Attica tradition ran -that of old the women were the common property of the men, who coupled -with them like beasts, so that while every one knew his mother, nobody -knew who his father was. This system of sexual communism was abolished -by Cecrops, the first King of Athens, who introduced individual marriage -in its place.[923] Little weight could be attached to this tradition, if -it were not supported to a certain extent by the Attic usage which -always allowed a man to marry his half-sister by the same father but not -his half-sister by the same mother.[924] Such a rule seems clearly to be -a relic of a time when kinship was counted only through women. Again, -the Epizephyrian Locrians in Italy traced all ancestral distinction in -the female, not the male line. Among them the nobles were the members of -the hundred houses from whom were chosen by lot the maidens to be sent -to Troy.[925] For in order, it is said, to expiate the sacrilege -committed by the Locrian Ajax when he violated Cassandra in the -sanctuary of Athena at Troy, the cities of Locris used annually to send -to the Trojan goddess two maidens, whom the Trojans slew, and, burning -their bodies on the wood of certain trees which bore no fruit, threw the -ashes into the sea. If the maidens contrived to escape they took refuge -in the sanctuary of Athena, which they thenceforth swept and washed, -never quitting it except at night, and always going barefoot, shorn, and -clad in a single garment. The custom is said to have been observed for a -thousand years down to the fourth century before our era.[926] Among the -Locrians, as elsewhere, the system of female kinship would seem to have -gone hand in hand with dissolute morals; for there is reason to think -that of old the Locrians, like the Lydians and Armenians, had been wont -to prostitute their daughters before marriage, though in later times the -custom fell into abeyance.[927] The Cantabrians of Spain seem also to -have had mother-kin; for among them it was the daughters who inherited -property and who portioned out their brothers in marriage.[928] Again, -the ancient Germans deemed the tie between a man and his sister’s -children as close as that between a father and his children; indeed some -regarded the bond as even closer and more sacred, and therefore in -exacting hostages they chose the children of a man’s sister rather than -his own children, believing that this gave them a firmer hold on the -family.[929] The superiority thus assigned to the maternal uncle over -the father is an infallible mark of mother-kin, either present or past, -as may be observed, for instance, in very many African tribes to this -day, among whom both property and political power pass, not from father -to son, but from the maternal uncle to his nephews.[930] Similarly, in -Melanesia the close relation of the mother’s brother to his nephew is -maintained even where the system of relationship has become -patriarchal.[931] Amongst the Germans in the time of Tacitus, it is -true, a man’s heirs were his own children,[932] but the mother’s brother -could never have attained the position he held except under a system of -maternal descent. Another vestige of mother-kin among a Teutonic people -appears to be found in the Salic law. For it was a custom with the -Salian Franks that when a widow married again, a price had to be paid to -her family, and in laying down the order in which her kinsmen were -entitled to receive this payment the law gave a decided preference to -the female over the male line; thus the first person entitled to claim -the money was the eldest son of the widow’s sister.[933] - -[Sidenote: Among the Picts the kingship was transmitted through women.] -It is a moot point whether the Picts of Scotland belonged to the Aryan -family or not;[934] but among them the kingdom was certainly transmitted -through women. Bede tells us that down to his own time, in the early -part of the eighth century, whenever a doubt arose as to the succession, -the Picts chose their king from the female rather than the male -line.[935] The statement is amply confirmed by historical evidence. For -we possess a list of the Pictish kings and their fathers which was drawn -up in the reign of Cenaed, King of the Scots, towards the end of the -tenth century; and for the period from the year 583 to the year 840 the -register is authenticated by the Irish Annals of Tigernach and Ulster. -Now, it is significant that in this list the fathers of the kings are -never themselves kings; in other words, no king was succeeded on the -throne by his son. Further, if we may judge by their names, the fathers -of the Pictish kings were not Picts but foreigners—men of Irish, Cymric, -or English race. The inference from these facts seems to be that among -the Picts the royal family was exogamous, and that the crown descended -in the female line; in other words, that the princesses married men of -another clan or even of another race, and that their issue by these -strangers sat on the throne, whether they succeeded in a prescribed -order according to birth, or whether they were elected from among the -sons of princesses, as the words of Bede might be taken to imply.[936] - -[Sidenote: Female kinship among the Etruscans.] Another European, though -apparently not Aryan, people among whom the system of female kinship -appears to have prevailed were the Etruscans. For in Etruscan sepulchral -inscriptions the name of the mother of the deceased is regularly -recorded along with or even without the name of the father; and where -the names of both father and mother are mentioned, greater prominence is -given to the mother’s name by writing it in full, whereas the father’s -name is, in accordance with Roman usage, merely indicated by an -initial.[937] The statement of Theopompus that among the Etruscans -sexual communism was a recognised practice, and that paternity was -unknown,[938] may be only an exaggerated way of saying that they traced -their descent through their mothers and not through their fathers. Yet -apparently in Etruria, as elsewhere, this system of relationship was -combined with a real indifference to fatherhood and with the dissolute -morals which that indifference implies; for Etruscan girls were wont to -earn a dowry by prostitution.[939] In these customs the Etruscans -resembled the Lydians, and the similarity confirms the common opinion of -antiquity, which modern historians have too lightly set aside, that the -Etruscans were of Lydian origin.[940] However that may be, in -considering the vestiges of mother-kin among the Latins, we shall do -well to bear in mind that the same archaic mode of tracing descent -appears to have prevailed among the neighbouring Etruscans, who not only -exercised a powerful influence on Rome, but gave her two, if not three, -of her kings.[941] - -[Sidenote: Mother-kin may survive in the royal family after it has been -exchanged for father-kin in all others.] It would be neither unnatural -nor surprising if among the ancient Latins mother-kin survived in the -royal family after it had been exchanged for father-kin in all others. -For royalty, like religion, is essentially conservative; it clings to -old forms and old customs which have long vanished from ordinary life. -Thus in Uganda persons of royal blood still inherit their totems from -their mothers, while other people inherit them from their fathers. So in -Denmark and Scandinavia, as we have seen, the kingdom would appear to -have been transmitted through women long after the family name and -property had become hereditary in the male line among the people. -Sometimes the difference in custom between kings and commoners is -probably based rather on a distinction of race than on varying degrees -of social progress; for a dynasty is often a family of alien origin who -have imposed their rule on their subjects by force of arms, as the -Normans did on the Saxons, and the Manchus on the Chinese. More rarely, -perhaps, it may have happened that from motives of policy or -superstition a [Sidenote: Sometimes a conquering race may have left a -nominal kingship to members of the old royal house.] conquering tribe -has left a nominal kingship to the members of the old royal house. Such -a concession would be most likely to be made where the functions of the -king were rather religious than civil, and where the prosperity of the -country was supposed to depend on the maintenance of the established -relations between the people and the gods of the land. In that case the -new-comers, knowing not how to appease and conciliate these strange -deities, might be glad to let the priestly kings of the conquered race -perform the quaint rites and mumble the venerable spells, which had been -found to answer their purpose time out of mind.[942] In a commonwealth -like the Roman, formed by the union of different stocks, the royal -family might thus belong either to the conquerors or to the conquered; -in other words, either to the [Sidenote: This perhaps happened at Rome, -where many of the kings seem to have been plebeians.] patricians or to -the plebeians. But if we leave out of account Romulus and Tatius, who -are more or less legendary figures, and the two Tarquins, who came of a -noble Etruscan house, all the other Roman kings appear from their names -to have been men of plebeian, not patrician, families.[943] Hence it -seems probable that they belonged to the indigenous race, who may have -retained mother-kin, at least in the royal succession, after they had -submitted to invaders who knew father-kin only. - -[Sidenote: The abolition of the monarchy at Rome may have been a -revolution whereby the patricians wrested the shadow of sovereignty from -the plebeians and transferred it to themselves, who already wielded the -substance.] If that was so, it confirms the view that the old Roman -kingship was essentially a religious office; for the conquerors would be -much more ready to leave an office of this sort in the hands of the -conquered than a kingship of the type with which we are familiar. “Let -these puppets,” they might think, “render to the gods their dues, while -we rule the people in peace and lead them in war.” Of such priestly -kings Numa was the type. But not all of his successors were willing to -model themselves on his saintly figure and, rejecting the pomps and -vanities of earth, to devote themselves to communion with heaven. Some -were men of strong will and warlike temper, who could not brook the dull -routine of the cloister. They longed to exchange the stillness and gloom -of the temple or the sacred grove for the sunshine, the dust, and the -tumult of the battlefield. Such men broke bounds, and when they -threatened to get completely out of hand and turn the tables on the -patricians, it was time that they should go. This, we may conjecture, -was the real meaning of the abolition of the kingship at Rome. It put an -end to the solemn pretence that the state was still ruled by the ancient -owners of the soil: it took the shadow of power from them and gave it to -those who had long possessed the substance. The ghost of the monarchy -had begun to walk and grow troublesome: the revolution laid it for -centuries. - -[Sidenote: At first the intention seems to have been to leave the annual -kingship or consulship to the old royal family.] But though the effect -of the revolution was to substitute the real rule of the patricians for -the nominal rule of the plebeians, the break with the past was at the -outset less complete than it seems. For the first two consuls were both -men of the royal blood. One of them, L. Junius Brutus, was sister’s son -of the expelled King Tarquin the Proud.[944] As such he would have been -the heir to the throne under a strict system of mother-kin. The other -consul, L. Tarquinius Collatinus, was a son of the late king’s cousin -Egerius.[945] These facts suggest that the first intention of the -revolutionaries was neither to abolish the kingship nor to wrest it from -the royal family, but, merely retaining the hereditary monarchy, to -restrict its powers. To achieve this object they limited the tenure of -office to a year and doubled the number of the kings, who might thus be -expected to check and balance each other. But it is not impossible that -both restrictions were merely the revival of old rules which the growing -power of the kings had contrived for a time to set aside in practice. -The legends of Romulus and Remus, and afterwards of Romulus and Tatius, -may be real reminiscences of a double kingship like that of Sparta;[946] -and in the yearly ceremony of the _Regifugium_ or Flight of the King we -seem to detect a trace of an annual, not a life-long, tenure of -office.[947] The same thing may perhaps be true of the parallel change -which took place at Athens when the people deprived the Medontids of -their regal powers and reduced them from kings to responsible -magistrates, who held office at first for life, but afterwards only for -periods of ten years.[948] Here, too, the limitation of the tenure of -the kingship may have been merely the reinforcement of an old custom -which had fallen into abeyance. At Rome, however, the attempt to -maintain the hereditary principle, if it was made at all, was almost -immediately abandoned, and the patricians openly transferred to -themselves the double kingship, which thenceforth was purely elective, -and was afterwards known as the consulship.[949] - -[Sidenote: The abolition of the monarchy at Rome seems to have been -hastened by an attempt of the last king to shift the succession from the -female to the male line.] The history of the last king of Rome, Tarquin -the Proud, leads us to suspect that the offence which he gave by his -ambitious and domineering character was heightened by an attempt to -shift the succession of the kingship from the female to the male line. -He himself united both rights in his own person; for he had married the -daughter of his predecessor, Servius Tullius, and he was the son or -grandson of Tarquin the Elder,[950] who preceded Servius Tullius on the -throne. But in asserting his right to the crown, if we can trust Roman -history on this point, Tarquin the Proud entirely ignored his claim to -it through women as the son-in-law of his predecessor, and insisted only -on his claim in the male line as the son or grandson of a former -king.[951] And he evidently intended to bequeath the kingdom to one of -his sons; for he put out of the way two of the men who, if the -succession had been through women in the way I have indicated, would -have been entitled to sit on the throne before his own sons, and even -before himself. One of these was his sister’s husband, the other was her -elder son. Her younger son, the famous Lucius Junius Brutus, only -escaped the fate of his father and elder brother by feigning, like -Hamlet, imbecility, and thus deluding his wicked uncle into the belief -that he had nothing to fear from such a simpleton.[952] This design of -Tarquin to alter the line of succession from the female to the male side -of the house may have been the last drop which filled his cup of -high-handed tyranny to overflowing. At least it is a strange -coincidence, if it is nothing more, that he was deposed by the man who, -under a system of female kinship, was the rightful heir, and who in a -sense actually sat on the throne from which he pushed his uncle. For the -curule chair of the consul was little less than the king’s throne under -a limited tenure. - -[Sidenote: The hereditary principle does not necessarily exclude the -elective in the succession to a monarchy; many African chieftainships or -kingships are both hereditary and elective.] It has often been asked -whether the Roman monarchy was hereditary or elective. The question -implies an opposition between the two modes of succession which by no -means necessarily exists. As a matter of fact, in many African tribes at -the present day the succession to the kingdom or the chieftainship is -determined by a combination of the hereditary and the elective -principle, that is, the kings or chiefs are chosen by the people or by a -body of electors from among the members of the royal family. And as the -chiefs have commonly several wives and many children by them, the number -of possible candidates may be not inconsiderable. For example, we are -told that “the government of the Banyai is rather peculiar, being a sort -of feudal republicanism. The chief is elected, and they choose the son -of the deceased chief’s sister in preference to his own offspring. When -dissatisfied with one candidate, they even go to a distant tribe for a -successor, who is usually of the family of the late chief, a brother, or -a sister’s son, but never his own son or daughter. When first spoken to -on the subject, he answers as if he thought himself unequal to the task -and unworthy of the honour, but, having accepted it, all the wives, -goods, and children of his predecessor belong to him, and he takes care -to keep them in a dependent position.” Among these people “the children -of the chief have fewer privileges than common free men. They may not be -sold, but, rather than choose any one of them for a chief at any future -time, the free men would prefer to elect one of themselves who bore only -a very distant relationship to the family.”[953] - -[Sidenote: Chiefs and kings in Africa elected from several families in -rotation.] Sometimes the field of choice is extended still further by a -rule that the chief may or must be chosen from one of several families -in a certain order. Thus among the Bangalas of the Cassange Valley in -Angola the chief is elected from three families in rotation.[954] And -Diagara, a country bordering on Senegambia, is ruled by an absolute -monarch who is chosen alternately from two families, one of which lives -in Diapina and the other in Badumar.[955] In the Winamwanga tribe, to -the south of Lake Tanganyika, “the first male child born to a chief -after he succeeds to the chieftainship is the natural heir, but many -years ago there were two claimants to the throne, whose supporters were -about equal, and to avoid a civil war the following arrangement was -made. One of them was allowed to reign, but the other claimant or his -son was to succeed him. This was carried out, so that now there are -continually alternate dynasties.”[956] So in the Matse tribe of Togoland -in West Africa, there are two royal families descended from two women, -which supply a king alternately. Hence the palm forest which belongs to -the crown is divided into two parts; the reigning king has the right to -one part, and the representative of the other royal house has a right to -the other part.[957] Among the Yorubas in western Africa the sovereign -chief is always taken from one or more families which have the -hereditary right of furnishing the community with rulers. In many cases -the succession passes regularly from one to a second family alternately; -but in one instance, apparently unique, the right of succession to the -sovereignty seems to be possessed by four princely families, from each -of which the head chief is elected in rotation. The principle of -primogeniture is not necessarily followed in the election, but the -choice of the electors must always fall on one who is related to a -former chief in the male line. For paternal descent alone is recognised -in Yorubaland, where even the greatest chief may take to wife a woman of -the lowest rank. Sometimes the choice of the ruling chief is made by -divine authority, intimated to the people through the high priest of the -principal god of the district.[958] Among the Igaras, on the lower -Niger, the royal family is divided into four branches, each of which -provides a king in turn. The capital and its district, both of which -bear the name of Idah, are always occupied by the reigning branch of the -royal family, while the three other branches, not being allowed to live -there, retreat into the interior. Hence at the death of a king a double -change takes place. On the one hand the late reigning family, with all -their dependants, have to leave the homes in which many of them have -been born and brought up, and to migrate to towns in the forest, which -they know only by name. On the other hand, the new reigning family come -into the capital, and their people settle in the houses occupied by -their forefathers four reigns ago. The king is generally elected by the -leading men of his branch of the royal family; they choose the richest -and most powerful of their number.[959] - -[Sidenote: Among the Khasis of Assam, also, the succession to the -kingdom is partly hereditary and partly elective.] Again, among the -Khasis of Assam we meet with the same combination of the hereditary with -the elective principle in the succession to the kingdom. Indeed, in this -people the kingship presents several features of resemblance to the old -Latin kingship as it appears to have existed at the dawn of history. For -a Khasi king is the religious as well as the secular head of the state; -along with the sooth-sayers he consults the auspices for the public -good, and sometimes he has priestly duties to perform. Succession to the -kingship always runs in the female line, for the Khasis have a regular -system of mother-kin as opposed to father-kin; hence it is not the -king’s sons, but his uterine brothers and the sons of his uterine -sisters who succeed him on the throne in order of birth. But this -hereditary principle is controlled by a body of electors, who have the -right of rejecting unsuitable claimants to the throne. Generally the -electors are a small body composed of the heads of certain priestly -clans; but in some Khasi states the number of the electors has been -greatly increased by the inclusion of representative headmen of certain -important lay clans, or even by the inclusion of village headmen or of -the chief superintendents of the village markets. Nay, in the Langrim -state all the adult males regularly vote at the election of a monarch; -and here the royal family is divided into two branches, a Black and a -White, from either of which, apparently, the electors are free to choose -a king. Similarly, in the Nobosohpoh state there are two royal houses, a -Black and a White, and the people may select the heir to the throne from -either of them.[960] - -[Sidenote: Thus the Roman monarchy may have combined the hereditary with -the elective principle.] Thus the mere circumstance that all the Roman -kings, with the exception of the two Tarquins, appear to have belonged -to different families, is not of itself conclusive against the view that -heredity was one of the elements which determined the succession. The -number of families from whom the king might be elected may have been -large. And even if, as is possible, the electors were free to chose a -king without any regard to his birth, the hereditary principle would -still be maintained if, as we have seen reason to conjecture, it was -essential that the chosen candidate should marry a woman of the royal -house, who would generally be either the daughter or the widow of his -predecessor. In this way the apparently disparate principles of -unfettered election and strict heredity would be combined; the marriage -of the elected king with the hereditary princess would furnish the link -between the two. Under such a system, to put it otherwise, the kings are -elective and the queens hereditary. This is just the converse of what -happens under a system of male kinship, where the kings are hereditary -and the queens elective. - -In the later times of Rome it was held that the custom had been for the -people to elect the kings and for the senate to ratify the -election.[961] But we may suspect, with Mommsen, that this was no more -than an inference from the mode of electing the consuls. The magistrates -who, under the republic, represented the kings most closely were the -dictator and the King of the Sacred Rites, and neither of these was -elected by the people. Both were nominated, the dictator by the consul, -and the King of the Sacred Rites by the chief pontiff.[962] Accordingly -it seems probable that under [Sidenote: The king was probably nominated -either by his predecessor or by an interim king.] the monarchy the king -was nominated either by his predecessor or, failing that, by an interim -king (_interrex_) chosen from the senate.[963] Now if, as we have been -led to think, an essential claim to the throne was constituted by -marriage with a princess of the royal house, nothing could be more -natural than that the king should choose his successor, who would -commonly be also his son-in-law. If he had several sons-in-law and had -omitted to designate the one who was to reign after him, the election -would be made by his substitute, the interim king. - -[Sidenote: Personal qualities which commended a man for marriage with a -princess and succession to the throne.] The personal qualities which -recommended a man for a royal alliance and succession to the throne -would naturally vary according to the popular ideas of the time and the -character of the king or his substitute, but it is reasonable to suppose -that among them in early society physical strength and beauty would hold -a prominent place.[964] We have seen that in Ashantee the husbands or -paramours of the princesses must always be men of fine presence, because -they are to be the fathers of future kings. Among the Ethiopians in -antiquity, as among the Ashantees and many other African tribes to this -day, the crown passed in the female line to the son of the king’s -sister, but if there was no such heir they chose the handsomest and most -valiant man to reign over them.[965] We are told that the Gordioi -[Sidenote: Fat kings.] elected the fattest man to the kingship,[966] nor -is this incredible when we remember that in Africa corpulence is still -regarded as a great distinction and beauty, and that both the chiefs and -their wives are sometimes so fat that they can hardly walk. Thus among -the Caffres chiefs and rich men attain to an enormous bulk, and the -queens fatten themselves on beef and porridge, of which they partake -freely in the intervals of slumber. To be fat is with them a mark of -riches, and therefore of high rank; common folk cannot afford to eat and -drink and lounge as much as they would like to do.[967] The Syrakoi in -antiquity are reported to have bestowed the crown on the tallest man or -on the man with [Sidenote: Long-headed kings and chiefs.] the longest -head in the literal, not the figurative, sense of the word.[968] They -seem to have been a Sarmatian people to the north of the Caucasus,[969] -and are probably the same with the long-headed people described by -Hippocrates, who says that among them the men with the longest heads -were esteemed the noblest, and that they applied bandages and other -instruments to the heads of their children in infancy for the sake of -moulding them into the shape which they admired.[970] Such reports are -probably by no means fabulous, for among the Monbuttu or Mang-bettou of -Central Africa down to this day “when the children of chiefs are young, -string is wound round their heads, which are gradually compressed into a -shape that will allow of the longest head-dress. The skull thus treated -in childhood takes the appearance of an elongated egg.”[971] Similarly -[Sidenote: Heads artificially moulded as a mark of high rank.] some of -the Indian tribes on the north-west coast of America artificially mould -the heads of their children into the shape of a wedge or a sugar-loaf by -compressing them between boards; some of them regard such heads as a -personal beauty, others as a mark of high birth.[972] For instance, “the -practice among some of the Salish seems to have had a definite social, -as well as aesthetic, significance. There appear to have been recognised -degrees of contortion marking the social status of the individual. For -example slaves, of which the Salish kept considerable numbers, were -prohibited from deforming the heads of their children at all, -consequently a normal, undeformed head was the sign and badge of -servitude. And in the case of the base-born of the tribes the heads of -their children were customarily but slightly deformed, while the heads -of the children born of wealthy or noble persons, and particularly those -of chiefs, were severely and excessively deformed.”[973] - -[Sidenote: Among the Bororos the best singers are the chiefs.] Among the -Bororos of Brazil at the present day the title to chieftaincy is neither -corpulence nor an egg-shaped head, but the possession of a fine musical -ear and a rich baritone, bass, or tenor voice. The best singer, in fact, -becomes the chief. There is no other way to supreme power but this. -Hence in the education of the Bororo youth the main thing is to train, -not their minds, but their voices, for the best of the tuneful quire -will certainly be chief. In this tribe, accordingly, there is no such -thing as hereditary chieftainship; for if the son of a chief has an -indifferent ear or a poor voice, he will be a commoner to the end of his -days. When two rival songsters are found in the same village, they sing -against each other, and he who is judged to have acquitted himself best -in the musical contest mounts the throne. His defeated rival sometimes -retires in a huff with his admirers and founds a new village. Once -seated in the place of power, the melodious singer is not only highly -honoured and respected, but can exact unconditional obedience from all, -and he gives his orders, like an operatic king or hero, in a musical -recitativo. It is especially at eventide, when the sun has set and the -labours of the day are over, that he pours out his soul in harmony. At -that witching hour he takes up his post in front of the men’s -club-house, and while his subjects are hushed in attention he bursts -into sacred song, passing from that to lighter themes, and concluding -the oratorio by chanting his commands to each individual for the next -day.[974] When Addison ridiculed the new fashion of the Italian opera, -in which generals sang the word of command, ladies delivered their -messages in music, and lovers chanted their billet-doux, he little -suspected that among the backwoods of Brazil a tribe of savages in all -seriousness observed a custom which he thought absurd even on the -stage.[975] - -[Sidenote: Succession to the throne determined by a race.] Sometimes -apparently the right to the hand of the princess and to the throne has -been determined by a race. The Alitemnian Libyans awarded the kingdom to -the fleetest runner.[976] Amongst the old Prussians, candidates for -nobility raced on horseback to the king, and the one who reached him -first was ennobled.[977] According to tradition the earliest games at -Olympia were held by Endymion, who set his sons to run a race for the -kingdom. His tomb was said to be at the point of the racecourse from -which the runners started.[978] The famous story of Pelops and -Hippodamia [Sidenote: Greek traditions of princesses whose hands were -won in a race.] is perhaps only another version of the legend that the -first races at Olympia were run for no less a prize than a kingdom. For -Oenomaus was king of Pisa, a town close to Olympia; and having been -warned by an oracle that he would die by the hand of the man who married -his daughter Hippodamia, he resolved to keep her a maid. So when any one -came a-wooing her, the king made the suitor drive away in a chariot with -Hippodamia, while he himself pursued the pair in another car drawn by -fleet horses, and, overtaking the unlucky wight, slew him. In this way -he killed twelve suitors and nailed their heads to his house, the ruins -of which were shewn at Olympia down to the second century of our era. -The bodies of the suitors were buried under a lofty mound, and it is -said that in former days sacrifices were offered to them yearly. When -Pelops came to win the hand of Hippodamia, he bribed the charioteer of -Oenomaus not to put the pins into the wheels of the king’s chariot. So -Oenomaus was thrown from the car and dragged by his horses to death. But -some say he was despatched by Pelops according to the oracle. Anyhow, he -died, and Pelops married Hippodamia and succeeded to the kingdom.[979] -The grave of Oenomaus was shown at Olympia; it was a mound of earth -enclosed with stones.[980] Here, too, precincts were dedicated to Pelops -and Hippodamia, in which sacrifices were offered to them annually; the -victim presented to Pelops was a black ram, whose blood was poured into -a pit.[981] Other traditions were current in antiquity of princesses who -were offered in marriage to the fleetest runner and won by the victor in -the race. Thus Icarius at Sparta set the wooers of his daughter Penelope -to run a race; Ulysses won and wedded her. His father-in-law is said to -have tried to induce him to take up his abode in Sparta; which seems to -shew that if Ulysses had accepted the invitation he would have inherited -the kingdom through his wife.[982] So, too, the Libyan King Antaeus -placed his beautiful daughter Barce or Alceis at the end of the -racecourse; her many noble suitors, both Libyans and foreigners, ran to -her as the goal, and Alcidamus, who touched her first, gained her in -marriage.[983] Danaus, also, at Argos is said to have stationed his many -daughters at the goal, and the runner who reached them first had first -choice of the maidens.[984] Somewhat different from these traditions is -the story of Atalante, for in it the wooers are said to have contended, -not with each other, but with the coy maiden herself in a foot-race. She -slew her vanquished suitors and hung up their heads in the racecourse, -till Hippomenes gained the race and her hand by throwing down the golden -apples which she stooped to pick up.[985] - -[Sidenote: Custom of racing for a bride among the Kirghiz and Calmucks.] -These traditions may very well reflect a real custom of racing for a -bride, for such a custom appears to have prevailed among various -peoples, though in practice it has degenerated into a mere form or -pretence. Thus “there is one race, called the ‘Love Chase,’ which may be -considered a part of the form of marriage among the Kirghiz. In this the -bride, armed with a formidable whip, mounts a fleet horse, and is -pursued by all the young men who make any pretensions to her hand. She -will be given as a prize to the one who catches her, but she has the -right, besides urging on her horse to the utmost, to use her whip, often -with no mean force, to keep off those lovers who are unwelcome to her, -and she will probably favour the one whom she has already chosen in her -heart. As, however, by Kirghiz custom, a suitor to the hand of a maiden -is obliged to give a certain _kalym_, or purchase-money, and an -agreement must be made with the father for the amount of dowry which he -gives his daughter, the ‘Love Chase’ is a mere matter of form.”[986] -Similarly “the ceremony of marriage among the Calmucks is performed on -horseback. A girl is first mounted, who rides off in full speed. Her -lover pursues; and if he overtakes her, she becomes his wife, and the -marriage is consummated on the spot, after which she returns with him to -his tent. But it sometimes happens that the woman does not wish to marry -the person by whom she is pursued, in which case she will not suffer him -to overtake her; and we were assured that no instance occurs of a -Calmuck girl being thus caught unless she has a partiality for her -pursuer. If she dislikes him she rides, to use the language of English -sportsmen, ‘neck or nothing,’ until she has completely escaped, or until -the pursuer’s horse is tired out, leaving her at liberty to return, to -be afterwards chased by some more favoured admirer.”[987] The race for -the bride is found also among the Koryaks of north-eastern Asia. It -takes place in a large tent, round which many separate compartments -called _pologs_ are arranged in a continuous circle. The girl gets a -start and is clear of the marriage if she can run through all the -compartments without being caught by the bridegroom. The women of the -encampment place every obstacle in the man’s way, tripping him up, -belabouring him with switches, and so forth, so that he has little -chance of succeeding unless the girl wishes it and waits for him.[988] -Among some of the rude indigenous tribes of the Malay Peninsula -“marriage is preceded by a singular ceremony. An old man presents the -future couple to the assembled guests, and, followed by their families, -he leads them to a great circle, round which the girl sets off to run as -fast as she can. If the young man succeeds in overtaking her, she -becomes his mate; otherwise he loses all rights, which happens -especially when he is not so fortunate as to please his bride.”[989] -Another writer tells us that among these savages, when there is a river -at hand, the race takes place on the water, the bride paddling away in -one canoe and pursued by the bridegroom in another.[990] Before the -wedding procession starts for the [Sidenote: Caffre race for bride.] -bridegroom’s hut, a Caffre bride is allowed to make one last bid for -freedom, and a young man is told off to catch her. Should he fail to do -so, she is theoretically allowed to return to her father, and the whole -performance has to be repeated; but the flight of the bride is usually a -pretence.[991] - -[Sidenote: The bride-race among Teutonic peoples, and its traces in -modern Europe.] Similar customs appear to have been practised by all the -Teutonic peoples; for the German, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse languages -possess in common a word for marriage which means simply -bride-race.[992] Moreover, traces of the custom survived into modern -times. Thus in the Mark of Brandenburg, down to the first half of the -nineteenth century at least, it was the practice for bride and -bridegroom to run a race on their wedding day in presence of all the -guests. Two sturdy men took the bride between them and set off. The -bridegroom gave them a start and then followed hot-foot. At the end of -the course stood two or three young married women, who took from the -bride her maiden’s crown and replaced it by the matron’s cap. If the -bridegroom failed to overtake his bride, he was much ridiculed.[993] In -other parts of Germany races are still held at marriage, but the -competitors are no longer the bride and bridegroom. Thus in Hesse at the -wedding of a well-to-do farmer his friends race on horseback to the -house of the bride, and her friends similarly race on horseback to the -house of the bridegroom. The prize hangs over the gate of the farmyard -or the door of the house. It consists of a silken or woollen -handkerchief, which the winner winds round his head or fastens to his -breast. The victors have also the right to escort the marriage -procession.[994] In Upper Bavaria, down at least to some fifty years -ago, a regular feature of a rustic wedding used to be what was called -the “bride-race” or the “key-race.” It generally took place when the -bridal party was proceeding from the church to the alehouse. A course -was marked out and two goals, consisting of heaps of straw, were set up -at distances of three and four hundred yards respectively. The strongest -and fleetest of the young fellows raced barefoot, clad only in shirt and -trousers. He who first reached the further goal received the first -prize; this was regularly a key of gilt wood, which the winner fastened -to his hat. Often, as in some of the Greek legends, the bride herself -was the goal of the race. The writers who record the custom suggest that -the race was originally for the key of the bridechamber, and that the -bridegroom ran with the rest.[995] In Scotland also the guests at a -rustic wedding used to ride on horseback for a prize, which sometimes -consisted of the bride’s cake set up on a pole in front of the -bridegroom’s house. The race was known as the _broose_.[996] At -Weitensfeld, in Carinthia, a festival called the Bride-race is still -held every year. It is popularly supposed to commemorate a time when a -plague had swept away the whole people except a girl and three young -men. These three, it is said, raced with each other in order that the -winner might get the maiden to wife, and so repeople the land. The race -is now held on horseback. The winner receives as the prize a garland of -flowers called the Bride-wreath, and the man who comes in last gets a -wreath of ribbons and pig’s bristles.[997] It seems not impossible that -this custom is a relic of a fair at which the marriageable maidens of -the year were assigned in order of merit to the young men who -distinguished themselves by their feats of strength and agility. A -practice of this sort appears to have prevailed [Sidenote: Assignment of -brides to picked young men among the Samnites.] among the ancient -Samnites. Every year the youths and maidens were tested publicly, and -the young man who was adjudged best had first choice of the girls; the -second best had the next choice, and so on with the rest.[998] “They -say,” writes Strabo, “that the Samnites have a beautiful custom which -incites to virtue. For they may not give their daughters in marriage to -whom they please, but every year the ten best maidens and the ten best -youths are picked out, and the best of the ten maidens is given to the -best of the ten youths, and the second to the second, and so on. But if -the man who wins one of these prizes should afterwards turn out a knave, -they disgrace him and take the girl from him.”[999] The nature of the -test to which the young men and women were subjected is not mentioned, -but we may conjecture that it was mainly athletic. - -[Sidenote: Contests for a bride other than races.] The contests for a -bride may be designed to try the skill, strength, and courage of the -suitors as well as their horsemanship and speed of foot. Speaking of -King’s County, Ireland, in the latter part of the eighteenth century, -Arthur Young says: “There is a very ancient custom here, for a number of -country neighbours among the poor people, to fix upon some young woman -that ought, as they think, to be married; they also agree upon a young -fellow as a proper husband for her; this determined, they send to the -fair one’s cabin to inform her that on the Sunday following ‘she is to -be horsed,’ that is, carried on men’s backs. She must then provide -whisky and cyder for a treat, as all will pay her a visit after mass for -a hurling match. As soon as she is horsed, the hurling begins, in which -the young fellow appointed for her husband has the eyes of all the -company fixed on him: if he comes off conqueror, he is certainly married -to the girl; but if another is victorious, he as certainly loses her, -for she is the prize of the victor. These trials are not always finished -in one Sunday, they take sometimes two or three, and the common -expression when they are over is, that ‘such a girl was goal’d.’ -Sometimes one barony hurls against another, but a marriageable girl is -always the prize. Hurling is a sort of cricket, but instead of throwing -the ball in order to knock down a wicket, the aim is to pass it through -a bent stick, the ends stuck in the ground.”[1000] In the great Indian -epic the _Mahabharata_ it is [Sidenote: The Indian _Svayamvara_.] -related that the hand of the lovely Princess Draupadi or Krishna, -daughter of the King of the Panchalas, was only to be won by him who -could bend a certain mighty bow and shoot five arrows through a -revolving wheel so as to hit the target beyond. After many noble wooers -had essayed the task in vain, the disguised Arjun was successful, and -carried off the princess to be the wife of himself and his four -brothers.[1001] This was an instance of the ancient Indian practice of -_Svayamvara_, in accordance with which a maiden of high rank either -chose her husband from among her assembled suitors or was offered as the -prize to the conqueror in a trial of skill. The custom was occasionally -observed among the Rajputs down to a late time.[1002] The Tartar king -Caidu, the cousin and opponent of Cublay Khan, is said to have had a -beautiful daughter named Aijaruc, or “the Bright Moon,” who was so tall -and brawny that she outdid all men in her father’s realm in feats of -strength. She vowed she would never marry till she found a man who could -vanquish her in wrestling. Many noble suitors came and tried a fall with -her, but she threw them all; and from every one whom she had overcome -she exacted a hundred horses. In this way she collected an immense -stud.[1003] In the _Nibelungenlied_ the fair Brunhild, Queen of Iceland, -was only to be won in marriage by him who could beat her in three trials -of strength, and the unsuccessful wooers forfeited their heads. Many had -thus perished, but at last Gunther, King of the Burgundians, vanquished -and married her.[1004] It is said that Sithon, King of the Odomanti in -Thrace, had a lovely daughter, Pallene, and that many [Sidenote: -Hippoclides at Sicyon, and how he danced away his marriage.] men came -a-wooing her not only from Thrace but from Illyria and the country of -the Don. But her father said that he who would wed his daughter must -first fight himself and pay with his life the penalty of defeat. Thus he -slew many young men. But when he was grown old and his strength had -failed, he set two of the wooers, by name Dryas and Clitus, to fight -each other for the kingdom and the hand of the princess. The combat was -to take place in chariots, but the princess, being in love with Clitus, -bribed his rival’s charioteer to put no pins in the wheels of his -chariot; so Dryas came to the ground, and Clitus slew him and married -the king’s daughter.[1005] The tale agrees closely with that of Pelops -and Hippodamia. Both stories probably contain, in a legendary form, -reminiscences of a real custom. Within historical times Clisthenes, -tyrant of Sicyon, made public proclamation at the Olympian games that he -would give his daughter Agariste in marriage to that suitor who, during -a year’s trial, should prove himself the best. So many young men who -prided themselves on their persons and on their lineage assembled at -Sicyon from all parts of the Greek world. The tyrant had a racecourse -and a wrestling school made on purpose for them, and there he put them -through their paces. Of all the suitors none pleased him so much as -Hippoclides, the handsomest and richest man of Athens, a scion of the -old princely house of Cypselus. And when the year was up and the day had -come on which the award was to be made, the tyrant sacrificed a hundred -oxen and entertained the suitors and all the people of Sicyon at a -splendid banquet. Dinner being over, the wine went round and the suitors -fell to wrangling as to their accomplishments and their wit. In this -feast of reason the gay Hippoclides outshone himself and them all until, -flushed with triumph and liquor, he jumped on a table, danced to music, -and then, as a finishing touch, stood on his head and sawed the air with -his legs. This was too much. The tyrant in disgust told him he had -danced away his marriage.[1006] - -[Sidenote: The annual flight of the king (_regifugium_) at Rome may have -been a relic of his contest for the kingdom and for the hand of the -princess.] Thus it appears that the right to marry a girl, and -especially a princess, has often been conferred as a prize in an -athletic contest. There would be no reason, therefore, for surprise if -the Roman kings, before bestowing their daughters in marriage, should -have resorted to this ancient mode of testing the personal qualities of -their future sons-in-law and successors. If my theory is correct, the -Roman king and queen personated Jupiter and his divine consort, and in -the character of these divinities went through the annual ceremony of a -sacred marriage for the purpose of causing the crops to grow and men and -cattle to be fruitful and multiply. Thus they did what in more northern -lands we may suppose the King and Queen of May were believed to do in -days of old. Now we have seen that the right to play the part of the -King of May and to wed the Queen of May has sometimes been determined by -an athletic contest, particularly by a race.[1007] This may have been a -relic of an old marriage custom of the sort we have examined, a custom -designed to test the fitness of a candidate for matrimony. Such a test -might reasonably be applied with peculiar rigour to the king in order to -ensure that no personal defect should incapacitate him for the -performance of those sacred rites and ceremonies on which, even more -than on the despatch of his civil and military duties, the safety and -prosperity of the community were believed to depend. And it would be -natural to require of him that from time to time he should submit -himself afresh to the same ordeal for the sake of publicly demonstrating -that he was still equal to the discharge of his high calling. A relic of -that test perhaps survived in the ceremony known as the Flight of the -King (_regifugium_), continued to be annually observed at Rome down to -imperial times. On the twenty-fourth day of February a sacrifice used to -be offered in the Comitium, and when it was over the King of the Sacred -Rites fled from the Forum.[1008] We may conjecture that the Flight of -the King was originally a race for an annual kingship, which may have -been awarded as a prize to the fleetest runner. At the end of the year -the king might run again for a second term of office; and so on, until -he was defeated and deposed or perhaps slain. In this way what had once -been a race would tend to assume the character of a flight and a -pursuit. The king would be given a start; he ran and his competitors ran -after him, and if he were overtaken he had to yield the crown and -perhaps his life to the lightest of foot among them. In time a man of -masterful character might succeed in seating himself permanently on the -throne and reducing the annual race or flight to the empty form which it -seems always to have been within historical times.[1009] The rite was -sometimes interpreted as a commemoration of the expulsion of the kings -from Rome; but this appears to have been a mere afterthought devised to -explain a ceremony of which the old meaning was forgotten. It is far -more likely that in acting thus the King of the Sacred Rites was merely -keeping up an ancient custom which in the regal period had been annually -observed by his predecessors the kings. What the original intention of -the rite may have been must probably always remain more or less a matter -of conjecture. The present explanation is suggested with a full sense of -the difficulty and obscurity in which the subject is involved. - -[Sidenote: The theory is confirmed by the evidence that at the -Saturnalia a man used to personate the god Saturn and to be put to death -in that character.] Thus, if my theory is correct, the yearly flight of -the Roman king was a relic of a time when the kingship was an annual -office awarded, along with the hand of a princess, to the victorious -athlete or gladiator, who thereafter figured along with his bride as a -god and goddess at a sacred marriage designed to ensure the fertility of -the earth by homoeopathic magic. Now this theory is to a certain extent -remarkably confirmed by an ancient account of the Saturnalia which was -discovered and published some years ago by a learned Belgian scholar, -Professor Franz Cumont of Ghent. From that account we learn that down to -the beginning of the fourth century of our era, that is, down nearly to -the establishment of Christianity by Constantine, the Roman soldiers -stationed on the Danube were wont to celebrate the Saturnalia in a -barbarous fashion which must certainly have dated from a very remote -antiquity. Thirty days before the festival they chose by lot from among -themselves a young and handsome man, who was dressed in royal robes to -resemble the god Saturn. In that character he was allowed to indulge all -his passions to the fullest extent; but when his brief reign of thirty -days was over, and the festival of Saturn was come, he had to cut his -own throat on the altar of the god he personated.[1010] We can hardly -doubt that this tragic figure, whom a fatal lot doomed to masquerade for -a short time as a deity and to die as such a violent death, was the true -original of the merry monarch or King of the Saturnalia, as he was -called, whom a happier lot invested with the playful dignity of Master -of the Winter Revels.[1011] In all probability the grim predecessor of -the frolicsome King of the Saturnalia belonged to that class of puppets -who in some countries have been suffered to reign nominally for a few -days each year merely for the sake of discharging a burdensome or fatal -obligation which otherwise must have fallen on the real king.[1012] If -that is so, we may infer that the part of the god Saturn, who was -commonly spoken of as a king,[1013] was formerly played at the -Saturnalia by the Roman king himself. And a trace of the Sacred Marriage -may perhaps be detected in the licence accorded to the human -representatives of Saturn, a licence which, if I am right, is strictly -analogous to the old orgies of May Day and other similar festivals. It -is to be observed that Saturn was [Sidenote: Saturn the god of seed, and -the Saturnalia a festival of sowing.] the god of the seed, and the -Saturnalia the festival of sowing held in December,[1014] when the -autumn sowing was over and the husbandman gave himself up to a season of -jollity after the long labours of summer and autumn.[1015] On the -principles of homoeopathic magic nothing could be more natural than -that, when the last seeds had been committed to the earth, the marriage -of the powers of vegetation should be simulated by their human -representatives for the purpose of sympathetically quickening the seed. -In short, no time could be more suitable for the celebration of the -Sacred Marriage. We have seen as a matter of fact that the sowing of the -seed has often been accompanied by sexual orgies with the express -intention of thereby promoting the growth of the crops. At all events -the view that the King’s Flight at Rome was a mitigation of an old -custom of putting him to death at the end of a year’s tenure of office, -is confirmed by the practice of annually slaying a human representative -of the divine king Saturn, which survived in some parts of the Roman -empire, though not at Rome itself, down to Christian times. - -[Sidenote: If the Latin kings were begotten at the licentious festival -of the Saturnalia, we could understand why their paternity was sometimes -uncertain, and why they might be of servile parentage.] This theory -would throw light on some dark passages in the legends of the Roman -kingship, such as the obscure and humble births of certain kings and -their mysterious ends. For if the sacred marriage took place at a -licentious festival like the Saturnalia, when slaves were temporarily -granted the privileges of freemen,[1016] it might well be that the -paternity of the children begotten at this time, including those of the -royal family, was a matter of uncertainty; nay, it might be known that -the king or queen had offspring by a slave. Such offspring of a royal -father and a slave mother, or of a royal mother and a slave father, -would rank as princes and princesses according as male or female kinship -prevailed. Under a system of male kinship the union of the king with a -slave woman would give birth to a Servius Tullius, and, according to one -tradition, to a Romulus. If female kinship prevailed in the royal -family, as we have seen reason to suppose, it is possible that the -stories of the birth of Romulus and Servius from slave mothers is a -later inversion of the facts, and that what really happened was that -some of the old Latin kings were begotten by slave fathers on royal -princesses at the festival of the Saturnalia. The disappearance of -female kinship would suffice to account for the warping of the -tradition. All that was distinctly remembered would be that some of the -kings had had a slave for one of their parents; and people living under -a system of paternal descent would naturally conclude that the slave -parent of a king could only be the mother, since according to their -ideas no son of a slave father could be of royal blood and sit on the -throne.[1017] - -[Sidenote: The violent ends of the Roman kings.] Again, if I am right in -supposing that in very early times the old Latin kings personated a god -and were regularly put to death in that character, we can better -understand the mysterious or violent ends to which so many of them are -said to have come. Too much stress should not, however, be laid on such -legends, for in a turbulent state of society kings, like commoners, are -apt to be knocked on the head for much sounder reasons than a claim to -divinity. Still, it is worth while to note that Romulus is said to have -vanished mysteriously like Aeneas, or to have been cut to pieces by the -patricians whom he had offended,[1018] [Sidenote: Death of Romulus on -the seventh of July, the _Nonae Caprotinae_, at a festival resembling -the Saturnalia.] and that the seventh of July, the day on which he -perished, was a festival which bore some resemblance to the Saturnalia. -For on that day the female slaves were allowed to take certain -remarkable liberties. They dressed up as free women in the attire of -matrons and maids, and in this guise they went forth from the city, -scoffed and jeered at all whom they met, and engaged among themselves in -a fight, striking and throwing stones at each other. Moreover, they -feasted under a wild fig-tree, made use of a rod cut from the tree for a -certain purpose, perhaps to beat each other with, and offered the milky -juice of the tree in sacrifice to Juno Caprotina, whose name appears to -mean either the goddess of the goat (_caper_) or the goddess of the wild -fig-tree, for [Sidenote: The _Nonae Caprotinae_ seems to have been the -festival of the fertilisation of the fig.] the Romans called a wild -fig-tree a goat-fig (_caprificus_). Hence the day was called the _Nonae -Caprotinae_ after the animal or the tree. The festival was not peculiar -to Rome, but was held by women throughout Latium.[1019] It can hardly be -dissociated from a custom which was observed by ancient husbandmen at -this season. They sought to fertilise the fig-trees or ripen the figs by -hanging strings of fruit from a wild fig-tree among the boughs. The -practice appears to be very old. It has been employed in Greece both in -ancient and modern times, and Roman writers often refer to it. Palladius -recommends the solstice in June, that is Midsummer Day, as the best time -for the operation; Columella prefers July.[1020] In Sicily at the -present day the operation is performed either on Midsummer Day (the -festival of St. John the Baptist) or in the early days of July;[1021] in -Morocco and North Africa generally it takes place on Midsummer -Day.[1022] The wild fig-tree is a male and the cultivated fig-tree is a -female, and the fertilisation is effected by insects, which are -engendered in the fruit of the male tree and convey the pollen to the -blossom of the female.[1023] Thus the placing of wild figs, laden with -pollen and insects, among the boughs of the cultivated fig-tree is, like -the artificial fertilisation of the date-palm,[1024] a real marriage of -the trees, and it may well have been regarded as such by the peasants of -antiquity long before the true theory of the process was discovered. Now -the fig is an [Sidenote: Importance of the fig as an article of diet.] -important article of diet in countries bordering on the Mediterranean. -In Palestine, for example, the fruit is not, as with us, merely an -agreeable luxury, but is eaten daily and forms indeed one of the staple -productions of the country. “To sit every man under his vine, and under -his fig tree” was the regular Jewish expression for the peaceable -possession of the Holy Land; and in the fable of Jotham the fig-tree is -invited by the other trees, next after the olive, to come and reign over -them.[1025] When Sandanis the Lydian attempted to dissuade Croesus from -marching against the Persians, he represented to him that there was -nothing to be gained by conquering the inhabitants of a barren country -who neither drank wine nor ate figs.[1026] An Arab commentator on the -Koran observes that “God swears by these two trees, the fig and the -olive, because among fruit-trees they surpass all the rest. They relate -that a basket of figs was offered to the prophet Mohammed, and when he -had eaten one he bade his comrades do the same, saying, ‘Truly, if I -were to say that any fruit had come down from Paradise, I would say it -of the fig.’”[1027] Hence it would be natural that a process supposed to -be essential to the ripening of so favourite a fruit should be the -occasion of a popular festival. We may suspect that the license allowed -to slave women on this day formed part of an ancient Saturnalia, at -which the loose behaviour of men and women was supposed to secure the -fertilisation of the fig-trees by homoeopathetic magic. - -[Sidenote: At the festival of the seventh of July women were probably -thought to be fertilised by the fig as well as to fertilise it.] But it -is possible and indeed probable that the fertilisation was believed to -be mutual; in other words, it may have been imagined, that while the -women caused the fig-tree to bear fruit, the tree in its turn caused -them to bear children. This conjecture is confirmed by a remarkable -African parallel. The Akikuyu of British East Africa attribute to the -wild fig-tree [Sidenote: Supposed fertilisation of barren women by the -wild fig-tree among the Akikuyu of British East Africa.] the power of -fertilising barren women. For this purpose they apply the white sap or -milk to various parts of the body of the would-be mother; then, having -sacrificed a goat, they tie the woman to a wild fig-tree with long -strips cut from the intestines of the sacrificial animal. “This seems,” -writes Mr. C. W. Hobley, who reports the custom, “to be a case of the -tree marriage of India. I fancy there is an idea of ceremonial marriage -with the ancestral spirits which are said to inhabit certain of these -fig-trees; in fact it supports the Kamba idea of the spiritual -husbands.”[1028] The belief in spiritual husbands, [Sidenote: Belief of -the Akamba that the spirits of the dead live in wild fig-trees.] to -which Mr. Hobley here briefly refers, is as follows. The Akamba of -British East Africa imagine that every married woman is at the same time -the wife of a living man and also the wife of the spirit of some -departed ancestor (_aimu_). They are firmly convinced that the fertility -of a wife depends to a great extent on the attentions of her spiritual -husband, and if she does not conceive within six months after marriage -they take it as a sign that her spiritual husband is neglecting her; so -they offer beer and kill a goat as a propitiatory sacrifice. If after -that the woman still remains barren, they make a bigger feast and kill a -bullock. On the other hand, if a wife is found to be with child soon -after marriage, they are glad and consider it a proof that she has found -favour in the eyes of her ghostly husband. Further, they believe that at -death the human spirit quits the bodily frame and takes up its abode in -a wild fig-tree (_mumbo_); hence they build miniature huts at the foot -of those fig-trees which are thought to be haunted by the souls of the -dead, and they periodically sacrifice to these spirits.[1029] -Accordingly, we may conjecture, though we are not told, that amongst the -Akamba, as among the Akikuyu, a barren woman sometimes resorts to a wild -fig-tree in order to obtain a child, since she believes that her -spiritual spouse has his abode in the tree. The Akikuyu clearly -attribute a special power of fertilisation to the milky sap of the tree, -since they apply it to various parts of the woman who desires to become -a mother: perhaps they regard it as the seed of the fig. This may -explain why the Roman slave-women offered the milky juice of the tree to -Juno Caprotina; they may have intended thereby to add to the fecundity -of the mother goddess. And we can scarcely doubt that the rods which -they cut from the wild fig-tree, for the purpose apparently of beating -each other, were supposed to communicate the generative virtue of the -tree to the women who [Sidenote: Supposed fertilisation of women by the -wild banana-tree among the Baganda.] were struck by them. The Baganda of -Central Africa appear to ascribe to the wild banana-tree the same power -of removing barrenness which the Akikuyu attribute to the wild fig-tree. -For when a wife has no child, she and her husband will sometimes repair -to a wild banana-tree and there, standing one on each side of the tree, -partake of the male organs of a goat, the man eating the flesh and -drinking the soup and the woman drinking the soup only. This is believed -to ensure conception after the husband has gone in to his wife.[1030] -Here again, as among the Akikuyu, we see that the fertilising virtue of -the tree is reinforced by the fertilising virtue of the goat; and we can -therefore better understand why the Romans called the male wild fig-tree -“goat-fig,” and why the Messenians dubbed it simply “he-goat.” - -[Sidenote: The Roman king may have celebrated a sacred marriage on the -_Nonae Caprotinae_ as a charm to make the fig-trees bear fruit.] The -association of the death of Romulus with the festival of the wild -fig-tree can hardly be accidental, especially as he and his twin-brother -Remus were said to have been suckled by the she-wolf under a fig-tree, -the famous _ficus Ruminalis_, which was shewn in the forum as one of the -sacred objects of Rome and received offerings of milk down to late -times.[1031] Indeed, some have gone so far both in ancient and modern -times as to derive the names of Romulus and Rome itself from this -fig-tree (_ficus Ruminalis_); if they are right, Romulus was “the -fig-man” and Rome “the fig-town.”[1032] Be that as it may, the clue to -the association of Romulus with the fig is probably furnished by the old -belief that the king is responsible for the fruits of the earth and the -rain from heaven. We may conjecture that on this principle the Roman -king was expected to make the fig-trees blossom and bear figs, and that -in order to do so he masqueraded as the god of the fig-tree and went -through a form of sacred marriage, either with his queen or with a -slave-woman, on the July day when the husbandmen resorted to a more -efficacious means of producing the same result. The ceremony of the -sacred marriage need not have been restricted to a single day in the -year. It may well have been repeated for many different crops and -fruits. If the Queen of Athens was annually married to the god of the -vine, why should not the King of Rome have annually wedded the goddess -of the fig? - -[Sidenote: The marriage of the divine king or human god often followed -by his death.] But, as we have seen, Romulus, the first king of Rome, is -said to have perished on the day of this festival of the fig, which, if -our hypothesis is correct, was also the day of his ceremonial marriage -to the tree. That the real date of his death should have been preserved -by tradition is very improbable; rather we may suppose that the reason -for dating his death and his marriage on the same day was drawn from -some ancient ritual in which the two events were actually associated. -But we have still to ask, Why should the king’s wedding-day be also the -day of his death? The answer must be deferred for the present. All we -need say now is that elsewhere the marriage of the divine king or human -god has been regularly followed at a brief interval by his violent end. -For him, as for others, death often treads on the heels of love.[1033] - -[Sidenote: Violent ends of Tatius, Tullus Hostilius, and other Roman -kings.] Another Roman king who perished by violence was Tatius, the -Sabine colleague of Romulus. It is said that he was at Lavinium offering -a public sacrifice to the ancestral gods, when some men to whom he had -given umbrage despatched him with the sacrificial knives and spits which -they had snatched from the altar.[1034] The occasion and the manner of -his death suggest that the slaughter may have been a sacrifice rather -than an assassination. Again, Tullus Hostilius, the successor of Numa, -was commonly said to have been killed by lightning, but many held that -he was murdered at the instigation of Ancus Marcius, who reigned after -him.[1035] Speaking of the more or less mythical Numa, the type of the -priestly king, Plutarch observes that “his fame was enhanced by the -fortunes of the later kings. For of the five who reigned after him the -last was deposed and ended his life in exile, and of the remaining four -not one died a natural death; for three of them were assassinated and -Tullus Hostilius was consumed by thunderbolts.”[1036] This implies that -King Ancus Marcius, as well as Tarquin the Elder and Servius Tullius, -perished by the hand of an assassin. No other ancient historian, so far -as I know, records this of Ancus Marcius, though one of them says that -the king “was carried off by an untimely death.”[1037] Tarquin the Elder -was slain by two murderers whom the sons of his predecessor, Ancus -Marcius, had hired to do the deed.[1038] Lastly, Servius Tullius came by -his end in circumstances which recall the combat for the priesthood of -Diana at Nemi. He was attacked by his successor and killed by his -orders, though not by his hand. Moreover, he lived among the oak groves -of the Esquiline Hill at the head of the Slope of Virbius, and it was -here, beside a sanctuary of Diana, that he was slain.[1039] - -[Sidenote: The succession to the Latin kingshipmay sometimes have been -decided by single combat.] These legends of the violent ends of the -Roman kings suggest that the contest by which they gained the throne may -sometimes have been a mortal combat rather than a race. If that were so, -the analogy which we have traced between Rome and Nemi would be still -closer. At both places the sacred kings, the living representatives of -the godhead, would thus be liable to suffer deposition and death at the -hand of any resolute man who could prove his divine right to the holy -office by the strong arm and the sharp sword. It would not be surprising -if among the early Latins the claim to the kingdom should often have -been settled by single combat; for down to historical times the Umbrians -regularly submitted their private disputes to the ordeal of battle, and -he who cut his adversary’s throat was thought thereby to have proved the -justice of his cause beyond the reach of cavil.[1040] “Any one who -remembers how in the forests of Westphalia the _Femgericht_ set the -modern civil law at defiance down into the eighteenth century, and how -in the mountains of Corsica and Sardinia blood-revenge has persisted and -persists to our own days, will not wonder that hardly a century after -the union of Italy the Roman legislation had not yet succeeded in -putting down the last relics of this ancient Italian or rather -Indo-European mode of doing justice in the nests of the -Apennines.”[1041] - -[Sidenote: Combats for the kingdom in Africa.] A parallel to what I -conceive to have been the rule of the old Latin kingship is furnished by -a West African custom of to-day. When the Maluango or king of Loango, -who is deemed the representative of God on earth, has been elected, he -has to take his stand at _Nkumbi_, a large tree near the entrance to his -sacred ground. Here, encouraged by one of his ministers, he must fight -all rivals who present themselves to dispute his right to the -throne.[1042] This is one of the many instances in which the rites and -legends of ancient Italy are illustrated by the practice of modern -Africa. Similarly among the Banyoro of Central Africa, whose king had to -take his life with his own hand whenever his health and strength began -to fail, the succession to the throne was determined by a mortal combat -among the claimants, who fought till only one of them was left -alive.[1043] Even in England a relic of a similar custom survived till -lately in the coronation ceremony, at which a champion used to throw -down his glove and challenge to mortal combat all who disputed the -king’s right to the crown. The ceremony was witnessed by Pepys at the -coronation of Charles the Second.[1044] - -[Sidenote: In Greece and Italy kings probably personated Cronus and -Saturn, the god of the seed, before they personated Zeus and Jupiter, -the god of the oak.] In the foregoing enquiry we have found reason to -suppose that the Roman kings personated not only Jupiter the god of the -oak, but Saturn the god of the seed and perhaps also the god of the -fig-tree. The question naturally arises, Did they do so simultaneously -or successively? In other words, did the same king regularly represent -the oak-god at one season of the year, the seed-god at another, and the -fig-god at a third? or were there separate dynasties of oak-kings, -seed-kings, and fig-kings, who belonged perhaps to different stocks and -reigned at different times? The evidence does not allow us to answer -these questions definitely. But tradition certainly points to the -conclusion that in Latium and perhaps in Italy generally the seed-god -Saturn was an older deity than the oak-god Jupiter, just as in Greece -Cronus appears to have preceded Zeus. Perhaps Saturn and Cronus were the -gods of an old indigenous and agricultural people; while Jupiter and -Zeus were the divinities of a ruder invading race, which swarmed down -into Italy and Greece from the forests of central Europe, bringing their -wild woodland deities to dwell in more fertile lands, under softer -skies, side by side with the gods of the corn and the vine, the olive -and the fig. If that was so, we may suppose that before the irruption of -these northern barbarians the old kings of Greece and Italy personated -the gods of the fat field and fruitful orchard, and that it was not till -after the conquest that their successors learned to pose as the god of -the verdant oak and the thundering sky. However, on questions so obscure -we must be content to suspend our judgment. It is unlikely that the -student’s search-light will ever pierce the mists that hang over these -remote ages. All that we can do is to follow the lines of evidence -backward as far as they can be traced, till, after growing fainter and -fainter, they are lost altogether in the darkness. - -Footnote 866: - - J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. 2nd Ed., 237, 321; C. - Julian, in Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques - et romaines_, ii. 1173. As to Vesta and the Vestals, see above, vol. - i. pp. 13 _sq._ - -Footnote 867: - - C. Julian, _l.c._ - -Footnote 868: - - See above, p. 186 note 1. - -Footnote 869: - - Above, pp. 261-263. - -Footnote 870: - - Diodorus Siculus, xvii. 114. - -Footnote 871: - - Thus in some African tribes the household fire is put out after a - death, and afterwards relit by the friction of sticks (Sir H. H. - Johnston, _British Central Africa_, p. 439; L. Concradt, “Die Ngumbu - in Südkamerun,” _Globus_, lxxxi, (1902) p. 352). In Laos the fire on - the hearth is extinguished after a death and the ashes are scattered; - afterwards a new fire is obtained from a neighbour (Tournier, _Notice - sur le Laos français_, p. 68). A custom of the same sort is observed - in Burma, but there the new fire must be bought (C. J. F. S. Forbes, - _British Burma_, p. 94). Among the Miris of Assam the new fire is made - by the widow or widower (W. H. Furness, in _Journal of the Anthrop. - Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 462). In Armenia it is made by flint and - steel (M. Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_, p. 71). In Argos - fire was extinguished after a death, and fresh fire obtained from a - neighbour (Plutarch, _Quaest. Graec._ 24). In the Highlands of - Scotland all fires were put out in a house where there was a corpse - (Pennant’s “Tour in Scotland,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, - iii. 49). Amongst the Bogos of East Africa no fire may be lit in a - house after a death until the body has been carried out (W. Munzinger, - _Sitten und Recht der Bogos_, p. 67). In the Pelew Islands, when a - death has taken place, fire is transferred from the house to a shed - erected beside it (J. S. Kubary, “Die Todtenbestattung auf den - Pelau-Inseln,” _Original-Mittheilungen aus der Ethnologischen - Abtheilung der Königlichen Museen zu Berlin_, i. 7). In the Marquesas - Islands fires were extinguished after a death (Vincendon-Dumoulin et - Desgraz, _Iles Marquises_, p. 251). Among the Indians of Peru and the - Moors of Algiers no fire might be lighted for several days in a house - where a death had occurred (Cieza de Leon, _Travels_, Markham’s - translation, p. 366; Dapper, _Description de l’Afrique_, p. 176). The - same custom is reported of the Mohammedans of India (Mandelsloe, in J. - Harris’s _Voyages and Travels_, i. (London, 1744) p. 770). In the East - Indian island of Wetter no fire may burn in a house for three days - after a death, and according to Bastian the reason is the one given in - the text, to wit, a fear that the ghost might fall into it and hurt - himself (A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, ii. 60). For more evidence, see my - article “On certain Burial Customs,” _Journal of the Anthropological - Institute_, xv. (1886) p. 90. - -Footnote 872: - - For the list of the Alban kings see Livy, i. 3. 5-11; Ovid, _Fasti_, - iv. 39-56; _id._, _Metam._ xiv. 609 _sqq._; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, - _Antiquit. Rom._ i. 70 _sq._; Eusebius, _Chronic._ bk. i. vol. i. - coll. 273, 275, 285, 287, 289, 291, ed. A. Schoene; Diodorus Siculus, - vii. 3rd ed. L. Dindorf; Sextus Aurelius Victor, _Origo gentis - Romanae_, 17-19; Zonaras, _Annales_, vii. 1. - -Footnote 873: - - See B. G. Niebuhr, _History of Rome_, i. 205-207; A. Schwegler, - _Römische Geschichte_, i. 339, 342-345. However, Niebuhr admits that - some of the names may have been taken from older legends. - -Footnote 874: - - H. M. Stanley, _Through the Dark Continent_ (London, 1878), i. 380; C. - T. Wilson and R. W. Felkin, _Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan_ (London, - 1882), i. 197; Fr. Stuhlman, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ - (Berlin, 1894), pp. 192 _sq._; J. Roscoe, “Farther Notes on the - Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological - Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 25, with plates i. and ii.; Sir Harry - Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_, ii. 681 _sq._ - -Footnote 875: - - Romulus and Tatius reigned for a time together; after Romulus the - kings were, in order of succession, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, - Ancus Marcius, the elder Tarquin, Servius Tullius, and Tarquin the - Proud. - -Footnote 876: - - See A. Schwegler, _Römische Geschichte_, i. 579 _sq._ - -Footnote 877: - - According to one account, Romulus had a son and a daughter (Plutarch, - _Romulus_, 14). Some held that Numa had four sons (Plutarch, _Numa_, - 21). Ancus Marcius left two sons (Livy, i. 35. 1, i. 40; Dionysius - Halicarnasensis, _Ant. Rom._ iii. 72 _sq._, iv. 34. 3). Tarquin the - Elder left two sons or grandsons (Livy, i. 46; Dionysius Halic., _Ant. - Rom._ iv. 6 _sq._ iv. 28). - -Footnote 878: - - Pompilia, the mother of Ancus Marcius, was a daughter of Numa. See - Cicero, _De re publica_, ii. 18. 33; Livy, i. 32. 1; Dionysius - Halicarnasensis, _Ant. Rom._ ii. 76. 5, iii. 35. 3, iii. 36. 2; - Plutarch, _Numa_, 21. - -Footnote 879: - - Numa married Tatia, the daughter of Tatius (Plutarch, _Numa_, 3 and - 21); Servius Tullius married the daughter of the elder Tarquin (Livy, - i. 39. 4); and Tarquin the Proud married Tullia the daughter of - Servius Tullius (Livy, i. 42. 1, i. 46. 5). - -Footnote 880: - - Numa was a Sabine from Cures (Livy, i. 18; Plutarch, _Numa_, 3; - Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Ant. Rom._ ii. 58); Servius Tullius, - according to the common account, was the son of Ocrisia, a slave woman - of Corniculum (Livy, i. 39. 5; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Ant. Rom._ - iv. 1.), but according to another account he was an Etruscan (see - above, p. 196 note); and Tarquin the Proud was a son of the elder - Tarquin, who was an Etruscan from Tarquinii (Livy, i. 34; Cicero, _De - re publica_, ii. 19 _sq._, §§ 34 _sq._). The foreign birth of their - kings naturally struck the Romans themselves. See the speech put by - Livy (i. 35. 3), in the mouth of the elder Tarquin: _“Se non rem novam - petere, quippe qui non primus, quod quisquam indignari mirarive - posset, sed tertius Romae peregrinus regnum adfectet; et Tatium non ex - peregrino solum sed etiam ex hoste regem factum, et Numam ignarum - urbis non petentem in regnum ultro accitum: se, ex quo sui potens - fuerit, Romam cum conjuge ac fortunis omnibus commigrasse._” And see a - passage in a speech actually spoken by the Emperor Claudius: “_Quondam - reges hanc tenuere urbem, nec tamen domesticis successoribus eam - tradere contigit. Supervenere alieni et quidem externi, ut Numa Romulo - successerit ex Sabinis veniens, vicinus quidem sed tunec externus_,” - etc. The speech is engraved on bronze tablets found at Lyons. See - Tacitus, ed. Baiter and Orelli, i. 2nd Ed., p. 342. - -Footnote 881: - - “In Ceylon, where the higher and lower polyandry co-exist, marriage is - of two sorts—Deega or Beena—according as the wife goes to live in the - house and village of her husbands, or as the husband or husbands come - to live with her in or near the house of her birth” (J. F. McLennan, - _Studies in Ancient History_ (London, 1886), p. 101). - -Footnote 882: - - The system of mother-kin, that is, of tracing descent through females - instead of through males, is often called the matriarchate. But this - term is inappropriate and misleading, as it implies that under the - system in question the women govern the men. Even when the so-called - matriarchate regulates the descent of the kingdom, this does not mean - that the women of the royal family reign; it only means that they are - the channel through which the kingship is transmitted to their - husbands or sons. - -Footnote 883: - - Ancient writers repeatedly speak of the uncertainty as to the fathers - of the Roman kings. See Livy, i. 4. 2; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, - _Ant. Rom._ ii. 2. 3; Cicero, _De re publica_, ii. 18. 33; Seneca, - _Epist._ cviii. 30; Aelian, _Var. Hist._ xiv. 36. - -Footnote 884: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 773-784; Varro, _De lingua Latina_, vi. 17. Compare - L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., ii. 180 _sq._ - -Footnote 885: - - See _The Golden Bough_, Second Edition, iii. 266 _sqq._, 328 _sqq._ - -Footnote 886: - - See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 203 _sqq._; _The - Golden Bough_, Second Edition, iii. 318 _sq._ - -Footnote 887: - - Plutarch, _Numa_, 3. - -Footnote 888: - - T. E. Bowdich, _Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee_, New - Edition (London, 1873), pp. 185, 204 _sq._; A. B. Ellis, _The - Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_, pp. 287, 297 _sq._; _id._, - _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, p. 187. - -Footnote 889: - - J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” - _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 36, 67. - In Benin “the legitimate daughters of a king did not _marry_ any one, - but bestowed their favours as they pleased.” (Mr. C. Punch, in H. Ling - Roth’s _Great Benin_ (Halifax, England, 1903), p. 37). - -Footnote 890: - - C. T. Wilson and R. W. Felkin, _Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan_ - (London, 1882), i. 200; J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and - Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, - xxxii. (1902) p. 67. - -Footnote 891: - - J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 27, 62. Mr. Roscoe says: “The royal family - traces its pedigree through the maternal clan, but the nation through - the paternal clan.” But he here refers to the descent of the totem - only. That the throne descends from father to son is proved by the - genealogical tables which he gives (Plates I. and II.). - -Footnote 892: - - Proyart’s “History of Loango,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, - xvi. 570, 579 _sq._; L. Degrandpré, _Voyage à la côte occidentale - d’Afrique_ (Paris, 1801), pp. 110-114; A. Bastian, _Die deutsche - Expedition an der Loango Küste_, i. 197 _sqq._ Time seems not to have - mitigated the lot of these unhappy prince consorts. See R. E. Dennett, - _At the Back of the Black Man’s Mind_ (London, 1906), pp. 36 _sq._, - 134. Mr. Dennett says that the husband of a princess is virtually her - slave and may be put to death by her. All the sisters of the King of - Loango enjoy these arbitrary rights over their husbands, and the - offspring of any of them may become king. - -Footnote 893: - - Father Guillemé, “Au Bengouéolo,” _Missions Catholiques_, xxxiv. - (1902) p. 16. The writer visited the state and had an interview with - the queen, a woman of gigantic stature, wearing many amulets. - -Footnote 894: - - Pausanias, i. 2. 6. - -Footnote 895: - - Pausanias, ii. 29. 4. I have to thank Mr. H. M. Chadwick for pointing - out the following Greek and Swedish parallels to what I conceive to - have been the Latin practice. - -Footnote 896: - - Diodorus Siculus, iv. 72. 7. According to Apollodorus (iii. 12. 7), - Cychreus, King of Salamis, died childless, and bequeathed his kingdom - to Telamon. - -Footnote 897: - - J. Tzetzes, _Schol. on Lycophron_, 450. Compare Pausanias, ii. 29. 4. - -Footnote 898: - - Apollodorus, iii. 13. 1. According to Diodorus Siculus (iv. 72. 6), - the king of Phthia was childless, and bequeathed his kingdom to - Peleus. - -Footnote 899: - - Apollodorus, iii. 13. 8; Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 96. - -Footnote 900: - - Pausanias, i. 11. 1 _sq._; Justin, xvii. 3. - -Footnote 901: - - Apollodorus, i. 8. 5. - -Footnote 902: - - Antoninus Liberalis, _Transform._ 37; Ovid, _Metam._ xiv. 459 _sq._, - 510 _sq._ Compare Virgil, _Aen._ xi. 243 _sqq._ - -Footnote 903: - - Diodorus, iv. 73; Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 82-84; Servius, on Virgil, - _Georg._ iii. 7. - -Footnote 904: - - Thucydides, i. 9; Strabo, viii. 6. 19, p. 377. - -Footnote 905: - - Apollodorus, iii. 10. 8. - -Footnote 906: - - Schol. on Euripides, _Orestes_, 46; Pindar, _Pyth._ xi. 31 _sq._; - Pausanias, iii. 19. 6. - -Footnote 907: - - H. M. Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_ (Cambridge, 1907), - pp. 332 _sq._ In treating of the succession to the kingdom in - Scandinavia, the late K. Maurer, one of the highest authorities on old - Norse law, also remarked that “some ancient authorities - (_Quellenberichte_) profess to know of a certain right of succession - accorded to women, in virtue of which under certain circumstances, - though they could not themselves succeed to the kingdom, they - nevertheless could convey it to their husbands.” And he cites a number - of instances, how one king (Eysteinn Halfdanarson) succeeded his - father-in-law (Eirikr Agnarsson) on the throne; how another (Gudrodr - Halfdanarson) received with his wife Alfhildr a portion of her - father’s kingdom; and so on. See K. Maurer, _Vorlesungen über - altnordische Rechtsgeschichte_, i. (Leipsic, 1907) pp. 233 _sq._ - -Footnote 908: - - G. W. Dasent, _Popular Tales from the Norse_, pp. 131 _sqq._; S. - Grundtvig, _Dänische Volksmärchen_, First Series (Leipsic, 1878), pp. - 285 _sqq._ (Leo’s German translation); Cavallius und Stephens, - _Schwedische Volkssagen und Märchen_, No. 4, pp. 62 _sqq._ - (Oberleitner’s German translation); Grimm, _Household Tales_, No. 60; - Kuhn und Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_, pp. - 340 _sqq._; J. W. Wolf, _Deutsche Hausmärchen_, pp. 372 _sqq._; Philo - vom Walde, _Schlesien in Sage und Brauch_, pp. 81 _sqq._; I. V. - Zingerle, _Kinder- und Hausmärchen aus Tirol_, No. 8, pp. 35 _sqq._ - No. 35, pp. 178 _sqq._; J. Haltrich, _Deutsche Volksmärchen aus dem - Sachsenlande in Siebenbürgen_, 4th ed., No. 15, pp. 103 _sqq._; J. F. - Campbell, _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, No. 4, vol. i. pp. 77 - _sqq._; A. Schleicher, _Litauische Märchen, Sprichwörte, Rätsel und - Lieder_, pp. 57 _sqq._; A. Leskien und K. Brugmann, _Litauische - Volkslieder und Märchen_, No. 14, pp. 404 _sqq._; Basile, - _Pentamerone_, First day, seventh tale, vol. i. pp. 97 _sqq._ - (Liebrecht’s German translation); E. Legrand, _Contes populaires - grecques_, pp. 169 _sqq._; J. G. von Hahn, _Griechische und - albanesische Märchen_, No. 98, vol. ii. pp. 114 _sq._; A. und A. - Schott, _Walachische Maehrchen_, No. 10, pp. 140 _sqq._; W. Webster, - _Basque Legends_, pp. 36-38; A. Schiefner, _Awarische Texte_ (St. - Petersburg, 1873), No. 2, pp. 21 _sqq._; J. Rivière, _Contes - populaires de la Kabylie_, pp. 195-197. - -Footnote 909: - - Saxo Grammaticus, _Historia Danica_, bk. iv. p. 126 (Elton’s - translation). The passage occurs on p. 158 of P. E. Müller’s edition - of Saxo. - -Footnote 910: - - The story of Hamlet (Amleth) is told, in a striking form, by Saxo - Grammaticus in the third and fourth books of his history. Mr. H. M. - Chadwick tells me that Hamlet stands on the border-line between legend - and history. Hence the main outlines of his story may be correct. - -Footnote 911: - - Herodotus, i. 7-13. - -Footnote 912: - - Nicolaus Damascenus, vi. frag. 49, in _Fragmenta Historicorum - Graecorum_, ed. C. Müller, iii. 380. - -Footnote 913: - - Athenaeus, xii. 11, pp. 515 F-516 B; Apollodorus, ii. 6. 3; Diodorus - Siculus, iv. 31; Joannes Lydus, _De magistratibus_, iii. 64; Lucian, - _Dialogi deorum_, xiii. 2; Ovid, _Heroides_, ix. 55 _sqq._; Statius, - _Theb._ x. 646-649. - -Footnote 914: - - Athenaeus, _l.c._ - -Footnote 915: - - Herodotus, i. 93; Clearchus, quoted by Athenaeus, xii. 11, p. 516 A B. - The Armenians also prostituted their daughters before marriage, - dedicating them for a long time to the profligate worship of the - goddess Anaitis (Strabo, xi. 14. 16, p. 532 _sq._). The custom was - probably practised as a charm to secure the fertility of the earth as - well as of man and beast. See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, - pp. 32 _sqq._ - -Footnote 916: - - Herodotus, i. 7. - -Footnote 917: - - Clearchus, quoted by Athenaeus, xiii. 31, p. 573 A B. - -Footnote 918: - - See E. A. Freeman, _History of the Norman Conquest of England_, i. 3rd - Ed., 410-412, 733-737. I am indebted to my friend Mr. H. M. Chadwick - both for the fact and its explanation. - -Footnote 919: - - Procopius, _De bello Gothico_, iv. 20 (vol. ii. p. 593, ed. J. Haury). - This and the following cases of marriage with a stepmother are cited - by K. Weinhold, _Deutsche Frauen_ 2nd Ed., (Vienna, 1882), ii. 359 - _sq._ - -Footnote 920: - - Bede, _Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum_, ii. 5. 102; compare i. - 27. 63. - -Footnote 921: - - Prudentius Trecensis, “Annales,” anno 858, in Pertz’s _Monumenta - Germaniae historica_, i. 451; Ingulfus, _Historia_, quoted _ibid._ - -Footnote 922: - - This is in substance the view of Dr. W. E. Hearn (_The Aryan - House-hold_, pp. 150-155) and of Prof. B. Delbrück (“Das Mutterrecht - bei den Indogermanen,” _Preussische Jahrbücher_, lxxix. (1895) pp. - 14-27). - -Footnote 923: - - Clearchus of Soli, quoted by Athenaeus, xiii. 2. p. 555 D; John of - Antioch, in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Müller, iv. - 547; Charax of Pergamus _ib._ iii. 638; J. Tzetzes, _Schol. on - Lycophron_, 111; _id._, _Chiliades_, v. 650-665; Suidas, _s.v._ - Κέκροψ; Justin, ii. 6. 7. - -Footnote 924: - - Ὁ μὲν οὖν ἀθηναῖος Σόλων ὁμοπατρίους ἐφεὶς ἄγεσθαι, τὰς ὁμομητρίους - ἐκώλυσεν, ὁ δὲ Λακεδαιμονίων νομοθέτης ἔμπαλιν, τὸν ἐπὶ ταῖς - ὁμογαστρίοις γάμον ἐπιτρέψας, τὸν πρὸς τὰς ὁμοπατρίους ἀπεῖπεν, Philo - Judaeus, _De specialibus legibus_, vol. ii. p. 303, ed. Th. Mangey. - See also Plutarch, _Themistocles_, 32; Cornelius Nepos, _Cimon_, 1; - Schol. on Aristophanes, _Clouds_, 1371; L. Beauchet, _Histoire du - droit privé de la République Athénienne_, i. (Paris, 1897) pp. 165 - _sqq._ Compare Minucius Felix, _Octavius_, 31. - -Footnote 925: - - Polybius, xii. 5. - -Footnote 926: - - Strabo, xiii. 1. 40, pp. 600 _sq._; Plutarch, _De sera numinis - vindicta_, 12; and especially Lycophron, _Cassandra_, 1141 _sqq._, - with the scholia of J. Tzetzes, who refers to Timaeus and Callimachus - as his authorities. - -Footnote 927: - - Justin, xxi. 3. 1-6. - -Footnote 928: - - Strabo, iii. 4. 18. - -Footnote 929: - - Tacitus, _Germania_, 20. Compare L. Dargun, _Mutterrecht und Raubehe - und ihre Reste im germanischen Recht und Leben_ (Breslau, 1883), pp. - 21 _sq._ - -Footnote 930: - - A. Giraud-Teulon, _Les Origines du mariage et de la famille_, pp. 206 - _sqq._; A. H. Post, _Afrikanische Jurisprudenz_, i. 13 _sqq._; Sir - Harry H. Johnston, _British Central Africa_, p. 471; A. B. Ellis, _The - Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_, pp. 297 _sq._; _id._, _The - Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, pp. 207 _sqq._ Much more - evidence will be found in my _Totemism and Exogamy_. - -Footnote 931: - - R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 50, note 2. - -Footnote 932: - - Tacitus, _Germania_, 20. - -Footnote 933: - - A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, pp. 286 _sqq._ - The _reipus_ or payment made on the remarriage of a widow is discussed - by L. Dargun, _op. cit._ pp. 141-152. - -Footnote 934: - - W. F. Skene held that the Picts were Celts. See his _Celtic Scotland_, - i. 194-227. On the other hand, H. Zimmer supposes them to have been - the pre-Celtic inhabitants of the British Islands. See his paper “Das - Mutterrecht der Pikten,” _Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für - Rechtsgeschichte_, xv. (1894) Romanistische Abtheilung, pp. 209 _sqq._ - -Footnote 935: - - “_Cumque uxores Picti non habentes peterent a Scottis, ea solum - conditione dare consenserunt, ut ubi res perveniret in dubium, magis - de feminea regum prosapia quam de masculina regem sibi eligerent; quod - usque hodie apud Pictos constat esse servatum_,” Bede, _Historia - ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum_, ii. 1. 7. - -Footnote 936: - - W. F. Skene, _Celtic Scotland_, i. 232-235; J. F. McLennan, _Studies - in Ancient History_ (London, 1886), pp. 68-70; H. Zimmer, _loc. cit._ - -Footnote 937: - - K. O. Müller, _Die Etrusker_ (Stuttgart, 1877), ii. 376 _sq._; J. J. - Bachofen, _Die Sage von Tanaquil_ (Heidelberg, 1870), pp. 282-290. - -Footnote 938: - - Θεόπομπος δ’ ἐν τῇ τεσσαρακοστῇ τρίτῃ τῶν ἱστοριῶν καὶ νόμον εἶναί - φησι παρὰ τοῖς Τυρρηνοῖς κοινὰς ὑπάρχειν τὰς γυναῖκας ... τρέφειν δὲ - τοὺς Τυρρηνοὺς πάντα τὰ γινόμενα παιδία, οὐκ εἰδότας ὅτου πάτρος ἐστὶν - ἕκαστον, Athenaeus, xii. 14, p. 517 D E. - -Footnote 939: - - “_Non enim hic, ubi ex Tusco modo Tute tibi indigne dotem quaeras - corpore_” (Plautus, _Cistellaria_, ii. 3. 20 _sq._). - -Footnote 940: - - Herodotus, i. 94; Strabo, v. 2. 2, p. 219; Tacitus, _Annals_, iv. 55; - Timaeus, cited by Tertullian, _De spectaculis_, 5; Festus, _s.v._ - “Turannos,” p. 355, ed. C. O. Müller; Plutarch, _Romulus_, 2; Velleius - Paterculus, i. 1. 4; Justin, xx. 1. 7; Valerius Maximus, ii. 4. 4; - Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ i. 67. On the other hand, Dionysius of - Halicarnassus held that the Etruscans were an indigenous Italian race, - differing from all other known peoples in language and customs (_Ant. - Rom._ i. 26-30). On this much-vexed question, see K. O. Müller, _Die - Etrusker_ (Stuttgart, 1877), i. 65 _sqq._; G. Dennis, _Cities and - Cemeteries of Etruria_, 3rd Ed., i. pp. xxxiii. _sqq._; F. Hommel, - _Grundriss der Geographie und Geschichte des Alten Orients_, 2nd Ed., - pp. 63 _sqq._ (in Iwan von Müller’s _Handbuch der klassischen - Altertumswissenschaft_, vol. iii.). - -Footnote 941: - - It is doubtful whether Servius Tullius was a Latin or an Etruscan. See - above, p. 195, note 1. - -Footnote 942: - - “All over India the hedge-priest is very often an autochthon, his long - residence in the land being supposed to confer upon him the knowledge - of the character and peculiarities of the local gods, and to teach him - the proper mode in which they may be conciliated. Thus the Doms - preserve to the present day the animistic and demonistic beliefs of - the aboriginal races, which the Khasiyas, who have succeeded them, - temper with the worship of the village deities, the named and - localised divine entities, with the occasional languid cult of the - greater Hindu gods. The propitiation of the vague spirits of wood, or - cliff, river or lake, they are satisfied to leave in charge of their - serfs” (W. Crooke, _Natives of Northern India_, London, 1907, pp. 104 - _sq._). When the Israelites had been carried away captives into - Assyria, the new settlers in the desolate land of Israel were attacked - by lions, which they supposed to be sent against them by the god of - the country because, as strangers, they did not know how to propitiate - him. So they petitioned the king of Assyria and he sent them a native - Israelitish priest, who taught them how to worship the God of Israel. - See 2 Kings xvii. 24-28. - -Footnote 943: - - H. Jordan, _Die Könige im alten Italien_ (Berlin, 1884), pp. 15-25. - -Footnote 944: - - Livy, i. 56. 7; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Ant. Rom._ iv. 68. 1. - -Footnote 945: - - Livy, i. 34. 2 _sq._, i. 38. 1, i. 57. 6; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, - _Ant. Rom._ iv. 64. - -Footnote 946: - - I owe to Mr. A. B. Cook the interesting suggestion that the double - consulship was a revival of a double kingship. - -Footnote 947: - - As to the _Regifugium_ see below, pp. 308-310. - -Footnote 948: - - Pausanias, iv. 5. 10; G. Gilbert, _Handbuch der griech. - Staatsalterthümer_, i. 2nd Ed., 122 _sq._ - -Footnote 949: - - The two supreme magistrates who replaced the kings were at first - called praetors. See Livy, iii. 55. 12; B. G. Niebuhr, _History of - Rome_, 3rd Ed., i. 520 _sq._; Th. Mommsen, _Römisches Staatsrecht_, - ii. 3rd Ed., 74 _sqq._ That the power of the first consuls was, with - the limitations indicated in the text, that of the old kings is fully - recognised by Livy (ii. 1. 7 _sq._). - -Footnote 950: - - It was a disputed point whether Tarquin the Proud was the son or - grandson of Tarquin the Elder. Most writers, and Livy (i. 46. 4) among - them, held that he was a son. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, on the other - hand, argued that he must have been a grandson; he insists strongly on - the chronological difficulties to which the ordinary hypothesis is - exposed if Servius Tullius reigned, as he is said to have reigned, - forty-four years. See Dionysius Halic. _Ant. Rom._ iv. 6 _sq._ - -Footnote 951: - - Livy, i. 48. 2; Dionysius Halic. _Ant. Rom._ iv. 31 _sq._ and 46. - -Footnote 952: - - Livy, i. 56; Dionysius Halic. _Ant. Rom._ iv. 67-69, 77; Valerius - Maximus, vii. 3. 2; Aurelius Victor, _De viris illustribus_, x. The - murder of Brutus’s father and brother is recorded by Dionysius; the - other writers mention the assassination of his brother only. The - resemblance between Brutus and Hamlet has been pointed out before. See - F. York Powell, in Elton’s translation of Saxo Grammaticus’s _Danish - History_ (London, 1894), pp. 405-410. - -Footnote 953: - - D. Livingstone, _Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_, - pp. 617 _sq._ Many more examples are given by A. H. Post, - _Afrikanische Jurisprudenz_ (Oldenburg and Leipsic), i. 134 _sqq._ - -Footnote 954: - - D. Livingstone, _op. cit._ p. 434. - -Footnote 955: - - H. Hecquard, _Reise an die Küste und in das Innere von West-Afrika_ - (Leipsic, 1854), p. 104. This and the preceding example are cited by - A. H. Post, _l.c._ - -Footnote 956: - - J. A. Chisholm, “Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Winamwanga - and Wiwa,” _Journal of the African Society_, No. 36 (July 1910), p. - 384. - -Footnote 957: - - J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 784 _sq._ - -Footnote 958: - - Sir William MacGregor, “Lagos, Abeokuta, and the Alake,” _Journal of - the African Society_, No. 12 (July 1904), pp. 470 _sq._ - -Footnote 959: - - C. Partridge, “The Burial of the Atta of Igaraland, and the - ‘Coronation’ of his Successor,” _Blackwood’s Magazine_, September - 1904, pp. 329 _sq._ Mr. Partridge kindly gave me some details as to - the election of the king in a letter dated 24th October 1904. He is - Assistant District Commissioner in Southern Nigeria. - -Footnote 960: - - Major P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_ (London, 1907), pp. 66-75. - -Footnote 961: - - Livy, i. 17; Cicero, _De re publica_, ii. 17. 31. - -Footnote 962: - - As to the nomination of the King of the Sacred Rites see Livy, xl. 42; - Dionysius Halic. _Ant. Rom._ v. 1. 4. The latter writer says that the - augurs co-operated with the pontiff in the nomination. - -Footnote 963: - - Th. Mommsen, _Römisches Staatsrecht_, ii. 3rd Ed., 6-8; A. H. J. - Greenidge, _Roman Public Life_, pp. 45 _sqq._ Mr. Greenidge thinks - that the king was regularly nominated by his predecessor and only - occasionally by an interim king. Mommsen holds that he was always - nominated by the latter. - -Footnote 964: - - Compare Lucretius, v. 1108 _sqq._: - - “_Condere coeperunt urbis arcemque locare - Praesidium reges ipsi sibi perfugiumque, - Et pecus atque agros divisere atque dedere - Pro facie cujusque et viribus ingenioque; - Nam facies multum valuit viresque vigentes._” - -Footnote 965: - - Nicolaus Damascenus, in Stobaeus, _Florilegium_, xliv. 41 (_Frag. - Histor. Graec._ ed. C. Müller, iii. 463). Other writers say simply - that the tallest, strongest, or handsomest man was chosen king. See - Herodotus, iii. 20; Aristotle, _Politics_, iv. 4; Athenaeus, xiii. 20, - p. 566 c. - -Footnote 966: - - Zenobius, _Cent._ v. 25. - -Footnote 967: - - J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_, pp. 4 _sq._ Compare D. Livingstone, - _Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_, p. 186; W. Max - Müller, _Asien und Europa_ (Leipsic, 1893), p. 110. - -Footnote 968: - - Zenobius, _Cent._ v. 25. - -Footnote 969: - - Strabo, xi. 21, p. 492. - -Footnote 970: - - Hippocrates, _De aere locis et aquis_ (vol. i. pp. 550 _sq._ ed. - Kühn). - -Footnote 971: - - Captain Guy Burrows, _The Land of the Pigmies_ (London, 1898), p. 95. - Speaking of this tribe, Emin Pasha observes: “The most curious custom, - however, and one which is particularly observed in the ruling - families, is bandaging the heads of infants. By means of these - bandages a lengthening of the head along its horizontal axis is - produced; and whereas the ordinary Monbutto people have rather round - heads, the form of the head in the better classes shows an - extraordinary increase in length, which certainly very well suits - their style of hair and of hats.” See _Emin Pasha in Central Africa, - being a Collection of Letters and Journals_ (London, 1888), p. 212. - -Footnote 972: - - Lewis and Clark, _Expedition to the Sources of the Missouri_, ch. 23, - vol. ii. 327 _sq._ (reprinted at London, 1905); D. W. Harmon, quoted - by Rev. J. Morse, _Report to the Secretary of War of the United States - on Indian Affairs_ (Newhaven, 1822), Appendix, p. 346; H. R. - Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, ii. 325 _sq._; R. C. Mayne, _Four Years - in British Columbia_, p. 277; G. M. Sproat, _Scenes and Studies of - Savage Life_, pp. 28-30; H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific - States_, i. 180. - -Footnote 973: - - C. Hill-Tout, _The Far West, the Home of the Salish and Déné_ (London, - 1907), p. 40. As to the custom in general among these tribes, see - _ibid._ pp. 38-41. In Melanesia the practice of artificially - lengthening the head into a cone by means of bandages applied in - infancy is observed by the natives of Malikolo (Malekula) in the New - Hebrides and also by the natives of the south coast of New Britain, - from Cape Roebuck to Cape Bedder. See Beatrice Grimshaw, _From Fiji to - the Cannibal Islands_ (London, 1907), pp. 258-260; R. Parkinson, - _Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee_ (Stuttgart, 1907), pp. 204-206. - -Footnote 974: - - V. Fric and P. Radin, “Contributions to the Study of the Bororo - Indians,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) - pp. 388 _sq._ - -Footnote 975: - - See _The Spectator_, Nos. 18 and 20. - -Footnote 976: - - Nicolaus Damascenus, in Stobaeus, _Florilegium_, xliv. 41 (_Fragmenta - Historic. Graecorum_, ed. C. Müller, iii. 463). - -Footnote 977: - - Simon Grunau, _Preussische Chronik_, Tract. ii. cap. iii. § 2, p. 66, - ed. M. Perlbach. This passage was pointed out to me by Mr. H. M. - Chadwick. - -Footnote 978: - - Pausanias, v. 1. 4, vi. 20. 9. - -Footnote 979: - - Apollodorus, _Epitoma_, ii. 4-9, ed. R. Wagner (Apollodorus, - _Bibliotheca_, ed. R. Wagner, pp. 183 _sq._); Diodorus Siculus, iv. - 73; Pausanias, v. 1. 6 _sq._, v. 10. 6 _sq._, v. 14. 7, v. 17. 7 - _sq._, v. 20. 6 _sq._, vi. 21. 7-11. - -Footnote 980: - - Pausanias, vi. 21. 3. - -Footnote 981: - - Pausanias, v. 13. 1-6, vi. 20. 7. - -Footnote 982: - - Pausanias, iii. 12. 1, 20. 10 _sq._ - -Footnote 983: - - Pindar, _Pyth._ ix. 181-220, with the Scholia. - -Footnote 984: - - Pindar, _Pyth._ ix. 195 _sqq._; Pausanias, iii. 12. 2. - -Footnote 985: - - Apollodorus, iii. 9. 2; Hyginus, _Fab._ 185; Ovid, _Metam._ x. 560 - _sqq._ - -Footnote 986: - - E. Schuyler, _Turkistan_ (London, 1876), i. 42 _sq._ This and the four - following examples of the bride-race have been already cited by J. F. - McLennan, _Studies in Ancient History_ (London, 1886), pp. 15 _sq._, - 181-184. He supposes them to be relics of a custom of capturing women - from another community. - -Footnote 987: - - E. D. Clarke, _Travels in Various Countries_, i. (London, 1810), p. - 333. In the fourth octavo edition of Clarke’s _Travels_ (vol. i., - London, 1816), from which McLennan seems to have quoted, there are a - few verbal changes. - -Footnote 988: - - J. McLennan, _op. cit._ pp. 183 _sq._, referring to Kennan’s _Tent - Life in Siberia_ (1870), which I have not seen. Compare W. Jochelson, - “The Koryak” (Leyden and New York, 1908), p. 742 (_Memoir of the - American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific - Expedition_, vol. vi.). - -Footnote 989: - - Letter of the missionary Bigandet, dated March 1847, in _Annales de la - Propagation de la Foi_, xx. (1848) p. 431. A similar account of the - ceremony is given by M. Bourien, “Wild Tribes of the Malay Peninsula,” - _Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London_, N.S. iii. (1865) - p. 81. See further W. W. Skeat and C.O. Blagden, _Pagan Races of the - Malay Peninsula_ (London, 1906), ii. 68, 77 _sq._, 79 _sq._, 82 _sq._ - -Footnote 990: - - J. Cameron, _Our Tropical Possessions in Malayan India_ (London, - 1865), pp. 116 _sq._ - -Footnote 991: - - Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), p. 219. - -Footnote 992: - - Middle High German _brûtlouf_, modern German _Brautlauf_, Anglo-Saxon - _brydhléap_, old Norse _brudhlaup_, modern Norse _bryllup_. See Grimm, - _Deutsches Wörterbuch_, _s.v._ “Brautlauf”; K. Weinhold, _Deutsche - Frauen_, 2nd Ed., i. 407. The latter writer supposes the word to refer - merely to the procession from the house of the bride to the house of - the bridegroom. But Grimm is most probably right in holding that - originally it applied to a real race for the bride. This is the view - also of K. Simrock (_Deutsche Mythologie_, 5th Ed. pp. 598 _sq._). - Another writer sees in it a trace of marriage by capture (L. Dargun, - _Mutterrecht und Raubehe_ (Breslau, 1883), p. 130). Compare K. - Schmidt, _Jus primae noctis_ (Freiburg i. B. 1881), p. 129. - -Footnote 993: - - A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 358. - -Footnote 994: - - W. Kolbe, _Hessische Volks-sitten und Gebräuche_ (Marburg, 1888), pp. - 150 _sq._ - -Footnote 995: - - Lentner and Dahn, in _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs - Bayern_, i. (Munich, 1860) pp. 398 _sq._ - -Footnote 996: - - J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 153-155 (Bohn’s edition); J. - Jamieson, _Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, _s.v._ “Broose.” - -Footnote 997: - - E. Herrmann, “Über Lieder und Bräuche bei Hochzeiten in Kärnten,” - _Archiv für Anthropologie_, xix. (1891) p. 169. - -Footnote 998: - - Nicolaus Damascenus, quoted by Stobaeus, _Florilegium_, xliv. 41; - _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Müller, iii. 457. - -Footnote 999: - - Strabo, v. 4. 12, p. 250. - -Footnote 1000: - - Arthur Young, “Tour in Ireland,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, - iii. 860. - -Footnote 1001: - - _Mahabharata_, condensed into English by Romesch Dutt (London, 1898), - pp. 15 _sqq._; J. C. Oman, _The Great Indian Epics_, pp. 109 _sqq._ - -Footnote 1002: - - J. D. Mayne, _A Treatise on Hindu Law and Usage_ 3rd Ed., (Madras and - London, 1883), p. 56; _The Vikramânkadevacharita_, edited by G. Bühler - (Bombay, 1875), pp. 38-40; A. Holtzmann, _Das Mahābharata und seine - Theile_, i. (Kiel, 1895), pp. 21 _sq._; J. Jolly, _Recht und Sitte_, - pp. 50 _sq._ (in G. Bühler’s _Grundriss der indo-arischen - Philologie_). - -Footnote 1003: - - _The Book of Ser Marco Polo._, Yule’s translation, 2nd Ed., bk. iv. - ch. 4, vol. ii. pp. 461-463. - -Footnote 1004: - - _The Lay of the Nibelungs_, translated by Alice Horton (London, 1898), - Adventures vi. and vii. - -Footnote 1005: - - Parthenius, _Narrat. Amat._ vi. This passage was pointed out to me by - Mr. A. B. Cook, who has himself discussed the contest for the - kingship. See his article, “The European Sky-god,” _Folk-lore_, xv. - (1904) pp. 376 _sqq._ - -Footnote 1006: - - Herodotus, vi. 126-130. It is to be observed that in this and other of - the examples cited above the succession to the kingdom did not pass - with the hand of the princess. - -Footnote 1007: - - See above, pp. 69, 84, 90 _sq._ These customs were observed at - Whitsuntide, not on May Day. But the Whitsuntide king and queen are - obviously equivalent to the King and Queen of May. Hence I allow - myself to use the latter and more familiar titles so as to include the - former. - -Footnote 1008: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 685 _sqq._; Plutarch, _Quaest. Rom._ 63; J. - Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. 2nd Ed., 323 _sq._; W. - Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_, pp. 327 - _sqq._ - -Footnote 1009: - - Another proposed explanation of the _regifugium_ is that the king fled - because at the sacrifice he had incurred the guilt of slaying a sacred - animal. See W. Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals of the Period of the - Republic_, pp. 328 _sqq._ The best-known example of such a ritual - flight is that of the men who slew the ox at the Athenian festival of - the _Bouphonia_. See _The Golden Bough_, Second Edition, ii. 294. - Amongst the Pawnees the four men who assisted at the sacrifice of a - girl to Ti-ra’-wa used to run away very fast after the deed was done - and wash themselves in the river. See G. B. Grinnell, _Pawnee Hero - Stories and Folk-Tales_ (New York, 1889), pp. 365 _sq._ Among the - ancient Egyptians the man whose duty it was to slit open a corpse for - the purpose of embalming it fled as soon as he had done his part, - pursued by all the persons present, who pelted him with stones and - cursed him, “turning as it were the pollution on him; for they suppose - that any one who violates or wounds or does any harm to the person of - a fellow-tribesman is hateful” (Diodorus Siculus, i. 91. 4). Similarly - in the western islands of Torres Straits the man whose duty it was to - decapitate a corpse for the purpose of preserving the skull was shot - at with arrows by the relatives of the deceased as an expiation for - the injury he had done to the corpse of their kinsman. See _Reports of - the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. - (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 249, 251. This explanation of the _regifugium_ - certainly deserves to be considered. But on this as on so many other - points of ancient ritual we can hardly hope ever to attain to - certainty. - -Footnote 1010: - - F. Cumont, “Les Actes de S. Dasius,” _Analecta Bollandiana_, xvi. - (1897) pp. 5-16. See further Messrs. Parmentier and Cumont, “Le Roi - des Saturnales,” _Revue de Philologie_, xxi. (1897) pp. 143-153; _The - Golden Bough_, Second Edition, iii. 138 _sqq._ The tomb of St. Dasius, - a Christian soldier who was put to death at Durostorum in 303 A.D. - after refusing to play the part of Saturn at the festival, has since - been discovered at Ancona. A Greek inscription on the tomb records - that the martyr’s remains were brought thither from Durostorum. See F. - Cumont, “Le Tombeau de S. Dasius de Durostorum,” _Analecta - Bollandiana_, xxvii. (1908) pp. 369-372. Professor A. Erhard of - Strasburg, who has been engaged for years in preparing an edition of - the _Acta Martyrum_ for the Berlin Corpus of Greek Fathers, informed - me in conversation at Cambridge in the summer of 1910 that he ranks - the Acts of St. Dasius among the authentic documents of their class. - The plain unvarnished narrative bears indeed the stamp of truth on its - face. - -Footnote 1011: - - Tacitus, _Annals_, xiii. 15; Arrian, _Epicteti dissert._ i. 25. 8; - Lucian, _Saturnalia_, 4. - -Footnote 1012: - - As to these temporary kings see _The Golden Bough_, Second Edition, - ii. 24 _sqq._ - -Footnote 1013: - - Varro, _Rerum rusticarum_, iii. 1. 5; Virgil, _Aen._ viii. 324; - Tibullus, i. 3. 35; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vii. 19. Compare - Wissowa, in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, - iv. 433 _sq._ - -Footnote 1014: - - On Saturn as the god of sowing and the derivation of his name from a - root meaning “to sow,” from which comes _satus_ “sowing,” see Varro, - _De lingua Latina_, v. 64; Festus, _s.v._ “Opima spolia,” p. 186, ed. - C. O. Müller; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vii. 2, 3. 13, 15; - Wissowa, in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, - iv. 428. The derivation is confirmed by the form Saeturnus which - occurs in an inscription (_Saeturni pocolom_, H. Dessau, _Inscript. - Latinae selectae_, No. 2966). As to the Saturnalia see L. Preller, - _Römische Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., ii. 15 _sqq._; J. Marquardt, _Römische - Staatsverwaltung_, 2nd Ed., pp. 586 _sqq._; Dezobry, _Rome au siècle - d’Auguste_, iii. 143 _sqq._; W. Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals of the - Period of the Republic_, pp. 268 _sqq._ The festival was held from the - seventeenth to the twenty-third of December. I formerly argued that in - the old days, when the Roman year began with March instead of with - January, the Saturnalia may have been held from the seventeenth to the - twenty-third of February, in which case the festival must have - immediately preceded the Flight of the King, which fell on February - the twenty-fourth. See _The Golden Bough_, Second Edition, iii. 144 - _sqq._; _Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship_, p. 266. But - this attempt to bring the ancient Saturnalia into immediate - juxtaposition to the King’s Flight breaks down when we observe, as my - friend Mr. W. Warde Fowler has pointed out to me, that the Saturnalia - fell in December under the Republic, long before Caesar, in his reform - of the calendar, had shifted the commencement of the year from March - to January. See Livy, xxii. 1. 19 _sq._ - -Footnote 1015: - - Roman farmers sowed wheat, spelt, and barley in December, flax up to - the seventh of that month, and beans up to the eleventh (the festival - of Septimontium). See Palladius, _De re rustica_, xiii. 1. In the - lowlands of Sicily at the present day November and December are the - months of sowing, but in the highlands August and September. See G. - Pitrè, _Usi e costumi, credenze e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano_, - iii. (Palermo, 1889) pp. 132 _sqq._ Hence we may suppose that in the - Roman Campagna of old the last sowing of autumn was over before the - middle of December, when the Saturnalia began. - -Footnote 1016: - - This temporary liberty accorded to slaves was one of the most - remarkable features of the Saturnalia and kindred festivals in - antiquity. See _The Golden Bough_, Second Edition, iii. 139 _sqq._ - -Footnote 1017: - - The learned Swiss scholar, J. J. Bachofen long ago drew out in minute - detail the parallel between these birth legends of the Roman kings and - licentious festivals like the Roman Saturnalia and the Babylonian - Sacaea. See his book _Die Sage von Tanaquil_ (Heidelberg, 1870), pp. - 133 _sqq._ To be frank, I have not had the patience to read through - his long dissertation. - -Footnote 1018: - - Livy, i. 16; Dionysius Halic. _Ant. Rom._ ii. 56; Plutarch, _Romulus_, - 27; Florus, i. 1. 16 _sq._ See above, pp. 181 _sq._ - -Footnote 1019: - - Varro, _De lingua Latina_, vi. 18; Plutarch, _Romulus_, 29; _id._, - _Camillus_, 33; Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 11. 36-40. The analogy of this - festival to the Babylonian Sacaea was long ago pointed out by J. J. - Bachofen. See his book _Die Sage von Tanaquil_ (Heidelberg, 1870), pp. - 172 _sqq._ - -Footnote 1020: - - Aristotle, _Hist. anim._ v. 32, p. 557_b_, ed. Bekker; Theophrastus, - _Hist. Plant._ ii. 8; _id._, _De causis plantarum_, ii. 9; Plutarch, - _Quaest. conviv._ vii. 2. 2; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xv. 79-81, xvi. 114, - xvii. 256; Palladius, iv. 10. 28, vii. 5. 2; Columella, xi. 2. 56; - _Geoponica_, iii. 6, x. 48. As to the practice in modern Greece and - the fig-growing districts of Asia Minor, see P. de Tournefort, - _Relation d’un voyage du Levant_ (Amsterdam, 1718), i. 130; W. R. - Paton, “The _Pharmakoi_ and the Story of the Fall,” _Revue - archéologique_, IVème Série, ix. (1907) p. 51. For an elaborate - examination of the process and its relation to the domestication and - spread of the fig-tree, see Graf zu Solms-Laubach, “Die Herkunft, - Domestication und Verbreitung des gewöhnlichen Feigenbaums (_Ficus - Carica_, L.),” _Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der - Wissenschaften zu Göttingen_, xxviii. (1882) pp. 1-106. This last - writer thinks that the operation was not practised by Italian - husbandmen, because it is not mentioned by Cato and Varro. But their - silence can hardly outweigh the express mention and recommendation of - it by Palladius and Columella. Theophrastus, it is true, says that the - process was not in use in Italy (_Hist. Plantarum_, ii. 8. 1), but he - can scarcely have had exact information on this subject. - _Caprificatio_, as this artificial fertilisation of fig-trees is - called, is still employed by the Neapolitan peasantry, though it seems - to be unknown in northern Italy. Pliny’s account has no independent - value, as he merely copies from Theophrastus. The name “goat-fig” - (_caprificus_) applied to the wild fig-tree may be derived from the - notion that the tree is a male who mounts the female as the he-goat - mounts the she-goat. Similarly the Messenians called the tree simply - “he-goat” (τράγος). See Pausanias, iv. 20. 1-3. - -Footnote 1021: - - G. Pitrè, _Usi e costumi, credenze e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano_, - iii. 113. - -Footnote 1022: - - Budgett Meakin, _The Moors_ (London, 1902), p. 258; E. Doutté, _Magie - et religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), p. 568. - -Footnote 1023: - - A. Engler, in V. Hehn’s _Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere_, 7th Ed., - (Berlin, 1902), p. 99. Compare Graf zu Solms-Laubach, _op. cit._; - _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, _s.v._ “Fig-tree,” vol. iv. 1519. The - ancients were well aware of the production of these insects in the - wild fig-tree and their transference to the cultivated fig-tree. - Sometimes instead of fertilising the trees by hand they contented - themselves with planting wild fig-trees near cultivated fig-trees, so - that the fertilisation was effected by the wind, which blew the - insects from the male to the female trees. See Aristotle, _l.c._; - Theophrastus, _De causis plantarum_, ii. 9; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xv. - 79-81; Palladius, iv. 10. 28. On subject of the fertilisation of the - fig the late Professor H. Marshall Ward of Cambridge kindly furnished - me with the following note, which will serve to supplement and correct - the brief account in the text:—“The fig is a hollow case full of - flowers. In the wild fig a small gall wasp (_Cynips psenes_) lays its - eggs: this kind of fig is still called _Caprificus_. The eggs hatch in - the female flowers at the base of the hollow fig: at the top, near the - ostiole observable on any ripe fig, are the male flowers. When the - eggs hatch, and the little insects creep through the ostiole, the male - flowers dust the wasp with pollen, and the insect flies to another - flower (to lay its eggs), and so fertilises many of the female flowers - in return for the nursery afforded its eggs. Now, the cultivated fig - is apt to be barren of male flowers. Hence the hanging of branches - bearing wild figs enables the escaping wasps to do the trick. The - ancients knew the fact that the propinquity of the _Caprificus_ helped - the fertility of the cultivated fig, but, of course, they did not know - the details of the process. The further complexities are, chiefly, - that the fig bears two kinds of female flowers: one especially fitted - for the wasp’s convenience, the other not. The _Caprificus_ figs are - inedible. In Naples three crops of them are borne every year, viz. - _Mamme_ (in April), _Profichi_ (in June), and _Mammoni_ (in August). - It is the June crop that bears most male flowers and is most useful.” - The suggestion that the festival of the seventh of July was connected - with this horticultural operation is due to L. Preller (_Römische - Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., i. 287). - -Footnote 1024: - - See above, pp. 24 _sq._ - -Footnote 1025: - - 1 Kings iv. 25; 2 Kings xviii. 31; Isaiah xxxvi. 16; Micah iv. 4; - Zechariah iii. 10; Judges ix. 10 _sq._; H. B. Tristram, _The Natural - History of the Bible_ 9th Ed. (London, 1898), pp. 350 _sqq._; - _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, _s.v._ “Fig Tree,” vol. ii. 1519 _sq._ - -Footnote 1026: - - Herodotus, i. 71. - -Footnote 1027: - - Zamachschar, cited by Graf zu Solms-Laubach, _op. cit._ p. 82. For - more evidence as to the fig in antiquity see V. Hehn, _Kulturpflanzen - und Hausthiere_, 7th Ed., pp. 94 _sqq._ - -Footnote 1028: - - Letter of Mr. C. W. Hobley to me, dated Nairobi, British East Africa, - July 27th, 1910. This interesting information was given spontaneously - and not in answer to any questions of mine. - -Footnote 1029: - - C. W. Hobley, _The Ethnology of A-Kamba and other East African Tribes_ - (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 85, 89 _sq._ In British Central Africa “every - village has its ‘prayer-tree,’ under which the sacrifices are offered. - It stands (usually) in the _bwalo_, the open space which Mr. Macdonald - calls the ‘forum,’ and is, sometimes, at any rate, a wild fig-tree.” - “This is the principal tree used for making bark-cloth. Livingstone - says, ‘It is a sacred tree all over Africa and India’; and I learn - from M. Auguste Chevalier that it is found in every village of Senegal - and French Guinea, and looked on as ‘a fetich-tree’” (Miss A. Werner, - _The Natives of British Central Africa_, pp. 62 _sq._). - -Footnote 1030: - - From the unpublished papers of the Rev. John Roscoe, which he has - kindly placed at my disposal. - -Footnote 1031: - - Varro, _De lingua Latina_, v. 54; Livy, i. 4. 5; Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. - 411 _sq._; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xv. 77; Festus, pp. 266, 270, 271, ed. - C. O. Müller; Tacitus, _Annals_, xiii. 58; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ - viii. 90; Plutarch, _Romulus_, 4; _id._, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 57; - Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquitates Romanae_, iii. 71. 5. All the - Roman writers speak of the tree as a cultivated fig (_ficus_), not a - wild fig (_caprificus_), and Dionysius agrees with them. Plutarch - alone (_Romulus_, 4) describes it as a wild fig-tree (ἐρινεός). See - also above, p. 10. - -Footnote 1032: - - Festus, p. 266, ed. C. O. Müller; Ettore Pais, _Ancient Legends of - Roman History_ (London, 1906), pp. 55 _sqq._ Festus indeed treats the - derivation as an absurdity, and many people will be inclined to agree - with him. - -Footnote 1033: - - On the fifth of July a ceremony called the Flight of the People was - performed at Rome. Some ancient writers thought that it commemorated - the dispersal of the people after the disappearance of Romulus. But - this is to confuse the dates; for, according to tradition, the death - of Romulus took place on the seventh, not the fifth of July, and - therefore after instead of before the Flight of the People. See Varro, - _De lingua Latina_, vi. 18; Macrobius, _Sat._ iii. 2. 14; Dionysius - Halicarn. _Ant. Rom._ ii. 56. 5; Plutarch, _Romulus_, 29; _id._, - _Camillus_, 33; W. Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals of the Period of the - Republic_, pp. 174 _sqq._ Mr. Warde Fowler may be right in thinking - that some connexion perhaps existed between the ceremonies of the two - days, the fifth and the seventh; and I agree with his suggestion that - “the story itself of the death of Romulus had grown out of some - religious rite performed at this time of year.” I note as a curious - coincidence, for it can hardly be more, that at Bodmin in Cornwall a - festival was held on the seventh of July, when a Lord of Misrule was - appointed, who tried people for imaginary crimes and sentenced them to - be ducked in a quagmire called Halgaver, which is explained to mean - “the goat’s moor.” See T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular - Customs_, p. 339. The “goat’s moor” is an odd echo of the “goat’s - marsh” at which Romulus disappeared on the same day of the year (Livy, - i. 16. 1; Plutarch, _Romulus_, 29; _id._, _Camillus_, 33). - -Footnote 1034: - - Livy, i. 14. 1 _sq._; Dionysius Halicarn. _Ant. Rom._ ii. 52. 3; - Plutarch, _Romulus_, 23. - -Footnote 1035: - - Dionysius Halicarn. _Ant. Rom._ iii. 35; Zonaras, _Annales_, vii. 6. - As to his reported death by lightning, see above, p. 181. - -Footnote 1036: - - Plutarch, _Numa_, 22. I have pruned the luxuriant periods in which - Plutarch dwells, with edifying unction, on the righteous visitation of - God which overtook that early agnostic Tullus Hostilius. - -Footnote 1037: - - Aurelius Victor, _De viris illustribus_, v. 5. - -Footnote 1038: - - Livy, i. 40; Dionysius Halicarn. _Ant. Rom._ iii. 73. - -Footnote 1039: - - Livy, i. 48; Dionysius Halicarn. _Ant. Rom._ iv. 38 _sq._; Solinus, i. - 25. The reading _Virbium clivum_ (“the slope of Virbius”) occurs only - in the more recent manuscripts of Livy: the better-attested reading - both of Livy and Solinus is _Urbium_. But the obscure _Virbium_ would - easily and naturally be altered into _Urbium_, whereas the reverse - change is very improbable. See Mr. A. B. Cook, in _Classical Review_, - xvi. (1902) p. 380, note 3. In this passage Mr. Cook was the first to - call attention to the analogy between the murder of the slave-born - king, Servius Tullius, and the slaughter of the slave-king by his - successor at Nemi. As to the oak-woods of the Esquiline see above, p. - 185. - -Footnote 1040: - - Nicolaus Damascenus, in Stobaeus, _Florilegium_, x. 70. _Fragmenta - Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Müller, iii. 457. - -Footnote 1041: - - H. Jordan, _Die Könige im alten Italien_ (Berlin, 1887), pp. 44 _sq._ - In this his last work Jordan argues that the Umbrian practice, - combined with the rule of the Arician priesthood, throws light on the - existence and nature of the kingship among the ancient Latins. On this - subject I am happy to be at one with so learned and judicious a - scholar. - -Footnote 1042: - - R. E. Dennett, _At the Back of the Black Man’s Mind_ (London, 1906), - pp. 11 _sq._, 111, 131 _sq._, 135. The word translated “sacred ground” - (_xibila_, plural _bibila_) means properly “sacred grove.” Such - “sacred groves” are common in this part of Africa, but in the “sacred - grove” of the king of Loango the tree beside which the monarch takes - post to fight for the crown appears to stand solitary in a grassy - plain. See R. E. Dennett, _op. cit._ pp. 11 _sq._, 25, 96 _sqq._, 110 - _sqq._ We have seen that the right of succession to the throne of - Loango descends in the female line (above, pp. 276 _sq._), which - furnishes another point of resemblance between Loango and Rome, if my - theory of the Roman kingship is correct. - -Footnote 1043: - - J. G. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 530. My authority is the - Rev. John Roscoe, formerly of the Church Missionary Society in Uganda. - -Footnote 1044: - - _Memoirs of Samuel Pepys_, edited by Richard, Lord Braybrooke, Second - Edition (London, 1828), i. 193 _sq._ (under April 23rd, 1661). - - - - - CHAPTER XIX - ST. GEORGE AND THE PARILIA - - -[Sidenote: The early Italians were as much a pastoral as an agricultural -people, and their kings would be expected to ensure the safety and -fecundity of the flocks and herds.] In the course of the preceding -investigation we found reason to assume that the old Latin kings, like -their brethren in many parts of the world, were charged with certain -religious duties or magical functions, amongst which the maintenance of -the fertility of the earth held a principal place. By this I do not mean -that they had to see to it only that the rain fell, and that the corn -grew and trees put forth their fruit in due season. In those early days -it is probable that the Italians were quite as much a pastoral as an -agricultural people, or, in other words, that they depended for their -subsistence no less on their flocks and herds than on their fields and -orchards. To provide their cattle with grass and water, to ensure their -fecundity and the abundance of their milk, and to guard them from the -depredations of wild beasts, would be objects of the first importance -with the shepherds and herdsmen who, according to tradition, founded -Rome;[1045] and the king, as the representative or embodiment of the -deity, would be expected to do his part towards procuring these -blessings for his people by the performance of sacred rites. The Greeks -of the Homeric age, as we have seen, thought that the reign of a good -king not only made the land to bear wheat and barley, but also caused -the flocks to multiply and the sea to yield fish.[1046] - -[Sidenote: Numa is said to have been born and Rome to have been founded -on the shepherds’ festival of the Parilia, the twenty-first of April.] -In this connexion, accordingly, it can be no mere accident that Rome is -said to have been founded and the pious king Numa to have been born on -the twenty-first of April, the day of the great shepherds’ festival of -the Parilia.[1047] It is very unlikely that the real day either of the -foundation of the city or of Numa’s birth should have been remembered, -even if we suppose Numa to have been an historical personage rather than -a mythical type; it is far more probable that both events were -arbitrarily assigned to this date by the speculative antiquaries of a -later age on the ground of some assumed fitness or propriety. In what -did this fitness or propriety consist? The belief that the first Romans -were shepherds and herdsmen would be reason enough for supposing that -Rome was founded on the day of the shepherds’ festival, or even that the -festival was instituted to commemorate the event.[1048] But why should -Numa be thought to have been born on that day of all days? Perhaps it -was because the old sacred kings, of whom he was the model, had to play -an important part in the ceremonies of the day. The birthdays of the -gods were celebrated by festivals;[1049] the kings were divine or -semi-divine; it would be natural, therefore, that their birthdays should -be identified with high feasts and holidays. Whether this was so or not, -the festival of the Parilia presents so many points of resemblance to -some of the popular customs discussed in these volumes that a brief -examination of it may not be inappropriate in this place.[1050] - -[Sidenote: The Parilia, a festival celebrated by shepherds and herdsmen -in honour of Pales, for the safety and increase of their flocks and -herds.] The spring festival of the twenty-first of April, known as the -birthday of Rome,[1051] was deemed second in importance to none in the -calendar.[1052] It was held by shepherds and herdsmen for the welfare -and increase of their flocks and herds.[1053] The pastoral deity to whom -they paid their devotions was Pales, as to whose sex the ancients -themselves were not at one. In later times they commonly spoke of her as -a goddess; but Varro regarded Pales as masculine,[1054] and we may -follow his high authority. The day was celebrated with similar rites -both in the town and the country, but in its origin it must have been a -strictly rural festival. Indeed, it could hardly be carried out in full -except among the sheepfolds and cattle-pens. At some time of the day, -probably in the morning, the people repaired to the temple of Vesta, -where they received from the Vestal Virgins ashes, blood, and bean-straw -to be used in fumigating themselves and probably their beasts. The ashes -were those of the unborn calves which had been torn from their mothers’ -wombs on the fifteenth of April; the blood was that which had dripped -from the tail of a horse sacrificed in October.[1055] Both were probably -supposed to exercise a fertilising as well as a cleansing influence on -the people and on the cattle;[1056] for apparently one effect of the -ceremonies, in the popular opinion, was to quicken the wombs of women no -less than of cows and ewes.[1057] At break of day the shepherd purified -his sheep, after sprinkling and sweeping the ground. The fold was decked -with leafy boughs, and a great wreath was hung on the door.[1058] The -purification of the flocks apparently consisted in driving them over -burning heaps of grass, pine-wood, laurel, and branches of the male -olive-tree.[1059] Certainly at some time of [Sidenote: The flocks -purified by being driven through fire.] the day the sheep were compelled -to scamper over a fire.[1060] Moreover, the bleating flocks were touched -with burning sulphur and fumigated with its blue smoke.[1061] Then the -shepherd offered to Pales baskets of millet, cakes of millet, and pails -of warm milk. Next he prayed to the god that he would guard the fold -from the evil powers, including probably witchcraft;[1062] that the -flocks, the men, and the dogs might be hale and free from disease; that -the sheep might not fall a prey to wolves; that grass and leaves might -abound; that water might be plentiful; that the udders of the dams might -be full of milk; that the rams might be lusty, and the ewes prolific; -that many lambs might be born; and that there might be much wool at -shearing.[1063] This prayer the shepherd had to repeat four times, -looking to the east; then he washed his hands in the morning dew. After -that he drank a bowl of milk and wine, and, warmed with the liquor, -leaped ever burning heaps of crackling straw. This practice of jumping -over a straw fire would seem to have been a principal part of the -ceremonies: at least it struck the ancients themselves, for they often -refer to it.[1064] - -[Sidenote: The shepherd’s prayer.] The shepherd’s prayer at the Parilia -is instructive, because it gives us in short a view of the chief wants -of [Sidenote: The shepherd has to propitiate the tree-spirits and -water-spirits.] the pastoral life. The supplication for grass and leaves -and water reminds us that the herdsman no less than the husbandman -depends ultimately on vegetation and rain; so that the same divine -powers which cover the fields of the one with yellow corn may be -conceived to carpet the meadows of the other with green grass, and to -diversify them with pools and rivers for the refreshment of the thirsty -cattle. And it is to be borne in mind that in countries where grass is -less plentiful than under the rainy skies of northern Europe, sheep, -goats, and cattle still subsist in great measure on the leaves and juicy -twigs of trees.[1065] Hence in these lands the pious shepherd and -goatherd cannot afford to ignore or to offend the tree-spirits, on whose -favour and bounty his flocks are dependent for much of their fodder. -Indeed, at the Parilia the shepherd made elaborate excuses to these -divine beings for any trespass he might unwittingly have committed on -their hallowed domain by entering a sacred grove, sitting in the shadow -of a holy tree, or lopping leafy branches from it with which to feed a -sickly sheep.[1066] In like manner he craved pardon of the water-nymphs, -if the hoofs of his cattle had stirred up the mud in their clear pools; -and he implored Pales to intercede for him with the divinities of -springs “and the gods dispersed through every woodland glade.”[1067] - -[Sidenote: The Parilia was perhaps the time when the flocks and herds -were turned out for the first time in spring to graze in the open.] The -Parilia was generally considered to be the best time for coupling the -rams and the ewes;[1068] and it has been suggested that it was also the -season when the flocks and herds, after being folded and stalled -throughout the winter, were turned out for the first time to pasture in -spring.[1069] The occasion is an anxious one for the shepherd, -especially in countries which are infested with wolves, as ancient Italy -was.[1070] Accordingly the Italian shepherd propitiated Pales with a -slaughtered victim before he drove his flocks afield in spring;[1071] -but it is doubtful whether this sacrifice formed part of the Parilia. -None of the ancient authors who expressly describe the Parilia mention -the slaughter of a victim; and in Plutarch’s day a tradition ran that of -old no blood was shed at the festival.[1072] But such a tradition seems -to point to a contrary practice in after-times. In the absence of -decisive evidence the question must be left open; but modern analogy, as -we shall see, strongly supports the opinion that immediately at the -close of the Parilia the flocks and herds were driven out to graze in -the open pastures for the first time after their long winter -confinement. On this view a special significance is seen to attach to -some of the features of the festival, such as the prayer for protection -against the wolf; for the brute could hardly do the sheep and kine much -harm so long as they were safely pent within the walls of the sheepcote -and the cattle-stall. - -[Sidenote: The Roman kings had perhaps to discharge some important -religious function at the Parilia.] As the Parilia is said to have been -celebrated by Romulus, who sacrificed to the gods and caused the people -to purify themselves by leaping over flames,[1073] some scholars have -inferred that it was customary for the king, and afterwards for his -successor, the chief pontiff, or the King of the Sacred Rites, to offer -sacrifices for the people at the Parilia.[1074] The inference is -reasonable and receives some confirmation, as we shall see presently, -from the analogy of modern custom. Further, the tradition that Numa was -born on the day of the Parilia may be thought to point in the same way, -since it is most naturally explicable on the hypothesis that the king -had to discharge some important function at the festival. Still, it must -be confessed that the positive evidence for connecting the Roman kings -with the celebration of the twenty-first of April is slight and dubious. - -[Sidenote: The Parilia intended to ensure the welfare of the cattle and -to guard them against witches and wolves.] On the whole the festival of -the Parilia, which probably fell at or near the time of turning out the -cattle to pasture in spring, was designed to ensure their welfare and -increase, and to guard them from the insidious machinations or the open -attacks of their various enemies, among whom witches and wolves were -perhaps the most dreaded. - -[Sidenote: A celebration of the same sort is still held in eastern -Europe on the twenty-third of April, the festival of St. George, the -patron saint of cattle, horses, and wolves.] Now it can hardly be a mere -coincidence that down to modern times a great popular festival of this -sort has been celebrated only two days later by the herdsmen and -shepherds of eastern Europe, who still cherish a profound belief in -witchcraft, and still fear, with far better reason, the raids of wolves -on their flocks and herds. The festival falls on the twenty-third of -April and is dedicated to St. George, the patron saint of cattle, -horses, and wolves. The Esthonians say that on St. George’s morning the -wolf gets a ring round his snout and a halter about his neck, whereby he -is rendered less dangerous till Michaelmas. But if the day should chance -to be a Friday at full moon, or if before the day came round any person -should have been so rash as to thump the dirty linen in the wash-tub -with two beetles, the cattle will run a serious risk of being devoured -by wolves. Many are the precautions taken by the anxious Esthonians -[Sidenote: Precautions taken by the Esthonians against wolves and -witches on St. George’s Day.] on this day to guard their herds from the -ravening beasts. Thus some people gather wolf’s dung on the preceding -night, burn it, and fumigate the cattle with it in the morning. Or they -collect bones from the pastures and burn them at a cross-road, which -serves as a charm against sickness, sorcery, and demons quite as well as -against wolves. Others smoke the cattle with _asa foetida_ or sulphur to -protect them against witchcraft and noxious exhalations. They think, -too, that if you sew stitches on St. George’s morning the cubs of the -wolves will be blind, no doubt because their eyes are sewed up by the -needle and thread. In order to forecast the fate of their herds the -peasants put eggs or a sharp weapon, such as an axe or a scythe, before -the doors of the stalls, and the animal which crushes an egg or wounds -itself will surely be rent by a wolf or will perish in some other -fashion before the year is out. So certain is its fate that many a man -prefers to slaughter the doomed beast out of hand for the sake of saving -at least the beef. - -[Sidenote: The Esthonians generally drive their cattle out to pasture -for the first time on St. George’s Day.] As a rule the Esthonians drive -their cattle out to pasture for the first time on St. George’s Day, and -the herdsman’s duties begin from then. If, however, the herds should -have been sent out to graze before that day, the boys who look after -them must eat neither flesh nor butter while they are on duty; else the -wolves will destroy many sheep, and the cream will not turn to butter in -the churn. Further, the boys may not kindle a fire in the wood, or the -wolf’s tooth would be fiery and he would bite viciously. By St. George’s -Day, the twenty-third of April, there is commonly fresh grass in the -meadows. But even if the spring should be late and the cattle should -have to return to their stalls hungrier than they went forth, many -Esthonian farmers insist on turning out the poor beasts on St. George’s -Day in order that the saint may guard them against his creatures the -wolves. On this morning the farmer treats the herdsman to a dram of -brandy, and gives him two copper kopecks as “tail-money” for every cow -in the herd. This money the giver first passes thrice round his head and -then lays it on the dunghill; for if the herdsman took it from his hand, -it would in some way injure the herd. Were this ceremony omitted, the -wolves would prove very destructive, because they had not been appeased -on St. George’s Day. After receiving the “tail-money” some herdsmen are -wont to collect the herd on the village common. Here they set up their -crook in the ground, place their hat on it, and walk thrice round the -cattle, muttering spells or the Lord’s Prayer as they do so. The -pastoral crook should be cut from the rowan or mountain-ash and -consecrated by a wise man, who carves mystic signs on it. Sometimes the -upper end of the crook is hollowed out and filled with quicksilver and -_asa foetida_, the aperture being stopped up with resin. Some Esthonians -cut a cross with a scythe under the door through which the herd is to be -driven, and fill the furrows of the cross with salt to prevent certain -evil beings from harming the cattle. Further, it is an almost universal -custom in Esthonia not to hang bells on the necks of the kine till St. -George’s Day; the few who can give a reason for the rule say that the -chiming of the bells before that season would attract the wild -beasts.[1075] - -[Sidenote: Sacrifices for horses offered on St. George’s Day by the -Esthonians of Dago.] In the island of Dago down to the early part of the -nineteenth century there were certain holy trees from which no one dared -to break a bough; in spite of the lack of wood in the island the fallen -branches were allowed to rot in heaps on the ground. Under such trees -the Esthonians used to offer sacrifices on St. George’s Day for the -safety and welfare of their horses. The offerings, which consist of an -egg, a piece of money, and a bunch of horse-hair tied up with a red -thread, were buried in the earth.[1076] The custom is interesting -because it exhibits St. George in the two-fold character of a patron of -horses and of trees. In the latter capacity he has already met us more -than once under the name of Green George.[1077] - -[Sidenote: St. George as the patron of wolves and cattle in Russia; the -herds are driven out to pasture for the first time on his day.] In -Russia the saint is known as Yegory or Yury, and here, as in Esthonia, -he is a patron of wolves as well as of flocks and herds. Many legends -speak of the connexion which exists between St. George and the wolf. In -Little Russia the beast is known as “St. George’s Dog,” and the carcases -of sheep which wolves have killed are not eaten, it being held that they -have been made over by divine command to the beasts of the field.[1078] -The festival of St. George on the twenty-third of April has a national -as well as an ecclesiastical character in Russia, and the mythical -features of the songs which are devoted to the day prove that the saint -has supplanted some old Slavonian deity who used to be honoured at this -season in heathen times. It is not as a slayer of dragons and a champion -of forlorn damsels that St. George figures in these songs, but as a -patron of farmers and herdsmen who preserves cattle from harm, and on -whose day accordingly the flocks and herds are driven out to browse the -fresh pastures for the first time after their confinement through the -long Russian winter. “What the wolf holds in its teeth, that Yegory has -given,” is a proverb which shews how completely he is thought to rule -over the fold and the stall. Here is one of the songs:— - - “_We have gone around the field, - We have called Yegory ... - ‘O thou, our brave Yegory, - Save our cattle, - In the field, and beyond the field, - In the forest, and beyond the forest, - Under the bright moon, - Under the red sun, - From the rapacious wolf, - From the cruel bear, - From the cunning beast.’_” - -A White-Russian song represents St. George as opening with golden keys, -probably the sunbeams, the soil which has been frost-bound all the -winter:— - - “_Holy Jury, the divine envoy, - Has gone to God, - And having taken the golden keys, - Has unlocked the moist earth, - Having scattered the clinging dew - Over White-Russia and all the world._” - -In Moravia they “meet the Spring” with a song in which they ask Green -Thursday, that is, the day before Good Friday, what he has done with the -keys, and he answers: “I gave them to St. George. St. George arose and -unlocked the earth, so that the grass grew—the green grass.” In White -Russia it is customary on St. George’s Day to drive the cattle afield -through the morning dew, and in Little Russia and Bulgaria young folk go -out early and roll themselves in it.[1079] In the Smolensk Government on -this day the cattle are driven out first to the rye-fields and then to -the pastures. A religious service is held in the stalls before the -departure of the herd and afterwards in the field, where the stool which -supported the holy picture is allowed to stand for several weeks till -the next procession with the pictures of the saints takes place. St. -George’s Day in this government is the herdsmen’s festival, and it is -the term from which their engagements are dated.[1080] And in the -Smolensk Government, when the herds are being sent out to graze on St. -George’s Day, the following spell is uttered:— - - “_Deaf man, deaf man, dost thou hear us?_” - “_I hear not._” - “_God grant that the wolf may not hear our cattle!_” - “_Cripple, cripple, canst thou catch us?_” - “_I cannot catch._” - “_God grant that the wolf may not catch our cattle!_” - “_Blind man, blind man, dost thou see us?_” - “_I see not._” - “_God grant that the wolf may not see our cattle!_”[1081] - -[Sidenote: In Russia witches try to steal the milk of the cattle on the -eve of St. George.] But in the opinion of the Russian peasant wolves are -not the only foes of cattle at this season. On the eve of St. George’s -Day, as well as on the night before Whitsunday and on Midsummer Eve, -witches go out naked in the dark and cut chips from the doors and gates -of farmyards. These they boil in a milk-pail, and thus charm away the -milk from the farms. Hence careful housewives examine their doors and -smear mud in any fresh gashes they may find in them, which frustrates -the knavish tricks of the milk-stealing witch. Not to be baffled, -however, the witches climb the wooden crosses by the wayside and chip -splinters from them, or lay their hands on stray wooden wedges. These -they stick into a post in the cattle-shed and squeeze them with their -hands till milk flows from them as freely as from the dugs of a cow. At -this time also wicked people turn themselves by magic art into dogs and -black cats, and in that disguise they suck the milk of cows, mares, and -ewes, while they slaughter the bulls, horses, and rams.[1082] - -[Sidenote: St. George’s Day among the Ruthenians.] The Ruthenians of -Bukowina and Galicia believe that at midnight before St. George’s Day -(the twenty-third of April) the witches come in bands of twelve to the -hills at the boundaries of the villages and there dance and play with -fire. Moreover, they cull on the mountains the herbs they need for their -infernal enchantments. Like the Esthonians and the Russians, the -Ruthenians drive their cattle out to pasture for the first time on St. -George’s Day; hence during the preceding night the witches are very busy -casting their spells on the cows; and the farmer is at great pains to -defeat their fell purpose. With this intent many people catch a snake, -skin it, and fumigate the cows with the skin on the eve of the saint’s -day. To rub the udders and horns of the cows with serpent’s fat is -equally effective. Others strew meal about the animals, saying, “Not -till thou hast gathered up this meal, shalt thou take the milk from my -cow So-and-so.” Further, sods of turf, with thorn-branches stuck in -them, are laid on the gate-posts; and crosses are painted with tar on -the doors. These precautions keep the witches from the cows. If, -however, a beast should after all be bewitched, the farmer’s wife drags -a rope about in the dew on the morning of St. George’s Day. Then she -chops it up small, mixes salt with it, and scatters the bits among the -cow’s fodder. No sooner has the afflicted animal partaken of this -compound than the spell is broken.[1083] - -[Sidenote: St. George’s Day among the Huzuls of the Carpathians.] The -Huzuls of the Carpathian Mountains believe that when a cow gives milk -tinged with blood, or no milk at all, a witch is the cause of it. These -maleficent beings play their pranks especially on the eve of St. -George’s Day and on Midsummer Eve, but they are most dangerous at the -former season, for that night they and the foul fiends hold their -greatest gathering or sabbath. To steal the cows’ milk they resort to -various devices. Sometimes they run about in the shape of dogs and smell -the cows’ udders. Sometimes they rub the udders of their own cows with -milk taken from a neighbour’s kine; then their own cows yield abundant -milk, but the udders of the neighbour’s cows shrivel up or give only -blood. Others again make a wooden cow on the spot where the real cows -are generally milked, taking care to stick into the ground the knife -they used in carving the image. Then the wooden cow yields the witch all -the milk of the cattle which are commonly milked there, while the owner -of the beasts gets nothing but blood from them. - -[Sidenote: Precautions taken by the Huzuls against the witches who try -to steal milk on the eve of St. George.] Hence the Huzuls take steps to -guard their cows from the machinations of witches at this season. For -this purpose they kindle a great fire before the house on the eve of St. -George’s Day, using as fuel the dung which has accumulated during the -winter. Also they place on the gate-posts clods in which are stuck the -branches consecrated on Palm Sunday or boughs of the silver poplar, the -wood of which is deemed especially efficacious in banning fiends. -Moreover, they make crosses on the doors, sprinkle the cows with mud, -and fumigate them with incense or the skin of a snake. To tie red -woollen threads round the necks or tails of the animals is also a -safeguard against witchcraft. And in June, when the snow has melted and -the cattle are led to the high mountain pastures, the herds have no -sooner reached their summer quarters than the herdsman makes “living -fire” by the friction of wood and drives the animals over the ashes in -order to protect them against witches and other powers of evil. The fire -thus kindled is kept constantly burning in the herdsman’s hut till with -the chill of autumn the time comes to drive the herds down the mountains -again. If the fire went out in the interval, it would be an ill omen for -the owner of the pastures.[1084] - -[Sidenote: Sacrifice for horses in Silesia on St. George’s Day.] In some -parts of Silesia the might of the witches is believed to be at the -highest pitch on St. George’s Day. The people deem the saint very -powerful in the matter of cattle-breeding and especially of -horse-breeding. At the Polish village of Ostroppa, not far from -Gleiwitz, a sacrifice for horses used to be offered at the little -village church. It has been described by an eye-witness. Peasants on -horseback streamed to the spot from all the neighbouring villages, not -with the staid and solemn pace of pilgrims, but with the noise and -clatter of merrymakers hastening to a revel. The sorry image of the -saint, carved in wood and about an ell high, stood in the churchyard on -a table covered with a white cloth. It represented him seated on -horseback and spearing the dragon. Beside it were two vessels to receive -offerings of money and eggs respectively. As each farmer galloped up, he -dismounted, led his horse by the bridle, knelt before the image of the -saint, and prayed. After that he made his offering of money or eggs, -according to his means, in the name of his horse. Then he led the beast -round the church and churchyard, tethered it, and went into the church -to hear mass and a sermon. Having thus paid his devotions to the saint, -every man leaped into the saddle and made for the nearest public-house -as fast as his horse could lay legs to the ground.[1085] - -[Sidenote: Festival of St. George, as the patron of horses, at Ertringen -in Bavaria.] At Ertringen, in South Bavaria, there is a chapel of St. -George, where a festival of the saint used to be held on April the -twenty-fourth down to the beginning of the nineteenth century. From the -whole neighbourhood people streamed thither on horseback and in waggons -to take part in the ceremony. More than fourteen hundred riders are said -to have been present on one occasion. The foundation of the chapel was -attributed to the monastery of Holy Cross Vale (_Heiligkreuztal_), and -the abbot and prior with their suite attended the festival in state -mounted on white horses. A burgher of Ertringen had to ride as patron in -the costume of St. George, whom he represented. He alone bestrode a -fiery stallion. After the celebration of high mass the horses were -blessed at the chapel. Then the procession of men on horseback moved -round the common lands, winding up at the parish church, where it broke -up.[1086] In many villages near Freiburg in Baden St. George is the -patron of horses, and in some parts of Baden the saint’s day (April the -twenty-third) is the season when cattle are driven out to pasture for -the first time in spring.[1087] - -[Sidenote: St. George’s Day among the Saxons and Roumanians of -Transylvania.] The Saxons of Transylvania think that on the eve of St. -George’s Day the witches ride on the backs of the cows into the -farmyard, if branches of wild rosebushes or other thorny shrubs are not -stuck over the gate of the yard to keep them out.[1088] Beliefs and -practices of this sort are shared by the Roumanians of Transylvania. -They hold that on St. George’s Day the witches keep their sabbath in -sequestered spots, such as woodland glades, deserted farm-steadings, and -the like. In Walachia green sods are laid on the window-sills and on the -lintels of the doors to avert the uncanny crew. But in Transylvania the -Roumanians, not content with setting a thorn-bush in the doorway of the -house, keep watch and ward all night beside the cattle or elsewhere, to -catch the witches who are at work stealing the milk from the cows. Here, -as elsewhere, the day is above all the herdsman’s festival. It marks the -beginning of spring; the shepherds are preparing to start for the -distant pastures, and they listen with all their ears to some wiseacre -who tells them how, if the milk should fail in the udders of the sheep, -they have only to thrash the shepherd’s pouch, and every stroke will -fall on the witch who is pumping the lost milk into her pails.[1089] - -[Sidenote: St. George’s Day the herdsman’s festival among the -Walachians.] The Walachians look on St. George’s Day as very holy; for -they are mainly a pastoral folk, and St. George is the patron of herds -and herdsmen. On that day also, as well as on the day before and the day -after, the Walachian numbers his herd, beginning at one and counting -continuously up to the total. This he never does at any other time of -the year. On this day, too, he milks his sheep for the first time into -vessels which have been carefully scoured and are wreathed with flowers. -Then too a cake of white meal is baked in the shape of a ring, and is -rolled on the ground in sight of the herd; and from the length of its -course omens are drawn as to the good or bad luck of the cattle in their -summer pastures. If the herd is owned by several men, they afterwards -lay hold of the ring, and break it among them, and the one who gets the -largest piece will have the best luck. The milk is made into a cheese -which is divided; and the pieces of the cake are given to the shepherds. -In like manner the wreaths of flowers which crowned the pails are thrown -into the water, and from the way in which they float down-stream the -shepherds presage good or evil fortune.[1090] - -[Sidenote: St. George’s Day among the Bulgarians and South Slavs.] The -Bulgarians seem to share the belief that cattle are especially exposed -to the machinations of witches at this season, for it is a rule with -them not to give away milk, butter, or cheese on the eve of St. George’s -Day; to do so, they say, would be to give away the profit of the milch -kine.[1091] They rise very early on the morning of this day, and wash -themselves in the dew, that they may be healthy.[1092] It is said, too, -that a regular sacrifice is still offered on St. George’s Day in -Bulgaria. An old man kills a ram, while girls spread grass on which the -blood is poured forth.[1093] The intention of the sacrifice may be to -make the herbage grow abundantly in the pastures. Amongst the South -Slavs the twenty-third of April, St. George’s Day, is the chief festival -of the spring. The herdsman thinks that if his cattle are well on that -day they will thrive throughout the year. As we have already seen,[1094] -he crowns the horns of his cows with garlands of flowers to guard them -against witchcraft, and in the evening the garlands are hung on the -doors of the stalls, where they remain until the next St. George’s Day. -Early in the morning of that day, when the herdsman drives the cows from -the byres, the housewife takes salt in one hand and a potsherd with -glowing coals in the other. She offers the salt to the cow, and the -beast must step over the smouldering coals, on which various kinds of -roses are smoking. This deprives the witches of all power to harm the -cow. On the eve or the morning of the day old women cut thistles and -fasten them to the doors and gates of the farm; and they make crosses -with cow’s dung on the doors of the byres to ward off the witches. Many -knock great nails into the doors, which is thought to be a surer -preventive even than thistles. In certain districts the people cut -thistles before sunrise and put some on each other’s heads, some on the -fences, the windows, the doors, and some in the shape of wreaths round -the necks of the cows, in order that the witches may be powerless to -harm man and beast, house and homestead, throughout the year. If, -nevertheless, a witch should contrive to steal through the garden fence -and into the byre, it is all over with the cows. A good housewife will -also go round her house and cattle-stalls early in the morning of the -fateful day and sprinkle them with holy water. Another approved means of -driving the witches away is furnished by the froth which is shot from -the spokes of a revolving mill-wheel; for common-sense tells us that -just as the froth flies from the wheel, so the witches will fly from our -house, if only we apply the remedy in the right way. And the right way -is this. On the eve of St. George’s Day you must send a child to fetch -froth from the mill, three stones from three cross-roads, three twigs of -a blackberry bush, three sprigs of beech, and three shoots of a wild -vine. Then you insert the plants in a buttered roll, put the stones in -the fire, boil the froth, toast the buttered roll over the glowing -stones, and speak these words: “The blackberry twigs gather together, -the beeches pull together, but the foam from the wheel shakes all evil -away.” Do this, and you may take my word for it that no witch will be -able to charm away the milk from your cows.[1095] - -[Sidenote: Precautions of the same sort are taken against wolves and -witches whenever the cattle are driven out to pasture for the first time -in spring.] Thus on the whole the festival of St. George at the present -day, like the Parilia of ancient Italy, is a ceremony intended to guard -the cattle against their real and their imaginary foes, the wolves and -the witches, at the critical season when the flocks and herds are driven -out to pasture for the first time in spring. Precautions of the same -sort are naturally taken by the superstitious herdsman whenever, the -winter being over, he turns his herds out into the open for the first -time, whether it be on St. George’s Day or not. Thus in Prussia and -Lithuania, when the momentous morning broke, the herd-boy ran from house -to house in the village, knocked at the windows, and cried: “Put out the -fire, spin not, reel not, but drive the cattle out!” Meantime the -herdsman had fetched sand from the church, which he strewed on the road -by which the beasts must go from the farmyard. At the same time he laid -a woodcutter’s axe in every doorway, with the sharp edge outwards, over -which the cows had to step. Then he walked in front of them, speaking -never a word, and paying no heed to the herd, which was kept together by -the herd-boys alone. His thoughts were occupied by higher things, for he -was busy making crosses, blessing the cattle, and murmuring prayers, -till the pastures were reached. The axe in the doorway signified that -the wolf should flee from the herd as from the sharp edge of the axe: -the sand from the church betokened that the cattle should not disperse -and wander in the meadows, but should keep as close together as people -in church.[1096] - -[Sidenote: Swedish observances at turning out the cattle to graze after -their winter confinement.] In Sweden the cattle are confined almost -wholly to their stalls during the long and dreary northern winter; and -the first day in spring on which they are turned out into the forest to -graze has been from time immemorial a great popular festival. The time -of its celebration depends more or less on the mildness or severity of -the season. For the most part it takes place about the middle of May. On -the preceding evening bonfires are kindled everywhere in the forest, -because so far as their flickering light extends the cattle will be safe -from the attacks of wild beasts throughout the summer. For the same -reason people go about the woods that night firing guns, blowing horns, -and making all kinds of discordant noises. The mode of celebrating the -festival, which in some places is called the feast of flowers, varies -somewhat in different provinces. In Dalsland the cattle are driven home -that day from pasture at noon instead of at evening. Early in the -morning the herd-boy repairs with the herd to the forest, where he decks -their horns with wreaths of flowers and provides himself with a wand of -the rowan or mountain-ash. During his absence the girls pluck flowers, -weave them into a garland, and hang it on the gate through which the -cattle must pass on their return from the forest. When they come back, -the herd-boy takes the garland from the gate, fastens it to the top of -his wand, and marches with it at the head of his beasts to the hamlet. -Afterwards the wand with the garland on it is set up on the muck-heap, -where it remains all the summer. The intention of these ceremonies is -not said, but on the analogy of the preceding customs we may conjecture -that both the flowers and the rowan-wand are supposed to guard the -cattle against witchcraft. A little later in the season, when the grass -is well grown in the forest, most of the cattle are sent away to the -_säter_, or summer pastures, of which every hamlet commonly has one or -more. These are clearings in the woods, and may be many miles distant -from the village. In Dalecarlia the departure usually takes place in the -first week of June. It is a great event for the pastoral folk. An -instinctive longing seems to awaken both in the people and the beasts. -The preparations of the women are accompanied by the bleating of the -sheep and goats and the lowing of the cattle, which make incessant -efforts to break through the pens near the house where they are shut up. -Two or more girls, according to the size of the herd, attend the cattle -on their migration and stay with them all the summer. Every animal as it -goes forth, whether cow, sheep, or goat, is marked on the brow with a -cross by means of a tar-brush in order to protect it against evil -spirits. But more dangerous foes lie in wait for the cattle in the -distant pastures, where bears and wolves not uncommonly rush forth on -them from the woods. On such occasions the herd-girls often display the -utmost gallantry, belabouring the ferocious beasts with sticks, and -risking their own lives in defence of the herds.[1097] - -[Sidenote: These modern parallels throw light on some features of the -Parilia.] The foregoing customs, practised down to modern times by -shepherds and herdsmen with a full sense of their meaning, throw light -on some features of the Parilia which might otherwise remain obscure. -They seem to shew that when the Italian shepherd hung green boughs on -his folds, and garlands on his doors, he did so in order to keep the -witches from the ewes; and that in fumigating his flocks with sulphur -and driving them over a fire of straw he sought to interpose a fiery -barrier between them and the powers of evil, whether these were -conceived as witches or mischievous spirits. - -[Sidenote: Green George a personification of a spirit of trees or of -vegetation in general.] But St. George is more than a patron of cattle. -The mummer who dresses up in green boughs on the saint’s day and goes by -the name of Green George[1098] clearly personifies the saint himself, -and such a disguise is appropriate only to a spirit of trees or of -vegetation in general. As if to make this quite clear, the Slavs of -Carinthia carry a tree decked with flowers in the procession in which -Green George figures; and the ceremonies in which the leaf-clad masker -takes a part plainly indicate that he is thought to stand in intimate -connexion with rain as well as with cattle. This counterpart of our Jack -in the Green is known in some parts of Russia, and the Slovenes call him -Green George. Dressed in leaves and flowers, he appears in public on St. -George’s Day carrying a lighted torch in one hand and a pie in the -other. Thus arrayed he goes out to the cornfields, followed by girls, -who sing appropriate songs. A circle of brushwood is then lighted, and -the pie is set in the middle of it. All who share in the ceremony sit -down around the fire, and the pie is divided among them. The observance -has perhaps a bearing on the cattle as well as on the cornfields, for in -some parts of Russia when the herds go out to graze for the first time -in spring a pie baked in the form of a sheep is cut up by the chief -herdsman, and the bits are kept as a cure for the ills to which sheep -are subject.[1099] - -[Sidenote: “Ringing out the grass” on St. George’s Day.] At Schwaz, an -old Tyrolese town in the lower valley of the Inn, young lads assemble on -St. George’s Day, which is here the twenty-fourth of April, and having -provided themselves with bells, both large and small, they go in -procession ringing them to the various farms of the neighbourhood, where -they are welcomed and given milk to drink. These processions, which take -place in other parts of the Tyrol also, go by the name of “ringing out -the grass” (_Grasausläuten_), and it is believed that wherever the -bell-ringers come, there the grass grows and the crops will be abundant. -This beneficial effect appears to be ascribed to the power of the bells -to disperse the evil spirits, which are thought to be rampant on St. -George’s Day. For the same purpose of averting demoniac influence at -this time, people in Salzburg and the neighbouring districts of Upper -Austria go in procession round the fields and stick palm branches or -small crosses in them; also they fasten branches of the _Prunus Padus_, -L., at the windows of the houses and cattle-stalls.[1100] In some parts -of Germany the farmer looks to the height of his corn on St. George’s -Day, expecting that it should then be high enough to hide a crow.[1101] - -[Sidenote: St. George supposed to get barren women with child.] Even -when we have said that St. George of Eastern Europe represents an old -heathen deity of sheep, cattle, horses, wolves, vegetation, and rain, we -have not exhausted all the provinces over which he is supposed to bear -sway. According to an opinion which appears to be widely spread, he has -the power of blessing barren women with offspring. This belief is -clearly at the root of the South Slavonian custom, described above, -whereby a childless woman hopes to become a mother by wearing a shirt -which has hung all night on a fruitful tree on St. George’s Eve.[1102] -Similarly, a Bulgarian wife who desires to have a child will strike off -a serpent’s head on St. George’s Day, put a bean in its mouth, and lay -the head in a hollow tree or bury it in the earth at a spot so far from -the village that the crowing of the cocks cannot be heard there. If the -bean buds, her wishes will be granted.[1103] - -[Sidenote: Love-charms practised among the Slavs on St. George’s Day.] -It is natural to suppose that a saint who can bestow offspring can also -bring fond lovers together. Hence among the Slavs, with whom St. George -is so popular, his day is one of the seasons at which youths and maidens -resort to charms and divination in order to win or discover the -affections of the other sex. Thus, to take examples, a Bohemian way of -gaining a girl’s love is as follows. You catch a frog on St. George’s -Day, wrap it in a white cloth, and put it in an ant-hill after sunset or -about midnight. The creature croaks terribly while the ants are gnawing -the flesh from its bones. When silence reigns again, you will find -nothing left of the frog but one little bone in the shape of a hook and -another little bone in the shape of a shovel. Take the hook-shaped bone, -go to the girl of your choice, and hook her dress with the bone, and she -will fall over head and ears in love with you. If you afterwards tire of -her, you have only to touch her with the shovel-shaped bone, and her -affection will vanish as quickly as it came.[1104] Again, at Ceklinj, in -Crnagora, maidens go at break of day on St. George’s morning to a well -to draw water, and look down into its dark depth till tears fill their -eyes and they fancy they see in the water the image of their future -husband.[1105] At Krajina, in Servia, girls who would pry into the book -of fate gather flowers in the meadows on the eve of St. George, make -them up into nosegays, and give to the nosegays the names of the various -lads whose hearts they would win. Late at night they place the flowers -by stealth under the open sky, on the roof or elsewhere, and leave them -there till daybreak. The lad on whose nosegay most dew has fallen will -love the girl most truly throughout the year. Sometimes mischievous -young men secretly watch these doings, and steal the bunches of flowers, -which makes sore hearts among the girls.[1106] Once more, in wooded -districts of Bohemia a Czech maiden will sometimes go out on St. -George’s Eve into an oak or beech forest and catch a young wild pigeon. -It may be a ring-dove or a wood-pigeon, but it must always be a male. -She takes the bird home with her, and covers it with a sieve or shuts it -up in a box that nobody may know what she is about. Having kept and fed -it till it can fly, she rises very early in the morning, while the -household is still asleep, and goes with the dove to the hearth. Here -she presses the bird thrice to her bare breast, above her heart, and -then lets it fly away up the chimney, while she says:— - - “_Out of the chimney, dove, - Fly, fly from here. - Take me, dear Hans, my love, - None, none so dear._ - - “_Fly to your rocks, fair dove, - Fly to your lea. - So may I get, my love, - None, none but thee._”[1107] - -[Sidenote: St. George in Syria esteemed a giver of offspring to -childless women.] In the East, also, St. George is reputed to be a giver -of offspring to barren women, and in this character he is revered by -Moslems as well as Christians. His shrines may be found in all parts of -Syria; more places are associated with him than with any other saint in -the calendar. The most famous of his sanctuaries is at Kalat el Hosn, in -Northern Syria. Childless women of all sects resort to it in order that -the saint may remove their reproach. Some people shrug their shoulders -when the shrine is mentioned in this connexion. Yet many Mohammedan -women who desired offspring used to repair to it with the full consent -of their husbands. Nowadays the true character of the place is beginning -to be perceived, and many Moslems have forbidden their wives to visit -it.[1108] Such beliefs and practices [Sidenote: The Syrian St. George -may represent Tammuz.] lend some colour to the theory that in the East -the saint has taken the place of Tammuz or Adonis.[1109] - -[Sidenote: In Europe St. George seems to have displaced an old Aryan god -of the spring, such as the Lithuanian Pergrubius.] But we cannot suppose -that the worship of Tammuz has been transplanted to Europe and struck -its roots deep among the Slavs and other peoples in the eastern part of -our continent. Rather amongst them we must look for a native Aryan deity -who now masquerades in the costume of the Cappadocian saint and martyr -St. George. Perhaps we may find him in the Pergrubius of the -Lithuanians, a people who retained their heathen religion later than any -other branch of the Aryan stock in Europe. This Pergrubius is described -as “the god of the spring,” as “he who makes leaves and grass to grow,” -or more fully as “the god of flowers, plants, and all buds.” On St. -George’s Day, the twenty-third of April, the heathen Prussians and -Lithuanians offered a sacrifice to Pergrubius. A priest, who bore the -title of _Wurschait_, held in his hand a mug of beer, while he thus -addressed the deity: “Thou drivest away the winter; thou bringest back -the pleasant spring. By thee the fields and gardens are green, by thee -the groves and the woods put forth leaves.” According to another -version, the prayer ran as follows: “Thou drivest the winter away, and -givest in all lands leaves and grass. We pray thee that thou wouldst -make our corn to grow and wouldst put down all weeds.” After praying -thus, the priest drank the beer, holding the mug with his teeth, but not -touching it with his hands. Then without handling it he threw the mug -backward over his head. Afterwards it was picked up and filled again, -and all present drank out of it. They also sang a hymn in praise of -Pergrubius, and then spent the whole day in feasting and dancing.[1110] -Thus it appears that Pergrubius was a Lithuanian god of the spring, who -caused the grass and the corn to grow and the trees to burst into leaf. -In this he resembles Green George, the embodiment of the fresh -vegetation of spring, whose leaf-clad representative still plays his -pranks on the very same day in some parts of Eastern Europe. Nothing, -indeed, is said of the relation of Pergrubius to cattle, and so far the -analogy between him and St. George breaks down. But our accounts of the -old Lithuanian mythology are few and scanty; if we knew more about -Pergrubius we might find that as a god or personification of spring he, -like St. George, was believed to exert all the quickening powers of that -genial season—in other words, that his beneficent activity was not -confined to clothing the bare earth with verdure, but extended to the -care of the teeming flocks and herds, as well as to the propagation of -mankind. Certainly it is not easy to draw a sharp line of division -between the god who attends to cattle and the god who provides the food -on which they subsist. - -[Sidenote: The Roman equivalent of St. George was Pales, who may have -been personated by the king at the Parilia.] Thus Pergrubius may perhaps -have been the northern equivalent of the pastoral god Pales, who was -worshipped by the Romans only two days earlier at the spring festival of -the Parilia. It will be remembered that the Roman shepherds prayed to -Pales for grass and leaves, the very things which it was the part of -Pergrubius to supply. Is it too bold to conjecture that in rural -districts of Italy Pales may have been personated by a leaf-clad man, -and that in the early age of Rome the duty of thus representing the god -may have been one of the sacred functions of the king? The conjecture at -least suggests a reason for the tradition that Numa, the typical -priestly king of Rome, was born on the day of the Parilia. - -Footnote 1045: - - Varro, _Rerum rusticarum_, ii. 1. 9 _sq._ “_Romanorum vero populum a - pastoribus esse ortum quis non dicit?_” etc. Amongst other arguments - in favour of this view Varro refers to the Roman personal names - derived from cattle, both large and small, such as _Porcius_, - “pig-man,” _Ovinius_, “sheep-man,” _Caprilius_, “goat-man,” - _Equitius_, “horse-man,” _Taurius_, “bull-man,” and so forth. On the - importance of cattle and milk among the ancient Aryans see O. - Schrader, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_ - (Strasburg, 1901), pp. 541 _sq._, 689 _sqq._, 913 _sqq._ - -Footnote 1046: - - Above, vol. i. p. 366. - -Footnote 1047: - - As to the foundation of Rome on this date see Varro, _Rerum - rusticarum_, ii. 1. 9; Cicero, _De divinatione_, ii. 47. 98; Festus, - _s.v._ “Parilibus,” p. 236, ed. C. O. Müller; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ - xviii. 247; Propertius, v. 4. 73 _sq._; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 801-806; - _id._, _Metam._ xiv. 774 _sq._; Velleius Paterculus, i. 8. 4; - Eutropius, i. 1; Solinus, i. 18; Censorinus, _De die natali_, xxi. 6; - Probus on Virgil, _Georg._ iii. 1; Schol. Veronens. on Virgil, _l.c._; - Dionysius Halicarnas, _Ant. Rom._ i. 88; Plutarch, _Romulus_, 12; Dio - Cassius, xliii. 42; Zonaras, _Annales_, vii. 3; Joannes Lydus, _De - mensibus_, i. 14, iv. 50. As to the birth of Numa, see Plutarch, - _Numa_, 3. The festival is variously called Parilia and Palilia by - ancient writers, but the form Parilia seems to be the better attested - of the two. See G. Wissowa, _s.v._ “Pales,” in W. H. Roscher’s - _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, iii. 1278. - -Footnote 1048: - - Dionysius of Halicarnassus (_Ant. Rom._ i. 88) hesitates between these - two views. With truer historical insight Plutarch (_Romulus_, 12) - holds that the rustic festival was older than the foundation of Rome. - -Footnote 1049: - - See, for example, vol. i. above, p. 32. - -Footnote 1050: - - For modern discussions of the Parilia, see L. Preller, _Römische - Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., i. 413 _sqq._; J. Marquardt, _Römische - Staatsverwaltung_, iii. 2nd Ed., 207 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Antike - Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 309-317; W. Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, - pp. 79-85; G. Wissowa, _s.v._ “Pales,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der - griech. u. röm. Mythologie_, iii. 1276-1280; _id._, _Religion und - Kultus der Römer_, pp. 165 _sq._ - -Footnote 1051: - - Cicero, _De divinatione_, ii. 47. 98; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 806; Calendar - of Philocalus, quoted by W. Warde Fowler, _op. cit._ p. 79; Probus on - Virgil, _Georg._ iii. 1; Plutarch, _Romulus_, 12; Zonaras, _Annales_, - vii. 3. - -Footnote 1052: - - Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Ant. Rom._ i. 88. - -Footnote 1053: - - Festus, _s.v._ “Pales,” p. 222, ed. C. O. Müller; Dionysius Halic. - _l.c._ - -Footnote 1054: - - Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ iii. 1. See also Arnobius, _Adversus - nationes_, iii. 40; Martianus Capella, i. 50. - -Footnote 1055: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 637-640, 731-734; Propertius, v. 1. 19 _sq._ - -Footnote 1056: - - See above, p. 229. As to the sacrifice of the horse in October see - _The Golden Bough_, Second Edition, ii. 315 _sqq._ - -Footnote 1057: - - Tibullus, ii. 5. 91 _sq._:— - - “_Et fetus matrona dabit, natusque parenti - Oscula comprensis auribus cripict._” - -Footnote 1058: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 735-738. In his account of the festival Ovid - mentions only shepherds and sheep; but since Pales was a god of cattle - as well as of sheep (Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, iii. 23), we may - suppose that herds and herdsmen equally participated in it. Dionysius - (_l.c._) speaks of four-footed beasts in general. - -Footnote 1059: - - So Mr. W. Warde Fowler understands Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 735-742. - -Footnote 1060: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 805 _sq._ - -Footnote 1061: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 739 _sq._ - -Footnote 1062: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 747 _sq._:— - - “_Consule, dic, pecori pariter pecorisque magistris: - Effugiat stabulis noxa repulsa meis._” - - With this sense of _noxa_ compare _id._ vi. 129 _sq._, where it is - said that buckthorn or hawthorn “_tristes pellere posset a foribus - noxas_.” - -Footnote 1063: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 763-774. The prayer that the wolves may be kept far - from the fold is mentioned also by Tibullus (ii. 5. 88). - -Footnote 1064: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 779-782; Tibullus, ii. 5. 89 _sq._; Propertius, v. - 1. 19, v. 4. 77 sq.; Persius, i. 72; Probus on Virgil, _Georg._ iii. - 1. - -Footnote 1065: - - I owe this observation to F. A. Paley, on Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 754. He - refers to Virgil, _Georg._ ii. 435, _Ecl._ x. 30; Theocritus, xi. 73 - _sq._; to which may be added Virgil, _Georg._ iii. 300 _sq._, 320 - _sq._; Horace, _Epist._ i. 14. 28; Cato, _De re rustica_, 30; - Columella, _De re rustica_, vii. 3. 21, xi. 2. 83 and 99-101. From - these passages of Cato and Columella we learn that the Italian farmer - fed his cattle on the leaves of the elm, the ash, the poplar, the oak, - the evergreen oak, the fig, and the laurel. - -Footnote 1066: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 749-754. - -Footnote 1067: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 757-760. - -Footnote 1068: - - Columella, _De re rustica_, vii. 3. 11. In this respect the practice - of ancient Italian farmers would seem to have differed from that of - modern English breeders. In a letter (dated 8th February 1908) my - friend Professor W. Somerville of Oxford writes: “It is against all - modern custom to arrange matters so that lambs are born five months - after April 21, say the end of September.” And, again, in another - letter (dated 16th February 1908) he writes to me: “The matter of - coupling ewes and rams in the end of April is very perplexing. In this - country it is only the Dorset breed of sheep that will ‘take’ the ram - at this time of the year. In the case of other breeds the ewe will - only take the ram in autumn, say from July to November, so that the - lambs are born from January to May. We consider that lambs born late - in the season, say May or June, never thrive well.” - -Footnote 1069: - - The suggestion was made by C. G. Heyne in his commentary on Tibullus, - i. 5. 88. - -Footnote 1070: - - O. Keller, _Thiere des classischen Alterthums_ (Innsbruck, 1887), pp. - 158 _sqq._ - -Footnote 1071: - - Calpurnius, _Bucol._ v. 16-28. - -Footnote 1072: - - Plutarch, _Romulus_, 12. - -Footnote 1073: - - Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Ant. Rom._ 1. 88. - -Footnote 1074: - - This is the view of J. Marquardt (_Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. - 2nd Ed., 207), and Mr. W. Warde Fowler (_Roman Festivals_, p. 83, note - 1). - -Footnote 1075: - - Boecler-Kreutzwald, _Der Ehsten abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und - Gewohnheiten_, pp. 82-84, 116-118; F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren - und äusseren Leben der Ehsten_, pp. 332, 356-361; Holzmayer, - “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu - Dorpat_, vii. (1872) p. 61. - -Footnote 1076: - - F. J. Wiedemann, _op. cit._ p. 413. - -Footnote 1077: - - See above, pp. 75 _sq._ - -Footnote 1078: - - W. R. S. Ralston, _Russian Folk-tales_, pp. 344, 345. - -Footnote 1079: - - W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, pp. 229-231. In the - island of Rhodes also it is customary for people to roll themselves on - the grass for good luck on St. George’s Day. See Mary Hamilton, _Greek - Saints and their Festivals_ (Edinburgh and London, 1910), p. 166. - -Footnote 1080: - - Olga Bartels, “Aus dem Leben der weissrussischen Landbevölkerung,” - _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxxv. (1903) p. 659. - -Footnote 1081: - - W. R. S. Ralston, _op. cit._ p. 389. French peasants of the Vosges - Mountains believe that St. George shuts the mouths of wild beasts and - prevents them from attacking the flocks which are placed under his - protection (L. F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_, p. 127). - -Footnote 1082: - - W. R. S. Ralston, _op. cit._ pp. 319 _sq._ - -Footnote 1083: - - R. F. Kaindl, “Zauberglaube bei den Rutenen in der Bukowina und - Galizien,” _Globus_, lxi. (1892) p. 280. - -Footnote 1084: - - R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894), pp. 62 _sq._, 78, 88 - _sq._; _id._, “Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen,” _Globus_, lxxvi. (1899) - p. 233. - -Footnote 1085: - - P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, i. - (Leipsic, 1903) pp. 106 _sq._ The authority quoted for the sacrifice - is Tiede, _Merkwürdigkeiten Schlesiens_ (1804), pp. 123 _sq._ It is - not expressly said, but we may assume, that the sacrifice was offered - on St. George’s Day. - -Footnote 1086: - - A. Birlinger, _Aus Schwaben_ (Wiesbaden, 1874), ii. 166. Compare - _id._, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. 21 n. 1. - -Footnote 1087: - - E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben im neunzehnten Jahrhundert_ - (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 219, 408. - -Footnote 1088: - - J. Haltrich, _Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbürger Sachsen_ (Vienna, 1885), - p. 281. - -Footnote 1089: - - W. Schmidt, _Das Jahr und seine Tage in Meinung und Brauch der Romänen - Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1866), pp. 9, 11. Compare R. F. Kaindl, - “Zur Volkskunde der Rumänen in der Bukowina,” _Globus_, xcii. (1907) - p. 284. It does not appear whether the shepherd’s pouch - (“_Hirtentaschen_”) in question is the real pouch or the plant of that - name. - -Footnote 1090: - - A. und A. Schott, _Walachische Maehrchen_ (Stuttgart and Tübingen, - 1845), pp. 299 _sq._ - -Footnote 1091: - - A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), p. 287. - -Footnote 1092: - - A. Strausz, _op. cit._ p. 337. - -Footnote 1093: - - W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 230. - -Footnote 1094: - - Above, pp. 126 _sq._ - -Footnote 1095: - - F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_, pp. - 125-127; _id._, _Kroatien und Slavonien_ (Vienna, 1889), pp. 105 _sq._ - -Footnote 1096: - - W. J. A. Tettau und J. D. H. Temme, _Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, - Litthauens und Westpreussens_ (Berlin, 1837), p. 263. - -Footnote 1097: - - L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, pp. 246-251; A. Kuhn, _Herabkunft - des Feuers_, 2nd Ed., pp. 163 _sq._ - -Footnote 1098: - - See above, pp. 75 _sq._ - -Footnote 1099: - - W. R. S. Ralston, _Russian Folk-tales_, p. 345. - -Footnote 1100: - - Marie Andree-Eysn, _Volkskundliches aus dem bayrisch-österreichischen - Alpengebiet_ (Brunswick, 1910), pp. 180-182. - -Footnote 1101: - - E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben im neunzehnten Jahrhundert_ - (Strasburg, 1900), p. 423; K. Freiherr von Leoprechting, _Aus dem - Lechrain_ (Munich, 1855), p. 168. - -Footnote 1102: - - See above, pp. 56 _sq._ - -Footnote 1103: - - A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_, pp. 337, 385 _sq._ There seems to be a - special connexion between St. George and serpents. In Bohemia and - Moravia it is thought that up to the twenty-third of April serpents - are innocuous, and only get their poison on the saint’s day. See J. V. - Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_, §§ 326, - 580, pp. 51, 81; W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in - Mähren_, p. 323. Various other charms are effected by means of - serpents on this day. Thus if you tear out the tongue of a live snake - on St. George’s Day, put it in a ball of wax, and lay the ball under - your tongue, you will be able to talk down anybody. See J. V. - Grohmann, _op. cit._, §§ 576, 1169, pp. 81, 166. - -Footnote 1104: - - J. V. Grohmann, _op. cit._ § 1463, p. 210. - -Footnote 1105: - - F. S. Krauss, _Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven_, p. 175. - -Footnote 1106: - - F. S. Krauss, _op. cit._ pp. 175 _sq._ - -Footnote 1107: - - Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, pp. 194 _sq._; J. - V. Grohmann, _op. cit._, § 554, p. 77. - -Footnote 1108: - - S. J. Curtiss, _Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_, pp. 83 _sq._, 118 - _sq._ - -Footnote 1109: - - S. Baring-Gould, _Curious Myths of the Middle Ages_, pp. 278 _sqq._ - The authority for this identification is the nominal translator, but - real author, of the work called _The Agriculture of the Nabataeans_. - See D. A. Chwolson, _Über Tammuz und die Menschenverehrung bei den - alten Babyloniern_ (St. Petersburg, 1860), pp. 56 _sq._ Although _The - Agriculture of the Nabataeans_ appears to be a forgery (see above, p. - 100, note 2), the identification of the oriental St. George with - Tammuz may nevertheless be correct. - -Footnote 1110: - - J. Maeletius (Menecius), “De sacrificiis et idolatria veterum - Borussorum Livonum aliarumque vicinarum gentium,” _Mitteilungen der - Litterarischen Gesellschaft Masovia_, Heft 8 (Lötzen, 1902), pp. 185, - 187, 200 _sq._; _id._ in _Scriptores rerum Livonicarum_, ii. (Riga and - Leipsic, 1848), pp. 389, 390; J. Lasicius, “De diis Samagitarum - caeterorumque Sarmatarum,” ed. W. Mannhardt, in _Magazin herausgegeben - von der Lettisch-literärischen Gesellschaft_, xiv. (1868) pp. 95 _sq._ - The first form of the prayer to Pergrubius is from the Latin, the - second from the German, version of Maeletius’s (Jan Malecki’s) work. - The description of Pergrubius as “he who makes leaves and grass to - grow” (“_der lest wachssen laub unnd gras_”) is also from the German. - According to M. Praetorius, Pergrubius was a god of husbandry - (_Deliciae Prussicae_, Berlin, 1871, p. 25). - - - - - CHAPTER XX - THE WORSHIP OF THE OAK - - - § 1. The Diffusion of the Oak in Europe - - -[Sidenote: The Latin kings represented Jupiter, the god of the oak, the -sky, the thunder, and the rain.] In a preceding chapter some reasons -were given for thinking that the early Latin kings posed as living -representatives of Jupiter, the god of the oak, the sky, the rain, and -the thunder, and that in this capacity they attempted to exercise the -fertilising functions which were ascribed to the god. The probability of -this view will be strengthened if it can be proved that the same god was -worshipped under other names by other branches of the Aryan stock in -Europe, and that the Latin kings were not alone in arrogating to -themselves his powers and attributes. In this chapter I propose briefly -to put together a few of the principal facts which point to this -conclusion. - -[Sidenote: Why should the god of the oak be also the god of the sky, the -thunder, and the rain?] But at the outset a difficulty presents itself. -To us the oak, the sky, the rain, and the thunder appear things totally -distinct from each other. How did our forefathers come to group them -together and imagine them as attributes of one and the same god? A -connexion may be seen between the sky, the rain, and the thunder; but -what has any of them to do with the oak? Yet one of these apparently -disparate elements was probably the original nucleus round which in time -the others gathered and crystallised into the composite conception of -Jupiter. Accordingly we must ask, Which of them was the original centre -of attraction? If men started with the idea of an oak-god, how came they -to enlarge his kingdom by annexing to it the province of the sky, the -rain, and the thunder? If, on the other hand, they set out with the -notion of a god of the sky, the rain, and the thunder, or any one of -them, why should they have added the oak to his attributes? The oak is -terrestrial; the sky, the thunder, and the rain are celestial or aerial. -What is the bridge between the two? - -[Sidenote: In the composite character of Jupiter the oak is probably -primary, the sky, the rain, and the thunder secondary and derivative.] -In the sequel I shall endeavour to shew that on the principle of -primitive thought the evolution of a sky-god from an oak-god is more -easily conceivable than the converse; and if I succeed, it becomes -probable that in the composite character of Jupiter the oak is primary -and original, the sky, the rain, and the thunder secondary and -derivative. - -[Sidenote: Europe covered with vast oak forests in prehistoric times.] -We have seen that long before the dawn of history Europe was covered -with vast primaeval woods, which must have exercised a profound -influence on the thought as well as on the life of our rude ancestors -who dwelt dispersed under the gloomy shadow or in the open glades and -clearings of the forest.[1111] Now, of all the trees which composed -these woods the oak appears to have been both the commonest and the most -useful. The proof of this is drawn partly from the statements of -classical writers, partly from the remains of ancient villages built on -piles in lakes and marshes, and partly from the oak forests which have -been found embedded in peat-bogs. - -[Sidenote: Remains of oak forests found in peat-bogs.] These bogs, which -attain their greatest development in Northern Europe, but are met with -also in the central and southern parts of the Continent, have preserved -as in a museum the trees and plants which sprang up and flourished after -the end of the glacial epoch. Thus in Scotland the peat, which occupies -wide areas both in the highlands and lowlands, almost everywhere covers -the remains of forests, among which the commoner trees are pine, oak, -and birch. The oaks are of great size, and are found at heights above -the sea such as the tree would not now naturally attain to. Equally -remarkable for their size are the pines, but though they also had a -wider distribution than at present, they appear not to have formed any -extensive forests at the lowest levels of the country. Still, remains of -them have been dug up in many lowland peat-mosses, where the bulk of the -buried timber is oak.[1112] When Hatfield Moss in Yorkshire was drained, -there were found in it trunks of oak a hundred feet long and as black as -ebony. One giant actually measured a hundred and twenty feet in length, -with a diameter of twelve feet at the root and six feet at the top. No -such tree now exists in Europe.[1113] Sunken forests and peat occur at -many places on the coasts of England, especially on low shelving shores -where the land falls away with a gentle slope to the sea. These -submerged areas were once mud flats which, as the sea retreated from -them, gradually became clothed with dense forests, chiefly of oak and -Scotch fir, though ash, yew, alder, and other trees sooner or later -mingled with them.[1114] The great peat-bogs of Ireland shew that there -was a time when vast woods of oak and yew covered the country, the oak -growing on the hills up to a height of four hundred feet or thereabout -above the sea, while at higher levels deal was the prevailing timber. -Human relics have often been discovered in these Irish bogs, and ancient -roadways made of oak have also come to light.[1115] In the peat-bog near -Abbeville, in the valley of the Somme, trunks of oak have been dug up -fourteen feet thick, a diameter rarely met with outside the tropics in -the old Continent.[1116] - -[Sidenote: Former oak woods of Denmark and Scandinavia.] At present the -woods of Denmark consist for the most part of magnificent beeches, which -flourish here as luxuriantly as anywhere in the world. Oaks are much -rarer and appear to be on the decline. Yet the evidence of the peat-bogs -proves that before the advent of the beech the country was overspread -with dense forests of tall and stately oaks. It was during the -ascendency of the oak in the woods that bronze seems to have become -known in Denmark; for swords and shields of that metal, now in the -museum of Copenhagen, have been taken out of peat in which oaks abound. -Yet at a still earlier period the oak had been preceded by the pine or -Scotch fir in the Danish forests; and the discovery of neolithic -implements in the peat-bogs shews that savages of the Stone Age had -their homes in these old pine woods as well as in the later forests of -oak. Some antiquaries are of opinion that the Iron Age in Denmark began -with the coming of the beech, but of this there is no evidence; for -aught we know to the contrary the beautiful beech forests may date back -to the Age of Bronze.[1117] The peat-bogs of Norway abound in buried -timber; and in many of them the trees occur in two distinct layers. The -lower of these layers consists chiefly of oak, hazel, ash, and other -deciduous trees; the upper is composed of Scotch firs and birches. In -the bogs of Sweden also the oak forests underlie the pine forests.[1118] -However, it appears to be doubtful whether Scandinavia was inhabited in -the age of the oak woods. Neolithic tools have indeed been found in the -peat, but generally not deeper down than two feet or so; hence one -antiquary infers that in these bogs not more than two feet of peat has -formed within historical times.[1119] But negative evidence on such a -point goes for little, as only a small portion of the bogs can have been -explored. - -[Sidenote: The ancient lake dwellings of Europe were built to a great -extent on oaken piles.] Unequivocal proof of the prevalence of the oak -and its usefulness to man in early times is furnished by the remains of -the pile villages which have been discovered in many of the lakes of -Europe. In the British Islands the piles and the platforms on which -these crannogs or lake dwellings rested appear to have been generally of -oak, though fir, birch, and other trees were sometimes used in their -construction. Speaking of the Irish and Scotch crannogs a learned -antiquary remarks: “Every variety of structure observed in the one -country is to be found in the other, from the purely artificial island, -framed of oak-beams, mortised together, to the natural island, -artificially fortified or enlarged by girdles of oak-piles or ramparts -of loose stones.”[1120] Canoes hollowed out of trunks of oak have been -found both in the Scotch and in the Irish crannogs.[1121] In the lake -dwellings of Switzerland and Central Europe the piles are very often of -oak, but by no means as uniformly so as in the British Islands; fir, -birch, alder, ash, elm, and other timber were also employed for the -purpose.[1122] That the inhabitants of these villages subsisted partly -on the produce [Sidenote: The inhabitants of the lake dwellings -subsisted partly on acorns.] of the oak, even after they had adopted -agriculture, is proved by the acorns which have been found in their -dwellings along with wheat, barley, and millet, as well as beech-nuts, -hazel-nuts, and the remains of chestnuts and cherries.[1123] In the -valley of the Po the framework of logs and planks which supports the -prehistoric villages is most commonly of elm wood, but evergreen oak and -chestnut were also used; and the abundance of oaks is attested by the -great quantities of acorns which were dug up in these settlements. As -the acorns were sometimes found stored in earthenware vessels, it -appears that they were eaten by the people as well as by their -pigs.[1124] - -[Sidenote: Evidence of classical writers as to the oak forests of -Europe.] The evidence of classical writers proves that great oak forests -still existed down to their time in various parts of Europe. Thus the -Veneti on the Atlantic coast of Brittany made their flat-bottomed boats -out of oak timber, of which, we are told, there was abundance in their -country.[1125] Pliny informs us that, while the whole of Germany was -covered with cool and shady woods, the loftiest trees were to be seen -not far from the country of the Chauci, who inhabited the coast of the -North Sea. Among these giants of the forest he speaks especially of the -oaks which grew on the banks of two lakes. When the waves had undermined -their roots, the oaks are said to have torn away great portions of the -bank and floated like islands on the lakes.[1126] The same [Sidenote: -The oak woods of Germany.] writer speaks of the vast Hercynian wood of -Germany as an oak forest, old as the world, untouched for ages, and -passing wonderful in its immortality. So huge were the trees, he says, -that when their roots met they were forced up above ground in the shape -of arches, through which a troop of horse could ride as through an open -gate.[1127] His testimony as to the kind of trees which composed this -famous forest is confirmed by its name, which seems to mean no more than -“oak wood.”[1128] In the second century before our era oak forests were -still so common in the valley of the Po that the herds of swine which -browsed on the acorns sufficed to [Sidenote: The oak woods of ancient -Italy and Greece.] supply the greater part of the demand for pork -throughout Italy, although nowhere in the world, according to Polybius, -were more pigs butchered to feed the gods, the people, and the -army.[1129] Elsewhere the same historian describes the immense herds of -swine which roamed the Italian oak forests, especially on the coasts of -Tuscany and Lombardy. In order to sort out the different droves when -they mingled with each other in the woods, each swineherd carried a -horn, and when he wound a blast on it all his own pigs came trooping to -him with such vehemence that nothing could stop them; for all the herds -knew the note of their own horn. In the oak forests of Greece this -device was unknown, and the swineherds there had harder work to come by -their own when the beasts had strayed far in the woods, as they were apt -to do in autumn while the acorns were falling.[1130] Down to the -beginning of our era oak woods were interspersed among the olive groves -and vineyards of the Sabine country in central Italy.[1131] Among the -beautiful woods which clothed the Heraean mountains in Sicily the oaks -were particularly remarked for their stately growth and the great size -of their acorns.[1132] In the second century after Christ the oak -forests of Arcadia still harboured wild boars, bears, and huge tortoises -in their dark recesses.[1133] - -[Sidenote: The oak still the chief forest tree of Europe.] Even now the -predominance of the oak as the principal forest tree of Europe has -hardly passed away. Thus we are told that among the leaf-bearing trees -of Greece, as opposed to the conifers, the oak still plays by far the -most important part in regard both to the number of the individuals and -the number of the species.[1134] And the British oak in particular -(_Quercus robur_) is yet the prevailing tree in most of the woods of -France, Germany, and southern Russia, while in England the coppice and -the few fragments of natural forest still left are mainly composed of -this species.[1135] - -[Sidenote: In Europe acorns have been used as human food both in ancient -and modern times.] Thus the old classical tradition that men lived upon -acorns before they learned to till the ground[1136] may very well be -founded on fact. Indeed acorns were still an article of diet in some -parts of southern Europe within historical times. Speaking of the -prosperity of the righteous, Hesiod declares that for them the earth -bears much substance, and the oak on the mountains puts forth -acorns.[1137] The Arcadians in their oak-forests were proverbial for -eating acorns,[1138] but not the acorns of all oaks, only those of a -particular sort.[1139] Pliny tells us that in his day acorns still -constituted the wealth of many nations, and that in time of dearth they -were ground and baked into bread.[1140] According to Strabo, the -mountaineers of Spain subsisted on acorn bread for two-thirds of the -year;[1141] and in that country acorns were served up as a second course -even at the meals of the well-to-do.[1142] In the same regions the same -practice [Sidenote: Acorns as food in modern Europe.] has survived to -modern times. The commonest and finest oak of modern Greece is the -_Quercus Aegilops_, with a beautiful crown of leaves, and the peasants -eat its acorns both roasted and raw.[1143] The sweeter acorns of the -_Quercus Ballota_ also serve them as food, especially in Arcadia.[1144] -In Spain people eat the acorns of the evergreen oak (_Quercus Ilex_), -which are known as _bellotas_, and are said to be much larger and more -succulent than the produce of the British oak. The duchess in _Don -Quixote_ writes to Sancho’s wife to send her some of them. But oaks are -now few and far between in La Mancha.[1145] Even in England and France -acorns have been boiled and eaten by the poor as a substitute for bread -in time of dearth.[1146] And naturally the use of acorns as food for -swine has also lasted into modern times. It is on acorns that those hogs -are fattened in Estremadura which make the famous Montanches hams.[1147] -Large herds of swine in all the great oak woods of Germany depend on -acorns for their autumn subsistence; and in the remaining royal forests -of England the inhabitants of the neighbouring villages still claim -their ancient right of _pannage_, turning their hogs into the woods in -October and November.[1148] - - - § 2. The Aryan God of the Oak and the Thunder[1149] - - -[Sidenote: The many benefits received by the ancient Aryans from the oak -naturally led them to worship the tree.] Thus we may conclude that the -primitive Aryans of Europe lived among oak woods, used oak sticks for -the lighting of their fires, and oak timber for the construction of -their villages, their roads, their canoes, fed their swine on acorns, -and themselves subsisted in part on the same simple diet. No wonder, -then, if the tree from which they received so many benefits should play -an important part in their religion, and should be invested with a -sacred character. We have seen that the worship of trees has been -world-wide, and that, beginning with a simple reverence and dread of the -tree as itself animated by a powerful spirit, it has [Sidenote: The -worship of the tree itself gradually grew into a worship of the god of -the tree, but no sharp line of distinction can be drawn between the -two.] gradually grown into a cult of tree gods and tree goddesses, who -with the advance of thought become more and more detached from their old -home in the trees, and assume the character of sylvan deities and powers -of fertility in general, to whom the husbandman looks not merely for the -prosperity of his crops, but for the fecundity of his cattle and his -women. Where this evolution has taken place it has necessarily been slow -and long. Though it is convenient to distinguish in theory between the -worship of trees and the worship of gods of the trees, it is impossible -to draw a hard and fast line between them in practice, and to say, “Here -the one begins and the other ends.” Such distinctions, however useful -they may be as heads of classification to the student, evade in general -the duller wit of the tree worshipper. We cannot therefore hope to lay -our finger on that precise point in the history of the Aryans when they -ceased to worship the oak for its own sake, and began to worship a god -of the oak. That point, if it were ideally possible to mark it, had -doubtless been left far behind them by the more intelligent, at least, -of our forefathers before they emerged into the light of history. We -must be content for the most part to find among them gods of whom the -oak was an attribute or sacred adjunct rather than the essence. If we -wish to find the original worship of the tree itself we must go for it -to the ignorant peasantry of to-day, not to the enlightened writers of -antiquity. Further, it is to be borne in mind that while all oaks were -probably the object of superstitious awe, so that the felling of any of -them for timber or firewood would be attended with ceremonies designed -to appease the injured spirit of the tree,[1150] only certain particular -groves or individual oaks would in general receive that measure of -homage which we should term worship. The reasons which led men to -venerate some trees more than others might be various. Amongst them the -venerable age and imposing size of a giant oak would naturally count for -much. And any other striking peculiarity which marked a tree off from -its fellows would be apt to attract the attention, and to concentrate on -itself the vague superstitious awe of the savage. We know, for example, -that with the Druids the growth of mistletoe on an oak was a sign that -the tree was especially sacred; and the rarity of this feature—for -mistletoe does not commonly grow on oaks—would enhance the sanctity and -mystery of the tree. For it is the strange, the wonderful, the rare, not -the familiar and commonplace, which excites the religious emotions of -mankind. - -[Sidenote: The worship of the oak tree or of the oak god seems to have -been common to all the Aryans of Europe.] The worship of the oak tree or -of the oak god appears to have been shared by all the branches of the -Aryan stock in Europe. Both Greeks and Italians associated the tree -[Sidenote: Worship of the oak in Greece; its association with Zeus.] -with their highest god, Zeus or Jupiter, the divinity of the sky, the -rain, and the thunder.[1151] Perhaps the oldest and certainly one of the -most famous sanctuaries in Greece was that of Dodona, where Zeus was -revered in the oracular oak.[1152] The thunder-storms which are said to -rage at Dodona more frequently than anywhere else in Europe,[1153] would -render the spot a fitting home for the god whose voice was heard alike -in the rustling of the oak leaves and in the crash of thunder. Perhaps -the bronze gongs which kept up a humming in the wind round the -sanctuary[1154] were meant to mimick the thunder that might so often be -heard rolling and rumbling in the coombs of the stern and barren -mountains which shut in the gloomy valley.[1155] In Boeotia, as we have -seen, the sacred marriage of Zeus and Hera, the oak god and the oak -goddess, was celebrated with much pomp by a religious federation of -states.[1156] And on Mount Lycaeus in Arcadia the character of Zeus as -god both of the oak and of the rain comes out clearly in the rain charm -practised by the priest of Zeus, who dipped an oak branch in a sacred -spring.[1157] - -[Sidenote: Zeus as the rain god of the Greeks.] In his latter capacity -Zeus was the god to whom the Greeks regularly prayed for rain. Nothing -could be more natural; for often, though not always, he had his seat on -the mountains where the clouds gather and the oaks grow. On the -acropolis at Athens there was an image of Earth praying to Zeus for -rain.[1158] And in time of drought the Athenians themselves prayed, -“Rain, rain, O dear Zeus, on the cornland of the Athenians and on the -plains.”[1159] The mountains which lay round their city, and to which -they looked through the clear Attic air for signs of the weather, were -associated by them with the worship of the weather-god Zeus. It was a -sign of rain when, away to sea, a cloud rested on the sharp peak of -Aegina, which cuts the sky-line like a blue horn.[1160] On this far-seen -peak Panhellenian Zeus was worshipped,[1161] and legend ran that once, -when all Greece was parched with drought, envoys assembled in Aegina -from every quarter and entreated Aeacus, the king of the island, that he -would intercede with his father Zeus for rain. The king complied with -the request, and by sacrifices and prayers wrung the needed showers from -his sire the sky-god.[1162] - -[Sidenote: Zeus as the god of fertility.] Again, it was a sign of rain -at Athens when clouds in summer lay on the top or the sides of -Hymettus,[1163] the chain of barren mountains which bounds the Attic -plain on the east, facing the westering sun and catching from his last -beams a solemn glow of purple light. If during a storm a long bank of -clouds was seen lowering on the mountain, it meant that the storm would -increase in fury.[1164] Hence an altar of Showery Zeus stood on -Hymettus.[1165] Again, omens of weather were drawn when lightning -flashed or clouds hung on the top of Mount Parnes to the north of -Athens;[1166] and there accordingly an altar was set up to sign-giving -Zeus.[1167] The climate of eastern Argolis is dry, and the rugged -mountains are little better than a stony waterless wilderness. On one of -them, named Mount Arachnaeus, or the Spider Mountain, stood altars of -Zeus and Hera, and when rain was wanted the people sacrificed there to -the god and goddess.[1168] On the ridge of Mount Tmolus, near Sardes, -there was a spot called the Birthplace of Rainy Zeus,[1169] probably -because clouds resting on it were observed to presage rain. The members -of a religious society in the island of Cos used to go in procession and -offer sacrifices on an altar of Rainy Zeus, when the thirsty land stood -in need of refreshing showers.[1170] Thus conceived as the source of -fertility, it was not unnatural that Zeus should receive the title of -the Fruitful One,[1171] and that at Athens he should be worshipped under -the surname of the Husbandman.[1172] - -[Sidenote: Zeus as the god of thunder and lightning.] Again, Zeus -wielded the thunder and lightning as well as the rain.[1173] At Olympia -and elsewhere he was worshipped under the surname of Thunderbolt;[1174] -and at Athens there was a sacrificial hearth of Lightning Zeus on the -city wall, where some priestly officials watched for lightning over -Mount Parnes at certain seasons of the year.[1175] Further, spots which -had been struck by lightning were regularly fenced in by the Greeks and -consecrated to Zeus the Descender, that is, to the god who came down in -the flash from heaven. Altars were set up within these enclosures and -sacrifices offered on them. Several such places are known from -inscriptions to have existed in Athens.[1176] - -[Sidenote: The Greek kings personified Zeus, as the Italian kings -personified Jupiter.] Thus when ancient Greek kings claimed to be -descended from Zeus, and even to bear his name,[1177] we may reasonably -suppose that they also attempted to exercise his divine functions by -making thunder and rain for the good of their people or the terror and -confusion of their foes. In this respect the legend of Salmoneus[1178] -probably reflects the pretensions of a whole class of petty sovereigns -who reigned of old, each over his little canton, in the oak-clad -highlands of Greece. Like their kinsmen the Irish kings, they were -expected to be a source of fertility to the land and of fecundity to the -cattle;[1179] and how could they fulfil these expectations better than -by acting the part of their kinsman Zeus, the great god of the oak, the -thunder, and the rain? They personified him, apparently, just as the -Italian kings personified Jupiter.[1180] - -[Sidenote: Jupiter in Italy as the god of the oak, the thunder, and the -rain.] In ancient Italy every oak was sacred to Jupiter, the Italian -counterpart of Zeus;[1181] and on the Capitol at Rome the god was -worshipped as the deity not merely of the oak, but of the rain and the -thunder.[1182] Contrasting the piety of the good old times with the -scepticism of an age when nobody thought that heaven was heaven, or -cared a fig for Jupiter, a Roman writer tells us that in former days -noble matrons used to go with bare feet, streaming hair, and pure minds, -up the long Capitoline slope, praying to Jupiter for rain. And -straightway, he goes on, it rained bucketsful, then or never, and -everybody returned dripping like drowned rats. “But nowadays,” says he, -“we are no longer religious, so the fields lie baking.”[1183] And as -Jupiter conjured up the clouds and caused them to discharge their genial -burden on the earth, so he drove them away and brought the bright -Italian sky back once more. Hence he was worshipped under the titles of -the Serene, he who restores serenity.[1184] Lastly, as god of the -fertilising showers [Sidenote: Jupiter as the god of fertility.] he made -the earth to bring forth; so people called him the Fruitful One.[1185] - -[Sidenote: The god of the oak and the thunder among the northern -Aryans.] When we pass from southern to central Europe we still meet with -the great god of the oak and the thunder among the barbarous Aryans who -dwelt in the vast primaeval forests.[1186] Thus among the Celts of Gaul -the Druids esteemed nothing more sacred than the mistletoe and the oak -on which it grew; they chose groves of oaks for the scene of their -solemn service, and they performed none of their rites without oak -leaves.[1187] “The Celts,” says a Greek writer, “worship [Sidenote: -Celtic worship of the oak.] Zeus, and the Celtic image of Zeus is a tall -oak.”[1188] The Celtic conquerors who settled in Asia in the third -century before our era appear to have carried the worship of the oak -with them to their new home; for in the heart of Asia Minor the Galatian -senate met in a place which bore the pure Celtic name of Drynemetum, -“the sacred oak grove” or “the temple of the oak.”[1189] Indeed the very -name of Druids is believed by good authorities to mean no more than “oak -men.”[1190] When Christianity displaced Druidism in Ireland, the -churches and monasteries were sometimes built in oak groves or under -solitary oaks,[1191] the choice of the site [Sidenote: Traces of sacred -oaks in Ireland.] being perhaps determined by the immemorial sanctity of -the trees, which might predispose the minds of the converts to receive -with less reluctance the teaching of the new faith.[1192] But there is -no positive evidence that the Irish Druids performed their rites, like -their Gallic brethren, in oak groves,[1193] so that the inference from -the churches of Kildare, Derry, and the rest is merely a conjecture -based on analogy. - -In the religion of the ancient Germans the veneration for sacred groves -seems to have held the foremost place,[1194] and according to Grimm the -chief of their holy trees was the oak.[1195] It appears to have been -especially dedicated to the [Sidenote: The Teutonic god of the oak and -the thunder.] god of thunder, Donar or Thunar, the equivalent of the -Norse Thor; for a sacred oak near Geismar, in Hesse, which Boniface cut -down in the eighth century, went among the heathen by the name of -Jupiter’s oak (_robur Jovis_), which in old German would be _Donares -eih_, “the oak of Donar.”[1196] That the Teutonic thunder god Donar, -Thunar, Thor was identified with the Italian thunder god Jupiter appears -from our word Thursday, Thunar’s day, which is merely a rendering of the -Latin _dies Jovis_.[1197] Thus among the ancient Teutons, as among the -Greeks and Italians, the god of the oak was also the god of the thunder. -Moreover, he was regarded as the great fertilising power, who sent rain -and caused the earth to bear fruit; for Adam of Bremen tells us that -“Thor presides in the air; he it is who rules thunder and lightning, -wind and rains, fine weather and crops.”[1198] In these respects, -therefore, the Teutonic thunder god again resembled his southern -counterparts Zeus and Jupiter. And like them Thor appears to have been -the chief god of the pantheon; for in the great temple at Upsala his -image [Sidenote: The worship of Thor at Upsala.] occupied the middle -place between the images of Odin and Frey,[1199] and in oaths by this or -other Norse trinities he was always the principal deity invoked.[1200] -Beside the temple at Upsala there was a sacred grove, but the kinds of -trees which grew in it are not known. Only of one tree are we told that -it was of mighty size, with great spreading branches, and that it -remained green winter and summer alike. Here too was a spring where -sacrifices were offered. They used to plunge a living man into the -water, and if he disappeared they drew a favourable omen. Every nine -years, at the spring equinox, a great festival was held at Upsala in -honour of Thor, the god of thunder, Odin, the god of war, and Frey, the -god of peace and pleasure. The ceremonies lasted nine days. Nine male -animals of every sort were sacrificed, that their blood might appease -the gods. Each day six victims were slaughtered, of whom one was a man. -Their bodies were fastened to the trees of the grove, where dogs and -horses might be seen hanging beside men.[1201] - -[Sidenote: Perun, the god of the oak and the thunder among the Slavs.] -Amongst the Slavs also the oak appears to have been the sacred tree of -the thunder god Perun, the counterpart of Zeus and Jupiter.[1202] It is -said that at Novgorod there used to stand an image of Perun in the -likeness of a man with a thunder-stone in his hand. A fire of oak wood -burned day and night in his honour; and if ever it went out the -attendants paid for their negligence with their lives.[1203] Perun -seems, like Zeus and Jupiter, to have been the chief god of his people; -for Procopius tells us that the Slavs “believe that one god, the maker -of lightning, is alone lord of all things, and they sacrifice to him -oxen and every victim.”[1204] - -[Sidenote: Perkunas, the chief Lithuanian god.] The chief deity of the -Lithuanians was Perkunas or Perkuns, the god of thunder and lightning, -whose resemblance to Zeus and Jupiter has often been pointed out.[1205] -Oaks were sacred to him, and when they were cut down by the Christian -missionaries, the people loudly complained that their sylvan deities -were destroyed.[1206] Perpetual fires, kindled with the wood of certain -oak-trees, were kept up in honour of Perkunas; if such a fire went out, -it was lighted again by friction of the sacred wood.[1207] Men -sacrificed to oak-trees for good crops, while women did the same to -lime-trees; from which we may infer that they regarded oaks as male and -lime-trees as female.[1208] And in time of drought, when they wanted -rain, they used to sacrifice a black heifer, a black he-goat, and a -black cock to the thunder-god in the depths of the woods. On such -occasions the people assembled in great numbers from the country round -about, ate and drank, and called upon Perkunas. They carried a bowl of -beer thrice round the fire, then poured the liquor on the flames, while -they prayed to the god to send showers.[1209] Thus the chief Lithuanian -deity presents a close resemblance to Zeus and Jupiter, since he was the -god of the oak, the thunder, and the rain.[1210] - -[Sidenote: The god of the oak and the thunder among the Esthonians.] -Wedged in between the Lithuanians and the Slavs are the Esthonians, a -people who do not belong to the Aryan family. But they also shared the -reverence for the oak, and associated the tree with their thunder-god -Taara, the deity of their pantheon, whom they called “Old Father,” or -“Father of Heaven.”[1211] It is said that down to the beginning of the -nineteenth century Esthonians used to smear the holy oaks, lime-trees, -and ash-trees with the fresh blood of animals at least once a -year.[1212] The following prayer to thunder is instructive, because it -shews how easily thunder, through its association with rain, may appear -to the rustic mind in the character of a beneficent and fertilising -power. It was taken down from the lips of an Esthonian peasant -[Sidenote: Esthonian prayer to thunder.] in the seventeenth century. -“Dear Thunder,” he prayed, “we sacrifice to thee an ox, which has two -horns and four claws, and we would beseech thee for the sake of our -ploughing and sowing, that our straw may be red as copper, and our corn -yellow as gold. Drive somewhere else all black, thick clouds over great -marshes, high woods, and wide wastes. But to us ploughmen and sowers -give a fruitful time and sweet rain. Holy Thunder, guard our fields, -that they may bear good straw below, good ears above, and good grain -within.”[1213] Sometimes in time of great drought an Esthonian farmer -would carry beer thrice round a sacrificial fire, then pour it on the -flames with a prayer that the thunder-god would be pleased to send -rain.[1214] - -[Sidenote: Parjanya, the old Indian god of thunder, rain, and -fertility.] In like manner, Parjanya, the old Indian god of thunder and -rain, whose name is by some scholars identified with the Lithuanian -Perkunas,[1215] was conceived as a deity of fertility, who not only made -plants to germinate, but caused cows, mares, and women to conceive. As -the power who impregnated all things, he was compared to a bull, an -animal which to the primitive herdsman is the most natural type of the -procreative energies. Thus in a hymn of the Rigveda it is said of him:— - - “_The Bull, loud roaring, swift to send his bounty, lays in the - plants the seed for germination. - He smites the trees apart, he slays the demons: all life fears him - who wields the mighty weapon. - From him exceeding strong flees e’en the guiltless when thundering - Parjanya smites the wicked._ - - “_Like a car-driver whipping on his horses, he makes the messengers - of rain spring forward. - Far off resounds the roaring of the lion what time Parjanya fills - the sky with rain-cloud. - Forth burst the winds, down come the lightning-flashes: the plants - shoot up, the realm of light is streaming. - Food springs abundant for all living creatures what time Parjanya - quickens earth with moisture._”[1216] - -In another hymn Parjanya is spoken of as “giver of growth to plants, the -god who ruleth over the waters and all moving creatures,” and it is said -that “in him all living creatures have their being.” Then the poet goes -on:— - - “_May this my song to sovran lord Parjanya come near unto his heart - and give him pleasure. - May we attain the showers that bring enjoyment, and god-protected - plants with goodly fruitage. - He is the Bull of all, and their impregner: he holds the life of all - things fixed and moving._”[1217] - -And in yet another hymn we read:— - - “_Sing forth and laud Parjanya, son of Heaven, who sends the gift of - rain: - May he provide our pasturage. - Parjanya is the god who forms in kine, in mares, in plants of earth - And womanhood, the germ of life._”[1218] - -In short, “Parjanya is a god who presides over the lightning, the -thunder, the rain, and the procreation of plants and living creatures. -But it is by no means clear whether he is originally a god of the rain, -or a god of the thunder. For, as both phenomena are always associated in -India, either of the two opinions is admissible, if no deciding evidence -comes from another quarter.”[1219] On this point something will be said -presently. Here it is enough to have indicated the ease with which the -notion of the thunder-god passes into, or is combined with, the idea of -a god of fertility in general. - -[Sidenote: God of thunder, rain, and fertility among the Iroquois.] The -same combination meets us in Heno, the thunder-spirit of the Iroquois. -His office was not only to hurl his bolts at evil-doers, but to cool and -refresh the ground with showers, to ripen the harvest, and to mature the -fruits of the earth. In spring, when they committed the seeds to the -soil, the Indians prayed to him that he would water them and foster -their growth: and at the harvest festival they thanked him for his gift -of rain.[1220] The Hos [Sidenote: Goddess of lightning, rain, and -fertility among the Hos.] of Togoland in West Africa distinguish two -deities of the lightning, a god Sogble and a goddess Sodza, who are -husband and wife and talk with each other in the sound of thunder. The -goddess has epithets applied to her which seem to shew that she is -believed to send the rain and to cause the plants to grow. She is -addressed as “Mother of men and beasts, ship full of yams, ship full of -the most varied fullness.” Further, it is said to be she who blesses the -tilled land. Moreover, like the Hindoo thunder-god Parjanya, who slays -demons, the Ho thunder-goddess drives away evil spirits and witches from -people’s houses; under her protection children multiply and the inmates -of the house remain healthy.[1221] The Indians of the Andes, about -[Sidenote: Gods of thunder, rain, and fertility among the Indians of the -Andes and the Abchases of the Caucasus.] Lake Titicaca, believe in a -thunder-god named Con or Cun, whom they call the “lord” or “father” of -the mountains (_Ccollo-auqui_). He is regarded as a powerful being, but -irritable and difficult of access, who dwells on the high mountains -above the line of perpetual snow. Yet he gives great gifts to those who -win his favour; and when the crops are languishing for lack of rain, the -Indians try to rouse the god from his torpor by pouring a small libation -of brandy into a tarn below the snow-line; for they dare not set foot on -the snow lest they should meet the dreadful thunder-god face to face. -His bird is the condor as the eagle was the bird of the Greek -thunder-god Zeus.[1222] Similarly in time of drought the Abchases of the -Caucasus sacrifice an ox to Ap-hi, the god of thunder and lightning, and -an old man prays him to send rain, thunder, and lightning, telling him -that the crops are parched, the grass burnt up, and the cattle -starving.[1223] These examples shew how readily a thunder-god may come -to be viewed as a power of fertility; the connecting link is furnished -by the fertilising rain which usually accompanies a thunder-storm. - -[Sidenote: Traces of the worship of the oak in modern Europe.] As might -have been expected, the ancient worship of the oak in Europe has left -its print in popular custom and superstition down to modern times. Thus -in the French department of Maine it is said that solitary oak-trees in -the fields are still worshipped, though the priests have sought to give -the worship a Christian colour by hanging images of saints on the -trees.[1224] In various parts of Lower Saxony and Westphalia, as late as -the first half of the nineteenth century, traces survived of the -sanctity of certain oaks, to which the people paid a half-heathenish, -half-Christian worship. In the principality of Minden young people of -both sexes used to dance round an old oak on Easter Saturday with loud -shouts of joy. And not far from the village of Wormeln, in the -neighbourhood of Paderborn, there stood a holy oak in the forest, to -which the inhabitants of Wormeln and Calenberg went every year in solemn -procession.[1225] Another vestige of superstitious reverence for the oak -in Germany is the custom of passing sick people and animals through a -natural or artificial opening in the trunk of an oak for the purpose of -healing them of their infirmities.[1226] At a village near Ragnit in -East Prussia there was an oak which, down to the seventeenth century, -the villagers regarded as sacred, firmly believing that any person who -harmed it would be visited with misfortune, especially with some bodily -ailment.[1227] About the middle of the nineteenth century the -Lithuanians still laid offerings for spirits under ancient oaks;[1228] -and old-fashioned people among them preferred to cook the viands for -funeral banquets on a fire of oak-wood, or at least under an -oak-tree.[1229] On the rivulet Micksy, between the governments of Pskov -and Livonia in Russia, there stood a stunted, [Sidenote: Worship of the -oak in modern Russia.] withered, but holy oak, which received the homage -of the neighbouring peasantry down at least to 1874. An eye-witness has -described the ceremonies. He found a great crowd of people, chiefly -Esthonians of the Greek Church, assembled with their families about the -tree, all dressed in gala costume. Some of them had brought wax candles -and were fastening them about the trunk and in the branches. Soon a -priest arrived, and, having donned his sacred robes, proceeded to sing a -canticle, such as is usually sung in the Orthodox Church in honour of -saints. But instead of saying as usual, “Holy saint, pray the Lord for -us,” he said, “Holy Oak Hallelujah, pray for us.” Then he incensed the -tree all round. During the service the tapers on the oak were lighted, -and the people, throwing themselves on the ground, adored the holy tree. -When the pastor had retired, his flock remained till late at night, -feasting, drinking, dancing, and lighting fresh tapers on the oak, till -everybody was drunk and the proceedings ended in an orgy.[1230] - -[Sidenote: Ceremonial fires kindled by the friction of oak-wood.] -Another relic of the ancient sanctity of the oak has survived to modern -times in the practice of kindling ceremonial fires by means of the -friction of oak-wood. This has been done, either at stated seasons of -the year or on occasions of distress, by Slavs, Germans, and -Celts.[1231] Taken together with the perpetual sacred fires of oak-wood -which we have found among the Slavs, the Lithuanians, and the ancient -Romans,[1232] the wide prevalence of the practice seems clearly to point -back to a time when the forefathers of the Aryans in Europe dwelt in -forests of oak, fed their fires with oak-wood, and rekindled them, when -they chanced to go out, by rubbing two oaken sticks against each other. - -[Sidenote: In the great European god of the oak, the thunder, and the -rain, the original element seems to have been the oak.] From the -foregoing survey of the facts it appears that a god of the oak, the -thunder, and the rain was worshipped of old by all the main branches of -the Aryan stock in Europe, and was indeed the chief deity of their -pantheon.[1233] It was natural enough that the oak should loom large in -the religion of people who lived in oak forests, used oak timber for -building, oak sticks for fuel, and oak acorns for food and fodder; but -we have still to explain how they were led to associate the thunder and -the rain with the oak in their conception of this great divinity. From -the nature of the case our solution of the problem must be conjectural; -we can only guess at the [Sidenote: The clue to the development of a -lightning-god out of an oak-god may have been the notion that the -heavenly fire or lightning was made, like the earthly fire, by the -friction of oak-wood.] train of thought which prompted our forefathers -to link together things which to us seem so very different. Thunder and -rain may indeed naturally be regarded as akin since the two so often -occur together; but the difficulty is to understand why the oak should -be joined with them. Which of the three elements was the original -nucleus about which the others afterwards clustered? In our ignorance of -the facts, this question amounts to asking whether, on the principles of -savage thought, it is easier to suppose that an original god of thunder -and rain should afterwards add the oak-tree to his attributes, or that, -on the contrary, an old god of the oak should annex to himself the -thunder and the rain? In favour of the first of these suppositions it -may be said that a god of thunder and rain might in time be regarded as -a god of the oak, because thunder and rain come from the sky, and the -oak reaches skyward and is often struck by lightning.[1234] But this -train of thought is hardly likely to carry conviction even to the mind -of a savage. On the other hand, it is not difficult to imagine how early -man in Europe might suppose the thunder, or rather the lightning, to be -derived from the oak. Seeing that fire on earth was regularly kindled by -the rubbing of oaken sticks together, he might readily infer that fire -in heaven was produced in like manner; in other words, that the flash of -lightning was the spark elicited by some one who was lighting his fire -in the usual fashion up aloft; for the savage commonly explains natural -phenomena by ideas drawn from the circle of his own daily life. -Similarly, people who are accustomed to make fire by means of flints -sometimes suppose that lightning is produced in the same way. This is -reported of the Armenians,[1235] and it may be inferred of the many -peoples who believe that the flint implements of prehistoric races are -thunder-bolts.[1236] - -[Sidenote: When an oak-god had once grown into a lightning-god, he would -easily develop into a god of the rain and the sky.] Thus it is easy to -conceive how a god of the oak, viewed as the source of earthly fire, -should come to be regarded as a god of the lightning, and hence, by an -easy extension of ideas, as a god of thunder and rain. Accordingly we -may provisionally assume that the great Aryan gods who combine these -various functions have been evolved in this fashion. A further step in -their promotion would be taken when the whole sky was assigned to their -dominion. The Greeks and Italians certainly advanced their Zeus and -Jupiter to this lofty position;[1237] but there seems to be no evidence -that the Aryans of the north ever raised their corresponding deities to -the rank of sky-gods in general. It is commonly indeed assumed that the -sky was the original province of all these deities, or rather of the -single Aryan god from which they are descended. But on this theory it is -hard to see why the god of the sky should have taken up with the oak, -and not only that, but should have clung to it even after he had, in -some places at least, begun to sit very loose to his old home, the vault -of heaven. Surely his fidelity to the oak from the earliest to the -latest times among all the different families of his European -worshippers is a strong argument for regarding the tree as the primary, -not a secondary, element in his composite nature. - -Footnote 1111: - - See above, pp. 7 _sq._ - -Footnote 1112: - - J. Geikie, _Prehistoric Europe_ (Edinburgh, 1881), pp. 420 _sq._, 482 - _sqq._, 495. - -Footnote 1113: - - R. Munro, _Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings or Crannogs_ (Edinburgh, - 1882), p. 266, quoting Alton’s _Treatise on the Origin, Qualities, and - Cultivation of Moss Earth_. - -Footnote 1114: - - J. Geikie, _op. cit._ pp. 432-436. - -Footnote 1115: - - J. Geikie, _op. cit._ pp. 461-463. - -Footnote 1116: - - A. von Humboldt, _Kosmos_, i. (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1845) p. 298. - The passage is mistranslated in the English version edited by E. - Sabine. - -Footnote 1117: - - Sir Charles Lyell, _The Geological Evidence of the Antiquity of Man_ - 4th ed., (London, 1873), pp. 8, 17, 415 _sq._; Sir John Lubbock (Lord - Avebury), _Prehistoric Times_ 5th Ed., (London, 1890), pp. 251, 387; - J. Geikie, _op. cit._ pp. 485-487. - -Footnote 1118: - - J. Geikie, _op. cit._ pp. 487 _sq._ - -Footnote 1119: - - J. Geikie, _op. cit._ p. 489. - -Footnote 1120: - - R. Munro, _Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings_, p. 20, quoting the - article “Crannoges” in _Chambers’s Encyclopædia_. - -Footnote 1121: - - R. Munro, _op. cit._ p. 23. For more evidence of the use of oak in - British crannogs, see _id._, _op. cit._ pp. 6-8, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, - 32, 33 _sq._, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 51 _sq._, 53, 61, 62, 97, 122, 208, - 262, 291-299; _id._ _The Lake Dwellings of Europe_ (London, Paris, and - Melbourne, 1890), pp. 350, 364, 372, 377. - -Footnote 1122: - - F. Keller, _The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and other Parts of - Europe_ 2nd Ed., (London, 1878), i. 37, 48, 65, 87, 93, 105, 110, 129, - 156, 186, 194, 201, 214, 264, 268, 289, 300, 320, 375, 382, 434, 438, - 440, 444, 446, 465, 639. - -Footnote 1123: - - F. Keller, _op. cit._ i. 332, 334, 375, 586. - -Footnote 1124: - - W. Helbig, _Die Italiker in der Poebene_ (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 12, 16 - _sq._, 26. The bones of cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep prove that - these animals were bred by the people of the Italian pile villages. - See W. Helbig, _op. cit._ p. 14. - -Footnote 1125: - - Strabo, v. 4. 1, p. 195. - -Footnote 1126: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 5. - -Footnote 1127: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 6 “_Hercyniae silvae roborum vastitas ... - glandiferi maxime generis omnes, quibus honos apud Romanos - perpetuus._” - -Footnote 1128: - - H. Hirt, “Die Urheimat der Indogermanen,” _Indogermanische - Forschungen_, i. (1892), p. 480; P. Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die - Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_ (Göttingen, 1896), p. 81; O. - Schrader, _Reallexikon der Indogermanischen Altertumskunde_, _s.v._ - “Eiche,” p. 164. This etymology assumes that _Hercynia_ represents an - original _Perkunia_, and is connected with the Latin _quercus_. - However, the derivation is not undisputed. See O. Schrader, _op. cit._ - pp. 1015 _sq._ - -Footnote 1129: - - Polybius, ii. 15. Compare Strabo, v. 1. 12, p. 218. - -Footnote 1130: - - Polybius, xii. 4. - -Footnote 1131: - - Strabo, v. 3. 1, p. 228. - -Footnote 1132: - - Diodorus Siculus, iv. 84. - -Footnote 1133: - - Pausanias, viii. 23. 8 _sq._ For notices of forests and groves of oak - in Arcadia and other parts of Greece, see _id._ ii. 11. 4, iii. 10. 6, - vii. 26. 10, viii. 11. 1, viii. 25. 1, viii. 42. 12, viii. 54. 5, ix. - 3. 4, ix. 24. 5. The oaks in the Arcadian forests were of various - species (_id._ viii. 12. 1). - -Footnote 1134: - - C. Neumann und J. Partsch, _Physikalische Geographie von Griechenland_ - (Breslau, 1885), p. 378. - -Footnote 1135: - - _Encyclopædia Britannica_, 9th Ed., xvii. 690. - -Footnote 1136: - - Virgil, _Georg._, i. 7 _sq._, 147-149; Lucretius, v. 939 _sq._, 965; - Tibullus, ii. 1. 37 _sq._, ii. 3. 69; Ovid, _Metam._ i. 106; _id._, - _Fasti_, i. 675 _sq._, iv. 399-402; Juvenal, xiv. 182-184; Aulus - Gellius, v. 6. 12; Dionysius Halicarnas. _Ars rhetorica_, i. 6, vol. - v. p. 230, ed. Reiske; Pollux, i. 234; Poryphry, _De abstinentia_, ii. - 5. - -Footnote 1137: - - Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 232 _sq._ - -Footnote 1138: - - Herodotus, i. 66. - -Footnote 1139: - - Pausanias, viii. 1, 6. According to Pausanias it was only the acorns - of the _phegos_ oak which the Arcadians ate. - -Footnote 1140: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 15. - -Footnote 1141: - - Strabo, iii. 3. 7, p. 155. - -Footnote 1142: - - Pliny, _l.c._ - -Footnote 1143: - - C. Neumann und J. Partsch, _Physikalische Geographie von - Griechenland_, p. 379. - -Footnote 1144: - - C. Neumann and J. Partsch, _op. cit._, p. 382, note. - -Footnote 1145: - - Cervantes, _Don Quixote_, part ii. ch. 50, vol. iv. p. 133 of H. E. - Watts’s translation, with the translator’s note (new edition, London, - 1895); Neumann und Partsch, _op. cit._ p. 380; P. Wagler, _Die Eiche - in alter und neuer Zeit_, i. (Wurzen, 1891) p. 35. The passage in _Don - Quixote_ was pointed out to me by my friend Mr. W. Wyse. - -Footnote 1146: - - _Encyclopædia Britannica_, 9th. Ed., xvii. 692. - -Footnote 1147: - - H. E. Watts, _loc. cit._ - -Footnote 1148: - - _Encyclopædia Britannica_, _l.c._ - -Footnote 1149: - - To avoid misapprehension, I desire to point out that I am not here - concerned with the evolution of Aryan religion in general, but only - with that of a small, though important part of it, to wit, the worship - of a particular kind of tree. To write a general history of Aryan - religion in all its many aspects as a worship of nature, of the dead, - and so forth, would be a task equally beyond my powers and my - ambition. Still less should I dream of writing a universal history of - religion. The “general work” referred to in the preface to the first - edition of _The Golden Bough_ is a book of far humbler scope. - -Footnote 1150: - - For examples of such ceremonies, see above, pp. 18-20, 34-38. - -Footnote 1151: - - For evidence of these aspects of Zeus and Jupiter, see L. Preller, - _Griechische Mythologie_, i. 4th ed., 115 _sqq._; _id._, _Römische - Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., i. 184 _sqq._ In former editions of this book I - was disposed to set aside much too summarily what may be called the - meteorological side of Zeus and Jupiter. - -Footnote 1152: - - See my note on Pausanias, ii. 17. 5; P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter - und neuer Zeit_, ii. (Berlin, 1891), pp. 2 _sqq._; A. B. Cook, “Zeus, - Jupiter, and the Oak,” _Classical Review_, xvii. (1903) pp. 178 _sqq._ - -Footnote 1153: - - Aug. Mommsen, _Delphika_ (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 4 _sq._ - -Footnote 1154: - - Strabo, Frag. vii. 3; Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ Δωδώνη; Suidas, - _s.vv._ Δωδωναῖον χαλκεῖον and Δωδώνη; Apostolius, _Cent._ vi. 43; - Zenobius, _Cent._ vi. 5; Nonnus Abbas, _Ad S. Gregorii orat. ii. - contra Julianum_, 19 (Migne’s _Patrologia Graeca_, xxxvi. 1045). The - evidence on this subject has been collected and discussed by Mr. A. B. - Cook (“The Gong at Dodona,” _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxii. - (1902) pp. 5-28). The theory in the text is obviously consistent, both - with the statement that the sound of the gongs was consulted as - oracular, and with the view, advocated by Mr. Cook, that it was - supposed to avert evil influences from the sanctuary. If I am right, - the bronze statuette which, according to some accounts, produced the - sound by striking the gong with a clapper would represent Zeus himself - making his thunder. - -Footnote 1155: - - On the natural surroundings of Dodona, see C. Carapanos, _Dodone et - ses ruines_ (Paris, 1878), pp. 7-10. - -Footnote 1156: - - Above, pp. 140 _sq._ - -Footnote 1157: - - Above, vol. i. p. 309. On the oak as the tree of Zeus, see Dionysius - Halicarn. _Ars rhetorica_, i. 6, vol. v. p. 230 ed. Reiske; Schol. on - Aristophanes, _Birds_, 480. On this subject much evidence, both - literary and monumental, has been collected by Mr. A. B. Cook in his - articles “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” _Classical Review_, xvii. - (1903) pp. 174 _sqq._, 268 _sqq._, 403 _sqq._, xviii. (1904) pp. 75 - _sqq._, 327 _sq._ - -Footnote 1158: - - Pausanias, i. 24. 3. - -Footnote 1159: - - Marcus Antoninus, v. 7. - -Footnote 1160: - - Theophrastus, _De signis tempestatum_, i. 24. - -Footnote 1161: - - Pausanias, i. 30. 4. - -Footnote 1162: - - Pausanias, ii. 29. 7 _sq._; Isocrates, _Evagoras_, 14; Apollodorus, - iii. 12. 6. Aeacus was said to be the son of Zeus by Aegina, daughter - of Asopus (Apollodorus, _l.c._). Isocrates says that his relationship - to the god marked Aeacus out as the man to procure rain. - -Footnote 1163: - - Theophrastus, _De signis tempestatum_, i. 20, compare 24. - -Footnote 1164: - - Theophrastus, _op. cit._ iii. 43. - -Footnote 1165: - - Pausanias, i. 32. 2. - -Footnote 1166: - - Theophrastus, _op. cit._ iii. 43 and 47. Compare Aristophanes, - _Clouds_, 324 _sq._; Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ Πάρνης. - -Footnote 1167: - - Pausanias, i. 32. 2. - -Footnote 1168: - - Pausanias, ii. 25. 10. As to the climate and scenery of these barren - mountains, see A. Philippson, _Der Peloponnes_ (Berlin, 1891), pp. 43 - _sq._, 65. - -Footnote 1169: - - Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 48. - -Footnote 1170: - - Paton and Hicks, _The Inscriptions of Cos_ (Oxford, 1891), No. 382; - Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_, 2nd Ed., No. 735. - There were altars of Rainy Zeus also at Argos and Lebadea. See - Pausanias, ii. 19. 8, ix. 39. 4. - -Footnote 1171: - - Ἐπικάρπιος μὲν ἀπὸ τῶν καρπῶν, Aristotle, _De mundo_, 7, p. 401 a, ed. - Bekker; Plutarch, _De Stoicorum repugnantiis_, xxx. 8. - -Footnote 1172: - - _Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum_, iii. No. 77; E. S. Roberts, - _Introduction to Greek Epigraphy_, ii. No. 142, p. 387; Ch. Michel, - _Recueil d’inscriptions grecques_, No. 692; L. R. Farnell, _Cults of - the Greek States_, i. 66 and 172. - -Footnote 1173: - - Hesiod, _Theogony_, 71 _sq._; L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_, - 4th ed., i. 119. - -Footnote 1174: - - Pausanias, v. 14. 7; H. Roehl, _Inscriptiones Graecae antiquissimae_ - (Berlin, 1882), No. 101; Fränkel, _Inschriften von Pergamon_, i. No. - 232; Joannes Malalas, _Chronographia_, viii. p. 199, ed. L. Dindorf. - -Footnote 1175: - - Strabo, ix. 2. 11, p. 404. - -Footnote 1176: - - Pollux, ix. 41; Hesychius, _s.v._ ἠλύσιον; _Etymologicum Magnum_, p. - 341. 8 _sqq._; Artemidorus, _Onirocrit._ 11. 9; Pausanias, v. 14. 10; - Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_, 2nd Ed., No. 577, - with Dittenberger’s note. - -Footnote 1177: - - See above, p. 177. - -Footnote 1178: - - See above, vol. i. p. 310. - -Footnote 1179: - - See above, vol. i. p. 366. - -Footnote 1180: - - For more evidence that the old Greek kings regularly personified Zeus, - see Mr. A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-god,” _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) - pp. 299 _sqq._ - -Footnote 1181: - - Virgil. _Georg._ iii. 332, with Servius’s note; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ - xii. 3. - -Footnote 1182: - - As to the oak of Jupiter on the Capitol and the god’s oak crown, see - above, p. 176. With regard to the Capitoline worship of Thundering - Jupiter, see Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 21, xxxiv. 10 and 79, xxxvi. 50. - He was worshipped in many places besides Rome as the god of thunder - and lightning. See Festus, p. 229, ed. C. O. Müller; Apuleius, _De - mundo_, xxxvii. 371; H. Dessau, _Inscriptones Latinae selectae_, Nos. - 3044-3053. - -Footnote 1183: - - Petronius, _Sat._ 44. That the slope mentioned by Petronius was the - Capitoline one is made highly probable by a passage of Tertullian - (_Apologeticus_ 40: “_Aquilicia Jovi immolatis, nudipedalia populo - denuntiatis, coelum apud Capitolium quaeritis, nubila de laquearibus - exspectatis_”). The church father’s scorn for the ceremony contrasts - with the respect, perhaps the mock respect, testified for it by the - man in Petronius. The epithets Rainy and Showery are occasionally - applied to Jupiter. See Tibullus, i. 7. 26; Apuleius, _De mundo_, - xxxvii. 371; H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae selectae_, No. 3043. - -Footnote 1184: - - H. Dessau, _op. cit._ No. 3042; Apuleius, _l.c._ - -Footnote 1185: - - Apuleius, _l.c._, “_Plures eum Frugiferum vocant_”; H. Dessau, _op. - cit._ No. 3017. - -Footnote 1186: - - On this subject see H. Munro Chadwick, “The Oak and the Thunder-god,” - _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxx. (1900) pp. 22-42. - -Footnote 1187: - - Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 249. - -Footnote 1188: - - Maximus Tyrius, _Dissert._ viii. 8. H. D’Arbois de Jubainville - supposed that by Celts the writer here meant Germans (_Cours de la - littérature celtique_, i. 121 _sqq._). This was not the view of J. - Grimm, to whose authority D’Arbois de Jubainville appealed. Grimm says - that what Maximus Tyrius affirms of the Celts might be applied to the - Germans (_Deutsche Mythologie_, 4th ed., i. 55), which is quite a - different thing. - -Footnote 1189: - - Strabo, xii. 5. 1, p. 567. As to the meaning of the name see (Sir) J. - Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, p. 221; H. F. Tozer, _Selections from - Strabo_, p. 284. On the Galatian language see above, p. 126, note 2. - -Footnote 1190: - - G. Curtius, _Griech. Etymologie_, 5th Ed., pp. 238 _sq._; J. Rhys, - _op. cit._ pp. 221 _sq._; P. Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die - Geschichte der griech. Sprache_, p. 81. Compare A. Vanicek, - _Griechisch-lateinisch. etymologisches Wörterbuch_, pp. 368-370. - Oak in old Irish is _daur_, in modern Irish _dair_, _darach_, in - Gaelic _darach_. See G. Curtius, _l.c._; A. Macbain, _Etymological - Dictionary of the Gaelic Language_ (Inverness, 1896), _s.v._ - “Darach.” On this view Pliny was substantially right (_Nat. Hist._ - xvi. 249) in connecting Druid with the Greek _drus_, “oak,” though - the name was not derived from the Greek. However, this derivation - of Druid has been doubted or rejected by some scholars. See H. - D’Arbois de Jubainville, _Cours de la littérature celtique_, i. - (Paris, 1883), pp. 117 _sqq._; O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der - indogermanischen Altertumskunde_, pp. 638 _sq._ - -Footnote 1191: - - See above, p. 242. - -Footnote 1192: - - The Gael’s “faith in druidism was never suddenly undermined; for in - the saints he only saw more powerful druids than those he had - previously known, and Christ took the position in his eyes of the - druid κατ’ ἐξοχήν. Irish druidism absorbed a certain amount of - Christianity; and it would be a problem of considerable difficulty to - fix on the point where it ceased to be druidism, and from which - onwards it could be said to be Christianity in any restricted sense of - that term” (J. Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, p. 224). - -Footnote 1193: - - P. W. Joyce, _Social History of Ancient Ireland_, i. 236. - -Footnote 1194: - - J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, 4th ed., i. 55 _sq._ Tacitus often - mentions the sacred groves of the Germans, but never specifies the - kinds of trees of which they were composed. See _Annals_, ii. 12, iv. - 73; _Histor._ iv. 14; _Germania_, 7, 9, 39, 40, 43. - -Footnote 1195: - - J. Grimm, _op. cit._ ii. 542. - -Footnote 1196: - - Willibald’s _Life of S. Boniface_, in Pertz’s _Monumenta Germaniae - historica_, ii. 343 _sq._; J. Grimm, _op. cit._ i. pp. 58, 142. - -Footnote 1197: - - J. Grimm, _op. cit._ i. 157. Prof. E. Maass supposes that the - identification of Donar or Thunar with Jupiter was first made in Upper - Germany between the Vosges mountains and the Black Forest. See his - work _Die Tagesgötter_ (Berlin, 1902), p. 280. - -Footnote 1198: - - Adam of Bremen, _Descriptio insularum Aquilonis_, 26 (Migne’s - _Patrologia Latina_, cxlvi. col. 643). - -Footnote 1199: - - Adam of Bremen, _l.c._ - -Footnote 1200: - - E. H. Meyer, _Mythologie des Germanen_ (Strasburg, 1903), p. 290. - -Footnote 1201: - - Adam of Bremen, _op. cit._ 26, 27, with the Scholia (Migne’s - _Patrologia Latina_, cxlvi. coll. 642-644). - -Footnote 1202: - - J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, 4th ed., i. 142 _sq._; L. Leger, _La - Mythologie slave_ (Paris, 1901), pp. 54-76. - -Footnote 1203: - - L. Leger, _op. cit._ pp. 57 _sq._, translating Guagnini’s _Sarmatiae - Europaeae descriptio_ (1578). The passage is quoted in the original by - Chr. Hartknoch (_Alt- und neues Preussen_, Frankfort and Leipsic, - 1684, p. 132), who rightly assigns the work to Strykowski, not - Guagnini. See W. Mannhardt, in _Magazin herausgegeben von der - Lettisch-Literarischen Gesellschaft_, xiv. (1868) pp. 105 _sq._ - -Footnote 1204: - - Procopius, _De bello Gothico_, iii. 14 (vol. ii. p. 357, ed. J. - Haury). - -Footnote 1205: - - Matthias Michov, “De Sarmatia Asiana atque Europea,” in Simon - Grynaeus’s _Novus Orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum_ - (Paris, 1532), p. 457; _id._, in J. Pistorius’s _Polonicae historiae - corpus_ (Bâle, 1582), i. 144; Martin Cromer, _De origine et rebus - gestis Polonorum_ (Bâle, 1568), p. 241; J. Maeletius (Menecius, Ian - Malecki), “De sacrificiis et idolatria veterum Borussorum, Livonum, - aliarumque vicinarum gentium,” _Scriptores rerum Livonicarum_, ii. - (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) p. 390; _id._, in _Mitteilungen der - Litterarischen Gesellschaft Masovia_, Heft 8 (Lötzen, 1902), p. 187; - Chr. Hartknoch, _Alt- und neues Preussen_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, - 1684), pp. 131 _sqq._; S. Rostowski, quoted by A. Brückner, _Archiv - für slavische Philologie_, ix. (1886) pp. 32, 35; M. Töppen, - _Geschichte der preussischen Historiographie_ (Berlin, 1853), p. 190 - (“_Perkunos ist in allen andern Ueberlieferungen so gross und hehr, - wie nur immer der griechische und römische Donnergott, und kein - anderer der Götter darf sich ihm gleich stellen. Er ist der Hauptgott, - wie nach andern Berichten in Preussen, so auch in Litthauen und - Livland_”); Schleicher, “Lituanica,” _Sitzungsberichte der - philosoph.-histor. Classe d. kais. Akademie d. Wissen._ (Vienna), xi. - (1853 pub. 1854) p. 96; H. Usener, _Götternamen_ (Bonn, 1896), p. 97. - -Footnote 1206: - - M. Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_ (Berlin, 1871), pp. 19 _sq._; S. - Rostowski, _op. cit._ pp. 34, 35. On the sacred oaks of the - Lithuanians see Chr. Hartknoch, _op. cit._ pp. 117 _sqq._; Tettau und - Temme, _Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens_, pp. - 19-22, 35-38. - -Footnote 1207: - - M. Praetorius, _l.c._; S. Grunau, _Preussische Chronik_, ed. M. - Perlbach, i. (Leipsic, 1876) p. 78 (ii. tract. cap. v. § 2). The - chronicler, Simon Grunau, lived as an itinerant Dominican friar at the - beginning of the sixteenth century in the part of Prussia which had - been ceded to Poland. He brought his history, composed in somewhat - rustic German, down to 1529. His familiar intercourse with the lowest - classes of the people enabled him to learn much as to their old - heathen customs and superstitions; but his good faith has been doubted - or denied. In particular, his description of the images of the three - gods in the great oak at Romove has been regarded with suspicion or - denounced as a figment. See Chr. Hartknoch, _op. cit._ pp. 127 _sqq._; - M. Toeppen, _op. cit._ pp. 122 _sqq._, 190 _sqq._; M. Perlbach’s - preface to his edition of Grunau; H. Usener, _Götternamen_, p. 83. But - his account of the sanctity of the oak, and of the perpetual sacred - fire of oak-wood, may be accepted, since it is confirmed by other - authorities. Thus, according to Malecki, a perpetual fire was kept up - by a priest in honour of Perkunas (Pargnus) on the top of a mountain, - which stood beside the river Neuuassa (Niewiaza, a tributary of the - Niemen). See Malecki (Maeletius, Menecius), _op. cit._, _Scriptores - rerum Livonicarum_, ii. 391; _id._, _Mitteilungen der Litterarischen - Gesellschaft Masovia_, Heft 8 (Lötzen, 1902), p. 187. Again, the - Jesuit S. Rostowski says that the Lithuanians maintained a perpetual - sacred fire in honour of Perkunas in the woods (quoted by A. Brückner, - _Archiv für slavische Philologie_, ix. (1886) p. 33). Malecki and - Rostowski do not mention that the fire was kindled with oak-wood, but - this is expressly stated by M. Praetorius, and is, besides, - intrinsically probable, since the oak was sacred to Perkunas. - Moreover, the early historian, Peter of Dusburg, who dedicated his - chronicle of Prussia to the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights in - 1326, informs us that the high-priest of the nation, whom the - Prussians revered as a pope, kept up a perpetual fire at Romow, which - is doubtless the same with the Romowo or Romewo of Grunau - (_Preussische Chronik_, pp. 80, 81, compare p. 62, ed. M. Perlbach). - See P. de Dusburg, _Chronicon Prussiae_, ed. Chr. Hartknoch (Frankfort - and Leipsic, 1679), p. 79. Martin Cromer says that the Lithuanians - “worshipped fire as a god, and kept it perpetually burning in the more - frequented places and towns” (_De origine et rebus gestis Polonorum_, - Bâle, 1568, p. 241). Romow or Romowo is more commonly known as Romove. - Its site is very uncertain. See Chr. Hartknoch, _Alt- und neues - Preussen_, pp. 122 _sqq._ Grunau’s account of Romove and its sacred - oak, with the images of the three gods in it and the fire of oak-wood - burning before it, is substantially repeated by Alex. Guagnini. See J. - Pistorius, _Polonicae historiae corpus_ (Bâle, 1582), i. 52; - _Respublica sive status regni Poloniae, Lituaniae, Prussiae, - Livoniae_, etc. (Leyden, 1627), pp. 321 _sq._ I do not know whether - the chronicler, Simon Grunau, is the same with Simon Grynaeus, editor - of the _Novus Orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum_, - which was published at Paris in 1532. - -Footnote 1208: - - S. Rostowski, _op. cit._ p. 35. - -Footnote 1209: - - D. Fabricius, “De cultu, religione et moribus incolarum Livoniae,” - _Scriptores rerum Livonicarum_, ii. 441. Malecki (Maeletius) also says - that Perkunas was prayed to for rain. See _Mitteilungen der - Litterarischen Gesellschaft Masovia_, Heft 8 (Lötzen, 1902), p. 201. - -Footnote 1210: - - According to Prof. H. Hirt, the name Perkunas means “the oak-god,” - being derived from the same root _querq_, which appears in the Latin - _quercus_ “oak,” the _Hercynian_ forest, the Norse god and goddess - _Fjörygn_, and the Indian _Parjanya_, the Vedic god of thunder and - rain. See H. Hirt, “Die Urheimat der Indogermanen,” _Indogermanische - Forschungen_, i. (1892) pp. 479 _sqq._; _id._, _Die Indogermanen_ - (Strasburg, 1905-1907), ii. 507; P. Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die - Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_, pp. 81 _sq._ The identity of the - names Perkunas and Parjanya had been maintained long before by G. - Bühler, though he did not connect the words with _quercus_. See his - article, “On the Hindu god Parjanya,” _Transactions of the (London) - Philological Society_, 1859, pp. 154-168. As to Parjanya, see below, - pp. 368 _sq._ - -Footnote 1211: - - Fr. Kreutzwald und H. Neus, _Mythische und magische Lieder der Ehsten_ - (St. Petersburg, 1854), pp. 16, 26, 27, 56, 57, 104; F. J. Wiedemann, - _Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten_, pp. 427, 438. - Sometimes, however, a special thunder-god Kou, Koo, Piker or Pikne is - distinguished from Taara (Tar). See F. J. Wiedemann, _op. cit._ p. - 427; Kreutzwald und Neus, _op. cit._ pp. 12 _sq._ - -Footnote 1212: - - Boecler-Kreutzwald, _Der Ehsten abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und - Gewohnheiten_ (St. Petersburg, 1854), p. 2. - -Footnote 1213: - - J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, 4th ed., i. 146. - -Footnote 1214: - - F. J. Wiedemann, _op. cit._ p. 427. - -Footnote 1215: - - See above, p. 367, note 3. - -Footnote 1216: - - _Rigveda_, Book v. Hymn 83, R. T. H. Griffith’s translation (Benares, - 1889-1892), vol. ii. pp. 299 _sq._ - -Footnote 1217: - - _Rigveda_, Book vii. Hymn 101, Griffith’s translation (vol. iii. pp. - 123 _sq._). - -Footnote 1218: - - _Rigveda_, Book vii. Hymn 102, Griffith’s translation (vol. iii. p. - 124). On Parjanya see further G. Bühler, “On the Hindu god - _Parjanya_,” _Transactions of the (London) Philological Society_, - 1859, pp. 154-168; _id._ in _Orient und Occident_, i. (1862) pp. - 214-229; J. Muir, _Original Sanscrit Texts_, v. 140-142; H. Oldenberg, - _Die Religion des Veda_, p. 226; A. Macdonnell, _Vedic Mythology_, pp. - 83-85. - -Footnote 1219: - - G. Bühler, _op. cit._ p. 161. - -Footnote 1220: - - L. H. Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_ (Rochester, 1851), pp. 157 - _sq._ - -Footnote 1221: - - J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 424-427. - -Footnote 1222: - - E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i. (Oxford, - 1892) pp. 407 _sq._ - -Footnote 1223: - - N. Seidlitz, “Die Abchasen,” _Globus_, lxvi. (1894) p. 73. - -Footnote 1224: - - P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_, ii. (Berlin, 1891) p. - 37. - -Footnote 1225: - - J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, 4th ed., i. 59. - -Footnote 1226: - - P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_, i. (Wurzen, 1891) pp. - 21-23. For many more survivals of oak-worship in Germany see P. - Wagler, _op. cit._ ii. 40 _sqq._ - -Footnote 1227: - - M. Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_ (Berlin, 1871), p. 16. - -Footnote 1228: - - J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and - Leipsic, 1841), ii. 31; compare 33. - -Footnote 1229: - - Schleicher, “Lituanica,” _Sitzungsberichte der philos.-histor. Classe - der kais. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, xi. (1853, pub. 1854) p. 100. - -Footnote 1230: - - James Piggul, steward of the estate of Panikovitz, in a report to - Baron de Bogouschefsky, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, - iii. (1874) pp. 274 _sq._ - -Footnote 1231: - - The evidence will be given later on, when we come to deal with the - fire-festivals of Europe. Meantime I may refer the reader to _The - Golden Bough_, Second Edition, iii. 347 _sqq._, where, however, the - statement as to the universal use of oak-wood in kindling the - need-fire is too absolute, exceptions having since come to my - knowledge. These will be noticed in the third edition of that part of - _The Golden Bough_. - -Footnote 1232: - - See above, pp. 186, 365, 366. - -Footnote 1233: - - The only positive evidence, so far as I know, that the Celtic oak-god - was also a deity of thunder and rain is his identification with Zeus - (see above, p. 362). But the analogy of the Greeks, Italians, Teutons, - Slavs, and Lithuanians may be allowed to supply the lack of more - definite testimony. - -Footnote 1234: - - It is said to have been observed that lightning strikes an oak twenty - times for once that it strikes a beech (J. Grimm, _Deutsche - Mythologie_, 4th ed., iii. 64). But even if this observation were - correct, we could not estimate its worth unless we knew the - comparative frequency of oaks and beeches in the country where it was - made. The Greeks observed that a certain species of oak, which they - called _haliphloios_, or sea-bark, was often struck by lightning - though it did not grow to a great height; but far from regarding it as - thereby marked out for the service of the god they abstained from - using its wood in the sacrificial rites. See Theophrastus, _Histor. - plant._ iii. 8. 5; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 24. - -Footnote 1235: - - M. Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_, p. 90. - -Footnote 1236: - - E. B. Tylor, _Early History of Mankind_, 3rd Ed., pp. 223-227. For - more evidence of this wide-spread belief see M. Baudrouin et L. - Bonnemère, “Les Haches polies dans l’histoire jusqu’au XIXe siècle,” - _Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_, Ve - Série, v. (1904) pp. 496-548; Lieut. Boyd Alexander, “From the Niger, - by Lake Chad, to the Nile,” _The Geographical Journal_, xxx. (1907) - pp. 144 _sq._; A. B. Ellis, _Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, - pp. 37 _sq._; H. Seidel, “Der Yew’e Dienst im Togolande,” _Zeitschrift - für afrikanische und oceanischen Sprachen_, iii. (1897) p. 161; H. - Klose, _Togo unter deutscher Flagge_, pp. 197 _sq._; L. Conradt, “Die - Ngumbu in Südkamerun,” _Globus_, lxxxi. (1902) p. 353; Guerlach, - “Mœurs et superstitions des sauvages Ba-hnars,” _Missions - Catholiques_, xix. (1887) pp. 442, 454; J. A. Jacobsen, _Reisen in die - Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres_ (Berlin, 1896), pp. 49 _sq._, 232; C. - Ribbe, “Die Aru-Inseln,” _Festschrift des Vereins für Erdkunde zu - Dresden_ (Dresden, 1888), p. 165; E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in - Southern India_, p. 351; Rev. P. O. Bodding, “Ancient Stone Implements - in the Santal Parganas,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, - lxx. Part iii. (1901) pp. 17-20; E. M. Gordon, _Indian Folk-tales_ - (London, 1908), p. 75; _County Folk-lore, III. Orkney and Shetland - Islands_, collected by G. F. Black (London, 1903), p. 153; P. Hermann, - _Nordische Mythologie_, pp. 339 _sq._, 352; M. Toeppen, _Aberglauben - aus Masuren_ 2nd Ed., (Danzig, 1867), pp. 42 _sq._ Dr. E. B. Tylor has - pointed out how natural to the primitive mind is the association of - spark-producing stones with lightning (_Primitive Culture_, 2nd Ed., - ii. 262). - -Footnote 1237: - - L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_, 4th ed., i. 116 _sq._; _id._, - _Römische Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., i. 184 _sqq._ As to Jupiter see in - particular Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vii. 19, “_Coelum enim esse - Jovem innumerabiliter et diligenter affirmant_”; and Ennius, quoted by - Cicero, _De natura deorum_, ii. 25, 65, “_Aspice hoc sublimen candens, - quem invocant omnes Jovem_.” - - - - - CHAPTER XXI - DIANUS AND DIANA - - -[Sidenote: Recapitulation.] In this chapter I propose to recapitulate -the conclusions to which the enquiry has thus far led us, and drawing -together the scattered rays of light, to turn them on the dark figure of -the priest of Nemi. - -[Sidenote: Rise of sacred kings, who are supposed to be endowed with -magical or divine powers.] We have found that at an early stage of -society men, ignorant of the secret processes of Nature and of the -narrow limits within which it is in our power to control and direct -them, have commonly arrogated to themselves functions which in the -present state of knowledge we should deem superhuman or divine. The -illusion has been fostered and maintained by the same causes which begot -it, namely, the marvellous order and uniformity with which Nature -conducts her operations, the wheels of her great machine revolving with -a smoothness and precision which enable the patient observer to -anticipate in general the season, if not the very hour, when they will -bring round the fulfilment of his hopes or the accomplishment of his -fears. The regularly recurring events of this great cycle, or rather -series of cycles, soon stamp themselves even on the dull mind of the -savage. He foresees them, and foreseeing them mistakes the desired -recurrence for an effect of his own will, and the dreaded recurrence for -an effect of the will of his enemies. Thus the springs which set the -vast machine in motion, though they lie far beyond our ken, shrouded in -a mystery which we can never hope to penetrate, appear to ignorant man -to lie within his reach: he fancies he can touch them and so work by -magic art all manner of good to himself and evil to his foes. In time -the fallacy of this belief becomes apparent to him: he discovers that -there are things he cannot do, pleasures which he is unable of himself -to procure, pains which even the most potent magician is powerless to -avoid. The unattainable good, the inevitable ill, are now ascribed by -him to the action of invisible powers, whose favour is joy and life, -whose anger is misery and death. Thus magic tends to be displaced by -[Sidenote: Transition from magic to religion.] religion, and the -sorcerer by the priest. At this stage of thought the ultimate causes of -things are conceived to be personal beings, many in number and often -discordant in character, who partake of the nature and even of the -frailty of man, though their might is greater than his, and their life -far exceeds the span of his ephemeral existence. Their sharply-marked -individualities, their clear-cut outlines have not yet begun, under the -powerful solvent of philosophy, to melt and coalesce into that single -unknown substratum of phenomena which, according to the qualities with -which our imagination invests it, goes by one or other of the -high-sounding names which the wit of man has devised to hide his -ignorance. Accordingly, so long as men look on their gods as beings akin -to themselves and not raised to an unapproachable height above them, -they believe it to be possible for those of their own number who surpass -their fellows to attain to the divine rank after death or even in life. -Incarnate human deities of this latter sort may be said [Sidenote: -Incarnate human deities.] to halt midway between the age of magic and -the age of religion. If they bear the names and display the pomp of -deities, the powers which they are supposed to wield are commonly those -of their predecessor the magician. Like him, they are expected to guard -their people against hostile enchantments, to heal them in sickness, to -bless them with offspring, and to provide them with an abundant supply -of food by regulating the weather and performing the other ceremonies -which are deemed necessary to ensure the fertility of the earth and the -multiplication of animals. Men who are credited with powers so lofty and -far-reaching naturally hold the highest place in the land, and while the -rift between the spiritual and the temporal spheres has not yet widened -too far, they are supreme in civil as well as religious matters: in a -word, they are kings as well as gods. Thus the divinity which hedges a -king has its roots deep down in human history, and long ages pass before -these are sapped by a profounder view of nature and man. - -[Sidenote: The King of the Wood at Nemi seems to have been one of these -divine kings and to have mated with the divine Queen of the Wood, -Diana.] In the classical period of Greek and Latin antiquity the reign -of kings was for the most part a thing of the past; yet the stories of -their lineage, titles, and pretensions suffice to prove that they too -claimed to rule by divine right and to exercise superhuman powers. Hence -we may without undue temerity assume that the King of the Wood at Nemi, -though shorn in later times of his glory and fallen on evil days, -represented a long line of sacred kings who had once received not only -the homage but the adoration of their subjects in return for the -manifold blessings which they were supposed to dispense. What little we -know of the functions of Diana in the Arician grove seems to prove that -she was here conceived as a goddess of fertility, and particularly as a -divinity of childbirth.[1238] It is reasonable, therefore, to suppose -that in the discharge of these important duties she was assisted by her -priest, the two figuring as King and Queen of the Wood in a solemn -marriage, which was intended to make the earth gay with the blossoms of -spring and the fruits of autumn, and to gladden the hearts of men and -women with healthful offspring. - -[Sidenote: Virbius, whom the King of the Wood represented, was probably -a form of Jupiter regarded as god of the greenwood, and especially of -the oak.] If the priest of Nemi posed not merely as a king, but as a god -of the grove, we have still to ask, What deity in particular did he -personate? The answer of antiquity is that he represented Virbius, the -consort or lover of Diana.[1239] But this does not help us much, for of -Virbius we know little more than the name. A clue to the mystery is -perhaps supplied by the Vestal fire which burned in the grove.[1240] For -the perpetual holy fires of the Aryans in Europe appear to have been -commonly kindled and fed with oak-wood,[1241] and we have seen that in -Rome itself, not many miles from Nemi, the fuel of the Vestal fire -consisted of oaken sticks or logs, which in early days the holy maidens -doubtless gathered or cut in the coppices of oak that once covered the -Seven Hills.[1242] But the ritual of the various Latin towns seems to -have been marked by great uniformity;[1243] hence it is reasonable to -conclude that wherever in Latium a Vestal fire was maintained, it was -fed, as at Rome, with wood of the sacred oak. If this was so at Nemi, it -becomes probable that the hallowed grove there consisted of a natural -oak-wood, and that therefore the tree which the King of the Wood had to -guard at the peril of his life was itself an oak; indeed it was from an -evergreen oak, according to Virgil, that Aeneas plucked the Golden -Bough.[1244] Now the oak was the sacred tree of Jupiter, the supreme god -of the Latins. Hence it follows that the King of the Wood, whose life -was bound up in a fashion with an oak, personated no less a deity than -Jupiter himself. At least the evidence, slight as it is, seems to point -to this conclusion. The old Alban dynasty of the Silvii or Woods, with -their crown of oak leaves, apparently aped the style and emulated the -powers of Latian Jupiter, who dwelt on the top of the Alban Mount.[1245] -It is not impossible that the King of the Wood, who guarded the sacred -oak a little lower down the mountain, was the lawful successor and -representative of this ancient line of the Silvii or Woods.[1246] At all -events, if I am right in supposing that he passed for a human Jupiter, -it would appear that Virbius, with whom legend identified him, was -nothing but a local form of Jupiter, considered perhaps in his original -aspect as a god of the greenwood.[1247] - -[Sidenote: Diana and the oak.] The hypothesis that in later times at all -events the King of the Wood played the part of the oak god Jupiter, is -confirmed by an examination of his divine partner Diana. [Sidenote: -Diana, the divine partner of the King of the Wood at Nemi, seems to have -been especially associated with the oak.] For two distinct lines of -argument converge to shew that if Diana was a queen of the woods in -general, she was at Nemi a goddess of the oak in particular. In the -first place, she bore the title of Vesta, and as such presided over a -perpetual fire, which we have seen reason to believe was fed with oak -wood.[1248] But a goddess of fire is not far removed from a goddess of -the fuel which burns in the fire; primitive thought perhaps drew no -sharp line of distinction between the blaze and the wood that blazes. In -the second place, the nymph Egeria at Nemi appears to have been merely a -form of Diana, and Egeria is definitely said to have been a Dryad, a -nymph of the oak.[1249] Elsewhere in Italy the goddess had her home on -oak-clad mountains. Thus Mount Algidus, a spur of the Alban hills, was -covered in antiquity with dark forests of oak, both of the evergreen and -the deciduous sort. In winter the snow lay long on these cold hills, and -their gloomy oak-woods were believed to be a favourite haunt of Diana, -as they have been of brigands in modern times.[1250] Again, Mount -Tifata, the long abrupt ridge of the Apennines which looks down on the -Campanian plain behind Capua, was wooded of old with evergreen oaks, -among which Diana had a temple. Here Sulla thanked the goddess for his -victory over the Marians in the plain below, attesting his gratitude by -inscriptions which were long afterwards to be seen in the temple.[1251] -On the whole, then, we conclude that at Nemi the King of the Wood -personated the oak-god Jupiter and mated with the oak-goddess Diana in -the sacred grove. An echo of their mystic union has come down to us in -the legend of the loves of Numa and Egeria, who according to some had -their trysting-place in these holy woods.[1252] - -[Sidenote: In nature and in name Dianus (Janus) and Diana seem to be -only dialectically different forms of Jupiter and Juno.] To this theory -it may naturally be objected that the divine consort of Jupiter was not -Diana but Juno, and that if Diana had a mate at all he might be expected -to bear the name not of Jupiter, but of Dianus or Janus, the latter of -these forms being merely a corruption of the former. All this is true, -but the objection may be parried by observing that the two pairs of -deities, Jupiter and Juno on the one side, and Dianus and Diana, or -Janus and Jana, on the other side, are merely duplicates of each other, -their names and their functions being in substance and origin identical. -With regard to their names, all four of them come from the same Aryan -root _DI_, meaning “bright,” which occurs in the names of the -corresponding Greek deities, Zeus and his old female consort -Dione.[1253] In regard to their functions, Juno and Diana were both -goddesses of fecundity and childbirth, and both were sooner or later -identified with the moon.[1254] As to the true nature and functions of -Janus the ancients themselves were puzzled;[1255] and where they -hesitated, it is not for us confidently to decide. But the view -mentioned by Varro that Janus was the god of the sky[1256] is supported -not only by the etymological identity of his name with that of the -sky-god Jupiter, but also by the relation in which he appears to have -stood to Jupiter’s two mates, Juno and Juturna. For the epithet Junonian -bestowed on Janus[1257] points to a marriage union between the two -deities; and according to one account Janus was the husband of the -water-nymph Juturna,[1258] who according to others was beloved by -Jupiter.[1259] Moreover, Janus, like Jove, was regularly invoked, and -commonly spoken of, under the title of Father.[1260] Indeed, he was -identified with Jupiter not merely by the logic of a Christian -doctor,[1261] but by the piety of a pagan worshipper who dedicated an -offering to Jupiter Dianus.[1262] A trace of his relation to the oak may -be found in the oak-woods of the Janiculum, the hill on the right bank -of the Tiber, where Janus is said to have reigned as a king in the -remotest ages of Italian history.[1263] - -[Sidenote: Zeus and Dione, Jupiter and Juno, Dianus (Janus) and Diana -represent a single original pair of Aryan deities, which through purely -dialectical differences of nomenclature gradually diverged from each -other and came to be regarded as separate pairs of deities.] Thus, if I -am right, the same ancient pair of deities was variously known among the -Greek and Italian peoples as Zeus and Dione, Jupiter and Juno, or Dianus -(Janus) and Diana (Jana), the names of the divinities being identical in -substance, though varying in form with the dialect of the particular -tribe which worshipped them. At first, when the peoples dwelt near each -other, the difference between the deities would be hardly more than one -of name; in other words, it would be almost purely dialectical. But the -gradual dispersion of the tribes, and their consequent isolation from -each other, would favour the growth of divergent modes of conceiving and -worshipping the gods whom they had carried with them from their old -home, so that in time discrepancies of myth and ritual would tend to -spring up and thereby to convert a nominal into a real distinction -between the divinities. Accordingly when, with the slow progress of -culture, the long period of barbarism and separation was passing away, -and the rising political power of a single strong community had begun to -draw or hammer its weaker neighbours into a nation, the confluent -peoples would throw their gods, like their dialects, into a common -stock; and thus it might come about that the same ancient deities, which -their forefathers had worshipped together before the dispersion, would -now be so disguised by the accumulated effect of dialectical and -religious divergencies that their original identity might fail to be -recognised, and they would take their places side by side as independent -divinities in the national pantheon.[1264] - -[Sidenote: This explanation of Janus as equivalent to Jupiter is more -probable than the view that Janus was originally nothing but the god of -the door (_janua_); for the door (_janua_) seems rather to have been -named after Janus than he after it.] This duplication of deities, the -result of the final fusion of kindred tribes who had long lived apart, -would account for the appearance of Janus beside Jupiter, and of Diana -or Jana beside Juno in the Roman religion.[1265] At least this appears -to be a more probable theory than the opinion, which has found favour -with some modern scholars, that Janus was originally nothing but the god -of doors.[1266] That a deity of his dignity and importance, whom the -Romans revered as a god of gods[1267] and the father of his people, -should have started in life as a humble, though doubtless respectable, -doorkeeper appears to me, I confess, very unlikely. So lofty an end -hardly consorts with so lowly a beginning. It is more probable that the -door (_janua_) got its name from Janus than that he got his name from -it. This view is strengthened by a consideration of the word _janua_ -itself. The regular word for door is the same in all the languages of -the Aryan family from India to Ireland. It is _dur_ in Sanscrit, _thura_ -in Greek, _Tür_ in German, _door_ in English, _dorus_ in old Irish, and -_foris_ in Latin.[1268] Yet besides this ordinary name for door, which -the Latins shared with all their Aryan brethren, they had also the name -_janua_, to which there is no corresponding term in any Indo-European -speech. The word has the appearance of being an adjectival form derived -from the noun _Janus_. I conjecture that it may have been customary to -set up an image or symbol of Janus at the principal door of the house in -order to place the entrance under the protection of the great god. A -door thus guarded might be known as a _janua foris_, that is, a Januan -door, and the phrase might in time be abridged into _janua_, the noun -_foris_ being understood but not expressed. From this to the use of -_janua_ to designate a door in general, whether guarded by an image of -Janus or not, would be an easy and natural transition.[1269] - -[Sidenote: The double-headed figure of Janus may have originated in a -custom of placing his image as guardian of doorways so as to face both -ways, outwards and inwards, at the same time.] If there is any truth in -this conjecture, it may explain very simply the origin of the double -head of Janus, which has so long exercised the ingenuity of -mythologists. When it had become customary to guard the entrance of -houses and towns by an image of Janus, it might well be deemed necessary -to make the sentinel god look both ways, before and behind, at the same -time, in order that nothing should escape his vigilant eye. For if the -divine watchman always faced in one direction, it is easy to imagine -what mischief might have been wrought with impunity behind his back. - -[Sidenote: This explanation is confirmed by the double-headed idols -which the Bush negroes of Surinam set to guard the entrances of their -villages.] This explanation of the double-headed Janus at Rome is -confirmed by the double-headed idol which the Bush negroes in the -interior of Surinam regularly set up as a guardian at the entrance of a -village. The idol consists of a block of wood with a human face rudely -carved on each side; it stands under a gateway composed of two uprights -and a cross-bar. Beside the idol generally lies a white rag intended to -keep off the devil; and sometimes there is also a stick which seems to -represent a bludgeon or weapon of some sort. Further, from the cross-bar -hangs a small log which serves the useful purpose of knocking on the -head any evil spirit who might attempt to pass through the -gateway.[1270] Clearly this double-headed fetish at the gateway of the -negro villages in Surinam bears a close resemblance to the double-headed -images of Janus which, grasping a stick in one hand and a key in the -other, stood sentinel at Roman gates and doorways;[1271] and we can -hardly doubt that in both cases the heads facing two ways are to be -similarly explained as expressive of the vigilance of the guardian god, -who kept his eye on spiritual foes behind and before, and stood ready to -bludgeon them on the spot. We may, therefore, dispense with the tedious -and unsatisfactory explanations which the wily Janus himself fobbed off -an anxious Roman enquirer.[1272] In the interior of Borneo the Kenyahs -generally place before the main entrance of their houses the wooden -image of Balli Atap, that is, the Spirit or God (_Balli_) of the Roof, -who protects the household from harm of all kinds.[1273] But it does not -appear that this divine watchman is provided with more than one face. - -[Sidenote: Thus the King of the Wood at Nemi seems to have personated -the great Aryan god of the oak, Jupiter or Janus, and to have mated with -the oak-goddess Diana.] To apply these conclusions to the priest of -Nemi, we may suppose that as the mate of Diana he represented originally -Dianus or Janus rather than Jupiter, but that the difference between -these deities was of old merely superficial, going little deeper than -the names, and leaving practically unaffected the essential functions of -the god as a power of the sky, the thunder, and the oak. If my analysis -of this great divinity is correct, the original element in his composite -nature was the oak. It was fitting, therefore, that his human -representative at Nemi should dwell, as we have seen reason to believe -he did, in an oak grove. His title of King of the Wood clearly indicates -the sylvan character of the deity whom he served; and since he could -only be assailed by him who had plucked the bough of a certain tree in -the grove, his own life might be said to be bound up with that of the -sacred tree. Thus he not only served but embodied the great Aryan god of -the oak; and as an oak-god he would mate with the oak-goddess, whether -she went by the name of Egeria or Diana. Their union, however -consummated, would be deemed essential to the fertility of the earth and -the fecundity of man and beast. Further, as the oak-god had grown into a -god of the sky, the thunder, and the rain, so his human representative -would be required, like many other divine kings, to cause the clouds to -gather, the thunder to peal, and the rain to descend in due season, that -the fields and orchards might bear fruit and the pastures be covered -with luxuriant herbage. The reputed possessor of powers so exalted must -have been a very important personage; and the remains of buildings and -of votive offerings which have been found on the site of the sanctuary -combine with the testimony of classical writers to prove that in later -times it was one of the greatest and most popular shrines in Italy. Even -in the old days when the champaign country around was still parcelled -out among the petty tribes who composed the Latin League, the sacred -grove is known to have been an object of their common reverence and -care. And just as the kings of Cambodia used to send offerings to the -mystic kings of Fire and Water far in the dim depths of the tropical -forest, so, we may well believe, from all sides of the broad Latian -plain the eyes and footsteps of Italian pilgrims turned to the quarter -where, standing sharply out against the faint blue line of the Apennines -or the deeper blue of the distant sea, the Alban Mountain rose before -them, the home of the mysterious priest of Nemi, the King of the Wood. -There, among the green woods and beside the still waters of the lonely -hills the ancient Aryan worship of the god of the oak, the thunder, and -the dripping sky lingered in its early, almost Druidical form, long -after a great political and intellectual revolution had shifted the -capital of Latin religion from the forest to the city, from Nemi to -Rome. - -Footnote 1238: - - Above, vol. i. pp. 6 _sq._, 12; vol. ii. pp. 124 _sq._, 128 _sq._, 171 - _sqq._ - -Footnote 1239: - - Above, vol. i. pp. 19 _sqq._, 40 _sq._ - -Footnote 1240: - - Above, vol. i. pp. 12 _sq._ - -Footnote 1241: - - Above, pp. 365, 366, 372. - -Footnote 1242: - - Above, p. 186. - -Footnote 1243: - - Above, vol. i. pp. 13 _sq._, vol. ii. pp. 184, 266. - -Footnote 1244: - - Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 205 _sqq._ - -Footnote 1245: - - See above, pp. 178 _sqq._ - -Footnote 1246: - - This suggestion is due to Mr. A. B. Cook. See his articles, “Zeus, - Jupiter, and the Oak,” _Classical Review_, xviii. (1904) pp. 363 - _sq._; and “The European Sky-God,” _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) pp. 277 - _sq._ On the other hand see above, pp. 1 _sq._ - -Footnote 1247: - - Virbius may perhaps be etymologically connected with _viridis_, - “green,” and _verbena_, “a sacred bough.” If this were so, Virbius - would be “the Green One.” We are reminded of those popular - personifications of the spring, Green George and Jack in the Green. - See above, pp. 75 _sq._, 82 _sq._ As to the proposed derivation from a - root meaning “green” Professor R. S. Conway writes to me (10th January - 1903): “From this meaning of the root a derivative in _-bus_ would not - strike me as so strange; _vir-bho_ might conceivably mean ‘growing - green.’” In my _Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship_ (pp. - 282 _sq._) I followed Mr. A. B. Cook in interpreting a passage of - Plautus (_Casina_, ii. 5. 23-29) as a reference to the priests of Nemi - in the character of mortal Jupiters. But a simpler and more probable - explanation of the passage has been given by Dr. L. R. Farnell. See A. - B. Cook, “The European Sky-god,” _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) pp. 322 - _sqq._; L. R. Farnell, in _The Hibbert Journal_, iv. (1906) p. 932. - -Footnote 1248: - - See above, vol. i. p. 13, vol. ii. pp. 378 _sq._ - -Footnote 1249: - - Above, pp. 171 _sq._ - -Footnote 1250: - - Horace, _Odes_, i. 21. 5 _sq._, iii. 23. 9 _sq._, iv. 4. 5 _sq._, - _Carmen Saeculare_, 69; Livy, iii. 25. 6-8; E. H. Bunbury, in Smith’s - _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography_, _s.v._ “Algidus.” - -Footnote 1251: - - Festus, _s.v._ “Tifata,” p. 366, ed. C. O. Müller; Velleius - Paterculus, ii. 25. 4; E. H. Bunbury, _op. cit._ _s.v._ “Tifata.” For - more evidence of the association of Diana with the oak, see Mr. A. B. - Cook, “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” _Classical Review_, xviii. (1904) - pp. 369 _sq._ - -Footnote 1252: - - Above, vol. i. pp. 17 _sq._, vol. ii pp. 172 _sq._ - -Footnote 1253: - - The original root appears plainly in _Diovis_ and _Diespiter_, the - older forms of _Jupiter_ (Varro, _De lingua Latina_, v. 66; Aulus - Gellius, v. 12). The form Dianus is attested by an inscription found - at Aquileia (_Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, v. 783), and the form - Jana by Varro (_Rerum rusticarum_, i. 37. 3) and Macrobius (_Saturn._ - i. 9. 8). In _Zeus_, _Dione_, _Jupiter_, and _Juno_ the old root _DI_ - appears in the expanded form _DIV_. As to the etymology of these - names, see Ch. Ploix, “Les Dieux qui proviennent de la racine _DIV_,” - _Mémoires de la Société de Linguistique de Paris_, i. (1868) pp. - 213-222; G. Curtius, _Grundzüge der griechischen Etymologie_, 5th Ed., - pp. 236 _sq._, 616 _sq._; A. Vanicek, _Griechisch-lateinisches - etymologisches Wörterbuch_, i. 353 _sqq._; W. H. Roscher, _Lexikon der - griech. u. röm. Mythologie_, ii. 45 _sq._, 578 _sq._, 619; S. Linde, - _De Jano summo Romanorumdeo_ (Lund, 1891), pp. 7 _sq._; J. S. Speijer, - “Le Dieu romain Janus,” _Revue de l’Histoire des Religions_, xxvi. - (1892) pp. 37-41; H. Usener, _Götternamen_, pp. 16, 35 _sq._, 326; P. - Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_, - pp. 78 _sqq._, 91, 161 _sq._ Messrs. Speijer and Kretschmer reject the - derivation of Janus from the root _DI_. - -Footnote 1254: - - As to Juno in these aspects, see L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_, - 3rd Ed., i. 271 _sqq._; G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_, - pp. 117 _sqq._; W. H. Roscher, _Lexikon der griech. u. röm. - Mythologie_, ii. 578 _sqq._ As to Diana, see above, vol. i. p. 12, - vol. ii. pp. 124, 128 _sq._ - -Footnote 1255: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, i. 89 _sqq._; Macrobius, _Sat._ i. 9; Servius, on - Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 610; Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 1 _sq._ - -Footnote 1256: - - Varro, quoted by Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vii. 28; Joannes Lydus, - _De mensibus_, iv. 2. Compare Macrobius, _Sat._ i. 9. 11. See R. - Agahd, _M. Terentii Varronis rerum divinarum libri I. XIV. XV. XVI._ - (Leipsic, 1898) pp. 117 _sqq._, 203 _sq._ - -Footnote 1257: - - Macrobius, _Sat._ i. 9. 15, i. 15. 19; Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ vii. - 610; Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 1. Prof. G. Wissowa thinks that - sacrifices were offered to Janus as well as to Juno on the first of - every month (_Religion und Kultus der Römer_, pp. 91 _sq._); but this - view does not seem to me to be supported by the evidence of Macrobius - (_Sat._ i. 9. 16, i. 15. 18 _sq._), to which he refers. Macrobius does - not say that the first of every month was sacred to Janus. - -Footnote 1258: - - Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, iii. 29. - -Footnote 1259: - - Virgil, _Aen._ xii. 138 _sqq._; Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 585 _sqq._ - -Footnote 1260: - - Cato, _De agri cultura_, 134; Virgil, _Aen._ viii. 357; Horace, - _Epist._ i. 16. 59, compare _Sat._ ii. 6. 20; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ - xxxvi. 28; Juvenal, vi. 394; Martial, x. 28. 6 _sq._; Aulus Gellius, - v. 12. 5; Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, iii. 29; H. Dessau, - _Inscriptiones Latinae selectae_, Nos. 3320, 3322, 3323, 3324, 3325, - 5047; G. Henzen, _Acta fratrum Arvalium_, p. 144; Athenaeus, xv. 46, - p. 692 D, E. - -Footnote 1261: - - Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vii. 9 _sq._ - -Footnote 1262: - - _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, v. No. 783. - -Footnote 1263: - - Macrobius, _Sat._ i. 7. 19; Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ viii. 319 and - 357; Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, iii. 29; Athenaeus, xv. 46, p. 692 - D. As to the oak-woods of the Janiculum, see above, p. 186. - -Footnote 1264: - - As dialectal differences in the ancient Italian languages seem to have - created a multiplicity of deities, so in the Malay language they - appear to have created a multiplicity of fabulous animals. See R. J. - Wilkinson, _Malay Beliefs_ (London and Leyden, 1906), p. 56: “The - wealth of Malay nomenclature in the province of natural history is in - itself a fruitful source of error. The identity of different dialectic - names for the same animal is not always recognized: the local name is - taken to represent the real animal, the foreign name is assumed to - represent a rare or fabulous variety of the same genus.” In these - cases mythology might fairly enough be described as a disease of - language. But such cases cover only a small part of the vast mythical - field. - -Footnote 1265: - - Mr. A. B. Cook, who accepts in substance my theory of the original - identity of Jupiter and Janus, Juno and Diana, has suggested that - Janus and Diana were the deities of the aborigines of Rome, Jupiter - and Juno the deities of their conquerors. See his article, “Zeus, - Jupiter, and the Oak,” _Classical Review_, xviii. (1904) pp. 367 _sq._ - -Footnote 1266: - - This is the opinion of Dr. W. H. Roscher (_Lexikon der griech. u. röm. - Mythologie_, ii. 47), Mr. W. Warde Fowler (_Roman Festivals of the - Period of the Republic_, pp. 282 _sqq._), and Prof. G. Wissowa - (_Religion und Kultus der Römer_, p. 96). It is rejected for the - reasons given in the text by Ph. Buttmann (_Mythologus_, ii. pp. 72, - 79) and S. Linde (_De Jano summo Romanorum deo_, pp. 50 _sqq._). - -Footnote 1267: - - He was so saluted in the ancient hymns of the Salii. See Macrobius, - _Sat._ i. 9. 14; compare Varro, _De lingua Latina_, vii. 26 _sq._ - -Footnote 1268: - - G. Curtius, _Grundzüge der griechischen Etymologie_, 5th Ed.,, p. 258; - O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_, p. - 866. - -Footnote 1269: - - This theory of the derivation of _janua_ from _Janus_ was suggested, - though not accepted, by Ph. Butmann (_Mythologus_, ii. 79 _sqq._). It - occurred to me independently. Mr. A. B. Cook also derives _janua_ from - _Janus_, but he would explain the derivation in a different way by - supposing that the lintel and two side-posts of a door represented a - triple Janus. See his article “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” _Classical - Review_, xviii. (1904) p. 369. - -Footnote 1270: - - K. Martin, “Bericht über eine Reise ins Gebiet des Oberen-Surinam,” - _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, - xxxv. (1886) pp. 28 _sq._ I am indebted to Mr. A. van Gennep for - pointing out this confirmation of my theory as to the meaning of the - double-headed Janus. See his article “Janus Bifrons,” _Revue des - traditions populaires_, xxii. (1907) pp. 97 _sq._ - -Footnote 1271: - - Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 9. 7, “_Sed apud nos Janum omnibus praeesse - januis nomen ostendit, quod est simile_ θυραίῳ. _Nam et cum clavi ac - virga figuratur, quasi omnium et portarum custos et rector viarum_”; - Ovid, _Fasti_, i. 95, 99, “_Sacer ancipiti mirandus imagine Janus ... - tenens dextra baculum clavemque sinistra_.” - -Footnote 1272: - - Ovid, _Fasti_, i. 89 _sqq._ - -Footnote 1273: - - C. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in - Sarawak,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. - 175. - - - - - INDEX - - - Abbas Effendi, i. 402 - - Abchases of the Caucasus, the, ii. 370 - - Abolition of the kingship at Rome, ii. 289 _sqq._ - - Abraham and Sarah, ii. 114 - - Acacia-tree worshipped, ii. 16 - - Achelous and Dejanira, ii. 161 _sq._ - - Achilles, ii. 278 - - Acorns as food, ii. 353, 355 _sq._; - as fodder for swine, 354, 356 - - Adam of Bremen, ii. 364 - - Adonis at Byblus, i. 30 - - —— and Venus (Aphrodite), i. 21, 25, 40, 41 - - —— or Tammuz, ii. 346 - - Adoption, pretence of birth at, i. 74 _sq._ - - Adultery supposed to blight the fruits of the earth, ii. 107 _sq._, 114 - - Aeacus, ii. 278, 359 - - Aegira, priestess of Earth at, i. 381 _sq._ - - Aegisthus, ii. 281 - - Aeneas and the Golden Bough, i. 11, ii. 379; - his disappearance in a thunderstorm, 181 - - Aeolus, i. 326 - - Aeschines, spurious epistles of, ii. 162 _n._ 2 - - Aesculapius brings Hippolytus to life, i. 20; - at Cos, ii. 10 - - Africa, rise of magicians, especially rain-makers, to chieftainship and - kingship in, i. 342 _sqq._, 352; - human gods in, 392 _sqq._ - - —— North, magical images in, i. 65 _sq._ - - Afterbirth (placenta), contagious magic of, i. 182-201; - placed in tree, 182, 187, 190, 191, 194, 199; - part of child’s spirit in, 184; - regarded as brother or sister of child, 189, 191, 192, 193; - regarded as a second child, 195; - seat of external soul, 200 _sq._ - - Agamemnon, ii. 279; - sceptre of, i. 365 - - Agni, the fire-god, ii. 249 - - _Agnihotris_, Brahman fire-priests, ii. 247 _sqq._ - - _Agriculture of the Nabataeans_, ii. 100 - - Ainos, i. 60 - - Akamba, the, ii. 317 - - Akikuyu, the, ii. 44, 150, 316, 317; - pretence of new birth among the, i. 75 _sq._, 96 _sq._ - - Alba Longa, the kings of, ii. 178 _sqq._, 268 _sq._ - - Alban Hills, i. 2 - - —— Mountain, the, ii. 187 _sq._, 202 - - Albigenses, the, i. 407 - - _Alcheringa_, legendary time, i. 98 - - Alfai, priesthood of the, ii. 3 - - Algidus, Mount, ii. 187, 380 - - Algonquins, the, ii. 147 - - Amata, “Beloved,” title of Vestals, ii. 197; - Amata, wife of King Latinus, 197 - - Amboyna, ii. 28 - - Amenophis III., birth of, ii. 131 _sqq._ - - American Indians, power of medicine-men among the, i. 355 _sqq._ - - Amethyst, i. 165 - - Ammon, the god, married to the Queen of Egypt, ii. 130 _sqq._; - human wives of the god, 130 _sqq._; - costume of the god, 133; - King of Egypt masqueraded as, 133; - at Thebes, high priests of, 134 - - Ammonite, black fossil, ii. 26, 27 _n._ 2 - - Amphictyon, ii. 277 - - Amulius Sylvius, ii. 180 - - Anaitis, Oriental goddess, i. 16 _sq._, 37 _n._ 2 - - _Anatomie of Abuses_, ii. 66 - - Anazarbus, the olives of, ii. 107 - - Ancestor-worship among the Bantu peoples, ii. 221; - in relation to fire-worship, 221 - - Ancestors, prayers to, i. 285, 287, 345, 352; - sacrifices to, 339; - souls of, in trees, ii. 30, 31, 32; - dead, regarded as mischievous beings, 221; - represented by sacred fire-sticks, 222 _sqq._; - souls of, in the fire on the hearth, 232 - - Ancestral spirits worshipped at the hearth, ii. 221 _sq._ - - Ancestral tree, fire kindled from, ii. 221, 233 _sq._ - - Ancus Martius, his death, ii. 320 - - Andaman Islanders, ii. 253 - - Andania, ii. 122 - - Anderida, forest of, ii. 7 - - Andromeda and Perseus, ii. 163 - - Animals, homoeopathic magic of, i. 150 _sqq._; - rain-making by means of, 287 _sqq._ - - Animism passing into polytheism, ii. 45 - - _Anitos_, spirits of ancestors, ii. 30 - - Anjea, mythical being, who causes conception in women, i. 100, 184 - - Annals of Tigernach and Ulster, ii. 286 - - Annandale, Nelson, ii. 237 _n._ - - Anointing weapon which caused wound, i. 202 _sqq._ - - Antaeus, ii. 300 - - Antigone, death of, ii. 228 _n._ 5 - - Antigonus, i. 391 _n._ 1 - - Antimores of Madagascar, i. 354 - - Apaches, land of the, i. 306 - - Apepi, Egyptian fiend, i. 67 - - Apes thought to be related to twins, i. 265 - - Ap-hi, god of thunder and lightning, ii. 370 - - Aphrodite and Adonis, i. 25 - - —— Askraia, i. 26 - - Apollo, i. 384, 386; - at Delos, 32, 34 _sq._; - at Delphi, 28; - grave of, at Delphi, 35; - Erithasean, ii. 121; - at Patara, 135 - - —— and Artemis, birthdays of, i. 32 - - —— Diradiotes, i. 381 - - Apologies offered to trees for cutting them down, ii. 18 _sq._, 36 - _sq._ - - Apples at festival of Diana, i. 14, 16 - - April 15th, sacrifice on, ii. 229, 326 - - —— 21st, date of the Parilia, ii. 325, 326 - - —— 23rd, St. George’s Day, ii. 330 _sqq._ - - —— 24th, in some places St. George’s Day, ii. 337, 343 - - Arab charms, i. 152, 153, 157, 165 _sq._, 181, 303 - - Arabs of Moab, i. 276 - - Aratus, sacrifices to, i. 105 - - Araucanians of Chili, the, ii. 183 - - Arden, forest of, ii. 7 - - Ardennes, goddess of the, ii. 126 - - _Aren_ palm-tree, ii. 22 - - Ariadne and Dionysus, ii. 138 - - Aricia, i. 3, 4, 10, ii. 2; - “many Manii at,” i. 22 - - Arician grove, the sacred, i. 20, 22, ii. 115; - horses excluded from, i. 20 - - Arikara Indians, i. 115 - - Aristotle, ii. 137 - - Arkon, in Rügen, ii. 241 _n._ 4 - - Armenia, rain-making in, i. 275 _sq._ - - Arrephoroi at Athens, the, ii. 199 - - Arrian, on sacrifices to Artemis, ii. 125 _sq._ - - Arrows shot at sacred trees, ii. 11; - fire-tipped, shot at sun during an eclipse, i. 311 - - Artemis, temple dedicated to her by Xenophon, i. 7; - birthday of, i. 32, ii. 125; - the Asiatic, i. 7; - at Delos, 28; - of Ephesus, 7, 37 _sq._, ii. 128, 136; - a goddess of the wild life of nature, i. 35 _sq._; - sacrifices to, ii. 125; - worshipped by the Celts, 125 _sq._; - Saronian, i. 26; - Wolfish, 26 _sq._ - - —— and Apollo, birthdays of, i. 32; - and Hippolytus, 19 _sq._, 24 _sqq._ - - —— _Parthenos_, i. 36 - - Arunta, the, of Central Australia, i. 98; - magical ceremonies among, 85 _sqq._; - burial customs of the, 102 - - Arval Brothers, the, ii. 203 - - Aryan god of the oak and thunder, ii. 356 _sqq._; - god of the sky, 374 _sq._ - - Aryans, magical powers ascribed to kings among the, i. 366 _sqq._; - perpetual fires among the, ii. 260; - female kinship among the, 283 _sqq._ - - Ascanius or Julus, ii. 197 - - Ascension Day, ii. 69, 166 - - Ashantee, licence accorded to king’s sisters in, ii. 274 _sq._ - - Ashes scattered as rain-charm, i. 304; - in magic, 314; - of unborn calves used in a fertility charm, ii. 229, 326 - - Asia Minor, pontiffs in, i. 47 - - Assimilation of rain-maker to water, i. 269 _sqq._ - - Association of ideas, magic based on a misapplication of the, i. 221 - _sq._ - - Assumption of the Virgin in relation to the festival of Diana, i. 14-16 - - Astarte at Byblus, i. 30 - - Atalante, ii. 301 - - Athenian sacrifices to the Seasons, i. 310 - - Athens, barrow of Hippolytus at, i. 25; - new fire brought to, 32 _sq._; - King and Queen at, 44 _sq._; - marriage of Dionysus at, ii. 136 _sq._; - female kinship at, 277 - - Atkinson, J. C., i. 199 - - Atreus, ii. 279 - - Attacking the wind, i. 327 _sqq._ - - Attica, traces of female kinship in, ii. 284 - - Attis and Cybele (Mother of the Gods), i. 18, 21, 40, 41 - - _Atua_, Polynesian term for god, i. 387 _n._ 1 - - August, the Ides (13th) of, Diana’s day, i. 12, 14-17 - - —— 15th, the day of the Assumption of the Virgin, i. 14-16 - - Augustine on the one God, i. 121 _n._ 1 - - Australia, aboriginal paintings in, i. 87 _n._ 1; - magic universally practised but religion nearly unknown among the - aborigines of, 234; - government of old men in aboriginal, 334 _sq._; - influence of magicians in aboriginal, 334 _sqq._ - - —— Central, magical ceremonies for the supply of food in, i. 85 _sqq._ - - Australian aborigines, magical images among the, i. 62; - ceremonies of initiation among the, 92 _sqq._; - contagious magic of teeth among the, 176; - magic of navel-string and afterbirth among the, 183 _sq._ - - Autun, procession of goddess at, ii. 144 - - Auxesia and Damia, i. 39 - - Avebury, Lord, i. 225 _n._ - - Aventine, Diana on the, ii. 128 - - - Baal, prophets of, cutting themselves, i. 258 - - Baalim, the, lords of underground waters, ii. 159 - - Babar Archipelago, i. 72, 131 - - Babaruda, i. 273 - - Babylon, magical images in ancient, i. 66 _sq._; - sanctuary of Bel at, ii. 129 _sq._ - - Babylonian kings, divinity of the early, i. 417 - - Bacchanals chew ivy, i. 384 - - Bachofen, J. J., ii. 313 _n._ 1, 314 _n._ 1 - - Bacon, Francis, on anointing weapon that caused wound, i. 202 - - Badonsachen, King of Burma, i. 400 - - Baganda, the, i. 395; - superstitions as to the navel-string and afterbirth (placenta), 195 - _sq._; - their customs in regard to twins, ii. 102 _sq._; - their belief in the influence of the sexes on vegetation, 101 _sq._; - Vestal Virgins among the, 246; - their list of kings, 269 - - Bagba, a fetish, i. 327 - - Bagishu, i. 103 - - Bahaus or Kayans of Borneo, ii. 40, 109 - - Bakers, Roman, required to be chaste, ii. 115 _sq._, 205 - - Balli Atap, ii. 385 - - _Baloi_, mythical beings, i. 177 - - Bambaras, the, ii. 42 - - Banana-tree, wild, supposed to fertilise barren women, ii. 318 - - Bandicoot in rain-charm, i. 288 - - Bangalas, the, ii. 293 - - Banks’ Islanders, i. 314 - - Bantu peoples, ancestor-worship among the, ii. 221 - - Banyai, chieftainship among the, ii. 292 - - Banyoro, the, ii. 322; - king of the, as rain-maker, i. 348 - - Baobab-trees, ii. 47 - - Baptist, St. John the, i. 277 - - _Bar_-tree (_Ficus Indica_), ii. 25, 43 - - Barea, the, ii. 3 - - Barenton, fountain of, i. 306, 307 - - Bari, rain-making among the, i. 346 _sq._ - - Barotse, the, i. 392 _sq._ - - Barren women, charms to procure offspring for, i. 70 _sqq._; - thought to sterilise gardens, 142; - fertilised by trees, ii. 51, 56 _sq._, 316 _sq._; - thought to blight the fruits of the earth, 102; - fertilised by water-spirits, 159 _sqq._ - - _Basilai_ at Olympia, i. 46 _n._ 4 - - Basoga, the, ii. 19, 112 - - Basutos, the, i. 71, 177 - - Bath before marriage, intention of, ii. 162 - - Bathing as a rain-charm, i. 277 _sq._ - - Battas or Bataks of Sumatra, i. 71, 398 _sq._, ii. 108 - - Battus, King, i. 47 - - Bayfield, M. A., ii. 228 _n._ 5 - - Bean, sprouting of, in superstitious ceremony, i. 266 - - Beasts, sacred, in Egypt held responsible for failure of crops, i. 354 - - Bechuana charms, i. 150 _sq._ - - Bechuanas, the, i. 313 - - Bedouins, fire-drill of the ancient, ii. 209 - - Beech-woods of Denmark, ii. 351 - - _Beena_ marriage, ii. 271 - - Bees, the King Bees (Essenes) at Ephesus, ii. 135 _sq._ - - Bel of Babylon, ii. 129 - - Belep, the, of New Caledonia, i. 150 - - Bell-ringing as a charm to dispel evil influences, ii. 343 _sq._ - - Benefits conferred by magic, i. 218 _sq._ - - Benin, king of, as a god, i. 396 - - Benvenuto Cellini, ii. 197 _n._ 6 - - Benzoni, G., i. 57 _n._ - - Bes, the god, ii. 133 - - Betsileo, the, i. 397 - - Bevan, Professor A. A., ii. 210 _n._ - - Bezoar stone in rain-charms, i. 305 - - Bhagavati, goddess of Cochin, i. 280 - - Birch, crowns of, ii. 64; - leaves, girl clad in, 80; - tree dressed in woman’s clothes, 64; - a protection against witches, 54 - - Birth, pretence of, at adoption, i. 74 _sq._; - at return of supposed dead man, 75; - at circumcision, 75 _sq._; - simulation of a new, 380 _sq._; - from the fire, ii. 195 _sqq._ - - Birthday, Greek custom of sacrificing to a dead man on his, i. 105 - - Birthdays of Apollo and Artemis, i. 32 - - “Birthplace of Rainy Zeus,” ii. 360 - - Black animals in rain-charms, i. 250, 290 _sqq._; - colour in magic, 83; - in rain-making ceremonies, 269 _sq._ - - Blackfoot Indians, i. 116, 150; - their worship of the sun, ii. 146 _sq._ - - Bleeding trees, ii. 18, 20, 33 - - Blighting effect of illicit love on the fruits of the earth, ii. 107 - _sqq._ - - Blindness, charm to cause, i. 147 - - Blood drawn from virgin bride, i. 94; - shed at circumcision and subincision, uses of, 92, 94 _sq._; - sympathetic connexion between wounded person and his shed blood, 205; - used to imitate rain, 256, 257 _sq._; - as a means of inspiration, 381 _sqq._; - offered to trees, ii. 13, 16, 34, 44, 47; - of pigs in purificatory rites, 107, 108, 109; - of incestuous persons, blighting effects attributed to the, 110 - _sq._; - reluctance to spill royal, 228; - smeared on sacred trees, 367 - - Blood, human, in _intichiuma_ ceremonies, i. 85, _sqq._ 90, _sqq._; - offered at grave, 90 _sq._; - given to sick people, 91; - used to knit men together, 92 - - Blood-stone, i. 165 - - Bloomfield, Professor M., i. 229 - - Boanerges, i. 266 - - Bodio, fetish king, i. 353 - - Bogomiles, the, i. 407 - - Boiled meat offered to the Seasons, i. 310 - - Bones of dead in magic, i. 148; - human, buried as rain-charm, 287; - burned as a charm against sorcery, ii. 330 - - Bonfires at midsummer, ii. 65 - - Bongo, the, i. 347 - - Boni, G., ii. 186 _n._ 1 - - Borewell, the, ii. 161 - - Borlase, W., ii. 67 - - Born thrice, said of Brahmans, i. 381 - - Borneo, i. 59, 73; - beliefs as to the blighting effect of sexual crime in, ii. 108 _sqq._ - - Bororos, the, ii. 298 - - Bough, the Golden, plucked by Aeneas, i. 11, ii. 379; - the plucking of it not a piece of bravado, 123 _sq._; - grew on an evergreen oak, 379 - - - Boughs, green, a charm against witches, ii. 52-55, 127. - _See also_ Branches - - Bovillae, ii. 179 - - Bradbury, Professor J. B., ii. 139 _n._ 1 - - Brahman, derivation of name, i. 229 - - —— fire-priests, ii. 247 _sqq._; - marriage ceremony, i. 160; - householder, temporary inspiration of, i. 380 _sq._ - - Brahmans deemed superior to the gods, i 226; - divinity of the, 403 _sq._; - thrice-born, 381 - - - Branches dipped in water as a rain-charm, i. 248, 250, 309. - _See also_ Boughs - - Brazil, Indians of, power of medicine-men among the, i. 358 _sq._ - - Breath, holy fire not to be blown upon with the, ii. 241 - - Brethren of the Free Spirit, i. 408; - of the Tilled Fields (_Fratres Arvales_), ii. 122 - - Brhaspati, as a magician, i. 241 - - Bride tied to tree at marriage, ii. 57; - the Whitsuntide, 89, 96; - the May, 95; - race for a, 301 _sqq._; - contests for a, 305 _sqq._ - - —— of God, the, i. 276 - - —— race among Teutonic peoples, ii. 303 _sqq._ - - Bridegroom of May, ii. 91, 93 - - Bridget in Scotland and the Isle of Man, ii. 94 _sq._ - - Brigit, a Celtic goddess, ii. 95, 240 _sqq._ - - Brimo and Brimos, ii. 139 - - Brincker, Dr. P. H., ii. 224 _n._ 4 - - Brooke, Rajah, i. 361 - - Brotherhood formed with trees by sucking their sap, ii. 19 _sq._ - - Brothers reviled by sisters for good luck, i. 279 - - Brown, A. R., ii. 254 _n._ - - Brown, Dr. George, i. 340 - - Brunhild, Queen of Iceland, ii. 306 - - Brutus, L. Junius, ii. 290, 291 - - Bryant, Jacob, i. 334 - - Buckthorn, a protection against witches, ii. 54, 191 - - Buddha, images of, drenched as a rain-charm, i. 308 - - Buddhas, living, i. 410 _sq._ - - Buddhist animism not a philosophical theory, ii. 13 _sq._ - - Bühler, G., ii. 367 _n._ 3, 369 - - Bulgaria, rain-making in, i. 274 - - Bull, the thunder-god compared to a, ii. 368 - - Bull-roarer used as a wind-charm, i. 324 - - Bull’s blood drunk as means of inspiration, i. 381 _sq._; - as ordeal, i. 382 _n._ 1 - - Bulls, white, sacrificed, ii. 188 _sq._ - - Bunjil Kraura, i. 324 - - Bunsen, on St. Hippolytus, i. 21 _n._ 2 - - Burglars, charms employed by, to cause sleep, i. 148 _sq._ - - Burgundians and their kings, i. 366 - - Burial alive, punishment of unfaithful virgins, ii. 244 - - —— customs intended to ensure re-incarnation, i. 101 _sqq._ - - Burma, magical images in, i. 62 _sq._ - - Burning of sacred trees or poles, ii. 141 _sq._ - - Burning-glass or mirror, fire kindled by, ii. 243, 244 _n._ 1 - - Buryats, the, ii. 32 - - Bush negroes of Surinam, ii. 385 - - Bushmen, i. 123 - - Butlers, Roman, required to be chaste, ii. 115 _sq._, 205 - - Buttmann, P., i. 40 _n._ 2 - - Büttner, C. G., ii. 218 - - Byblus, Astarte at, i. 30 - - - Cabbages, charm to make cabbages grow, i. 136 _sq._ - - Cactus, sacred, telepathy in search for, i. 123 _sq._ - - Cadys, ii. 281 - - Caeculus born from the fire, ii. 197 - - Caelian hill at Rome, ii. 185 - - Caesar, Julius, his villa at Nemi, i. 5 - - Caesars, their name derived from _caesaries_, ii. 180 - - Caingua Indians, the, ii. 258 - - Calah, ancient capital of Assyria, ii. 130 - - Caland, Dr. W., i. 229 - - Caldwell, Bishop R., i. 382 - - _Calica Puran_, i. 63 - - Caligula, his barges on the lake of Nemi, i. 5; - and the priest of Nemi, 11 - - Calmucks, race for a bride among the, ii. 301 _sq._ - - Cambodia, the regalia in, i. 365; - Kings of Fire and Water in, ii. 3 _sqq._ - - Cambridge, May Day custom at, ii. 62 - - Camden, W., ii. 53. - - Camillus, his triumph, ii. 174 _n._ 2 - - Camphor, taboos observed in search for, i. 114 _sq._; - telepathy in search for, 124 _sq._ - - Candaules, ii. 281, 282 - - Candlemas, ii. 94 - - Cannibalism in Australia, i. 106 _sq._ - - Cantabrians, mother-kin among the, ii. 285 - - Canute, King of England, his marriage with Emma, ii. 282 _sq._ - - Cape York Peninsula in Queensland, i. 99, 100 - - Capena, the Porta, at Rome, i. 18 - - Capitol, temple of Jupiter on the, ii. 174, 176, 184 - - _Caprificatio_, ii. 314 _n._ 2 - - _Caprificus_, the wild fig-tree, ii. 314 _sq._ - - Car Nicobar, i. 314 - - Caribs, war custom of the, i. 134 - - Carna, nymph, ii. 190 - - Carpenter, son of, as a human god, i. 376 - - Carpet-snakes, magical ceremony for the multiplication of, i. 90 - - Castor and Pollux, i. 49 _sq._ - - Cat in rain-charm, i. 289, 291, 308 _sq._ - - Cat’s cradle as a charm to catch the sun, i. 316 _sq._ - - Catlin, G., i. 356 - - Cato the Elder on dedication of Arician grove to Diana, i. 22, 23 - - Cato, on expiation, ii. 122 - - Cattle crowned, ii. 75, 126 _sq._, 339, 341; - charm to recover strayed, i. 212; - influence of tree-spirits on, ii. 55 - - —— stall, the, at Athens, ii. 137 - - Caul, superstitions as to, i. 187 _sq._, 190 _sq._, 199 _sq._ - - Caves, prehistoric paintings of animals in, i. 87 _n._ 1 - - Cecrops, ii. 277; - said to have instituted marriage, 284 - - Cedar, sacred, ii. 49, 50 _sq._; - smoke of, inhaled as mode of inspiration, i. 383 _sq._ - - —— tree, girl annually sacrificed to, ii. 17 - - —— wood burned as a religious rite, ii. 130 - - Celebes, i. 109; - magical virtue of regalia in, 362 _sqq._ - - Celtic divinity akin to Artemis, ii. 126 - - —— and Italian languages akin, ii. 189 - - —— Vestals, ii. 241 _n._ 1 - - Celts, their worship of the Huntress Artemis, ii. 125 _sq._; - their worship of the oak, 362 _sq._; - of Gaul, their harvest festival, i. 17; - of Ireland, their belief in the blighting effect of incest, ii. 116 - - Ceos, funeral customs in, i. 105 - - Ceremonies, initiatory, of Central Australian aborigines, i. 92 _sqq._ - - Chadwick, H. M., ii. 278 _n._ 1, 283 _n._ 1 - - Chaka, the Zulu despot, i. 350 - - Champion at English coronation ceremony, ii. 322 - - Chams, the, i. 120, 131, 144 - - Chariot in rain-charm, i. 309 - - —— and horses dedicated to the sun, i. 315 - - Charles II. touches for scrofula, i. 368 _sq._ - - Charms to ensure long life, i. 168 _sq._; - to prevent the sun from going down, 316 _sqq._ - _See also_ Magic - - - Chastity observed for sake of absent persons, i. 123, 124, 125, 131; - practised to make the crops grow, ii. 104 _sqq._; - required of persons who handle dishes and food, 115 _sq._, 205; - Milton on, 118 _n._ 1; - as a virtue not understood by savages, 118; - observed by sacred men, perhaps the husbands of a goddess, 135, 136; - observed by sacred women, 137; - required in those who make fire by friction, 238 _sq._ - _See also_ Continence - - Chauci, the, ii. 353 - - Cheremiss, the, ii. 44, 49 - - Cherokees, homoeopathic magic of plants among the, i. 144, 146 _sq._; - homoeopathic magic of animals among the, i. 155 _sq._ - - Chibchas, the, i. 416 - - Chi-chi Mama, i. 276 - - Chiefs, supernatural power of, in Melanesia, i. 338 _sqq._; - as magicians, especially rain-makers, in Africa, 342 _sqq._; - not allowed to leave their premises, 349; - punished for drought and dearth, 352 _sqq._; - as priests, ii. 215 _sq._; - chosen from several families in rotation, 292 _sqq._ - - Chilcotin Indians, i. 312 - - Child’s Well at Oxford, ii. 161 - - Childbirth, Diana as goddess of, i. 12, ii. 128 - - Children, newborn, brought to the hearth, ii. 232 - - _Chili_, sacred cedar, ii. 49, 50 _sq._ - - China, emperors of, i. 47; - homoeopathic magic of city sites in, 169 _sq._; - the Emperor of, superior to the gods, 416 _sq._ - _See also_ Chinese - - Chinchvad, human gods at, i. 405 _sq._ - - - Chinese, magical images among the, i. 60 _sq._ - - —— belief in spirits of plants, ii. 14 - - —— charms to ensure long life, i. 168 _sq._ - - —— emperor responsible for drought, i. 355 - - —— empire, incarnate human gods in the, i. 412 _sqq._ - - —— modes of compelling the rain-god to give rain, i. 297 _sqq._ - - —— superstition as to placenta (after-birth), i. 194 - - Chingilli, the, i. 99 - - Chios, kings of, i. 45 - - Chissumpe, the, i. 393 - - Chitomé, the, a pontiff of Congo, ii. 261 - - Christians, pretenders to divinity among, i. 407 _sqq._ - - Christs, Russian sect of the, i. 407 _sq._ - - Chuckchees, sacred fire-boards of the, ii. 225 _sq._ - - _Churinga_, in Australia, i. 88, 199, 335 - - Cimbrians, the, i. 331 _n._ 2 - - Ciminian forest, ii. 8 - - Circassians, their custom as to pear-trees, ii. 55 _sq._ - - Circumcision, pretence of new birth at, i. 76, 96 _sq._; - uses of blood shed at, 92, 94 _sq._; - suggested origin of, 96 _sq._ - - Cithaeron, Mount, ii. 140 - - Clans, paternal and maternal, of the Herero, ii. 217 - - Cleanliness promoted by contagious magic, i. 175, 342 - - Clisthenes and Hippoclides, ii. 307 _sq._ - - Clitus and Pallene, ii. 307 - - Clothes, sympathetic connexion between a person and his, i. 205-207 - - Clouds imitated by smoke, i. 249; - by stones, i. 256; - by rain-maker, 261, 262, 263 - - Clouds, magicians painted in imitation of, i. 323 - - Clove-trees in blossom treated like pregnant women, ii. 28 - - Cloves, ceremony to make cloves grow ii. 100 - - Clown in spring ceremonies, ii. 82, 89 - - Clytaemnestra, ii. 279 - - Cockatoos, ceremony for the magical multiplication of, i. 89 - - Coco-nut sacred, ii. 51 - - —— palms worshipped, ii. 16 - - Codrington, Dr. R. H., quoted, i. 227 _sq._, 338 - - Coligny calendar, i. 17 _n._ 2 - - Collatinus, L. Tarquinius, ii. 290 - - Columella, ii. 314; - quoted, 205 - - Combat, mortal, for the kingdom, ii. 322 - - Communism, tradition of sexual, ii. 284 - - Compelling rain-gods to give rain, i. 296 _sqq._ - - Complexity of social phenomena, i. 332 - - Comrie, ii. 161 - - Con or Cun, a thunder-god, ii. 370 - - Conception in women, supposed cause of, i. 100; - caused by trees, ii. 51, 56 _sq._, 316-318 - - Concord, temple of, at Rome, i. 11, 21 _n._ 2 - - Concordia, nurse of St. Hippolytus, i. 21 _n._ 2 - - Condor, the bird of the thunder-god, ii. 370 - - Confession of sins, i. 266 - - Conflicts, sanguinary, as rain-charm, i. 258 - - Conquerors sometimes leave a nominal kingship to the conquered, ii. 288 - _sq._ - - “Consort, the divine,” ii. 131, 135 - - Consuls, the first, ii. 290 - - Consulship at Rome, institution of, ii. 290 _sq._ - - Contact or contagion in magic, law of, i. 52, 53 - - Contagious Magic, i. 174-214; - of teeth, 176-182; - of navel-string and afterbirth (placenta), 182-201; - of wound and weapon, 201 _sqq._; - of footprints, 207-212; - of other impressions, 213 _sq._ - - —— taboos, i. 117 - - Contest for the kingship at Whitsuntide, ii. 89 - - Contests for a bride, ii. 305 _sqq._ - - - Continence required in magical ceremonies, i. 88; - required at rain-making ceremonies, 257, 259; - required of parents of twins, 266; - practised in order to make the crops grow, ii. 104 _sqq._ - _See also_ Chastity - - Conway, Professor R. S., ii. 379 _n._ 5 - - Conybeare, F. C., i. 407 _n._ 3 - - Cook, A. B., i. 23 _n._, 40 _n._ 3 and 4, 42 _n._ 1, ii. 172 _n._ 3, - 173 _n._ 2, 177 _n._ 6, 178 _n._ 3, 187 _n._ 4, 220 _n._ 3, 290 _n._ - 3, 307 _n._ 2, 321 _n._ 1, 358 _n._ 4, 379 _n._ 4 and _n._ 5, 380 - _n._ 4, 383 _n._ 2 - - Cooks, Roman, required to be chaste, ii. 115 _sq._, 205 - - Cora Indians, i. 55 _sq._ - - Corc, his purification, ii. 116 - - Corn, defiled persons kept from the, ii. 112; - reaped ear of, displayed at mysteries of Eleusis, 138 _sq._ - - —— -mother, the, at Eleusis, ii. 139 - - —— -reaping in Greece, date of, i. 32 - - Cornel-tree, sacred, ii. 10 - - Cornish customs on May Day, ii. 52, 67 - - _Corp chre_, i. 68, 69 - - Corpus Christi Day, ii. 163 - - Cos, King of, i. 45 - - Crab in rain-charm, i. 289 - - Crannogs, ii. 352 - - Crannon in Thessaly, i. 309 - - Crawley, E., i. 201 _n._ 1 - - Crocodiles, girls sacrificed to, ii. 152 - - Cronus and Zeus, ii. 323 - - Crooke, W., i. 406 _n._ 1, ii. 57 _n._ 4, 288 _n._ 1 - - Cross River, i. 349 - - Crossbills in magic, i. 81 _sq._ - - Crown of oak leaves, ii. 175, 176 _sq._, 184 - - Crowning cattle, ii. 75, 126 _sq._, 339, 341 - - —— dogs, custom of, i. 14, ii. 125 _sq._, 127 _sq._ - - Crowns, magical virtue of royal, i. 364 _sq._; - of birch at Whitsuntide, ii. 64; - or wreaths, custom of wearing, 127 _n._ 2 - - Crows in magic, i. 83 - - Crystals, magic of, i. 176; - used in rain-making, 254, 255, 304, 345, 346 - - Cumont, Professor Franz, ii. 310 - - Cup-and-ball as a charm to hasten the return of the sun, i. 317 - - Curses, public, i. 45; - supposed beneficial effects of, i. 279 _sqq._ - - Cursing at sowing, i. 281 - - —— fishermen and hunters for good luck, i. 280 _sq._ - - Curtiss, Professor S. I., i. 402 - - Cuzco, ii. 243 - - Cybele, ii. 144 _sq._; - and Attis, i. 18, 21, 40, 41 - - Cyrene, kingship at, i. 47 - - - Daedala, festival of the, ii. 140 _sq._ - - Dainyal or Sibyl, i. 383 - - Dalai Lama of Lhasa, i. 411 _sq._ - - Damaras or Herero, their fire-customs, ii. 211 _sqq._ - - Damia and Auxesia, i. 39 - - Danaus, ii. 301 - - Dance at giving of oracles, i. 379; - of milkmaids on May-day, ii. 52 - - Dances of women while men are away fighting, i. 131-134; - as means of inspiration, 408 _n._ 1; - round sacred trees, ii. 47, 55; - found the May-pole, 65, 69, 74 _sq._; - on graves, 183 _n._ 2 - - Dancing as a fertility charm, i. 137 _sqq._, ii. 106 - - Danes, female descent of the kingship among the, ii. 282 _sq._ - - Daphnephoria, ii. 63 _n._ 2 - - Date-month, the, ii. 25 - - - —— -palm, artificial fertilisation of the, ii. 24 _sq._ - - Dawn, the rosy, i. 334 - - Day of Stones, i. 279 - - De Groot, J. J. M., i. 416 _sq._, ii. 14 - - Dead, hair offered to the, i. 31; - pretence of new birth at return of supposed dead man, 75; - homoeopathic magic of the, 147 _sqq._; - sacrifices to, 163; - making rain by means of the, 284 _sqq._; - trees animated by the souls of the, ii. 29 _sqq._; - the illustrious, represented by masked men, 178; - thunder and lightning made by the, 183; - spirits of the, in wild fig-trees, 317 - - Death, pretence of, in magic, i. 84; - infection of, 143; - at ebb tide, 167 _sq._; - puppet called, carried out of village, ii. 73 _sq._ - - Deceiving the spirits of plants and trees, ii. 22 _sqq._ - - Deir el Bahari, paintings at, ii. 131, 133 - - Deities duplicated through dialectical differences in their names, ii. - 380 _sq._ - - Dejanira and Achelous, ii. 161 _sq._ - - Delivery, easy, granted to women by trees, ii. 57 _sq._ - - Delos, graves of Hyperborean maidens in, i. 28, 33 _sqq._; - Apollo and Artemis at, 28, 32-35 - - Delphi, Apollo at, i. 28; - new fire sent from, 32 _sq._; - King of, 45 _sq._ - - Demeter and Zeus, their marriage at Eleusis, ii. 138 _sq._ - - Demetrius Poliorcetes deified at Athens, i. 390 _sq._ - - Denmark, Whitsun bride in, ii. 91 _sq._; - the beech-woods of, 351 - - Dennett, R. E., ii. 277 _n._ 1 - - _Deòce_, a divine spirit, i. 410 - - Departmental kings of nature, ii. 1 _sqq._ - - Derry, the oaks of, ii. 242 _sq._ - - Devil-dancers, i. 382 - - Dew on May morning, custom of washing in the, ii. 54, 67, 327, 339; - rolling in the, 333 - - “Dew-treading” in Holland, ii. 104 _n._ 2 - - Dhurma Rajah, i. 410 - - _DI_, Aryan root meaning “bright,” ii. 381 - - Dia, grove of the goddess, ii. 122 - - Dialectical differences a cause of the duplication of deities, ii. 382 - _sq._ - - Diana, her sanctuary at Nemi, i. 2 _sqq._; - as huntress at Nemi, 6; - as patroness of cattle, 7, ii. 124; - her priest at Nemi, i. 8 _sqq._; - the Tauric, 10 _sq._, 24; - as goddess of childbirth, 12, ii. 128; - as Vesta at Nemi, i. 13, ii. 380; - in relation to vines, i. 15 _sq._; - the mate of the King of the Wood at Nemi, 40, 41, ii. 380; - as a goddess of fertility, 120 _sqq._; - in relation to animals of the woods, 124, 125 _sqq._; - as the moon, 128; - the goddess of fruits, 128; - as a goddess of the oak at Nemi, 380 - - —— and Dianus, ii. 376 _sqq._ - - —— (Jana), a double of Juno, ii. 190 _sq._, 381 _sq._ - - “Diana’s Mirror,” i. 1 - - Dianus (Janus), a double of Jupiter, ii. 190 _sq._, 381 _sq._ - - Diels, Professor H., i. 390 _n._ 2 - - Dieri, the, i. 90, 177, ii. 29; - rain-making ceremonies of the, i. 255 _sqq._ - - Dinka or Denka nation, i. 347 - - Diodorus Siculus, i. 74 - - Diomede, ii. 278; - at Troezen, i. 27; - sacred grove of, 27 - - Dione, wife of Zeus at Dodona, ii. 189; - the old consort of Zeus, 381, 382 - - Dionysius of Halicarnassus, quoted, ii. 202 _sq._ - - Dionysus, marriage of, to the Queen of Athens, ii. 136 _sq._; - and Ariadne, 138 - - Discovery of fire, ii. 255 _sqq._ - - Disease-makers in Tana, i. 341 _sq._ - - “Divine consort, the,” ii. 131 - - Divinity of kings, i. 48 _sqq._; - among the Hovas, 397; - among the Malays, 398; - in great historical empires, 415 _sqq._; - growth of the conception of the, ii. 376 _sqq._ - - —— of the Brahmans, i. 403 _sq._ - - Division of labour in relation to social progress, i. 420 - - Diwali, the feast of lamps, ii. 160 - - Dixon, Dr. W. E., ii. 139 _n._ 1 - - Djakuns, their mode of making fire, ii. 236 - - Djuldjul, i. 274 - - Dodola, the, i. 273 - - Dodona, oracular spring at, ii. 172; - Zeus at, 177; - Zeus and Dione at, 189; - oracular oak at, 358 - - Dog, black, sacrificed for rain, i. 291; - used to stop rain, 303 - - Dogs crowned, i. 14, ii. 125 _sq._, 127 _sq._ - - Dollar-bird associated with rain, i. 287 _sq._ - - Domalde, a Swedish king, i. 366 _sq._ - - Donar or Thunar, the German thunder god, ii. 364 - - Doors, Janus as a god of, ii. 383 _sq._ - - Doreh, in New Guinea, i. 125 - - Dos Santos, J., i. 392 - - Double-headed fetish among the Bush negroes of Surinam, ii. 385; - Janus, explanation of, ii. 384 _sq._ - - Dragon, rain-god represented as, i. 297; - or serpent of water, ii. 155 _sqq._; - of Rouen, destroyed by St. Romain, 164 _sqq._; - the Slaying of the, at Furth, 163 _sq._ - - Dramas, magical, to promote vegetation, ii. 120 - - Dramatic exhibitions sometimes originate in magical rites, ii. 142; - weddings of gods and goddesses, ii. 121 - - Draupadi or Krishna, ii. 306 - - Dreams, modes of counteracting evil, i. 172 _sq._ - - Drenching people with water as a rain-charm, i. 250, 251, 269 _sq._, - 272, 273, 274, 275, 277 _sq._, ii. 77 - - Dropsy, ancient Greek mode of preventing, i. 78 - - Drought supposed to be caused by unburied dead, i. 287; - and dearth, chiefs and kings punished for, 352 _sqq._; - supposed to be caused by sexual crime, ii. 110, 111, 113 - - Drowning as a punishment, ii. 109, 110, 111; - sacrifice by, 364 - - Druids, oak-worship of the, ii. 9; - of Gaul, their sacrifices of white bulls, 189; - female, 241 _n._ 1; - venerate the oak and the mistletoe, 358, 362; - derivation of the name, 363 - - Drums, homoeopathic magic at the making of, i. 134 _sq._; - beaten as a charm against a storm, 328 - - Drynemetum, ii. 363 - - Du Pratz, ii. 263 _n._ 1 - - Dudulé, the, i. 274 - - Duplication of deities an effect of dialectical differences, ii. 382 - _sq._ - - Durostorum, martyrdom of St. Dasius at, ii. 310 _n._ 1 - - Dwarf tribes of Central Africa, ii. 255 - - Dyaks of Borneo, the, i. 73, 127, ii. 13; - the Sea, 127 - - - Ea, the inventor of magic, i. 240 - - Eagle hunters, taboos observed by, i. 116; - charms employed by, 149 _sq._ - - —— -wood, telepathy in search for, i. 120 - - Eagles, sacred, ii. 11 - - Earth and Sun, marriage of the, ii. 98 _sq._, 148 - - —— goddess, pregnant cows sacrificed to, ii. 229 - - Earthquakes supposed to be caused by incest, ii. 111 - - Ebb tide, death at, i. 167 _sq._ - - Eclipse, ceremonies at an, i. 311 _sq._ - - Economic progress a condition of intellectual progress, i. 218 - - Egeria, water nymph at Nemi, i. 17-19, 41, ii. 171 _sq._; - an oak-nymph, 172; - a double of Diana, 380; - and Numa, i. 18, ii. 172 _sqq._, 193, 380 - - Egerius Baebius or Laevius, i. 22 - - Eggs collected at spring ceremonies, ii. 65, 78, 81, 84, 85; - or egg-shells, painted, in spring ceremonies, 63, 65; - in purificatory rite, 109 - - Egypt, magical images in ancient, i. 66, 67 _sq._; - magicians in ancient, 225; - confusion of magic and religion in ancient, 230 _sq._; - kings of, deified in their lifetime, 418 _sqq._; - the Queen of, married to the god Ammon, ii. 131 _sq._; - king of, masquerading as Ammon, 133 - - Egyptian kings and queens, their begetting and birth depicted on the - monuments, ii. 131 _sqq._ - - —— worship of sacred beasts, i. 29 _sq._ - - Egyptians, the ancient, worshipped men and animals, i. 389 _sq._; - sycamores worshipped by the ancient, ii. 15 - - _Eiresione_, ii. 48 - - Elder-tree, ii. 43 - - Elective and hereditary monarchy, combination of the two, ii. 292 - _sqq._ - - Electric lights on mast-heads, spears, etc., i. 49 _sq._ - - Elephant-hunters, telepathy of, i. 123 - - Eleusis, mysteries of, ii. 138 _sq._ - - Elipandus of Toledo, i. 407 - - Elizabeth, Queen, i. 368 - - _Emblica officinalis_, a sacred tree, ii. 51 - - Emin Pasha, ii. 297 _n._ 7 - - Empedocles, his claim to divinity, i. 390 - - Emus, ceremony for the multiplication of, i. 85 _sq._ - - Endymion, ii. 299 - - Ephesian Artemis, ii. 128 - - Ephesus, Artemis of, i. 37 _sq._; - nominal kings at, 47; - the Essenes or King Bees at, ii. 135 _sq._ - - Epicurus, sacrifices offered to, i. 105 - - Erechtheum, the, ii. 199 - - Erechtheus and Erichthonius, ii. 199 - - Erhard, Professor A., ii. 310 _n._ 1 - - Erichthonius, i. 21; - and Erechtheus, ii. 199 - - Eruptions of volcanoes supposed to be caused by incest, ii. 111 - - Esquiline hill at Rome, ii. 185 - - Esquimaux, i. 70, 113, 121, 316, 327 - - Essenes or King Bees at Ephesus, i. 47 _n._ 2, ii. 135 _sq._ - - Esthonian folk-tale of a tree-elf, ii. 71 _sqq._; - marriage custom, 234 - - Esthonians, St. George’s Day among the, ii. 330 _sqq._; - their thunder-god Taara, 367 - - Etruscans, female kinship among the, ii. 286 _sq._ - - Eudanemi, the, at Athens, i. 325 _n._ 1 - - Europe, contagious magic of footprints in, i. 210 _sq._; - confusion of magic and religion in modern, 231-233; - forests of ancient, ii. 7 _sq._; - relics of tree-worship in modern, 59 _sqq._; - diffusion of the oak in, 349 _sqq._ - - —— South-Eastern, rain-making ceremonies in, i. 272 _sqq._ - - Euros, magical ceremony for the multiplication of, i. 89 - - Evelyn, John, i. 369 - - Evergreen oak, the Golden Bough grew on, ii. 379 - - —— trees in Italy, i. 8 - - Evolution of kings out of magicians or medicine-men, i. 420 _sq._; - industrial, from uniformity to diversity of function, 421; - political, from democracy to despotism, 421 - - Exaggerations of anthropological theories, i. 333 - - Exogamy, ii. 271 - - Expiation for adultery or fornication, ii. 107 _sq._; - for incest, 115, 116 - - External soul in afterbirth or navel-string, i. 200 _sq._ - - Extinction of fires at king’s death, ii. 261 _sqq._, 267; - in houses after any death, 267 _sq._ - - Ezekiel, i. 87 _n._ 1 - - - Falerii, Juno at, ii. 190 _n._ 2 - - Falstaff, death of, i. 168 - - Families, royal, kings chosen from several, ii. 292 _sqq._ - - Fan tribe, i. 349 - - Farnell, Dr. L. R., i. 36, ii. 379 _n._ 5 - - Fasting obligatory, i. 124, 131 - - Father Jove and Mother Vesta, ii. 227 _sqq._ - - Fattest men chosen kings, ii. 297 - - February, first of, St. Bride’s day, i. 94 _sq._ - - Fehrle, E., ii. 199 _n._ 5 - - Female descent of the kingship in Rome, ii. 270 _sqq._; - in Africa, 274 _sqq._; - in Greece, 277 _sq._; - in Scandinavia, 279 _sq._; - in Lydia, 281 _sq._; - among Danes and Saxons, 282 _sq._ - - - —— kinship in descent of the Roman kingship, ii. 271; - indifference to paternity of kings under female kinship, 274 _sqq._; - at Athens, 277; - indifference to paternity in general under, 282; - among the Aryans, 283 _sqq._ - _See also_ Mother-kin - - Female slaves, licence accorded to them on the _Nonae Caprotinae_, ii. - 313 _sq._ - - Feng and Wiglet, ii. 281, 283 - - Fennel, fire carried in giant, ii. 260 - - Fertilisation, artificial, of the date palm, ii. 24 _sq._; - of the fig-tree, 314 _sq._ - - —— of women by the wild fig-tree, ii. 316; - by the wild banana-tree, 318 - - Fertilising virtue attributed to trees, ii. 49 _sqq._, 316 _sqq._ - - Fertility, Diana as a goddess of, ii. 120 _sqq._; - the thunder-god conceived as a deity of fertility, 368 _sqq._ - - _Fictores Vestalium, fictores Pontificum_, ii. 204 - - _Ficus Ruminalis_, ii. 318 - - _Fierte_ or shrine of St. Romain, ii. 167, 168, 170 _n._ 1 - - Fig, as an article of diet, ii. 315 _sq._ - - Fig-tree of Romulus (_ficus Ruminalis_), ii. 10, 318 - - —— artificial fertilisation (_caprificatio_) of the, ii. 314 _sq._ - - —— sacred, ii. 44, 99, 249, 250 - - —— the wild, a male, ii. 314 _sq._; - supposed to fertilise women, 316 _sq._; - haunted by spirits of the dead, 317 - - Fiji, catching the sun in, i. 316 - - Fijians, gods of the, i. 389 - - Finnish-Ugrian peoples, sacred groves of the, ii. 10 _sq._ - - Finnish wizards and witches, i. 325 - - Fire in the worship of Diana, i. 12 _sq._; - supposed to be subject to Catholic priests, 231; - used to stop rain, 252 _sq._; - as a charm to rekindle the sun, 311, 313; - of Vesta at Rome fed with oak wood, ii. 186; - birth from the, 195 _sqq._; - the king’s, 195 _sqq._; - impregnation of women by, 195 _sqq._, 230 _sqq._, 234; - taken from sacred hearth to found a new village, 216; - on the hearth, souls of ancestors in the, 232; - reasons for attributing a procreative virtue to, 233 _sq._; - made jointly by man and woman or boy and girl, 235 _sqq._; - custom of extinguishing fire and rekindling it by the friction of - wood, 237 _sq._; - need-fire made by married men, 238; - holy, not to be blown upon with the breath, 240, 241; - tribes reported to be ignorant of the art of kindling, 253 _sqq._; - discovery of, by mankind, 255 _sqq._; - carried about by savages, 257 _sqq._; - kept burning in houses of chiefs and kings, 260 _sqq._; - carried before king or chief, 263 _sq._; - a symbol of life, 265; - leaping over a, 327, 329 - - Fire and Water, Kings of, ii. 3 _sqq._ - - —— -bearer, the, i. 33 - - —— -boards, sacred, of the Chuckchees and Koryaks, ii. 225 _sq._ - - —— customs of the Herero or Damaras, ii. 211 _sqq._; - compared to those of the Romans, ii. 227 _sqq._ - - —— -drill, the, ii. 207 _sqq._, 248 _sqq._, 258 _sq._, 263; - the kindling of fire by it regarded by savages as a form of sexual - intercourse, 208 _sqq._, 218, 233, 235 _sq._, 239, 249 _sq._; - of the Herero, 217 _sq._ - - —— -god married to a human virgin, ii. 195 _sqq._ - - —— kindled by the friction of wood, ii. 207 _sqq._, 235 _sqq._, 243, - 248 _sqq._, 258 _sq._, 262, 263, 336, 366, 372; - from ancestral tree, 221, 233 _sq._; - by natural causes, 256; - by lightning, 263 - - —— “living,” ii. 237; - a charm against witchcraft, 336 - - —— “new,” ii. 237; - sent from Delos and Delphi, i. 32 _sq._; - made at beginning of king’s reign, ii. 262, 267; - made at Midsummer, 243 - - —— -priests (_Agnihotris_) of the Brahmans, ii. 247 _sqq._ - - —— -sticks of fire-drill regarded as male and female, ii. 208 _sqq._, - 235, 238, 239, 248 _sqq._ - - —— -worship a form of ancestor-worship, ii. 221 - - Fires ceremonially extinguished, i. 33; - kept up for sake of absent persons, 120 _sq._, 128, 129; - extinguished at death of kings, ii. 261 _sqq._, 267; - at any death, 267 _sq._; - ceremonial, kindled by the friction of oak-wood, 372 - - —— perpetual, of Vesta, i. 13 _sq._; - in Ireland, ii. 240 _sqq._; - in Peru and Mexico, 243 _sqq._; - origin of, 253 _sqq._; - associated with royal dignity, 261 _sqq._; - of oak-wood, 365, 366 - - First-fruits, dedication of, i. 32 - - Fish, magical ceremony for the multiplication of, i. 90; - in rain-charm, 288 _sq._ - - Fishermen, Shetland, i. 69 - - —— and hunters cursed for good luck, i. 280 _sq._ - - Fishing and hunting, homoeopathic magic in, i. 108 _sqq._; - telepathy in, 120 _sqq._ - - Fison, Rev. Lorimer, i. 316, 331 _n._ 2, 378, 389 _n._ 3, ii. 13 _n._ 1 - - Fladda’s chapel, i. 322 - - _Flamen_, derivation of the name, ii. 235, 247 - - —— Dialis, the, ii. 179, 235, 246, 247, 248; - an embodiment of Jupiter, 191 _sq._ - - Flaminica, the, ii. 191, 235 - - Flax, charms to make flax grow tall, i. 138 _sq._, ii. 86, 164 - - Flight of the king (_Regifugium_) at Rome, ii. 308 _sqq._, 311 _n._ 4; - of sacrificer after the sacrifice, 309; - of the People at Rome, 319 _n._ 1 - - Flint implements supposed to be thunderbolts, ii. 374 - - Floquet, A., ii. 168, 169 - - Flowers, divination from, ii. 345 - - Food, homoeopathic magic for the supply of, i. 85 _sqq._ - - Foods tabooed, i. 117 _sqq._ - - Footprints, contagious magic of, i. 207-212 - - “Forced fire” or need-fire, ii. 238 - - Foreigners marry princesses and receive the kingdom with them, ii. 270 - _sqq._ - - Foreskins removed at circumcision, uses of, i. 92 _sq._, 95; - used in rain-making, 256 _sq._ - - Forests of ancient Europe, ii. 7 _sq._ - - Fortuna and Servius Tullius, ii. 193 _n._ 1, 272 - - Forum at Rome, prehistoric cemetery in the, ii. 186, 202 - - Foucart, P., ii. 139 _n._ 1 - - Fowler, W. Warde, ii. 311 _n._ 4, 319 _n._ 1, 327 _n._ 2, 329 _n._ 6, - 383 _n._ 3 - - Fox in magic, i. 151 - - _Fratres Arvales_, ii. 122 - - Free Spirit, Brethren of the, i. 408 - - French peasants ascribe magical powers to priests, i. 231-233 - - Frey, the god of fertility and his human wife, ii. 143 _sq._; - his image and festival at Upsala, 364 _sq._ - - Friction of wood, fire kindled by, ii. 207 _sqq._, 235 _sqq._, 243, 248 - _sqq._, 258 _sq._, 262, 263, 336, 366, 372 - - Frog, magic of, i. 151; - worshipped, 294 _sq._; - love-charm made from the bone of a, ii. 345 - - —— flayer, the, ii. 86 - - Frogs in relation to rain, i. 292 _sqq._ - - Froth from a mill-wheel as a charm against witches, ii. 340 - - Fruit-trees fertilised by women, i. 140 _sq._ - - Fruits blessed on day of Assumption of the Virgin, i. 14 _sqq._; - Artemis and Diana as patronesses of, 15 _sq._ - - Fuegians, the, ii. 258 - - Fumigating flocks and herds as a charm against witchcraft, ii. 327, - 330, 335, 336, 339, 343 - - Furth in Bavaria, the Slaying of the Dragon at, ii. 163 _sqq._ - - Furtwängler, A., i. 309 _n._ 6 - - Futuna, i. 388 - - _Fylgia_ or guardian spirit in Iceland, i. 200 - - - Galatians, their Celtic language, ii. 126 _n._ 2 - - Galelareesc, the, i. 110, 113, 131, 143, 145, ii. 22 - - Gallas, kings of the, i. 48; - sacred trees of the, ii. 34 - - Garcilasso de la Vega, ii. 244 _n._ 1 - - Gardiner, Professor J. Stanley, ii. 154 - - _Gargouille_ or dragon destroyed by St. Romain, ii. 167 - - Garlands on May Day, ii. 60 _sqq._, 90 _sq._ - - Gaul, the Druids of, ii. 189 - - Gauri, harvest-goddess, ii. 77 _sq._ - - Gayos, the, ii. 125 - - Gennep, A. van, ii. 385 _n._ 1 - - Geomancy in China, i. 170 - - George, Green, ii. 75, 76, 79 - - Germans, worship of women among the ancient, i. 391; - tree-worship among the ancient, ii. 8 _sq._; - evidence of mother-kin among the, 285; - worship of the oak among the ancient, 363 _sq._ - - _Gerontocracy_ in Australia, i. 335 - - Gervasius of Tilbury, i. 301 - - Getae, the, i. 392 - - Ghosts in Melanesia, supposed powers of, i. 338 _sq._ - - Gilyaks, the, i. 122, ii. 38 - - Girl annually sacrificed to cedar-tree, ii. 17 - - Girls married to nets, ii. 147; - sacrificed to crocodiles, 152 - - Glory, the Hand of, i. 149 - - Glover, T. R., ii. 231 _n._ 6 - - Goat, blood of, drunk as means of inspiration, i. 382, 383 - - God, Bride of, i. 276; - savage ideas of, different from those of civilised men, 375 _sq._ - - “God-boxes,” i. 378 - - Gods viewed as magicians, i. 240 _sqq._, 375; - sacrifice themselves by fire, 315 _n._ 1; - conception of, slowly evolved, 373 _sq._; - incarnate human, 373 _sqq._; - gods and men, no sharp line of distinction between, in Fiji, 389; - and goddesses, dramatic weddings of, ii. 121; - the marriage of the, 129 _sqq._; - married to women, 129 _sqq._, 143 _sq._, 146 _sq._, 149 _sqq._ - - Gold in magic, i. 80 _sq._ - - Golden Bough plucked by Aeneas, i. 11, ii. 379; - the breaking of it not a piece of bravado, i. 123 _sq._; - grew on an evergreen oak, ii. 379 - - Golden lamb of Mycenae, i. 365 - - “Golden summer,” the, i. 32 - - Gonds, their belief in reincarnation, i. 104 _sq._ - - Gongs beaten in a storm, i. 328 _sq._; - at Dodona, ii. 358 - - Government of old men in aboriginal Australia, i. 334 _sq._ - - Grafting, superstitious ceremony at, ii. 100 - - Granger, Professor F., i. 42 _n._ 1 - - _Grasausläuten_, ii. 344 - - Grass King, the, ii. 85 _sq._ - - —— seed, magical ceremony for the multiplication of, i. 87 _sq._; - continence at magical ceremony for growth of, ii. 105 - - Graveclothes, homoeopathic magic of, in China, i. 168 _sq._ - - Graves, rain-charms at, i. 268, 286, 291; - trees planted on graves, ii. 31; - dances on, 183 _n._ 2; - of Hyperborean maidens at Delos, i. 28, 33 _sqq._ - - Great Sun, the, title of chief, ii. 262, 263 - - Greece, priestly kings in, i. 44 _sqq._; - kings and chiefs sacred or divine in ancient, 366; - human gods in ancient, 390 _sq._; - forests of, ii. 8; - female descent of kingship in ancient, 278 _sq._ - - Greek kings called Zeus, ii. 177, 361 - - Greeks, the modern, rain-making ceremonies among, i. 272 _sq._; - and Romans, rain-charms among the ancient, 309 _sq._ - - Green boughs a charm against witches, ii. 52-55, 127, 342 _sq._ - - —— George, ii. 75, 76, 79, 343 - - —— Thursday, ii. 333 - - Greenwich-hill, custom of rolling down, ii. 103 - - Gregory of Tours, ii. 144 - - Grimm, J., ii. 8, 362 _n._ 6, 364 - - Grizzly bears supposed to be related to human twins, i. 264 _sq._ - - Groves, sacred, ii. 10 _sq._, 44; - Arician, i. 20, 22, ii. 115; - in Chios, i. 45; - in ancient Greece and Rome, ii. 121 _sqq._ - - Grunau, Simon, ii. 366 _n._ 2 - - Guanches of Teneriffe, i. 303 - - Guardian spirit associated with caul, i. 199 _sq._ - - Guaycurus, the, i. 330 - - Gunkel, H., i. 101 _n._ 2 - - Gunnar Helming, ii. 144 - - Gunputty, elephant-headed god, human incarnation of, i. 405 _sq._ - - Gyges, ii. 281, 282 - - Gypsies, Green George among the, ii. 75 _sq._ - - Gypsy ceremonies for stopping rain, i. 295 _sq._ - - - Hack-thorn sacred, ii. 48 - - Haddon, Dr. A. C., i. 262 - - Hahn, Dr. C. H., ii. 213 _n._ 2 - - Haida Indians, i. 70, 133 - - Hair offered to gods and goddesses, heroes and heroines, i. 28 _sq._; - offered to the dead, 31, 102; - offered to rivers, 31; - clippings of, used in magic, 57, 64, 65, 66; - charms to make hair grow, 83, 145, 153 _sq._, 154; - loose as a charm, 136; - human, used in rain-making, 251 _sq._; - long, a symbol of royalty, ii. 180 - - Hakea flowers, ceremony for the multiplication of, i. 86 - - Hakim Singh, i. 409 - - Halford in Warwickshire, May Day customs at, ii. 88 _sq._ - - Hamlet, ii. 281, 291 - - Hammer worshipped, i. 317 _sq._ - - Hammurabi, code of, ii. 130 - - Hand of Glory, i. 149 - - Hardy, Thomas, i. 136 - - Hares as witches, i. 212, ii. 53 - - Harran, the heathen of, i. 383, ii. 25, 100 _n._ 2 - - Harris, J. Rendel, i. 15 _n._ 1, 21 _n._ 2 - - Harrison, Miss J. E., ii. 137 _n._ 1, 139 _n._ 1 - - Hartland, E. S., i. 52 _n._ 1, ii. 156 _n._ 2 - - Harvest in Greece, date of, i. 32 - - —— May, the, ii. 47 _sq._ - - Hatshopsitou, birth of Queen, ii. 131 _sqq._ - - - Hawaii, insignia of royal family of, i. 388 _n._ 3 - - Hawthorn on May Day, ii. 52, 60; - a protection against witches, 55, 127 - - Head-hunters, rules observed by people at home in absence of, i. 129 - - Headmen of totem clans in Central Australia, i. 335 - - Heads, custom of moulding heads artificially, ii. 297 _sq._ - - Hearn, Dr. W. E., ii. 283 _n._ 5 - - Hearth, the king’s, at Rome, ii. 195, 200, 206; - sacred, of the Herero, 213, 214; - the sacred, seat of the ancestral spirits, 221; - custom of leading a bride round the, 230, 231; - new-born children brought to the, 232 - - Hearts of men and animals offered to the sun, i. 315 - - Heaven, vault of, imitated in rain-charm, i. 261, 262 - - Heavenly Master, the, i. 413 - - Hebrew prohibition of images, i. 87 _n._ 1 - - —— prophets, their ethical religion, i. 223 - - Hebrews, their notion of the blighting effect of sexual crime, ii. 114 - _sq._ - - Hegel on magic and religion, i. 235 _n._ 1, 423 _sqq._ - - Hehn, V., on evergreens in Italy, i. 8 _n._ 4 - - _Heimskringla_, ii. 280 - - Heine, H., _Pilgrimage to Kevlaar_, i. 77 - - Hekaerge and Hekaergos, i. 33, 34, 35 - - _Helaga_, taboo, ii. 106 _n._ 2 - - Helbig, W., i. 20 _n._ 5 - - Helernus, grove of, ii. 190 _sq._ - - Hellebore, curses at cutting black, i. 281 - - Hemlock as an anaphrodisiac, ii. 138, 139 _n._ 1 - - Hemp, charms to make hemp grow tall, i. 137 _sq._ - - Heno, the thunder-spirit of the Iroquois, ii. 369 _sq._ - - Hera and Hercules, i. 74 - - Hercules, sacrifice to, i. 281 - - —— and Achelous, ii. 162 - - —— and Hera, i. 74 - - —— and Omphale, ii. 281 - - Hercynian forest, the, ii. 7, 354; - etymology of the name, 354 _n._ 2 - - Hereditary and elective monarchy, combination of the two, ii. 292 - _sqq._ - - Herero or Damaras, their fire-customs, ii. 211 _sqq._ - - Hermutrude, legendary queen of Scotland, ii. 281 - - Herodotus, i. 49, 331 - - Hersilia, a Sabine goddess, ii. 193 _n._ 1 - - Heyne, C. G., ii. 329 _n._ 1 - - Hidatsa Indians, ii. 12 - - Hierapolis, i. 29 - - Hierophant at Eleusis temporarily deprived of his virility, ii. 138 - - Highlands of Scotland, St. Bride’s day in, ii. 94 - - Hindoo Koosh, sacred cedar of the, i. 383; - the Kafirs of the, 385 - - —— Trinity, i. 225 - - Hindoos, magical images among the, i. 63 _sqq._ - - Hippoclides and Clisthenes, ii. 307 _sq._ - - Hippocrates, sacrifices offered to, i. 105 - - Hippodamia and Pelops, ii. 279, 299 _sq._ - - Hippolytus in relation to Virbius at Nemi, i. 19 _sq._; - offerings of hair to, 28 - - —— and Artemis, i. 19 _sq._, 24 _sqq._ - - —— Saint, martyrdom of, i. 21 - - Hirn, Y., i. 52 _n._ 1, 54 _n._ 1 - - Hirt, Professor H., ii. 367 _n._ 3 - - Hobby Horse at Padstow, ii. 68 - - Hobley, C. W., ii. 316 - - Hog’s blood, purifying virtue of, i. 107 - - Holed stone in magic, i. 313 - - Holland, Whitsuntide customs in, ii. 104 - - Holy Basil, ii. 26 - - Homoeopathic taboos, i. 116; - magic for the making of rain, 247 _sqq._ - _See also_ Magic - - Hopi Indians, the, ii. 208 _sq._ - - Horse, sacred, i. 364; - sacrificed at Rome in October, ii. 229, 326 - - Horses excluded from Arician grove, i. 20; - dedicated by Hippolytus to Aesculapius, 21 _n._ 2, 27; - branded with mark of wolf, 27; - in relation to Diomede, 27; - sacrifice of white, 27; - sacrificed to the sun, 315 _sq._; - sacrificed to trees, ii. 16; - sanctity of white, 174 _n._ 2; - sacrifices for, on St. George’s Day, 332, 336 _sq._ - - Horus, the golden, i. 418 - - Hos, the, of Togoland, i. 396 _sq._, ii. 19, 370 - - Hot water drunk as a charm, i. 129 - - House-timber, homoeopathic magic of, i. 146 - - Housebreakers, charms employed by, to cause sleep, i. 148 _sq._ - - Hovas, divinity of kings among the, i. 397 - - Howitt, A. W., i. 176, 207, 208 - - Hubert and Mauss, Messrs., i. 111 _n._ 2 - - Huichol Indians, i. 71, 123 - - Human gods, i. 373 _sqq._ - - —— victims sacrificed to water-spirits, ii. 157 _sqq._ - - Humboldt, A. von, i. 416 - - Hunters employ contagious magic of footprints, i. 211 _sq._ - - Huntin, a tree-god, ii. 15 - - Hunting and fishing, homoeopathic magic in, i. 108 _sqq._; - telepathy in, 120 _sqq._ - - “Hurling” for a bride, ii. 305 _sq._ - - Hurons, the, ii. 147; - reincarnation among the, i. 105; - their mode of counteracting an evil dream, 172 _sq._ - - Husbands, spiritual, ii. 316 _sq._ - - Hut-urns of ancient Latins, ii. 201 _sq._ - - Huts, round, of the ancient Latins, ii. 200 _sqq._; - in Africa, 227 _n._ 3 - - Huzuls, the, i. 113, 137; - their precautions against witches, ii. 336 - - Hymettus, ii. 360 - - Hyperborean maidens at Delos, i. 33 - - - Ibn Batutah, ii. 153 - - Icarius, ii. 300 - - Iceland, superstitions as to the caul in, i. 199 _sqq._ - - Iddah, king of, i. 396 - - Igaras, succession to the kingship among the, ii. 294 - - Illicit love supposed to blight the fruits of the earth, ii. 107 _sqq._ - - Images, Hebrew prohibition of, i. 87 _n._ 1 - - —— magical, to injure people, i. 55 _sqq._; - to procure offspring, 70-74; - to win love, 77 - - Impressions, bodily, contagious magic of, i. 213 _sq._ - - Incarnate human gods, i. 373 _sqq._ - - Incarnation of gods in human form temporary or permanent, i. 376; - examples of temporary incarnation, 376 _sqq._; - examples of permanent incarnation, 386 _sqq._; - mystery of, 396 _n._ 5 - - Incas, the children of the Sun, i. 415 - - Incense, fumes of, inhaled to produce inspiration, i. 379, 384 - - —— -gatherers, chastity of, ii. 106 _sq._ - - Incest, blighting effects attributed to, ii. 108, 110 _sq._, 113, 115 - _sqq._; - of domestic animals abhorred by the Basoga, 112 _sq._; - of animals employed as a rain-charm, 113 - - India, ancient, confusion of magic and religion in, i. 228 _sq._; - magical power of kings in, 366; - incarnate human gods in, 376, 402 _sqq._ - - Indifference to paternity of kings under female kinship, ii. 274 _sqq._ - - Indra, thunderbolt of, i. 269 - - Industrial evolution from uniformity to diversity of function, i. 421 - - Infidelity of wife disastrous to absent husband, i. 123, 131 - - Influence of the sexes on vegetation, ii. 97 _sqq._ - - Initiatory ceremonies of Central Australian aborigines, i. 92 _sqq._ - - —— rites of Australian aborigines, suggested explanation of, i. 106. - - Inquisition, the, i. 407, 408 - - Insects, homoeopathic magic of, i. 152 - - Inspiration, i. 376 _sqq._; - by incense, 379; - by blood, 381 _sqq._; - by sacred plant or tree, 383 _sqq._; - of victims, 384 _sqq._ - - Inspired or religious type of man-god, i. 244 - - —— priests and priestesses, i. 377 _sqq._ - - Intellectual progress dependent on economic progress, i. 218 - - Intercourse of the sexes practised to make the crops and fruits grow, - ii. 98 _sqq._ - - _Intichiuma_, magical totemic ceremonies in Central Australia, i. 85 - - Invulnerability, charm to produce, i. 146 _sq._ - - Ireland, perpetual fires in, ii. 240 _sqq._ - - —— sacred oak groves in ancient, 242 _sq._ - - Irish kings, magical virtues attributed to, i. 367 - - Irle, J., ii. 223 _n._ 2 - - Iron, homoeopathic magic of, i. 159 _sq._ - - Iroquois, the, ii. 12; - their thunder-god, 369 _sq._ - - Isle of Man, St. Bridget in the, ii. 94 _sq._ - - —— of May, ii. 161 - - Ivy chewed by Bachanals, i. 384; - in fire-making, ii. 251 _sq._ - - - Jack-in-the-Green, ii. 82 - - Jana, another form of Diana, ii. 381, 382, 383 - - _Jangam_, priest of the Lingayats, i. 404 - - Janiculum hill, the, ii. 186 - - _Janua_, derived from Janus, ii. 384 - - Janus, as a god of doors, ii. 383 _sq._; - explanation of the two-headed, 384 _sq._ - - —— and Carna, ii. 190 - - —— (Dianus) and Diana, doubles of Jupiter and Juno, ii. 190 _sq._, 381 - _sq._ - - Jaundice treated by homoeopathic magic, i. 79 _sqq._ - - Java, ceremonies to procure offspring in, i. 73; - ceremonies for preventing rain in, 270 _sq._ - - Jerome of Prague, i. 317 - - Jevons, F. B., i. 105, 225 _n._ - - Jewitt, J. R., i. 264 - - Jinnee of the sea, virgins married to, ii. 153 _sq._ - - Job’s protest, ii. 114 - - Johnson, Dr. S., i. 368, 370 - - Johnston, Sir H. H., ii. 227 _n._ 3 - - Jordan, H., ii. 321 _n._ 3 - - Joubert, quoted, i. 223 _n._ 2 - - Jove (Father) and Mother Vesta, ii. 227 _sqq._ - - Jubainville, H. d’Arbois de, ii. 362 _n._ 6 - - Judah, idolatrous kings of, i. 315 - - Jukagirs, the, i. 122 - - Julian, the Emperor, ii. 7 - - Julii, the, ii. 179, 192 - - Julus, the Little Jupiter, ii. 179, 197 - - July the 7th, the _Nonae Caprotinae_, a Roman festival, ii. 313 _sqq._ - - June, the first of, a Roman festival, ii. 190 - - Juno on the Capitol, ii. 184; - at Falerii, 190 _n._ 2; - a duplicate of Diana, 381 _sq._ - - —— Caprotina, ii. 313, 317 - - —— Moneta, ii. 189 - - Jupiter, costume of, ii. 174 _sq._; - the Roman kings in the character of, 174 _sqq._; - Capitoline, 176; - the Little, 179, 192; - Latian, 187, 379; - as god of the oak, the thunder, the rain, and the sky, 358, 361 - _sq._; - as sky-god, 374; - a duplicate of Janus (Dianus), 381 _sq._ - - —— and Juno, doubles of Janus and Diana, ii. 190 _sq._; - sacred marriage of, 190 - - —— Dianus, ii. 382 - - —— Elicius, ii. 183 - - —— Indiges, ii. 181 - - Jupiters, many local, in Latium, ii. 184 - - Juturna, a nymph, ii. 382 - - - Kachins of Burma, the, ii. 237 - - Kafirs of the Hindoo Koosh, i. 133 _sq._, 385 - - Kaitish tribe of Central Australia, i. 87 - - Kali, the goddess, i. 383 - - Kamilaroi, the, i. 101 - - Kangaroos, ceremony for the multiplication of, i. 87 _sq._ - - Kara-Kirghiz, ii. 57 - - Karens of Burma, i. 209; - their custom in regard to fornication and adultery, ii. 107 _sq._ - - Karo-Bataks, the, of Sumatra, i. 277 - - _Kausika Sutra_, i. 209, 229 - - Kayans or Bahaus of Borneo, i. 328, ii. 109 - - Kei Islands, i. 126, 131, 145 - - Kenyahs of Borneo, i. 59, ii. 385 - - Keremet, a god of the Wotyaks, ii. 145 _sq._ - - Kevlaar, Virgin Mary of, i. 77 - - “Key-race,” ii. 304 - - Keys, the golden, ii. 333 - - Khasis of Assam, succession to the kingdom among the, ii. 294 _sq._ - - Khnoumou, the god, ii. 132 - - Kidd, Dudley, i. 49 _n._ 3, 350, ii. 211, 224 _n._ 4 - - Kildare, fire and nuns of St. Brigit at, ii. 240 _sq._ - - Kimbugwe, high official in Uganda, i. 196 - - King, J. E., i. 105 _n._ 4 - - King gives oracles, i. 377; - the Grass, ii. 85 _sq._; - the Leaf, 85; - the Roman, as Jupiter, 174 _sqq._ - - —— and Queen at Athens, i. 44 _sq._ - - —— of Sacred Rites at Rome, i. 44, ii. 201; - his flight, 309 - - —— of the Saturnalia, ii. 311 - - —— of the Wood at Nemi, i. 1 _sqq._, ii. 1; - a mate of Diana, i. 40, 41, ii. 380; - a personification of the oak-god Jupiter, 378 _sqq._ - _See also_ Priest of Nemi - - —— Bees (Essenes) at Ephesus, ii. 135 _sq._ - - Kingdom, mortal combat for the, ii. 322; - in ancient Latium, succession to, 266 _sqq._ - - Kings, priestly, i. 44 _sqq._; - titular or sacred, in Greece, 44 _sqq._; - Teutonic, 47; - magicians as, 332 _sqq._; - as rain-makers in Africa, 348, 350 _sqq._; - punished for drought and dearth, 353 _sqq._; - among the Aryans, magical powers attributed to, 366 _sqq._; - divinity of, in great historical empires, 415 _sqq._; - of nature, ii. 1 _sqq._; - of rain, 2; - Roman, as deities in a Sacred Marriage, 172 _sq._, 192, 193 _sq._; - Greek, called Zeus, 177, 361; - expected to make thunder, 180 _sq._; - the Latin, thought to be the sons of the fire-god by mortal mothers, - 195 _sqq._; - perpetual fire in houses of, 261 _sq._; - Roman, as personifications of Jupiter, 266 _sq._; - paternity of, a matter of indifference under female kinship, 274 - _sqq._; - sometimes of a different race from their subjects, 288 _sq._; - chosen from several royal families in rotation, 292 _sqq._; - fat, 297; - handsomest men, 297; - long-headed, 297; - sacred or divine, development of, 376 _sqq._ - _See also_ Latin _and_ Roman - - Kings’ Evil (scrofula), touching for the, i. 368 _sqq._ - - —— fire, the, ii. 195 _sqq._ - - —— Race, the, ii. 84 - - —— sisters, licence accorded to, ii. 274 _sqq._ - - Kingship, annual, in ancient Greece, i. 46 - - —— contest for the, at Whitsuntide, ii. 89 - - —— descent of the, in the female line, at Rome, ii. 270 _sqq._; - in Africa, 274 _sqq._; - in Greece, 277 _sq._; - in Scandinavia, 279 _sq._; - in Lydia, 281 _sq._; - among the Danes and Saxons, 282 _sq._ - - —— evolution of the sacred, i. 420 _sq._ - - —— nominal, left by conquerors to indigenous race, ii. 288 _sq._ - - —— Roman, abolition of the, ii. 289 _sqq._ - - —— the old Roman, a religious office, ii. 289 - - Kingsley, Miss Mary H., i. 411 _n._ 1 - - Kintu, ii. 261 - - Kirghiz, “Love Chase” among the, ii. 301 - - Knocking out of teeth as initiatory ceremony in Australia, i. 97 _sqq._ - - Knots, tying up the wind in, i. 326 - - Kolkodoons, the, i. 93 - - Kondhs, their belief in reincarnation, i. 104 - - Koniags, the, i. 121 - - Koryaks, sacred fire-boards of the, ii. 225; - race for a bride among the, 302 - - Krishna, i. 406; - marriage of, to the Holy Basil, ii. 26 - - Kunama, the, ii. 3 - - Kvasir, i. 241 - - Kwakiutl Indians, their superstitions as to twins, i. 263 - - - Lac, taboos observed in gathering, i. 115 - - Lacueva, Father, ii. 205 _n._ - - Ladder to facilitate the descent of the sun, ii. 99 - - _Laetare_ Sunday, ii. 63 - - _Laibon_, i. 343 - - Lake-dwellings of prehistoric Europe, ii. 352 _sq._ - - Lakes, gods of lakes married to women, ii. 150 _sq._ - - Lakshmi, wife of Vishnu, ii. 26 - - Lamas, transmigrations of the Grand, i. 410 _sqq._ - - Lamb of Mycenae, the golden, i. 365 - - Lamb, blood of, as means of inspiration, i. 381 - - Lambing, time of, ii. 328 _n._ 4 - - Lamps, dedication of burning, i. 12 _sq._ - - Lane, E. W., ii. 209 _n._ 4 - - Language, special, for kings and persons of blood royal, i. 401 - - _Lapis manalis_ at Rome, i. 310 - - Larch-tree, sacred, ii. 20 - - Lares, the, ii. 206 - - - Latin confederacy, the, in relation to sacred Arician grove, i. 22 - _sq._ - - —— kings thought to be the sons of the fire-god by mortal mothers, ii. - 195 _sqq._; - lists of, 268 _sqq._; - stories of their miraculous birth, 272 - - Latinus, changed into Latian Jupiter, ii. 187; - his wife a Vestal, 235 - - Latium, many local Jupiters in, ii. 184; - in antiquity, the woods of, 188; - succession to the kingdom in ancient, 266 _sqq._ - - Latuka, rain-makers among the, i. 346, 354 - - Laurel chewed as means of inspiration, i. 384; - in fire-making, ii. 251 _sq._ - - Lavinium, worship of Vesta at, i. 14 - - Lazy Man, the, ii. 83 - - Leaf-clad mummers, ii. 74 _sqq._, 78 _sqq._; - mock marriage of, ii. 97 - - Leaf King, the, ii. 85 - - —— Man, the Little, ii. 80 _sq._ - - Leafy bust at Nemi, portrait of the King of the Wood, i. 41 _sq._ - - Leaping over a fire, ii. 327, 329 - - —— and dancing to make the crops grow high, i. 137 _sqq._ - - Lemnos, new fire brought to, i. 32 - - Lengua Indians, i. 313, 330, 359 - - Lent, fourth Sunday in, ii. 73, 87 - - Lerons of Borneo, i. 59 - - Leschiy, a woodland spirit, ii. 124 _sq._ - - Leto, ii. 58 - - Lévi, Professor Sylvain, i. 228 - - Lhasa, i. 411 _sq._ - - Licence accorded to slaves at the Saturnalia, ii. 312; - to female slaves at the _Nonae Caprotinae_, 313 _sq._ - - Lightning, charm against, i. 82; - imitation of, 248, 303; - thought to be the father of twins, 266; - wood of tree that has been struck by, 319; - fire kindled by, ii. 263; - African deities of, 370; - supposed to be produced by means of flints, 374; - Zeus, i. 33, ii. 361 - - Lime-trees sacred, ii. 366, 367 - - Lindus in Rhodes, i. 281 - - Lingayats, the, i. 404 - - Lithuanians, the heathen, i. 317, ii. 46; - tree-worship among the, 9; - sacrifice to Pergrubius, 347; - the thunder-god Perkunas of the, 365 _sqq._; - their reverence for oaks, 366, 371 - - Little Jupiter, the, ii. 179, 192 - - —— Leaf Man, ii. 80 _sq._ - - “Living fire,” ii. 237; - as a charm against witchcraft, 336 - - Lo Bengula, i. 351, 352, 394 - - Loango, king of, revered as a god, i. 396; - fights all rivals for his crown, ii. 322 - - —— licence of princesses in, ii. 276 _sq._ - - _Lobo_, spirit-house, ii. 39 - - Local totem centres, i. 96 - - Locrians, the Epizephyrian, ii. 284 _sq._ - - “Longevity garments,” i. 169 - - Long-headed men chosen kings, ii. 297 - - Loon, the bird, associated with rain, i. 288 - - Lord of the Wood, ii. 36; - of Misrule, 319 _n._ 1 - - —— and Lady of the May, ii. 90 _sq._ - - Loucheux, the, i. 356 - - Love, cure for, i. 161; - illicit, thought to blight the fruits of the earth, ii. 107 _sqq._ - - Love-charms practised on St. George’s Day, ii. 345 _sq._ - - “Love Chase” among the Kirghiz, ii. 301 - - Lovers of goddesses, their unhappy ends, i. 39 _sq._ - - Low, Sir Hugh, ii. 30, 31 - - _Lubare_, god, i. 395 - - Lucian on hair offerings, i. 28 - - Lucius, E., i. 13 _n._ 1 - - Luxor, paintings at, ii. 131, 133 - - Lyall, Sir A. C., i. 224 _n._ 1 - - Lycaeus, Mount, ii. 359 - - Lycurgus, king of Thrace, i. 366 - - Lydia, female descent of kingship in, ii. 281 _sq._ - - - Mabuiag, i. 59, 263, 323 - - Macdonald, Rev. J., i. 110, ii. 210 _sq._ - - “Macdonald’s disease, the,” i. 370 _n._ 3 - - MacGregor, Sir William, i. 337 - - “Macleod’s Fairy Banner,” i. 368 - - Macrobius, ii. 385 _n._ 2 - - Madagascar, King of, i. 47 _sq._; - foods tabooed in, 117 _sq._; - custom of women in Madagascar while men are at war, 131; - modes of counteracting evil omens in, 173 _sq._ - - Madness, cure of, i. 161 - - Maeander, the river, supposed to take the virginity of brides, ii. 162 - - Magian priests, ii. 241 _n._ 4 - - - Magic, principles of, i. 52 _sqq._; - negative, 111 _sqq._; - public and private, 214 _sq._; - benefits conferred by, 218 _sq._; - its analogy to science, 220 _sq._; - attraction of, 221; - fatal flaw of, 221 _sq._; - based on a misapplication of the association of ideas, 221 _sq._; - opposed in principle to religion, 224; - older than religion, 233 _sqq._; - universality of belief in, 234-236; - transition from magic to religion, 237 _sqq._, ii. 376 _sq._; - the fallacy of, not easy to detect, i. 242 _sq._ - - Magic, Contagious, i. 52-54, 174-214; - of teeth, 176-182; - of navel-string and afterbirth (placenta), 182-201; - ofwound and weapon, 201 _sqq._; - of foot-prints, 207-212; - of other impressions, 213 _sq._ - - —— Homoeopathic or Imitative, i. 52 _sqq._; - in medicine, 78 _sqq._; - for the supply of food, 85 _sqq._; - in fishing and hunting, 108 _sqq._; - to make plants grow, 136 _sqq._; - of the dead, 147 _sqq._; - of animals, 150 _sqq._; - of inanimate things, 157 _sqq._; - to annul evil omens, 170-174; - for the making of rain, 247 _sqq._ - - —— Sympathetic, i. 51 _sqq._; - the two branches of, 54; - examples of, 55 _sqq._ - - —— and religion, i. 220-243, 250, 285, 286, 347, 352; - confused together, 226 _sqq._; - their historical antagonism comparatively late, 226; - Hegel on, 423 _sqq._ - - Magical control of rain, i. 247 _sqq._; - of the sun, 311 _sqq._; - of the wind, 319 _sqq._ - - —— dramas to promote vegetation, ii. 120 - - —— origin of certain religious dramas, ii. 142 _sq._ - - —— type of man-god, i. 244 - - - Magician, public, his rise to power, i. 215 _sqq._ - - Magician’s progress, the, i. 214 _sqq._, 335 _sqq._ - - Magicians claim to compel the gods, i. 225; - gods viewed as, 240 _sqq._; - importance of rise of professional magicians, 245 _sqq._; - as kings, 332 _sqq._; - develop into kings, 420 _sq._ - _See also_ Medicine-men - - _Mahabharata_, the, ii. 306 - - Maharajas, a Hindoo sect, i. 406, ii. 160 - - Maidu Indians, i. 122, 357 - - _Maillotins_, ii. 63 - - Maimonides, i. 140, ii. 100 _n._ 2 - - Maize, continence at sowing, ii. 105 - - Makalakas, the, i. 394 - - Makatisses, the, i. 71 - - Makrizi, i. 252, ii. 151 _n._ 2 - - Malay charms, i. 57 _sq._ - - —— magic, i. 110 _sq._, 114 _sq._, 127 - - —— Peninsula, the wild tribes of the, i. 360 - - —— region, divinity of kings in, i. 398 - - Malays, their superstitious veneration for their rajahs, i. 361; - regalia among the, 362 - - Maldive Islands, ii. 153, 154 - - Malecki (Maeletius, Menecius), J., ii. 366 _n._ 2 - - Man, E. H., ii. 253 - - “Man, the True,” i. 413 - - —— -god, the two types of, i. 244 _sq._; - notion of a man-god belongs to early period of religious history, 374 - _sq._ - - _Mana_, supernatural or magical power in Melanesia, i. 111 _n._ 2, 227, - 228 _n._ 1, 339 - - Mangaia, i. 378 - - _Mania_, a bogey, i. 22 - - Manii at Aricia, i. 22 - - Manius Egerius, i. 22 - - Manna, ceremony for the magical multiplication of, i. 88 _sq._ - - Mannhardt, W., i. 140 _n._ 6, ii. 47, 78 _sq._, 84, 87 - - _Mantras_, sacred texts, i. 403 _sq._ - - _Manu, the Laws of_, i. 366, 402 - - Maoris, the, i. 71; - magic of navel-string and afterbirth among the, 182 _sq._; - their belief as to fertilising virtue of trees, ii. 56 - - Maraves, the, i. 393, ii. 31 - - Marcellus of Bordeaux, i. 84 - - Marduk, chief Babylonian god, as a magician, i. 240 _sq._; - his wives, ii. 130 - - Marett, R. R., i. 111 _n._ 2 - - Marigolds, magic of, i. 211 - - Marquesas or Washington Islands, human gods in the, i. 386 _sq._ - - Marriage to trees, i. 40 _sq._, ii. 57; - of trees to each other, 24 _sqq._; - mock, of leaf-clad mummers, 97; - the Sacred, 121 _sqq._; - of the gods, 129 _sqq._; - bath before, 162 - - Marsh-marigolds, a protection against witches, ii. 54; - on May Day, 63 - - Martius, C. F. Phil. von, i. 359 - - Martyrdom of St. Hippolytus, i. 21 - - Masai, power of medicine-men among the, i. 343 _sq._ - - Mashona, the, i. 393 - - Maskers, representing the dead, ii. 178 - - Maspéro, Sir Gaston, i. 230, ii. 133 _sq._ - - “Mass of the Holy Spirit,” i. 231 _sq._ - - Mass of Saint Sécaire, i. 232 _sq._ - - Master, the Heavenly, i. 413 - - —— of Sorrows, i. 280 - - Matabeles, king of the, i. 48; - as rain-maker, 351 _sq._ - - —— magical effigies among the, i. 63 - - Maternal uncle preferred to father, mark of mother-kin, ii. 285 - - Maurer, K., ii. 280 _n._ 1 - - Mauss and Hubert, Messrs., i. 111 _n._ 2 - - May Bride, the, ii. 95, 96 - - May bridegroom, ii. 91, 93 - - —— -bush, ii. 84, 85, 89, 90, 142 - - —— Day, celebration of, ii. 59 _sqq._; - licence of, 67, 103 _sq._ - - —— Fools, ii. 91 - - —— garlands, ii. 60 _sqq._, 90 _sq._ - - —— King, ii. 85 _sq._ - - —— Lady, the, ii. 62 - - —— -poles, ii. 59, 65 _sqq._ - - —— Queen, ii. 84, 87 _sq._ - - —— Rose, the Little, ii. 74 - - —— -trees, ii. 59 _sq._, 64, 68 _sq._; - or may-poles, fertilising virtue of, 52 - - Mayos or Mayes, ii. 80 - - - Medicine-men (magicians, sorcerers), power of, among African tribes, i. - 342 _sqq._; - power of, among the American Indians, 355 _sqq._; - progressive differentiation of, 420 _sq._; - develop into kings, 420 _sq._; - the oldest professional class, 420. - _See also_ Magicians - - Melampus and Iphiclus, i. 158 - - Melanesia, homoeopathic magic of stones in, i. 164; - supernatural power of chiefs in, 338 _sqq._ - - Merker, Captain M., i. 343 - - Merlin, i. 306 - - Messiah, pretended, i. 409 - - Metsik, a forest spirit, ii. 55 - - Mexican kings, their oath, i. 356 - - Mexicans, human sacrifices of the ancient, i. 314 _sq._ - - Micah, quoted, i. 223 - - Mice and rats, teeth of, in magic, i. 178 _sqq._ - - Midsummer, new fire made at, ii. 242; - festival of, 272 _sq._ - - —— bonfires, ii. 65, 141 - - —— Bride, ii. 92 - - —— customs, ii. 127; - in Sweden, ii. 65 - - —— Eve, a witching time, ii. 127 - - Mikado, the, an incarnation of the sun goddess, i. 417 - - Miklucho-Maclay, Baron von, ii. 253 _sq._ - - Milk, witches steal milk on Walpurgis Night or May Day, ii. 52 _sqq._; - witches steal milk on Midsummer Eve, 127; - witches steal milk on Eve of St. George, 334 sqq; - not given away on St. George’s Eve, 339 - - —— -pails wreathed with flowers, ii. 338, 339 - - —— -stones, i. 165 - - Milkmen of the Todas sacred or divine, i. 402 _sq._ - - Milton on chastity, ii. 118 _n._ 1 - - Minangkabauers of Sumatra, i. 58, 140 - - Miris of Assam, the, ii. 39 - - Mirror or burning-glass, fire made by means of, ii. 243, 245 _n._ - - Mistletoe venerated by the Druids, ii. 358, 362 - - Moab, Arabs of, i. 276 - - Mock sun, i. 314 - - Moffat, Dr. R., i. 351 - - Mohammed, on the fig, ii. 316 - - Mommsen, Th., i. 23 _n._ 3, ii. 174 _n._ 1, 175 _n._ 1, 296 - - Monarchy in ancient Greece and Rome, tradition of its abolition, i. 46; - rise of, 216 _sqq._; - essential to emergence of mankind from savagery, 217; - hereditary and elective, combination of the two, ii. 292 _sqq._ - - Money, old Italian, i. 23 - - Montanus, the Phrygian, i. 407 - - Montezuma, i. 416 - - Moon, singing to the, i. 125; - charm to hasten the, 319; - in relation to child-birth, ii. 128; - woman chosen to represent the, 146 - - _Morbus regius_, jaundice, i. 371 _n._ 4 - - Morgan, Professor M. H., ii. 207 _n._ 1 - - “Mother of Kings,” ii. 277 - - —— of the Gods, i. 21 - - —— of the Rain, i. 276 - - - Mother-kin, ii. 271; - in succession to Roman kingship, 271; - among the Aryans, 283 _sqq._; - superiority of maternal uncle to father under mother-kin, 285. - _See also_ Female Kinship - - Mother’s brother preferred to father, mark of mother-kin, ii. 285 - - Motu, the, i. 317, ii. 106 - - Motumotu, the, i. 317, 327, 337; - or Toaripi, the, in New Guinea, 125 - - Moulton, Professor J. H., ii. 182 _n._ 2, 189 _n._ 3, 247 _n._ 5 - - Moxos Indians, i. 123 - - Muata Jamwo, the, ii. 262 - - Mukasa, god of the Baganda, ii. 150 - - Müller, Max, i. 333 _sq._ - - _Mulongo_, “twin,” name applied by the Baganda to the navel-string, i. - 195, 196 - - Mummers dressed in leaves, branches, and flowers, ii. 74 _sqq._, 78 - _sqq._ - - Mundaris, the, ii. 39, 46 - - Mundas, the, ii. 57 - - Munro, Dr. R., ii. 352 - - Mura-muras, i. 255 _sq._ - - Mycenae, golden lamb of, i. 365 - - Mysteries of Eleusis, ii. 138 _sq._ - - Mytilene, kings at, i. 45 - - - _Nabataeans, Agriculture of the_, ii. 100 - - Nabu, marriage of the god, ii. 130 - - _Nahak_, rubbish used in magic, i. 341 - - Nails knocked into trees, ii. 36, 42; - a charm against witchcraft, 339 _sq._ - - —— pegs, or pins knocked into images, i. 61, 64, 65, 68, 69 - - Nails, parings of, used in magic, i. 57, 64, 65, 66 - - Names of kings changed to procure rain, i. 355 - - Nandi, power of medicine-men among the, i. 344 - - _Nanja_ spots or local totem centres, i. 96, 97 - - _Nat_, spirit, ii. 46 - - Natchez, the, i. 249; - their perpetual fires, ii. 262 _sq._ - - “Nativity of the sun’s walking-stick,” i. 312 - - Navarre, rain-making in, i. 307 _sq._ - - Navel-string, contagious magic of, i. 182-201; - regarded as brother or sister of child, 186, 189; - called the “twin,” 195; - seat of external soul, 200 _sq._ - - Navel-strings hung on trees, ii. 56 - - Negative magic or taboo, i. 111 _sqq._ - - Nemi, the lake of, i. 1 _sqq._; - sanctuary of Diana at, 2 _sqq._; - the priest of, 8 _sqq._, 40, 41, ii. 376, 386, 387 - - Neoptolemus, ii. 278 - - Nerthus, procession of, ii. 144 _n._ 1 - - Nets, marriage of girls to, ii. 147 - - New birth, simulation of, i. 380 _sq._ - - —— -born children brought to the hearth, ii. 232 - - —— Caledonia, i. 78; - homoeopathic magic of stones in, 162 _sqq._ - - —— Caledonians, the, i. 312, 313, 314 - - —— fire, ii. 237; - made at Midsummer, 243; - made at beginning of a king’s reign, 262, 267 - - —— Guinea, influence of magicians in, i. 337 _sq._ - - —— Year festival, i. 251 - - _Ngai_, god, ii. 44, 150 - - Nias, i. 109, 143 - - Nicholson, General, worshipped, i. 404 - - Niebuhr, B. G., ii. 269 - - Nightingale in magic, i. 154 - - Nile, the Upper, rain-makers on the, i. 345 _sqq._; - the bride of the, ii. 151 - - Nine animals sacrificed daily at a festival, ii. 365 - - —— years’ festival at Upsala, ii. 364 _sq._ - - Noah’s ark, i. 334 - - _Nonae Caprotinae_, ii. 314 - - Nootkas, superstitions as to twins among the, i. 263 _sq._ - - Norse trinities, ii. 364 - - Noses bored, i. 94 - - Numa, his birthday, ii. 273; - a priestly king, 289 - - —— and Egeria, i. 18, ii. 172 _sq._, 193, 380 - - Numa’s birthday, ii. 325, 348; - “Numa’s crockery,” ii. 202 - - Numbering the herds on St. George’s Day, ii. 338 - - Numicius, the river, ii. 181 - - Nuns of St. Brigit, ii. 240 _sq._ - - Nurin, i. 275, 276 - - Nusku, Babylonian fire-god, i. 67 - - Nyanza, Lake, god of, i. 395 - - - Oak, its diffusion in Europe, ii. 349 _sqq._; - worship of the, 349 _sqq._; - oracular, at Dodona, 358; - worshipped in modern Europe, 370 _sqq._ - - —— and thunder, the Aryan god of the, ii. 356 _sqq._; - sky, rain, and thunder, god of the, 349 _sq._ - - —— evergreen, in making fire, ii. 251; - the Golden Bough grew on an, 379 - - —— branch in rain charm, i. 309 - - —— -god married to the oak-goddess, ii. 142; - and oak-goddess, marriage of, 189; - how he became a god of lightning, thunder, and rain, 372 _sqq._ - - —— groves in ancient Ireland, ii. 242 _sq._ - - —— leaves, crown of, ii. 175, 176 _sq._, 184 - - —— -nymphs at Rome, ii. 172, 185 - - —— -tree guarded by the King of the Wood at Nemi, i. 42 - - —— -trees, sacrifices to, ii. 366 - - —— -wood, Vesta’s fire at Rome fed with, ii. 186; - perpetual fire of, 365, 366; - ceremonial fires kindled by the friction of, 372 - - —— -woods on the site of ancient Rome, ii. 184 _sqq._ - - —— -worship of the Druids, ii. 9 - - Oaken image dressed as a bride, ii. 140 _sq._ - - Oaks at Troezen, i. 26; - of Ireland, ii. 363; - sacred among the old Prussians, 43 - - Oaths on stones, i. 160 _sq._ - - Ocrisia, ii. 195 - - Octopus in magic, i. 156 - - Odin as a magician, i. 241 _sq._; - the Norse god of war, ii. 364 - - Oedipus, ii. 115 - - Oenomaus, ii. 300 - - Oesel, island of, i. 329 - - Offspring, charms to procure, i. 70 _sqq._ - - Ojebways, magical images among the, i. 55 - - Olaf, King, i. 367 - - Old men, government by, in aboriginal Australia, i. 334 _sq._ - - Oldenberg, Professor H., i. 225 _n._, 228, 235 _n._ 1, 269, 270 - - Olives planted and gathered by pure boys and virgins, ii. 107 - - Olympia, races for the kingdom at, ii. 299 _sq._ - - Omahas, the, i. 249, 320 - - Omens, homoeopathic magic to annul evil omens, i. 170-174 - - Omphale and Hercules, ii. 281 - - _Omumborombonga_ (_Combretum primigenum_), the sacred tree of the - Herero, ii. 213 _sq._, 218, 219 _sq._, 233 - - _Omuwapu_ tree (_Grevia spec._), ii. 219 - - Opprobrious language levelled at goddess to please her, i. 280 - - Oracles given by king, i. 377 - - Oraons, marriage of Sun and Earth among the, ii. 148; - spring festival of the, 76 _sq._ - - Oracular spring at Dodona, ii. 172 - - Ordeal of battle among the Umbrians, ii. 321 - - Orestes at Nemi, i. 10 _sq._, 21 _n._ 2, 24; - at Troezen, 26; - cured of his madness, 161 - - Orgies, sexual, as fertility charms, ii. 98 _sqq._ - - Orontes, the river, ii. 160 - - Osiris threatened by magicians, i. 225 - - Ostyaks, tree-worship among the, ii. 11 - - Ovambo, the, i. 63, 209, ii. 46 - - Ovid, ii. 176, 177, 191; - on Nemi, i. 4, 17 - - - Pacific, human gods in the, i. 386 _sqq._ - - Padstow, custom of the Hobby Horse at, ii. 68 - - _Pages_, medicine-men, i. 358 - - Paint-house, the, ii. 111 - - Paintings, prehistoric, of animals in caves, i. 87 _n._ 1 - - Pais, E., i. 23 _n._ - - Pales, ii. 326, 327, 328, 329, 348 - - Pallades, female consorts of Ammon, ii. 135 - - Palladius, ii. 314 - - Pallene, daughter of Sithon, ii. 307 - - Palm-tree, ceremony of tapping it for wine, ii. 100 _sq._ - _See also_ Date-palm - - Panamara in Caria, i. 29 - - Paparuda, i. 273 - - Parasitic plants, superstitions as to, ii. 250, 251 _sq._ - - Parilia, the, ii. 123, 229, 273; - a shepherds’ festival, 325 _sqq._ - - Parjanya, the ancient Hindoo god of thunder and rain, i. 270, ii. 368 - _sq._ - - Parkinson, R., i. 175 - - Parricide, Roman punishment of, ii. 110 _n._ 2 - - Parsees, the, ii. 241 - - _Partheniai_, i. 36 _n._ 2 - - _Parthenos_ as applied to Artemis, i. 36 - - Parthian monarchs brothers of the Sun, i. 417 _sq._ - - Partridge, C., ii. 394 _n._ 2 - - Patara, Apollo at, ii. 135 - - Paternity, uncertainty of, a ground for a theological distinction, ii. - 135; - of kings a matter of indifference under female kinship, 274 _sqq._, - 282 - - Patriarchal family at Rome, ii. 283 - - Paulicians, the, i. 407 - - Payaguas, the, i. 330 - - Payne, E. J., i. 415 _n._ 2 - - Pear-tree as protector of cattle, ii. 55 - - Peat-bogs of Europe, ii. 350 _sqq._ - - _Peking Gazette_, i. 355 - - Peleus, ii. 278 - - Pelew Islands, human gods in, i. 389 - - Pelopidae, the, ii. 279 - - Pelops, ii. 279 - - —— and Hippodamia, ii. 299 _sq._ - - Penates, the, ii. 205 _sq._ - - Pennefather River in Queensland, i. 99, 100 - - Peoples said to be ignorant of the art of kindling fire, ii. 253 _sqq._ - - Peperuga, i. 274 - - Pepys, S., i. 369, ii. 52, 333 - - Pergrubius, a Lithuanian god of the spring, ii. 347 _sq._ - - Periphas, king of Athens, ii. 177 - - Perkunas or Perkuns, the Lithuanian god of thunder and lightning, ii. - 365 _sqq._; - derivation of his name, 367 _n._ 3 - - Perperia, i. 273 - - Perpetual fires, origin of, ii. 253 _sqq._; - associated with royal dignity, ii. 261 _sqq._ - - Perseus and Andromeda, ii. 163 - - Peru, Indians of, i. 265, ii. 146; - the Incas of, 243 _sq._ - - Perun, the thunder-god of the Slavs, ii. 365 - - Peruvian Indians, i. 56 - - —— Vestals, ii. 243 _sqq._ - - Pessinus, i. 47 - - Peter of Dusburg, ii. 366 _n._ 2 - - Phaedra and Hippolytus, i. 25 - - Pheneus, lake of, ii. 8 - - Phigalia, i. 31 - - Philostratus, i. 167 - - Phosphorescence of the sea, superstitions as to the, ii. 154 _sq._ - - Picts, female descent of kingship among the, ii. 280 _sq._, 286 - - Piers, Sir Henry, ii. 59 - - Pig, blood of, drunk as a means of inspiration, i. 382; - in purificatory rites, ii. 107, 108, 109; - expiatory sacrifice of, 122 - - Pigeon used in a love-charm, ii. 345 _sq._ - - Pile-villages in the valley of the Po, ii. 8; - of Europe, 352 _sq._ - - Pipal-tree (_ficus religiosa_), ii. 43 - - Pipiles, the, of Central America, ii. 98 - - Pity of rain-gods, appeal to, i. 302 _sq._ - - Placenta (afterbirth) and navel-string, contagious magic of, i. 182-201 - - Plantain-trees, navel-strings of Baganda buried at foot of, i. 195 - - Plants, homoeopathic magic to make plants grow, i. 136 _sqq._; - influenced homoeopathically by a person’s act or state, 139 _sqq._; - influence persons homoeopathically, 144 _sqq._; - sexes of, ii. 24; - marriage of, 26 _sqq._ - - Plataea, festival of the Daedala at, ii. 140 _sq._ - - Plato, i. 45, 104 - - Plebeians, the Roman kings, ii. 289 - - Pleiades, rising of the, i. 32 - - Pliny the Elder, i. 49; - on sacredness of woods, ii. 123; - the Younger, i. 6 - - Ploughing by women as a rain-charm, i. 282 _sq._ - - Plover in connexion with rain, i. 259, 261 - - Plutarch, i. 28, 80, ii. 172, 196, 320 _n._ 3, 325 _n._ 3; - on Numa and Egeria, i. 18 - - Pole-star, homoeopathic magic of the, i. 166 - - Political evolution from democracy to despotism, i. 421 - - Polybius, ii. 354 - - Polydorus, ii. 31 - - Poplar, the white, at Olympia, a substitute for the oak, ii. 220 - - Porphyry, i. 390, ii. 12 - - Porta Capena at Rome, i. 18 - - _Porta Querquetulana_, ii. 185 _n._ 3 - - Poso in Celebes, i. 379, ii. 29 - - Potrimpo, old Prussian god, ii. 248 - - Pottery, primitive, employed in Roman ritual, ii. 202 _sqq._; - superstitions as to the making of, 204 _sq._ - - _Pramantha_, ii. 249 - - Prayers for rain, ii. 359, 362; - to Thunder, 367 _sq._; - to an oak, 372 - - Precautions against witches, ii. 52 _sqq._ - - Precious stones, homoeopathic magic of, i. 164 _sq._ - - Pregnancy, ceremony in seventh month of, i. 72 _sq._ - - Pregnant cows sacrificed to the Earth goddess, ii. 229; - victims sacrificed to ensure fertility, i. 141; - women employed to fertilise crops and fruit-trees, i. 140 _sq._ - - Pretenders to divinity among Christians, i. 407 _sqq._ - - Priest drenched with water as a rain-charm, ii. 77; - rolled on fields as fertility charm, 103; - of Diana at Nemi, i. 8 _sqq._ - - - —— of Nemi, i. 8 _sqq._, 40, 41, ii. 376, 386, 387. - _See also_ King of the Wood - - Priestesses, inspired, i. 379 _sq._, 381 _sq._ - - Priestly kings, i. 44 _sqq._ - - Priests, magical powers attributed to priests by French peasants, i. - 231-233; - inspired, 377 _sqq._ - - Princesses married to foreigners or men of low birth, ii. 274 _sqq._ - - Private magic, i. 214 _sq._ - - Procopius, ii. 365 - - Procreative virtue attributed to fire, ii. 233 - - Proculus Julius, ii. 182 - - Progress, intellectual, dependent on economic progress, i. 218; - social, 421 - - Promathion’s _History of Italy_, ii. 196, 197 - - Prometheus, ii. 260 - - Prophetic powers conferred by certain springs, ii. 172 - - Prophets, the Hebrew, their ethical religion, i. 223 - - Propitiation essential to religion, i. 222 - - Prostitution before marriage, practice of, ii. 282, 285, 287 - - Prothero, G. W., ii. 71 _n._ 1 - - Provence, magical powers attributed to priests in, i. 232 - - Prpats, i. 274 - - _Prunus Padus_, L., ii. 344 - - Prussians, the old, their worship of trees, ii. 43 - - Prytaneum, fire in the, ii. 260 - - Psylli, the, i. 331 - - Public magic, i. 215 - - Purification by fire, ii. 327, 329 - - Purificatory rites for sexual crimes, ii. 107 _sqq._, 115, 116 - - Pururavas and Urvasi, ii. 250 - - Pythagoras, maxims of, i. 211, 213 _sq._ - - Pythaists at Athens, i. 33 - - Python, sacred, ii. 150 - - - Quack, the, ii. 81 - - Quartz-crystals used in rain-making, i. 254, 255, 304 - - Queen of Egypt married to the god Ammon, ii. 131 _sqq._; - of Athens married to Dionysus, 136 _sq._; - of May, ii. 84, 87 _sq._; - Charlotte Islands, i. 70; - sister in Uganda, licence accorded to the ii. 275 _sq._ - - Queensland, rain-making in, i. 254 _sq._ - - _Querquetulani_, Men of the Oak, ii. 188 - - Quirinal hill, the, ii. 182, 185 - - Quirinus, ii. 182, 185, 193 _n._ 1 - - Quiteve, the, i. 392 - - Quivering of the body in a rain-charm, i. 260, 361 - - - Ra, the Egyptian sun-god, i. 418, 419 - - Race, the King’s, ii. 84; - succession to kingdom determined by a, 299 _sqq._; - for a bride, 301 _sqq._ - - Races at Whitsuntide, ii. 69, 84 - - Raccoons in rain-charm, i. 288 - - Rain, extraction of teeth in connexion with, i. 98 _sq._; - the magical control of, 247 _sqq._; - made by homoeopathic or imitative magic, 247 _sqq._; - Mother of the, 276; - supposed to fall only as a result of magic, 353; - excessive, supposed to be an effect of sexual crime, ii. 108, 113; - Zeus as the god of, 359 _sq._ - - Rain-bird, i. 287 - - “Rain-bush,” ii. 46 - - —— -charm by ploughing, i. 282 _sq._ - - —— Country, i. 259 - - —— -doctor, i. 271 - - —— -god as dragon, i. 297 - - —— -gods compelled to give rain by threats and violence, i. 296 _sqq._; - appeal to the pity of the, 302 _sq._ - - Rain King, i. 275, ii. 2 - - —— -maker among the Arunta, costume of the, i. 260; - assimilates himself to water, 269 _sqq._ - - —— makers, their importance in savage communities, i. 247; - in Africa, their rise to political power, 342 _sqq._, 352; - on the Upper Nile, 345 _sqq._; - unsuccessful, punished or killed, 345, 352 _sqq._ - - —— -making by means of the dead, i. 284 _sqq._; - by means of animals, 287 _sqq._; - by means of stones, 304 _sqq._ - - “Rain-stick,” i. 254 - - “Rain-stones,” i. 254, 305, 345, 346 - - —— -temple, i. 250 - - —— totem, i. 258 - - Rainbow in rain-charm, picture of, i. 258 - - Rajahs among the Malays, supernatural powers attributed to, i. 361 - - Ramsay, Sir W. M., i. 36 _n._ 2 - - Rats and mice, teeth of, in magic, i. 178 _sqq._ - - Raven in wind-charm, i. 320 - - Raven’s eggs in magic, i. 154 - - Ray, S. H., ii. 208 _n._ 3 - - Red colour in magic, i. 79, 81, 83 - - —— Karens of Burma, ii. 69 - - —— woollen threads, a charm against witchcraft, ii. 336 - - Reddening the faces of gods, custom of, ii. 175 _sq._ - - Regalia of Malay kings, i. 362 _sq._; - supernatural powers of, 398 - - Regia, the king’s palace at Rome, ii. 201 - - _Regifugium_ at Rome, ii. 290; - perhaps a relic of a contest for the kingdom, 308 _sqq._ - - Regillus, battle of Lake, i. 50 - - Reinach, Salomon, i. 27 _n._ 6, 87 _n._ 1, ii. 232 _n._ 2, 241 _n._ 1 - - Reincarnation, belief of the aboriginal Australians in, i. 96, 99 - _sq._; - certain funeral rites perhaps intended to ensure, 101 _sqq._ - - Religion defined, i. 222; - two elements of, a theoretical and a practical, 222 _sq._; - opposed in principle to science, 224; - transition from magic to, 237 _sqq._, ii. 376 _sq._ - - —— and magic, i. 220-243, 250, 285, 286, 347; - Hegel on, 423 _sqq._ - - Religious dramas sometimes originate in magical rites, ii. 142 _sq._ - - Remulus, ii. 180 - - Renan, E., i. 236 _n._ 1 - - Renouf, Sir P. le P., i. 418 - - _Rex Nemorensis_, i. 11 - - Rhetra, i. 383 - - Rheumatism caused by magic, i. 207 _sq._, 213 - - Rhodians worship the sun, i. 315 - - Rhys, Sir John, i. 17 _n._ 2, ii. 363 _n._ 4 - - Ribald songs in rain-charm, i. 267 - - Rice, charm to make rice grow, i. 140; - in bloom treated like pregnant woman, ii. 28 _sq._; - chastity at sowing, 106 - - Ridgeway, Professor W., ii. 103 - - Rig Veda, i. 294; - quoted, ii. 368 _sq._ - - “Ringing out the grass,” ii. 344 - - Rivers as lovers of women in Greek mythology, ii. 161 _sq._ - - Rivers, Dr. W. H. R., i. 230 _n._, 403 _n._ 1, 421 _n._ 1 - - Rivos, harvest-god of Celts in Gaul, i. 17 - - Rivros, a Celtic month, i. 17 _n._ 2 - - Robertson, Sir George Scott, i. 133 - - Rock-crystals in rain-charms, i. 345 - - Rogations, Monday of, ii. 166 - - Rolling on the fields as a fertility charm, ii. 103; - at harvest, ii. 104 - - —— cakes on the ground for omens, ii. 338 - - - Roman fire-customs compared to those of the Herero, ii. 227 _sqq._ - - —— kings as deities in a Sacred Marriage, ii. 172 _sq._, 192, 193 - _sq._; - as personifications of Jupiter, 266 _sq._; - list of, 269 _sq._; - rule of succession among, 270 _sq._; - plebeians, not patricians, 289; - how nominated, 295 _sq._; - their mysterious or violent ends, 312 _sqq._; - their obscure birth, 312 _sq._ - - —— kingship, descent of, in the female line, ii. 270 _sq._; - abolition of the, 289 _sqq._; - a religious office, 289 - - —— punishment of parricide, 110 _n._ 2 - - Rome, the kings of, ii. 171 _sqq._; - oak woods on the site of ancient, 184 _sqq._ - - Romove, Romow, or Romowo, ii. 366 _n._ 2 - - Romulus, fig-tree of, ii. 10, 318; - legend of his birth from the fire, 196; - hut of, 200; - death of, 181 _sq._, 313 - - Roscher, W. H., ii. 137 _n._ 1, 383 _n._ 3 - - Roscoe, Rev. J., ii. 276 _n._ 2, 318 _n._ 1, 322 _n._ 2 - - Rose, the Little May, ii. 74 - - Rostowski, S., ii. 366 _n._ 2. - - Rouen, St. Romain at, ii. 164 _sqq._ - - Roumania, rain-making ceremonies in, i. 273 _sq._ - - Round huts of the ancient Latins, ii. 200 _sqq._ - - Rouse, Dr. W. H. D., i. 15 _n._ 3, ii. 82 - - Rowan or mountain-ash used as a charm, ii. 331 - - —— tree, a protection against witches, ii. 53, 54 - - Royalty conservative of old customs, ii. 288 - - Rukmini, wife of Krishna, ii. 26 - - Runaway slave, charm to bring back a, i. 317 - - Runes, the magic, i. 241 - - Russia, St. George’s Day in, ii. 332 _sqq._ - - Russian celebration of Whitsuntide, ii. 64, 93 - - —— sect of the Christs, i. 407 _sq._ - - - Sacred beasts in Egypt, i. 29 _sq._ - - —— groves in ancient Greece and Rome, ii. 121 _sqq._ - - —— Marriage, the, ii. 120 _sqq._ - - —— men, i. 386 - - —— sticks representing ancestors, ii. 222 _sqq._ - - —— women, i. 391 - - Sacrifices offered to regalia, i. 363, 365; - to trees, 366 - - Sacrificial King at Rome, i. 44 - - St. Anthony’s fire treated by homoeopathic magic, i. 81 _sq._ - - —— Bride in the Highlands of Scotland, ii. 94 - - —— Bridget, ii. 94 _sq._, 242. - _See_ St. Brigit - - - —— Brigit, holy fire and nuns of, at Kildare, ii. 240 _sqq._ - - —— Columba, i. 407, ii. 242 _sq._ - - —— Dasius, ii. 310 _n._ 1 - - —— Eany’s Well, ii. 161 - - —— Fillan, well of, ii. 161 - - —— Francis of Paola, i. 300 - - —— George and the Dragon, ii. 163 _sq._; - and the Parilia, 324 _sqq._; - patron saint of cattle, horses, and wolves, 330, 336, 337, 338; - chapel of, 337; - as a spirit of trees or vegetation, 343 _sq._; - as giver of offspring to women, 344 _sqq._; - in relation to serpents, 344 _n._ 4; - in Syria, 346 - - —— George’s Day (23rd April), ii. 56, 75, 79, 103, 164 _n._ 1, 330 - _sqq._; - eve of, a time when witches steal milk from the cows, 334 _sqq._ - - —— Gervais, spring of, i. 307 - - —— Hippolytus, i. 21 - - —— James, i. 266; - quoted, 223, 224 - - St. John, Eve of, in Sweden, ii. 65; - Sweethearts of, 92 - - —— John the Baptist, day of, i. 377; - his Midsummer festival, ii. 273 - - —— Leonhard, i. 7 _sq._ - - —— Mary, Wells of, ii. 161; - _in Araceli_, 184 - - —— Ouen, ii. 165, 168 - - —— Paul, i. 407 - - —— Peter, as giver of rain, i. 307 - - —— Peter’s Day (29th June), ii. 141 - - —— Romain and the dragon of Rouen, ii. 164 _sqq._; - the shrine (_fierte_) of, 167, 168, 170 _n._ 1 - - —— Sécaire, Mass of, i. 232 _sq._ - - Saints, violence done to images of saints in Sicily to procure rain, i. - 300; - images of saints dipped in water as a rain-charm, 307 _sq._ - - Sakai, the, i. 360 - - Sakkalava, the, i. 397 - - Ṣakvarī song, i. 269 _sq._ - - _Sâl_ trees, ii. 41; - and flowers, 76 _sq._ - - _Salagrama_, fossil ammonite, ii. 26, 27 _n._ 2 - - Salic law, re-marriage of widow under, ii. 285 - - Salmon, twins thought to be, i. 263 - - Salmoneus, King of Elis, i. 310, ii. 177, 181 - - Salt, abstinence from, i. 124, 266, ii. 98, 105, 149; - as a charm, 331 - - Samagitians, the, ii. 125; - their sacred groves, 43 - - _Sami_ wood (_Prosopis spicigera_), ii. 248, 249, 250 _n._ - - Samnites, marriage custom of the, ii. 305 - - Samoa, gods of, in animal and human form, i. 389 - - Sandwich Islands, King of, i. 377. - _See also_ Hawaii - - Santiago, the horse of, i. 267 - - Sarah and Abraham, ii. 114 - - Sardinia, Midsummer customs in, ii. 92 - - _Satapatha-Brâhmana_, i. 380 - - Saturn personified at the Saturnalia, ii. 310 _sq._ - - —— and Jupiter, ii. 323 - - Saturnalia, ii. 272; - as a fertility rite, 99; - how celebrated by Roman soldiers on the Danube, 310; - Saturn personified at the, 310 _sq._; - King of the, 311; - the festival of sowing, 311 _sq._ - - Savile, Lord, his excavations at Nemi, i. 3 _n._ 2 - - Saxo Grammaticus, i. 160, ii. 280 - - Saxons, marriage with a stepmother among the, ii. 283; - of Transylvania, 337 - - _Scaloi_, i. 274 - - Scamander, the river, supposed to take the virginity of brides, ii. 162 - - Scandinavia, female descent of the kingship in, ii. 279 _sq._ - - Sceptre of Agamemnon, i. 365 - - Schinz, Dr. H., ii. 213 _n._ 2, 218 - - Scotland, magical images in, i. 68-70 - - Scott, Sir Walter, i. 326 - - Scratching the person with the fingers forbidden, i. 254 - - Scrofula, kings thought to heal scrofula by their touch, i. 368 _sqq._ - - Scythian kings, their regalia, i. 365 - - Scythians put their kings in bonds, i. 354 - - Sea, virgins married to the jinnee of the, ii. 153 _sq._; - phosphorescence of the, 154 _sq._ - - Seasons, Athenian sacrifices to the, i. 310 - - Secret societies, i. 340 - - Semiramis, ii. 275 - - Sena, island of, ii. 241 _n._ 1 - - Seneca, on sacred groves, ii. 123 - - Serpent, dried, in ceremony for stopping rain, i. 295 _sq._; - or dragon of water, 155 _sqq._ - - Serpents in relation to St. George, ii. 344 _n._ 4 - - Servia, rain-making ceremony in, i. 273 - - Servius on Virbius, i. 20 _sq._, 40 - - —— Tullius, laws of, ii. 115, 129; - and Fortuna, 193 _n._ 1, 272; - legend of his birth from the fire, 195 _sq._; - his death, 320 _sq._ - - Sewing forbidden, i. 121, 128 - - Sexes, influence of the, on vegetation, ii. 97 _sqq._; - of plants, 24 - - Sexual communism, tradition of, ii. 284 - - —— crime, blighting effects attributed to, ii. 107 _sqq._ - - —— intercourse practised to make the crops and fruits grow, ii. 98 - _sqq._ - - —— orgies as a fertility charm, ii. 98 _sqq._ - - Shaking of victim as sign of its acceptance, i. 384 _sq._ - - Shans of Burma, i. 128 - - Sheaf of oats made up to represent St. Bride or Bridget, ii. 94 _sq._; - the last, 94 _n._ 2 - - Sheep, black, sacrificed for rain, i. 290 - - —— driven through fire, ii. 327 - - Shepherd’s prayer, ii. 327 _sq._ - - Shepherds’ festival, ancient Italian, ii. 326 _sqq._ - - Shetland, witches in, i. 326 - - Shrew-mouse in magic, i. 83 - - Shuswap Indians, i. 265 - - Siam, King of, ii. 262; - divinity of, i. 401 - - Sibyl, the, and the Golden Bough, i. 11 - - Sicily, attempts to compel the saints to give rain in, i. 299 _sq._ - - Sick people passed through a hole in an oak, ii. 371 - - Sickness, homoeopathic magic for the cure of, i. 78 _sqq._ - - Silesia, Whitsuntide customs in, ii. 89 - - Silk-cotton trees reverenced, ii. 14 _sq._ - - Silvanus, forest god, ii. 121, 124 - - Silver poplar a charm against witchcraft, ii. 336 - - Silvii, the family name of the kings of Alba, ii. 178 _sqq._, 192 - - Silvius, first king of Alba, ii. 179 - - Similarity in magic, law of, i. 52, 53 - - Simplification, danger of excessive simplification in science, i. 332 - _sq._ - - Singer, the best, chosen chief, ii. 298 _sq._ - - Sins, confession of, i. 266 - - Sinuessa, waters of, ii. 161 - - Sister’s children preferred to man’s own children, mark of mother-kin, - ii. 285 - - Sisters of king, licence accorded to, ii. 274 _sqq._ - - Siva, i. 404, ii. 77, 78 - - Skeat, W. W., i. 360 _sq._ - - Skeleton in rain-charm, i. 284 - - Skene, W. F., ii. 286 _n._ 2 - - Skoptsy, the, a Russian sect, ii. 145 _n._ 2 - - Skulls, ancestral, used in magical ceremonies, i. 163; - in rain-charm, 285 - - Sky, twins called the children of the, i. 267, 268; - Aryan god of the, ii. 374 _sq._ - - Slave, charm to bring back a runaway, i. 152, 317 - - —— priests at Nemi, i. 11 - - Slaves, licence granted to, at Saturnalia, ii. 312; - female, licence accorded to, at the _Nonae Caprotinae_, 313 _sq._ - - Slavs, tree-worship among the heathen, ii. 9; - the thunder-god Perun, of the, 365 - - Sleep, charms employed by burglars to cause, i. 148 _sq._ - - “Sleep of war,” ii. 147 - - Smith, W. Robertson, i. 301 _n._ 2 - - Smiths sacred, i. 349 - - Smoke made as a rain-charm, i. 249; - of cedar inhaled as means of inspiration, 383 _sq._; - as a charm against witchcraft, ii. 330 - - Snake-bites, charms against, i. 152 _sq._ - - —— skin a charm against witchcraft, ii. 335 - - Snakes, human wives of, ii. 149, 150 - - “Sober” sacrifices, i. 311 _n._ 1 - - Social progress, i. 420 - - Sodza, a lightning goddess, ii. 370 - - Sofala, King of, i. 392 - - Sogamozo, the pontiff of, i. 416 - - Sogble, a lightning god, ii. 370 - - Solar myth theory, i. 333 - - Somerville, Professor W., ii. 328 _n._ 4 - - Sophocles, ii. 115, 161 - - Sorcerers. _See_ Magicians, Medicine-men - - Sorcery. _See_ Magic - - Sorrows, Master of, i. 280 - - Soul, external, in afterbirth (placenta) or navel-string, i. 200 _sq._ - - Souls ascribed to trees, ii. 12 _sqq._; - of ancestors supposed to be in fire on the hearth, 232 - - Sowing, curses at, i. 281; - homoeopathic magic at, 136 _sqq._; - sexual intercourse before, ii. 98; - continence at, 105, 106; - in Italy and Sicily, time of, 311 _n._ 5 - - Sparks of fire supposed to impregnate women, ii. 197, 231 - - Sparta, the two kings of, i. 46 _sq._; - their relation to Castor and Pollux, 48-50 - - Spartan sacrifice of horses to the sun, i. 315 _sq._ - - Spencer and Gillen, i. 89, 107 _n._ 4 - - Spieth, J., i. 397 - - Spinning forbidden, i. 113 _sq._ - - Spirit, Brethren of the Free, i. 408 - - Spiritual husbands, ii. 316 _sq._ - - Spittle, divination by, i. 99; - used in magic, 57 - - Spring, oracular at Dodona, ii. 172 - - Springs troubled to procure rain, i. 301; - which confer prophetic powers, ii. 172 - - Squirting water as a rain-charm, i. 249 _sq._, 277 _sq._ - - Star, falling, in magic, i. 84 - - Stepmother, marriage with a, among the Saxons, ii. 283 - - Stewart, C. S., i. 387 _n._ 1 - - Sticks, sacred, representing ancestors, ii. 222 _sqq._ - - Stone, holed, in magic, i. 313 - - —— curlew in magic, i. 80 - - —— throwing as a fertility charm, i. 39 - - Stones tied to trees to make them bear fruit, i. 140; - oaths upon, 160 _sq._; - homoeopathic magic of, 160 _sqq._; - employed to make fruits and crops grow, 162 _sqq._; - precious, homoeopathic magic of, 164 _sq._; - the Day of, 279; - rain-making by means of, 304 _sqq._; - in charms to make the sun shine, 312, 313, 314; - put in trees to prevent sun from setting, 318; - in wind charms, 319, 322 _sq._ - - Storeroom (_penus_), sacred, ii. 205 _sq._ - - Strabo, ii. 305 - - Stubbes, P., ii. 66 - - Subincision, use of blood shed at, i. 92, 94 _sq._ - - Succession to the chieftainship or kingship alternating between several - families, ii. 292 _sqq._ - - —— to the kingdom, in ancient Latium, ii. 266 _sqq._; - determined by a race, 299 _sqq._; - determined by mortal combat, ii. 322 - - Sulka, the, of New Britain, ii. 148 - - Sumatra, i. 58, 71 - - Summer, bringing in the, ii. 74 - - Sun, homoeopathic magic of setting, i. 165 _sq._; - supposed to send new teeth, 181; - magical control of the, 311 _sqq._; - charms to cause the sun to shine, 311 _sqq._; - eclipse of, ceremonies at 311, 312; - human sacrifices to the 314 _sq._; - chief deity of the Rhodians, 315; - supposed to drive in chariot, 315; - caught by net or string, 316; - charms to prevent the sun from going down, 316 _sqq._; - the father of the Incas, 415; - Parthian monarchs the brothers of the, 417 _sq._; - sanctuary of the, ii. 107; - high priest of the, 146 _sq._; - marriage of a woman to the, 146 _sq._; - worshipped by the Blackfoot Indians, 146; - round temple of the, 147; - temple of the Sun at Cuzco, 243; - virgins of the Sun in Peru, 243 _sqq._; - the Great, title of chief, 262, 263 - - —— and Earth, marriage of the, ii. 98 _sq._, 148 - - —— -god, no wine offered to the, i. 311 - - —— -god Ra in Egypt, i. 418, 419 - - —— goddess, i. 417 - - Superstitions as to the making of pottery, ii. 204 _sq._ - - _Svayamvara_, ii. 306 - - Swami Bhaskaranandaji Saraswati, i. 404 - - Swearing on stones, i. 160 _sq._ - - Sweden, midsummer customs in, ii. 65; - Frey and his priestess in, 143 _sq._; - customs observed in, at turning out the cattle to graze for the first - time in spring, 341 _sq._ - - Swedes sacrifice their kings, i. 366 _sq._ - - Sweethearts of St. John, ii. 92 - - Swine, herds of, in ancient Italy, ii. 354 - - Sycamores worshipped, ii. 15; - sacred among the Gallas, 34 - - Sylvii or Woods, the kings of Alba, ii. 379 - - Sympathetic Magic, i. 51 _sqq._; - its two branches, 54; - examples of, 55 _sqq._ - _See also_ Magic - - Syria, St. George in, ii. 346 - - - Taara, the thunder-god of the Esthonians, ii. 367 - - Taboo, a negative magic, i. 111 _sqq._ - - Taboos, homoeopathic, i. 116; - contagious, 117; - on food, 117 _sqq._; - laid on the parents of twins, 262, 263 _sq._, 266; - observed after house-building, ii. 40 - - Tacitus, ii. 285 - - Tagales, the, ii. 36 - - Tahiti, kings of, deified, i. 388 - - “Tail-money,” ii. 331 - - _Tāli_, tying the, ii. 57 _n._ 4 - - Tamarinds, sacred, ii. 42, 44 - - Tammuz or Adonis, ii. 346 - - Tana, power of the disease-makers in, i. 341 - - Tanaquil, the Queen, ii. 195 - - Taoism, religious head of, i. 413 _sqq._ - - Tapio, woodland god, ii. 124 - - Tarahumares of Mexico, i. 249 - - Tarquin the Elder, ii. 195 - - —— the Proud, his attempt to shift the line of descent of the kingship, - ii. 291 _sq._ - - Tasmanians, the, ii. 257 - - Tatius, death of, ii. 320 - - Tauric Diana, i. 10 _sq._, 24 - - Taylor, Isaac, ii. 189 _n._ 3 - - Teeth, ceremony of knocking out teeth at initiation, i. 97 _sqq._; - extraction of teeth in connexion with rain, 98 _sq._; - charms to strengthen, 153, 157; - contagious magic of, 176-182; - of rats and mice in magic, 178 _sqq._ - - Telamon, ii. 278 - - Telchines, the, of Rhodes, i. 310 - - Telepathy, magical, i. 119 _sqq._; - in hunting and fishing, 120 _sqq._; - in war, 126 _sqq._; - in voyages, 126 - - Tertullian, i. 407; - on the Etruscan crown, ii. 175 _n._ 1 - - Teucer, ii. 278 - - Teutonic kings, i. 47; - thunder god, ii. 364 - - Thargelion, Greek harvest month, i. 32 - - Thebes, the Egyptian, ii. 130, 134; - high priests of Ammon at, 134 - - Theocritus, witch in, i. 206 - - _Theogamy_, divine marriage, ii. 121 - - Theophrastus, on the woods of Latium, ii. 188 - - Theopompus, ii. 287 - - Thevet, F. A., i. 358 - - Thieves’ candles, i. 148, 149 - - Things, homoeopathic magic of inanimate, i. 157 _sqq._ - - Thistles, a charm against witchcraft, ii. 339, 340 - - Thompson Indians, i. 70, 132; - the fire-drill of the, ii. 208 - - Thor, the Norse thunder god, ii. 364 - - Thorn-bushes as charms against witches, ii. 338 - - Thoth, Egyptian god, ii. 131 - - Threatening the thunder god, ii. 183 _n._ 2 - - Thrice born, said of Brahmans, i. 381 - - Thrones, sanctity of, i. 365 - - Thunder, imitation of, i. 248; - kings expected to make, ii. 180 _sqq._; - thought to be the roll of the drums of the dead, 183; - rain, sky, and oak, god of the, 349 _sq._; - Esthonian prayer to, 367 _sq._ - - —— and oak, the Aryan god of the, ii. 356 _sqq._ - - Thunder-bird, i. 309 - - —— god, threatening the, ii. 183 _n._ 2; - conceived as a deity of fertility, 368 _sqq._ - - Thunderbolt of Indra, i. 269 - - —— Zeus, ii. 361 - - Thunderbolts, kings killed by, ii. 181; - flint implements regarded as, 374 - - Thunderstorms, disappearance of Roman kings in, ii. 181 _sqq._ - - Thurston, E., i. 56 _n._ 3 - - Thyiads, the, i. 46 - - Tibet, the Grand Lamas of, i. 411 _sq._ - - Tides, homoeopathic magic of the, i. 166 _sqq._ - - Tiele, C. P., i. 419 _sq._ - - Tifata, Mount, ii. 380 - - Timber, homoeopathic magic of house timber, i. 146; - of houses, tree-spirits propitiated in, ii. 39 _sq._ - - Timor, telepathy of high-priest of, in war, i. 128 _sq._ - - Tinneh Indians, the, i. 357 - - Toad in charm against storms, i. 325 - - Toaripi or Motumotu, the, in New Guinea, i. 125, 337 - - Toboongkoos, the, ii. 35 - - Todas, the, i. 56; - divine milkmen of the, 402 _sq._; - magic and medicine among the, 421 _n._ 1 - - Togoland, i. 265 - - Tomori, the, of Celebes, ii. 29, 35, 110 - - Tonga, chiefs of, believed to heal scrofula, i. 371 - - Tonquin, kings of, responsible for drought and dearth, i. 355 - - Töppen, M., ii. 365 _n._ 5 - - Toradjas, the, i. 109, 114, 129, 159 - - Torres Straits, i. 59 - - Tortoise, magic of, i. 151, 170 - - Totem, confusion between a man and his totem, i. 107 _sq._ - - Totemism in Central Australia not a religion, i. 107 _sq._ - - Totems in Central Australia, magical ceremonies for the multiplication - of, i. 85 _sqq._; - custom of eating the, 107 - - Touch-me-not (_Impatiens sp._), ii. 77 - - Touching for the King’s Evil (scrofula), i. 368 _sqq._ - - Transmigrations of human deities, i. 410 _sqq._ - - Tree, life of child connected with, i. 184; - that has been struck by lightning, 319; - culprits tied to sacred, ii. 112 _sq._; - fire kindled from ancestral, 221; - spirit represented simultaneously in vegetable and human form, ii. 73 - _sqq._ - - —— -spirits, ii. 7 _sqq._; - in house-timber propitiated, 39 _sq._; - beneficent powers of, 45 _sqq._; - give rain and sunshine, 45 _sq._; - make crops grow, 47 _sqq._; - make cattle and women fruitful, 50 _sqq._, 55 _sqq._; - in human form or embodied in living people, 71 _sqq._ - - Tree-worship among the European families of the Aryan stock, ii. 9 - _sqq._; - in modern Europe, relics of, 59 _sqq._ - - Trees, marriage to, i. 40 _sq._, ii. 57; - extracted teeth placed in, i. 98; - burial in, 102; - navel-strings placed in, 182, 183, 185, 186; - afterbirth (placenta) placed in, 182, 187, 190, 191, 194, 199; - worship of, ii. 7 _sqq._; - regarded as animate, 12 _sqq._; - sacrifices to, 15, 16 _sq._, 34, 44, 46, 47; - sensitive, 18; - apologies offered to trees for cutting them down, 18 _sq._, 36 _sq._; - bleeding, 18, 20, 33; - threatened to make them bear fruit, 20 _sqq._; - married to each other, 24 _sqq._; - animated by the souls of the dead, 29 _sqq._; - planted on graves, 31; - as the abode of spirits, 33 _sqq._; - ceremonies at cutting down, 34 _sqq._; - drenched with water as a rain-charm, 47; - grant women an easy delivery, 57 _sq._ - - —— and plants, attempts to deceive the spirits of, ii. 22 _sqq._ - - —— sacred, ii. 40 _sqq._; - smeared with blood, 367 - - Trinity, the Hindoo, i. 225, 404; - the Norse, ii. 364 - - Triumph, the Roman, ii. 174 - - Troezen, sanctuary of Hippolytus at, i. 24 _sq._ - - Troy, sanctuary of Athena at, ii. 284 - - “True Man, the,” i. 413 - - Trumpets, sacred, ii. 24 - - Tshi-speaking peoples of Gold Coast, i. 132 - - Tullius Hostilius, killed by lightning, ii. 181, 320 - - Tumleo, i. 213 - - Turner, Dr. George, i. 341 - - Turner’s picture of “The Golden Bough,” i. 1 - - Turning or whirling round, custom of, observed by mummers, i. 273, 275, - ii. 74, 80, 81, 87 - - “Twin,” name applied by the Baganda to the navel-string, i. 195, 196 - - Twins, i. 145; - in war, 49 _n._ 3; - taboos laid on parents of, 262, 263 _sq._; - supposed to possess magical powers, especially over the weather and - rain, 262-269; - supposed to be salmon, 263; - thought to be related to grizzly-bears, 264 _sq._; - thought to be related to apes, 265; - thought to be the sons of lightning, 266; - called the children of the sky, 267, 268; - water poured on graves of twins as a rain-charm, 268; - customs of the Baganda in regard to, ii. 102 _sq._ - - Two-headed bust at Nemi, portrait of the King of the Wood, i. 41 _sq._ - - Tydeus, ii. 278 - - Tylor, E. B., i. 53 _n._ 1, ii. 208, 244 _n._ 1, 374 _n._ 2; - on fertilisation of date-palm, 25 _n._ - - Tyndarids (Castor and Pollux), i. 49 - - - Uganda, Queen Dowager and Queen Sister in, ii. 275 _sq._ - - Ulysses and Aeolus, i. 326; - and Penelope, ii. 300 - - Umbrians, ordeal of battle among the, ii. 321 - - Uncle, maternal, preferred to father, mark of mother-kin, ii. 285 - - Upsala, sacred grove at, ii. 9; - temple of Frey at, 144; - great temple and festival at, 364 _sq._ - - Urns, funereal, in shape of huts, ii. 201 _sq._ - - Urvasi and Pururavas, ii. 250 - - - Vallabhacharyas, the, Hindoo sect, ii. 160 - - Varro, ii. 185, 200, 326, 381 - - Vatican hill, the, ii. 186 - - Vaughan Stevens, H., ii. 236 _n._ 1 - - Vegetation, influence of the sexes on, ii. 97 _sqq._; - spirit of, represented by a king or queen, ii. 84, 87, 88; - newly awakened in spring, ii. 70; - brought to houses, 74; - represented by mummers dressed in leaves, branches, and flowers, 74 - _sqq._, 78 _sqq._; - represented by a tree and a living man, 76; - represented in duplicate by a girl and an effigy, 78; - men and women masquerading as, 120 - - Vejovis, the Little Jupiter, ii. 179 - - Veleda, deified woman, i. 391 - - Veneti, the, ii. 353; - breeders of horses, i. 27 - - Ventriloquism a basis of political power, i. 347 - - Venus (Aphrodite) and Adonis, i. 21, 25, 40, 41 - - Verrall, A. W., ii. 25 _n._ 2 - - Vesta, her sacred fires in Latium, i. 13 _sq._; - at Rome, the grove of, ii. 185; - called Mother, not Virgin, 198; - round temple of, 200 _sq._; - as Mother, 227 _sqq._; - a goddess of fecundity, 229 _sq._; - her fire at Rome fed with oak wood, ii. 186 - - Vestal fire at Rome a successor of the fire on the king’s hearth, ii. - 200 _sqq._; - kindled by the friction of wood, 207; - at Nemi, 378 _sq._, 380; - Virgins in Latium, i. 13 _sq._; - become mothers by the fire, ii. 196 _sq._; - regarded as wives of the fire-god, 198, 199, 229; - among the Baganda, 246 - - Vestals, house of the, ii. 201; - of the Herero, 213, 214; - custom of burying alive unfaithful Vestals, 228; - adore the male organ, 229; - rites performed by them for the fertility of the earth and the - fecundity of cattle, 229, 326; - African, 150; - at Rome the wives or daughters of the kings, 228; - Celtic, 241 _n._ 1; - Peruvian, 243 _sqq._; - in Yucatan, 245 _sq._ - - Victims give signs of inspiration by shaking themselves, i. 384 _sq._ - - Victoria, the late Queen, worshipped in Orissa, i. 404 - - Victoria Nyanza, god of the, ii. 150 - - Viehe, Rev. G., ii. 213 _n._ 2, 223 _sq._ - - Vines blessed on the Assumption of the Virgin (15th August), i. 14 - _sq._ - - Violent deaths of the Roman kings, ii. 313 _sqq._ - - Viracocha, i. 56 - - Virbius, the slope of, i. 4 _n._ 5, ii. 321; - the mate of Diana at Nemi, i. 19-21, 40 _sq._, ii. 129; - etymology of the name, 379 _n._ 5 - - Virgil, ii. 184, 186, 379; - an antiquary as well as a poet, 178 - - Virgin, the Assumption of the, in relation to Diana, i. 14-16; - festival of the, in the Armenian Church, 16; - Mary of Kevlaar, i. 77; - priestesses in Peru, Mexico, and Yucatan, ii. 243 _sqq._ - - Virginity offered to rivers, ii. 162 - - Virility, hierophant at Eleusis temporarily deprived of his, ii. 130; - sacrifice of, to a goddess, 144 _sq._ - - Vishnu, ii. 26 - - Vitellius at Nemi, i. 5 - - Vituperation thought to cause rain, i. 278 - - Votive offerings at Nemi, i. 4, 6, 12, 19, 23 - - Voyages, telepathy in, i. 126 - - Vulcan, father of Caeculus, ii. 197 - - Vulture, magic of, i. 151 - - - Wagogo, the, i. 123 - - Wagtail, the yellow, in magic, i. 79 - - _Walber_, the, ii. 75 - - Waldemar, I., King of Denmark, i. 367 - - Wallace, Sir D. Mackenzie, i. 407 _sq._ - - Walos, the, of Senegal, i. 370 - - Walpurgis Night, ii. 52, 54, 55, 127 - - Walton, Izaak, i. 326 _n._ 2 - - War, telepathy in, i. 126 _sqq._ - - “War, the sleep of,” ii. 147 - - Ward, Professor H. Marshall, ii. 252, 315 _n._ 1 - - Ward, Professor James, i. 423 - - Warramunga, the, i. 93, 95, 99 - - Wasps in magic, i. 152 - - Water sprinkled as rain-charm, i. 248 _sqq._; - serpent or dragon of, ii. 155 _sqq._ - - —— and Fire, kings of, ii. 3 _sqq._ - - —— -lilies, charms to make water-lilies grow, i. 95, 97, 98 - - —— nymphs, fertilising virtue of, ii. 162 - - —— -spirits, propitiation of, ii. 76; - sacrifices to, 155 _sqq._; - as beneficent beings, 159; - bestow offspring on women, 159 _sqq._ - - —— totem, i. 259 - - Waterfalls, spirits of, ii. 156, 157 - - Wax melted in magic, i. 77 - - Wealth acquired by magicians, i. 347, 348, 351, 352 - - Weapon and wound, contagious magic of, i. 201 _sqq._ - - Weaving and twining thread forbidden, i. 131 - - Wellhausen, J., i. 303 - - Wells cleansed as rain-charm, i. 267; - married to the holy basil, ii. 26 _sq._; - bestow offspring on women, 160 _sq._ - - Wends, their superstition as to oaks, ii. 55 - - Werner, Miss A., ii. 317 _n._ 1 - - Wernicke, quoted, i. 35 _sq._ - - Wetting people with water as a rain-charm, i. 250, 251, 269 _sq._, 272, - 273, 274, 275, 277 _sq._, ii. 77 - - Whale-fishing, telepathy in, i. 121 - - Whirling or turning round, custom of, observed by mummers, i. 273, 275, - ii. 74, 80, 81, 87 - - Whirlwind, attacking the, i. 329 _sqq._ - - White bulls sacrificed, ii. 188 _sq._ - - —— horses, sacred, ii. 174 _n._ 2 - - —— poplar, the, at Olympia, ii. 220 - - —— thorn, a charm against witches, ii. 191 - - —— victims sacrificed for sunshine, i. 291, 292 - - Whitekirk, ii. 161 - - Whit-Monday, the king’s game on, ii. 89, 103 - - Whitsun-bride in Denmark, ii. 91 _sq._ - - Whitsunday customs in Russia, ii. 64, 93; - races, ii. 69, 84; - contest for the kingship at, 89; - custom of rolling on the fields at, 103; - customs in Holland, 104 - - —— Bride, the, ii. 89, 96 - - —— Basket, the, ii. 83 - - —— Flower, ii. 80 - - —— King, ii. 84, 89, 90 - - —— -lout, the, ii. 81 - - —— Man, the Little, ii. 81 - - —— Queen, ii. 87, 90 - - Widow, re-marriage of, in Salic law, ii. 285 _sq._ - - Wiedemann, A., i. 230 _sq._ - - Wiglet and Feng, ii. 281, 283 - - Wilhelmina, a Bohemian woman, worshipped, i. 409 - - Wilkinson, R. J., ii. 383 _n._ 1 - - William the Third, i. 369 - - Willow tree on St. George’s Day, ii. 76 - - Wind, magical control of the, i. 319 _sqq._; - charms to make the wind drop, 320; - fighting and killing the spirit of the, 327 _sqq._ - - —— clan, i. 320 - - —— of the Cross, i. 325 - - —— doctor, i. 321 - - Winds tied up in knots, i. 326 - - Wine not offered to the sun-god, i. 311 - - Wiradjuri tribe, i. 335 - - Wissowa, Professor G., i. 22 _n._ 5, 23 _n._, ii. 382 _n._ 1 - - Witches raising the wind, i. 322, 326; - buried under trees, ii. 32; - steal milk on May Day or Walpurgis Night, 52 _sqq._; - steal milk on Midsummer Eve, 127; - steal milk on Eve of St. George, 334 _sqq._; - precautions against, 52 _sqq._; - as cats and dogs, 334, 335 - - Witches’ sabbath on the Eve of St. George, ii. 335, 338 - - Witchetty grubs, ceremony for the multiplication of, i. 85 - - “Wives of Marduk,” ii. 130 - - Wizards who raise winds, i. 323 _sqq._; - Finnish, 325 - - Wolves in relation to horses, i. 27; - feared by shepherds, ii. 327, 329, 330 _sq._, 333, 334, 340, 341 - - Women, fruitful, supposed to fertilise crops and fruit-trees, i. 140 - _sq._; - employed to sow the fields, 141 _sq._; - ploughing as a rain-charm, 282 _sq._; - worshipped by the ancient Germans, 391; - married to gods, ii. 129 _sqq._, 143 _sq._, 146 _sq._, 149 _sqq._; - fertilised by water-spirits, 159 _sqq._; - impregnated by fire, 195 _sqq._, 230 _sq._; - alone allowed to make pottery, 204 _sq._ - - —— barren, thought to sterilise gardens, i. 142; - fertilised by trees, ii. 316 _sqq._ - - Wood, fire kindled by the friction of, ii. 207 _sqq._, 235 _sqq._, 243, - 248 _sqq._, 258 _sq._, 262, 263, 336, 366, 372 - - - Wood, the King of the, i. 1 _sqq._; - Lord of the, ii. 36 - - Woods, species of, used in making fire by friction, ii. 248-252 - - Wordsworth, W., i. 104 - - Worship of trees, ii. 7 _sqq._; - of the oak, 349 _sqq._ - - Wotyaks, the, ii. 43, 145, 146 - - Wound and weapon, contagious magic of, i. 201 _sqq._ - - Wyse, Miss A., ii. 88 _n._ 1 - - Wyse, William, i. 101 _n._ 2, 105 _n._ 5, ii. 356 _n._ 3 - - - Yakuts, the, i. 319 - - Yam vines, continence at training, ii. 105 _sq._ - - Yegory or Yury (St. George), ii. 332, 333 - - Yellow birds in magic, i. 79 _sq._ - - —— colour in magic, i. 79 _sqq._ - - —— River, girls married to the, ii. 152 - - Ynglingar family, ii. 279 - - Yorubas, the, i. 364; - chieftainship among the, ii. 293 _sq._; - rule of succession to the chieftainship among the, 293 _sq._ - - Yucatan, Vestals in, ii. 245 _sq._ - - Yuracares, the, of Bolivia, ii. 204 - - - Zela, i. 47 - - Zeus, Greek kings called, ii. 177, 361; - as god of the oak, the rain, the thunder, and the sky, 358 _sqq._; - surnamed Lightning, 361; - surnamed Thunderbolt, 361; - as sky-god, 374 - - —— and Demeter, their marriage at Eleusis, ii. 138 _sq._ - - —— and Dione, at Dodona, ii. 189 - - —— and Hera, sacred marriage of, ii. 140 _sq._, 142 _sq._ - - —— at Dodona, ii. 177; - priests of, 248 - - —— at Panamara in Caria, i. 28 - - —— Dictaean, ii. 122 - - —— Lightning, i. 33 - - —— Lycaeus, i. 309 - - —— Panhellenian, ii. 359 - - —— Rainy, ii. 376 - - —— Showery, ii. 360 - - —— the Descender, ii. 361 - - Zimmer, H., ii. 286 _n._ 2 - - Zulus, foods tabooed among the, i. 118 _sq._ - -THE END - -_Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, _Edinburgh_. - - - - -Works by Sir J. G. FRAZER, D.C.L., LL.D. - - -THE GOLDEN BOUGH - -A STUDY IN MAGIC AND RELIGION - -Third Edition, revised and enlarged. 8vo. - -Part I. THE MAGIC ART AND THE EVOLUTION OF KINGS. 4th Impression. Two -volumes. 20s. net. - -II. TABOO AND THE PERILS OF THE SOUL. 3rd Impression. One volume. 10s. -net. - -III. THE DYING GOD. 3rd Impression. One volume. 10s. net. - -IV. ADONIS, ATTIS, OSIRIS. 3rd Impression. Two volumes. 20s. net. - -V. SPIRITS OF THE CORN AND OF THE WILD. 2nd Impression. Two volumes. -20s. net. - -VI. THE SCAPEGOAT. One volume. 10s. net. - -VII. BALDER THE BEAUTIFUL: THE FIRE-FESTIVALS OF EUROPE AND THE DOCTRINE -OF THE EXTERNAL SOUL. 2nd Impression. Two volumes. 20s. net. - -Vol. XII. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND GENERAL INDEX. 20s. net. - -_TIMES._—“The verdict of posterity will probably be that _The Golden -Bough_ influenced the attitude of the human mind towards supernatural -beliefs and symbolical rituals more profoundly than any other books -published in the nineteenth century except those of Darwin and Herbert -Spencer.” - - - =TOTEMISM AND EXOGAMY.= A Treatise on Certain Early Forms of - Superstition and Society. With Maps. Four vols. 8vo. 50s. net. - -MR. A. E. CRAWLEY in _NATURE_.—“That portion of the book which is -concerned with totemism (if we may express our own belief at the risk of -offending Prof. Frazer’s characteristic modesty) is actually ‘The -Complete History of Totemism, its Practice and its Theory, its Origin -and its End.’... Nearly two thousand pages are occupied with an -ethnographical survey of totemism, an invaluable compilation. The maps, -including that of the distribution of totemic peoples, are a new and -useful feature.” - - - LECTURES ON THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE KINGSHIP. 8vo. 8s. 6d. net. - -_ATHENÆUM._—“It is the effect of a good book not only to teach, but also -to stimulate and to suggest, and we think this the best and highest -quality, and one that will recommend these lectures to all intelligent -readers, as well as to the learned.” - - - =PSYCHE’S TASK=, A Discourse concerning the Influence of - Superstition on the Growth of Institutions. Second Edition, revised - and enlarged. To which is added “The Scope of Social Anthropology.” - 8vo. 5s. net. - -_OUTLOOK._—“Whether we disagree or agree with Dr. Frazer’s general -conclusions, he has provided us with a veritable storehouse of -correlated facts, for which, and for the learning that has gone to their -collection, and for the intellectual brilliance that has gone to their -arrangement, we can never be sufficiently grateful.” - - -MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD., LONDON. - - - =THE BELIEF IN IMMORTALITY AND THE WORSHIP OF THE DEAD.= Vol. I. The - Belief among the Aborigines of Australia, the Torres Straits - Islands, New Guinea, and Melanesia. The Gifford Lectures, St. - Andrews, 1911-1912. 8vo. 10s. net. - -MR. EDWARD CLODD in the _DAILY CHRONICLE_.—“‘If a man die, shall he live -again?’ is a question asked chiliads before Job put it, and the -generations of mankind repeat it. In this profoundly interesting volume, -Professor Frazer, out of the treasury of his knowledge, and with -consummate art of attractive presentment, gives the answers devised by -the Lower Races.” - - -=FOLK-LORE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.= 8vo. - -_In Preparation._ - - =PAUSANIAS’S DESCRIPTION OF GREECE.= Translated with a Commentary, - Illustrations, and Maps. Second Edition. Six vols. 8vo. 126s. net. - -_ATHENÆUM._—“All these writings in many languages Mr. Frazer has read -and digested with extraordinary care, so that his book will be for years -_the_ book of reference on such matters, not only in England, but in -France and Germany. It is a perfect thesaurus of Greek topography, -archæology, and art.” - - - =STUDIES IN GREEK SCENERY, LEGEND AND HISTORY.= Selected from his - Commentary on Pausanias by Sir J. G. FRAZER. Globe 8vo. 5s. net. - -_Eversley Series._ - -_GUARDIAN._—“Here we have material which every one who has visited -Greece, or purposes to visit it, most certainly should read and -enjoy.... We cannot imagine a more excellent book for the educated -visitor to Greece.” - - - =LETTERS OF WILLIAM COWPER.= Chosen and Edited, with a Memoir and a - few Notes, by Sir J. G. FRAZER. Two vols. Globe 8vo. 10s. net. - -_Eversley Series._ - -MR. CLEMENT SHORTER in the _DAILY CHRONICLE_.—“The introductory Memoir, -of some eighty pages in length, is a valuable addition to the many -appraisements of Cowper that these later years have seen.... Dr. Frazer -has given us two volumes that are an unqualified joy.” - - - =ESSAYS OF JOSEPH ADDISON.= Chosen and Edited, with a Preface and a - few Notes, by Sir J. G. FRAZER. Two vols. Globe 8vo. 10s. net. - -_Eversley Series._ - - -MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD., LONDON. - - - - - ● Transcriber’s Notes: - ○ Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected. - ○ Typographical errors were silently corrected. - ○ Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only - when a predominant form was found in this book. - ○ Text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_). - ○ Footnotes have been moved to follow the chapters in which they are - referenced. - ○ Sidenotes are placed in the text where, in the original book, they - were in - - the left margin near the text. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and -Religion (Third Edition, Vol. 02 of 12, by James George Frazer - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOLDEN BOUGH: VOL 2 OF 12 *** - -***** This file should be named 60250-0.txt or 60250-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/2/5/60250/ - -Produced by Susan Skinner, Suzanne Shell, David King, and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion (Third Edition, Vol. 02 of 12) - -Author: James George Frazer - -Release Date: September 7, 2019 [EBook #60250] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOLDEN BOUGH: VOL 2 OF 12 *** - - - - -Produced by Susan Skinner, Suzanne Shell, David King, and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net. (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive.) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_on'>on</span> -<img src='images/cover.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c000' /> -</div> - -<div> - <h1 class='c001'>The Golden Bough, A Study in Magic and Religion</h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c000'> - <div><span class='xxlarge'><b>The Golden Bough</b></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xxlarge'><b>A Study in Magic and Religion</b></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xlarge'><b>By</b></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xxlarge'><b><span class='sc'>Sir</span> James George Frazer, D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D.</b></span></div> - <div class='c000'><b>Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge</b></div> - <div><b>Professor of Social Anthropology in the University of Liverpool.</b></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xlarge'><b>Third Edition.</b></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xlarge'><b>Vol. II.</b></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xlarge'><b>Part I</b></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xlarge'><b>The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings</b></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='xlarge'><b>Vol. II</b></span></div> - <div class='c000'>Macmillan and Co., Limited</div> - <div>St. Martin’s Street, London</div> - <div class='c000'>1917</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><i>Third Edition March 1911</i></div> - <div class='c000'><i>Reprinted July 1911, 1913, 1917</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c002'>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> -<p class='c003'>Chapter VIII.—Departmental Kings of -Nature Pp. <a href='#chap08'>1-6</a></p> - -<p class='c004'>The King of the Wood at Nemi probably a departmental king of nature; -Kings of Rain in Africa; Kings of Fire and Water in -Cambodia.</p> -<p class='c003'>Chapter IX.—The Worship of Trees Pp. <a href='#chap09'>7-58</a></p> - -<p class='c004'>§ 1. <i>Tree-spirits</i>—Great forests of ancient Europe; tree-worship -practised by all Aryan races in Europe; trees regarded as animate; -tree-spirits, sacrifices to trees; trees sensitive to wounds; -apologies for cutting down trees; bleeding trees; trees -threatened to make them bear fruit; attempts to deceive spirits of -trees and plants; trees married to each other; trees in -blossom and rice in bloom treated like pregnant women; trees -tenanted by the souls of the dead; trees as the abode, not the -body, of spirits; ceremonies at felling trees; propitiating -tree-spirits in house-timber; sacred trees the abode of spirits; -sacred groves.</p> - -<p class='c004'>§ 2. <i>Beneficent Powers of Tree-spirits</i>—Tree-spirit develops into -anthropomorphic deity of the woods; tree-spirits give rain and sunshine; -tree-spirits make crops to grow; the Harvest May -and kindred customs; tree-spirits make herds and women fruitful; -green boughs protect against witchcraft; influence of tree-spirits -on cattle among the Wends, Esthonians, and Circassians; -tree-spirits grant offspring or easy delivery to women.</p> -<p class='c003'>Chapter X.—Relics of Tree-worship in -Modern Europe Pp. <a href='#chap10'>59-96</a></p> - -<p class='c004'>May-trees in Europe, especially England; May-garlands in England; -May customs in France, Germany, and Greece; Whitsuntide -customs in Russia; May-trees in Germany and Sweden; -Midsummer trees and poles in Sweden; village May-poles in -England and Germany; tree-spirit detached from tree and represented -in human form, Esthonian tale; tree-spirit represented -simultaneously in vegetable and human form; the Little May -Rose; the <i>Walber</i>; Green George; double representation -of tree-spirit by tree and man among the Oraons; double -representation of harvest-goddess Gauri; W. Mannhardt’s conclusions; -tree-spirit or vegetation-spirit represented by a person -alone; leaf-clad mummers (Green George, Little Leaf Man, Jack-in-the-Green, -etc.); leaf-clad mummers called Kings or Queens -(King and Queen of May, Whitsuntide King, etc.); Whitsuntide -Bridegroom and Bride; Midsummer Bridegroom and Bride; -the Forsaken Bridegroom or Bride; St. Bride in Scotland and the -Isle of Man; May Bride or Whitsuntide Bride.</p> -<p class='c003'>Chapter XI.—The Influence of the -Sexes on Vegetation Pp. <a href='#chap11'>97-119</a></p> - -<p class='c004'>The marriage of the King and Queen of May intended to promote the growth of -vegetation by homoeopathic magic; intercourse of the sexes practised -to make the crops grow and fruit-trees to bear fruit; parents -of twins supposed to fertilise the bananas in Uganda; relics of -similar customs in Europe; continence practised in order to -make the crops grow; incest and illicit love supposed to blight -the fruits of the earth by causing drought or excessive rain; -traces of similar beliefs as to the blighting effect of adultery and incest -among the ancient Jews, Greeks, Romans, and Irish; possible -influence of such beliefs on the institution of the forbidden degrees of -kinship; explanation of the seeming contradiction of the foregoing -customs; indirect benefit to humanity of some of these superstitions.</p> -<p class='c003'>Chapter XII.—The Sacred Marriage Pp. <a href='#chap12'>120-170</a></p> - -<p class='c004'>§ 1. <i>Diana as a Goddess of Fertility</i>—Dramatic marriages of gods -and goddesses as a charm to promote vegetation; Diana as a -goddess of the woodlands; sanctity of holy groves in antiquity; -the breaking of the Golden Bough a solemn rite, not a mere -piece of bravado; Diana a goddess of the teeming life of nature, -both animal and vegetable; deities of woodlands naturally the -patrons of the beasts of the woods; the crowning of hunting -dogs on Diana’s day a purification for their slaughter of the beasts of the -wood; as goddess of the moon, especially the yellow harvest -moon, Diana a goddess of crops and of childbirth; as a goddess -of fertility Diana needed a male partner.</p> - -<p class='c004'>§ 2. <i>The Marriage of the Gods</i>—Marriages of the gods in Babylonia -and Assyria; marriage of the god Ammon to the Queen of -Egypt; Apollo and his prophetess at Patara; Artemis and -the Essenes at Ephesus; marriage of Dionysus and the Queen at -Athens; marriage of Zeus and Demeter at Eleusis; -marriage of Zeus and Hera at Plataea; marriage of Zeus and -Hera in other parts of Greece; the god Frey and his human wife in -Sweden; similar rites in ancient Gaul; marriages of -gods to images or living women among uncivilised peoples; -custom of the Wotyaks; custom of the Peruvian Indians; -marriage of a woman to the Sun among the Blackfoot Indians; -marriage of girls to fishing-nets among the Hurons and Algonquins; -marriage of the Sun-god and Earth-goddess among the Oraons; -marriage of women to gods in India and Africa; -marriage of women to water-gods and crocodiles; virgin sacrificed -as a bride to the jinnee of the sea in the Maldive Islands.</p> - -<p class='c004'>§ 3. <i>Sacrifices to Water-spirits</i>—Stories of the Perseus and Andromeda -type; water-spirits conceived as serpents or dragons; -sacrifices of human beings to water-spirits; water-spirits -as dispensers of fertility; water-spirits bestow offspring on -women; love of river-spirits for women in Greek mythology; -the Slaying of the Dragon at Furth in Bavaria; St. -Romain and the Dragon at Rouen.</p> -<p class='c003'>Chapter XIII.—The Kings of Rome -and Alba Pp. <a href='#chap13'>171-194</a></p> - -<p class='c004'>§ 1. <i>Numa and Egeria</i>—Egeria a nymph of water and the oak, -perhaps a form of Diana; marriage of Numa and Egeria a -reminiscence of the marriage of the King of Rome to a goddess of water -and vegetation.</p> - -<p class='c004'>§ 2. <i>The King as Jupiter</i>—The Roman king personated Jupiter -and wore his costume; the oak crown as a symbol of divinity; -personation of the dead by masked men among the Romans; -the kings of Alba as personifications of Jupiter; legends of -the deaths of Roman kings point to their connexion with the thunder-god; -local Jupiters in Latium; the oak-groves of ancient -Rome; Latian Jupiter on the Alban Mount; woods of -Latium in antiquity; Latin worship of Jupiter like the Druidical -worship of the oak; sacred marriage of Jupiter and Juno; -Janus and Carnathe Flamen Dialis and Flaminica -as representatives of Jupiter and Juno; marriage of the Roman -king to the oak-goddess.</p> -<p class='c003'>Chapter XIV.—The King’s Fire Pp. <a href='#chap14'>195-206</a></p> - -<p class='c004'>Sacred marriage of the Fire-god with a woman; legends of the birth -of Latin kings from Vestal Virgins impregnated by the fire; -Vestal Virgins as wives of the Fire-god; the Vestal fire originally -the fire on the king’s hearth; the round temple of Vesta a copy -of the old round hut of the early Latins; rude pottery used in -Roman ritual; superstitions as to the making of pottery; -sanctity of the storeroom at Rome; the temple of Vesta with its -sacred fire a copy of the king’s house.</p> -<p class='c003'>Chapter XV.—The Fire-drill Pp. <a href='#chap15'>207-226</a></p> - -<p class='c004'>Vestal fire at Rome rekindled by the fire-drill; use of the fire-drill by savages; -the fire-sticks regarded by savages as male and female; -fire-customs of the Herero; sacred fire among the Herero -maintained in the chief’s hut by his unmarried daughter; the -Herero chief as priest of the hearth; sacred Herero fire -rekindled by fire-sticks, which are regarded as male and female, and are -made from the sacred ancestral tree; the sacred Herero hearth -a special seat of the ancestral spirits; sacred fire-sticks of the -Herero represent deceased ancestors; sacred fire-boards as -family deities among the Koryaks and Chuckchees.</p> -<p class='c003'>Chapter XVI.—Father Jove and -Mother Vesta Pp. <a href='#chap16'>227-252</a></p> - -<p class='c004'>Similarity between the fire-customs of the Herero and the ancient Latins; -rites performed by the Vestals for the fertility of the earth and -the fecundity of cattle; the Vestals as embodiments of Vesta, a -mother-goddess of fertility; the domestic fire as a fecundating -agent in marriage ritual; newborn children and the domestic -fire; reasons for ascribing a procreative virtue to fire; -fire kindled by friction by human representatives of the Fire-father and -Fire-mother; fire kindled by friction by boy and girl or by man -and woman; human fire-makers sometimes married, sometimes -unmarried; holy fire and virgins of St. Brigit in Ireland; -the oaks of Erin; virgin priestesses of fire in -ancient Peru and Mexico; the <i>Agnihotris</i> or fire-priests of the -Brahmans; kinds of wood employed for fire-sticks in India -and ancient Greece.</p> -<p class='c003'>Chapter XVII.—The Origin of Perpetual -Fires Pp. <a href='#chap17'>253-265</a></p> - -<p class='c004'>Custom of perpetual fires probably originated in motives of convenience; -races reported to be ignorant of the means of making fire; fire -probably used by men before they knew how to kindle it; -savages carry fire with them as a matter of convenience; -Prometheus the fire-bringer; perpetual fires maintained by chiefs -and kings; fire extinguished at king’s death.</p> -<p class='c003'>Chapter XVIII.—The Succession to -the Kingdom in Ancient Latium Pp. <a href='#chap18'>266-323</a></p> - -<p class='c004'>The sacred functions of Latin kings in general probably the same as those of the -Roman kings; question of the rule of succession to the Latin -kingship; list of Alban kings; list of Roman kings; -Latin kingship apparently transmitted in female line to foreign -husbands of princesses; miraculous births of kings explained on -this hypothesis; marriage of princesses to men of inferior rank -in Africa; traces of female descent of kingship in Greece; -and in Scandinavia; reminiscence of such descent in -popular tales; female descent of kingship among the Picts, the -Lydians, the Danes, and the Saxons; traces of female kinship -or mother-kin among the Aryans, the Picts, and the Etruscans; -mother-kin may survive in royal families after it has been superseded by -father-kin among commoners; the Roman kings plebeians, not -patricians; the first consuls at Rome heirs to the throne according -to mother-kin; attempt of Tarquin to change the line of succession -from the female to the male line; the hereditary principle -compatible with the elective principle in succession to the throne; -combination of the hereditary with the elective principle in succession to -the kingship in Africa and Assam; similar combination perhaps -in force at Rome; personal qualities required in kings and -chiefs; succession to the throne determined by a race; -custom of racing for a bride; contests for a bride other than -a race; the Flight of the King (<i>Regifugium</i>) at Rome perhaps -a relic of a contest for the kingdom and the hand of a princess; -confirmation of this theory from the practice of killing a human representative -of Saturn at the Saturnalia; violent ends of Roman -kings; death of Romulus on the <i>Nonae Caprotinae</i> (7th July), an -old licentious festival like the Saturnalia for the fertilisation of the fig; -violent deaths of other Roman kings; succession to -Latin kingship perhaps decided by single combat; African parallels; -Greek and Italian kings may have personated Cronus and Saturn -before they personated Zeus and Jupiter.</p> -<p class='c003'>Chapter XIX.—St. George and the -Parilia Pp. <a href='#chap19'>324-348</a></p> - -<p class='c004'>The early Italians a pastoral as well as agricultural people; the -shepherds’ festival of the Parilia on 21st April; intention of -the festival to ensure the welfare of the flocks and herds and to guard -them against witches and wolves; festival of the same kind still -held in Eastern Europe on 23rd April, St. George’s Day; precautions -taken by the Esthonians against witches and wolves on St. George’s -Day, when they drive out the cattle to pasture for the first time; -St. George’s Day a pastoral festival in Russia; among the -Ruthenians, among the Huzuls of the Carpathians; St. -George as the patron of horses in Silesia and Bavaria; St. -George’s Day among the Saxons and Roumanians of Transylvania; -St. George’s Day a herdsman’s festival among the Walachians, -Bulgarians, and South Slavs; precautions taken against witches -and wolves whenever the cattle are driven out to pasture for the first -time, as in Prussia and Sweden; these parallels illustrate some -features of the Parilia; St. George as a personification of trees -or vegetation in general; St. George as patron of childbirth and -love; St. George seems to have displaced an old Aryan god of -the spring, such as the Lithuanian Pergrubiusk.</p> -<p class='c003'>Chapter XX.—The Worship of the Oak Pp. <a href='#chap20'>349-375</a></p> - -<p class='c004'>§ 1. <i>The Diffusion of the Oak in Europe</i>—Jupiter the god -of the oak, the sky, and thunder; of these attributes the oak is -probably primary and the sky and thunder secondary; Europe -covered with oak forests in prehistoric times; remains of oaks found -in peat-bogs; ancient lake dwellings built on oaken piles; -evidence of classical writers as to oak forests in antiquity; -oak-woods in modern Europe.</p> - -<p class='c004'>§ 2. <i>The Aryan God of the Oak and the Thunder</i>—Aryan worship -of the oak and of the god of the oak; Zeus as the god of the oak, -the thunder, and the rain in ancient Greece; Jupiter as the god -of the oak, the thunder, and the rain in ancient Italy; Celtic -worship of the oak; Donar and Thor the Teutonic gods of the -oak and thunder; Perun the god of the oak and thunder among the -Slavs; Perkunas the god of the oak and thunder among the -Lithuanians; Taara the god of the oak and thunder among -the Esthonians; Parjanya, the old Indian god of thunder, rain, -and fertility; gods of thunder and rain in America, Africa, and -the Caucasus; traces of the worship of the oak in modern Europe; -in the great European god of the oak, the thunder, and the -rain, the original element seems to have been the oak.</p> -<p class='c003'>Chapter XXI.—Dianus and Diana Pp. <a href='#chap21'>376-387</a></p> - -<p class='c004'>Recapitulation: rise of sacred kings endowed with magical or divine powers; -the King of the Wood at Nemi seems to have personified -Jupiter the god of the oak and to have mated with Diana the goddess -of the oak; Dianus (Janus) and Diana originally dialectically -different forms of Jupiter and Juno; Janus (Dianus) not originally -a god of doors; double-headed figure of Janus (Dianus) derived -from a custom of placing him as sentinel at doorways; parallel -custom among the negroes of Surinam; originally the King of -the Wood at Nemi represented Dianus (Janus), a duplicate form of Jupiter, -the god of the oak, the thunder, and the sky.</p> - -<p class='c004'>INDEX Pp. <a href='#index'>389-417</a></p> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span> - <h2 id='chap08' class='c002'>CHAPTER VIII <br /> DEPARTMENTAL KINGS OF NATURE</h2> -</div> -<p class='c003'>The preceding investigation has proved that the same -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Departmental kings of nature.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -union of sacred functions with a royal title which meets us -in the King of the Wood at Nemi, the Sacrificial King at -Rome, and the magistrate called the King at Athens, occurs -frequently outside the limits of classical antiquity and is -a common feature of societies at all stages from barbarism -to civilisation. Further, it appears that the royal priest is -often a king, not only in name but in fact, swaying the -sceptre as well as the crosier. All this confirms the -traditional view of the origin of the titular and priestly -kings in the republics of ancient Greece and Italy. At -least by shewing that the combination of spiritual and -temporal power, of which Graeco-Italian tradition preserved -the memory, has actually existed in many places, we have -obviated any suspicion of improbability that might have -attached to the tradition. Therefore we may now fairly -ask, May not the King of the Wood have had an origin like -that which a probable tradition assigns to the Sacrificial -King of Rome and the titular King of Athens? In other -words, may not his predecessors in office have been a line of -kings whom a republican revolution stripped of their political -power, leaving them only their religious functions and the -shadow of a crown? There are at least two reasons for -answering this question in the negative. One reason is -drawn from the abode of the priest of Nemi; the other from -his title, the King of the Wood. If his predecessors had -been kings in the ordinary sense, he would surely have been -found residing, like the fallen kings of Rome and Athens, in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>the city of which the sceptre had passed from him. This -city must have been Aricia, for there was none nearer. But -Aricia was three miles off from his forest sanctuary by the -lake shore. If he reigned, it was not in the city, but in the -greenwood. Again his title, King of the Wood, hardly -allows us to suppose that he had ever been a king in the -common sense of the word. More likely he was a king of -nature, and of a special side of nature, namely, the woods -from which he took his title. If we could find instances of -what we may call departmental kings of nature, that is of -persons supposed to rule over particular elements or aspects -of nature, they would probably present a closer analogy to the -King of the Wood than the divine kings we have been hitherto -considering, whose control of nature is general rather than -special. Instances of such departmental kings are not wanting.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Kings of rain in Africa.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -On a hill at Bomma near the mouth of the Congo dwells -Namvulu Vumu, King of the Rain and Storm.<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c005'><sup>[1]</sup></a> Of some -of the tribes on the Upper Nile we are told that they have -no kings in the common sense; the only persons whom they -acknowledge as such are the Kings of the Rain, <i>Mata Kodou</i>, -who are credited with the power of giving rain at the proper -time, that is in the rainy season. Before the rains begin -to fall at the end of March the country is a parched and -arid desert; and the cattle, which form the people’s chief -wealth, perish for lack of grass. So, when the end of March -draws on, each householder betakes himself to the King of -the Rain and offers him a cow that he may make the blessed -waters of heaven to drip on the brown and withered pastures. -If no shower falls, the people assemble and demand that the -king shall give them rain; and if the sky still continues cloudless, -they rip up his belly, in which he is believed to keep the -storms. Amongst the Bari tribe one of these Rain Kings made -rain by sprinkling water on the ground out of a handbell.<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c005'><sup>[2]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Priesthood of the Alfai.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Among tribes on the outskirts of Abyssinia a similar -office exists and has been thus described by an observer. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>“The priesthood of the Alfai, as he is called by the Barea -and Kunama, is a remarkable one; he is believed to be able -to make rain. This office formerly existed among the -Algeds and appears to be still common to the Nuba negroes. -The Alfai of the Barea, who is also consulted by the -northern Kunama, lives near Tembadere on a mountain -alone with his family. The people bring him tribute in the -form of clothes and fruits, and cultivate for him a large field -of his own. He is a kind of king, and his office passes by -inheritance to his brother or sister’s son. He is supposed to -conjure down rain and to drive away the locusts. But if he -disappoints the people’s expectation and a great drought -arises in the land, the Alfai is stoned to death, and his -nearest relations are obliged to cast the first stone at him. -When we passed through the country, the office of Alfai was -still held by an old man; but I heard that rain-making had -proved too dangerous for him and that he had renounced -his office.”<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c005'><sup>[3]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Kings of Fire and Water in Cambodia.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the backwoods of Cambodia live two mysterious -sovereigns known as the King of the Fire and the King of -the Water. Their fame is spread all over the south of the -great Indo-Chinese peninsula; but only a faint echo of it -has reached the West. Down to a few years ago no European, -so far as is known, had ever seen either of them; -and their very existence might have passed for a fable, were -it not that till lately communications were regularly maintained -between them and the King of Cambodia, who year -by year exchanged presents with them. The Cambodian -gifts were passed from tribe to tribe till they reached their -destination; for no Cambodian would essay the long and -perilous journey. The tribe amongst whom the Kings of -Fire and Water reside is the Chréais or Jaray, a race with -European features but a sallow complexion, inhabiting the -forest-clad mountains and high tablelands which separate -Cambodia from Annam. Their royal functions are of a -purely mystic or spiritual order; they have no political -authority; they are simple peasants, living by the sweat of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>their brow and the offerings of the faithful. According to -one account they live in absolute solitude, never meeting -each other and never seeing a human face. They inhabit -successively seven towers perched upon seven mountains, -and every year they pass from one tower to another. -People come furtively and cast within their reach what is -needful for their subsistence. The kingship lasts seven -years, the time necessary to inhabit all the towers successively; -but many die before their time is out. The offices -are hereditary in one or (according to others) two royal -families, who enjoy high consideration, have revenues -assigned to them, and are exempt from the necessity of -tilling the ground. But naturally the dignity is not coveted, -and when a vacancy occurs, all eligible men (they must be -strong and have children) flee and hide themselves. Another -account, admitting the reluctance of the hereditary candidates -to accept the crown, does not countenance the report of -their hermit-like seclusion in the seven towers. For it -represents the people as prostrating themselves before the -mystic kings whenever they appear in public, it being -thought that a terrible hurricane would burst over the -country if this mark of homage were omitted. Probably, -however, these are mere fables such as commonly shed a -glamour of romance over the distant and unknown. A -French officer, who had an interview with the redoubtable -Fire King in February 1891, found him stretched on a -bamboo couch, diligently smoking a long copper pipe, and -surrounded by people who paid him no great deference. In -spite of his mystic vocation the sorcerer had no charm or -talisman about him, and was in no way distinguishable from -his fellows except by his tall stature. Another writer reports -that the two kings are much feared, because they are supposed -to possess the evil eye; hence every one avoids them, and the -potentates considerately cough to announce their approach -and to allow people to get out of their way. They enjoy -extraordinary privileges and immunities, but their authority -does not extend beyond the few villages of their neighbourhood. -Like many other sacred kings, of whom we shall -read in the sequel, the Kings of Fire and Water are not -allowed to die a natural death, for that would lower their -<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>reputation. Accordingly when one of them is seriously ill, -the elders hold a consultation and if they think he cannot -recover they stab him to death. His body is burned and -the ashes are piously collected and publicly honoured for -five years. Part of them is given to the widow, and she -keeps them in an urn, which she must carry on her back -when she goes to weep on her husband’s grave.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Supernatural powers of the Kings of Fire and Water.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -We are told that the Fire King, the more important -of the two, whose supernatural powers have never been -questioned, officiates at marriages, festivals, and sacrifices in -honour of the <i>Yan</i> or spirit. On these occasions a special place -is set apart for him; and the path by which he approaches is -spread with white cotton cloths. A reason for confining the -royal dignity to the same family is that this family is in -possession of certain famous talismans which would lose -their virtue or disappear if they passed out of the family. -These talismans are three: the fruit of a creeper called <i>Cui</i>, -gathered ages ago at the time of the last deluge, but still -fresh and green; a rattan, also very old but bearing flowers -that never fade; and lastly, a sword containing a <i>Yan</i> or -spirit, who guards it constantly and works miracles with it. -The spirit is said to be that of a slave, whose blood chanced -to fall upon the blade while it was being forged, and who died -a voluntary death to expiate his involuntary offence. By -means of the two former talismans the Water King can raise -a flood that would drown the whole earth. If the Fire King -draws the magic sword a few inches from its sheath, the sun -is hidden and men and beasts fall into a profound sleep; -were he to draw it quite out of the scabbard, the world -would come to an end. To this wondrous brand sacrifices -of buffaloes, pigs, fowls, and ducks are offered for rain. It -is kept swathed in cotton and silk; and amongst the annual -presents sent by the King of Cambodia were rich stuffs to -wrap the sacred sword.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Gifts sent by the Kings of Fire and Water to the King of Cambodia.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In return the Kings of Fire and Water sent him a -huge wax candle and two calabashes, one full of rice and -the other of sesame. The candle bore the impress of the -Fire King’s middle finger, and was probably thought to -contain the seed of fire, which the Cambodian monarch -thus received once a year fresh from the Fire King himself -<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>This holy candle was kept for sacred uses. On reaching the -capital of Cambodia it was entrusted to the Brahmans, who -laid it up beside the regalia, and with the wax made tapers -which were burned on the altars on solemn days. As the -candle was the special gift of the Fire King, we may conjecture -that the rice and sesame were the special gift of -the Water King. The latter was doubtless king of rain as -well as of water, and the fruits of the earth were boons conferred -by him on men. In times of calamity, as during -plague, floods, and war, a little of this sacred rice and sesame -was scattered on the ground “to appease the wrath of the -maleficent spirits.” Contrary to the common usage of the -country, which is to bury the dead, the bodies of both these -mystic monarchs are burnt, but their nails and some of their -teeth and bones are religiously preserved as amulets. It is -while the corpse is being consumed on the pyre that the -kinsmen of the deceased magician flee to the forest and hide -themselves for fear of being elevated to the invidious dignity -which he has just vacated. The people go and search for -them, and the first whose lurking place they discover is -made King of Fire or Water.<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c005'><sup>[4]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'>These, then, are examples of what I have called departmental -kings of nature. But it is a far cry to Italy from -the forests of Cambodia and the sources of the Nile. And -though Kings of Rain, Water, and Fire have been found, we -have still to discover a King of the Wood to match the -Arician priest who bore that title. Perhaps we shall find -him nearer home.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span> - <h2 id='chap09' class='c002'>CHAPTER IX <br /> THE WORSHIP OF TREES</h2> -</div> -<h3 class='c006'>§ 1. Tree-spirits</h3> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Great forests of ancient Europe.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the religious history of the Aryan race in Europe the -worship of trees has played an important part. Nothing -could be more natural. For at the dawn of history Europe -was covered with immense primaeval forests, in which the -scattered clearings must have appeared like islets in an -ocean of green. Down to the first century before our era -the Hercynian forest stretched eastward from the Rhine for -a distance at once vast and unknown; Germans whom -Caesar questioned had travelled for two months through it -without reaching the end.<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c005'><sup>[5]</sup></a> Four centuries later it was -visited by the Emperor Julian, and the solitude, the gloom, -the silence of the forest appear to have made a deep impression -on his sensitive nature. He declared that he knew -nothing like it in the Roman empire.<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c005'><sup>[6]</sup></a> In our own country -the wealds of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex are remnants of the -great forest of Anderida, which once clothed the whole of -the south-eastern portion of the island. Westward it seems -to have stretched till it joined another forest that extended -from Hampshire to Devon. In the reign of Henry II. the -citizens of London still hunted the wild bull and the boar in -the woods of Hampstead. Even under the later Plantagenets -the royal forests were sixty-eight in number. In the forest -of Arden it was said that down to modern times a squirrel -might leap from tree to tree for nearly the whole length of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>Warwickshire.<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c005'><sup>[7]</sup></a> The excavation of ancient pile-villages in -the valley of the Po has shewn that long before the rise -and probably the foundation of Rome the north of Italy was -covered with dense woods of elms, chestnuts, and especially -of oaks.<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c005'><sup>[8]</sup></a> Archaeology is here confirmed by history; for -classical writers contain many references to Italian forests -which have now disappeared.<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c005'><sup>[9]</sup></a> As late as the fourth century -before our era Rome was divided from central Etruria by -the dreaded Ciminian forest, which Livy compares to the -woods of Germany. No merchant, if we may trust the -Roman historian, had ever penetrated its pathless solitudes: -and it was deemed a most daring feat when a Roman -general, after sending two scouts to explore its intricacies, -led his army into the forest and, making his way to a -ridge of the wooded mountains, looked down on the rich -Etrurian fields spread out below.<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c005'><sup>[10]</sup></a> In Greece beautiful -woods of pine, oak, and other trees still linger on the slopes -of the high Arcadian mountains, still adorn with their -verdure the deep gorge through which the Ladon hurries -to join the sacred Alpheus; and were still, down to a few -years ago, mirrored in the dark blue waters of the lonely -lake of Pheneus; but they are mere fragments of the forests -which clothed great tracts in antiquity, and which at a more -remote epoch may have spanned the Greek peninsula from -sea to sea.<a id='r11' /><a href='#f11' class='c005'><sup>[11]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Tree-worship practised by all the Aryan races in Europe.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -From an examination of the Teutonic words for “temple” -Grimm has made it probable that amongst the Germans the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>oldest sanctuaries were natural woods.<a id='r12' /><a href='#f12' class='c005'><sup>[12]</sup></a> However this may -be, tree-worship is well attested for all the great European -families of the Aryan stock. Amongst the Celts the oak-worship -of the Druids is familiar to every one,<a id='r13' /><a href='#f13' class='c005'><sup>[13]</sup></a> and their old -word for a sanctuary seems to be identical in origin and -meaning with the Latin <i>némus</i>, a grove or woodland glade, -which still survives in the name of Nemi.<a id='r14' /><a href='#f14' class='c005'><sup>[14]</sup></a> Sacred groves -were common among the ancient Germans, and tree-worship -is hardly extinct amongst their descendants at the present -day.<a id='r15' /><a href='#f15' class='c005'><sup>[15]</sup></a> How serious that worship was in former times may -be gathered from the ferocious penalty appointed by the old -German laws for such as dared to peel the bark of a -standing tree. The culprit’s navel was to be cut out and -nailed to the part of the tree which he had peeled, and he -was to be driven round and round the tree till all his guts -were wound about its trunk.<a id='r16' /><a href='#f16' class='c005'><sup>[16]</sup></a> The intention of the punishment -clearly was to replace the dead bark by a living -substitute taken from the culprit; it was a life for a life, the -life of a man for the life of a tree. At Upsala, the old -religious capital of Sweden, there was a sacred grove in -which every tree was regarded as divine.<a id='r17' /><a href='#f17' class='c005'><sup>[17]</sup></a> The heathen -Slavs worshipped trees and groves.<a id='r18' /><a href='#f18' class='c005'><sup>[18]</sup></a> The Lithuanians were -not converted to Christianity till towards the close of the -fourteenth century, and amongst them at the date of their -conversion the worship of trees was prominent. Some of -them revered remarkable oaks and other great shady trees, -from which they received oracular responses. Some maintained -holy groves about their villages or houses, where even -to break a twig would have been a sin. They thought that -he who cut a bough in such a grove either died suddenly or -was crippled in one of his limbs.<a id='r19' /><a href='#f19' class='c005'><sup>[19]</sup></a> Proofs of the prevalence -<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>of tree-worship in ancient Greece and Italy are abundant.<a id='r20' /><a href='#f20' class='c005'><sup>[20]</sup></a> -In the sanctuary of Aesculapius at Cos, for example, it was -forbidden to cut down the cypress-trees under a penalty of a -thousand drachms.<a id='r21' /><a href='#f21' class='c005'><sup>[21]</sup></a> But nowhere, perhaps, in the ancient -world was this antique form of religion better preserved than -in the heart of the great metropolis itself. In the Forum, -the busy centre of Roman life, the sacred fig-tree of Romulus -was worshipped down to the days of the empire, and the -withering of its trunk was enough to spread consternation -through the city.<a id='r22' /><a href='#f22' class='c005'><sup>[22]</sup></a> Again, on the slope of the Palatine Hill -grew a cornel-tree which was esteemed one of the most sacred -objects in Rome. Whenever the tree appeared to a passer-by -to be drooping, he set up a hue and cry which was -echoed by the people in the street, and soon a crowd might -be seen running helter-skelter from all sides with buckets of -water, as if (says Plutarch) they were hastening to put out -a fire.<a id='r23' /><a href='#f23' class='c005'><sup>[23]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Tree-worship among the Finnish-Ugrian peoples.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Among the tribes of the Finnish-Ugrian stock in Europe -the heathen worship was performed for the most part in -sacred groves, which were always enclosed with a fence. -Such a grove often consisted merely of a glade or clearing -with a few trees dotted about, upon which in former times -the skins of the sacrificial victims were hung. The central -point of the grove, at least among the tribes of the Volga, -was the sacred tree, beside which everything else sank into -insignificance. Before it the worshippers assembled and the -priest offered his prayers, at its roots the victim was sacrificed, -and its boughs sometimes served as a pulpit. No -wood might be hewn and no branch broken in the grove, -and women were generally forbidden to enter it. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>Ostyaks and Woguls, two peoples of the Finnish-Ugrian -stock in Siberia, had also sacred groves in which nothing -might be touched, and where the skins of the sacrificed -animals were suspended; but these groves were not enclosed -with fences.<a id='r24' /><a href='#f24' class='c005'><sup>[24]</sup></a> Near Kuopio, in Finland, there was a famous -grove of ancient moss-grown firs, where the people offered -sacrifices and practised superstitious customs down to about -1650, when a sturdy veteran of the Thirty Years’ War -dared to cut it down at the bidding of the pastor. Sacred -groves now hardly exist in Finland, but sacred trees to -which offerings are brought are still not very uncommon. -On some firs the skulls of bears are nailed, apparently that -the hunter may have good luck in the chase.<a id='r25' /><a href='#f25' class='c005'><sup>[25]</sup></a> The Ostyaks -are said never to have passed a sacred tree without shooting -an arrow at it as a mark of respect. In many places they hung -furs and skins on the holy trees in the forest; but having -observed that these furs were often appropriated and carried -off by unscrupulous travellers, they adopted the practice of -hewing the trunks into great blocks, which they decked with -their offerings and preserved in safe places. The custom -marks a transition from the worship of trees to the worship -of idols carved out of the sacred wood. Within their sacred -groves no grass or wood might be cut, no game hunted, no -fish caught, not even a draught of water drunk. When -they passed them in their canoes, they were careful not to -touch the land with the oar, and if the journey through the -hallowed ground was long, they laid in a store of water -before entering on it, for they would rather suffer extreme -thirst than slake it by drinking of the sacred stream. The -Ostyaks also regarded as holy any tree on which an eagle -had built its nest for several years, and they spared the bird -as well as the tree. No greater injury could be done them -than to shoot such an eagle or destroy its nest.<a id='r26' /><a href='#f26' class='c005'><sup>[26]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Trees are regarded by the savage as animate.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But it is necessary to examine in some detail the notions -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>on which the worship of trees and plants is based. To the -savage the world in general is animate, and trees and plants are -no exception to the rule. He thinks that they have souls like -his own, and he treats them accordingly. “They say,” writes -the ancient vegetarian Porphyry, “that primitive men led an -unhappy life, for their superstition did not stop at animals -but extended even to plants. For why should the slaughter -of an ox or a sheep be a greater wrong than the felling of a -fir or an oak, seeing that a soul is implanted in these trees -also?”<a id='r27' /><a href='#f27' class='c005'><sup>[27]</sup></a> Similarly, the Hidatsa Indians of North America -believe that every natural object has its spirit, or to speak -more properly, its shade. To these shades some consideration -or respect is due, but not equally to all. For example, -the shade of the cottonwood, the greatest tree in the valley -of the Upper Missouri, is supposed to possess an intelligence -which, if properly approached, may help the Indians in -certain undertakings; but the shades of shrubs and grasses -are of little account. When the Missouri, swollen by a -freshet in spring, carries away part of its banks and sweeps -some tall tree into its current, it is said that the spirit of the -tree cries while the roots still cling to the land and until the -trunk falls with a splash into the stream. Formerly the -Indians considered it wrong to fell one of these giants, and -when large logs were needed they made use only of trees -which had fallen of themselves. Till lately some of the more -credulous old men declared that many of the misfortunes of -their people were caused by this modern disregard for the -rights of the living cottonwood.<a id='r28' /><a href='#f28' class='c005'><sup>[28]</sup></a> The Iroquois believed -that each species of tree, shrub, plant, and herb had its own -spirit, and to these spirits it was their custom to return -thanks.<a id='r29' /><a href='#f29' class='c005'><sup>[29]</sup></a> The Wanika of Eastern Africa fancy that every -tree, and especially every coco-nut tree, has its spirit; -“the destruction of a cocoa-nut tree is regarded as equivalent -to matricide, because that tree gives them life and nourishment, -as a mother does her child.”<a id='r30' /><a href='#f30' class='c005'><sup>[30]</sup></a> In the Yasawu islands -<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>of Fiji a man will never eat a coco-nut without first asking -its leave—“May I eat you, my chief?”<a id='r31' /><a href='#f31' class='c005'><sup>[31]</sup></a> Among the -Thompson Indians of British Columbia young people addressed -the following prayer to the sunflower root before -they ate the first roots of the season: “I inform thee that -I intend to eat thee. Mayest thou always help me to -ascend, so that I may always be able to reach the tops of -mountains, and may I never be clumsy! I ask this from -thee, Sunflower-Root. Thou art the greatest of all in -mystery.” To omit this prayer would have made the eater -of the root lazy, and caused him to sleep long in the morning. -We are not told, but may conjecture, that these -Indians ascribed to the sunflower the sun’s power of climbing -above the mountain-tops and of rising betimes in the -morning; hence whoever ate of the plant, with all the due -formalities, would naturally acquire the same useful properties. -It is not so easy to say why women had to observe -continence in cooking and digging the root, and why, when -they were cooking it, no man might come near the oven.<a id='r32' /><a href='#f32' class='c005'><sup>[32]</sup></a> -The Dyaks ascribe souls to trees, and do not dare to cut -down an old tree. In some places, when an old tree has -been blown down, they set it up, smear it with blood, and -deck it with flags “to appease the soul of the tree.”<a id='r33' /><a href='#f33' class='c005'><sup>[33]</sup></a> -Siamese monks, believing that there are souls everywhere, -and that to destroy anything whatever is forcibly to dispossess -a soul, will not break a branch of a tree, “as they -will not break the arm of an innocent person.”<a id='r34' /><a href='#f34' class='c005'><sup>[34]</sup></a> These -monks, of course, are Buddhists. But Buddhist animism is -not a philosophical theory. It is simply a common savage -dogma incorporated in the system of an historical religion. -To suppose with Benfey and others that the theories of -animism and transmigration current among rude peoples of -Asia are derived from Buddhism, is to reverse the facts. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>Buddhism in this respect borrowed from savagery, not -savagery from Buddhism.<a id='r35' /><a href='#f35' class='c005'><sup>[35]</sup></a> According to Chinese belief, the -spirits of plants are never shaped like plants but have -commonly the form either of human beings or of animals, -for example bulls and serpents. Occasionally at the felling -of a tree the tree-spirit has been seen to rush out in the -shape of a blue bull.<a id='r36' /><a href='#f36' class='c005'><sup>[36]</sup></a> In China “to this day the belief -in tree-spirits dangerous to man is obviously strong. In -southern Fuhkien it deters people from felling any large -trees or chopping off heavy branches, for fear the indwelling -spirit may become irritated and visit the aggressor or his -neighbours with disease and calamity. Especially respected -are the green banyan or <i>ch’îng</i>, the biggest trees to be found -in that part of China. In Amoy some people even show a -strong aversion from planting trees, the planters, as soon as -the stems have become as thick as their necks, being sure to -be throttled by the indwelling spirits. No explanation of -this curious superstition was ever given us. It may account -to some extent for the almost total neglect of forestry in that -part of China, so that hardly any except spontaneous trees -grow there.”<a id='r37' /><a href='#f37' class='c005'><sup>[37]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Particular sorts of trees tenanted by spirits; sacrifices to tree-spirits.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Sometimes it is only particular sorts of trees that are -supposed to be tenanted by spirits. At Grbalj in Dalmatia -it is said that among great beeches, oaks, and other trees -there are some that are endowed with shades or souls, and -whoever fells one of them must die on the spot, or at least -live an invalid for the rest of his days. If a woodman fears -that a tree which he has felled is one of this sort, he must -cut off the head of a live hen on the stump of the tree with -the very same axe with which he cut down the tree. This -will protect him from all harm, even if the tree be one of -the animated kind.<a id='r38' /><a href='#f38' class='c005'><sup>[38]</sup></a> The silk-cotton trees, which rear their -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Silk-cotton trees in West Africa.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -enormous trunks to a stupendous height, far out-topping all -the other trees of the forest, are regarded with reverence -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>throughout West Africa, from the Senegal to the Niger, and -are believed to be the abode of a god or spirit. Among the -Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast the indwelling god -of this giant of the forest goes by the name of Huntin. -Trees in which he specially dwells—for it is not every silk-cotton -tree that he thus honours—are surrounded by a -girdle of palm-leaves; and sacrifices of fowls, and occasionally -of human beings, are fastened to the trunk or laid -against the foot of the tree. A tree distinguished by a -girdle of palm-leaves may not be cut down or injured in -any way; and even silk-cotton trees which are not supposed -to be animated by Huntin may not be felled unless the -woodman first offers a sacrifice of fowls and palm-oil to -purge himself of the proposed sacrilege. To omit the -sacrifice is an offence which may be punished with death.<a id='r39' /><a href='#f39' class='c005'><sup>[39]</sup></a> -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sycamores in ancient Egypt.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Everywhere in Egypt on the borders of the cultivated land, -and even at some distance from the valley of the Nile, you -meet with fine sycamores standing solitary and thriving as -by a miracle in the sandy soil; their living green contrasts -strongly with the tawny hue of the surrounding landscape, -and their thick impenetrable foliage bids defiance even in -summer to the noonday sun. The secret of their verdure is -that their roots strike down into rills of water that trickle -by unseen sluices from the great river. Of old the Egyptians -of every rank esteemed these trees divine, and paid them -regular homage. They gave them figs, raisins, cucumbers, -vegetables, and water in earthenware pitchers, which charitable -folk filled afresh every day. Passers-by slaked their -thirst at these pitchers in the sultry hours, and paid for the -welcome draught by a short prayer. The spirit that animated -these beautiful trees generally lurked unseen, but -sometimes he would shew his head or even his whole body -outside the trunk, but only to retire into it again.<a id='r40' /><a href='#f40' class='c005'><sup>[40]</sup></a> People -in Congo set calabashes of palm-wine at the foot of certain -trees for the trees to drink when they are thirsty.<a id='r41' /><a href='#f41' class='c005'><sup>[41]</sup></a> The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sacred trees in Africa, Syria, and Patagonia.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Wanika of Eastern Africa pay special honour to the spirits -of coco-nut palms in return for the many benefits conferred -on them by the trees. To cut down a coco-nut palm is an -inexpiable offence, equivalent to matricide. They sacrifice -to the tree on many occasions. When a man in gathering -the coco-nuts has fallen from the palm, they attribute it to -the wrath of the tree-spirit, and resort to the oddest means -of appeasing him.<a id='r42' /><a href='#f42' class='c005'><sup>[42]</sup></a> The Masai particularly reverence the -<i>subugo</i> tree, the bark of which has medical properties, and a -species of parasitic fig which they call <i>retete</i>. The green figs -are eaten by boys and girls, and older people propitiate -the tree by pouring the blood of a goat at the foot of the -trunk and strewing grass on the branches.<a id='r43' /><a href='#f43' class='c005'><sup>[43]</sup></a> The natives of -the Bissagos Islands, off the west coast of Africa, sacrifice -dogs, cocks, and oxen to their sacred trees, but they eat -the flesh of the victims and leave only the horns, fastened to -the trees, for the spirits.<a id='r44' /><a href='#f44' class='c005'><sup>[44]</sup></a> In a Turkish village of Northern -Syria there is a very old oak-tree which the people worship, -burning incense to it and bringing offerings as they would to -a shrine.<a id='r45' /><a href='#f45' class='c005'><sup>[45]</sup></a> In Patagonia, between the Rio Negro and the -Rio Colorado, there stands solitary an ancient acacia-tree -with a gnarled and hollow trunk. The Indians revere it as -the abode of a spirit, and hang offerings of blankets, ponchos, -ribbons, and coloured threads on it, so that the tree presents -the aspect of an old clothes’ shop, the tattered, weather-worn -garments drooping sadly from the boughs. No Indian -passes it without leaving something, if it be only a little -horse-hair which he ties to a branch. The hollow trunk -contains offerings of tobacco, beads, and sometimes coins. -But the best evidence of the sanctity of the tree are the -bleached skeletons of many horses which have been killed in -honour of the spirit; for the horse is the most precious -sacrifice that these Indians can offer. They slaughter the -animal also to propitiate the spirits of the deep and rapid -<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sacrifices to trees.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -rivers which they have often to ford or swim.<a id='r46' /><a href='#f46' class='c005'><sup>[46]</sup></a> The Kayans -of Central Borneo ascribe souls to the trees which yield the -poison they use to envenom their arrows. They think that -the spirit of the <i>tasem</i> tree (<i>Antiaris toxicaria</i>) is particularly -hard to please; but if the wood has a strong and agreeable -scent, they know that the man who felled the tree must have -contrived by his offerings to mollify the peevish spirit.<a id='r47' /><a href='#f47' class='c005'><sup>[47]</sup></a> In -some of the Louisiade Islands there are certain large trees -under which the natives hold their feasts. These trees seem -to be regarded as endowed with souls; for a portion of the -feast is set aside for them, and the bones of pigs and of -human beings are everywhere deeply imbedded in their -branches.<a id='r48' /><a href='#f48' class='c005'><sup>[48]</sup></a> Among the Kangra mountains of the Punjaub a -girl used to be annually sacrificed to an old cedar-tree, the -families of the village taking it in turn to supply the victim. -The tree was cut down not very many years ago.<a id='r49' /><a href='#f49' class='c005'><sup>[49]</sup></a> On -Christmas Eve it is still customary in some parts of Germany -to gird fruit-trees with ropes of straw on which the sausages -prepared for the festival have lain. This is supposed to -make the trees bear fruit. In the Mark of Brandenburg the -person who ties the straw round the trees says, “Little tree, -I make you a present, and you will make me one.” The -people say that if the trees receive gifts, they will bestow -gifts in return. The custom, which is clearly a relic of tree-worship, -is often observed on New Year’s night or at any -time between Christmas and Twelfth Night.<a id='r50' /><a href='#f50' class='c005'><sup>[50]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Trees supposed to be sensitive and to feel wounds.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -If trees are animate, they are necessarily sensitive and -the cutting of them down becomes a delicate surgical operation, -which must be performed with as tender a regard as -possible for the feelings of the sufferers, who otherwise may -turn and rend the careless or bungling operator. When an -oak is being felled “it gives a kind of shriekes or groanes, -that may be heard a mile off, as if it were the genius of the -oake lamenting. E. Wyld, Esq., hath heard it severall -times.”<a id='r51' /><a href='#f51' class='c005'><sup>[51]</sup></a> The Ojebways “very seldom cut down green or -living trees, from the idea that it puts them to pain, and -some of their medicine-men profess to have heard the -wailing of the trees under the axe.”<a id='r52' /><a href='#f52' class='c005'><sup>[52]</sup></a> Trees that bleed and -utter cries of pain or indignation when they are hacked or -burned occur very often in Chinese books, even in Standard -Histories.<a id='r53' /><a href='#f53' class='c005'><sup>[53]</sup></a> Old peasants in some parts of Austria still -believe that forest-trees are animate, and will not allow an -incision to be made in the bark without special cause; they -have heard from their fathers that the tree feels the cut not -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Apologies offered to trees for cutting them down.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -less than a wounded man his hurt. In felling a tree they -beg its pardon.<a id='r54' /><a href='#f54' class='c005'><sup>[54]</sup></a> It is said that in the Upper Palatinate also -old woodmen still secretly ask a fine, sound tree to forgive -them before they cut it down.<a id='r55' /><a href='#f55' class='c005'><sup>[55]</sup></a> So in Jarkino the woodman -craves pardon of the tree he fells.<a id='r56' /><a href='#f56' class='c005'><sup>[56]</sup></a> Before the Ilocanes of -Luzon cut down trees in the virgin forest or on the mountains, -they recite some verses to the following effect: “Be not uneasy, -my friend, though we fell what we have been ordered to fell.” -This they do in order not to draw down on themselves the -hatred of the spirits who live in the trees, and who are apt -to avenge themselves by visiting with grievous sickness such -as injure them wantonly.<a id='r57' /><a href='#f57' class='c005'><sup>[57]</sup></a> When the Tagalogs of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>Philippines wish to pluck a flower, they ask leave of the -genius (<i>nono</i>) of the flower to do so; when they are -obliged to cut down a tree they beg pardon of the -genius of the tree and excuse themselves by saying that -it was the priest who bade them fell it.<a id='r58' /><a href='#f58' class='c005'><sup>[58]</sup></a> Among the -Tigre-speaking tribes in the north of Abyssinia people -are afraid to fell a green and fruit-bearing tree lest they -incur the curse of God, which is heard in the groaning of -the tree as it sinks to the ground. But if a man is bold -enough to cut down such a tree, he will say to it, “Thy -curse abide in thee,” or he will allege that it was not he but -an elephant or a rhinoceros that knocked it down.<a id='r59' /><a href='#f59' class='c005'><sup>[59]</sup></a> Amongst -the Hos of Togoland, in West Africa, when a man wishes to -make palm-wine he hires woodmen to fell the trees. They -go into the palm-wood, set some meal on the ground and -say to the wood, “That is your food. The old man at home -sent us to cut you down. We are still children who know -nothing at all. The old man at home has sent us.” They -say this because they think that the wood is a spirit and -that it is angry with them.<a id='r60' /><a href='#f60' class='c005'><sup>[60]</sup></a> Before a Karo Batak cuts -down a tree, he will offer it betel and apologies; and if in -passing the place afterwards he should see the tree weeping -or, as we should say, exuding sap, he hastens to console it -by sprinkling the blood of a fowl on the stump.<a id='r61' /><a href='#f61' class='c005'><sup>[61]</sup></a> The -Basoga of Central Africa think that when a tree is cut down -the angry spirit which inhabits it may cause the death of the -chief and his family. To prevent this disaster they consult -a medicine-man before they fell a tree. If the man of skill -gives leave to proceed, the woodman first offers a fowl and a -goat to the tree; then as soon as he has given the first blow -with the axe, he applies his mouth to the cut and sucks some -of the sap. In this way he forms a brotherhood with the -tree, just as two men become blood-brothers by sucking each -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>other’s blood. After that he can cut down his tree-brother -with impunity.<a id='r62' /><a href='#f62' class='c005'><sup>[62]</sup></a> An ancient Indian ritual directs that -in preparing to fell a tree the woodman should lay a -stalk of grass on the spot where the blow is to fall, with the -words, “O plant, shield it!” and that he should say to the -axe, “O axe, hurt it not!” When the tree had fallen, he -poured melted butter on the stump, saying, “Grow thou out -of this, O lord of the forest, grow with a hundred shoots! -May we grow with a thousand shoots!” Then he anointed -the severed stem and wound a rope of grass round it.<a id='r63' /><a href='#f63' class='c005'><sup>[63]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Bleeding trees.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Again, when a tree or plant is cut it is sometimes thought -to bleed. Some Indians dare not cut a certain plant, -because there comes out a red juice which they take for the -blood of the plant.<a id='r64' /><a href='#f64' class='c005'><sup>[64]</sup></a> In Samoa there was a grove of trees -which no one dared hew down. Once some strangers tried -to do so, but blood flowed from the tree, and the sacrilegious -strangers fell ill and died.<a id='r65' /><a href='#f65' class='c005'><sup>[65]</sup></a> Down to 1859 there stood a -sacred larch-tree at Nauders in the Tyrol which was thought -to bleed whenever it was cut; moreover people fancied that -the steel pierced the woodman’s body to the same depth -that it pierced the tree, and that the wound on his body -would not heal until the bark closed over the scar on the -trunk. So sacred was the tree that no one would gather -fuel or cut timber near it; and to curse, scold, or quarrel in -its neighbourhood was regarded as a crying sin which would -be supernaturally punished on the spot. Angry disputants -were often hushed with the warning whisper, “Don’t, the -sacred tree is here.”<a id='r66' /><a href='#f66' class='c005'><sup>[66]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Trees threatened in order to make them bear fruit.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But the spirits of vegetation are not always treated with -deference and respect. If fair words and kind treatment do -not move them, stronger measures are sometimes resorted -to. The durian-tree of the East Indies, whose smooth stem -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>often shoots up to a height of eighty or ninety feet without -sending out a branch, bears a fruit of the most delicious -flavour and the most disgusting stench. The Malays cultivate -the tree for the sake of its fruit, and have been known -to resort to a peculiar ceremony for the purpose of stimulating -its fertility. Near Jugra in Selangor there is a small -grove of durian-trees, and on a specially chosen day the -villagers used to assemble in it. Thereupon one of the -local sorcerers would take a hatchet and deliver several -shrewd blows on the trunk of the most barren of the -trees, saying, “Will you now bear fruit or not? If you do -not, I shall fell you.” To this the tree replied through the -mouth of another man who had climbed a mangostin-tree -hard by (the durian-tree being unclimbable), “Yes, I will -now bear fruit; I beg you not to fell me.”<a id='r67' /><a href='#f67' class='c005'><sup>[67]</sup></a> So in Japan to -make trees bear fruit two men go into an orchard. One of -them climbs up a tree and the other stands at the foot with -an axe. The man with the axe asks the tree whether it will -yield a good crop next year and threatens to cut it down -if it does not. To this the man among the branches replies -on behalf of the tree that it will bear abundantly.<a id='r68' /><a href='#f68' class='c005'><sup>[68]</sup></a> Odd as this -mode of horticulture may seem to us, it has its exact parallels -in Europe. On Christmas Eve many a South Slavonian and -Bulgarian peasant swings an axe threateningly against a -barren fruit-tree, while another man standing by intercedes -for the menaced tree, saying, “Do not cut it down; it will soon -bear fruit.” Thrice the axe is swung, and thrice the impending -blow is arrested at the entreaty of the intercessor. After -that the frightened tree will certainly bear fruit next year.<a id='r69' /><a href='#f69' class='c005'><sup>[69]</sup></a> -So at the village of Ucria in Sicily, if a tree obstinately -refuses to bear fruit, the owner pretends to hew it down. -Just as the axe is about to fall, a friend intercedes for the -tree, begging him to have patience for one year more, and -promising not to interfere again if the culprit has not mended -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>his ways by then. The owner grants his request, and the -Sicilians say that a tree seldom remains deaf to such a -menace. The ceremony is performed on Easter Saturday.<a id='r70' /><a href='#f70' class='c005'><sup>[70]</sup></a> -In Armenia the same pantomime is sometimes performed by -two men for the same purpose on Good Friday.<a id='r71' /><a href='#f71' class='c005'><sup>[71]</sup></a> In the -Abruzzi the ceremony takes place before sunrise on the -morning of St. John’s Day (Midsummer Day). The owner -threatens the trees which are slow to bear fruit. Thrice he -walks round each sluggard repeating his threat and striking -the trunk with the head of an axe.<a id='r72' /><a href='#f72' class='c005'><sup>[72]</sup></a> In Lesbos, when -an orange-tree or a lemon-tree does not bear fruit, the -owner will sometimes set a looking-glass before the tree; -then standing with an axe in his hand over against the tree -and gazing at its reflection in the glass he will feign to fall -into a passion and will say aloud, “Bear fruit, or I’ll cut you -down.”<a id='r73' /><a href='#f73' class='c005'><sup>[73]</sup></a> When cabbages merely curl their leaves instead of -forming heads as they ought to do, an Esthonian peasant -will go out into the garden before sunrise, clad only in his -shirt, and armed with a scythe, which he sweeps over the -refractory vegetables as if he meant to cut them down. -This intimidates the cabbages and brings them to a sense of -their duty.<a id='r74' /><a href='#f74' class='c005'><sup>[74]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Attempts to deceive the spirits of trees and plants.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -If European peasants thus know how to work on the -fears of cabbages and fruit-trees, the subtle Malay has learned -how to overreach the simple souls of the plants and trees -that grow in his native land. Thus, when a bunch of fruit -hangs from an <i>aren</i> palm-tree, and in reaching after it you -tread on some of the fallen fruit, the Galelareese say that -you ought to grunt like a wild boar in order that your feet -may not itch. The chain of reasoning seems weak to a -European mind, but the natives find no flaw in it. They -<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>have observed that wild boars are fond of the fruit, and run -freely about among it as it lies on the ground. From this -they infer that the animal’s feet are proof against the itch -which men suffer through treading on the fruit; and hence -they conclude that if, by grunting in a natural and life-like -manner, you can impress the fruit with the belief that you -are a pig, it will treat your feet as tenderly as the feet of -his friends the real pigs.<a id='r75' /><a href='#f75' class='c005'><sup>[75]</sup></a> Again, pregnant women in Java -sometimes take a fancy to eat the wild species of a -particular plant (<i>Colocasia antiquorum</i>), which, on account -of its exceedingly pungent taste, is not commonly used as -food by human beings, though it is relished by pigs. In -such a case it becomes the husband’s duty to go and look -for the plant, but before he gathers it he takes care to grunt -loudly, in order that the plant may take him for a pig, and -so mitigate the pungency of its flavour.<a id='r76' /><a href='#f76' class='c005'><sup>[76]</sup></a> Again, in the -Madiun district of Java there grows a plant of which the -fruit is believed to be injurious for men, but not for apes. -The urchins who herd buffaloes, and to whom nothing edible -comes amiss, eat this fruit also; but before plucking it they -take the precaution of mimicking the voices of apes, in -order to persuade the plant that its fruit is destined for the -maw of these creatures.<a id='r77' /><a href='#f77' class='c005'><sup>[77]</sup></a> Once more, the Javanese scrape -the rind of a certain plant (<i>Sarcolobus narcoticus</i>) into a -powder, with which they poison such dangerous beasts as -tigers and wild boars. But the rind is believed not to be a -poison for men. Hence the person who gathers the plant -has to observe certain precautions in order that its baneful -quality may not be lost in passing through his hands. He -approaches it naked and creeping on all fours to make the -plant think that he is a ravenous beast and not a man, and -to strengthen the illusion he bites the stalk. After that the -deadly property of the rind is assured. But even when the -plant has been gathered and the powder made from it in -strict accordance with certain superstitious rules, care is still -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>needed in handling the powder, which is regarded as alive -and intelligent. It may not be brought near a corpse, nor -may a corpse be carried past the house in which the -powder is kept. For if either of these things were to -happen, the powder, seeing the corpse, would hastily conclude -that it had already done its work, and so all its -noxious quality would be gone.<a id='r78' /><a href='#f78' class='c005'><sup>[78]</sup></a> The Indians of the Upper -Orinoco extract a favourite beverage from certain palm-trees -which grow in their forests. In order to make the -trees bear abundance of fruit the medicine-men blow sacred -trumpets under them; but how this is supposed to produce -the desired effect does not appear. The trumpets (<i>botutos</i>) -are objects of religious veneration; no woman may look on -them under pain of death. Candidates for initiation into the -mystery of the trumpets must be men of good character and -celibate. The initiated members scourge each other, fast, -and practise other austerities.<a id='r79' /><a href='#f79' class='c005'><sup>[79]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Trees married to each other.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The conception of trees and plants as animated beings -naturally results in treating them as male and female, who -can be married to each other in a real, and not merely a -figurative or poetical sense of the word. The notion is not -purely fanciful, for plants like animals have their sexes and -reproduce their kind by the union of the male and female -elements. But whereas in all the higher animals the organs -of the two sexes are regularly separated between different -individuals, in most plants they exist together in every -individual of the species. This rule, however, is by no -means universal, and in many species the male plant is -distinct from the female. The distinction appears to have -been observed by some savages, for we are told that the -Maoris “are acquainted with the sex of trees, etc., and have -distinct names for the male and female of some trees.”<a id='r80' /><a href='#f80' class='c005'><sup>[80]</sup></a> The -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Artificial fertilisation of the date-palm.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -ancients knew the difference between the male and the -female date-palm, and fertilised them artificially by shaking -the pollen of the male tree over the flowers of the female.<a id='r81' /><a href='#f81' class='c005'><sup>[81]</sup></a> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>The fertilisation took place in spring. Among the heathen -of Harran the month during which the palms were fertilised -bore the name of the Date Month, and at this time they -celebrated the marriage festival of all the gods and goddesses.<a id='r82' /><a href='#f82' class='c005'><sup>[82]</sup></a> -Different from this true and fruitful marriage of the palm are -the false and barren marriages of plants which play a part -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Marriages of trees in India.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -in Hindoo superstition. For example, if a Hindoo has -planted a grove of mangos, neither he nor his wife may taste -of the fruit until he has formally married one of the trees, as -a bridegroom, to a tree of a different sort, commonly a -tamarind-tree, which grows near it in the grove. If there is -no tamarind to act as bride, a jasmine will serve the turn. -The expenses of such a marriage are often considerable, for -the more Brahmans are feasted at it, the greater the glory -of the owner of the grove. A family has been known to sell -its golden and silver trinkets, and to borrow all the money -they could in order to marry a mango-tree to a jasmine with -due pomp and ceremony.<a id='r83' /><a href='#f83' class='c005'><sup>[83]</sup></a> According to another account of -the ceremony, a branch of a <i>bar</i> tree is brought and fixed -near one of the mango trees in the grove to represent the <i>bar</i> -or bridegroom, and both are wrapt round with the same piece -of cloth by the owner of the grove and his wife. To complete -the ceremony a bamboo basket containing the bride’s -belongings and dowry on a miniature scale is provided; and -after the Brahman priest has done his part, vermilion, -the emblem of a completed marriage, is applied to the -mango as to a bride.<a id='r84' /><a href='#f84' class='c005'><sup>[84]</sup></a> Another plant which figures as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Marriage of the holy basil.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -a bride in Hindoo rites is the <i>tulasi</i> or Holy Basil (<i>Ocymum -sanctum</i>). It is a small shrub, not too big to be grown in a -large flower-pot, and is often placed in rooms; indeed there -is hardly a respectable Hindoo family that does not possess -one. In spite of its humble appearance, the shrub is pervaded -by the essence of Vishnu and his wife Lakshmi, and -is itself worshipped daily as a deity. The following prayer -is often addressed to it: “I adore that <i>tulasi</i> in whose roots -are all the sacred places of pilgrimage, in whose centre are -all the deities, and in whose upper branches are all the -Vedas.” The plant is especially a woman’s divinity, being -regarded as an embodiment of Vishnu’s wife Lakshmi, or of -Rama’s wife Sita, or of Krishna’s wife Rukmini. Women -worship it by walking round it and praying or offering -flowers and rice to it. Now this sacred plant, as the -embodiment of a goddess, is annually married to the god -Krishna in every Hindoo family. The ceremony takes place -in the month <i>Karttika</i> or November. In Western India -they often bring an idol of the youthful Krishna in a gorgeous -palanquin, followed by a long train of attendants, to the -house of a rich man to be wedded to the basil; and the -festivities are celebrated with great pomp.<a id='r85' /><a href='#f85' class='c005'><sup>[85]</sup></a> Again, as the -wife of Vishnu, the holy basil is married to the <i>Salagrama</i>, -a black fossil ammonite which is regarded as an embodiment -of Vishnu. In North-Western India this marriage of the -plant to the fossil has to be performed before it is lawful to -taste of the fruit of a new orchard. A man holding the -fossil personates the bridegroom, and another holding the -basil represents the bride. After burning a sacrificial fire, -the officiating Brahman puts the usual questions to the -couple about to be united. Bride and bridegroom walk six -times round a small spot marked out in the centre of the -orchard.<a id='r86' /><a href='#f86' class='c005'><sup>[86]</sup></a> Further, no well is considered lucky until the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span><i>Salagrama</i> has been solemnly wedded to the holy basil, -which stands for the garden that the well is intended to -water. The relations assemble; the owner of the garden -represents the bridegroom, while a kinsman of his wife -personates the bride. Gifts are given to the Brahmans, a -feast is held in the garden, and after that both garden and -well may be used without danger.<a id='r87' /><a href='#f87' class='c005'><sup>[87]</sup></a> The same marriage of -the sacred fossil to the sacred plant is celebrated annually by -the Rajah of Orchha at Ludhaura. A former Rajah used to -spend a sum equal to about thirty thousand pounds, being -one-fourth of his revenue, upon the ceremony. On one -occasion over a hundred thousand people are said to have -been present at the rite, and to have been feasted at the -expense of the Rajah. The procession consisted of eight -elephants, twelve hundred camels, and four thousand horses, -all mounted and elegantly caparisoned. The most sumptuously -decorated of the elephants carried the fossil god to -pay his bridal visit to the little shrub goddess. On such an -occasion all the rites of a regular marriage are performed, -and afterwards the newly-wedded couple are left to repose -together in the temple till the next year.<a id='r88' /><a href='#f88' class='c005'><sup>[88]</sup></a> On Christmas -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>Eve German peasants used to tie fruit-trees together with -straw ropes to make them bear fruit, saying that the trees -were thus married.<a id='r89' /><a href='#f89' class='c005'><sup>[89]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Trees in blossom and rice in bloom treated like pregnant women.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the Moluccas, when the clove-trees are in blossom, -they are treated like pregnant women. No noise may be -made near them; no light or fire may be carried past -them at night; no one may approach them with his hat on, -all must uncover in their presence. These precautions are -observed lest the tree should be alarmed and bear no fruit, -or should drop its fruit too soon, like the untimely delivery -of a woman who has been frightened in her pregnancy.<a id='r90' /><a href='#f90' class='c005'><sup>[90]</sup></a> So -in the East the growing rice-crop is often treated with the -same considerate regard as a breeding woman. Thus -in Amboyna, when the rice is in bloom, the people say -that it is pregnant and fire no guns and make no other -noises near the field, for fear lest, if the rice were thus -disturbed, it would miscarry, and the crop would be all straw -and no grain.<a id='r91' /><a href='#f91' class='c005'><sup>[91]</sup></a> The Javanese also regard the bloom on the -rice as a sign that the plant is pregnant; and they treat it -accordingly, by mingling in the water that irrigates the fields -a certain astringent food prepared from sour fruit, which is -believed to be wholesome for women with child.<a id='r92' /><a href='#f92' class='c005'><sup>[92]</sup></a> In some -districts of Western Borneo there must be no talk of corpses -or demons in the fields, else the spirit of the growing rice would -be frightened and flee away to Java.<a id='r93' /><a href='#f93' class='c005'><sup>[93]</sup></a> The Toboongkoos of -Central Celebes will not fire a gun in a ricefield, lest the rice -should be frightened away.<a id='r94' /><a href='#f94' class='c005'><sup>[94]</sup></a> The Chams of Binh-Thuan, in -Cochin-China, do not dare to touch the rice in the granary at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>mid-day, because the rice is then asleep, and it would be both -rude and dangerous to disturb its noonday slumber.<a id='r95' /><a href='#f95' class='c005'><sup>[95]</sup></a> In -Orissa growing rice is “considered as a pregnant woman, -and the same ceremonies are observed with regard to it as in -the case of human females.”<a id='r96' /><a href='#f96' class='c005'><sup>[96]</sup></a> In Poso, a district of Central -Celebes, when the rice-ears are beginning to form, women go -through the field feeding the young ears with soft-boiled rice -to make them grow fast. They carry the food in calabashes, -and grasping the ears in their hands bend them over into -the vessels that they may partake of the strengthening pap. -The reason for boiling the rice soft is that the ears are -regarded as young children who could not digest rice cooked -in the usual way.<a id='r97' /><a href='#f97' class='c005'><sup>[97]</sup></a> The Tomori of Central Celebes feed the -ripening rice by touching it with the contents of a broken -egg.<a id='r98' /><a href='#f98' class='c005'><sup>[98]</sup></a> When the grain begins to form, the people of Gayo, -a district of northern Sumatra, regard the rice as pregnant -and feed it with a pap composed of rice-meal, coco-nut, -and treacle, which they deposit on leaves in the middle -and at the corners of the field. And when the crop is -plentiful and the rice has been threshed, they give it water -to drink in a pitcher, which they bury to the neck in the -heap of grain.<a id='r99' /><a href='#f99' class='c005'><sup>[99]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Trees supposed to be tenanted by the souls of the dead.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Sometimes it is the souls of the dead which are believed -to animate trees. The Dieri tribe of South Australia regard -as very sacred certain trees which are supposed to be -their fathers transformed; hence they speak with reverence -of these trees, and are careful that they shall not be cut down -or burned. If the settlers require them to hew down the -trees, they earnestly protest against it, asserting that were they -to do so they would have no luck, and might be punished for -not protecting their ancestors.<a id='r100' /><a href='#f100' class='c005'><sup>[100]</sup></a> Some of the Philippine -Islanders believe that the souls of their ancestors are in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>certain trees, which they therefore spare. If they are obliged -to fell one of these trees, they excuse themselves to it by -saying that it was the priest who made them do it. The -spirits take up their abode, by preference, in tall and stately -trees with great spreading branches. When the wind rustles -the leaves, the natives fancy it is the voice of the spirit; and -they never pass near one of these trees without bowing -respectfully, and asking pardon of the spirit for disturbing -his repose. Among the Ignorrotes, in the district of Lepanto, -every village has its sacred tree, in which the souls -of the dead forefathers of the hamlet reside. Offerings are -made to the tree, and any injury done to it is believed to -entail some misfortune on the village. Were the tree cut -down, the village and all its inhabitants would inevitably -perish.<a id='r101' /><a href='#f101' class='c005'><sup>[101]</sup></a> The natives of Bontoc, a province in the north of -Luzon, cut down the woods near their villages, but leave a -few fine trees standing as the abode of the spirits of their -ancestors (<i>anitos</i>); and they honour the spirits by depositing -food under the trees.<a id='r102' /><a href='#f102' class='c005'><sup>[102]</sup></a> The Dyaks believe that when a man -dies by accident, as by drowning, it is a sign that the gods -mean to exclude him from the realms of bliss. Accordingly -his body is not buried, but carried into the forest and there -laid down. The souls of such unfortunates pass into trees -or animals or fish, and are much dreaded by the Dyaks, who -abstain from using certain kinds of wood, or eating certain -sorts of fish, because they are supposed to contain the souls -of the dead.<a id='r103' /><a href='#f103' class='c005'><sup>[103]</sup></a> Once, while walking with a Dyak through the -jungle, Sir Hugh Low observed that his companion, after -raising his sword to strike a great snake, suddenly arrested -his arm and suffered the reptile to escape. On asking the -reason, he was told by the Dyak that the bush in front of -which they were standing had been a man, a kinsman of his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>own, who, dying some ten years before, had appeared in a -dream to his widow and told her that he had become that -particular bamboo-tree. Hence the ground and everything -on it was sacred, and the serpent might not be interfered -with. The Dyak further related that in spite of the -warning given to the woman in the vision, a man had -been hardy enough to cut a branch of the tree, but that -the fool had paid for his temerity with his life, for he -died soon afterwards. A little bamboo altar stood in front -of the bush, on which the remnants of offerings presented to -the spirit of the tree were still visible when Sir Hugh Low -passed that way.<a id='r104' /><a href='#f104' class='c005'><sup>[104]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'>In Corea the souls of people who die of the plague -or by the roadside, and of women who expire in childbed, -invariably take up their abode in trees. To such spirits -offerings of cake, wine, and pork are made on heaps of -stones piled under the trees.<a id='r105' /><a href='#f105' class='c005'><sup>[105]</sup></a> In China it has been -customary from time immemorial to plant trees on graves -in order thereby to strengthen the soul of the deceased and -thus to save his body from corruption; and as the evergreen -cypress and pine are deemed to be fuller of vitality -than other trees, they have been chosen by preference for -this purpose. Hence the trees that grow on graves are sometimes -identified with the souls of the departed.<a id='r106' /><a href='#f106' class='c005'><sup>[106]</sup></a> Among -the Miao-Kia, an aboriginal race of Southern and Western -China, a sacred tree stands at the entrance of every village, -and the inhabitants believe that it is tenanted by the soul of -their first ancestor and that it rules their destiny. Sometimes -there is a sacred grove near a village, where the trees -are suffered to rot and die on the spot. Their fallen branches -cumber the ground, and no one may remove them unless he -has first asked leave of the spirit of the tree and offered him -a sacrifice.<a id='r107' /><a href='#f107' class='c005'><sup>[107]</sup></a> Among the Maraves of Southern Africa the -burial-ground is always regarded as a holy place where -neither a tree may be felled nor a beast killed, because -everything there is supposed to be tenanted by the souls of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>the dead.<a id='r108' /><a href='#f108' class='c005'><sup>[108]</sup></a> Trees supposed to be inhabited by spirits of the -dead are reported to be common in Southern Nigeria.<a id='r109' /><a href='#f109' class='c005'><sup>[109]</sup></a> -Thus in the Indem tribe on the Cross River every village -has a big tree into which the souls of the villagers are -believed to pass at death. Hence they will not allow these -trees to be cut, and they sacrifice to them when people are -ill.<a id='r110' /><a href='#f110' class='c005'><sup>[110]</sup></a> Other natives of the Cross River say that the big tree -of the village is “their Life,” and that anybody who breaks -a bough of it will fall sick or die unless he pays a fine to -the chief.<a id='r111' /><a href='#f111' class='c005'><sup>[111]</sup></a> Some of the mountaineers on the north-west -coast of New Guinea think that the spirits of their ancestors -live on the branches of trees, on which accordingly they hang -rags of red or white cotton, always in the number of seven -or a multiple of seven; also, they place food on the trees or -hang it in baskets from the boughs.<a id='r112' /><a href='#f112' class='c005'><sup>[112]</sup></a> Among the Buryats of -Siberia the bones of a deceased shaman are deposited in a -hole hewn in the trunk of a great fir, which is then carefully -closed up. Thenceforth the tree goes by the name of the -shaman’s fir, and is looked upon as his abode. Whoever -cuts down such a tree will perish with all his household. -Every tribe has its sacred grove of firs in which the bones of -the dead shamans are buried. In treeless regions these firs -often form isolated clumps on the hills, and are visible from -afar.<a id='r113' /><a href='#f113' class='c005'><sup>[113]</sup></a> The Lkungen Indians of British Columbia fancy that -trees are transformed men, and that the creaking of the -branches in the wind is their voice.<a id='r114' /><a href='#f114' class='c005'><sup>[114]</sup></a> In Croatia, they say -that witches used to be buried under old trees in the forest, -and that their souls passed into the trees and left the -villagers in peace.<a id='r115' /><a href='#f115' class='c005'><sup>[115]</sup></a> A tree that grows on a grave is regarded -by the South Slavonian peasant as a sort of fetish. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>Whoever breaks a twig from it hurts the soul of the dead, -but gains thereby a magic wand, since the soul embodied in -the twig will be at his service.<a id='r116' /><a href='#f116' class='c005'><sup>[116]</sup></a> This reminds us of the story -of Polydorus in Virgil,<a id='r117' /><a href='#f117' class='c005'><sup>[117]</sup></a> and of the bleeding pomegranate -that grew on the grave of the fratricides Eteocles and -Polynices at Thebes<a id='r118' /><a href='#f118' class='c005'><sup>[118]</sup></a>. Similar stories are told far away from -the classic lands of Italy and Greece. In an Annamite tale -an old fisherman makes an incision in the trunk of a tree -which has drifted ashore; but blood flows from the cut, and -it appears that an empress with her three daughters, who -had been cast into the sea, are embodied in the tree.<a id='r119' /><a href='#f119' class='c005'><sup>[119]</sup></a> On -the Slave Coast of West Africa the negroes tell how from -the mouldering bones of a little boy, who had been murdered -by his brother in the forest, there sprang up an edible fungus, -which spoke and revealed the crime to the child’s mother -when she attempted to pluck it.<a id='r120' /><a href='#f120' class='c005'><sup>[120]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Trees sometimes conceived not as the body but merely as the abode of spirits.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In most, if not all, of these cases the spirit is viewed as -incorporate in the tree; it animates the tree and must suffer -and die with it. But, according to another and probably -later opinion, the tree is not the body, but merely the abode -of the tree-spirit, which can quit it and return to it at -pleasure. The inhabitants of Siaoo, an island of the Sangi -group in the East Indies, believe in certain sylvan spirits -who dwell in forests or in great solitary trees. At full -moon the spirit comes forth from his lurking-place and -roams about. He has a big head, very long arms and legs, -and a ponderous body. In order to propitiate the wood-spirits -people bring offerings of food, fowls, goats, and so -forth to the places which they are supposed to haunt.<a id='r121' /><a href='#f121' class='c005'><sup>[121]</sup></a> The -people of Nias think that, when a tree dies, its liberated -spirit becomes a demon, which can kill a coco-nut palm by -merely lighting on its branches, and can cause the death of -all the children in a house by perching on one of the posts -that support it. Further, they are of opinion that certain -<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>trees are at all times inhabited by roving demons who, if -the trees were damaged, would be set free to go about on -errands of mischief. Hence the people respect these trees, -and are careful not to cut them down.<a id='r122' /><a href='#f122' class='c005'><sup>[122]</sup></a> On the Tanga coast -of East Africa mischievous sprites reside in great trees, -especially in the fantastically shaped baobabs. Sometimes -they appear in the shape of ugly black beings, but as a rule -they enter unseen into people’s bodies, from which, after -causing much sickness and misery, they have to be cast out -by the sorcerer.<a id='r123' /><a href='#f123' class='c005'><sup>[123]</sup></a> The Warramunga tribe of Central Australia -believe that certain trees are the abode of disembodied -human spirits waiting to be born again. No woman will -strike one of these trees with an axe, lest the blow might -disturb one of the spirits, who might come forth from the -tree and enter her body.<a id='r124' /><a href='#f124' class='c005'><sup>[124]</sup></a> In the Galla region of East Africa, -where the vegetation is magnificent, there are many sacred -trees, the haunts of jinn. Most of them belong to the -sycamore and maple family, but they do not all exhale an -equal odour of sanctity. The <i>watêsa</i>, with its edible fruit, -is least revered; people climb it to get the fruit, and this -disturbs the jinn, who naturally do not care to linger among -its boughs. The <i>gute tubi</i>, which has no edible fruit, is more -sacred. Every Galla tribe has its sacred tree, which is -always one individual of a particular species called <i>lafto</i>. -When a tree has been consecrated by a priest it becomes -holy, and no branch of it may be broken. Such trees are -loaded with long threads, woollen bands, and bracelets; the -blood of animals is poured on their roots and sometimes -smeared on their trunks, and pots full of butter, milk, and -flesh are placed among the branches or on the ground under -them. In many Galla tribes women may not tread on the -shadow of sacred trees or even approach the trees.<a id='r125' /><a href='#f125' class='c005'><sup>[125]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Ceremonies at felling trees.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Not a few ceremonies observed at cutting down haunted -trees are based on the belief that the spirits have it in their -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>power to quit the trees at pleasure or in case of need. Thus -when the Pelew Islanders are felling a tree, they conjure the -spirit of the tree to leave it and settle on another.<a id='r126' /><a href='#f126' class='c005'><sup>[126]</sup></a> The wily -negro of the Slave Coast, who wishes to fell an <i>ashorin</i> tree, -but knows that he cannot do it so long as the spirit remains -in the tree, places a little palm-oil on the ground as a bait, -and then, when the unsuspecting spirit has quitted the tree -to partake of this dainty, hastens to cut down its late abode.<a id='r127' /><a href='#f127' class='c005'><sup>[127]</sup></a> -The Alfoors of Poso, in Central Celebes, believe that great -trees are inhabited by demons in human form, and the taller -the tree the more powerful the demon. Accordingly they -are careful not to fell such trees, and they leave offerings at -the foot of them for the spirits. But sometimes, when they -are clearing land for cultivation, it becomes necessary to cut -down the trees which cumber it. In that case the Alfoor -will call to the demon of the tree and beseech him to leave -his abode and go elsewhere, and he deposits food under the -tree as provision for the spirit on his journey. Then, and -not till then, he may fell the tree. Woe to the luckless -wight who should turn a tree-spirit out of his house without -giving him due notice!<a id='r128' /><a href='#f128' class='c005'><sup>[128]</sup></a> When the Toboongkoos of Central -Celebes are about to clear a piece of forest in order to plant -rice, they build a tiny house and furnish it with tiny clothes -and some food and gold. Then they call together all the -spirits of the wood, offer them the little house with its contents, -and beseech them to quit the spot. After that they -may safely cut down the wood without fearing to wound -themselves in so doing.<a id='r129' /><a href='#f129' class='c005'><sup>[129]</sup></a> Before the Tomori of Central -Celebes fell a tall tree they lay a quid of betel at its foot, -and invite the spirit who dwells in the tree to change his -lodging; moreover, they set a little ladder against the -trunk to enable him to descend with safety and comfort.<a id='r130' /><a href='#f130' class='c005'><sup>[130]</sup></a> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>The Sundanese of the Eastern Archipelago drive golden or -silver nails into the trunk of a sacred tree for the sake of -expelling the tree-spirit before they hew down his abode.<a id='r131' /><a href='#f131' class='c005'><sup>[131]</sup></a> -They seem to think that, though the nails will hurt him, his -vanity will be soothed by the reflection that they are of -gold or silver. In Rotti, an island to the south of Timor, -when they fell a tree to make a coffin, they sacrifice a dog -as compensation to the tree-spirit whose property they are -thus making free with.<a id='r132' /><a href='#f132' class='c005'><sup>[132]</sup></a> Before the Gayos of Northern -Sumatra clear a piece of forest for the purpose of planting -tobacco or sugar-cane, they offer a quid of betel to the spirit -whom they call the Lord of the Wood, and beg his leave to -quarter themselves on his domain.<a id='r133' /><a href='#f133' class='c005'><sup>[133]</sup></a> The Mandelings of -Sumatra endeavour to lay the blame of all such misdeeds at -the door of the Dutch authorities. Thus when a man is -cutting a road through a forest and has to fell a tall tree -which blocks the way, he will not begin to ply his axe until -he has said: “Spirit who lodgest in this tree, take it not ill -that I cut down thy dwelling, for it is done at no wish of -mine but by order of the Controller.” And when he wishes -to clear a piece of forest-land for cultivation, it is necessary -that he should come to a satisfactory understanding with -the woodland spirits who live there before he lays low their -leafy dwellings. For this purpose he goes to the middle of -the plot of ground, stoops down, and pretends to pick up a -letter. Then unfolding a bit of paper he reads aloud an -imaginary letter from the Dutch Government, in which he -is strictly enjoined to set about clearing the land without -delay. Having done so, he says: “You hear that, spirits. -I must begin clearing at once, or I shall be hanged.”<a id='r134' /><a href='#f134' class='c005'><sup>[134]</sup></a> -When the Tagales of the Philippines are about to fell a -tree which they believe to be inhabited by a spirit, they -excuse themselves to the spirit, saying: “The priest has -<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>ordered us to do it; the fault is not ours, nor the will -either.”<a id='r135' /><a href='#f135' class='c005'><sup>[135]</sup></a> There is a certain tree called <i>rara</i> which the -Dyaks believe to be inhabited by a spirit. Before they cut -down one of these trees they strike an axe into the trunk, -leave it there, and call upon the spirit either to quit his -dwelling or to give them a sign that he does not wish it to -be meddled with. Then they go home. Next day they -visit the tree, and if they find the axe still sticking in the -trunk, they can fell the tree without danger; there is no -spirit in it, or he would certainly have ejected the axe from -his abode. But if they find the axe lying on the ground, -they know that the tree is inhabited and they will not fell -it; for it must surely have been the spirit of the tree in -person who expelled the intrusive axe. Some sceptical -Europeans, however, argue that what casts out the axe is -strychnine in the sap rather than the tree-spirit. They say -that if the sap is running, the axe must necessarily be forced -out by the action of heat and the expansion of the exuding -gutta; whereas if the axe remains in the trunk, this only -shews that the tree is not vigorous but ready to die.<a id='r136' /><a href='#f136' class='c005'><sup>[136]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'>Before they cut down a great tree, the Indians in the -neighbourhood of Santiago Tepehuacan hold a festival in -order to appease the tree and so prevent it from hurting -anybody in its fall.<a id='r137' /><a href='#f137' class='c005'><sup>[137]</sup></a> In the Greek island of Siphnos, if -woodmen have to fell a tree which they regard as possessed -by a spirit, they are most careful, when it falls, to prostrate -themselves humbly and in silence lest the spirit should -chastise them as it escapes. Sometimes they put a stone on -the stump of the tree to prevent the egress of the spirit.<a id='r138' /><a href='#f138' class='c005'><sup>[138]</sup></a> -In some parts of Sumatra, so soon as a tree is felled, a young -tree is planted on the stump, and some betel and a few -small coins are also placed on it.<a id='r139' /><a href='#f139' class='c005'><sup>[139]</sup></a> The purpose of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>ceremony seems plain. The spirit of the tree is offered a -new home in the young tree planted on the stump of the -old one, and the offering of betel and money is meant -to compensate him for the disturbance he has suffered. -Similarly, when the Maghs of Bengal were obliged by Europeans -to cut down trees which the natives believed to be -tenanted by spirits, one of them was always ready with a -green sprig, which he ran and placed in the middle of the -stump when the tree fell, “as a propitiation to the spirit -which had been displaced so roughly, pleading at the same -time the orders of the strangers for the work.”<a id='r140' /><a href='#f140' class='c005'><sup>[140]</sup></a> In Halmahera, -however, the motive for placing a sprig on the stump is -said to be to deceive the spirit into thinking that the fallen -stem is still growing in its old place.<a id='r141' /><a href='#f141' class='c005'><sup>[141]</sup></a> The Gilyaks insert -a stick with curled shavings on the stump of the tree which -they have felled, believing that in this way they give back to the -dispossessed tree-spirit his life and soul.<a id='r142' /><a href='#f142' class='c005'><sup>[142]</sup></a> German woodmen -make a cross upon the stump while the tree is falling, in the -belief that this enables the spirit of the tree to live upon the -stump.<a id='r143' /><a href='#f143' class='c005'><sup>[143]</sup></a> Before the Katodis fell a forest tree, they choose a -tree of the same kind and worship it by presenting a coco-nut, -burning incense, applying a red pigment, and begging it -to bless the undertaking.<a id='r144' /><a href='#f144' class='c005'><sup>[144]</sup></a> The intention, perhaps, is to induce -the spirit of the former tree to shift its quarters to the latter. -In clearing a wood, a Galelareese must not cut down the last -tree till the spirit in it has been induced to go away.<a id='r145' /><a href='#f145' class='c005'><sup>[145]</sup></a> When -the Dyaks fell the jungle on the hills, they often leave a few -trees standing on the hill-tops as a refuge for the dispossessed -tree-spirits.<a id='r146' /><a href='#f146' class='c005'><sup>[146]</sup></a> Sailing up the Baram river in Sarawak you -pass from time to time a clearing in the forest where manioc -is cultivated. In the middle of every one of these clearings -a solitary tree is always left standing as a home for the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>ejected spirits of the wood. Its boughs are stripped off, all -but the topmost, and just under its leafy crown two cross-pieces -are fastened from which rags dangle.<a id='r147' /><a href='#f147' class='c005'><sup>[147]</sup></a> Similarly in -India, the Gonds allow a grove of typical trees to remain as -a home or reserve for the woodland spirits when they are -clearing away a jungle.<a id='r148' /><a href='#f148' class='c005'><sup>[148]</sup></a> The Mundaris have sacred groves -which were left standing when the land was cleared, lest the -sylvan gods, disquieted at the felling of the trees, should -abandon the place.<a id='r149' /><a href='#f149' class='c005'><sup>[149]</sup></a> The Miris in Assam are unwilling to -break up new land for cultivation so long as there is fallow -land available; for they fear to offend the spirits of the -woods by hewing down trees needlessly.<a id='r150' /><a href='#f150' class='c005'><sup>[150]</sup></a> On the other -hand, when a child has been lost, the Padams of Assam -think that it has been stolen by the spirits of the wood; so -they retaliate on the spirits by felling trees till they find the -child. The spirits, fearing to be left without a tree in which to -lodge, give up the child, and it is found in the fork of a tree.<a id='r151' /><a href='#f151' class='c005'><sup>[151]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Propitiating tree-spirits in house-timber.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Even when a tree has been felled, sawn into planks, and -used to build a house, it is possible that the woodland spirit -may still be lurking in the timber, and accordingly some -people seek to propitiate him before or after they occupy the -new house. Hence, when a new dwelling is ready the -Toradjas of Central Celebes kill a goat, a pig, or a buffalo, -and smear all the woodwork with its blood. If the building -is a <i>lobo</i> or spirit-house, a fowl or a dog is killed on the -ridge of the roof, and its blood allowed to flow down on -both sides. The ruder Tonapoo in such a case sacrifice a -human being on the roof. This sacrifice on the roof of a -<i>lobo</i> or temple serves the same purpose as the smearing of -blood on the woodwork of an ordinary house. The intention -is to propitiate the forest-spirits who may still be in the -timber; they are thus put in good humour and will do the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>inmates of the house no harm. For a like reason people in -Celebes and the Moluccas are much afraid of planting a -post upside down at the building of a house; for the forest-spirit, -who might still be in the timber, would very naturally -resent the indignity and visit the inmates with sickness.<a id='r152' /><a href='#f152' class='c005'><sup>[152]</sup></a> -The Bahaus or Kayans of central Borneo are of opinion -that tree-spirits stand very stiffly on the point of honour -and visit men with their displeasure for any injury done to -them. Hence after building a house, whereby they have been -forced to illtreat many trees, these people observe a period -of penance for a year, during which they must abstain from -many things, such as the killing of bears, tiger-cats, and -serpents. The period of taboo is brought to an end by a -ceremony at which head-hunting, or the pretence of it, plays -a part. The Ooloo-Ayar Dyaks on the Mandai river are -still more punctilious in their observance of taboos after -building a house. The length of the penance depends chiefly -on the kind of timber used in the construction of the dwelling. -If the timber was the valuable ironwood, the inmates of the -house must deny themselves various dainties for three years. -But the spirits of humbler trees are less exacting.<a id='r153' /><a href='#f153' class='c005'><sup>[153]</sup></a> When the -Kayans have felled an ironwood tree in order to cut it up -into planks for a roof, they will offer a pig to the spirits of -the tree, hoping thus to prevent the spirits from molesting -the souls of persons assembled under the roof.<a id='r154' /><a href='#f154' class='c005'><sup>[154]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sacred trees the abode of spirits.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus the tree is regarded, sometimes as the body, sometimes -as merely the house of the tree-spirit; and when we -read of sacred trees which may not be cut down because -they are the seat of spirits, it is not always possible to say -with certainty in which way the presence of the spirit in the -tree is conceived. In the following cases, perhaps, the -trees are regarded as the dwelling-place of the spirits rather -than as their bodies. The Sea Dyaks point to many a tree -as sacred because it is the abode of a spirit or spirits, and to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>cut one of these down would provoke the spirit’s anger, -who might avenge himself by visiting the sacrilegious woodman -with sickness.<a id='r155' /><a href='#f155' class='c005'><sup>[155]</sup></a> The Battas of Sumatra have been -known to refuse to cut down certain trees because they -were the abode of mighty spirits who would resent the -injury.<a id='r156' /><a href='#f156' class='c005'><sup>[156]</sup></a> One of the largest and stateliest of the forest trees -in Perak is known as <i>toallong</i>; it has a very poisonous sap -which produces great irritation when it comes into contact -with the skin. Many trees of this species have large hollow -knobs on their trunks where branches have been broken -off. These knobs are looked upon by the Malays as -houses of spirits, and they object strongly to cut down trees -that are thus disfigured, believing that the man who fells -one of them will die within the year. When clearings are -made in the forest these trees are generally left standing to -the annoyance and expense of planters.<a id='r157' /><a href='#f157' class='c005'><sup>[157]</sup></a> The Siamese fear -to cut down any very fine trees lest they should incur the -anger of the powerful spirits who inhabit them.<a id='r158' /><a href='#f158' class='c005'><sup>[158]</sup></a> The En, -a tribe of Upper Burma, worship the spirits of hills and -forests, and over great tracts of country they will not lay out -fields for fear of offending the spirits. They say that if a -tree is felled a man dies.<a id='r159' /><a href='#f159' class='c005'><sup>[159]</sup></a> In every Khond village a large -grove, generally of <i>sâl</i> trees (<i>Shorea robusta</i>), is dedicated to -the forest god, whose favour is sought by the sacrifice of -birds, hogs, and sheep, together with an offering of rice and -an addled egg. This sacred grove is religiously preserved. -The young trees are occasionally pruned, but not a twig may -be cut for use without the formal consent of the village and -the ceremonial propitiation of the god.<a id='r160' /><a href='#f160' class='c005'><sup>[160]</sup></a> In some parts of -Berar the holy groves are so carefully preserved, that during -the annual festivals held in them it is customary to gather -and burn solemnly all dead and fallen branches and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>trees.<a id='r161' /><a href='#f161' class='c005'><sup>[161]</sup></a> The Larka Kols of India believe that the tops of trees -are the abode of spirits who are disturbed by the felling of the -trees and will take vengeance.<a id='r162' /><a href='#f162' class='c005'><sup>[162]</sup></a> The Parahiya, a Dravidian -tribe of Mirzapur, think that evil spirits live in the <i>sâl</i>, <i>pîpal</i>, -and <i>mahua</i> trees; they make offerings to such trees and will -not climb into their branches.<a id='r163' /><a href='#f163' class='c005'><sup>[163]</sup></a> In Travancore demons are -supposed to reside in certain large old trees, which it would -be sacrilegious and dangerous to hew down. A rough stone -is generally placed at the foot of one of these trees as an -image or emblem, and turmeric powder is rubbed on it.<a id='r164' /><a href='#f164' class='c005'><sup>[164]</sup></a> -Some of the Western tribes of British New Guinea dread -certain female devils who inhabit large trees and are very -dangerous. Trees supposed to be the abode of these demons -are treated with much respect and never cut down.<a id='r165' /><a href='#f165' class='c005'><sup>[165]</sup></a> Near -Old Calabar there is a ravine full of the densest and richest -vegetation, whence a stream of limpid water flows purling to -the river. The spot was considered by a late king to be -hallowed ground, the residence of Anansa, the tutelary god -of Old Calabar. The people had strict orders to revere the -grove, and no branch of it might be cut.<a id='r166' /><a href='#f166' class='c005'><sup>[166]</sup></a> Among the -Bambaras of the Upper Niger every village has its sacred -tree, generally a tamarind, which is supposed to be the abode -of the fetish and is carefully preserved. The fetish is consulted -on every important occasion, and sacrifices of sheep, -dogs, and fowls, accompanied with offerings of millet and -fruits, are made under the sacred tree.<a id='r167' /><a href='#f167' class='c005'><sup>[167]</sup></a> In the deserts of -Arabia a modern traveller found a great solitary acacia-tree -which the Bedouins believed to be possessed by a jinnee. -Shreds of cotton and horns of goats hung among the boughs -and nails were knocked into the trunk. An Arab strongly -dissuaded the traveller from cutting a branch of the tree, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>assuring him that it was death to do so.<a id='r168' /><a href='#f168' class='c005'><sup>[168]</sup></a> The Yourouks, -who inhabit the southern coasts of Asia Minor and the heights -of Mount Taurus, have sacred trees which they never cut -down from fear of driving away the spirits that own them.<a id='r169' /><a href='#f169' class='c005'><sup>[169]</sup></a> -The old Prussians believed that gods inhabited tall trees, -such as oaks, from which they gave audible answers to -enquirers; hence these trees were not felled, but worshipped -as the homes of divinities. Amongst the trees thus venerated -by them was the elder-tree.<a id='r170' /><a href='#f170' class='c005'><sup>[170]</sup></a> The Samagitians thought -that if any one ventured to injure certain groves, or the -birds or beasts in them, the spirits would make his hands -or feet crooked.<a id='r171' /><a href='#f171' class='c005'><sup>[171]</sup></a> Down to the nineteenth century the -Esthonians stood in such awe of many trees, which they -considered as the seat of mighty spirits, that they would -not even pluck a flower or a berry on the ground where the -shadow of the trees fell, much less would they dare to break -a branch from the tree itself.<a id='r172' /><a href='#f172' class='c005'><sup>[172]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sacred groves.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Even where no mention is made of wood-spirits, we -may generally assume that when trees or groves are sacred -and inviolable, it is because they are believed to be either -inhabited or animated by sylvan deities. In Central India -the <i>bar</i> tree (<i>Ficus Indica</i>) and the <i>pipal</i> (<i>Ficus religiosa</i>) -are sacred, and every child learns the saying that “it is better -to die a leper than pluck a leaf of a <i>pipal</i>, and he who can -wound a <i>bar</i> will kick his little sister.”<a id='r173' /><a href='#f173' class='c005'><sup>[173]</sup></a> In Livonia there -is a sacred grove in which, if any man fells a tree or breaks -a branch, he will die within the year.<a id='r174' /><a href='#f174' class='c005'><sup>[174]</sup></a> The Wotyaks have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>sacred groves. A Russian who ventured to hew a tree in -one of them fell sick and died next day.<a id='r175' /><a href='#f175' class='c005'><sup>[175]</sup></a> The heathen -Cheremiss of South-Eastern Russia have sacred groves, and -woe to him who dares to fell one of the holy trees. If the -author of the sacrilege is unknown, they take a cock or a -goose, torture it to death and then throw it on the fire, while -they pray to the gods to punish the sinner and cause him -to perish like the bird.<a id='r176' /><a href='#f176' class='c005'><sup>[176]</sup></a> Near a chapel of St. Ninian, in the -parish of Belly, there stood more than a century and a half -ago a row of trees, “all of equal size, thick planted for about -the length of a butt,” which were “looked upon by the -superstitious papists as sacred trees, from which they reckon -it sacrilege to take so much as a branch or any of the -fruit.”<a id='r177' /><a href='#f177' class='c005'><sup>[177]</sup></a> So in the island of Skye some two hundred and -fifty years ago there was a holy lake, “surrounded by a fair -wood, which none presumes to cut”; and those who ventured -to infringe its sanctity by breaking even a twig either -sickened on the spot or were visited afterwards by “some -signal inconvenience.”<a id='r178' /><a href='#f178' class='c005'><sup>[178]</sup></a> Sacrifices offered at cutting down -trees are doubtless meant to appease the wood-spirits. In -Gilgit it is usual to sprinkle goat’s blood on a tree of any -kind before felling it.<a id='r179' /><a href='#f179' class='c005'><sup>[179]</sup></a> The Akikuyu of British East -Africa hold the <i>mugumu</i> or <i>mugomo</i> tree, a species of -fig, sacred on account of its size and fine appearance; -hence they do not ruthlessly cut it down like all other -trees which cumber a patch of ground that is to be -cleared for tillage. Groves of this tree are sacred. In -them no axe may be laid to any tree, no branch broken, -no firewood gathered, no grass burnt; and wild animals -which have taken refuge there may not be molested. In -these sacred groves sheep and goats are sacrificed and -prayers are offered for rain or fine weather or in behalf -of sick children. The whole meat of the sacrifices is -left in the grove for God (<i>Ngai</i>) to eat; the fat is placed -in a cleft of the trunk or in the branches as a tit-bit for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>him. He lives up in the boughs but comes down to -partake of the food.<a id='r180' /><a href='#f180' class='c005'><sup>[180]</sup></a></p> -<h3 class='c006'>§ 2. Beneficent Powers of Tree-Spirits</h3> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Transition of tree-spirit into anthropomorphic deity of the woods.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -When a tree comes to be viewed, no longer as the body -of the tree-spirit, but simply as its abode which it can quit -at pleasure, an important advance has been made in religious -thought. Animism is passing into polytheism. In other -words, instead of regarding each tree as a living and conscious -being, man now sees in it merely a lifeless, inert mass, -tenanted for a longer or shorter time by a supernatural -being who, as he can pass freely from tree to tree, thereby -enjoys a certain right of possession or lordship over the -trees, and, ceasing to be a tree-soul, becomes a forest god. -As soon as the tree-spirit is thus in a measure disengaged -from each particular tree, he begins to change his shape and -assume the body of a man, in virtue of a general tendency -of early thought to clothe all abstract spiritual beings in -concrete human form. Hence in classical art the sylvan -deities are depicted in human shape, their woodland character -being denoted by a branch or some equally obvious symbol.<a id='r181' /><a href='#f181' class='c005'><sup>[181]</sup></a> -But this change of shape does not affect the essential -character of the tree-spirit. The powers which he exercised -as a tree-soul incorporate in a tree, he still continues to -wield as a god of trees. This I shall now attempt to prove -in detail. I shall shew, first, that trees considered as animate -beings are credited with the power of making the rain to fall, -the sun to shine, flocks and herds to multiply, and women -to bring forth easily; and, second, that the very same powers -are attributed to tree-gods conceived as anthropomorphic -beings or as actually incarnate in living men.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Trees supposed to give rain and sunshine.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -First, then, trees or tree-spirits are believed to give rain -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>and sunshine. When the missionary Jerome of Prague was -persuading the heathen Lithuanians to fell their sacred -groves, a multitude of women besought the Prince of -Lithuania to stop him, saying that with the woods he was -destroying the house of god from which they had been wont -to get rain and sunshine.<a id='r182' /><a href='#f182' class='c005'><sup>[182]</sup></a> The Mundaris in Assam think -that if a tree in the sacred grove is felled the sylvan gods -evince their displeasure by withholding rain.<a id='r183' /><a href='#f183' class='c005'><sup>[183]</sup></a> In order to -procure rain the inhabitants of Monyo, a village in the -Sagaing district of Upper Burma, chose the largest tamarind-tree -near the village and named it the haunt of the spirit -(<i>nat</i>) who controls the rain. Then they offered bread, coco-nuts, -plantains, and fowls to the guardian spirit of the village -and to the spirit who gives rain, and they prayed, “O Lord -<i>nat</i> have pity on us poor mortals, and stay not the rain. -Inasmuch as our offering is given ungrudgingly, let the rain -fall day and night.” Afterwards libations were made in -honour of the spirit of the tamarind-tree; and still later -three elderly women, dressed in fine clothes and wearing -necklaces and earrings, sang the Rain Song.<a id='r184' /><a href='#f184' class='c005'><sup>[184]</sup></a> In Cambodia -each village or province has its sacred tree, the abode of a -spirit. If the rains are late the people sacrifice to the tree.<a id='r185' /><a href='#f185' class='c005'><sup>[185]</sup></a> -In time of drought the elders of the Wakamba in East -Africa assemble and take a calabash of cider and a goat to -a baobab-tree, where they kill the goat but do not eat it.<a id='r186' /><a href='#f186' class='c005'><sup>[186]</sup></a> -When Ovambo women go out to sow corn they take with -them in the basket of seed two green branches of a particular -kind of tree (<i>Peltophorum africanum Sond.</i>), one of which -they plant in the field along with the first seed sown. The -branch is believed to have the power of attracting rain; -hence in one of the native dialects the tree goes by the -name of the “rain-bush.”<a id='r187' /><a href='#f187' class='c005'><sup>[187]</sup></a> To extort rain from the tree-spirit -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>a branch is sometimes dipped in water, as we have -seen above.<a id='r188' /><a href='#f188' class='c005'><sup>[188]</sup></a> In such cases the spirit is doubtless supposed -to be immanent in the branch, and the water thus applied to -the spirit produces rain by a sort of sympathetic magic, -exactly as we saw that in New Caledonia the rain-makers -pour water on a skeleton, believing that the soul of the -deceased will convert the water into rain.<a id='r189' /><a href='#f189' class='c005'><sup>[189]</sup></a> There is hardly -room to doubt that Mannhardt is right in explaining as a -rain-charm the European custom of drenching with water -the trees which are cut at certain popular festivals, as midsummer, -Whitsuntide, and harvest.<a id='r190' /><a href='#f190' class='c005'><sup>[190]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Tree-spirits supposed to make the crops grow.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Again, tree-spirits make the crops to grow. Amongst -the Mundaris every village has its sacred grove, and “the -grove deities are held responsible for the crops, and are -especially honoured at all the great agricultural festivals.”<a id='r191' /><a href='#f191' class='c005'><sup>[191]</sup></a> -The negroes of the Gold Coast are in the habit of sacrificing -at the foot of certain tall trees, and they think that if one of -these were felled all the fruits of the earth would perish.<a id='r192' /><a href='#f192' class='c005'><sup>[192]</sup></a> -Before harvest the Wabondëi of East Africa sacrifice a goat -to the spirit that lives in baobab-trees; the blood is poured -into a hole at the foot of one of the trees. If the sacrifice -were omitted the spirit would send disease and death among -the people.<a id='r193' /><a href='#f193' class='c005'><sup>[193]</sup></a> The Gallas dance in couples round sacred -trees, praying for a good harvest. Every couple consists of -a man and woman, who are linked together by a stick, of -which each holds one end. Under their arms they carry -green corn or grass.<a id='r194' /><a href='#f194' class='c005'><sup>[194]</sup></a> Swedish peasants stick a leafy branch -in each furrow of their corn-fields, believing that this will -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Harvest-May.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -ensure an abundant crop.<a id='r195' /><a href='#f195' class='c005'><sup>[195]</sup></a> The same idea comes out in the -German and French custom of the Harvest-May. This is a -large branch or a whole tree, which is decked with ears of -corn, brought home on the last waggon from the harvest-field, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>and fastened on the roof of the farmhouse or of the -barn, where it remains for a year. Mannhardt has proved -that this branch or tree embodies the tree-spirit conceived as -the spirit of vegetation in general, whose vivifying and fructifying -influence is thus brought to bear upon the corn in -particular. Hence in Swabia the Harvest-May is fastened -amongst the last stalks of corn left standing on the field; in -other places it is planted on the corn-field and the last sheaf -cut is attached to its trunk.<a id='r196' /><a href='#f196' class='c005'><sup>[196]</sup></a> The Harvest-May of Germany -has its counterpart in the <i>eiresione</i> of ancient Greece.<a id='r197' /><a href='#f197' class='c005'><sup>[197]</sup></a> The -<i>eiresione</i> was a branch of olive or laurel, bound about with -ribbons and hung with a variety of fruits. This branch was -carried in procession at a harvest festival and was fastened -over the door of the house, where it remained for a year. -The object of preserving the Harvest-May or the <i>eiresione</i> -for a year is that the life-giving virtue of the bough may -foster the growth of the crops throughout the year. By the -end of the year the virtue of the bough is supposed to be -exhausted and it is replaced by a new one. Following a -similar train of thought some of the Dyaks of Sarawak are -careful at the rice harvest to take up the roots of a certain -bulbous plant, which bears a beautiful crown of white and -fragrant flowers. These roots are preserved with the rice in -the granary and are planted again with the seed-rice in the -following season; for the Dyaks say that the rice will not -grow unless a plant of this sort be in the field.<a id='r198' /><a href='#f198' class='c005'><sup>[198]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Customs like the Harvest-May in India and Africa.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Customs like that of the Harvest-May appear to exist -in India and Africa. At a harvest festival of the Lhoosai -of South-Eastern India the chief goes with his people into -the forest and fells a large tree, which is then carried into -the village and set up in the midst. Sacrifice is offered, -and spirits and rice are poured over the tree. The ceremony -closes with a feast and a dance, at which the unmarried men -and girls are the only performers.<a id='r199' /><a href='#f199' class='c005'><sup>[199]</sup></a> Among the Bechuanas -the hack-thorn is very sacred, and it would be a serious -offence to cut a bough from it and carry it into the village -<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>during the rainy season. But when the corn is ripe in the -ear the people go with axes, and each man brings home a -branch of the sacred hack-thorn, with which they repair the -village cattle-yard.<a id='r200' /><a href='#f200' class='c005'><sup>[200]</sup></a> According to another authority, it is a -rule with the Bechuanas that “neither the hook-thorn nor -the milk-tree must be cut down while the corn is on the -ground, for this, they think, would prevent rain. When I -was at Lattakoo, though Mr. Hamilton stood in much need -of some milk-tree timber, he durst not supply himself till all -the corn was gathered in.”<a id='r201' /><a href='#f201' class='c005'><sup>[201]</sup></a> Many tribes of South-Eastern -Africa will not cut down timber while the corn is green, -fearing that if they did so, the crops would be destroyed -by blight, hail, or early frost.<a id='r202' /><a href='#f202' class='c005'><sup>[202]</sup></a> The heathen Cheremiss, -in the Russian Government of Kasan, will not fell trees, -mow grass, or dig the ground while the corn is in bloom.<a id='r203' /><a href='#f203' class='c005'><sup>[203]</sup></a> -Again, the fructifying power of the tree is put forth at seed-time -as well as at harvest. Among the Aryan tribes of -Gilgit, on the north-western frontier of India, the sacred tree -is the <i>Chili</i>, a species of cedar (<i>Juniperus excelsa</i>). At the -beginning of wheat-sowing the people receive from the -rajah’s granary a quantity of wheat, which is placed in a -skin mixed with sprigs of the sacred cedar. A large bonfire -of the cedar wood is lighted, and the wheat which is to be -sown is held over the smoke. The rest is ground and made -into a large cake, which is baked on the same fire and given -to the ploughman.<a id='r204' /><a href='#f204' class='c005'><sup>[204]</sup></a> Here the intention of fertilising the -seed by means of the sacred cedar is unmistakable.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Fertilising virtue attributed to trees.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In all these cases the power of fostering the growth of -crops, and, in general, of cultivated plants, is ascribed to -trees. The ascription is not unnatural. For the tree is the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>largest and most powerful member of the vegetable kingdom, -and man is familiar with it before he takes to cultivating -corn. Hence he naturally places the feebler and, to him, -newer plant under the dominion of the older and more -powerful.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Tree-spirits make herds to multiply and women to bring forth.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Again, the tree-spirit makes the herds to multiply and -blesses women with offspring. The sacred <i>Chili</i> or cedar of -Gilgit was supposed to possess this virtue in addition to -that of fertilising the corn. At the commencement of -wheat-sowing three chosen unmarried youths, after undergoing -daily washing and purification for three days, used to -start for the mountain where the cedars grew, taking with -them wine, oil, bread, and fruit of every kind. Having -found a suitable tree they sprinkled the wine and oil on it, -while they ate the bread and fruit as a sacrificial feast. -Then they cut off the branch and brought it to the village, -where, amid general rejoicing, it was placed on a large -stone beside running water. “A goat was then sacrificed, -its blood poured over the cedar branch, and a wild dance -took place, in which weapons were brandished about, and -the head of the slaughtered goat was borne aloft, after -which it was set up as a mark for arrows and bullet-practice. -Every good shot was rewarded with a gourd full -of wine and some of the flesh of the goat. When the flesh -was finished the bones were thrown into the stream and a -general ablution took place, after which every man went to -his house taking with him a spray of the cedar. On arrival -at his house he found the door shut in his face, and on his -knocking for admission, his wife asked, ‘What have you -brought?’ To which he answered, ‘If you want children, -I have brought them to you; if you want food, I have -brought it; if you want cattle, I have brought them; whatever -you want, I have it.’ The door was then opened and -he entered with his cedar spray. The wife then took some -of the leaves, and pouring wine and water on them placed -them on the fire, and the rest were sprinkled with flour and -suspended from the ceiling. She then sprinkled flour on -her husband’s head and shoulders, and addressed him thus, -‘Ai Shiri Bagerthum, son of the fairies, you have come from -far!’ <i>Shiri Bagerthum</i>, ‘the dreadful king,’ being the form -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>of address to the cedar when praying for wants to be -fulfilled. The next day the wife baked a number of cakes, -and taking them with her, drove the family goats to the -Chili stone. When they were collected round the stone, -she began to pelt them with pebbles, invoking the Chili at -the same time. According to the direction in which the -goats ran off, omens were drawn as to the number and sex -of the kids expected during the ensuing year. Walnuts -and pomegranates were then placed on the Chili stone, the -cakes were distributed and eaten, and the goats followed to -pasture in whatever direction they showed a disposition to -go. For five days afterwards this song was sung in all the -houses:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>‘<i>Dread Fairy King, I sacrifice before you,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>How nobly do you stand! you have filled up my house,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>You have brought me a wife when I had not one,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Instead of daughters you have given me sons.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>You have shown me the ways of right,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>You have given me many children.</i>’”<a id='r205' /><a href='#f205' class='c005'><sup>[205]</sup></a></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Fertilising virtue attributed to trees.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Here the driving of the goats to the stone on which the -cedar had been placed is clearly meant to impart to them -the fertilising influence of the cedar. In Northern India the -<i>Emblica officinalis</i> is a sacred tree. On the eleventh of the -month Phalgun (February) libations are poured at the foot -of the tree, a red or yellow string is bound about the trunk, -and prayers are offered to it for the fruitfulness of women, -animals, and crops.<a id='r206' /><a href='#f206' class='c005'><sup>[206]</sup></a> Again, in Northern India the coco-nut -is esteemed one of the most sacred fruits, and is called -Sriphala, or the fruit of Sri, the goddess of prosperity. It is -the symbol of fertility, and all through Upper India is kept -in shrines and presented by the priests to women who desire -to become mothers.<a id='r207' /><a href='#f207' class='c005'><sup>[207]</sup></a> In the town of Qua, near Old Calabar, -there used to grow a palm-tree which ensured conception to -any barren woman who ate a nut from its branches.<a id='r208' /><a href='#f208' class='c005'><sup>[208]</sup></a> In -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Influence of May-trees on cattle.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Europe the May-tree or May-pole is apparently supposed to -possess similar powers over both women and cattle. Thus -in some parts of Germany on the first of May the peasants -set up May-trees or May-bushes at the doors of stables -and byres, one for each horse and cow; this is thought to -make the cows yield much milk.<a id='r209' /><a href='#f209' class='c005'><sup>[209]</sup></a> Of the Irish we are told -that “they fancy a green bough of a tree, fastened on May-day -against the house, will produce plenty of milk that -summer.”<a id='r210' /><a href='#f210' class='c005'><sup>[210]</sup></a> In Suffolk there was an old custom, observed -in most farm-houses, that any servant who could bring in a -branch of hawthorn in blossom on the first of May was -entitled to a dish of cream for breakfast.<a id='r211' /><a href='#f211' class='c005'><sup>[211]</sup></a> Similarly, “in -parts of Cornwall, till certainly ten years ago, any child who -brought to a dairy on May morning a piece of hawthorn in -bloom, or a piece of fresh bracken, long enough to surround -the earthenware bowl in which cream is kept, was given a -bowl of cream.”<a id='r212' /><a href='#f212' class='c005'><sup>[212]</sup></a> On May Day English milkmaids used to -dance with garlands on their pails. One May morning long -ago Pepys on his way to Westminster saw many of them -dancing thus to the music of a fiddle while pretty Nel -Gwynne, in her smock sleeves and bodice, watched them -from the door of her lodgings in Drury-lane.<a id='r213' /><a href='#f213' class='c005'><sup>[213]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>May-tree or May-bush a protection against witchcraft.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -However in these and similar European customs it -seems that the influence of the tree, bush, or bough is really -protective rather than generative; it does not so much fill -the udders of the cows as prevent them from being drained -dry by witches, who ride on broomsticks or pitchforks through -the air on the Eve of May Day (the famous Walpurgis -Night) and make great efforts to steal the milk from the -cattle. Hence the many precautions which the prudent -herdsman must take to guard his beasts at this season from -the raids of these baleful creatures. For example, on May -morning the Irish scatter primroses on the threshold, keep a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>piece of red-hot iron on the hearth, or twine branches of -whitethorn and mountain-ash or rowan about the door. To -save the milk they cut and peel boughs of mountain-ash -(rowan), and bind the twigs round the milk-pails and the -churn.<a id='r214' /><a href='#f214' class='c005'><sup>[214]</sup></a> According to a writer of the sixteenth century, -whose description is quoted by Camden, the Irish “account -every woman who fetches fire on May-day a witch, nor will -they give it to any but sick persons, and that with an -imprecation, believing she will steal all the butter the next -summer. On May day they kill all the hares they find -among their cattle, supposing them the old women who -have designs on the butter. They imagine the butter so -stolen may be recovered if they take some of the thatch -hanging over the door and burn it.”<a id='r215' /><a href='#f215' class='c005'><sup>[215]</sup></a> In the north-east of -Scotland pieces of rowan-tree and woodbine, or of rowan -alone, used to be placed over the doors of the cow-houses on -May Day to keep the witches from the kine; and a still -better way of attaining the same object was to tie a cross of -rowan-tree wood with a scarlet thread to each animal’s tail.<a id='r216' /><a href='#f216' class='c005'><sup>[216]</sup></a> -The Highlanders of Scotland believe that on Beltane eve, -that is the night before May Day, the witches go about in -the shape of hares and suck the milk from the cows. To -guard against their depredations tar was put behind the ears -of the cattle and at the root of the tail, and the house was -hung with rowan-tree.<a id='r217' /><a href='#f217' class='c005'><sup>[217]</sup></a> For the same reason the Highlanders -say that the peg of the cow-shackle and the handle -and cross of the churn-staff should always be made of -rowan, because that is the most potent charm against witchcraft.<a id='r218' /><a href='#f218' class='c005'><sup>[218]</sup></a> -In the Isle of Man on May Day, old style, people carried -crosses of rowan in their hats and fastened May-flowers over -their doors as a protection against elves and witches, and for -the same purpose they tied crosses of rowan to the tails of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>the cattle. Also women washed their faces in the dew early -on May morning in order to secure good luck, a fine complexion, -and immunity from witches. Further, the break -of day on that morning was the signal for setting the -ling or gorse on fire, which was done for the sake of burning -out the witches, who are wont to take the shape of hares. -In some places, indeed, as in the Lezayre parish, the -practice was to burn gorse in the hedge of every field to -drive away the witches, who are still feared in the Isle of -Man.<a id='r219' /><a href='#f219' class='c005'><sup>[219]</sup></a> In Norway and Denmark branches of rowan are -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Precautions against witchcraft on May Day and Walpurgis Night.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -similarly used to protect houses and cattle-stalls against -witches on Walpurgis Night, and there, too, it is thought -that the churn-staff should be made of rowan.<a id='r220' /><a href='#f220' class='c005'><sup>[220]</sup></a> In Germany -a common way of keeping witches from the cattle on -Walpurgis Night is to chalk up three crosses on the door of -the cowhouse.<a id='r221' /><a href='#f221' class='c005'><sup>[221]</sup></a> Branches of buckthorn stuck in the muck-heaps -on the eve of May Day answer the same purpose.<a id='r222' /><a href='#f222' class='c005'><sup>[222]</sup></a> In -Silesia the precautions taken at this season against witches -are many and various; for example, pieces of buckthorn are -nailed crosswise over the door of the cowhouse; pitchforks -and harrows, turned upside down, with the prongs pointing -outwards, are placed at the doors; and a sod of fresh turf -from a meadow is laid before the threshold and strewed with -marsh-marigolds. Before the witches can pass the threshold, -they must count every blade of grass in the turf and every -petal of the marigolds; and while they are still counting the -day breaks and their power is gone. For the same reason -little birch-trees are set up at the house-door, because the -witches cannot enter the house till they have counted all -the leaves; and before they have done the sum it is broad -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>daylight, and they must flee away with the shadows.<a id='r223' /><a href='#f223' class='c005'><sup>[223]</sup></a> On -Walpurgis Night the Germans of Moravia put knives under -the threshold of the cowhouse and twigs of birch at the door -and in the muck-heap to keep the witches from the cows.<a id='r224' /><a href='#f224' class='c005'><sup>[224]</sup></a> -For the same purpose the Bohemians at this season lay -branches of gooseberry bushes, hawthorn, and wild rose-trees -on the thresholds of the cowhouses, because the witches are -caught by the thorns and can get no farther.<a id='r225' /><a href='#f225' class='c005'><sup>[225]</sup></a> We now see -why thorny trees and bushes, whether hawthorn, buckthorn, -or what not, afford protection against witchcraft: they serve -as prickly hedges through which the witches cannot force -their way. But this explanation clearly does not apply to -the mountain-ash and the birch.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Influence of tree-spirits on cattle among the Wends, Esthonians, and Circassians.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -On the second of July some of the Wends used to set up -an oak-tree in the middle of the village with an iron cock -fastened to its top; then they danced round it, and drove -the cattle round it to make them thrive.<a id='r226' /><a href='#f226' class='c005'><sup>[226]</sup></a> Some of the -Esthonians believe in a mischievous spirit called Metsik, -who lives in the forest and has the weal of the cattle in his -hands. Every year a new image of him is prepared. On -an appointed day all the villagers assemble and make a -straw man, dress him in clothes, and take him to the common -pasture-land of the village. Here the figure is fastened to -a high tree, round which the people dance noisily. On -almost every day of the year prayer and sacrifice are -offered to him that he may protect the cattle. Sometimes the -image of Metsik is made of a corn-sheaf and fastened to -a tall tree in the wood. The people perform strange antics -before it to induce Metsik to guard the corn and the cattle.<a id='r227' /><a href='#f227' class='c005'><sup>[227]</sup></a> -The Circassians regard the pear-tree as the protector of -cattle. So they cut down a young pear-tree in the forest, -branch it, and carry it home, where it is adored as a -divinity. Almost every house has one such pear-tree. In -autumn, on the day of the festival, the tree is carried into -the house with great ceremony to the sound of music and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>amid the joyous cries of all the inmates, who compliment it -on its fortunate arrival. It is covered with candles, and a -cheese is fastened to its top. Round about it they eat, drink, -and sing. Then they bid the tree good-bye and take it -back to the courtyard, where it remains for the rest of the -year, set up against the wall, without receiving any mark of -respect.<a id='r228' /><a href='#f228' class='c005'><sup>[228]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Tree-spirits grant offspring or an easy delivery to women.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the Tuhoe tribe of Maoris “the power of making -women fruitful is ascribed to trees. These trees are associated -with the navel-strings of definite mythical ancestors, -as indeed the navel-strings of all children used to be hung -upon them down to quite recent times. A barren woman had -to embrace such a tree with her arms, and she received a -male or a female child according as she embraced the east -or the west side.”<a id='r229' /><a href='#f229' class='c005'><sup>[229]</sup></a> The common European custom of placing -a green bush on May Day before or on the house of a beloved -maiden probably originated in the belief of the fertilising power -of the tree-spirit.<a id='r230' /><a href='#f230' class='c005'><sup>[230]</sup></a> In some parts of Bavaria such bushes are -set up also at the houses of newly-married pairs, and the -practice is only omitted if the wife is near her confinement; -for in that case they say that the husband has “set up a May-bush -for himself.”<a id='r231' /><a href='#f231' class='c005'><sup>[231]</sup></a> Among the South Slavonians a barren -woman, who desires to have a child, places a new chemise -upon a fruitful tree on the eve of St. George’s Day. Next -morning before sunrise she examines the garment, and if she -finds that some living creature has crept on it, she hopes -that her wish will be fulfilled within the year. Then she -<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>puts on the chemise, confident that she will be as fruitful as -the tree on which the garment has passed the night.<a id='r232' /><a href='#f232' class='c005'><sup>[232]</sup></a> Among -the Kara-Kirghiz barren women roll themselves on the ground -under a solitary apple-tree, in order to obtain offspring.<a id='r233' /><a href='#f233' class='c005'><sup>[233]</sup></a> -Some of the hill-tribes of India have a custom of marrying -the bride and bridegroom to two trees before they are married -to each other. For example, among the Mundas the bride -touches with red lead a <i>mahwá</i>-tree, clasps it in her arms, -and is tied to it; and the bridegroom goes through a like -ceremony with a mango-tree.<a id='r234' /><a href='#f234' class='c005'><sup>[234]</sup></a> The intention of the custom -may perhaps be to communicate to the newly-wedded pair -the vigorous reproductive power of the trees.<a id='r235' /><a href='#f235' class='c005'><sup>[235]</sup></a> Lastly, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>power of granting to women an easy delivery at child-birth -is ascribed to trees both in Sweden and Africa. In some -districts of Sweden there was formerly a <i>bårdträd</i> or guardian-tree -(lime, ash, or elm) in the neighbourhood of every -farm. No one would pluck a single leaf of the sacred tree, -any injury to which was punished by ill-luck or sickness. -Pregnant women used to clasp the tree in their arms in -order to ensure an easy delivery.<a id='r236' /><a href='#f236' class='c005'><sup>[236]</sup></a> In some negro tribes of -the Congo region pregnant women make themselves garments -out of the bark of a certain sacred tree, because they -believe that this tree delivers them from the dangers that -attend child-bearing.<a id='r237' /><a href='#f237' class='c005'><sup>[237]</sup></a> The story that Leto clasped a palm-tree -and an olive-tree or two laurel-trees, when she was about -to give birth to the divine twins Apollo and Artemis, perhaps -points to a similar Greek belief in the efficacy of -certain trees to facilitate delivery.<a id='r238' /><a href='#f238' class='c005'><sup>[238]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span> - <h2 id='chap10' class='c002'>CHAPTER X <br /> RELICS OF TREE-WORSHIP IN MODERN EUROPE</h2> -</div> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>May-trees in Europe.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -From the foregoing review of the beneficent qualities commonly -ascribed to tree-spirits, it is easy to understand why -customs like the May-tree or May-pole have prevailed so -widely and figured so prominently in the popular festivals -of European peasants. In spring or early summer or even -on Midsummer Day, it was and still is in many parts of -Europe the custom to go out to the woods, cut down a tree -and bring it into the village, where it is set up amid general -rejoicings; or the people cut branches in the woods, and -fasten them on every house. The intention of these customs -is to bring home to the village, and to each house, the -blessings which the tree-spirit has in its power to bestow. -Hence the custom in some places of planting a May-tree -before every house, or of carrying the village May-tree from -door to door, that every household may receive its share of -the blessing. Out of the mass of evidence on this subject -a few examples may be selected.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>May-trees and May-bushes in England.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Sir Henry Piers, in his <i>Description of Westmeath</i>, writing -in 1682 says: “On May-eve, every family sets up before -their door a green bush, strewed over with yellow flowers, -which the meadows yield plentifully. In countries where -timber is plentiful, they erect tall slender trees, which stand -high, and they continue almost the whole year; so as a -stranger would go nigh to imagine that they were all signs -of ale-sellers, and that all houses were ale-houses.”<a id='r239' /><a href='#f239' class='c005'><sup>[239]</sup></a> In -Northamptonshire a young tree ten or twelve feet high used -to be planted before each house on May Day so as to appear -<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>growing; flowers were thrown over it and strewn about the -door.<a id='r240' /><a href='#f240' class='c005'><sup>[240]</sup></a> “Among ancient customs still retained by the -Cornish, may be reckoned that of decking their doors and -porches on the first of May with green boughs of sycamore -and hawthorn, and of planting trees, or rather stumps of -trees, before their houses.”<a id='r241' /><a href='#f241' class='c005'><sup>[241]</sup></a> In the north of England it was -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>May garlands in England.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -formerly the custom for young people to rise a little after -midnight on the morning of the first of May, and go out -with music and the blowing of horns into the woods, where -they broke branches and adorned them with nosegays and -crowns of flowers. This done, they returned about sunrise -and fastened the flower-decked branches over the doors and -windows of their houses.<a id='r242' /><a href='#f242' class='c005'><sup>[242]</sup></a> At Abingdon in Berkshire young -people formerly went about in groups on May morning, -singing a carol of which the following are two of the -verses:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>We’ve been rambling all the night,</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>And sometime of this day;</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>And now returning back again,</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>We bring a garland gay.</i></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><i>A garland gay we bring you here;</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>And at your door we stand;</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>It is a sprout well budded out,</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>The work of our Lord’s hand.</i>”<a id='r243' /><a href='#f243' class='c005'><sup>[243]</sup></a></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>At the towns of Saffron Walden and Debden in Essex -on the first of May little girls go about in parties from door -to door singing a song almost identical with the above and -carrying garlands; a doll dressed in white is usually placed -in the middle of each garland.<a id='r244' /><a href='#f244' class='c005'><sup>[244]</sup></a> Similar customs have -been and indeed are still observed in various parts of -England. The garlands are generally in the form of -hoops intersecting each other at right angles. Thus on -May morning the girls of the neighbouring villages used -to flock into Northampton bringing their garlands, which -they exhibited from house to house. The skeleton of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>the garland was formed of two hoops of osier or hazel -crossing each other at right angles, and so twined with -flowers and ribbons that no part of them could be seen. In -the centre of the garlands were placed gaily dressed dolls, -one, two, or three in number according to the size of the -garland. The whole was fixed to a staff about five feet -long, by which it was carried. In shewing their garlands -the children chanted some simple ditties and received in -return pennies, which furnished forth a feast on their return -to their homes. A merry dance round the garland concluded -the festivity.<a id='r245' /><a href='#f245' class='c005'><sup>[245]</sup></a> At Uttoxeter groups of children carry -garlands of flowers about the town on May Day. “The -garlands consist of two hoops, one passing through the -other, which give the appearance of four half-circles, and -they are decorated with flowers and evergreens, and -surmounted with a bunch of flowers as a sort of crown, -and in the centre of the hoops is a pendant orange and -flowers.” One or more of the children carry a little pole -or stick upright with a bunch of flowers fastened to the top. -They are themselves decorated with flowers and ribbons, -and receive pence from the houses which they visit.<a id='r246' /><a href='#f246' class='c005'><sup>[246]</sup></a> At -Watford in Hertfordshire, groups of children, almost entirely -girls, go about the streets from door to door on May Day -singing some verses, of which two agree almost verbally -with those which, as we have seen, are sung at Abingdon in -Berkshire. They are dressed in white, and adorned with gay -ribbons and sashes of many hues. “Two of the girls carry -between them on a stick what they call ‘the garland,’ which -in its simplest form, is made of two circular hoops, intersecting -each other at right angles; a more elaborate form has, -in addition, smaller semicircles inserted in the four angles -formed by the meeting of the hoops at the top of ‘the garland.’ -These hoops are covered with any wild-flowers in -season, and are further ornamented with ribbons. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>‘garland’ in shape reminds me of the ‘Christmas’ which -used to form the centre of the Christmas decorations in -Yorkshire some few years ago, except that the latter had a -bunch of mistletoe inside the hoops.”<a id='r247' /><a href='#f247' class='c005'><sup>[247]</sup></a> A similar custom -was observed at Bampton-in-the-Bush in Oxfordshire down -to about the middle of the nineteenth century. The -garland consisted of two crossed hoops covered with -moss, flowers, and ribbons. Two girls, known as the -Lady and her Maid, bore the garland between them on a -stick; and a boy called the Lord, who carried a stick -dressed with ribbons and flowers, collected contributions -from the spectators. From time to time the Lady sang a -few lines and was then kissed by the Lord.<a id='r248' /><a href='#f248' class='c005'><sup>[248]</sup></a> At Sevenoaks -in Kent the children carry boughs and garlands from door -to door on May Day. The boughs consist of sticks carried -upright with bunches of leaves and wild-flowers fastened to -the top. The garlands are formed of two hoops interlaced -cross-wise and covered with blue and yellow flowers from the -woods and hedges. Sometimes the garlands are fastened to -the end of a stick carried perpendicularly, sometimes they -hang from the middle of a stick borne horizontally by two -children.<a id='r249' /><a href='#f249' class='c005'><sup>[249]</sup></a> In the streets of Cambridge little girls regularly -make their appearance every May Day with female dolls -enclosed in hoops, which are covered with ribbons and -flowers. These they shew to passers-by, inviting them to -remember the May Lady by paying a small sum to her -bearers.<a id='r250' /><a href='#f250' class='c005'><sup>[250]</sup></a> At Salisbury girls go through the streets on May -Day in pairs, carrying between them on a stick a circular -garland or hoop adorned with flowers and bows; they visit -the shops asking for money. A similar custom is observed -at Wilton a few miles from Salisbury.<a id='r251' /><a href='#f251' class='c005'><sup>[251]</sup></a> At Cawthorne in -Yorkshire “on the first of May the school-children came with -hoops to beg for artificial flowers; these my mother’s maid -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>used to sew on to the hoops, which with ribbons and other -decorations, were used in decking out a tall May-pole planted -in the village.”<a id='r252' /><a href='#f252' class='c005'><sup>[252]</sup></a> It appears that a hoop wreathed with -rowan and marsh marigold, and bearing suspended within it -two balls, is still carried on May Day by villagers in some -parts of Ireland. The balls, which are sometimes covered -with gold and silver paper, are said to have originally -represented the sun and moon.<a id='r253' /><a href='#f253' class='c005'><sup>[253]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>May customs in France, Germany, and Greece.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In some villages of the Vosges Mountains on the first -Sunday of May young girls go in bands from house to house, -singing a song in praise of May, in which mention is made of -the “bread and meal that come in May.” If money is given -them, they fasten a green bough to the door; if it is refused, -they wish the family many children and no bread to feed them.<a id='r254' /><a href='#f254' class='c005'><sup>[254]</sup></a> -In the French department of Mayenne, boys who bore the -name of <i>Maillotins</i> used to go about from farm to farm on -the first of May singing carols, for which they received -money or a drink; they planted a small tree or a -branch of a tree.<a id='r255' /><a href='#f255' class='c005'><sup>[255]</sup></a> Among the Germans of Moravia on -the third Sunday before Easter, which goes by the -name of <i>Laetare</i> Sunday, it is customary in some places -for young girls to carry a small fir-tree about from door -to door, while they sing songs, for which they receive -presents. The tree is tricked out with many-coloured -ribbons, and sometimes with flowers and dyed egg-shells, -and its branches are twined together so as to -form what is called a crown.<a id='r256' /><a href='#f256' class='c005'><sup>[256]</sup></a> In Corfu the children go -about singing May songs on the first of May. The boys -carry small cypresses adorned with ribbons, flowers, and the -fruits of the season. They receive a glass of wine at each -<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>house. The girls carry nosegays. One of them is dressed -up like an angel, with gilt wings, and scatters flowers.<a id='r257' /><a href='#f257' class='c005'><sup>[257]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Whitsuntide customs in Russia.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -On the Thursday before Whitsunday the Russian -villagers “go out into the woods, sing songs, weave garlands, -and cut down a young birch-tree, which they dress -up in woman’s clothes, or adorn with many-coloured shreds -and ribbons. After that comes a feast, at the end of which -they take the dressed-up birch-tree, carry it home to their -village with joyful dance and song, and set it up in one of -the houses, where it remains as an honoured guest till Whitsunday. -On the two intervening days they pay visits to -the house where their ‘guest’ is; but on the third day, -Whitsunday, they take her to a stream and fling her into -its waters,” throwing their garlands after her. “All over -Russia every village and every town is turned, a little before -Whitsunday, into a sort of garden. Everywhere along the -streets the young birch-trees stand in rows, every house and -every room is adorned with boughs, even the engines upon -the railway are for the time decked with green leaves.”<a id='r258' /><a href='#f258' class='c005'><sup>[258]</sup></a> -In this Russian custom the dressing of the birch in -woman’s clothes shews how clearly the tree is personified; -and the throwing it into a stream is most probably a rain-charm. -In some villages of Altmark it was formerly the -custom for serving-men, grooms, and cowherds to go from -farm to farm at Whitsuntide distributing crowns made of -birch branches and flowers to the farmers; these crowns -were hung up in the houses and left till the following -year.<a id='r259' /><a href='#f259' class='c005'><sup>[259]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>May-trees in Germany and Sweden.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the neighbourhood of Zabern in Alsace bands of -people go about carrying May-trees. Amongst them is a -man dressed in a white shirt, with his face blackened; in -front of him is carried a large May-tree, but each member of -the band also carries a smaller one. One of the company -bears a huge basket in which he collects eggs, bacon, and -so forth.<a id='r260' /><a href='#f260' class='c005'><sup>[260]</sup></a> In some parts of Sweden on the eve of May Day -lads go about carrying each a bunch of fresh-gathered birch -twigs, wholly or partially in leaf. With the village fiddler at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>their head, they make the round of the houses singing May -songs; the burden of their songs is a prayer for fine weather, a -plentiful harvest, and worldly and spiritual blessings. One of -them carries a basket in which he collects gifts of eggs and -the like. If they are well received they stick a leafy twig in -the roof over the cottage door.<a id='r261' /><a href='#f261' class='c005'><sup>[261]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Midsummer trees and poles in Sweden.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But in Sweden midsummer is the season when these -ceremonies are chiefly observed. On the Eve of St. John -(the twenty-third of June) the houses are thoroughly -cleansed and garnished with green boughs and flowers. -Young fir-trees are raised at the doorway and elsewhere -about the homestead; and very often small umbrageous -arbours are constructed in the garden. In Stockholm -on this day a leaf-market is held at which thousands -of May-poles (<i>Maj Stănger</i>), from six inches to twelve -feet high, decorated with leaves, flowers, slips of coloured -paper, gilt egg-shells strung on reeds, and so on, are exposed -for sale. Bonfires are lit on the hills, and the people -dance round them and jump over them. But the chief event -of the day is setting up the May-pole. This consists of a -straight and tall spruce-pine tree, stripped of its branches. -“At times hoops and at others pieces of wood, placed cross-wise, -are attached to it at intervals; whilst at others it is -provided with bows, representing, so to say, a man with his -arms akimbo. From top to bottom not only the ‘Maj -Stăng’ (May-pole) itself, but the hoops, bows, etc., are ornamented -with leaves, flowers, slips of various cloth, gilt egg-shells, -etc.; and on the top of it is a large vane, or it may -be a flag.” The raising of the May-pole, the decoration of -which is done by the village maidens, is an affair of much -ceremony; the people flock to it from all quarters, and dance -round it in a great ring.<a id='r262' /><a href='#f262' class='c005'><sup>[262]</sup></a> Midsummer customs of the same -sort used to be observed in some parts of Germany. Thus -in the towns of the Upper Harz Mountains tall fir-trees, -with the bark peeled off their lower trunks, were set up in -open places and decked with flowers and eggs, which were -painted yellow and red. Round these trees the young folk -danced by day and the old folk in the evening. Many -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>people disguised themselves, and dramatic representations -were given, amongst others mock executions, at which the -sufferer’s hat was knocked off instead of his head. At the -village of Lerbach in these fir-clad mountains children would -gather together on Midsummer Day, each with a tiny fir-tree, -which they made to revolve from left to right in the -direction of the sun, while they sang “The maiden turned -herself about,” or “Oh, thou dear Summertime! Oh, thou -dear Summertime!”<a id='r263' /><a href='#f263' class='c005'><sup>[263]</sup></a> In some parts of Bohemia also a -May-pole or midsummer-tree is erected on St. John’s Eve. -The lads fetch a tall fir or pine from the wood and set it up -on a height, where the girls deck it with nosegays, garlands, -and red ribbons. It is afterwards burned.<a id='r264' /><a href='#f264' class='c005'><sup>[264]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Village May-poles in England.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -It would be needless to illustrate at length the custom, -which has prevailed in various parts of Europe, such as -England, France, and Germany, of setting up a village May-tree -or May-pole on May Day.<a id='r265' /><a href='#f265' class='c005'><sup>[265]</sup></a> A few examples will -suffice. The puritanical writer Phillip Stubbes in his -<i>Anatomie of Abuses</i>, first published at London in 1583, -has described with manifest disgust how they used to bring -in the May-pole in the days of good Queen Bess. His -description affords us a vivid glimpse of merry England in -the olden time. “Against May, Whitsonday, or other time, -all the yung men and maides, olde men and wives, run -gadding over night to the woods, groves, hils, and mountains, -where they spend all the night in plesant pastimes; and in -the morning they return, bringing with them birch and -branches of trees, to deck their assemblies withall. And no -mervaile, for there is a great Lord present amongst them, as -superintendent and Lord over their pastimes and sportes, -namely, Sathan, prince of hel. But the chiefest jewel they -bring from thence is their May-pole, which they bring home -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Bringing in the May-pole.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -with great veneration, as thus. They have twentie or fortie -yoke of oxen, every oxe having a sweet nose-gay of flouers -placed on the tip of his hornes, and these oxen drawe home -this May-pole (this stinkyng ydol, rather), which is covered -all over with floures and hearbs, bound round about with -strings, from the top to the bottome, and sometime painted -with variable colours, with two or three hundred men, -women and children following it with great devotion. And -thus beeing reared up, with handkercheefs and flags hovering -on the top, they straw the ground rounde about, binde -green boughes about it, set up sommer haules, bowers, and -arbors hard by it. And then fall they to daunce about it, -like as the heathen people did at the dedication of the -Idols, whereof this is a perfect pattern, or rather the thing -itself. I have heard it credibly reported (and that <i>viva -voce</i>) by men of great gravitie and reputation, that of fortie, -threescore, or a hundred maides going to the wood over -night, there have scaresly the third part of them returned -home againe undefiled.”<a id='r266' /><a href='#f266' class='c005'><sup>[266]</sup></a> Of the Cornish people their -historian Borlase says: “From towns they make excursions, -on May eve, into the country, cut down a tall elm, bring it -into town with rejoicings, and having fitted a straight taper -pole to the end of it, and painted it, erect it in the most -publick part, and upon holidays and festivals dress it -with garlands of flowers, or ensigns and streamers.”<a id='r267' /><a href='#f267' class='c005'><sup>[267]</sup></a> In -Northumberland, down apparently to near the end of the -eighteenth century, young people of both sexes used to go -out early on May morning to gather the flowering thorn -and the dew off the grass, which they brought home with -music and acclamations; then, having dressed a pole on the -green with garlands, they danced about it. The dew was -considered as a great cosmetic, and preserved the face from -wrinkles, blotches, and the traces of old age. A syllabub -made of warm milk from the cow, sweet cakes, and wine -was prepared for the feast; and a kind of divination, to -discover who should be wedded first, was practised by -dropping a marriage-ring into the syllabub and fishing for it -<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>with a ladle.<a id='r268' /><a href='#f268' class='c005'><sup>[268]</sup></a> At Padstow in Cornwall, when shipbuilding -was a thriving industry of the port, the shipwrights used to -erect a tall May-pole at the top of Cross Street in the middle -of a cross inlaid with stone. The pole was gaily decorated -with spring flowers and so forth. But the custom has long -been abandoned. A great feature of the celebration of May -Day at Padstow used to be the Hobby Horse, that is, a man -wearing a ferocious mask, who went dancing and singing -before the chief houses, accompanied by a great flower-bedecked -crowd of men and women, while the men fired -pistols loaded with powder in all directions.<a id='r269' /><a href='#f269' class='c005'><sup>[269]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Village May-trees and May-poles in Germany.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In Swabia on the first of May a tall fir-tree used to be -fetched into the village, where it was decked with ribbons -and set up; then the people danced round it merrily to -music. The tree stood on the village green the whole -year through, until a fresh tree was brought in next May -Day.<a id='r270' /><a href='#f270' class='c005'><sup>[270]</sup></a> In Saxony “people were not content with bringing -the summer symbolically (as king or queen) into the village; -they brought the fresh green itself from the woods even into -the houses: that is the May or Whitsuntide trees, which are -mentioned in documents from the thirteenth century onwards. -The fetching in of the May-tree was also a festival. The -people went out into the woods to seek the May (<i>majum -quaerere</i>), brought young trees, especially firs and birches, -to the village and set them up before the doors of the -houses or of the cattle-stalls or in the rooms. Young -fellows erected such May-trees, as we have already said, -before the chambers of their sweethearts. Besides these -household Mays, a great May-tree or May-pole, which had -also been brought in solemn procession to the village, was -set up in the middle of the village or in the market-place of -the town. It had been chosen by the whole community, -who watched over it most carefully. Generally the tree was -stripped of its branches and leaves, nothing but the crown -being left, on which were displayed, in addition to many-coloured -ribbons and cloths, a variety of victuals such as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>sausages, cakes, and eggs. The young folk exerted themselves -to obtain these prizes. In the greasy poles which -are still to be seen at our fairs we have a relic of these old -May-poles. Not uncommonly there was a race on foot -or on horseback to the May-tree—a Whitsuntide pastime -which in course of time has been divested of its goal and -survives as a popular custom to this day in many parts of -Germany. In the great towns of our land the custom has -developed into sport, for our spring races are in their origin -nothing but the old German horse-races, in which the victor -received a prize (generally a red cloth) from the hand of a -maiden, while the last rider was greeted with jeers and gibes -by the assembled community.”<a id='r271' /><a href='#f271' class='c005'><sup>[271]</sup></a> The custom of the May-tree -is observed by the Wends of Saxony, as well as by -the Germans. The young men of the village choose the -slimmest and tallest tree in the wood, peel it and set it up -on the village green. Its leafy top is decked with cloths -and ribbons presented by the girls. Here it stands, towering -high above the roofs, till Ascension Day, or in many -places till Whitsuntide. When it is being taken down, the -young folk dance round it, and the youth who catches and -breaks off the leafy crown of the falling tree is the hero of -the day. Holding the green boughs aloft he is carried -shoulder-high, with music and joyous shouts, to the ale-house, -where the dance is resumed.<a id='r272' /><a href='#f272' class='c005'><sup>[272]</sup></a> At Bordeaux on the -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>May-poles and May-trees in France.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -first of May the boys of each street used to erect in it a -May-pole, which they adorned with garlands and a great -crown; and every evening during the whole of the month -the young people of both sexes danced singing about the -pole.<a id='r273' /><a href='#f273' class='c005'><sup>[273]</sup></a> Down to the present day May-trees decked with -flowers and ribbons are set up on May Day in every village -and hamlet of gay Provence. Under them the young folk -make merry and the old folk rest.<a id='r274' /><a href='#f274' class='c005'><sup>[274]</sup></a> The Red Karens of -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>May-poles among the Karens of Burma.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Upper Burma hold a festival in April, at which the chief -ceremony is the erection of a post on ground set apart for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>the purpose in or near each village. A new post is set up -every year; the old ones are left standing, but are not -renewed if they fall or decay. Omens are first drawn from -chicken bones as to which tree will be the best to fell for -the post, which day will be the luckiest, and so on. A -pole some twenty or thirty feet long is then hewn from the -tree and ornamented with a rudely carved capital. On the -lucky day all the villagers assemble and drag the pole to -the chosen spot. When it has been set up, the people -dance “a rude sort of May-pole dance” to the music of -drums and gongs. Much pork is eaten and much liquor -drunk on this festive occasion.<a id='r275' /><a href='#f275' class='c005'><sup>[275]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Permanent May-poles.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In all these cases, apparently, the custom is or was to -bring in a new May-tree each year. However, in England -the village May-pole seems as a rule, at least in later times, -to have been permanent, not renewed annually.<a id='r276' /><a href='#f276' class='c005'><sup>[276]</sup></a> Villages of -Upper Bavaria renew their May-pole once every three, four, -or five years. It is a fir-tree fetched from the forest, and -amid all the wreaths, flags, and inscriptions with which it is -bedecked, an essential part is the bunch of dark green foliage -left at the top “as a memento that in it we have to do, not -with a dead pole, but with a living tree from the greenwood.”<a id='r277' /><a href='#f277' class='c005'><sup>[277]</sup></a> -We can hardly doubt that originally the practice everywhere -was to set up a new May-tree every year. As the object of -the custom was to bring in the fructifying spirit of vegetation, -newly awakened in spring, the end would have been defeated -if, instead of a living tree, green and sappy, an old withered -one had been erected year after year or allowed to stand -permanently. When, however, the meaning of the custom -had been forgotten, and the May-tree was regarded simply -as a centre for holiday merry-making, people saw no reason -for felling a fresh tree every year, and preferred to let the -same tree stand permanently, only decking it with fresh -flowers on May Day. But even when the May-pole had thus -become a fixture, the need of giving it the appearance of -being a green tree, not a dead pole, was sometimes felt. -Thus at Weverham in Cheshire “are two May-poles, which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>are decorated on this day (May Day) with all due attention -to the ancient solemnity; the sides are hung with garlands, -and the top terminated by a birch or other tall slender tree -with its leaves on; the bark being peeled, and the stem -spliced to the pole, so as to give the appearance of one tree -from the summit.”<a id='r278' /><a href='#f278' class='c005'><sup>[278]</sup></a> Thus the renewal of the May-tree is -like the renewal of the Harvest-May;<a id='r279' /><a href='#f279' class='c005'><sup>[279]</sup></a> each is intended to -secure a fresh portion of the fertilising spirit of vegetation, -and to preserve it throughout the year. But whereas the -efficacy of the Harvest-May is restricted to promoting the -growth of the crops, that of the May-tree or May-branch -extends also, as we have seen, to women and cattle. Lastly, -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The May-tree burnt at the end of the year.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -it is worth noting that the old May-tree is sometimes burned -at the end of the year. Thus in the district of Prague -young people break pieces of the public May-tree and place -them behind the holy pictures in their rooms, where they -remain till next May Day, and are then burned on the -hearth.<a id='r280' /><a href='#f280' class='c005'><sup>[280]</sup></a> In Würtemberg the bushes which are set up on -the houses on Palm Sunday are sometimes left there for a -year and then burnt.<a id='r281' /><a href='#f281' class='c005'><sup>[281]</sup></a> The <i>eiresione</i> (the Harvest-May of -Greece) was perhaps burnt at the end of the year.<a id='r282' /><a href='#f282' class='c005'><sup>[282]</sup></a></p> - -<hr class='c009' /> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Tree-spirit detached from the tree and represented in human form.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -So much for the tree-spirit conceived as incorporate or -immanent in the tree. We have now to shew that the tree-spirit -is often conceived and represented as detached from -the tree and clothed in human form, and even as embodied -in living men or women. The evidence for this anthropomorphic -representation of the tree-spirit is largely to be -found in the popular customs of European peasantry. These -will be described presently, but before examining them we -may notice an Esthonian folk-tale which illustrates the same -train of thought very clearly. Once upon a time, so runs -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Esthonian story of a tree-elf.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -the tale, a young peasant was busy raking the hay in a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>meadow, when on the rim of the horizon a heavy thunder-cloud -loomed black and angry, warning him to make -haste with his work before the storm should break. He -finished in time, and was wending his way homeward, when -under a tree he espied a stranger fast asleep. “He will be -drenched to the skin,” thought the good-natured young -fellow to himself, “if I allow him to sleep on.” So he -stepped up to the sleeper and shaking him forcibly roused -him from his slumber. The stranger started up, and at sight -of the thunder-cloud, which now darkened the sky, he -blenched, fumbled in his pockets, and finding nothing in -them wherewith to reward the friendly swain, he said, “This -time I am your debtor. But the time will come when I -shall be able to repay your kindness. Remember what I -tell you. You will enlist. You will be parted from your -friends for years, and one day a feeling of homesickness will -come over you in a foreign land. Then look up, and you -will see a crooked birch-tree a few steps from you. Go to -it, knock thrice on the trunk, and ask, ‘Is the Crooked One -at home?’ The rest will follow.” With these words the -stranger hastened away and was out of sight in a moment. -The peasant also went his way, and soon forgot all about -the matter. Well, time went by and part of the stranger’s -prophecy came true. For the peasant turned soldier and -served in a cavalry regiment for years. One day, when he -was quartered with his regiment in the north of Finland, it -fell to his turn to tend the horses while his comrades were -roistering in the tavern. Suddenly a great yearning for -home, such as he had never known before, came over the -lonely trooper; tears started to his eyes, and dear visions of -his native land crowded on his soul. Then he bethought -him of the sleeping stranger in the wood, and the whole -scene came back to him as fresh as if it had happened -yesterday. He looked up, and there, strange to tell, he was -aware of a crooked birch-tree right in front of him. More -in jest than in earnest he went up to it and did as the -stranger had bidden him. Hardly had the words, “Is the -Crooked One at home?” passed his lips when the stranger -himself stood before him and said, “I am glad you have -come. I feared you had forgotten me. You wish to be at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>home, do you not?” The trooper said yes, he did. Then -the Crooked One cried into the tree, “Young folks, which -of you is the fleetest?” A voice from the birch replied, -“Father, I can run as fast as a moor-hen flies.” “Well, I -need a fleeter messenger to-day.” A second voice answered, -“I can run like the wind.” “I need a swifter envoy,” said -the father. Then a third voice cried, “I can run like the -thought of man.” “You are after my own heart. Fill a -bag full of gold and take it with my friend and benefactor -to his home.” Then he caught the soldier by the hat, crying, -“The hat to the man, and the man to the house!” The -same moment the soldier felt his hat fly from his head. -When he looked about for it, lo! he was at home in the old -familiar parlour wearing his old peasant clothes, and the -great sack of money stood beside him. Yet on parade and -at the roll-call he was never missed. When the man who -told this story was asked, “Who could the stranger be?” he -answered, “Who but a tree-elf?”<a id='r283' /><a href='#f283' class='c005'><sup>[283]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Tree-spirit represented simultaneously in vegetable and human form.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -There is an instructive class of cases in which the tree-spirit -is represented simultaneously in vegetable form and in -human form, which are set side by side as if for the express -purpose of explaining each other. In these cases the human -representative of the tree-spirit is sometimes a doll or puppet, -sometimes a living person; but whether a puppet or a -person, it is placed beside a tree or bough; so that together -the person or puppet, and the tree or bough, form a sort of -bilingual inscription, the one being, so to speak, a translation -of the other. Here, therefore, there is no room left for doubt -that the spirit of the tree is actually represented in human -form. Thus in Bohemia, on the fourth Sunday in Lent, -young people throw a puppet called Death into the water; -then the girls go into the wood, cut down a young tree, and -fasten to it a puppet dressed in white clothes to look like -a woman; with this tree and puppet they go from house -to house collecting gratuities and singing songs with the -refrain:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>“<i>We carry Death out of the village,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>We bring Summer into the village.</i>”<a id='r284' /><a href='#f284' class='c005'><sup>[284]</sup></a></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>Here, as we shall see later on, the “Summer” is the spirit -of vegetation returning or reviving in spring. In some -parts of our own country children go about asking for pence -with some small imitations of May-poles, and with a finely-dressed -doll which they call the Lady of the May.<a id='r285' /><a href='#f285' class='c005'><sup>[285]</sup></a> In -these cases the tree and the puppet are obviously regarded -as equivalent.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Little May Rose.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -At Thann, in Alsace, a girl called the Little May Rose, -dressed in white, carries a small May-tree, which is gay with -garlands and ribbons. Her companions collect gifts from -door to door, singing a song:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Little May Rose turn round three times,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Let us look at you round and round!</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Rose of the May, come to the greenwood away,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>We will be merry all.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>So we go from the May to the roses.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>In the course of the song a wish is expressed that those -who give nothing may lose their fowls by the marten, that -their vine may bear no clusters, their tree no nuts, their field -no corn; the produce of the year is supposed to depend on -the gifts offered to these May singers.<a id='r286' /><a href='#f286' class='c005'><sup>[286]</sup></a> Here and in the -cases mentioned above, where children go about with green -boughs or garlands on May Day singing and collecting money, -the meaning is that with the spirit of vegetation they bring -plenty and good luck to the house, and they expect to be -paid for the service. In Russian Lithuania, on the first of -May, they used to set up a green tree before the village. -Then the rustic swains chose the prettiest girl, crowned -her, swathed her in birch branches and set her beside the -May-tree, where they danced, sang, and shouted “O May! -O May!”<a id='r287' /><a href='#f287' class='c005'><sup>[287]</sup></a> In Brie (Isle de France) a May-tree is set up -in the midst of the village; its top is crowned with flowers; -lower down it is twined with leaves and twigs, still lower -with huge green branches. The girls dance round it, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>at the same time a lad wrapt in leaves and called Father -May is led about.<a id='r288' /><a href='#f288' class='c005'><sup>[288]</sup></a> In the small towns of the Franken Wald -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The <i>Walber</i>.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -mountains in Northern Bavaria, on the second of May, a -<i>Walber</i> tree is erected before a tavern, and a man dances -round it, enveloped in straw from head to foot in such a -way that the ears of corn unite above his head to form a -crown. He is called the <i>Walber</i>, and used to be led in -procession through the streets, which were adorned with -sprigs of birch.<a id='r289' /><a href='#f289' class='c005'><sup>[289]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Green George in Carinthia.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Amongst the Slavs of Carinthia, on St. George’s Day -(the twenty-third of April), the young people deck with flowers -and garlands a tree which has been felled on the eve of the -festival. The tree is then carried in procession, accompanied -with music and joyful acclamations, the chief figure in the procession -being the Green George, a young fellow clad from head -to foot in green birch branches. At the close of the ceremonies -the Green George, that is an effigy of him, is thrown into -the water. It is the aim of the lad who acts Green George -to step out of his leafy envelope and substitute the effigy so -adroitly that no one shall perceive the change. In many -places, however, the lad himself who plays the part of Green -George is ducked in a river or pond, with the express -intention of thus ensuring rain to make the fields and -meadows green in summer. In some places the cattle are -crowned and driven from their stalls to the accompaniment -of a song:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Green George we bring,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Green George we accompany,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>May he feed our herds well.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>If not, to the water with him.</i>”<a id='r290' /><a href='#f290' class='c005'><sup>[290]</sup></a></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>Here we see that the same powers of making rain and -fostering the cattle, which are ascribed to the tree-spirit -regarded as incorporate in the tree, are also attributed to the -tree-spirit represented by a living man.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Green George among the gypsies.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Among the gypsies of Transylvania and Roumania the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>festival of Green George is the chief celebration of spring. -Some of them keep it on Easter Monday, others on St. -George’s Day (the twenty-third of April). On the eve of -the festival a young willow tree is cut down, adorned with -garlands and leaves, and set up in the ground. Women with -child place one of their garments under the tree, and leave -it there over night; if next morning they find a leaf of the -tree lying on the garment, they know that their delivery will -be easy. Sick and old people go to the tree in the evening, -spit on it thrice, and say, “You will soon die, but let us live.” -Next morning the gypsies gather about the willow. The chief -figure of the festival is Green George, a lad who is concealed -from top to toe in green leaves and blossoms. He throws a -few handfuls of grass to the beasts of the tribe, in order that -they may have no lack of fodder throughout the year. Then -he takes three iron nails, which have lain for three days and -nights in water, and knocks them into the willow; after -which he pulls them out and flings them into a running -stream to propitiate the water-spirits. Finally, a pretence is -made of throwing Green George into the water, but in fact -it is only a puppet made of branches and leaves which is -ducked in the stream.<a id='r291' /><a href='#f291' class='c005'><sup>[291]</sup></a> In this version of the custom the -powers of granting an easy delivery to women and of communicating -vital energy to the sick and old are clearly -ascribed to the willow; while Green George, the human -double of the tree, bestows food on the cattle, and further -ensures the favour of the water-spirits by putting them in -indirect communication with the tree.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Double representation of the tree-spirit by tree and man among the Oraons.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -An example of the double representation of the spirit -of vegetation by a tree and a living man is reported from -Bengal. The Oraons have a festival in spring while the -sál-trees are in blossom, because they think that at this time -the marriage of earth is celebrated and the sál flowers are -necessary for the ceremony. On an appointed day the -villagers go with their priest to the Sarna, the sacred grove, -a remnant of the old sál forest in which a goddess Sarna -Burhi, or woman of the grove, is supposed to dwell. She is -thought to have great influence on the rain; and the priest -<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>arriving with his party at the grove sacrifices to her five -fowls, of which a morsel is given to each person present. -Then they gather the sál flowers and return laden with them -to the village. Next day the priest visits every house, -carrying the flowers in a wide open basket. The women of -each house bring out water to wash his feet as he approaches, -and kneeling make him an obeisance. Then he dances with -them and places some of the sál flowers over the door of -the house and in the women’s hair. No sooner is this done -than the women empty their water-jugs over him, drenching -him to the skin. A feast follows, and the young people, -with sál flowers in their hair, dance all night on the village -green.<a id='r292' /><a href='#f292' class='c005'><sup>[292]</sup></a> Here, the equivalence of the flower-bearing priest to -the goddess of the flowering tree comes out plainly. For -she is supposed to influence the rain, and the drenching of -the priest with water is, doubtless, like the ducking of the -Green George in Carinthia and elsewhere, a rain-charm. -Thus the priest, as if he were the tree goddess herself, goes -from door to door dispensing rain and bestowing fruitfulness -on each house, but especially on the women. In some parts -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Double representation of the harvest-goddess Gauri by a bundle of plants and -an unmarried girl.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -of India the harvest-goddess Gauri, the wife of Siva, is represented -both by an unmarried girl and by a bundle of the -wild flowering balsam plant touch-me-not (<i>Impatiens sp.</i>), -which is tied up in a mummy-like figure with a woman’s -mask, dress, and ornaments. Before being removed from the -soil to represent the goddess the plants are worshipped. -The girl is also worshipped. Then the bundle of plants -is carried and the girl who personates the goddess walks -through the rooms of the house, while the supposed footprints -of Gauri herself are imprinted on the floor with red paste. -On entering each room the human representative of Gauri is -asked, “Gauri, Gauri, whither have you come and what do -you see?” and the girl makes appropriate replies. Then -she is given a mouthful of sweets and the mistress of the -house says, “Come with golden feet and stay for ever.” The -plant-formed effigy of Gauri is afterwards worshipped as the -goddess herself and receives offerings of rice-cakes and pancakes. -On the third day it is thrown into a river or tank; -then a handful of pebbles or sand is brought home from the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>spot and thrown all over the house and the trees to bring -good luck to the house and to protect the trees from vermin. -A remarkable feature of the ceremonies is that the goddess -Gauri is supposed to be secretly followed by her husband -Siva, who remains hidden under the fold of her garment and -is represented by a <i>lôṭâ</i>, covered by a coco-nut and filled with -rice, which is carefully measured. After the image of Gauri -has been thrown into the river or tank, the rice in the <i>lôṭâ</i> -representing Siva is carefully measured again, in order to see -whether the quantity has increased or decreased, and according -to the result an abundant or a scanty harvest is prognosticated.<a id='r293' /><a href='#f293' class='c005'><sup>[293]</sup></a> -Hence it appears that the whole ritual aims at -ensuring a plentiful crop of rice. In this case the spirit of -vegetation thus represented in duplicate by a living girl and -the effigy of a woman is a harvest goddess, not a tree-spirit, -but the principle is the same.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>W. Mannhardt’s summary of the evidence.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Without citing more examples to the same effect, we -may sum up the results of the preceding pages in the -words of Mannhardt: “The customs quoted suffice to -establish with certainty the conclusion that in these spring -processions the spirit of vegetation is often represented both -by the May-tree and in addition by a man dressed in green -leaves or flowers or by a girl similarly adorned. It is the -same spirit which animates the tree and is active in the -inferior plants and which we have recognised in the May-tree -and the Harvest-May. Quite consistently the spirit is -also supposed to manifest his presence in the first flower -of spring and reveals himself both in a girl representing -a May-rose, and also, as giver of harvest, in the person of -the <i>Walber</i>. The procession with this representative of the -divinity was supposed to produce the same beneficial effects -on the fowls, the fruit-trees, and the crops as the presence -of the deity himself. In other words, the mummer was -regarded not as an image but as an actual representative -of the spirit of vegetation; hence the wish expressed by the -attendants on the May-rose and the May-tree that those who -refuse them gifts of eggs, bacon, and so forth, may have no -share in the blessings which it is in the power of the itinerant -<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>spirit to bestow. We may conclude that these begging processions -with May-trees or May-boughs from door to door -(‘bringing the May or the summer’) had everywhere originally -a serious and, so to speak, sacramental significance; -people really believed that the god of growth was present -unseen in the bough; by the procession he was brought to -each house to bestow his blessing. The names May, Father -May, May Lady, Queen of the May, by which the anthropomorphic -spirit of vegetation is often denoted, shew that the -idea of the spirit of vegetation is blent with a personification -of the season at which his powers are most strikingly -manifested.”<a id='r294' /><a href='#f294' class='c005'><sup>[294]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Tree-spirit or vegetation-spirit represented by a person alone.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus far we have seen that the tree-spirit or the spirit -of vegetation in general is represented either in vegetable -form alone, as by a tree, bough, or flower; or in vegetable -and human form simultaneously, as by a tree, bough, or -flower in combination with a puppet or a living person. It -remains to shew that the representation of him by a tree, -bough, or flower is sometimes entirely dropped, while the -representation of him by a living person remains. In this -case the representative character of the person is generally -marked by dressing him or her in leaves or flowers; sometimes -too it is indicated by the name he or she bears.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Green George in Russia.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus in some parts of Russia on St. George’s Day (the -twenty-third of April) a youth is dressed out, like our Jack-in-the-Green, -with leaves and flowers. The Slovenes call -him the Green George. Holding a lighted torch in one -hand and a pie in the other, he goes out to the corn-fields, -followed by girls singing appropriate songs. A circle of -brushwood is then lighted, in the middle of which is set the -pie. All who take part in the ceremony then sit down -around the fire and divide the pie among them.<a id='r295' /><a href='#f295' class='c005'><sup>[295]</sup></a> In this -custom the Green George dressed in leaves and flowers is -plainly identical with the similarly disguised Green George -who is associated with a tree in the Carinthian, Transylvanian, -and Roumanian customs observed on the same day. Again, -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Whitsuntide customs in Russia.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -we saw that in Russia at Whitsuntide a birch-tree is dressed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>in woman’s clothes and set up in the house. Clearly -equivalent to this is the custom observed on Whit-Monday -by Russian girls in the district of Pinsk. They choose the -prettiest of their number, envelop her in a mass of foliage -taken from the birch-trees and maples, and carry her about -through the village. In a district of Little Russia they take -round a “poplar,” represented by a girl wearing bright -flowers in her hair.<a id='r296' /><a href='#f296' class='c005'><sup>[296]</sup></a> At Whitsuntide in Holland poor -women used to go about begging with a little girl called -Whitsuntide Flower (<i>Pinxterbloem</i>, perhaps a kind of iris); -she was decked with flowers and sat in a waggon. In North -Brabant she wears the flowers from which she takes her -name and a song is sung:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Whitsuntide Flower,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Turn yourself once round.</i>”<a id='r297' /><a href='#f297' class='c005'><sup>[297]</sup></a></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>May customs in France.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -All over Provence on the first of May pretty little girls -are dressed in white, decked with crowns and wreaths of -roses, and set on seats or platforms strewn with flowers -in the streets, while their companions go about begging -coppers for the Mayos or Mayes, as they are called, from the -passers-by.<a id='r298' /><a href='#f298' class='c005'><sup>[298]</sup></a> In some parts of the Ardennes on May Day -a small girl, clad in white and wearing a chaplet of flowers -on her head, used to go from house to house with her play-mates, -collecting contributions and singing that it was May, -the month of May, the pretty month of May, that the wheat -was tall, the hawthorn in bloom, and the lark carolling in -the sky.<a id='r299' /><a href='#f299' class='c005'><sup>[299]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Little Leaf Man.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In Ruhla (Thüringen) as soon as the trees begin to grow -green in spring, the children assemble on a Sunday and go -out into the woods, where they choose one of their play-mates -to be the Little Leaf Man. They break branches -from the trees and twine them about the child till only his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>shoes peep out from the leafy mantle. Holes are made in -it for him to see through, and two of the children lead the -Little Leaf Man that he may not stumble or fall. Singing -and dancing they take him from house to house, asking for -gifts of food such as eggs, cream, sausages, and cakes. -Lastly, they sprinkle the Leaf Man with water and feast on -the food they have collected.<a id='r300' /><a href='#f300' class='c005'><sup>[300]</sup></a> At Röllshausen on the -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Leaf-clad mummers at Whitsuntide.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Schwalm, in Hesse, when afternoon service is over on Whitsunday, -the schoolboys and schoolgirls go out into the -wood and there clothe a boy from head to foot in leaves so -that nobody would know him. He is called the Little -Whitsuntide Man. A procession is then formed. Two -boys lead their leaf-clad playfellow; two others precede him -with a basket; and two girls with another basket bring up -the rear. Thus they go from house to house singing -hymns or popular songs and collecting eggs and cakes in -the baskets. When they have feasted on these, they strip -their comrade of his verdant envelope on an open place in -front of the village.<a id='r301' /><a href='#f301' class='c005'><sup>[301]</sup></a> In some parts of Rhenish Bavaria at -Whitsuntide a boy or lad is swathed in the yellow blossom -of the broom, the dark green twigs of the firs, and other -foliage. Thus attired he is known as the Quack and goes -from door to door, whirling about in the dance, while an -appropriate song is chanted and his companions levy -contributions.<a id='r302' /><a href='#f302' class='c005'><sup>[302]</sup></a> In the Fricktal, Switzerland, at Whitsuntide -boys go out into a wood and swathe one of their number in -leafy boughs. He is called the Whitsuntide-lout (<i>Pfingstlümmel</i>), -and being mounted on horseback with a green -branch in his hand he is led back into the village. At the -village-well a halt is called and the leaf-clad lout is dismounted -and ducked in the trough. Thereby he acquires -the right of sprinkling water on everybody, and he exercises -the right specially on girls and street urchins. The urchins -<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>march before him in bands begging him to give them a -Whitsuntide wetting.<a id='r303' /><a href='#f303' class='c005'><sup>[303]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Jack-in-the-Green in England.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In England the best-known example of these leaf-clad -mummers is the Jack-in-the-Green, a chimney-sweeper who -walks encased in a pyramidal framework of wickerwork, -which is covered with holly and ivy, and surmounted by a -crown of flowers and ribbons. Thus arrayed he dances on -May Day at the head of a troop of chimney-sweeps, who -collect pence.<a id='r304' /><a href='#f304' class='c005'><sup>[304]</sup></a> The ceremony was witnessed at Cheltenham -on the second of May 1892, by Dr. W. H. D. Rouse, who -has described in detail the costume of the performers. They -were all chimney-sweeps of the town. Jack-in-the-Green or -the Bush-carrier was enclosed in a wooden framework on -which leaves were fastened so as to make a thick cone about -six feet high, topped with a crown, which consisted of two -wooden hoops placed crosswise and covered with flowers. -The leafy envelope was unbroken except for a single opening -through which peered the face of the mummer. From -time to time in their progress through the streets the performers -halted, and three of them, dressed in red, blue, -and yellow respectively, tripped lightly round the leaf-covered -man to the inspiring strains of a fiddle and a tin -whistle on which two of their comrades with blackened faces -discoursed sweet music. The leader of the procession was a -clown fantastically clad in a long white pinafore or blouse -with coloured fringes and frills, and wearing on his head a -beaver hat of the familiar pattern, the crown of which hung -loose and was adorned with ribbons and a bird or a bundle -of feathers. Large black rings surrounded his eyes, and a -red dab over mouth and chin lent a pleasing variety to his -countenance. He contributed to the public hilarity by -flapping the yellow fringe of his blouse with quaint gestures -and occasionally fanning himself languidly. His efforts -were seconded by another performer, who wore a red fool’s -cap, all stuck with flowers, and a white pinafore enriched -with black human figures in front and a black gridiron-like -pattern, crossed diagonally by a red bar, at the back. Two -<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>boys in white pinafores, with similar figures, or stars, on the -breast, and a fish on the back, completed the company. -Formerly there used to be a man in woman’s clothes, who -personated the clown’s wife.<a id='r305' /><a href='#f305' class='c005'><sup>[305]</sup></a> In some parts also of France -a young fellow is encased in a wicker framework covered -with leaves and is led about.<a id='r306' /><a href='#f306' class='c005'><sup>[306]</sup></a> In Frickthal, in the Swiss -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Whitsuntide Basket in Switzerland.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -canton of Aargau, a similar frame of basketwork is called -the Whitsuntide Basket. As soon as the trees begin to bud, -a spot is chosen in the wood, and here the village lads make -the frame with all secrecy, lest others should forestall them. -Leafy branches are twined round two hoops, one of which -rests on the shoulders of the wearer, the other encircles his -calves; holes are made for his eyes and mouth; and a large -nosegay crowns the whole. In this guise he appears suddenly -in the village at the hour of vespers, preceded by three boys -blowing on horns made of willow bark. The great object -of his supporters is to set up the Whitsuntide Basket on -the village well, and to keep it and him there, despite the -efforts of the lads from neighbouring villages, who seek to -carry off the Whitsuntide Basket and set it up on their own -well.<a id='r307' /><a href='#f307' class='c005'><sup>[307]</sup></a> In the neighbourhood of Ertingen (Würtemberg) a -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Lazy Man in Würtemberg.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -masker of the same sort, known as the Lazy Man (<i>Latzmann</i>), -goes about the village on Midsummer Day; he is hidden -under a great pyramidal or conical frame of wickerwork, -ten or twelve feet high, which is completely covered with -sprigs of fir. He has a bell which he rings as he goes, and -he is attended by a suite of persons dressed up in character—a -footman, a colonel, a butcher, an angel, the devil, the -doctor, and so on. They march in Indian file and halt before -every house, where each of them speaks in character, except -the Lazy Man, who says nothing. With what they get by -begging from door to door they hold a feast.<a id='r308' /><a href='#f308' class='c005'><sup>[308]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'>In the class of cases of which the foregoing are specimens -it is obvious that the leaf-clad person who is led about is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>equivalent to the May-tree, May-bough, or May-doll, which is -carried from house to house by children begging. Both are -representatives of the beneficent spirit of vegetation, whose -visit to the house is recompensed by a present of money or -food.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Leaf-clad representative of vegetation sometimes called a King or Queen.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Often the leaf-clad person who represents the spirit of -vegetation is known as the king or the queen; thus, for -example, he or she is called the May King, Whitsuntide -King, Queen of May, and so on. These titles, as Mannhardt -observes, imply that the spirit incorporate in vegetation -is a ruler, whose creative power extends far and wide.<a id='r309' /><a href='#f309' class='c005'><sup>[309]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>May-Kings at Whitsuntide in Germany and Bohemia.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In a village near Salzwedel a May-tree is set up at -Whitsuntide and the boys race to it; he who reaches it first -is king; a garland of flowers is put round his neck and in -his hand he carries a May-bush, with which, as the procession -moves along, he sweeps away the dew. At each -house they sing a song, wishing the inmates good luck, -referring to the “black cow in the stall milking white milk, -black hen on the nest laying white eggs,” and begging a gift -of eggs, bacon, and so on.<a id='r310' /><a href='#f310' class='c005'><sup>[310]</sup></a> At the village of Ellgoth in -Silesia a ceremony called the King’s Race is observed at -Whitsuntide. A pole with a cloth tied to it is set up in a -meadow, and the young men ride past it on horseback, each -trying to snatch away the cloth as he gallops by. The one -who succeeds in carrying it off and dipping it in the neighbouring -Oder is proclaimed King.<a id='r311' /><a href='#f311' class='c005'><sup>[311]</sup></a> Here the pole is clearly -a substitute for a May-tree. In some villages of Brunswick -at Whitsuntide a May King is completely enveloped in a May-bush. -In some parts of Thüringen also they have a May -King at Whitsuntide, but he is dressed up rather differently. -A frame of wood is made in which a man can stand; it is -completely covered with birch boughs and is surmounted -by a crown of birch and flowers, in which a bell is fastened. -This frame is placed in the wood and the May King gets -into it. The rest go out and look for him, and when they -have found him they lead him back into the village to the -magistrate, the clergyman, and others, who have to guess -<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>who is in the verdurous frame. If they guess wrong, the -May King rings his bell by shaking his head, and a forfeit -of beer or the like must be paid by the unsuccessful guesser.<a id='r312' /><a href='#f312' class='c005'><sup>[312]</sup></a> -At Wahrstedt in Brunswick the boys at Whitsuntide choose -by lot a king and a high-steward (<i>füstje-meier</i>). The latter -is completely concealed in a May-bush, wears a wooden -crown wreathed with flowers, and carries a wooden sword. -The king, on the other hand, is only distinguished by a -nosegay in his cap, and a reed, with a red ribbon tied to it, -in his hand. They beg for eggs from house to house, -threatening that, where none are given, none will be laid -by the hens throughout the year. In this custom the high-steward -appears, for some reason, to have usurped the -insignia of the king.<a id='r313' /><a href='#f313' class='c005'><sup>[313]</sup></a> At Hildesheim, in Hanover, five or -six young fellows go about on the afternoon of Whit-Monday -cracking long whips in measured time and collecting -eggs from the houses. The chief person of the band is the -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Leaf King.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Leaf King, a lad swathed so completely in birchen twigs -that nothing of him can be seen but his feet. A huge head-dress -of birchen twigs adds to his apparent stature. In his -hand he carries a long crook, with which he tries to catch -stray dogs and children.<a id='r314' /><a href='#f314' class='c005'><sup>[314]</sup></a> In some parts of Bohemia on -Whit-Monday the young fellows disguise themselves in tall -caps of birch bark adorned with flowers. One of them is -dressed as a king and dragged on a sledge to the village -green, and if on the way they pass a pool the sledge is -always overturned into it. Arrived at the green they gather -round the king; the crier jumps on a stone or climbs up -a tree and recites lampoons about each house and its -inmates. Afterwards the disguises of bark are stripped -off and they go about the village in holiday attire, carrying -a May-tree and begging. Cakes, eggs, and corn are sometimes -given them.<a id='r315' /><a href='#f315' class='c005'><sup>[315]</sup></a> At Grossvargula, near Langensalza, in -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Grass King.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -the eighteenth century a Grass King used to be led about -in procession at Whitsuntide. He was encased in a pyramid -<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>of poplar branches, the top of which was adorned with a -royal crown of branches and flowers. He rode on horseback -with the leafy pyramid over him, so that its lower end -touched the ground, and an opening was left in it only for -his face. Surrounded by a cavalcade of young fellows, he -rode in procession to the town hall, the parsonage, and so on, -where they all got a drink of beer. Then under the seven -lindens of the neighbouring Sommerberg, the Grass King -was stripped of his green casing; the crown was handed to -the Mayor, and the branches were stuck in the flax fields in -order to make the flax grow tall.<a id='r316' /><a href='#f316' class='c005'><sup>[316]</sup></a> In this last trait the -fertilising influence ascribed to the representative of the tree-spirit -comes out clearly. In the neighbourhood of Pilsen -(Bohemia) a conical hut of green branches, without any door, -is erected at Whitsuntide in the midst of the village. To -this hut rides a troop of village lads with a king at their -head. He wears a sword at his side and a sugar-loaf hat of -rushes on his head. In his train are a judge, a crier, and a -personage called the Frog-flayer or Hangman. This last is -a sort of ragged merryandrew, wearing a rusty old sword and -bestriding a sorry hack. On reaching the hut the crier -dismounts and goes round it looking for a door. Finding -none, he says, “Ah, this is perhaps an enchanted castle; -the witches creep through the leaves and need no door.” -At last he draws his sword and hews his way into the hut, -where there is a chair, on which he seats himself and proceeds -to criticise in rhyme the girls, farmers, and farm-servants -of the neighbourhood. When this is over, the -Frog-flayer steps forward and, after exhibiting a cage with -frogs in it, sets up a gallows on which he hangs the frogs in -a row.<a id='r317' /><a href='#f317' class='c005'><sup>[317]</sup></a> In the neighbourhood of Plas the ceremony differs -in some points. The king and his soldiers are completely -clad in bark, adorned with flowers and ribbons; they all -carry swords and ride horses, which are gay with green -branches and flowers. While the village dames and girls -are being criticised at the arbour, a frog is secretly pinched -and poked by the crier till it quacks. Sentence of death is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>passed on the frog by the king; the hangman beheads it -and flings the bleeding body among the spectators. Lastly, -the king is driven from the hut and pursued by the soldiers.<a id='r318' /><a href='#f318' class='c005'><sup>[318]</sup></a> -The pinching and beheading of the frog are doubtless, as -Mannhardt observes,<a id='r319' /><a href='#f319' class='c005'><sup>[319]</sup></a> a rain-charm. We have seen that -some Indians of the Orinoco beat frogs for the express -purpose of producing rain, and that killing a frog is a -European rain-charm.<a id='r320' /><a href='#f320' class='c005'><sup>[320]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>May-Queens and Whitsuntide Queens.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Often the spirit of vegetation in spring is represented -by a queen instead of a king. In the neighbourhood of -Libchowic (Bohemia), on the fourth Sunday in Lent, girls -dressed in white and wearing the first spring flowers, as -violets and daisies, in their hair, lead about the village a girl -who is called the Queen and is crowned with flowers. During -the procession, which is conducted with great solemnity, -none of the girls may stand still, but must keep whirling -round continually and singing. In every house the Queen -announces the arrival of spring and wishes the inmates good -luck and blessings, for which she receives presents.<a id='r321' /><a href='#f321' class='c005'><sup>[321]</sup></a> In -German Hungary the girls choose the prettiest girl to be -their Whitsuntide Queen, fasten a towering wreath on her -brow, and carry her singing through the streets. At every -house they stop, sing old ballads, and receive presents.<a id='r322' /><a href='#f322' class='c005'><sup>[322]</sup></a> In -the south-east of Ireland on May Day the prettiest girl used -to be chosen Queen of the district for twelve months. She -was crowned with wild flowers; feasting, dancing, and rustic -sports followed, and were closed by a grand procession in -the evening. During her year of office she presided over -rural gatherings of young people at dances and merry-makings. -If she married before next May Day, her -authority was at an end, but her successor was not elected -till that day came round.<a id='r323' /><a href='#f323' class='c005'><sup>[323]</sup></a> The May Queen is common in -France<a id='r324' /><a href='#f324' class='c005'><sup>[324]</sup></a> and familiar in England. Thus at the adjoining -<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The May Queen in Warwickshire.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -villages of Cherrington and Stourton in south Warwickshire, -the Queen of May is still represented on May Day by a -small girl dressed in white and wearing a wreath of flowers -on her head. An older girl wheels the Queen in what is -called a mail-cart, that is, a child’s perambulator on two -wheels. Another girl carries a money-box. Four boys bear -the May-pole, a conical framework formed of a high tripod -with a central shaft. The whole structure is encased in a -series of five hoops, which rise one above the other, diminishing -in size from bottom to top with the tapering of the cone. -The hoops, as well as the tripod and the central shaft, are -all covered with whatever flowers happen to be in bloom, -such as marsh-marigolds, primroses, or blue-bells. To the -top of the central shaft is fastened a bunch of the flower -called crown-imperial, if it is in season. The lowest hoop is -crossed by two bars at right angles to each other, and the -projecting ends of the bars serve as handles, by which the -four boys carry the May-pole. Each of the bearers has a -garland of flowers slung over his shoulder. Thus the children -go from house to house, singing their songs and receiving -money, which goes to provide a treat for them in the afternoon.<a id='r325' /><a href='#f325' class='c005'><sup>[325]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Spirit of vegetation represented simultaneously by a King and -Queen or a Bridegroom and Bride.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Again the spirit of vegetation is sometimes represented -by a king and queen, a lord and lady, or a bridegroom -and bride. Here again the parallelism holds between the -anthropomorphic and the vegetable representation of the -tree-spirit, for we have seen above that trees are sometimes -married to each other.<a id='r326' /><a href='#f326' class='c005'><sup>[326]</sup></a> At Halford in south Warwickshire -the children go from house to house on May Day, -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Whitsuntide King and Queen.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -walking two and two in procession and headed by a King -and Queen. Two boys carry a May-pole some six or seven -feet high, which is covered with flowers and greenery. -Fastened to it near the top are two cross-bars at right angles -to each other. These are also decked with flowers, and from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>the ends of the bars hang hoops similarly adorned. At the -houses the children sing May songs and receive money, -which is used to provide tea for them at the school-house -in the afternoon.<a id='r327' /><a href='#f327' class='c005'><sup>[327]</sup></a> In a Bohemian village near -Königgrätz on Whit-Monday the children play the king’s -game, at which a king and queen march about under a -canopy, the queen wearing a garland, and the youngest girl -carrying two wreaths on a plate behind them. They are -attended by boys and girls called groomsmen and bridesmaids, -and they go from house to house collecting gifts.<a id='r328' /><a href='#f328' class='c005'><sup>[328]</sup></a> -A regular feature in the popular celebration of Whitsuntide -in Silesia used to be, and to some extent still is, the contest -for the kingship. This contest took various forms, but the -mark or goal was generally the May-tree or May-pole. -Sometimes the youth who succeeded in climbing the smooth -pole and bringing down the prize was proclaimed the Whitsuntide -King and his sweetheart the Whitsuntide Bride. -Afterwards the king, carrying the May-bush, repaired with -the rest of the company to the ale-house, where a dance and -a feast ended the merry-making. Often the young farmers -and labourers raced on horseback to the May-pole, which -was adorned with flowers, ribbons, and a crown. He who -first reached the pole was the Whitsuntide King, and the -rest had to obey his orders for that day. The worst rider -became the clown. At the May-tree all dismounted and -hoisted the king on their shoulders. He nimbly swarmed -up the pole and brought down the May-bush and the crown, -which had been fastened to the top. Meantime the clown -hurried to the ale-house and proceeded to bolt thirty rolls of -bread and to swig four quart bottles of brandy with the utmost -possible despatch. He was followed by the king, who bore the -May-bush and crown at the head of the company. If on their -arrival the clown had already disposed of the rolls and the -brandy, and greeted the king with a speech and a glass of beer, -his score was paid by the king; otherwise he had to settle it -himself. After church time the stately procession wound -through the village. At the head of it rode the king, decked -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>with flowers and carrying the May-bush. Next came the -clown with his clothes turned inside out, a great flaxen beard -on his chin, and the Whitsuntide crown on his head. Two -riders disguised as guards followed. The procession drew -up before every farmyard; the two guards dismounted, shut -the clown into the house, and claimed a contribution from -the housewife to buy soap with which to wash the clown’s -beard. Custom allowed them to carry off any victuals which -were not under lock and key. Last of all they came to the -house in which the king’s sweetheart lived. She was greeted -as Whitsuntide Queen and received suitable presents—to -wit, a many-coloured sash, a cloth, and an apron. The king -got as a prize, a vest, a neckcloth, and so forth, and had the -right of setting up the May-bush or Whitsuntide-tree before -his master’s yard, where it remained as an honourable token -till the same day next year. Finally the procession took -its way to the tavern, where the king and queen opened -the dance. Sometimes the Whitsuntide King and Queen -succeeded to office in a different way. A man of straw, as -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>King and Queen of May.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -large as life and crowned with a red cap, was conveyed in a -cart, between two men armed and disguised as guards, to a -place where a mock court was waiting to try him. A great -crowd followed the cart. After a formal trial the straw man -was condemned to death and fastened to a stake on the -execution ground. The young men with bandaged eyes -tried to stab him with a spear. He who succeeded became -king and his sweetheart queen. The straw man was known -as the Goliath.<a id='r329' /><a href='#f329' class='c005'><sup>[329]</sup></a> Near Grenoble, in France, a king and -queen are chosen on the first of May and are set on a -throne for all to see.<a id='r330' /><a href='#f330' class='c005'><sup>[330]</sup></a> At Headington, near Oxford, children -used to carry garlands from door to door on May Day. -Each garland was borne by two girls, and they were followed -by a lord and lady—a boy and girl linked together by a -white handkerchief, of which each held an end, and dressed -with ribbons, sashes, and flowers. At each door they sang -a verse:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>“<i>Gentlemen and ladies,</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>We wish you happy May;</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>We come to shew you a garland,</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>Because it is May-day.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>On receiving money the lord put his arm about his -lady’s waist and kissed her.<a id='r331' /><a href='#f331' class='c005'><sup>[331]</sup></a> At Fleuriers in Switzerland -on the seventh of May 1843 a May-bridegroom (<i>Époux de -Mai</i>) and his bride were escorted in a procession of over two -hundred children, some of whom carried green branches of -beech. A number of May Fools were entrusted with the -delicate duty of going round with the hat. The proceeds of -their tact and industry furnished a banquet in the evening, and -the day ended with a children’s ball.<a id='r332' /><a href='#f332' class='c005'><sup>[332]</sup></a> In some Saxon villages -at Whitsuntide a lad and a lass used to disguise themselves and -hide in the bushes or high grass outside the village. Then -the whole village went out with music “to seek the bridal -pair.” When they found the couple they all gathered round -them, the music struck up, and the bridal pair was led -merrily to the village. In the evening they danced. In -some places the bridal pair was called the prince and the -princess.<a id='r333' /><a href='#f333' class='c005'><sup>[333]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Whitsuntide Bridegroom and Bride in Denmark.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In a parish of Denmark it used to be the custom at -Whitsuntide to dress up a little girl as the Whitsun-bride -(<i>pinse-bruden</i>) and a little boy as her groom. She was -decked in all the finery of a grown-up bride, and wore a -crown of the freshest flowers of spring on her head. Her -groom was as gay as flowers, ribbons, and knots could make -him. The other children adorned themselves as best they -could with the yellow flowers of the trollius and caltha. -Then they went in great state from farmhouse to farmhouse, -two little girls walking at the head of the procession as -bridesmaids, and six or eight outriders galloping ahead -on hobby-horses to announce their coming. Contributions -<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>of eggs, butter, loaves, cream, coffee, sugar, and tallow-candles -were received and conveyed away in baskets. -When they had made the round of the farms, some of -the farmers’ wives helped to arrange the wedding feast, -and the children danced merrily in clogs on the stamped -clay floor till the sun rose and the birds began to sing. -All this is now a thing of the past. Only the old folks -still remember the little Whitsun-bride and her mimic -pomp.<a id='r334' /><a href='#f334' class='c005'><sup>[334]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Midsummer Bridegroom and Bride in Sweden and Norway.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -We have seen that in Sweden the ceremonies associated -elsewhere with May Day or Whitsuntide commonly take -place at Midsummer.<a id='r335' /><a href='#f335' class='c005'><sup>[335]</sup></a> Accordingly we find that in some -parts of the Swedish province of Blekinge they still choose a -Midsummer’s Bride, to whom the “church coronet” is occasionally -lent. The girl selects for herself a Bridegroom, and -a collection is made for the pair, who for the time being are -looked on as man and wife. The other youths also choose -each his bride.<a id='r336' /><a href='#f336' class='c005'><sup>[336]</sup></a> A similar ceremony seems to be still kept -up in Norway, for a correspondent writes to me as follows in -reference to the Danish custom of the Whitsun-bride: “It -may interest you to know that on June 23, 1893, I witnessed -at Ullensvang, Hardanger, Norway, a ceremony almost -exactly the same as that described in your book. Wild -flowers are scarce there, and the bride wore the usual metal -crown, the attendants for the most part wearing the pretty -Hardanger costume. The dancing took place in an unlighted -barn, as the farmer was afraid of fire. There were -plenty of boys at the dance, but so far as I can remember, -none in the procession. The custom is clearly dying out, -and the somewhat reluctant bridegroom was the subject of -a good deal of chaff from his fellows.”<a id='r337' /><a href='#f337' class='c005'><sup>[337]</sup></a> In Sardinia the -Midsummer couples are known as the Sweethearts of St. John, -and their association with the growth of plants is -clearly brought out by the pots of sprouting grain which -form a principal part of the ceremony.<a id='r338' /><a href='#f338' class='c005'><sup>[338]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Forsaken Bridegroom or Bride of May or Whitsuntide.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the neighbourhood of Briançon (Dauphiné) on May -<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>Day the lads wrap up in green leaves a young fellow whose -sweetheart has deserted him or married another. He lies -down on the ground and feigns to be asleep. Then a girl -who likes him, and would marry him, comes and wakes him, -and raising him up offers him her arm and a flag. So they -go to the alehouse, where the pair lead off the dancing. But -they must marry within the year, or they are treated as old -bachelor and old maid, and are debarred the company of the -young folk. The lad is called the bridegroom of the month -of May (<i>le fiancé du mois de May</i>). In the alehouse he puts -off his garment of leaves, out of which, mixed with flowers, -his partner in the dance makes a nosegay, and wears it at -her breast next day, when he leads her again to the alehouse.<a id='r339' /><a href='#f339' class='c005'><sup>[339]</sup></a> -Like this is a Russian custom observed in the district of -Nerechta on the Thursday before Whitsunday. The girls -go out into a birch-wood, wind a girdle or band round a -stately birch, twist its lower branches into a wreath, and kiss -each other in pairs through the wreath. The girls who kiss -through the wreath call each other gossips. Then one of -the girls steps forward, and mimicking a drunken man, flings -herself on the ground, rolls on the grass, and feigns to fall -fast asleep. Another girl wakens the pretended sleeper and -kisses him; then the whole bevy trips singing through the -wood to twine garlands, which they throw into the water. -In the fate of the garlands floating on the stream they read -their own.<a id='r340' /><a href='#f340' class='c005'><sup>[340]</sup></a> Here the part of the sleeper was probably at -one time played by a lad. In these French and Russian -customs we have a forsaken bridegroom, in the following a -forsaken bride. On Shrove Tuesday the Slovenes of Oberkrain -drag a straw puppet with joyous cries up and down -the village; then they throw it into the water or burn it, and -from the height of the flames they judge of the abundance of -the next harvest. The noisy crew is followed by a female -masker, who drags a great board by a string and gives out -that she is a forsaken bride.<a id='r341' /><a href='#f341' class='c005'><sup>[341]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'>Viewed in the light of what has gone before, the -awakening of the forsaken sleeper in these ceremonies probably -<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>represents the revival of vegetation in spring. But it -is not easy to assign their respective parts to the forsaken -bridegroom and to the girl who wakes him from his slumber. -Is the sleeper the leafless forest or the bare earth of winter? -Is the girl who wakens him the fresh verdure or the genial -sunshine of spring? It is hardly possible, on the evidence -before us, to answer these questions. The Oraons of Bengal, -it may be remembered, celebrate the marriage of earth in the -springtime, when the sál-tree is in blossom.<a id='r342' /><a href='#f342' class='c005'><sup>[342]</sup></a> But from this -we can hardly argue that in the European ceremonies the -sleeping bridegroom is “the dreaming earth” and the girl -the spring blossoms.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>St. Bride in Scotland and the Isle of Man.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the Highlands of Scotland the revival of vegetation -in spring used to be graphically represented on St. Bride’s -Day, the first of February. Thus in the Hebrides “the -mistress and servants of each family take a sheaf of oats, and -dress it up in women’s apparel, put it in a large basket, and -lay a wooden club by it, and this they call Briid’s bed; and -then the mistress and servants cry three times, ‘Briid is -come, Briid is welcome.’ This they do just before going to -bed, and when they rise in the morning they look among -the ashes, expecting to see the impression of Briid’s club -there; which if they do, they reckon it a true presage of a -good crop and prosperous year, and the contrary they take -as an ill omen.”<a id='r343' /><a href='#f343' class='c005'><sup>[343]</sup></a> The same custom is described by another -witness thus: “Upon the night before Candlemas it is usual -to make a bed with corn and hay, over which some blankets -are laid, in a part of the house, near the door. When it is -ready, a person goes out and repeats three times, ... -‘Bridget, Bridget, come in; thy bed is ready.’ One or more -candles are left burning near it all night.”<a id='r344' /><a href='#f344' class='c005'><sup>[344]</sup></a> Similarly in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>Isle of Man “on the eve of the first of February, a festival -was formerly kept, called, in the Manks language, <i>Laa’l -Breeshey</i>, in honour of the Irish lady who went over to the -Isle of Man to receive the veil from St. Maughold. The -custom was to gather a bundle of green rushes, and standing -with them in the hand on the threshold of the door, to invite -the holy Saint Bridget to come and lodge with them that -night. In the Manks language, the invitation ran thus:—‘<i>Brede, -Brede, tar gys my thie tar dyn thie ayms noght. -Foshil jee yn dorrys da Brede, as lhig da Brede e heet staigh.</i>’ -In English: ‘Bridget, Bridget, come to my house, come to -my house to-night. Open the door for Bridget, and let -Bridget come in.’ After these words were repeated, the -rushes were strewn on the floor by way of a carpet or bed -for St. Bridget. A custom very similar to this was also -observed in some of the Out-Isles of the ancient kingdom of -Man.”<a id='r345' /><a href='#f345' class='c005'><sup>[345]</sup></a> In these Manx and Highland ceremonies it is -obvious that St. Bride, or St. Bridget, is an old heathen -goddess of fertility, disguised in a threadbare Christian cloak. -Probably she is no other than the Celtic goddess Brigit, who -will meet us again later on.<a id='r346' /><a href='#f346' class='c005'><sup>[346]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>May Bride or Whitsuntide Bride.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Often the marriage of the spirit of vegetation in spring, -though not directly represented, is implied by naming the -human representative of the spirit, “the Bride,” and dressing -her in wedding attire. Thus in some villages of Altmark at -Whitsuntide, while the boys go about carrying a May-tree -or leading a boy enveloped in leaves and flowers, the girls -lead about the May Bride, a girl dressed as a bride with a -great nosegay in her hair. They go from house to house, -the May Bride singing a song in which she asks for a -present, and tells the inmates of each house that if they -give her something they will themselves have something the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>whole year through; but if they give her nothing they will -themselves have nothing.<a id='r347' /><a href='#f347' class='c005'><sup>[347]</sup></a> In some parts of Westphalia -two girls lead a flower-crowned girl called the Whitsuntide -Bride from door to door, singing a song in which they ask -for eggs.<a id='r348' /><a href='#f348' class='c005'><sup>[348]</sup></a> At Waggum in Brunswick, when service is over -on Whitsunday, the village girls assemble, dressed in white -or bright colours, decked with flowers, and wearing chaplets -of spring flowers in their hair. One of them represents the -May Bride, and carries a crown of flowers on a staff as a -sign of her dignity. As usual the children go about from -cottage to cottage singing and begging for eggs, sausages, -cakes, or money. In other parts of Brunswick it is a boy -clothed all in birch leaves who personates the May Bride.<a id='r349' /><a href='#f349' class='c005'><sup>[349]</sup></a> -In Bresse in the month of May a girl called <i>la Mariée</i> is -tricked out with ribbons and nosegays and is led about by a -gallant. She is preceded by a lad carrying a green May-tree, -and appropriate verses are sung.<a id='r350' /><a href='#f350' class='c005'><sup>[350]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span> - <h2 id='chap11' class='c002'>CHAPTER XI <br /> THE INFLUENCE OF THE SEXES ON VEGETATION</h2> -</div> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The marriage of the King and Queen of May intended to promote -the growth of vegetation by homoeopathic magic.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -From the preceding examination of the spring and summer -festivals of Europe we may infer that our rude forefathers -personified the powers of vegetation as male and female, and -attempted, on the principle of homoeopathic or imitative -magic, to quicken the growth of trees and plants by representing -the marriage of the sylvan deities in the persons of -a King and Queen of May, a Whitsun Bridegroom and -Bride, and so forth. Such representations were accordingly -no mere symbolic or allegorical dramas, pastoral plays -designed to amuse or instruct a rustic audience. They were -charms intended to make the woods to grow green, the fresh -grass to sprout, the corn to shoot, and the flowers to blow. -And it was natural to suppose that the more closely the -mock marriage of the leaf-clad or flower-decked mummers -aped the real marriage of the woodland sprites, the more -effective would be the charm. Accordingly we may assume -with a high degree of probability that the profligacy -which notoriously attended these ceremonies<a id='r351' /><a href='#f351' class='c005'><sup>[351]</sup></a> was at one -time not an accidental excess but an essential part of the -rites, and that in the opinion of those who performed them -the marriage of trees and plants could not be fertile without -the real union of the human sexes. At the present day it -might perhaps be vain to look in civilised Europe for -customs of this sort observed for the explicit purpose of -promoting the growth of vegetation. But ruder races in -other parts of the world have consciously employed the -intercourse of the sexes as a means to ensure the fruitfulness -<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>of the earth; and some rites which are still, or were till -lately, kept up in Europe can be reasonably explained only -as stunted relics of a similar practice. The following facts -will make this plain.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Intercourse of the sexes practised in order to make the crops grow.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -For four days before they committed the seed to the earth -the Pipiles of Central America kept apart from their wives -“in order that on the night before planting they might indulge -their passions to the fullest extent; certain persons are even -said to have been appointed to perform the sexual act at the -very moment when the first seeds were deposited in the -ground.” The use of their wives at that time was indeed -enjoined upon the people by the priests as a religious duty, -in default of which it was not lawful to sow the seed.<a id='r352' /><a href='#f352' class='c005'><sup>[352]</sup></a> The -only possible explanation of this custom seems to be that -the Indians confused the process by which human beings reproduce -their kind with the process by which plants discharge -the same function, and fancied that by resorting to the former -they were simultaneously forwarding the latter. In the -month of December, when the alligator pears begin to ripen, -the Indians of Peru used to hold a festival called <i>Acatay mita</i> -in order to make the fruit grow mellow. The festival lasted -five days and nights, and was preceded by a fast of five days -during which they ate neither salt nor pepper and refrained -from their wives. At the festival men and boys assembled -stark naked in an open space among the orchards, and ran -from there to a distant hill. Any woman whom they overtook -on the way they violated.<a id='r353' /><a href='#f353' class='c005'><sup>[353]</sup></a> In some parts of Java, at -the season when the bloom will soon be on the rice, the -husbandman and his wife visit their fields by night and there -engage in sexual intercourse for the purpose of promoting -the growth of the crop.<a id='r354' /><a href='#f354' class='c005'><sup>[354]</sup></a> In the Leti, Sarmata, and some -other groups of islands which lie between the western end of -New Guinea and the northern part of Australia, the heathen -population regard the sun as the male principle by whom -<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>the earth or female principle is fertilised. They call him -Upu-lera or Mr. Sun, and represent him under the form -of a lamp made of coco-nut leaves, which may be seen -hanging everywhere in their houses and in the sacred fig-tree. -Under the tree lies a large flat stone, which serves as a -sacrificial table. On it the heads of slain foes were and are -still placed in some of the islands. Once a year, at the -beginning of the rainy season, Mr. Sun comes down into the -holy fig-tree to fertilise the earth, and to facilitate his descent -a ladder with seven rungs is considerately placed at his disposal. -It is set up under the tree and is adorned with carved -figures of the birds whose shrill clarion heralds the approach -of the sun in the East. On this occasion pigs and dogs are -sacrificed in profusion; men and women alike indulge in a -saturnalia; and the mystic union of the sun and the earth is -dramatically represented in public, amid song and dance, by -the real union of the sexes under the tree. The object of -the festival, we are told, is to procure rain, plenty of food -and drink, abundance of cattle and children and riches from -Grandfather Sun. They pray that he may make every she-goat -to cast two or three young, the people to multiply, the -dead pigs to be replaced by living pigs, the empty rice-baskets -to be filled, and so on. And to induce him to grant -their requests they offer him pork and rice and liquor, and -invite him to fall to. In the Babar Islands a special flag is -hoisted at this festival as a symbol of the creative energy -of the sun; it is of white cotton, about nine feet high, and -consists of the figure of a man in an appropriate attitude.<a id='r355' /><a href='#f355' class='c005'><sup>[355]</sup></a> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>Among the Tangkhuls of Manipur, before the rice is sown -and when it is reaped, the boys and girls have a tug-of-war -with a tough rope of twisted creeper. Great jars of beer are -set ready, and the strictness of their ordinary morality is -broken by a night of unbridled licence.<a id='r356' /><a href='#f356' class='c005'><sup>[356]</sup></a> It would be unjust -to treat these orgies as a mere outburst of unbridled passion; -no doubt they are deliberately and solemnly organised as -essential to the fertility of the earth and the welfare of man.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Intercourse of the sexes practised in order to make trees bear fruit.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The same means which are thus adopted to stimulate the -growth of the crops are naturally employed to ensure the -fruitfulness of trees. The work known as <i>The Agriculture -of the Nabataeans</i> contained apparently a direction that the -grafting of a tree upon another tree of a different sort should -be done by a damsel, who at the very moment of inserting -the graft in the bough should herself be subjected to -treatment which can only be regarded as a direct copy of the -operation she was performing on the tree.<a id='r357' /><a href='#f357' class='c005'><sup>[357]</sup></a> In some parts -of Amboyna, when the state of the clove plantation indicates -that the crop is likely to be scanty, the men go naked to the -plantations by night, and there seek to fertilise the trees -precisely as they would impregnate women, while at the same -time they call out for “More cloves!” This is supposed to -make the trees bear fruit more abundantly.<a id='r358' /><a href='#f358' class='c005'><sup>[358]</sup></a> In Java when -a palm tree is to be tapped for wine, the man who proposes -to relieve the tree of its superfluous juices deems it -necessary to approach the palm in the character of a lover -and a husband, as well as of a son. When he comes upon a -palm which he thinks suitable, he will not begin cutting at -the trunk until he has intimated as delicately as he can the -reasons which lead him to perform that surgical operation, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>the ardent affection which he cherishes for the tree. For -this purpose he holds a dialogue with the palm, in which he -naturally speaks in the character of the tree as well as in his -own. “O mother <i>endang-reni</i>!” he begins, “for the sake of -you I have let myself be drenched by the rain and scorched -by the sun; long have I sought you! Now at last have I -found you. How ardently have I longed for you! Often -before have you given me the breast. Yet I still thirst. -Therefore now I ask for four potfuls more.” “Well, fair -youth,” replies the tree, “I have always been here. What -is the reason that you have sought me?” “The reason I -have sought you is that I have heard you suffer from <i>incontinentia -urinae</i>.” “So I do,” says the tree. “Will you marry -me?” says the man. “That I will,” says the tree, “but first -you must plight your troth and recite the usual confession of -faith.” On that the man takes a rattan leaf and wraps it -round the palm as a pledge of betrothal, after which he says -the creed: “There is no God but Allah, and Mohammed is -his prophet.” The maidenly and orthodox scruples of the -tree having thus been satisfied, he embraces it as his bride. -At first he attaches only a small dish to the trunk to receive -the juices which exude from the cut in the bark; a large dish -might frighten the tree. In fastening the dish to the palm -he says, “<i>Bok-endang-reni!</i> your child is languishing away -for thirst. He asks you for a drink.” The tree replies, -“Let him slake his thirst! Mother’s breasts are full to overflowing.”<a id='r359' /><a href='#f359' class='c005'><sup>[359]</sup></a> -We have already seen that in some parts of -Northern India a mock marriage between two actors is -performed in honour of a newly-planted orchard,<a id='r360' /><a href='#f360' class='c005'><sup>[360]</sup></a> no doubt -for the purpose of making it bear fruit. In the Nicobar -Islands a pregnant woman is taken into the gardens in -order to impart the blessing of fertility to the plants.<a id='r361' /><a href='#f361' class='c005'><sup>[361]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>In Uganda parents of twins are supposed to fertilise the plantains.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The Baganda of Central Africa believe so strongly in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>the intimate relation between the intercourse of the sexes -and the fertility of the ground that among them a barren -wife is generally sent away because she is supposed to prevent -her husband’s garden from bearing fruit. On the -contrary, a couple who have given proof of extraordinary -fertility by becoming the parents of twins are believed by -the Baganda to be endowed with a corresponding power of -increasing the fruitfulness of the plantain-trees, which furnish -them with their staple food. Some little time after the -birth of the twins a ceremony is performed, the object of -which clearly is to transmit the reproductive virtue of the -parents to the plantains. The mother lies down on her -back in the thick grass near the house and places a flower of -the plantain between her legs; then her husband comes and -knocks the flower away with his genital member. Further, -the parents go through the country, performing dances in -the gardens of favoured friends, apparently for the purpose -of causing the plantain-trees to bear fruit more abundantly. -The same belief in the fertilising power of such parents probably -explains why in Uganda the father of twins is inviolable -and may go into anybody’s garden and take the produce at -will. To distinguish him from the common herd his hair is -cut in a special way, and he wears little bells at his ankles -which tinkle as he walks. His sacred character is further -manifested by a rule which he must observe after the round -of visits has been paid, and the dances in the gardens are -over. He has to remain at home until the next time that -the army goes forth to battle, and in the interval he may -neither dress his hair nor cut his finger-nails. When war -has been proclaimed, his whole body is shaved and his nails -cut. The clipped hair and nails he ties up in a ball, which -he takes with him to the war, along with the bark cloth -which he wore at the dances. When he has killed a foe, he -crams the ball into the dead man’s mouth, ties the bark-cloth -round his neck, and leaves them there on the battlefield.<a id='r362' /><a href='#f362' class='c005'><sup>[362]</sup></a> -Apparently the ceremony is intended to rid him of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>the peculiar sanctity or state of taboo which he contracted -by the birth of twins, and to facilitate his return to ordinary -life. For, to the mind of the savage, as we shall see later -on, sanctity has its dangers and inconveniences, and the -sacred man may often be glad to divest himself of it by -stripping himself of those separable parts of his person—the -hair and nails—to which the holy contagion is apt to cling.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Relics of similar customs in Europe.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In various parts of Europe customs have prevailed both -at spring and harvest which are clearly based on the same -crude notion that the relation of the human sexes to each -other can be so used as to quicken the growth of plants. -For example, in the Ukraine on St. George’s Day (the -twenty-third of April) the priest in his robes, attended by -his acolytes, goes out to the fields of the village, where the -crops are beginning to shew green above the ground, and -blesses them. After that the young married people lie -down in couples on the sown fields and roll several times -over on them, in the belief that this will promote the growth -of the crops. In some parts of Russia the priest himself is -rolled by women over the sprouting crop, and that without -regard to the mud and holes which he may encounter in his -beneficent progress. If the shepherd resists or remonstrates, -his flock murmurs, “Little Father, you do not really wish -us well, you do not wish us to have corn, although you -do wish to live on our corn.”<a id='r363' /><a href='#f363' class='c005'><sup>[363]</sup></a> In England it seems to -have been customary for young couples to roll down a -slope together on May Day; on Greenwich-hill the custom -was practised at Easter and Whitsuntide,<a id='r364' /><a href='#f364' class='c005'><sup>[364]</sup></a> as it was till -lately practised near Dublin on Whitmonday.<a id='r365' /><a href='#f365' class='c005'><sup>[365]</sup></a> When -we consider how closely these seasons, especially May Day -and Whitsuntide, are associated with ceremonies for the -revival of plant life in spring, we shall scarcely doubt -that the custom of rolling in couples at such times had -originally the same significance which it still has in Russia; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>and when further we compare this particular custom with -the practice of representing the vernal powers of vegetation -by a bridal pair, and remember the traditions which even in -our own country attach to May Day,<a id='r366' /><a href='#f366' class='c005'><sup>[366]</sup></a> we shall probably do -no injustice to our forefathers if we conclude that they once -celebrated the return of spring with grosser rites, of which -the customs I have referred to are only a stunted survival. -Indeed, these rites in their grossest form are said to be still -observed in various parts of Holland at Whitsuntide.<a id='r367' /><a href='#f367' class='c005'><sup>[367]</sup></a> In -some parts of Germany at harvest the men and women, who -have reaped the corn, roll together on the field.<a id='r368' /><a href='#f368' class='c005'><sup>[368]</sup></a> This -again is probably a mitigation of an older and ruder custom -designed to impart fertility to the fields by methods like -those resorted to by the Pipiles of Central America long ago -and by the cultivators of rice in Java at the present time. -In Poso, when the rice-crop is not thriving, the farmer’s wife -sets bowls of rice and betel in various parts of the field; then -she lies down, draws her petticoat over her head, and pretends -to fall asleep. But one of her children thereupon -mimics the crowing of a cock, and at the sound she gets up, -“because a new day has dawned.” The intention of this -ceremony, which the natives could not or would not explain -to the Dutch missionary who reports it, may be to place the -woman at the disposal of the god of the field. We are -expressly told that there is a special god of the rice-fields -named Puwe-wai, and that the ceremony in question is -performed in his honour.<a id='r369' /><a href='#f369' class='c005'><sup>[369]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Continence practised in order to make the crops grow.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -To the student who cares to track the devious course of -the human mind in its gropings after truth, it is of some -interest to observe that the same theoretical belief in the -sympathetic influence of the sexes on vegetation, which has -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>led some peoples to indulge their passions as a means of -fertilising the earth, has led others to seek the same end by -directly opposite means. From the moment that they sowed -the maize till the time that they reaped it, the Indians of -Nicaragua lived chastely, keeping apart from their wives and -sleeping in a separate place. They ate no salt, and drank -neither cocoa nor <i>chicha</i>, the fermented liquor made from -maize; in short the season was for them, as the Spanish -historians observe, a time of abstinence.<a id='r370' /><a href='#f370' class='c005'><sup>[370]</sup></a> To this day some -of the Indian tribes of Central America practise continence -for the purpose of thereby promoting the growth of the crops. -Thus we are told that before sowing the maize the Kekchi -Indians sleep apart from their wives, and eat no flesh for five -days, while among the Lanquineros and Cajaboneros the -period of abstinence from these carnal pleasures extends to -thirteen days.<a id='r371' /><a href='#f371' class='c005'><sup>[371]</sup></a> So amongst some of the Germans of Transylvania -it is a rule that no man may sleep with his wife -during the whole of the time that he is engaged in sowing -his fields.<a id='r372' /><a href='#f372' class='c005'><sup>[372]</sup></a> The same rule is observed at Kalotaszeg in -Hungary; the people think that if the custom were not -observed the corn would be mildewed.<a id='r373' /><a href='#f373' class='c005'><sup>[373]</sup></a> Similarly a Central -Australian headman of the Kaitish tribe strictly abstains -from marital relations with his wife all the time that he is -performing magical ceremonies to make the grass grow; -for he believes that a breach of this rule would prevent -the grass seed from sprouting properly.<a id='r374' /><a href='#f374' class='c005'><sup>[374]</sup></a> In some of the -Melanesian islands, when the yam vines are being trained, -the men sleep near the gardens and never approach their -wives; should they enter the garden after breaking this -rule of continence the fruits of the garden would be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>spoilt.<a id='r375' /><a href='#f375' class='c005'><sup>[375]</sup></a> In the Motu tribe of New Guinea, when rain -has fallen plentifully and there is promise of a good crop -of bananas, one of the chief men becomes holy or taboo, -and must live apart from his wife and eat only certain -kinds of food. He bids the young men beat the drum and -dance, “in order that by so doing there may be a large -harvest. If the dancing is not given, there will be an end -to the good growth; but if it is continued, all will go well. -People come in from other villages to assist, and will dance -all night.”<a id='r376' /><a href='#f376' class='c005'><sup>[376]</sup></a> In the Mekeo district of British New Guinea, -when a taboo has been put on the coco-nuts and areca-nuts -to promote their growth, some fourteen or fifteen men act as -watchmen to enforce the taboo. Every evening they go -round the village armed with clubs and wearing masks or so -covered with leaves that nobody would know them. All the -time they are in office they may not chew betel nor drink -coco-nut water, lest the areca-nuts (which are eaten with -betel) and the coco-nuts should fail. Moreover, they may -not live with their wives; indeed, they may not even look at -a woman, and if they pass one they must keep their eyes on -the ground.<a id='r377' /><a href='#f377' class='c005'><sup>[377]</sup></a> Among the Kabuis of Manipur, before the rice -is sown and when it is reaped, the strictest chastity has to be -observed, especially by the religious head of the village, who, -besides always taking the omens on behalf of the villagers, -is the first to sow and the first to reap.<a id='r378' /><a href='#f378' class='c005'><sup>[378]</sup></a> Some of the -tribes of Assam believe that so long as the crops remain -ungarnered, the slightest incontinence might ruin all.<a id='r379' /><a href='#f379' class='c005'><sup>[379]</sup></a> In the -incense-growing region of Arabia in antiquity there were three -families charged with the special care of the incense-trees. -They were called sacred, and at the time when they cut the -trees or gathered the incense they were forbidden to pollute -themselves with women or with the contact of the dead; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>the observance of these rules of ceremonial purity was believed -to increase the supply of incense.<a id='r380' /><a href='#f380' class='c005'><sup>[380]</sup></a> Apparently the -incense itself was deemed holy, for on being gathered it was -deposited in the sanctuary of the Sun, where the merchants -inspected and purchased it.<a id='r381' /><a href='#f381' class='c005'><sup>[381]</sup></a> With ancient Greek husbandmen -it was a maxim that olives should always be planted -and gathered by pure boys and virgins; the uncommon -fruitfulness of the olive-trees at Anazarbus in Cilicia was -attributed to their being tended by young and innocent -children. In default of such workers, the olive-gatherer had -to swear that he had been faithful to his own wife; for his -fidelity was believed to ensure an abundant crop of fruit the -following year.<a id='r382' /><a href='#f382' class='c005'><sup>[382]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Illicit love supposed to blight the fruits of the earth.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Again, the sympathetic relation supposed to exist -between the commerce of the sexes and the fertility of the -earth manifests itself in the belief that illicit love tends, -directly or indirectly, to mar that fertility and to blight the -crops.<a id='r383' /><a href='#f383' class='c005'><sup>[383]</sup></a> Such a belief prevails, for example, among the -Karens of Burma. They imagine that adultery or fornication -has a powerful influence to injure the harvest. Hence -if the crops have been bad for a year or two, and no rain -falls, the villagers set down the dearth to secret sins of this -kind, and say that the God of heaven and earth is angry -with them on that account; and they all unite in making -an offering to appease him. Further, whenever adultery or -fornication is detected, the elders decide that the sinners -must buy a hog and kill it. Then the woman takes one -foot of the hog, and the man takes another, and they scrape -out furrows in the ground with each foot, and fill the -furrows with the blood of the hog. Next they scratch the -ground with their hands and pray: “God of heaven and -earth, God of the mountains and hills, I have destroyed the -productiveness of the country. Do not be angry with me, -do not hate me; but have mercy on me, and compassionate -me. Now I repair the mountains, now I heal the hills, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>the streams and the lands. May there be no failure of -crops, may there be no unsuccessful labours, or unfortunate -efforts in my country. Let them be dissipated to the foot -of the horizon. Make thy paddy fruitful, thy rice abundant. -Make the vegetables to flourish. If we cultivate but little, -still grant that we may obtain a little.” After each has -prayed thus, they return to the house and say they have -repaired the earth.<a id='r384' /><a href='#f384' class='c005'><sup>[384]</sup></a> The Battas of Sumatra think that if -an unmarried woman is big with child, it is necessary to give -her in marriage at once, even to a man of lower rank; for -otherwise the people will be infested by tigers, and the -crops in the field will not yield an abundant return. The -crime of incest, in their opinion, would blast the whole -harvest if the wrong were not speedily repaired. Epidemics -and other calamities that affect the whole people are almost -always traced by them to incest, by which is to be understood -any marriage that conflicts with their customs.<a id='r385' /><a href='#f385' class='c005'><sup>[385]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Dyak belief that lewdness may cause bad weather and spoil the crops.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Similar views are held by various tribes of Borneo. Thus -when the rain pours down steadily day after day and week -after week, and the crops are rotting in the fields, the Dyaks -of Borneo come to the conclusion that some one has been -indulging in fleshly lusts; so the elders lay their heads -together and adjudicate on all cases of incest and bigamy, -and purify the earth with the blood of pigs, which appears -to possess in a high degree the valuable property of atoning -for moral guilt. For three days the villages are tabooed -and all labour discontinued; the inhabitants remain at home, -and no strangers are admitted. Not long ago the offenders, -whose lewdness had thus brought the whole country into -danger, would have been punished with death or at least -slavery. A Dyak may not marry his first cousin unless he -first performs a special ceremony called <i>bergaput</i> to avert -evil consequences from the land. The couple repair to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>the water-side, fill a small pitcher with their personal -ornaments, and sink it in the river; or instead of a jar they -fling a chopper and a plate into the water. A pig is then -sacrificed on the bank, and its carcase, drained of blood, is -thrown in after the jar. Next the pair are pushed into -the water by their friends and ordered to bathe together. -Lastly, a joint of bamboo is filled with pig’s blood, and the -couple perambulate the country and the villages round -about, sprinkling the blood on the ground. After that they -are free to marry. This is done, we are told, for the sake of -the whole country, in order that the rice may not be blasted.<a id='r386' /><a href='#f386' class='c005'><sup>[386]</sup></a> -The Bahaus or Kayans, a tribe in the interior of Borneo, -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Kayan belief that adultery or fornication spoils the harvest.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -believe that adultery is punished by the spirits, who visit the -whole tribe with failure of the crops and other misfortunes. -Hence in order to avert these calamities from the innocent -members of the tribe, the two culprits, with all their possessions, -are put in quarantine on a gravel bank in the middle -of the river; then in order thoroughly to disinfect them, pigs -and fowls are killed, and with the blood priestesses smear the -property of the guilty pair. Finally the two are set on a -raft, with sixteen eggs, and allowed to drift down the -stream. They may save themselves by swimming ashore, -but this is perhaps a mitigation of an older sentence of -death by drowning. Young people shower long grass-stalks, -which stand for spears, at the shamefaced and -dripping couple.<a id='r387' /><a href='#f387' class='c005'><sup>[387]</sup></a> The Blu-u Kayans of the same region -similarly imagine that an intrigue between an unmarried -pair is punished by the spirits with failure of the harvest, -of the fishing, and of the hunt. Hence the delinquents -<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>have to appease the wrath of the spirits by sacrificing a pig -and some rice.<a id='r388' /><a href='#f388' class='c005'><sup>[388]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Incest and seduction supposed to be a cause of bad weather and failure of crops -in Celebes.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Among the Macassars and Bugineese of Southern Celebes -incest is a capital crime. “In the Bugineese language -this misdeed is called <i>sâpa-tâna</i>, which, literally translated, -signifies that the <i>ground</i> (<i>tâna</i>) which has been polluted with -the blood of such a person must above all be <i>shunned</i> (<i>sâpa</i>). -When we remember how afraid of evil spirits a native is in -passing even a spot that has been stained with innocent -blood, we can easily conceive what passes in his mind at the -thought of the blood of one who has been guilty of such a -crime. When the rivers dry up and the supply of fish runs -short, when the harvest and the produce of the gardens miscarry, -when edible fruits fail, and especially when sickness -is rife among the cattle and horses, as well as when civil -strife breaks out and the country suffers from any other -widespread calamity, the native generally thinks that earth -and air have been sullied with the blood of persons who -have committed incest. The blood of such people should -naturally not be shed. Hence the punishment usually -inflicted on them is that of drowning. They are tied up -in a sack and thrown into the sea. Yet they get with them -on their journey to eternity the necessary provisions, consisting -of a bag of rice, salt, dried fish, coco-nuts and so on, -not forgetting three quids of betel.”<a id='r389' /><a href='#f389' class='c005'><sup>[389]</sup></a> Among the Tomori -of Central Celebes a person guilty of incest is throttled; no -drop of his blood may fall on the ground, for if it did, the -rice would never grow again. The union of uncle and niece -is regarded by these people as incest, but it can be expiated -by an offering. A garment of the man and one of the -woman are laid on a copper vessel; the blood of a sacrificed -animal, either a goat or a fowl, is allowed to drip on the -garments, and then the vessel with its contents is suffered -<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>to float down the river.<a id='r390' /><a href='#f390' class='c005'><sup>[390]</sup></a> Among the Tolalaki, another tribe -of Central Celebes, persons who have defiled themselves with -incest are shut up in a basket and drowned. No drop of -their blood may be spilt on the ground, for that would hinder -the earth from ever bearing fruit again.<a id='r391' /><a href='#f391' class='c005'><sup>[391]</sup></a> When it rains in -torrents, the Galelareese of Halmahera say that brother and -sister, or father and daughter, or in short some near relations -are having illicit relations with each other, and that every -human being must be informed of it, for then only will the -rain cease to descend. The superstition has repeatedly caused -blood relations to be accused, rightfully or wrongfully, of incest. -The people also regard other alarming natural phenomena, -for instance a violent earthquake or the eruption of a -volcano, as consequences of crimes of the same sort. Persons -charged with such offences are brought to Ternate; it is -said that formerly they were often drowned on the way -or, on being haled thither, were condemned to be thrown -into the volcano.<a id='r392' /><a href='#f392' class='c005'><sup>[392]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Breaches of sexual morality supposed to prevent rain and so to blight -the fruits of the earth in Africa.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In some parts of Africa, also, it is believed that breaches -of sexual morality disturb the course of nature, particularly -by blighting the fruits of the earth. Thus the negroes of -Loango suppose that the intercourse of a man with an -immature girl is punished by God with drought and consequent -famine, until the culprits atone for their sin by -dancing naked before the king and an assembly of the people, -who throw hot gravel and bits of glass at the pair. For -example, in the year 1898, it was discovered that a long -drought was caused by the misconduct of three girls, who -were with child before they had passed through what is -called the paint-house, that is, before they had been painted -red and secluded for a time in token that they had attained -to the age of puberty. The people were very angry and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>tried to punish or even kill the girls.<a id='r393' /><a href='#f393' class='c005'><sup>[393]</sup></a> Amongst the Bavili -of Loango, it is believed that if a man breaks the marriage -law by marrying a woman of his mother’s clan, God will in -like manner punish the crime by withholding the rains in -their due season.<a id='r394' /><a href='#f394' class='c005'><sup>[394]</sup></a> Similar notions of the blighting influence -of sexual crime appear to be entertained by the Nandi of -British East Africa, for amongst them a girl who has been -gotten with child by a warrior, may never look inside of a -granary for fear of spoiling the corn.<a id='r395' /><a href='#f395' class='c005'><sup>[395]</sup></a> Among the Basutos -likewise “while the corn is exposed to view, all defiled persons -are carefully kept from it. If the aid of a man in this state -is necessary for carrying home the harvest, he remains at -some distance while the sacks are filled, and only approaches -to place them upon the draught oxen. He withdraws as -soon as the load is deposited at the dwelling, and under no -pretext can he assist in pouring the corn into the baskets -in which it is preserved.”<a id='r396' /><a href='#f396' class='c005'><sup>[396]</sup></a> The nature of the defilement -which thus disqualifies a man for handling the corn is not -mentioned, but probably it would include unchastity. We -may conjecture that it was for a similar reason that the Basoga -of Central Africa used to punish severely the seduction of a -virgin. “If a man was convicted of such a crime, and the -woman’s guilt was discovered, he and she were sent at night -time to Kaluba’s village, where they were tied to a tree. This -tall spreading incense-tree was thought to be under the protection -of a spirit called <i>Kakua Kambuzi</i>. Next morning the -erring couple were discovered by people in the surrounding -plantations, who released them. They were then allowed to -settle near the tree of the protecting spirit.” This practice -of tying the culprits to a sacred tree may have been thought -to atone for their crime and so to ensure the fertility of the -earth which they had imperilled. The notion perhaps was -to deliver the criminals into the power of the offended tree-spirit; -if they were found alive in the morning, it was a sign -that he had pardoned them. “Curiously enough, the Basoga -<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>also held in great abhorrence anything like incest amongst -domestic animals—that is to say, they greatly disapproved -of intercourse between a bull calf and its mother-cow, or -between a bull and a cow that were known to be brother -and sister. If this occurred, the bull and cow were sent by -night to a fetish tree and tied there. The next morning -the chief of the district appropriated the animals and turned -them to his own use.”<a id='r397' /><a href='#f397' class='c005'><sup>[397]</sup></a> Following out the same train of -thought, the Toradjas of Central Celebes ingeniously employ -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Incest of animals employed as a rain-charm in Africa.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -the incest of animals as a rain-charm. For they believe that -the anger of the gods at incest or bestiality manifests itself -in the form of violent storms, heavy rain, or long drought. -Accordingly they think that it is always in their power to -enrage the gods by committing incest and so to procure -rain when it is needed. However, they abstain from perpetrating -the crime among themselves, first, because it -would be necessary to put the culprits to death, and second, -because the storms thus raised would be so furious that -they would do more harm than good. But they fancy that the -incest, real or simulated, of animals is a lighter offence, which -by discomposing, without exasperating, the higher powers -will disturb the balance of nature just enough to improve -the weather. A ceremony of this sort was witnessed by a -missionary. Rain was wanted, and the headman of the -village had to see that it fell. He took his measures -accordingly. Attended by a crowd he carried a cock and -a little sow to the river. Here the animals were killed, laid -side by side in an intimate embrace, and wrapped tightly up -in a piece of cotton. Then the headman engaged in prayer. -“O gods above and gods below,” said he, “if you have pity -on us, and will that we eat food this year, give rain. If you -will not give rain, well we have here buried a cock and a -sow in an intimate embrace.” By which he meant to say, -“Be angry at this abomination which we have committed, -and manifest your anger in storms.”<a id='r398' /><a href='#f398' class='c005'><sup>[398]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'>These examples suffice to prove that among many savage -races breaches of the marriage laws are thought to blast the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>fruits of the earth through excessive rain or excessive drought. -Similar notions of the disastrous effects of sexual crimes may -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Similar notions of the blighting effect of sexual crime may be detected -among the civilised races of antiquity, for example, among the Jews.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -be detected among some of the civilised races of antiquity, -who seem not to have limited the supposed sterilising influence -of such offences to the fruits of the earth, but to have -extended it also to women and cattle.<a id='r399' /><a href='#f399' class='c005'><sup>[399]</sup></a> Thus among the -Hebrews we read how Job, passionately protesting his -innocence before God, declares that he is no adulterer; -“For that,” says he, “were an heinous crime; yea, it were an -iniquity to be punished by the judges: for it is a fire that -consumeth unto Destruction, and would root out all mine -increase.”<a id='r400' /><a href='#f400' class='c005'><sup>[400]</sup></a> In this passage the Hebrew word translated -“increase” commonly means “the produce of the earth;”<a id='r401' /><a href='#f401' class='c005'><sup>[401]</sup></a> -and if we give the word its usual sense here, then Job affirms -adultery to be destructive of the fruits of the ground, which -is just what many savages still believe. This interpretation -of his words is strongly confirmed by two narratives in -Genesis, where we read how Sarah, Abraham’s wife, was -taken into his harem by a king who did not know her to be -the wife of the patriarch, and how thereafter God visited the -king and his household with great plagues, especially by -closing up the wombs of the king’s wives and his maid-servants, -so that they bore no children. It was not till the -king had discovered and confessed his sin, and Abraham had -prayed God to forgive him, that the king’s women again -became fruitful.<a id='r402' /><a href='#f402' class='c005'><sup>[402]</sup></a> These narratives seem to imply that -adultery, even when it is committed in ignorance, is a cause -of plague and especially of sterility among women. Again, -in Leviticus, after a long list of sexual crimes, we read:<a id='r403' /><a href='#f403' class='c005'><sup>[403]</sup></a> -“Defile not ye yourselves in any of these things: for in all -these the nations are defiled which I cast out from before -you: and the land is defiled: therefore I do visit the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>iniquity thereof upon it, and the land vomiteth out her -inhabitants.” This passage appears to imply that the land -itself was somehow physically tainted by sexual transgressions -so that it could no longer support the inhabitants.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Blighting effect attributed to incest by the ancient Greeks and Irish.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -It would seem that the ancient Greeks and Romans -entertained similar notions as to the wasting effect of incest. -According to Sophocles the land of Thebes suffered from -blight, from pestilence, and from the sterility both of women -and of cattle under the reign of Oedipus, who had unwittingly -slain his father and wedded his mother, and the Delphic -oracle declared that the only way to restore the prosperity -of the country was to banish the sinner from it, as if -his mere presence withered plants, animals, and women.<a id='r404' /><a href='#f404' class='c005'><sup>[404]</sup></a> -No doubt the poet and his hearers set down these public -calamities in great part to the guilt of parricide, which -rested on Oedipus; but they can hardly have failed to -lay much also of the evil at the door of his incest with his -mother. Again, in ancient Italy, under the Emperor Claudius, -a Roman noble was accused of incest with his sister. He -committed suicide, his sister was banished, and the emperor -ordered that certain ancient ceremonies traditionally derived -from the laws of King Servius Tullius should be performed, -and that expiation should be made by the pontiffs at the -sacred grove of Diana,<a id='r405' /><a href='#f405' class='c005'><sup>[405]</sup></a> probably the famous Arician grove, -which has furnished the starting-point of our enquiry. -As Diana appears to have been a goddess of fertility in -general and of the fruitfulness of women in particular, the -atonement made at her sanctuary for incest may perhaps be -accepted as evidence that the Romans, like other peoples, -attributed to sexual immorality a tendency to blast the fruits -both of the earth and of the womb. This inference is -strengthened by a precept laid down by grave Roman writers -that bakers, cooks, and butlers ought to be strictly chaste -and continent, because it was most important that food and -cups should be handled either by persons under the age of -puberty, or at all events by persons who indulged very -sparingly in sexual intercourse; for which reason if a baker, -a cook, or a butler broke this rule of continence it was his -bounden duty to wash in a river or other running water -<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>before he applied himself again to his professional duties. -But for all such duties the services of a boy or of a virgin -were preferred.<a id='r406' /><a href='#f406' class='c005'><sup>[406]</sup></a> The Celts of ancient Ireland similarly -believed that incest blighted the fruits of the earth. According -to legend Munster was afflicted in the third century -of our era with a failure of the crops and other misfortunes. -When the nobles enquired into the matter, -they were told that these calamities were the result of -an incest which the king had committed with his sister. -In order to put an end to the evil they demanded of the -king his two sons, the fruit of his unholy union, that they -might consume them with fire and cast their ashes into -the running stream. However, one of the sons, Corc -by name, is said to have been purged of his inherited -taint by being sent out of Ireland to an island, where a -Druid purified him every morning, by putting him on the -back of a white cow with red ears, and pouring water -over him, till one day the cow jumped into the sea and -became a rock, no doubt taking the sin of Corc’s father -away with her. After that the boy was brought back to -Erin.<a id='r407' /><a href='#f407' class='c005'><sup>[407]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Belief in the blighting effect of incest may have helped to institute the forbidden -degrees.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus the belief that incest or sexual crime in general -has power to blast the fruits of the earth is widespread and -probably goes back to a very remote antiquity; it may long -have preceded the rise of agriculture. We may conjecture -that in its origin the belief was magical rather than religious; -in other words, that the blight was at first supposed to be -a direct consequence of the act itself rather than a punishment -inflicted on the criminal by gods or spirits. Conceived -as an unnatural union of the sexes, incest might be thought -to subvert the regular processes of reproduction, and so to -prevent the earth from yielding its fruits and to hinder -animals and men from propagating their kinds. At a later -time the anger of spiritual beings would naturally be invoked -in order to give a religious sanction to the old taboo. If this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>was so, it is possible that something of the horror which -incest has excited among most, though by no means all, -races of men, sprang from this ancient superstition and has -been transmitted as an instinct in many nations long after -the imaginary ground of it had been forgotten. Certainly -a course of conduct which was supposed to endanger or -destroy the general supply of food and therefore to strike -a blow at the very life of the whole people, could not but -present itself to the savage imagination as a crime of the -blackest dye, fraught with the most fatal consequences to -the public weal. How far such a superstition may in the -beginning have operated to prevent the union of near kin, -in other words, to institute the system of prohibited degrees -which still prevails among the great majority of mankind, -both savage and civilised, is a question which deserves to be -considered by the historians of marriage.<a id='r408' /><a href='#f408' class='c005'><sup>[408]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Explanation of the seeming contradiction in the foregoing customs.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -If we ask why it is that similar beliefs should logically -lead, among different peoples, to such opposite modes of -conduct as strict chastity and more or less open debauchery, -the reason, as it presents itself to the primitive mind, is -perhaps not very far to seek. If rude man identifies himself, -in a manner, with nature; if he fails to distinguish the -impulses and processes in himself from the methods which -nature adopts to ensure the reproduction of plants and -animals, he may leap to one of two conclusions. Either -he may infer that by yielding to his appetites he will -thereby assist in the multiplication of plants and animals; -or he may imagine that the vigour which he refuses to -expend in reproducing his own kind, will form as it -were a store of energy whereby other creatures, whether -vegetable or animal, will somehow benefit in propagating -their species. Thus from the same crude philosophy, the -same primitive notions of nature and life, the savage may -derive by different channels a rule either of profligacy or -of asceticism.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Indirect benefit of some of these superstitious customs.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -To readers bred in a religion which is saturated with -the ascetic idealism of the East, the explanation which I -have given of the rule of continence observed under certain -circumstances by rude or savage peoples may seem far-fetched -<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The ascetic view of chastity not understood by the savage.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -and improbable. They may think that moral purity, which -is so intimately associated in their minds with the observance -of such a rule, furnishes a sufficient explanation of it; they -may hold with Milton<a id='r409' /><a href='#f409' class='c005'><sup>[409]</sup></a> that chastity in itself is a noble -virtue, and that the restraint which it imposes on one of -the strongest impulses of our animal nature marks out those -who can submit to it as men raised above the common herd, -and therefore worthy to receive the seal of the divine approbation. -However natural this mode of thought may seem -to us, it is utterly foreign and indeed incomprehensible to -the savage. If he resists on occasion the sexual instinct, it -is from no high idealism, no ethereal aspiration after moral -purity, but for the sake of some ulterior yet perfectly definite -and concrete object, to gain which he is prepared to sacrifice -the immediate gratification of his senses. That this is or -may be so, the examples I have cited are amply sufficient -to prove. They shew that where the instinct of self-preservation, -which manifests itself chiefly in the search for food, -conflicts or appears to conflict with the instinct which conduces -to the propagation of the species, the former instinct, -as the primary and more fundamental, is capable of over-mastering -the latter. In short, the savage is willing to -restrain his sexual propensity for the sake of food. Another -object for the sake of which he consents to exercise the same -self-restraint is victory in war. Not only the warrior in the -field but his friends at home will often bridle their sensual -appetites from a belief that by so doing they will the more -<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>easily overcome their enemies.<a id='r410' /><a href='#f410' class='c005'><sup>[410]</sup></a> The fallacy of such a belief, -like the belief that the chastity of the sower conduces to the -growth of the seed, is plain enough to us; yet perhaps the -self-restraint which these and the like beliefs, vain and false -as they are, have imposed on mankind, has not been without -its utility in bracing and strengthening the breed. For strength -of character in the race as in the individual consists mainly -in the power of sacrificing the present to the future, of disregarding -the immediate temptations of ephemeral pleasure -for more distant and lasting sources of satisfaction. The -more the power is exercised the higher and stronger becomes -the character; till the height of heroism is reached in men -who renounce the pleasures of life and even life itself for -the sake of keeping or winning for others, perhaps in distant -ages, the blessings of freedom and truth.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span> - <h2 id='chap12' class='c002'>CHAPTER XII <br /> THE SACRED MARRIAGE</h2> -</div> -<h3 class='c006'>§ 1. Diana as a Goddess of Fertility</h3> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Dramatic marriages of gods and goddesses as a charm to promote vegetation.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the last chapter we saw that according to a widespread -belief, which is not without a foundation in fact, plants reproduce -their kinds through the sexual union of male and female -elements, and that on the principle of homoeopathic or imitative -magic this reproduction can be stimulated by the real or -mock marriage of men and women, who masquerade for the -time being as spirits of vegetation. Such magical dramas have -played a great part in the popular festivals of Europe, and -based as they are on a very crude conception of natural law, -it is clear that they must have been handed down from a -remote antiquity. We shall hardly, therefore, err in assuming -that they date from a time when the forefathers of the civilised -nations of Europe were still barbarians, herding their cattle -and cultivating patches of corn in the clearings of the vast -forests, which then covered the greater part of the continent, -from the Mediterranean to the Arctic Ocean. But if these -old spells and enchantments for the growth of leaves and -blossoms, of grass and flowers and fruit, have lingered down to -our own time in the shape of pastoral plays and popular merry-makings, -is it not reasonable to suppose that they survived in -less attenuated forms some two thousand years ago among -the civilised peoples of antiquity? Or, to put it otherwise, -is it not likely that in certain festivals of the ancients we -may be able to detect the equivalents of our May Day, -Whitsuntide, and Midsummer celebrations, with this difference, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>that in those days the ceremonies had not yet dwindled into -mere shows and pageants, but were still religious or magical -rites, in which the actors consciously supported the high -parts of gods and goddesses? Now in the first chapter of -this book we found reason to believe that the priest who -bore the title of King of the Wood at Nemi had for his -mate the goddess of the grove, Diana herself. May not he -and she, as King and Queen of the Wood, have been -serious counterparts of the merry mummers who play the King -and Queen of May, the Whitsuntide Bridegroom and Bride -in modern Europe? and may not their union have been -yearly celebrated in a <i>theogamy</i> or divine marriage? Such -dramatic weddings of gods and goddesses, as we shall see -presently, were carried out as solemn religious rites in many -parts of the ancient world; hence there is no intrinsic -improbability in the supposition that the sacred grove at -Nemi may have been the scene of an annual ceremony of -this sort. Direct evidence that it was so there is none, but -analogy pleads in favour of the view, as I shall now -endeavour to shew.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Diana a goddess of the woodlands.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Diana was essentially a goddess of the woodlands, as -Ceres was a goddess of the corn and Bacchus a god of the -vine.<a id='r411' /><a href='#f411' class='c005'><sup>[411]</sup></a> Her sanctuaries were commonly in groves, indeed -every grove was sacred to her,<a id='r412' /><a href='#f412' class='c005'><sup>[412]</sup></a> and she is often associated -with the forest god Silvanus in dedications.<a id='r413' /><a href='#f413' class='c005'><sup>[413]</sup></a> We must not -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sanctity of holy groves in antiquity.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -forget that to the ancients the sanctity of a holy grove was -very real and might not be violated with impunity. For -example, in Attica there was a sanctuary of Erithasean -Apollo, and it was enacted by law that any person caught in -the act of cutting trees in it, or carrying away timber, firewood, -or fallen leaves, should be punished with fifty stripes, -if he was a slave, or with a fine of fifty drachms, if he was a -freeman. The culprit was denounced by the priest to the king, -that is, to the sacred official or minister of state who bore the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>royal title.<a id='r414' /><a href='#f414' class='c005'><sup>[414]</sup></a> Similarly it was the duty of the sacred men at -Andania, in Messenia, to scourge slaves and fine freemen -who cut wood in the grove of the Great Goddesses.<a id='r415' /><a href='#f415' class='c005'><sup>[415]</sup></a> In -Crete it was forbidden, under pain of curses and fines, to -fell timber, sow corn, and herd or fold flocks within the -precinct of Dictaean Zeus.<a id='r416' /><a href='#f416' class='c005'><sup>[416]</sup></a> In Italy like customs prevailed. -Near Spoletium there was a sacred grove from which -nothing might be taken, and in which no wood might be -cut except just so much as was needed for the annual -sacrifice. Any person who knowingly violated the sanctity -of the grove had to expiate his offence by sacrificing an ox -to Jupiter, and to pay besides a fine of three hundred pence.<a id='r417' /><a href='#f417' class='c005'><sup>[417]</sup></a> -In his treatise on farming Cato directs that before thinning -a grove the Roman husbandman should offer a pig as an -expiatory sacrifice to the god or goddess of the place, and -should entreat his or her favour for himself, his children, and -his household.<a id='r418' /><a href='#f418' class='c005'><sup>[418]</sup></a> The <i>Fratres Arvales</i> or Brethren of the -Tilled Fields were a Roman college of twelve priests, who -performed public religious rites for the purpose of making -the crops to grow, and they wore wreaths of ears of corn as -a badge of their office.<a id='r419' /><a href='#f419' class='c005'><sup>[419]</sup></a> Their sacrifices were offered in the -grove of the goddess Dia, situated five miles down the Tiber -from Rome. So hallowed was this grove, which is known -to have included laurels and holly-oaks, that expiatory -sacrifices of sows and lambs had to be offered when a rotten -bough fell to the ground, or when an old tree was laid low -by a storm or dragged down by a load of snow on its -branches. And still more elaborate expiation had to be -made with the slaughter of sows, sheep, and bulls when any -of the sacred trees were struck by lightning and it was -necessary to dig them up by the roots, split them, burn -them, and plant others in their room.<a id='r420' /><a href='#f420' class='c005'><sup>[420]</sup></a> At the annual -<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>festival of the Parilia, which was intended to ensure the -welfare of the flocks and herds, Roman shepherds prayed to -be forgiven if they had entered a hallowed grove, or sat -down under a sacred tree, or lopped a holy bough in order -to feed a sick sheep on the leaves.<a id='r421' /><a href='#f421' class='c005'><sup>[421]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sense of the divinity of woods shared by polite Roman writers.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Nor was this sense of the indwelling divinity of the -woods confined to the simple rustics who, tending their -flocks in the chequered shade, felt the presence of spirits in -the solemn stillness of the forest, heard their voices in the -sough of the wind among the branches, and saw their -handiwork in the fresh green of spring and the fading gold -of autumn. The feeling was shared by the most cultivated -minds in the greatest age of Roman civilisation. Pliny says -that “the woods were formerly the temples of the deities, -and even now simple country folk dedicate a tall tree to a -god with the ritual of the olden time; and we adore sacred -groves and the very silence that reigns in them not less -devoutly than images that gleam with gold and ivory.”<a id='r422' /><a href='#f422' class='c005'><sup>[422]</sup></a> -Similarly Seneca writes: “If you come upon a grove of old -trees that have shot up above the common height and shut -out the sight of the sky by the gloom of their matted -boughs, you feel there is a spirit in the place, so lofty is the -wood, so lone the spot, so wondrous the thick unbroken -shade.”<a id='r423' /><a href='#f423' class='c005'><sup>[423]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The breaking of the Golden Bough a rite of -solemn significance, not a mere piece of bravado.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus the ancients, like many other people in various -parts of the world, were deeply impressed with the sanctity -of holy groves, and regarded even the cutting of a bough in -them as a sacrilege which called for expiation. If therefore -a candidate for the priesthood of Diana at Nemi had to -break a branch of a certain tree in the sacred grove before -he could fight the King of the Wood, we may be sure that -the act was a rite of solemn significance, and that to treat it -as a mere piece of bravado, a challenge to the priest to come -on and defend his domain, would be to commit the commonest -of all errors in dealing with the past, that, namely, of interpreting -<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>the customs of other races and other generations by -reference to modern European standards. In order to -understand an alien religion the first essential is to divest -ourselves, as well as we can, of our own familiar prepossessions, -and to place ourselves at the point of view of those -whose faith and practice we are studying. To do this at all -is difficult; to do it completely is perhaps impossible; yet -the attempt must be made if the enquiry is to progress -instead of returning on itself in a vicious circle.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Diana not a mere goddess of trees, but, like Artemis, a personification -of the teeming life of nature, both animal and vegetable.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But whatever her origin may have been, Diana was not -always a mere goddess of trees. Like her Greek sister -Artemis, she appears to have developed into a personification -of the teeming life of nature, both animal and vegetable. -As mistress of the greenwood she would naturally be thought -to own the beasts, whether wild or tame, that ranged through -it, lurking for their prey in its gloomy depths, munching the -fresh leaves and shoots among the boughs, or cropping the -herbage in the open glades and dells. Thus she might come -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>A deity of the woods is naturally the patron of the beasts in -the woods, both game and cattle.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -to be the patron goddess both of hunters and herdsmen,<a id='r424' /><a href='#f424' class='c005'><sup>[424]</sup></a> just -as Silvanus was the god not only of woods, but of cattle.<a id='r425' /><a href='#f425' class='c005'><sup>[425]</sup></a> -Similarly in Finland the wild beasts of the forest were regarded -as the herds of the woodland God Tapio and of his stately -and beautiful wife. No man might slay one of these animals -without the gracious permission of their divine owners. -Hence the hunter prayed to the sylvan deities, and vowed -rich offerings to them if they would drive the game across -his path. And cattle also seem to have enjoyed the protection -of those spirits of the woods, both when they were in -their stalls and while they strayed in the forest.<a id='r426' /><a href='#f426' class='c005'><sup>[426]</sup></a> So in the -belief of Russian peasants the spirit Leschiy rules both the -wood and all the creatures in it. The bear is to him what -the dog is to man; and the migrations of the squirrels, the -field-mice, and other denizens of the woods are carried out in -obedience to his behests. Success in the chase depends on -his favour, and to assure himself of the spirit’s help the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>huntsman lays an offering, generally of bread and salt, on -the trunk of a tree in the forest. In White Russia every -herdsman must present a cow to Leschiy in summer, and in -the Government of Archangel some herdsmen have won his -favour so far that he even feeds and tends their herds for -them.<a id='r427' /><a href='#f427' class='c005'><sup>[427]</sup></a> Similarly the forest-god of the Lapps ruled over all -the beasts of the forest; they were viewed as his herds, and -good or bad luck in hunting depended on his will.<a id='r428' /><a href='#f428' class='c005'><sup>[428]</sup></a> So, too, -the Samagitians deemed the birds and beasts of the woods -sacred, doubtless because they were under the protection of -the sylvan god.<a id='r429' /><a href='#f429' class='c005'><sup>[429]</sup></a> Before the Gayos of Sumatra hunt deer, -wild goats, or wild pigs with hounds in the woods, they -deem it necessary to obtain the leave of the unseen Lord -of the forest. This is done according to a prescribed form -by a man who has special skill in woodcraft. He lays down -a quid of betel before a stake which is cut in a particular -way to represent the Lord of the Wood, and having done -so he prays to the spirit to signify his consent or refusal.<a id='r430' /><a href='#f430' class='c005'><sup>[430]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The crowning of hunting dogs on Diana’s day was probably a purificatory ceremony -to cleanse them from the guilt of having killed game, the creatures -of the goddess.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -We have seen that at Diana’s festival it was customary -to crown hunting dogs, to leave wild beasts in peace, and to -perform a purificatory ceremony for the benefit of young -people.<a id='r431' /><a href='#f431' class='c005'><sup>[431]</sup></a> Some light is thrown on the meaning of these -customs by a passage in Arrian’s treatise on hunting. He -tells us that a good hound is a boon conferred by one of the -gods upon the huntsman, who ought to testify his gratitude -by sacrificing to the Huntress Artemis. Further, Arrian -goes on to say: “It is right that after a successful chase a -man should sacrifice and dedicate the first-fruits of his bag -to the goddess, in order to purify both the hounds and the -hunters, in accordance with old custom and usage.” He tells -us that the Celts were wont to form a treasury for the goddess -Artemis, into which they paid a fine of two obols for every -hare they killed, a drachm for every fox, and four drachms -for every roe. Once a year, on the birthday of Artemis, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>they opened the treasury, and with the accumulated fines -purchased a sacrificial victim, it might be a sheep, a goat, or -a calf. Having slain the animal and offered her share to the -Huntress Artemis, they feasted, both men and dogs; and -they crowned the dogs on that day “in order to signify,” -says Arrian, “that the festival was for their benefit.”<a id='r432' /><a href='#f432' class='c005'><sup>[432]</sup></a> The -Celts to whom Arrian, a native of Bithynia, here refers were -probably the Galatians of Asia Minor; but doubtless the -custom he describes was imported by these barbarians, along -with their native tongue<a id='r433' /><a href='#f433' class='c005'><sup>[433]</sup></a> and the worship of the oak,<a id='r434' /><a href='#f434' class='c005'><sup>[434]</sup></a> from -their old home in Central or Northern Europe. The Celtic -divinity whom Arrian identifies with Artemis may well have -been really akin both to her and to the Italian Diana. We -know from other sources that the Celts revered a woodland -goddess of this type; thus Arduinna, goddess of the forest -of the Ardennes, was represented, like Artemis and Diana, -with a bow and quiver.<a id='r435' /><a href='#f435' class='c005'><sup>[435]</sup></a> In any case the custom described -by Arrian is good evidence of a belief that the wild beasts -belong to the goddess of the wilds, who must be compensated -for their destruction; and, taken with what he says of the -need of purifying the hounds after a successful chase, the -Celtic practice of crowning them at the annual festival of -Artemis may have been meant to purge them of the stain -they had contracted by killing the creatures of the goddess. -The same explanation would naturally apply to the same -custom observed by the Italians at the festival of Diana.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Cattle crowned to protect them from witchcraft.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But why, it may be asked, should crowns or garlands -cleanse dogs from the taint of bloodshed? An answer to -this question is indicated by the reason which the South -Slavonian peasant assigns for crowning the horns of his cows -with wreaths of flowers on St. George’s Day, the twenty-third -of April. He does it in order to guard the cattle -against witchcraft; cows that have no crowns are regarded -<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>as given over to the witches. In the evening the chaplets -are fastened to the door of the cattle-stall, and remain there -throughout the year. A herdsman who fails to crown his -beasts is scolded and sometimes beaten by his master.<a id='r436' /><a href='#f436' class='c005'><sup>[436]</sup></a> The -German and French custom of crowning cattle on Midsummer -Day<a id='r437' /><a href='#f437' class='c005'><sup>[437]</sup></a> probably springs from the same motive. For on Midsummer -Eve, just as on Walpurgis Night, witches are very -busy holding their nocturnal assemblies and trying to steal -the milk and butter from the cows. To guard against them -some people at this season lay besoms crosswise before the -doors of the stalls. Others make fast the doors and stop up -the chinks, lest the witches should creep through them on -their return from the revels. In Swabia all the church bells -used to be kept ringing from nine at night till break of day -on Midsummer morning to drive away the infernal rout from -honest folk’s houses. South Slavonian peasants are up -betimes that morning, gather the dew from the grass, and -wash the cows with it; that saves their milk from the -hellish charms of the witches.<a id='r438' /><a href='#f438' class='c005'><sup>[438]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Similarly the crowning of hunting dogs may -have been meant to protect them against the angry -spirits of the beasts they had killed.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Now when we observe that garlands of flowers, like -hawthorn and other green boughs,<a id='r439' /><a href='#f439' class='c005'><sup>[439]</sup></a> avail to ward off the -unseen powers of mischief, we may conjecture that the -practice of crowning dogs at the festival of a huntress -<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>goddess was intended to preserve the hounds from the -angry and dangerous spirits of the wild beasts which they -had killed in the course of the year. Fantastical as this -explanation may sound to us, it is perfectly in accordance -with the ideas of the savage, who, as we shall see later on, -resorts to a multitude of curious expedients for disarming -the wrath of the animals whose life he has been obliged to -take. Thus conceived, the custom in question might still -be termed a purification; but its original purpose, like that -of many other purificatory rites, would be not so much to -cleanse moral guilt, as to raise a physical barrier against the -assaults of malignant and mischievous spirits.<a id='r440' /><a href='#f440' class='c005'><sup>[440]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Conceived as the moon, Diana was also a goddess of crops and of childbirth.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But Diana was not merely a patroness of wild beasts, a -mistress of woods and hills, of lonely glades and sounding -rivers; conceived as the moon, and especially, it would seem, -as the yellow harvest moon, she filled the farmer’s grange -with goodly fruits, and heard the prayers of women in -travail.<a id='r441' /><a href='#f441' class='c005'><sup>[441]</sup></a> In her sacred grove at Nemi, as we have seen, she -was especially worshipped as a goddess of childbirth, who -bestowed offspring on men and women.<a id='r442' /><a href='#f442' class='c005'><sup>[442]</sup></a> Thus Diana, like -the Greek Artemis, with whom she was constantly identified, -may be described as a goddess of nature in general and of -fertility in particular.<a id='r443' /><a href='#f443' class='c005'><sup>[443]</sup></a> We need not wonder, therefore, -that in her sanctuary on the Aventine she was represented -by an image copied from the many-breasted idol of the -Ephesian Artemis, with all its crowded emblems of exuberant -fecundity.<a id='r444' /><a href='#f444' class='c005'><sup>[444]</sup></a> Hence too we can understand why an ancient -<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>Roman law, attributed to King Tullius Hostilius, prescribed -that, when incest had been committed, an expiatory sacrifice -should be offered by the pontiffs in the grove of Diana.<a id='r445' /><a href='#f445' class='c005'><sup>[445]</sup></a> -For we know that the crime of incest is commonly supposed -to cause a dearth;<a id='r446' /><a href='#f446' class='c005'><sup>[446]</sup></a> hence it would be meet that atonement -for the offence should be made to the goddess of fertility.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>As a goddess of fertility Diana had herself to be fertile, and for -that purpose needed a male partner.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Now on the principle that the goddess of fertility must -herself be fertile, it behoved Diana to have a male partner. -Her mate, if the testimony of Servius may be trusted, was -that Virbius who had his representative, or perhaps rather -his embodiment, in the King of the Wood at Nemi.<a id='r447' /><a href='#f447' class='c005'><sup>[447]</sup></a> The -aim of their union would be to promote the fruitfulness of -the earth, of animals, and of mankind; and it might naturally -be thought that this object would be more surely -attained if the sacred nuptials were celebrated every year, -the parts of the divine bride and bridegroom being played -either by their images or by living persons. No ancient -writer mentions that this was done in the grove at Nemi; -but our knowledge of the Arician ritual is so scanty that the -want of information on this head can hardly count as a fatal -objection to the theory. That theory, in the absence of -direct evidence, must necessarily be based on the analogy of -similar customs practised elsewhere. Some modern examples -of such customs, more or less degenerate, were described in -the last chapter. Here we shall consider their ancient -counterparts.</p> -<h3 class='c006'>§ 2. The Marriage of the Gods</h3> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Marriages of the gods in Babylonia and Assyria.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -At Babylon the imposing sanctuary of Bel rose like a -pyramid above the city in a series of eight towers or stories, -planted one on the top of the other. On the highest tower, -reached by an ascent which wound about all the rest, there -stood a spacious temple, and in the temple a great bed, -magnificently draped and cushioned, with a golden table -beside it. In the temple no image was to be seen, and no -human being passed the night there, save a single woman, -whom, according to the Chaldean priests, the god chose -<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>from among all the women of Babylon. They said that the -deity himself came into the temple at night and slept in the -great bed; and the woman, as a consort of the god, might -have no intercourse with mortal man.<a id='r448' /><a href='#f448' class='c005'><sup>[448]</sup></a> As Bel at Babylon -was identified with Marduk, the chief god of the city,<a id='r449' /><a href='#f449' class='c005'><sup>[449]</sup></a> the -woman who thus shared his bed was doubtless one of the -“wives of Marduk” mentioned in the code of Hammurabi.<a id='r450' /><a href='#f450' class='c005'><sup>[450]</sup></a> -At Calah, which was for some time the capital of Assyria -before it was displaced by Nineveh,<a id='r451' /><a href='#f451' class='c005'><sup>[451]</sup></a> the marriage of the god -Nabu appears to have been annually celebrated on the third of -the month Iyyar or Airu, which corresponded to May. For -on that day his bed was consecrated in the city, and the god -entered his bedchamber, to return to his place on the -following day. The ceremonies attending the consecration -of the couch are minutely described in a liturgical text. -After the appropriate offerings had been presented, the -officiating priestess purified the feet of the divine image with -a sprig of reed and a vessel of oil, approached the bed thrice, -kissed the feet of the image, then retired and sat down. -After that she burned cedar wood dipped in wine, set before -the image the heart of a sheep wrapped in a cloth, and -offered libations. Aromatic woods were consecrated and -burnt, more libations and offerings were made, tables were -spread for various divinities, and the ceremony ended with a -prayer for the King. The god also went in procession to a -grove, riding in a chariot beside his charioteer.<a id='r452' /><a href='#f452' class='c005'><sup>[452]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Marriage of the god Ammon to the Queen of Egypt.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -At Thebes in Egypt a woman slept in the temple of -Ammon as the consort of the god, and, like the human wife -of Bel at Babylon, she was said to have no commerce with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>a man.<a id='r453' /><a href='#f453' class='c005'><sup>[453]</sup></a> In Egyptian texts she is often mentioned as “the -divine consort,” and usually she was no less a personage -than the Queen of Egypt herself. For, according to the -Egyptians, their monarchs were actually begotten by the -god Ammon, who assumed for the time being the form of -the reigning king, and in that disguise had intercourse with -the queen. The divine procreation is carved and painted in -great detail on the walls of two of the oldest temples in -Egypt, those of Deir el Bahari and Luxor; and the inscriptions -attached to the paintings leave no doubt as to the -meaning of the scenes. The pictures at Deir el Bahari, -which represent the begetting and birth of Queen Hatshopsitou, -are the more ancient, and have been reproduced with -but little change at Luxor, where they represent the begetting -and birth of King Amenophis III. The nativity is -depicted in about fifteen scenes, which may be grouped in -three acts: first, the carnal union of the god with the queen; -second, the birth; and third, the recognition of the infant -by the gods. The marriage of Ammon with the queen is -announced by a prologue in heaven; Ammon summons his -assessors, the gods of Heliopolis, reveals to them the future -birth of a new Pharaoh, a royal princess, and requests them -to make ready the fluid of life and of strength, of which they -are masters. Then the god is seen approaching the queen’s -bedchamber; in front of him marches Thoth, with a roll -of papyrus in his hand, who, to prevent mistakes, recites the -official names of the queen, the spouse of the reigning king -(Thothmes I. at Deir el Bahari, Thothmes IV. at Luxor), -the fairest of women. Then Thoth withdraws behind Ammon, -lifting his arm behind the god in order to renew his vital -fluid at this critical moment. Next, according to the inscription, -the mystery of incarnation takes place. Ammon lays -aside his godhead and becomes flesh in the likeness of the -king, the human spouse of the queen. The consummation -of the divine union follows immediately. On a bed of state -the god and the queen appear seated opposite each other, -with their legs crossed. The queen receives from her husband -the symbols of life and strength, while two goddesses, -Neit and Selkit, the patronesses of matrimony, support the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>feet of the couple and guard them from harm. The text -which encloses the scene sets forth clearly the reality of this -mystic union of the human with the divine. “Thus saith -Ammon-Ra, king of the gods, lord of Karnak, he who rules -over Thebes, when he took the form of this male, the King -of Upper and Nether Egypt, Thothmes I. (or Thothmes IV.), -giver of life. He found the queen then when she lay in the -glory of her palace. She awoke at the fragrance of the god, -and marvelled at it. Straightway his Majesty went towards -her, took possession of her, placed his heart in her, -and shewed himself to her in his divine form. And upon -his coming she was uplifted at the sight of his beauty, the -love of the god ran through all her limbs, and the smell of -the god and his breath were full of the perfumes of Pounit. -And thus saith the royal spouse, the royal mother Ahmasi -(or Moutemouaa), in presence of the majesty of this glorious -god, Ammon, lord of Karnak, lord of Thebes, ‘Twice great -are thy souls! It is noble to behold thy countenance when -thou joinest thyself to my majesty in all grace! Thy dew -impregnates all my limbs.’ Then, when the majesty of the -god had accomplished all his desire with her, Ammon, the -lord of the two lands, said to her: ‘<i>She who is joined to -Ammon, the first of the nobles</i>, verily, such shall be the name -of the daughter who shall open thy womb, since such is the -course of the words that came forth from thy mouth. She -shall reign in righteousness in all the earth, for my soul is -hers, my heart is hers, my will is hers, my crown is hers, -truly, that she may rule over the two lands, that she may -guide the souls of all living.’”</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Nativity of the divine Egyptian kings represented on the monuments.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -After the begetting of the divine child—for we must -remember that the kings and queens of Egypt were regarded -as divinities in their lifetime—another series of scenes represents -the fashioning of its body and its birth. The god -Khnoumou, who in the beginning of time moulded gods -and men on his potter’s wheel, is seen seated at his wheel -modelling the future king or queen and their doubles—those -spiritual duplicates or external souls which were believed -to hover invisible about both men and gods all through life. -In front of Khnoumou kneels Hiqit, the frog-headed goddess, -“the great magician”; she is holding out to the newly-created -<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>figures the symbol of life, the <i>crux ansata</i> ♀, in order -that they may breathe and live. Another scene represents -the birth. At Deir el Bahari the queen has already been -delivered, and is presenting her daughter to several goddesses, -who have acted the part of midwives. At Luxor the double -of the royal infant is born first; the goddesses who serve as -nurses have him in their arms, and the midwives are preparing -to receive the real child. Behind the queen are the -goddesses who watch over childbirth, led by Isis and Nephthys; -and all around the spirits of the East, the West, the -North, and the South are presenting the symbol of life or -uttering acclamations. In a corner the grotesque god Bes -and the female hippopotamus Api keep off all evil influence -and every malignant spirit.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>These representations probably copied from the life.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -We shall probably not err in assuming, with some -eminent authorities, that the ceremonies of the nativity of -the Pharaohs, thus emblazoned on the walls of Egyptian -temples, were copied from the life; in other words, that the -carved and painted scenes represent a real drama, which -was acted by masked men and women whenever a queen -of Egypt was brought to bed. “Here, as everywhere else -in Egypt,” says Professor Maspero, “sculptor and painter -did nothing but faithfully imitate reality. Theory required -that the assimilation of the kings to the gods should be -complete, so that every act of the royal life was, as it were, -a tracing of the corresponding act of the divine life. From -the moment that the king was Ammon, he wore the costume -and badges of Ammon—the tall hat with the long plumes, -the cross of life, the greyhound-headed sceptre—and thus -arrayed he presented himself in the queen’s bedchamber to -consummate the marriage. The assistants also assumed the -costume and appearance of the divinities whom they incarnated; -the men put on masks of jackals, hawks, and -crocodiles, while the women donned masks of cows or frogs, -according as they played the parts of Anubis, Khnoumou, -Sovkou, Hathor, or Hiqit; and I am disposed to believe -that the doubles of the new-born child were represented by -as many puppets as were required by the ceremonies. -Some of the rites were complicated, and must have tired -excessively the mother and child who underwent them; but -<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>they are nothing to those that have been observed in similar -circumstances in other lands. In general, we are bound to -hold that all the pictures traced on the walls of the temples, -in which the person of the king is concerned, correspond -to a real action in which disguised personages played the -part of gods.”<a id='r454' /><a href='#f454' class='c005'><sup>[454]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Human wives of Ammon in the decline of Egypt.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the decline of Egypt from the eleventh century -onward, the wives of Ammon at Thebes were called -on to play a conspicuous part in the government of -the country. The strong grip of the Pharaohs was -relaxed and under their feeble successors the empire -crumbled away into a number of petty independent -states. In this dissolution of the central authority the -crafty high priests of Ammon at Thebes contrived to -usurp regal powers and to reign far and wide in the name -of the deity, veiling their rescripts under the guise of oracles -of the god, who, with the help of a little jugglery, complacently -signified his assent to their wishes by nodding -his head or even by speech. But curiously enough under -this pretended theocracy the nominal ruler was not the -priest himself, but his wife, the earthly consort of Ammon. -Thus Thebes became for a time a ghostly principality -governed ostensibly by a dynasty of female popes. Their -office was hereditary, passing by rights from mother to -daughter. But probably the entail was often broken by -the policy or ambition of the men who stood behind the -scenes and worked the religious puppet-show by hidden -wires to the awe and astonishment of the gaping vulgar. -Certainly we know that on one occasion King Psammetichus -First foisted his own daughter into the Holy See by dedicating -her to Ammon under a hypocritical profession of -gratitude for favours bestowed on him by the deity. And -the female pope had to submit to the dictation with the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>best grace she could assume, protesting her affection for -the adopted daughter who had ousted her own daughter -from the throne.<a id='r455' /><a href='#f455' class='c005'><sup>[455]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Human concubines of Ammon in Roman times.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -At a later period, when Egypt lay under the heel of -Rome, the character of “the divine consort” of Ammon -at Thebes had greatly changed. For at the beginning of -our era the custom was to appoint a young and beautiful -girl, the scion of one of the noblest houses, to serve -Ammon as his concubine. The Greeks called these -maidens Pallades, apparently after their own virgin goddess -Pallas; but the conduct of the girls was by no means -maidenly, for they led the loosest of lives till puberty. Then -they were mourned over and given in marriage.<a id='r456' /><a href='#f456' class='c005'><sup>[456]</sup></a> Their -graves were shown near Thebes.<a id='r457' /><a href='#f457' class='c005'><sup>[457]</sup></a> The reason why their -services ended at puberty may have been that as concubines -of the god they might not bear children to mortal fathers; -hence it was deemed prudent to terminate their relations -with the divinity before they were of an age to become -mothers. It was an Egyptian doctrine that a mortal woman -could conceive by a god, but that a goddess could not conceive -by a mortal man.<a id='r458' /><a href='#f458' class='c005'><sup>[458]</sup></a> The certainty of maternity and -the uncertainty of paternity suggest an obvious and probably -sufficient ground for this theological distinction.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Apollo and his prophetess at Patara.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Apollo was said to spend the winter months at Patara -in Lycia and the summer months in the island of Delos, and -accordingly he gave oracles for one half of the year in the -one place, and for the other half in the other.<a id='r459' /><a href='#f459' class='c005'><sup>[459]</sup></a> So long as -he tarried at Patara, his prophetess was shut up with him -in the temple every night.<a id='r460' /><a href='#f460' class='c005'><sup>[460]</sup></a> At Ephesus there was a college -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Essenes of Artemis at Ephesus.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -of sacred men called Essenes or King Bees who held office -for a year, during which they had to observe strict chastity -and other rules of ceremonial purity.<a id='r461' /><a href='#f461' class='c005'><sup>[461]</sup></a> How many of them -<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>there were at a time we do not know, but there must have -been several, for in Ephesian inscriptions they are regularly -referred to in the plural. They cannot have been bound to -lifelong celibacy, for in one of the inscriptions an Essen -mentions his wife.<a id='r462' /><a href='#f462' class='c005'><sup>[462]</sup></a> Possibly they were deemed the annual -husbands of Artemis, the great many-breasted goddess of -fertility at Ephesus, whose association with the bee is -vouched for by the figures of bees which appear commonly -both on her statues and on the coins of Ephesus.<a id='r463' /><a href='#f463' class='c005'><sup>[463]</sup></a> If this -conjecture is right, the King Bees and their bee-goddess -Artemis at Ephesus would be closely parallel to the King of -the Wood and his woodland-goddess Diana at Nemi, as these -latter are interpreted by me. The rule of chastity imposed -on the King Bees during their year of office would be easily -explicable on this hypothesis. As the temporary husbands -of the goddess they would be expected for the time being to -have no intercourse with mortal women, just as the human -wives of Bel and Ammon were supposed to have no -commerce with mortal men.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Marriage of Dionysus to the Queen at Athens.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -At Athens the god of the vine, Dionysus, was annually -married to the Queen, and it appears that the consummation -of the divine union, as well as the espousals, was enacted at -the ceremony; but whether the part of the god was played -by a man or an image we do not know. Attic law required -that the Queen should be a burgess and should never have -known any man but her husband. She had to offer certain -<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>secret sacrifices on behalf of the state, and was permitted to -see what no foreign woman might ever behold, and to enter -where no other Athenian might set foot. She was assisted -in the discharge of her solemn functions by fourteen sacred -women, one for each of the altars of Dionysus. The old -Dionysiac festival was held on the twelfth day of the month -Anthesterion, corresponding roughly to our February, at -the ancient sanctuary of Dionysus in the Marshes, which -was never opened throughout the year save on that one -day. At this festival the Queen exacted an oath of -purity and chastity from the fourteen sacred women at the -altar. Possibly her marriage was celebrated on the same -day, though of that we have no positive evidence, and we -learn from Aristotle that the ceremony took place, not -at the sanctuary in the marshes, but in the old official -residence of the King, known as the Cattle-stall, which stood -near the Prytaneum or Town-hall on the north-eastern slope -of the Acropolis.<a id='r464' /><a href='#f464' class='c005'><sup>[464]</sup></a> But whatever the date of the wedding, -its object can hardly have been any other than that of -ensuring the fertility of the vines and other fruit-trees, of -which Dionysus was the god. Thus both in form and in -meaning the ceremony would answer to the nuptials of the -King and Queen of May. Again, the story, dear to poets -<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>and artists, of the forsaken and sleeping Ariadne, waked and -wedded by Dionysus, resembles so closely the little drama -acted by French peasants of the Alps on May Day,<a id='r465' /><a href='#f465' class='c005'><sup>[465]</sup></a> that, -considering the character of Dionysus as a god of vegetation, -we can hardly help regarding it as the reflection of a -spring ceremony like the French one. In point of fact the -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Dionysus and Ariadne.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -marriage of Dionysus and Ariadne was believed by Preller -to have been acted every spring in Crete.<a id='r466' /><a href='#f466' class='c005'><sup>[466]</sup></a> His evidence, -indeed, is inconclusive, but the view itself is probable. If I -am right in comparing the two, the chief difference between -the French and the Greek ceremonies appears to have been -that in the former the sleeper was a forsaken bridegroom, in -the latter a forsaken bride; and the group of stars in the -sky, in which fancy saw Ariadne’s wedding crown,<a id='r467' /><a href='#f467' class='c005'><sup>[467]</sup></a> may have -been only a translation to heaven of the garland worn by -the Greek girl who played the Queen of May.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Marriage of Zeus with Demeter at Eleusis.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -If at Athens, and probably elsewhere, the vine-god was -married to a queen in order that the vines might be loaded -with clusters of grapes, there is reason to think that a -marriage of a different kind, intended to make the fields -wave with yellow corn, was annually celebrated not many -miles off, beyond the low hills that bound the plain of -Athens on the west. In the great mysteries solemnised at -Eleusis in the month of September the union of the sky-god -Zeus with the corn-goddess Demeter appears to have -been represented by the union of the hierophant with the -priestess of Demeter, who acted the parts of god and -goddess. But their intercourse was only dramatic or -symbolical, for the hierophant had temporarily deprived -himself of his virility by an application of hemlock. The -torches having been extinguished, the pair descended into a -murky place, while the throng of worshippers awaited in -anxious suspense the result of the mystic congress, on which -they believed their own salvation to depend. After a time -the hierophant reappeared, and in a blaze of light silently -exhibited to the assembly a reaped ear of corn, the fruit of -the divine marriage. Then in a loud voice he proclaimed, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>“Queen Brimo has brought forth a sacred boy Brimos,” by -which he meant, “The Mighty One has brought forth the -Mighty.” The corn-mother in fact had given birth to her -child, the corn, and her travail-pangs were enacted in the -sacred drama.<a id='r468' /><a href='#f468' class='c005'><sup>[468]</sup></a> This revelation of the reaped corn appears -to have been the crowning act of the mysteries. Thus -through the glamour shed round these rites by the poetry -and philosophy of later ages there still looms, like a distant -landscape through a sunlit haze, a simple rustic festival -<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>designed to cover the wide Eleusinian plain with a plenteous -harvest by wedding the goddess of the corn to the sky-god, -who fertilised the bare earth with genial showers.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Marriage of Zeus and Hera at Plataea.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But Zeus was not always the sky-god, nor did he always -marry the corn-goddess. If in antiquity a traveller, quitting -Eleusis and passing through miles of olive-groves and corn-fields, -had climbed the pine-clad mountains of Cithaeron and -descended through the forest on their northern slope to -Plataea, he might have chanced to find the people of that -little Boeotian town celebrating a different marriage of -the great god to a different goddess. The ceremony is -described by a Greek antiquary whose note-book has -fortunately preserved for us not a few rural customs of -ancient Greece, of which the knowledge would otherwise -have perished.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Every few years the people of Plataea held a festival -which they called the Little Daedala. On the day of the -festival they went out into an ancient oak forest, the trees -of which were of gigantic girth. There they set some boiled -meat on the ground, and watched the birds that gathered -round it. When a raven was observed to carry off a piece -of the meat and perch on an oak, the people followed it and -cut down the tree. With the wood of the tree they made -an image, dressed it as a bride, and placed it on a bullock-cart -with a bridesmaid beside it. It seems then to have -been drawn to the banks of the river Asopus and back to -the town, attended by a piping and dancing crowd. After -the festival the image was put away and kept till the celebration -of the Great Daedala, which fell only once in sixty -years, and was held by all the people of Boeotia. On this -occasion all the images, fourteen in number, that had accumulated -from the celebrations of the Little Daedala were dragged -on wains in procession to the river Asopus, and then to the -top of Mount Cithaeron. There an altar had been constructed -of square blocks of wood fitted together, with brushwood -heaped over it. Animals were sacrificed by being burned -on the altar, and the altar itself, together with the images, -was consumed by the flames. The blaze, we are told, rose -to a prodigious height and was seen for many miles. To -explain the origin of the festival a story ran that once -<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>upon a time Hera had quarrelled with Zeus and left him in -high dudgeon. To lure her back Zeus gave out that he -was about to marry the nymph Plataea, daughter of the -river Asopus. He had a fine oak cut down, shaped and -dressed as a bride, and conveyed on a bullock-cart. Transported -with rage and jealousy, Hera flew to the cart, -and tearing off the veil of the pretended bride, discovered -the deceit that had been practised on her. Her rage now -turned to laughter, and she became reconciled to her husband -Zeus.<a id='r469' /><a href='#f469' class='c005'><sup>[469]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Resemblance of the Plataean ceremony to the spring and midsummer -festivals of modern Europe.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The resemblance of this festival to some of the European -spring and midsummer festivals is tolerably close. We have -seen that in Russia at Whitsuntide the villagers go out into -the wood, fell a birch-tree, dress it in woman’s clothes, and -bring it back to the village with dance and song. On the -third day it is thrown into the water.<a id='r470' /><a href='#f470' class='c005'><sup>[470]</sup></a> Again, we have seen -that in Bohemia on Midsummer Eve the village lads fell a -tall fir or pine-tree in the wood and set it up on a height, -where it is adorned with garlands, nosegays, and ribbons, -and afterwards burnt.<a id='r471' /><a href='#f471' class='c005'><sup>[471]</sup></a> The reason for burning the tree -will appear afterwards; the custom itself is not uncommon -in modern Europe. In some parts of the Pyrenees a tall -and slender tree is cut down on May Day and kept till -Midsummer Eve. It is then rolled to the top of a hill, set -up, and burned.<a id='r472' /><a href='#f472' class='c005'><sup>[472]</sup></a> In Angoulême on St. Peter’s Day, the -twenty-ninth of June, a tall leafy poplar is set up in the -market-place and burned.<a id='r473' /><a href='#f473' class='c005'><sup>[473]</sup></a> Near Launceston in Cornwall -there is a large tumulus known as Whiteborough, with a -fosse round it. On this tumulus “there was formerly a -great bonfire on Midsummer Eve; a large summer pole was -fixed in the centre, round which the fuel was heaped up. It -had a large bush on the top of it. Round this were parties -of wrestlers contending for small prizes.” The rustics believed -that giants were buried in such mounds, and nothing would -tempt them to disturb their bones.<a id='r474' /><a href='#f474' class='c005'><sup>[474]</sup></a> In Dublin on May-morning -<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>boys used to go out and cut a May-bush, bring it -back to town, and then burn it.<a id='r475' /><a href='#f475' class='c005'><sup>[475]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>All such ceremonies were originally magical rites intended to bring about the -effects which they dramatically represented.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Probably the Boeotian festival belonged to the same class -of rites. It represented the marriage of the powers of vegetation—the -union of the oak-god with the oak-goddess<a id='r476' /><a href='#f476' class='c005'><sup>[476]</sup></a>—in -spring or midsummer, just as the same event is represented -in modern Europe by a King and Queen or a Lord -and Lady of the May. In the Boeotian, as in the Russian, -ceremony the tree dressed as a woman stands for the English -May-pole and May-queen in one. All such ceremonies, it -must be remembered, are not, or at least were not originally, -mere spectacular or dramatic exhibitions. They are magical -rites designed to produce the effect which they dramatically -set forth. If the revival of vegetation in spring is -mimicked by the awakening of a sleeper, the mimicry is -intended actually to quicken the growth of leaves and -blossoms; if the marriage of the powers of vegetation is -simulated by a King and Queen of May, the idea is that the -powers thus personated will really be rendered more productive -by the ceremony. In short, all these spring and -midsummer festivals fall under the head of homoeopathic or -imitative magic. The thing which people wish to bring -about they represent dramatically, and the very representation -is believed to effect, or at least to contribute to, the production -of the desired result. In the case of the Daedala the -story of Hera’s quarrel with Zeus and her sullen retirement -may perhaps without straining be interpreted as a mythical -expression for a bad season and the failure of the crops. -The same disastrous effects were attributed to the anger and -seclusion of Demeter after the loss of her daughter Proserpine.<a id='r477' /><a href='#f477' class='c005'><sup>[477]</sup></a> -Now the institution of a festival is often explained -by a mythical story, which relates how upon a particular -occasion those very calamities occurred which it is the real -<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>object of the festival to avert; so that if we know the myth -told to account for the historical origin of the festival, we can -often infer from it the real intention with which the festival -was celebrated. If, therefore, the origin of the Daedala was -explained by a story of a failure of crops and consequent -famine, we may infer that the real object of the festival was -to prevent the occurrence of such disasters; and, if I am right -in my interpretation of the festival, the object was supposed -to be effected by dramatically representing the marriage of -the divinities most concerned with the production of trees -and plants. The marriage of Zeus and Hera was acted -at annual festivals in various parts of Greece,<a id='r478' /><a href='#f478' class='c005'><sup>[478]</sup></a> and it is -at least a fair conjecture that the nature and intention -of these ceremonies were such as I have assigned to the -Plataean festival of the Daedala; in other words, that Zeus -and Hera at these festivals were the Greek equivalents of the -Lord and Lady of the May. Homer’s glowing picture of -Zeus and Hera couched on fresh hyacinths and crocuses,<a id='r479' /><a href='#f479' class='c005'><sup>[479]</sup></a> -like Milton’s description of the dalliance of Zephyr with -Aurora, “as he met her once a-Maying,” was perhaps painted -from the life.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The god Frey and his human wife in Sweden.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The sacred marriage of Zeus and Hera had, as was -natural, its counterpart among the northern kinsfolk of the -Greeks. In Sweden every year a life-size image of Frey, -the god of fertility, both animal and vegetable, was drawn -about the country in a waggon attended by a beautiful girl -who was called the god’s wife. She acted also as his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>priestess in his great temple at Upsala. Wherever the -waggon came with the image of the god and his blooming -young bride, the people crowded to meet them and offered -sacrifices for a fruitful year. Once on a time a Norwegian -exile named Gunnar Helming gave himself out to be Frey -in person, and rode about on the sacred waggon dressed up -in the god’s clothes. Everywhere the simple folk welcomed -him as the deity, and observed with wonder and delight -that a god walked about among men and ate and drank -just like other people. And when the months went by, and -the god’s fair young wife was seen to be with child, their joy -waxed greatly, for they thought, “Surely this is an omen of -a fruitful season.” It happened that the weather was then -so mild, and the promise of a plenteous harvest so fair, that -no man ever remembered such a year before. But one night -the god departed in haste, with his wife and all the gold and -silver and fine raiment which he had got together; and -though the Swedes made after him, they could not catch -him. He was over the hills and far away in Norway.<a id='r480' /><a href='#f480' class='c005'><sup>[480]</sup></a> -Similar ceremonies appear to have been observed by the -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Similar customs in Gaul.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -peasantry of Gaul in antiquity; for Gregory of Tours, writing -in the sixth century of our era, says that at Autun the -people used to carry about an image of a goddess in a -waggon drawn by oxen. The intention of the ceremony -was to ensure the safety of the crops and vines, and the -rustics danced and sang in front of the image.<a id='r481' /><a href='#f481' class='c005'><sup>[481]</sup></a> The old -historian identifies the goddess with Cybele, the Great -Mother goddess of Phrygia, and the identification would -seem to be correct. For we learn from another source that -men wrought up to a pitch of frenzy by the shrill music of -flutes and the clash of cymbals, sacrificed their virility -<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>to the goddess, dashing the severed portions of themselves -against her image.<a id='r482' /><a href='#f482' class='c005'><sup>[482]</sup></a> Now this religious castration was a -marked feature of the Phrygian worship of Cybele, but it is -alien to Western modes of thought, although it still finds -favour with a section of the barbarous, fanatical, semi-Oriental -peasantry of Russia.<a id='r483' /><a href='#f483' class='c005'><sup>[483]</sup></a> But whether of native or of -Eastern origin the rites of the goddess of Autun closely -conformed to those of the great Phrygian goddess and -appear to have been, like them, a perverted form of the -Sacred Marriage, which was designed to fertilise the earth, -and in which eunuchs, strange as it may seem, personated -the lovers of the goddess.<a id='r484' /><a href='#f484' class='c005'><sup>[484]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The custom of marrying gods to images or to living persons is found also -among uncivilised peoples.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus the custom of marrying gods either to images or to -human beings was widespread among the nations of antiquity. -The ideas on which such a custom is based are too -crude to allow us to doubt that the civilised Babylonians, -Egyptians, and Greeks inherited it from their barbarous or -savage forefathers. This presumption is strengthened when -we find rites of a similar kind in vogue among the lower -races. Thus, for example, we are told that once upon a -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Custom of the Wotyaks.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -time the Wotyaks of the Malmyz district in Russia were -distressed by a series of bad harvests. They did not know -what to do, but at last concluded that their powerful but -mischievous god Keremet must be angry at being unmarried. -So a deputation of elders visited the Wotyaks of Cura and -came to an understanding with them on the subject. Then -they returned home, laid in a large stock of brandy, and -having made ready a gaily decked waggon and horses, they -drove in procession with bells ringing, as they do when they -are fetching home a bride, to the sacred grove at Cura. -There they ate and drank merrily all night, and next morning -they cut a square piece of turf in the grove and took it -home with them. After this, though it fared well with the -people of Malmyz, it fared ill with the people of Cura; for -in Malmyz the bread was good, but in Cura it was bad. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>Hence the men of Cura who had consented to the marriage -were blamed and roughly handled by their indignant fellow-villagers. -“What they meant by this marriage ceremony,” -says the writer who reports it, “it is not easy to imagine. -Perhaps, as Bechterew thinks, they meant to marry Keremet -to the kindly and fruitful Mukylćin, the Earth-wife, in order -that she might influence him for good.”<a id='r485' /><a href='#f485' class='c005'><sup>[485]</sup></a> This carrying of -turf, like a bride, in a waggon from a sacred grove resembles -the Plataean custom of carting an oak log as a bride from -an ancient oak forest; and we have seen ground for thinking -that the Plataean ceremony, like its Wotyak counterpart, was -intended as a charm to secure fertility. When wells are -dug in Bengal, a wooden image of a god is made and -married to the goddess of water.<a id='r486' /><a href='#f486' class='c005'><sup>[486]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Custom of the Peruvian Indians.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Often the bride destined for the god is not a log or a -clod, but a living woman of flesh and blood. The Indians -of a village in Peru have been known to marry a beautiful -girl, about fourteen years of age, to a stone shaped like a -human being, which they regarded as a god (<i>huaca</i>). All -the villagers took part in the marriage ceremony, which -lasted three days, and was attended with much revelry. -The girl thereafter remained a virgin and sacrificed to the -idol for the people. They shewed her the utmost reverence -and deemed her divine.<a id='r487' /><a href='#f487' class='c005'><sup>[487]</sup></a> The Blackfoot Indians of North -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Marriage of a woman to the Sun among the Blackfoot Indians.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -America used to worship the Sun as their chief god, and they -held a festival every year in his honour. Four days before -the new moon of August the tribe halted on its march, and -all hunting was suspended. Bodies of mounted men were -on duty day and night to carry out the orders of the high -priest of the Sun. He enjoined the people to fast and to -take vapour baths during the four days before the new -moon. Moreover, with the help of his council, he chose the -Vestal who was to represent the Moon and to be married to -the Sun at the festival. She might be either a virgin or a -woman who had had but one husband. Any girl or woman -found to have discharged the sacred duties without fulfilling -the prescribed conditions was put to death. On the third -<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>day of preparation, after the last purification had been -observed, they built a round temple of the Sun. Posts were -driven into the ground in a circle; these were connected -with cross-pieces, and the whole was covered with leaves. -In the middle stood the sacred pole, supporting the roof. A -bundle of many small branches of sacred wood, wrapped in -a splendid buffalo robe, crowned the summit of the temple. -The entrance was on the east, and within the sanctuary -stood an altar on which rested the head of a buffalo. -Beside the altar was the place reserved for the Vestal. -Here, on a bed prepared for her, she slept “the sleep of war,” -as it was called. Her other duties consisted in maintaining -a sacred fire of fragrant herbs, in presenting a lighted pipe -to her husband the Sun, and in telling the high priest the -dream she dreamed during “the sleep of war.” On learning -it the priest had it proclaimed to the whole nation to the -beat of drum.<a id='r488' /><a href='#f488' class='c005'><sup>[488]</sup></a> Every year about the middle of March, -when the season for fishing with the drag-net began, the -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Marriage of girls to fishing nets among the Hurons and Algonquins.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Algonquins and Hurons married their nets to two young -girls, aged six or seven. At the wedding feast the net was -placed between the two maidens, and was exhorted to take -courage and catch many fish. The reason for choosing the -brides so young was to make sure that they were virgins. -The origin of the custom is said to have been this. One -year, when the fishing season came round, the Algonquins -cast their nets as usual, but took nothing. Surprised at -their want of success, they did not know what to make of it, -till the soul or genius (<i>oki</i>) of the net appeared to them in -the likeness of a tall well-built man, who said to them in a -great passion, “I have lost my wife and I cannot find one -who has known no other man but me; that is why you do -not succeed, and why you never will succeed till you give -me satisfaction on this head.” So the Algonquins held a -council and resolved to appease the spirit of the net by -marrying him to two such very young girls that he could -have no ground of complaint on that score for the future. -They did so, and the fishing turned out all that could be -wished. The thing got wind among their neighbours the -Hurons, and they adopted the custom. A share of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>catch was always given to the families of the two girls who -acted as brides of the net for the year.<a id='r489' /><a href='#f489' class='c005'><sup>[489]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sacred Marriage of the Sun-god and Earth-goddess among the Oraons.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The Oraons of Bengal worship the Earth as a goddess, -and annually celebrate her marriage with the Sun-god -Dharmē at the time when the <i>sāl</i> tree is in blossom. The -ceremony is as follows. All bathe, then the men repair to -the sacred grove (<i>sarnā</i>), while the women assemble at the -house of the village priest. After sacrificing some fowls to -the Sun-god and the demon of the grove, the men eat and -drink. “The priest is then carried back to the village on -the shoulders of a strong man. Near the village the -women meet the men and wash their feet. With beating -of drums and singing, dancing, and jumping, all proceed to -the priest’s house, which has been decorated with leaves and -flowers. Then the usual form of marriage is performed -between the priest and his wife, symbolizing the supposed -union between Sun and Earth. After the ceremony all eat -and drink and make merry; they dance and sing obscene -songs, and finally indulge in the vilest orgies. The object -is to move the mother earth to become fruitful.”<a id='r490' /><a href='#f490' class='c005'><sup>[490]</sup></a> Thus the -Sacred Marriage of the Sun and Earth, personated by the -priest and his wife, is celebrated as a charm to ensure the -fertility of the ground; and for the same purpose, on -the principle of homoeopathic magic, the people indulge in -a licentious orgy. Among the Sulka of New Britain, at -the village of Kolvagat, a certain man has charge of two -stone figures which are called respectively “Our grandfather” -(<i>ngur es</i>) and “Our grandmother” (<i>ngur pei</i>). They are -said to be kept in a house built specially for the purpose. -Fruits of the field are offered to them and left beside them -to rot. When their guardian puts the two figures with their -faces turned towards each other, the plantations are believed -to flourish; but when he sets them back to back, there is -dearth and the people suffer from eruptions on the skin.<a id='r491' /><a href='#f491' class='c005'><sup>[491]</sup></a> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>This turning of the two images face to face may be -regarded as a simple form of Sacred Marriage between -the two divine powers represented by them, who -are clearly supposed to control the fertility of the -plantations.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Marriage of women to gods in India and Africa.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -At the village of Bas Doda, in the Gurgaon district of -North-Western India, a fair is held on the twenty-sixth -of the month Chait and the two following days. We are -told that formerly girls of the Dhinwar class used to be -married to the god at these festivals, and that they always -died soon afterwards. Of late years the practice is said to -have been discontinued.<a id='r492' /><a href='#f492' class='c005'><sup>[492]</sup></a> In Behar during the month of -Sawan (August) crowds of women, calling themselves Nagin -or “wives of the snake,” go about for two and a half days -begging; during this time they may neither sleep under a -roof nor eat salt. Half the proceeds of their begging is given -to Brahmans, and the other half spent in salt and sweet-meats, -which are eaten by all the villagers.<a id='r493' /><a href='#f493' class='c005'><sup>[493]</sup></a> Amongst the -Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast in West Africa -human wives of gods are very common. In Dahomey -they swarm, and it has even been estimated that every -fourth woman is devoted to the service of some deity. -The chief business of these female votaries is prostitution. -In every town there is at least one seminary where the -handsomest girls, between ten and twelve years of age, -are trained. They stay for three years, learning the -chants and dances peculiar to the worship of the gods, -and prostituting themselves to the priests and the inmates -of the male seminaries. At the end of their noviciate -they become public harlots. But no disgrace attaches to -their profession, for it is believed that they are married to -the god, and that their excesses are caused and directed by -him. Strictly speaking, they should confine their favours -to the male worshippers at the temple, but in practice they -bestow them indiscriminately. Children born of such unions -belong to the deity. As the wives of a god, these sacred -women may not marry. But they are not bound to the -service of the divinity for life. Some only bear his name and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>sacrifice to him on their birthdays.<a id='r494' /><a href='#f494' class='c005'><sup>[494]</sup></a> Amongst these polygamous -West African gods the sacred python seems to be -particularly associated with the fertility of the earth; for he is -invoked in excessively wet, dry, and barren seasons, and the -time of year when young girls are sought out to be his -brides is when the millet is beginning to sprout.<a id='r495' /><a href='#f495' class='c005'><sup>[495]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Women married to water-gods.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -It deserves to be remarked that the supernatural being -to whom women are married is often a god or spirit of water. -Thus Mukasa, the god of the Victoria Nyanza lake, who was -propitiated by the Baganda every time they undertook a long -voyage, had virgins provided for him to serve as his wives. -Like the Vestals they were bound to chastity, but unlike -the Vestals they seem to have been often unfaithful. The -custom lasted until Mwanga was converted to Christianity.<a id='r496' /><a href='#f496' class='c005'><sup>[496]</sup></a> -The Akikuyu of British East Africa worship the snake -of a certain river, and at intervals of several years they -marry the snake-god to women, but especially to young -girls. For this purpose huts are built by order of the -medicine-men, who there consummate the sacred marriage -with the credulous female devotees. If the girls do not -repair to the huts of their own accord in sufficient numbers, -they are seized and dragged thither to the embraces of the -deity. The offspring of these mystic unions appears to -be fathered on God (<i>Ngai</i>); certainly there are children -among the Akikuyu who pass for children of God.<a id='r497' /><a href='#f497' class='c005'><sup>[497]</sup></a> In -Kengtung, one of the principal Shan states of Upper -Burma, the spirit of the Nawng Tung lake is regarded as -very powerful, and is propitiated with offerings in the eighth -month (about July) of each year. A remarkable feature of -the worship of this spirit consists in the dedication to him of -four virgins in marriage. Custom requires that this should -be done once in every three years. It was actually done -by the late king or chief (Sawbwa) in 1893, but down to -1901 the rite had not been performed by his successor. The -following are the chief features of the ceremony. The -virgins who are to wed the spirit of the lake must be of -pure Hkön race. Orders are sent out for all the Hkön of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>the valley to attend. From the unmarried women of suitable -age, ten are selected. These are as beautiful as may -be, and must be without spot or blemish. Four maidens out -of the ten are chosen by lot, and carefully dressed in new -garments. A festival is held, usually at the house of the -Chief Minister, where the girls sit on a raised platform. -Four old women, thought to be possessed by spirits, enter -and remain as long as the feast lasts. During this time -anything they may want, such as food, betel, or cheroots, is -handed to them by the four girls. Apparently the old -women pass for representatives of the spirit, and hence they -are waited on by the maidens destined to be his wives. -Dotage, blindness, or any great infirmity of age seems to be -accounted possession by a spirit for the purposes of this function. -When the feast is over, the maidens are formally -presented to the spirit, along with the various sacrifices and -offerings. They are next taken to the chief’s residence, where -strings are tied round their wrists by the ministers and elders -to guard them against ill-luck. Usually they sleep a night -or two at the palace, after which they may return to their -homes. There seems to be no objection to their marrying -afterwards. If nothing happens to any of the four, it is believed -that the spirit of the lake loves them but little; but -if one of them dies soon after the ceremony, it shews that -she has been accepted by him. The spirit is propitiated -with the sacrifice of pigs, fowls, and sometimes a buffalo.<a id='r498' /><a href='#f498' class='c005'><sup>[498]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Egyptian custom of drowning a girl as a sacrifice to the Nile.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In this last custom the death of the woman is regarded -as a sign that the god has taken her to himself. Sometimes, -apparently, it has not been left to the discretion of -the divine bridegroom to take or leave his human bride; -she was made over to him once for all in death. When the -Arabs conquered Egypt they learned that at the annual -rise of the Nile the Egyptians were wont to deck a young -virgin in gay apparel and throw her into the river as a -sacrifice, in order to obtain a plentiful inundation. The -Arab general abolished the barbarous custom.<a id='r499' /><a href='#f499' class='c005'><sup>[499]</sup></a> It is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>said that under the Tang dynasty the Chinese used to marry -a young girl to the Yellow River once a year by drowning -her in the water. For this purpose the witches chose the -fairest damsel they could find and themselves superintended -the fatal marriage. At last the local mandarin, a man of -sense and humanity, forbade the custom. But the witches -disregarded his edicts and made their preparations for the -usual murder. So when the day was come, the magistrate -appeared on the scene with his soldiers and had all the -witches bound and thrown into the river to drown, telling -them that no doubt the god would be able to choose -his bride for himself from among them.<a id='r500' /><a href='#f500' class='c005'><sup>[500]</sup></a> The princes -of Koepang, a state in the East Indian island of Timor, -deemed themselves descended from crocodiles; and on -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Girls sacrificed as brides of crocodiles.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -the coronation of a new prince a solemn sacrifice was -made to the crocodiles in presence of the people. The -offerings consisted of a pig with red bristles and a young -girl prettily dressed, perfumed, and decked with flowers. -She was taken down to the bank of the river and set on a -sacred stone in a cave. Then one of the prince’s guards -summoned the crocodiles. Soon one of the beasts appeared -and dragged the girl down into the water. The people -thought that he married her, and that if he did not find her -a maid he would bring her back.<a id='r501' /><a href='#f501' class='c005'><sup>[501]</sup></a> On festal occasions in -the same state a new-born girl was sometimes dedicated to -a crocodile, and then, with certain ceremonies of consecration, -brought up to be married to a priest.<a id='r502' /><a href='#f502' class='c005'><sup>[502]</sup></a> It is said that -once, when the inhabitants of Cayeli in Buru—another East -Indian island—were threatened with destruction by a swarm -of crocodiles, they ascribed the misfortune to a passion -which the prince of the crocodiles had conceived for a -certain girl. Accordingly, they compelled the damsel’s -father to dress her in bridal array and deliver her over to -the clutches of her crocodile lover.<a id='r503' /><a href='#f503' class='c005'><sup>[503]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Virgin sacrificed as a bride to a jinnee of the sea -in the Maldive Islands.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -A usage of the same sort is reported to have prevailed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>in the Maldive Islands before the conversion of the inhabitants -to Islam. The famous Arab traveller Ibn Batutah -has described the custom and the manner in which it came -to an end. He was assured by several trustworthy natives, -whose names he gives, that when the people of the islands -were idolaters there appeared to them every month an evil -spirit among the jinn, who came from across the sea in the -likeness of a ship full of burning lamps. The wont of the -inhabitants, as soon as they perceived him, was to take a -young virgin, and, having adorned her, to lead her to a heathen -temple that stood on the shore, with a window looking out -to sea. There they left the damsel for the night, and when -they came back in the morning they found her a maid no -more, and dead. Every month they drew lots, and he upon -whom the lot fell gave up his daughter to the jinnee of the -sea. In time there came to them a Berber named Abu -’lberecat, who knew the Coran by heart. He lodged in the -house of an old woman of the isle of Mahal. One day, -visiting his hostess, he found that she had gathered her -family about her, and that the women were weeping as if -there were a funeral. On enquiring into the cause of their -distress, he learned that the lot had fallen on the old woman, -and that she had an only daughter, who must be slain by -the evil jinnee. Abu ’lberecat said to the old dame, “I will -go this night instead of thy daughter.” Now he was quite -beardless. So when the night was come they took him, and -after he had performed his ablutions, they put him in the -temple of idols. He set himself to recite the Coran; then -the demon appeared at the window, but the man went on -with his recitation. No sooner was the jinnee within hearing -of the holy words than he dived into the sea. When -morning broke, the old woman and her family and the people -of the island came, according to their custom, to carry away -the girl and burn her body. They found the stranger repeating -the Coran, and took him to their king, whose name was -Chenourazah, and made him relate his adventure. The -king was astonished at it. The Berber proposed to the -king that he should embrace Islam. Chenourazah said to -him, “Tarry with us till next month; if thou shalt do what -thou hast done, and shalt escape from the evil jinnee, I will -<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>be converted.” The stranger abode with the idolaters, and -God disposed the king’s heart to receive the true faith. So -before the month was out he became a Mussalman, he and -his wives and his children and the people of his court. And -when the next month began, the Berber was conducted to -the temple of idols; but the demon did not appear, and the -Berber set himself to recite the Coran till break of day. -Then the Sultan and his subjects broke the idols and -demolished the temple. The people of the island embraced -Islam and sent messengers to the other isles, and their -inhabitants were converted likewise. But by reason of the -demon many of the Maldive Islands were depopulated -before their conversion to Islam. When Ibn Batutah himself -landed in the country he knew nothing of these things. -One night, as he was going about his business, he heard of -a sudden people saying in a loud voice, “There is no God -but God,” and “God is great.” He saw children carrying -copies of the Coran on their heads, and women beating on -basins and vessels of copper. He was astonished at what -they did, and he said, “What has happened?” They -answered, “Dost thou not behold the sea?” He looked -towards the sea, and beheld in the darkness, as it were, a -great ship full of burning lamps and cressets. They said to -him, “That is the demon. It is his wont to shew himself -once a month; but after we have done that which thou hast -seen, he returns to his place and does us no manner of -harm.”<a id='r504' /><a href='#f504' class='c005'><sup>[504]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The story based on the phosphorescence of the sea.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -It occurred to me that this myth of the demon lover may -have been based on some physical phenomenon, electrical, -lunar, or otherwise, which is periodically seen at night in -the Maldive Islands. Accordingly I consulted Professor J. -Stanley Gardiner, our foremost authority on the archipelago. -His answer, which confirms my conjecture, runs thus: “A -peculiar phosphorescence, like the glow of a lamp hidden by -a roughened glass shade, is occasionally visible on lagoon -shoals in the Maldives. I imagine it to have been due to -some single animal with a greater phosphorescence than any -at present known to us. A periodical appearance at some -<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>phase of the moon due to reproduction is not improbable -and has parallels. The myth still exists in the Maldives, but -in a rather different form.” He adds that “a number of -these animals might of course appear on some shoal near -Male,” the principal island of the group. To the eyes of -the ignorant and superstitious such a mysterious glow, -suddenly lighting up the sea in the dusk of the evening, -might well appear a phantom ship, hung with burning lamps, -bearing down on the devoted islands, and in the stillness of -night the roar of the surf on the barrier reef might sound in -their ears like the voice of the demon calling for his prey.<a id='r505' /><a href='#f505' class='c005'><sup>[505]</sup></a></p> -<h3 class='c006'>§ 3. Sacrifices to Water-spirits</h3> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Stories of the Perseus and Andromeda type.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Ibn Batutah’s narrative of the demon lover and his mortal -brides closely resembles a well-known type of folk-tale, of -which versions have been found from Japan and Annam in -the East to Senegambia, Scandinavia, and Scotland in the -West. The story varies in details from people to people, -but as commonly told it runs thus. A certain country is -infested by a many-headed serpent, dragon, or other monster, -which would destroy the whole people if a human victim, -generally a virgin, were not delivered up to him periodically. -Many victims have perished, and at last it has fallen to the -lot of the king’s own daughter to be sacrificed. She is -exposed to the monster, but the hero of the tale, generally -a young man of humble birth, interposes in her behalf, slays -the monster, and receives the hand of the princess as his -reward. In many of the tales the monster, who is sometimes -described as a serpent, inhabits the water of a sea, a lake, or -a fountain. In other versions he is a serpent or dragon who -takes possession of the springs of water, and only allows the -water to flow or the people to make use of it on condition of -receiving a human victim.<a id='r506' /><a href='#f506' class='c005'><sup>[506]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Water-spirits conceived as serpents or dragons.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -It would probably be a mistake to dismiss all these tales -as pure inventions of the story-teller. Rather we may -suppose that they reflect a real custom of sacrificing girls or -women to be the wives of water-spirits, who are very often -conceived as great serpents or dragons. Elsewhere I have -cited many instances of this belief in serpent-shaped spirits -of water;<a id='r507' /><a href='#f507' class='c005'><sup>[507]</sup></a> here it may be worth while to add a few -more. Thus the Warramunga of Central Australia perform -elaborate ceremonies to appease or coerce a gigantic, but -purely mythical water-snake who is said to have destroyed -a number of people.<a id='r508' /><a href='#f508' class='c005'><sup>[508]</sup></a> Some of the natives of western -Australia fear to approach large pools, supposing them to be -inhabited by a great serpent, who would kill them if they -dared to drink or draw water there by night.<a id='r509' /><a href='#f509' class='c005'><sup>[509]</sup></a> The Indians -of New Granada believed that when the mother of all mankind, -named Bachue, was grown old, she and her husband -plunged into the Lake of Iguague, where they were -changed into two enormous serpents, which still live in the -lake and sometimes shew themselves.<a id='r510' /><a href='#f510' class='c005'><sup>[510]</sup></a> The Oyampi -Indians of French Guiana imagine that each waterfall -has a guardian in the shape of a monstrous snake, who -lies hidden under the eddy of the cascade, but has sometimes -been seen to lift up its huge head. To see it is fatal. -Canoe and Indians are then dragged down to the bottom, -where the monster swallows all the men, and sometimes the -canoe also. Hence the Oyampis never name a waterfall till -they have passed it, for fear that the snake at the bottom of -the water might hear its name and attack the rash intruders.<a id='r511' /><a href='#f511' class='c005'><sup>[511]</sup></a> -The Huichol Indians of Mexico adore water. Springs -are sacred, and the gods in them are mothers or serpents, -that rise with the clouds and descend as fructifying rain.<a id='r512' /><a href='#f512' class='c005'><sup>[512]</sup></a> -The Tarahumares, another Indian tribe of Mexico, think -<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>that every river, pool, and spring has its serpent, who causes -the water to come up out of the earth. All these water-serpents -are easily offended; hence the Tarahumares place their -houses some little way from the water, and will not sleep -near it when they are on a journey. Whenever they construct -weirs to catch fish, they take care to offer fish to the -water-serpent of the river; and when they are away from -home and are making pinole, that is, toasted maize-meal, -they drop the first of the pinole into the water as an -offering to the serpents, who would otherwise try to seize -them and chase them back to their own land.<a id='r513' /><a href='#f513' class='c005'><sup>[513]</sup></a> In Basutoland -the rivers Ketane and Maletsunyane tumble, with a roar -of waters and a cloud of iridescent spray, into vast chasms -hundreds of feet deep. The Basutos fear to approach the -foot of these huge falls, for they think that a spirit in the -shape of a gigantic snake haunts the seething cauldron -which receives the falling waters.<a id='r514' /><a href='#f514' class='c005'><sup>[514]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sacrifices of human beings to water-spirits.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The perils of the sea, of floods, of rapid rivers, of deep -pools and lakes, naturally account for the belief that water-spirits -are fickle and dangerous beings, who need to be -appeased by sacrifices. Sometimes these sacrifices consist of -animals, such as horses and bulls,<a id='r515' /><a href='#f515' class='c005'><sup>[515]</sup></a> but often the victims are -human beings. Thus at the mouth of the Bonny River -there is a dangerous bar on which vessels trading to the -river have been lost. This is bad for business, and accordingly -the negroes used to sacrifice a young man annually to -the spirit of the bar. The handsomest youth was chosen -for the purpose, and for many months before the ceremony -he lodged with the king. The people regarded him as -sacred or ju-ju, and whatever he touched, even when he -passed casually through the streets, shared his sanctity and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>belonged to him. Hence whenever he appeared in public -the inhabitants fled before him, lest he should touch their -garments or anything they might be carrying. He was -kept in ignorance of the fate in store for him, and no one -might inform him of it under pain of death. On an -appointed day he was taken out to the bar in a canoe and -induced to jump into the water. Then the rowers plied -their paddles and left him to drown. A similar ceremony -used to be performed at the New Calabar River, but the -victim was a culprit. He was thrown into the water to be -devoured by the sharks, which are there the principal fetish -or ju-ju.<a id='r516' /><a href='#f516' class='c005'><sup>[516]</sup></a> The chiefs of Duke Town, on the same coast of -Guinea, were wont to make an annual offering to the river. -A young woman of a light colour, or an albino, was chosen -as the victim. On a set day they decked her with finery, -took her down to Parrot Island, and with much ceremony -plunged her in the stream. The fishermen of Efiat, at the -mouth of the river, are said still to observe the rite in order -to ensure a good catch of fish.<a id='r517' /><a href='#f517' class='c005'><sup>[517]</sup></a> The King of Dahomey -used to send from time to time a man, dressed out with the -insignia of office, to Whydah to be drowned at the mouth -of the river. The intention of the sacrifice was to attract -merchant ships.<a id='r518' /><a href='#f518' class='c005'><sup>[518]</sup></a> When a fisherman has been carried off -by a crocodile, some of the natives on the banks of Lake -Tanganyika take this for a sign that the spirit deems himself -slighted, since he is obliged to come and find victims for -himself instead of having them presented to him. Hence -the sorcerers generally decide that a second victim is -wanted; so, having chosen one, they bind him hand -and foot and fling him into the lake to feed the crocodiles.<a id='r519' /><a href='#f519' class='c005'><sup>[519]</sup></a> -The crater of the volcano Tolucan in Mexico encloses two -lakes of clear cold water, surrounded by gloomy forests of -pine. Here, in the eighteenth month of the Toltec year, -answering to February, children beautifully dressed and -decked with flowers and gay feathers used to be drowned as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>an offering to Tlaloc, the god of the waters, who had a fine -temple on the spot.<a id='r520' /><a href='#f520' class='c005'><sup>[520]</sup></a> The Chams of Annam have traditions -of a time when living men were thrown into the sea every -year in order to propitiate the deities who looked after the -fishing, and when children of good family were drowned in -the water-channels in order that the rice-fields might be duly -irrigated.<a id='r521' /><a href='#f521' class='c005'><sup>[521]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Water-spirits conceived as beneficent beings who dispense fertility.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -This last instance brings out a more kindly aspect of the -water-spirits. If these beings are dreaded by the fisherman -and the mariner who tempt the angry sea, and by the -huntsman who has to swim or ford the rushing rivers, they -are viewed in a different light by the shepherd and the -husbandman in hot and arid lands, where the pasture for the -cattle and the produce of the fields alike depend on the -supply of water, and where prolonged drought means -starvation and death for man and beast. To men in such -circumstances the spirits of the waters are beneficent beings, -the dispensers of life and fertility, whether their blessings -descend as rain from heaven or well up as springs of -bubbling water in the parched desert. In the Semitic East, -for example, where the rainfall is precarious or confined to -certain seasons, the face of the earth is bare and withered -for most of the year, except where it is kept fresh by irrigation -or by the percolation of underground water. Here, -accordingly, the local gods or Baalim had their seats -originally in spots of natural fertility, by fountains and the -banks of rivers, in groves and tangled thickets and green glades -of mountain hollows and deep watercourses. As lords of the -springs and subterranean waters they were supposed to be -the sources of all the gifts of the land, the corn, the wine and -the oil, the wool and the flax, the vines and the fig-trees.<a id='r522' /><a href='#f522' class='c005'><sup>[522]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Water-spirits conceived as bestowing offspring on women.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Where water-spirits are thus conceived as the authors of -fertility in general, it is natural that they should be held to -extend the sphere of their operations to men and animals; -in other words, that the power of bestowing offspring on -barren women and cattle should be ascribed to them. This -ascription comes out clearly in a custom observed by Syrian -<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>women at the present day. Some of the channels of the -Orontes are used for irrigation, but at a certain season of -the year the streams are turned off and the dry bed of the -channels is cleared of mud and any other matter that might -clog the flow of the water. The first night that the water is -turned on again, it is said to have the power of procreation. -Accordingly barren women take their places in the channel, -waiting for the embrace of the water-spirit in the rush of the -stream.<a id='r523' /><a href='#f523' class='c005'><sup>[523]</sup></a> Again, a pool of water in a cave at Juneh enjoys -the same reputation. The people think a childless couple -who bathe in the water will have offspring.<a id='r524' /><a href='#f524' class='c005'><sup>[524]</sup></a> In India many -wells are supposed to cure sterility, which is universally -attributed to the agency of evil spirits. The water of seven -wells is collected on the night of the Diwali or feast of -lamps, and barren women bathe in it in order to remove -their reproach. There is a well in Orissa where the priests -throw betel-nuts into the mud. Childless women scramble for -the nuts, and she who finds them will be a happy mother -before long. For the same reason, after childbirth an Indian -mother is taken to worship the village well. She walks -round it in the course of the sun and smears the platform -with red lead, which may be a substitute for blood. A -Khandh priest will take a childless woman to the meeting -of two streams, where he makes an offering to the god of -births and sprinkles the woman with water in order to rid her of -the influence of the spirit who hinders conception.<a id='r525' /><a href='#f525' class='c005'><sup>[525]</sup></a> In the -Punjaub a barren woman who desires to become a mother -will sometimes be let down into a well on a Sunday or -Tuesday night during the Diwali festival. After stripping -herself of her clothes and bathing in the water, she is drawn -up again and performs the <i>chaukpurna</i> ceremony with -incantations taught by a wizard. When this ceremony -has been performed, the well is supposed to run dry; its -quickening and fertilising virtue has been abstracted by the -woman.<a id='r526' /><a href='#f526' class='c005'><sup>[526]</sup></a> The Indian sect of the Vallabhacharyas or Maharajas -believe that bathing in a sacred well is a remedy for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>barrenness in women.<a id='r527' /><a href='#f527' class='c005'><sup>[527]</sup></a> In antiquity the waters of Sinuessa -in Campania were thought to bless childless wives with -offspring.<a id='r528' /><a href='#f528' class='c005'><sup>[528]</sup></a> To this day Syrian women resort to hot springs -in order to obtain children from the saint or jinnee of the -waters.<a id='r529' /><a href='#f529' class='c005'><sup>[529]</sup></a> In Scotland the same fertilising virtue used to be, -and probably still is, ascribed to certain springs. Wives who -wished to become mothers formerly resorted to the well of -St. Fillan at Comrie, and to the wells of St. Mary at Whitekirk -and in the Isle of May.<a id='r530' /><a href='#f530' class='c005'><sup>[530]</sup></a> In the Aran Islands, off the -coast of Galway, women desirous of children pray at St. -Eany’s Well, by the Angels’ Walk, and the men pray at the -rag well by the church of the Four Comely Ones at Onaght.<a id='r531' /><a href='#f531' class='c005'><sup>[531]</sup></a> -Child’s Well in Oxford was supposed to have the virtue of -making barren women to bring forth.<a id='r532' /><a href='#f532' class='c005'><sup>[532]</sup></a> Near Bingfield in -Northumberland there is a copious sulphur spring known as -the Borewell. On the Sunday following the fourth day of -July, that is about Midsummer Day, according to the old -style, great crowds of people used to assemble at the well -from all the surrounding hamlets and villages. The scene -was like a fair, stalls for the sale of refreshments being -brought and set up for the occasion. The neighbouring -slopes were terraced, and seats formed for the convenience -of pilgrims and visitors. Barren women prayed at the -well that they might become mothers. If their faith was -strong enough, their prayers were heard within the year.<a id='r533' /><a href='#f533' class='c005'><sup>[533]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Love of river-spirits for women in Greek mythology.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In Greek mythology similar ideas of the procreative -power of water meet us in the stories of the loves of rivers -for women and in the legends which traced the descent of -heroes and heroines from river-gods.<a id='r534' /><a href='#f534' class='c005'><sup>[534]</sup></a> In Sophocles’s play -of <i>The Trachinian Women</i> Dejanira tells how she was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>wooed by the river Achelous, who came to her father and -claimed her hand, appearing in the likeness now of a bull, -now of a serpent, and now of a being with the body of a -man and the front of an ox, while streams of water flowed -from his shaggy beard. She relates, too, how glad she was -when Hercules presented himself and vanquished the river-god -in single combat and took her to wife.<a id='r535' /><a href='#f535' class='c005'><sup>[535]</sup></a> The legend -perhaps preserves a reminiscence of that custom of providing -a water-god with a human wife which has been practised -elsewhere. The motive of such a custom may have varied -with the particular conception which happened to prevail of -the character of the water-god. Where he was supposed to -be a cruel and destructive being, who drowned men and laid -waste the country, a wife would be offered simply to keep -him in good humour, and so prevent him from doing mischief. -But where he was viewed as the procreative power on whom -the fertility of the earth and the fecundity of men and -animals depended, his marriage would be deemed necessary -for the purpose of enabling him to discharge his beneficent -functions. This belief in the amorous character of rivers -comes out plainly in a custom which was observed at Troy -down to classical times. Maidens about to marry were -wont to bathe in the Scamander, saying as they did so, -“Scamander, take my virginity.” A similar custom appears -to have been observed at the river Maeander, and perhaps -in other parts of the Greek world. Occasionally, it would -seem, young men took advantage of the practice to ravish -the girls, and the offspring of such a union was fathered on -the river-god.<a id='r536' /><a href='#f536' class='c005'><sup>[536]</sup></a> The bath which a Greek bride and bridegroom -regularly took before marriage appears to have been -intended to bless their union with offspring through the -fertilising influence of the water-nymphs.<a id='r537' /><a href='#f537' class='c005'><sup>[537]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'>Thus it would appear that in many parts of the world a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>custom has prevailed of sacrificing human beings to water-spirits, -and that in not a few cases the ceremony has taken -the form of making over a woman to the spirit to be his -wife, in order either to pacify his fury or to give play to his -generative powers. Where the water-spirit was regarded as -female, young men might be presented to her for a similar -purpose, and this may be the reason why the victims -sacrificed to water-spirits are sometimes males. Among -civilised peoples these customs survive for the most part -only in popular tales, of which the legend of Perseus and -Andromeda, with its mediaeval counterpart of St. George -and the Dragon, is the most familiar example. But -occasionally they appear to have left traces of themselves in -ceremonies and pageants. Thus at Furth in Bavaria a -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Midsummer custom of slaying the dragon at Furth in Bavaria.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -drama called the Slaying of the Dragon used to be acted -every year about Midsummer, on the Sunday after Corpus -Christi Day. Crowds of spectators flocked from the -neighbourhood to witness it. The scene of the performance -was the public square. On a platform stood or sat a -princess wearing a golden crown on her head, and as many -silver ornaments on her body as could be borrowed for the -purpose. She was attended by a maid of honour. Opposite -her was stationed the dragon, a dreadful monster of painted -canvas stretched on a wooden skeleton and moved by two -men inside. From time to time the creature would rush -with gaping jaws into the dense crowd of spectators, who -retreated hastily, tumbling over each other in their anxiety -to escape. Then a knight in armour, attended by his men-at-arms, -rode forth and asked the princess what she did “on -this hard stone,” and why she looked so sad. She told him -that the dragon was coming to eat her up. On that the -knight bade her be of good cheer, for that with his sword he -would rid the country of the monster. With that he -charged the dragon, thrusting his spear into its maw and -taking care to stab a bladder of bullock’s blood which was -there concealed. The gush of blood which followed was an -indispensable part of the show, and if the knight missed his -stroke he was unmercifully jeered and taunted by the crowd. -Having despatched the monster with sword and pistol, the -knight then hastened to the princess and told her that he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>had slain the dragon who had so long oppressed the town. -In return she tied a wreath round his arm, and announced -that her noble father and mother would soon come to give -them half the kingdom. The men-at-arms then escorted -the knight and the princess to the tavern, there to end the -day with dance and revelry. Bohemians and Bavarians -came from many miles to witness this play of the Slaying -of the Dragon, and when the monster’s blood streamed forth -they eagerly mopped it up, along with the blood-soaked -earth, in white cloths, which they afterwards laid on the -flax-fields, in order that the flax might thrive and grow tall. -For the “dragon’s blood” was thought to be a sure protection -against witchcraft.<a id='r538' /><a href='#f538' class='c005'><sup>[538]</sup></a> This use of the blood suffices to -prove that the Slaying of the Dragon at Furth was not a -mere popular spectacle, but a magical rite designed to -fertilise the fields. As such it probably descended from a -very remote antiquity, and may well have been invested with -a character of solemnity, if not of tragedy, long before it -degenerated into a farce.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>St. Romain delivers Rouen from a dragon.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -More famous was the dragon from which, according to -legend, St. Romain delivered Rouen, and far more impressive -was the ceremony with which, down to the French -Revolution, the city commemorated its deliverance. The -stately and beautiful edifices of the Middle Ages, which still -adorn Rouen, formed a fitting background for a pageant -which carried the mind back to the days when Henry II. -of England and Richard Cœur-de-Lion, Dukes of Normandy, -still had their palace in this ancient capital of -their ancestral domains. Legend ran that about the year -520 <span class='fss'>A.D.</span> a forest or marsh near the city was infested by a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>monstrous beast in the shape of a serpent or dragon, which -every day wrought great harm to Rouen and its neighbourhood, -devouring man and beast, causing boats and mariners -on the river Seine to perish, and inflicting other woes innumerable -on the commonwealth. At last the archbishop, -St. Romain, resolved to beard the monster in his den. He -could get none to accompany him but a prisoner condemned -to death for murder. On their approach the dragon made -as though he would swallow them up; but the archbishop, -relying on the divine help, made the sign of the cross, and -at once the monster became so gentle that he suffered the -saint to bind him with his stole and the murderer to lead -him like a lamb to the slaughter. Thus they went in procession -to a public place in Rouen, where the dragon was -burnt in the presence of the people and its ashes cast into -the river. The murderer was pardoned for his services; -and the fame of the deed having gone abroad, St. Romain, -or his successor St. Ouen, whose memory is enshrined in -a church of dreamlike beauty at Rouen, obtained from King -Dagobert in perpetuity a privilege for the archbishop, dean, -and canons of the cathedral, to wit, that every year on -Ascension Day, the anniversary of the miracle, they should -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>In memory of this deliverance the archbishop and chapter of Rouen were -annually allowed to pardon a malefactor on Ascension Day.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -pardon and release from prison a malefactor, whomsoever -they chose, and whatever the crime of which he had been -guilty. This privilege, unique in France, was claimed by -the chapter of the cathedral as early as the beginning of the -thirteenth century; for in 1210, the governor of the castle of -Rouen having boggled at giving up a prisoner, the chapter -appealed to King Philip Augustus, who caused an enquiry -to be made into the claim. At this enquiry nine witnesses -swore that never in the reigns of Henry II. and Richard -Cœur-de-Lion, Dukes of Normandy, had there been any -difficulty raised on the point in question. Henceforward -the chapter seems to have enjoyed the right without opposition -down to 1790, when it exercised its privilege of mercy -for the last time. Next year the face of things had changed; -there was neither archbishop nor chapter at Rouen. A -register of the names of the prisoners who were pardoned, -together with an account of their crimes, was kept and still -exists. Only a few of the names in the thirteenth century -<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>are known, and there are many gaps in the first half of the -fourteenth century; but from that time onward the register -is nearly complete. Most of the crimes appear to have -been murder or homicide.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Ceremony of the annual pardon and release of a prisoner at Rouen.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The proceedings, on the great day of pardon, varied -somewhat in different ages. The following account is -based in great part on a description written in the reign of -Henry III. and published at Rouen in 1587. Fifteen -days before Ascension Day the canons of the cathedral -summoned the king’s officers to stop all proceedings against -criminals detained in prison. Afterwards, on the Monday -of Rogations, two canons examined the prisoners and took -their confessions, going from prison to prison till Ascension -Day. On that day, about seven o’clock in the morning, -all the canons assembled in the chapter-house and invoked -the grace of the Holy Spirit by the hymn <i>Veni creator -Spiritus</i>, and other prayers. Also they made oath to reveal -none of the depositions of the criminals, but to hold them -sacred under the seal of confession. The depositions -having been taken and the commissioners heard, the chapter, -after due deliberation, named him or her among the -prisoners who was to receive the benefit of the privilege. A -card bearing the prisoner’s name and sealed with the seal -of the chapter was then sent to the members of parliament, -who were sitting in full assembly, clad in their red robes, in -the great hall of the palace to receive the nomination of the -prisoner and to give it legal effect. The criminal was then -released and pardoned. Immediately the minster bells -began to ring, the doors of the cathedral were flung open, -the organ pealed, hymns were sung, candles lit, and every -solemnity observed in token of joy and gladness. Further, -in presence of the conclave all the depositions of the other -prisoners were burnt on the altar of the chapter-house. -Then the archbishop and the whole of the clergy of the -cathedral went in procession to the great square known as -the Old Tower near the river, carrying the shrines and -reliquaries of the minster, and accompanied by the joyous -music of hautboys and clarions. Apparently the Old -Tower occupies the site of the ancient castle of the Dukes -of Normandy, and the custom of going thither in procession -<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>came down from a time when the prisoners were detained -in the castle-dungeons. In the square there stood, and still -stands, a platform of stone raised high above the ground -and approached by flights of steps. Thither they brought -the shrine (<i>fierte</i>) of St. Romain, and thither too was led -the pardoned prisoner. He ascended the platform, and after -confessing his sins and receiving absolution he thrice lifted -the shrine of St. Romain, while the innumerable multitude -assembled in the square cried aloud, each time the shrine -was lifted, “<i>Noel! Noel! Noel!</i>” which was understood -to mean “God be with us!” That done, the procession -re-formed and returned to the cathedral. At the head -walked a beadle clad in violet, who bore on a pole the -wicker effigy of the winged dragon of Notre Dame, holding -a large fish in its mouth. The whispers and cries excited -by the appearance of the monster were drowned in the loud -fanfares of cornets, clarions, and trumpets. Behind the -musicians, who wore the liveries of the Master of the -Brotherhood of Notre Dame with his arms emblazoned on -an ensign of taffeta, came the carved silver-gilt shrine of -Notre Dame. After it followed the clergy of the cathedral -to the number of two hundred, clad in robes of violet or -crimson silk, bearing banners, crosses, and shrines, and -chanting the hymn <i>De resurrectione Domini</i>. Then came -the archbishop, giving his blessing to the great multitude who -thronged the streets. The prisoner himself walked behind, -bareheaded, crowned with flowers, carrying one end of the -litter which supported the shrine of St. Romain; the -fetters he had worn hung from the litter; and with him -paced, with lighted torches in their hands, the men or -women who, for the last seven years, had in like manner -received their pardon. Another beadle, in a violet livery, -marched behind bearing aloft on a pole the wicker effigy -of the dragon (<i>Gargouille</i>) destroyed by St. Romain; in its -mouth the dragon sometimes held a live animal, such as a -young fox, a rabbit, or a sucking pig, and it was attended -by the Brotherhood of the Gargouillards. The clergy of the -thirty-two parishes of Rouen also took part in the procession, -which moved from the Old Tower to the cathedral -amid the acclamations of the crowd, while from every -<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>church tower in the city the bells rang out a joyous peal, -the great <i>Georges d’Amboise</i> thundering above them all. -After mass had been performed in the cathedral, the prisoner -was taken to the house of the Master of the Brotherhood of -St. Romain, where he was magnificently feasted, lodged, -and served, however humble his rank. Next morning he -again presented himself to the chapter, where, kneeling in -the presence of a great assembly, he was severely reproved -for his sins and admonished to give thanks to God, to -St. Romain, and to the canons for the pardon he had -received in virtue of the privilege.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>History and meaning of the privilege of the <i>Fierte</i> or shrine of -St. Romain at Rouen.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -What was the origin and meaning of this remarkable -privilege of the <i>Fierte</i>, as the shrine of St. Romain was -called? Its history has been carefully investigated by A. -Floquet, Chief Registrar of the Royal Court of Rouen, with -the aid of all the documentary evidence, including the -archives both at Rouen and Paris. He appears to have -shewn conclusively that the association of St. Romain with -the custom is comparatively late. We possess a life of the -saint in Latin verse, dating from the eighth century, in which -the miracles said to have been wrought by him are set -forth in a strain of pompous eulogy. Yet neither in it nor -in any of the other early lives of St. Romain and St. Ouen, -nor in any of the older chronicles and martyrologies, is a -single word said about the destruction of the dragon and -the deliverance of the prisoner. It is not till 1394 that we -meet for the first time with a mention of the miracle. -Moreover, the deliverance of the prisoner can hardly have -been instituted in honour of St. Romain, else it would have -taken place on the twenty-third of October, the day on which -the Church of Rouen celebrates the translation of the saint’s -bones to the cathedral. St. Romain died in 638, and his -bones were transferred to the cathedral of Rouen at the end -of the eleventh or the beginning of the twelfth century. -Further, Floquet has adduced strong grounds for believing -that the privilege claimed by the chapter of Rouen of -annually pardoning a condemned criminal on Ascension -Day was unknown in the early years of the twelfth century, -and that it originated in the reign of Henry I. or Stephen, -if not in that of Henry II. He supposes the ceremony to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>have been in its origin a scenic representation of the -triumph of Christ over sin and death, the deliverance of the -condemned prisoner symbolising the deliverance of man from -the yoke of corruption, and bringing home to the people in -a visible form the great mystery which the festival of the -Ascension was instituted to commemorate. Such dramatic -expositions of Christian doctrine, he points out, were common -in the Middle Ages.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Suggested origin of the custom.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Plausible as is this solution of the problem, it can -scarcely be regarded as satisfactory. Had this been the -real origin of the privilege, we should expect to find the -Ascension of Christ either plainly enacted, or at least -distinctly alluded to in the ceremony; but this, so far as -we can learn, was not so. Again, would it not savour of -blasphemy to represent the sinless and glorified Redeemer -by a ruffian stained with the blackest crimes? Moreover, -the part played by the dragon in the legend and in the -spectacle seems too important to allow us to explain it -away, with Floquet, as a mere symbol of the suppression -of paganism by St. Romain. The tale of the conquest of -the dragon is older than Christianity, and cannot be -explained by it. At Rouen the connexion of St. Romain -with the story seems certainly to be late, but that does not -prove the story itself to be late also. Judging from the -analogy of similar tales elsewhere, we may conjecture that -in the Rouen version the criminal represents a victim -annually sacrificed to a water-spirit or other fabulous being, -while the Christian saint has displaced a pagan hero, who -was said to have delivered the victim from death and put -an end to the sacrifice by slaying the monster. Thus it -seems possible that the custom of annually pardoning a -condemned malefactor may have superseded an older -practice of treating him as a public scapegoat, who died -to save the rest of the people. In the sequel we shall see -that such customs have been observed in many lands. It -is not incredible that at Rouen a usage of this sort should -have survived in a modified shape from pagan times down -to the twelfth century, and that the Church should at last -have intervened to save the wretch and turn a relic of -heathendom to the glory of God and St. Romain. But -<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>this explanation of the famous privilege of the <i>Fierte</i> is -put forward with a full sense of the difficulties attending it, -and with no wish to dogmatise on so obscure a subject.<a id='r539' /><a href='#f539' class='c005'><sup>[539]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span> - <h2 id='chap13' class='c002'>CHAPTER XIII <br /> THE KINGS OF ROME AND ALBA</h2> -</div> -<h3 class='c006'>§ 1. Numa and Egeria</h3> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Egeria at Nemi a nymph of water and of the oak, perhaps a form of Diana.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -From the foregoing survey of custom and legend we -may infer that the sacred marriage of the powers both of -vegetation and of water has been celebrated by many -peoples for the sake of promoting the fertility of the earth, -on which the life of animals and men ultimately depends, -and that in such rites the part of the divine bridegroom or -bride is often sustained by a man or woman. The evidence -may, therefore, lend some countenance to the conjecture -that in the sacred grove at Nemi, where the powers of -vegetation and of water manifested themselves in the fair -forms of shady woods, tumbling cascades, and glassy lake, -a marriage like that of our King and Queen of May was -annually celebrated between the mortal King of the Wood -and the immortal Queen of the Wood, Diana. In this -connexion an important figure in the grove was the -water-nymph Egeria, who was worshipped by pregnant -women because she, like Diana, could grant them an easy -delivery.<a id='r540' /><a href='#f540' class='c005'><sup>[540]</sup></a> From this it seems fairly safe to conclude that, -like many other springs, the water of Egeria was credited -with a power of facilitating conception as well as delivery. -The votive offerings found on the spot, which clearly refer to -the begetting of children,<a id='r541' /><a href='#f541' class='c005'><sup>[541]</sup></a> may possibly have been dedicated -to Egeria rather than to Diana, or perhaps we should rather -say that the water-nymph Egeria is only another form of the -great nature-goddess Diana herself, the mistress of sounding -<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>rivers as well as of umbrageous woods,<a id='r542' /><a href='#f542' class='c005'><sup>[542]</sup></a> who had her home -by the lake and her mirror in its calm waters, and whose -Greek counterpart Artemis loved to haunt meres and -springs.<a id='r543' /><a href='#f543' class='c005'><sup>[543]</sup></a> The identification of Egeria with Diana is confirmed -by a statement of Plutarch that Egeria was one -of the oak-nymphs<a id='r544' /><a href='#f544' class='c005'><sup>[544]</sup></a> whom the Romans believed to preside -over every green oak-grove;<a id='r545' /><a href='#f545' class='c005'><sup>[545]</sup></a> for while Diana was a goddess -of the woodlands in general she appears to have been -intimately associated with oaks in particular, especially at -her sacred grove of Nemi.<a id='r546' /><a href='#f546' class='c005'><sup>[546]</sup></a> Perhaps, then, Egeria was the -fairy of a spring that flowed from the roots of a sacred -oak. Such a spring is said to have gushed from the foot -of the great oak at Dodona, and from its murmurous -flow the priestess drew oracles.<a id='r547' /><a href='#f547' class='c005'><sup>[547]</sup></a> Among the Greeks -a draught of water from certain sacred springs or wells -was supposed to confer prophetic powers.<a id='r548' /><a href='#f548' class='c005'><sup>[548]</sup></a> This would -explain the more than mortal wisdom with which, according -to tradition, Egeria inspired her royal husband or lover -Numa.<a id='r549' /><a href='#f549' class='c005'><sup>[549]</sup></a> When we remember how very often in early -society the king is held responsible for the fall of rain and -the fruitfulness of the earth, it seems hardly rash to conjecture -that in the legend of the nuptials of Numa and -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The legend of the nuptials of Numa and Egeria may be a reminiscence of a sacred -marriage which the kings of Rome contracted with a goddess of water and of vegetation.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Egeria we have a reminiscence of a sacred marriage which -the old Roman kings regularly contracted with a goddess -of vegetation and water for the purpose of enabling him -to discharge his divine or magical functions. In such a -rite the part of the goddess might be played either by an -image or a woman, and if by a woman, probably by the -Queen. If there is any truth in this conjecture, we may -<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>suppose that the King and Queen of Rome masqueraded -as god and goddess at their marriage, exactly as the King -and Queen of Egypt appear to have done.<a id='r550' /><a href='#f550' class='c005'><sup>[550]</sup></a> The legend of -Numa and Egeria points to a sacred grove rather than to a -house as the scene of the nuptial union, which, like the -marriage of the King and Queen of May, or of the vine-god -and the Queen of Athens, may have been annually celebrated -as a charm to ensure the fertility not only of the -earth but of man and beast. Now, according to some -accounts, the scene of the marriage was no other than the -sacred grove of Nemi, and on quite independent grounds we -have been led to suppose that in that same grove the King -of the Wood was wedded to Diana. The convergence of -the two distinct lines of enquiry suggests that the legendary -union of the Roman king with Egeria may have been a -reflection or duplicate of the union of the King of the -Wood with Egeria or her double Diana. This does not -imply that the Roman kings ever served as Kings of the -Wood in the Arician grove, but only that they may originally -have been invested with a sacred character of the same -general kind, and may have held office on similar terms. -To be more explicit, it is possible that they reigned, not -by right of birth, but in virtue of their supposed divinity -as representatives or embodiments of a god, and that as -such they mated with a goddess, and had to prove their -fitness from time to time to discharge their divine functions -by engaging in a severe bodily struggle, which may often -have proved fatal to them, leaving the crown to their -victorious adversary. Our knowledge of the Roman kingship -is far too scanty to allow us to affirm any one of these -propositions with confidence; but at least there are some -scattered hints or indications of a similarity in all these -respects between the priests of Nemi and the kings of -Rome, or perhaps rather between their remote predecessors -in the dark ages which preceded the dawn of legend.<a id='r551' /><a href='#f551' class='c005'><sup>[551]</sup></a></p> -<p class='c003'><span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>§ 2. The King as Jupiter</p> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Roman king seems to have personated Jupiter and worn his costume.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the first place, then, it would seem that the Roman -king personated no less a deity than Jupiter himself. For -down to imperial times victorious generals celebrating a -triumph, and magistrates presiding at the games in the -Circus, wore the costume of Jupiter, which was borrowed for -the occasion from his great temple on the Capitol; and it -has been held with a high degree of probability both by -ancients and moderns that in so doing they copied the -traditionary attire and insignia of the Roman kings.<a id='r552' /><a href='#f552' class='c005'><sup>[552]</sup></a> They -rode a chariot drawn by four laurel-crowned horses through -the city, where every one else went on foot;<a id='r553' /><a href='#f553' class='c005'><sup>[553]</sup></a> they wore -<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>purple robes embroidered or spangled with gold; in the -right hand they bore a branch of laurel and in the left hand -an ivory sceptre topped with an eagle; a wreath of laurel -crowned their brows; their face was reddened with vermilion; -and over their head a slave held a heavy crown of -massy gold fashioned in the likeness of oak leaves.<a id='r554' /><a href='#f554' class='c005'><sup>[554]</sup></a> In -this attire the assimilation of the man to the god comes out -above all in the eagle-topped sceptre, the oaken crown, and -the reddened face. For the eagle was the bird of Jove, the -oak was his sacred tree, and the face of his image standing -in his four-horse chariot on the Capitol was in like manner -regularly dyed red on festivals; indeed, so important was it -deemed to keep the divine features properly rouged that -one of the first duties of the censors was to contract for -having this done.<a id='r555' /><a href='#f555' class='c005'><sup>[555]</sup></a> The Greeks sometimes painted red the -face or the whole body of the wine-god Dionysus.<a id='r556' /><a href='#f556' class='c005'><sup>[556]</sup></a> These -customs may have been a substitute for an older practice of -feeding a god by smearing the face, and especially the lips, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>of his idol with the blood of a sacrificial victim. Many -examples of such a practice might be adduced from the -religion of barbarous peoples.<a id='r557' /><a href='#f557' class='c005'><sup>[557]</sup></a> As the triumphal procession -always ended in the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, it was -peculiarly appropriate that the head of the victor should -be graced by a crown of oak leaves, for not only was every -oak consecrated to Jupiter,<a id='r558' /><a href='#f558' class='c005'><sup>[558]</sup></a> but the Capitoline temple of -the god was said to have been built by Romulus beside a -sacred oak, venerated by shepherds, to which the king -attached the spoils won by him from the enemy’s general in -battle.<a id='r559' /><a href='#f559' class='c005'><sup>[559]</sup></a> We are expressly told that the oak crown was -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The oak crown as an emblem of Jupiter and of the Roman emperors.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -sacred to Capitoline Jupiter;<a id='r560' /><a href='#f560' class='c005'><sup>[560]</sup></a> a passage of Ovid proves -that it was regarded as the god’s special emblem. Writing -in exile on the shores of the Black Sea, the poet sends the -book which he has just composed to Rome to be published -there; he personifies the volume and imagines it passing -along the Sacred Way and up to the door of the emperor’s -stately palace on the Palatine hill. Above the portal hung -shining arms and a crown of oak leaves. At the sight the -poet starts: “Is this, quoth I, the house of Jove? For sure -to my prophetic soul the oaken crown was reason good to -think it so.”<a id='r561' /><a href='#f561' class='c005'><sup>[561]</sup></a> The senate had granted Augustus the right -<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>to have the wreath of oak always suspended over his door;<a id='r562' /><a href='#f562' class='c005'><sup>[562]</sup></a> -and elsewhere Ovid counts this among the more than mortal -honours bestowed on the emperor.<a id='r563' /><a href='#f563' class='c005'><sup>[563]</sup></a> On the Capitol at Cirta -there stood a silver image of Jupiter wearing a silver crown -of oak leaves and acorns.<a id='r564' /><a href='#f564' class='c005'><sup>[564]</sup></a> Similarly at Dodona, the most -famous sanctuary of the oak in Greece, the image of Zeus -appears to have worn a chaplet of oak leaves; for the god -is constantly thus portrayed on coins of Epirus.<a id='r565' /><a href='#f565' class='c005'><sup>[565]</sup></a> And just -as Roman kings appear to have personated the oak-god -Jupiter, so Greek kings appear to have personated the oak-god -Zeus. The legendary Salmoneus of Elis is certainly -reported to have done so;<a id='r566' /><a href='#f566' class='c005'><sup>[566]</sup></a> Periphas, an ancient king of -Athens, is said to have been styled Zeus by his people, and -to have been changed into an eagle by his jealous name-sake.<a id='r567' /><a href='#f567' class='c005'><sup>[567]</sup></a> -In Homer kings are often spoken of as nurtured by -Zeus and divine.<a id='r568' /><a href='#f568' class='c005'><sup>[568]</sup></a> Indeed we are told that in ancient days -every Greek king was called Zeus.<a id='r569' /><a href='#f569' class='c005'><sup>[569]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>To the Romans the breach between the human and the divine was -not so wide as it seems to us.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus we may fairly assume that on certain solemn -occasions Roman generals and magistrates personated the -supreme god, and that in so doing they revived the practice -of the early kings. To us moderns, for whom the breach -which divides the human and the divine has deepened into -an impassable gulf, such mimicry may appear impious, but -it was otherwise with the ancients. To their thinking -gods and men were akin, for many families traced their -descent from a divinity, and the deification of a man -<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>probably seemed as little extraordinary to them as the -canonisation of a saint seems to a modern Catholic. -The Romans in particular were quite familiar with the -spectacle of men masquerading as spirits; for at the -funerals of great houses all the illustrious dead of the -family were personated by men specially chosen for their -resemblance to the departed. These representatives wore -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Roman custom of representing dead ancestors by masked men.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -masks fashioned and painted in the likeness of the originals: -they were dressed in rich robes of office, resplendent with -purple and gold, such as the dead nobles had worn in their -lifetime: like them, they rode in chariots through the city -preceded by the rods and axes, and attended by all the -pomp and heraldry of high station; and when at last the -funeral procession, after threading its way through the -crowded streets, defiled into the Forum, the maskers solemnly -took their seats on ivory chairs placed for them on the -platform of the Rostra, in the sight of the people, recalling -no doubt to the old, by their silent presence, the memories -of an illustrious past, and firing the young with the ambition -of a glorious future.<a id='r570' /><a href='#f570' class='c005'><sup>[570]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The kings of Alba seem also to have claimed to represent Jupiter.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -According to a tradition which we have no reason to -reject, Rome was founded by settlers from Alba Longa, a -city situated on the slope of the Alban hills, overlooking -the lake and the Campagna.<a id='r571' /><a href='#f571' class='c005'><sup>[571]</sup></a> Hence if the Roman kings -claimed to be representatives or embodiments of Jupiter, the -god of the sky, of the thunder, and of the oak, it is natural -to suppose that the kings of Alba, from whom the founder -of Rome traced his descent, may have set up the same -claim before them. Now the Alban dynasty bore the name -of Silvii or Wood, and it can hardly be without significance -that in the vision of the historic glories of Rome revealed -to Aeneas in the underworld, Virgil, an antiquary as well -as a poet, should represent all the line of Silvii as crowned -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Silvii and the Julii.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -with oak.<a id='r572' /><a href='#f572' class='c005'><sup>[572]</sup></a> A chaplet of oak leaves would thus seem to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>have been part of the insignia of the old kings of Alba -Longa as of their successors the kings of Rome; in both -cases it marked the monarch as the human representative of -the oak-god. With regard to Silvius, the first king of the -Alban dynasty, we are told that he got his name because -he had been born or brought up in the forest, and that when -he came to man’s estate he contested the kingdom with his -kinsman Julus, whose name, as some of the ancients themselves -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Julus, the little Jupiter.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -perceived, means the Little Jupiter. The people -decided in favour of Silvius, but his rival Julus was consoled -for the loss of the crown by being invested with religious -authority and the office of chief pontiff, or perhaps rather of -Flamen Dialis, the highest dignity after the kingship. From -this Julus or Little Jupiter, the noble house of the Julii, -and hence the first emperors of Rome, believed themselves -to be sprung.<a id='r573' /><a href='#f573' class='c005'><sup>[573]</sup></a> The legend of the dispute between Silvius -and Julus may preserve a reminiscence of such a partition -of spiritual and temporal powers in Alba Longa as afterwards -took place in Rome, when the old regal office was -divided between the Consuls and the King of the Sacred -Rites.<a id='r574' /><a href='#f574' class='c005'><sup>[574]</sup></a> Many more instances of such a schism will meet -us later on. That the Julian house worshipped Vejovis, the -Little Jupiter, according to the ancient rites of Alba Longa, -is proved by the inscription on an altar which they dedicated -to him at their ancestral home of Bovillae, a colony of -Alba Longa, situated at the foot of the Alban hills.<a id='r575' /><a href='#f575' class='c005'><sup>[575]</sup></a> The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>Caesars, the most illustrious family of the Julian house, -took their name from their long hair (<i>caesaries</i>),<a id='r576' /><a href='#f576' class='c005'><sup>[576]</sup></a> which was -probably in those early days, as it was among the Franks -long afterwards, a symbol of royalty.<a id='r577' /><a href='#f577' class='c005'><sup>[577]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Alban kings seem to have been expected to make thunder -and rain for the good of their subjects.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But in ceding the pontificate to their rivals, it would -seem that the reigning dynasty of the Silvii or Woods -by no means renounced their own claim to personate the -god of the oak and the thunder; for the Roman annals -record that one of them, Romulus, Remulus, or Amulius -Silvius by name, set up for being a god in his own person, the -equal or superior of Jupiter. To support his pretensions -and overawe his subjects, he constructed machines whereby -he mimicked the clap of thunder and the flash of lightning. -Diodorus relates that in the season of fruitage, when thunder -is loud and frequent, the king commanded his soldiers to -drown the roar of heaven’s artillery by clashing their swords -against their shields. But he paid the penalty of his impiety, -for he perished, he and his house, struck by a thunderbolt -in the midst of a dreadful storm. Swollen by the rain, -the Alban lake rose in flood and drowned his palace. But -still, says an ancient historian, when the water is low and the -surface unruffled by a breeze, you may see the ruins of the -palace at the bottom of the clear lake.<a id='r578' /><a href='#f578' class='c005'><sup>[578]</sup></a> Taken along with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>the similar story of Salmoneus, king of Elis,<a id='r579' /><a href='#f579' class='c005'><sup>[579]</sup></a> this legend points -to a real custom observed by the early kings of Greece and -Italy, who like their fellows in Africa down to modern times -may have been expected to produce rain and thunder for -the good of the crops.<a id='r580' /><a href='#f580' class='c005'><sup>[580]</sup></a> The priestly king Numa passed -for an adept in the art of drawing down lightning from the -sky.<a id='r581' /><a href='#f581' class='c005'><sup>[581]</sup></a> Mock thunder, we know, has been made by various -peoples as a rain-charm in modern times;<a id='r582' /><a href='#f582' class='c005'><sup>[582]</sup></a> why should it -not have been made by kings in antiquity?</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The legends of the deaths of Roman kings point to a close connexion -between the king and the thunder-god.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In this connexion it deserves to be noted that, according -to the legend, Salmoneus, like his Alban counterpart, was -killed by a thunderbolt; and that one of the Roman kings, -Tullus Hostilius, is reported to have met with the same end -in an attempt to draw down Jupiter in the form of lightning -from the sky.<a id='r583' /><a href='#f583' class='c005'><sup>[583]</sup></a> Aeneas himself, the legendary ancestor both -of the Alban and the Roman kings, vanished from the world -in a violent thunderstorm, and was afterwards worshipped as -Jupiter Indiges. A mound of earth, encircled with fine -trees, on the bank of the little river Numicius was pointed -out as his grave.<a id='r584' /><a href='#f584' class='c005'><sup>[584]</sup></a> Romulus, too, the first king of Rome, -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Death and deification of Romulus.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -disappeared in like manner. It was the seventh of July, -and the king was reviewing his army at the Goat’s Marsh, -outside the walls of the city. Suddenly the sky lowered -and a tempest burst, accompanied by peals of thunder. -Soon the storm had swept by, leaving the brightness and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>serenity of the summer day behind. But Romulus was -never seen again. Those who had stood by him said they -saw him caught up to heaven in a whirlwind; and not long -afterwards a certain Proculus Julius, a patrician of Alban -birth and descent, declared on oath that Romulus had -appeared to him clad in bright armour, and announced that -the Romans were to worship him as a god under the name -of Quirinus, and to build him a temple on the spot. The -temple was built and the place was henceforth known as -the Quirinal hill.<a id='r585' /><a href='#f585' class='c005'><sup>[585]</sup></a> In this legend it is significant that the -annunciation of the king’s divinity should be put in the -mouth of a member of the Julian house, a native of Alba; -for we have seen reason to believe that at Alba the Julii -had competed with the Silvii, from whom Romulus was -descended, for the kingship, and with it for the honour of -personating Jupiter. If, as seems to be philologically -possible, the word Quirinus is derived from the same root -as <i>quercus</i>, “an oak,” the name of the deified Romulus would -mean no more than “the oak-god,” that is, Jupiter.<a id='r586' /><a href='#f586' class='c005'><sup>[586]</sup></a> Thus -the tradition would square perfectly with the other indications -of custom and legend which have led us to conclude -that the kings both of Rome and of Alba claimed to embody -in their own persons the god of the sky, of thunder, and of -the oak. Certainly the stories which associated the deaths -of so many of them with thunderstorms point to a close -<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>connexion with the god of thunder and lightning. A king -who had been wont to fulminate in his lifetime might -naturally be supposed at death to be carried up in a thunderstorm -to heaven, there to discharge above the clouds the -same duties which he had performed on earth. Such a -tale would be all the more likely to attach itself to the -twin Romulus, if the early Romans shared the widespread -superstition that twins have power over the weather in -general and over rain and wind in particular.<a id='r587' /><a href='#f587' class='c005'><sup>[587]</sup></a> That tempests -are caused by the spirits of the dead is a belief of the -Araucanians of Chili. Not a storm bursts upon the Andes -or the ocean which these Indians do not ascribe to a battle -between the souls of their fellow-countrymen and the -dead Spaniards. In the roaring of the wind they hear the -trampling of the ghostly horses, in the peal of the thunder -the roll of the drums, and in the flashes of lightning the fire -of the artillery.<a id='r588' /><a href='#f588' class='c005'><sup>[588]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Every Latin town probably had its local Jupiter.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus, if the kings of Alba and Rome imitated Jupiter -as god of the oak by wearing a crown of oak leaves, they -seem also to have copied him in his character of a weather-god -by pretending to make thunder and lightning. And if they -did so, it is probable that, like Jupiter in heaven and many -kings on earth, they also acted as public rain-makers, wringing -showers from the dark sky by their enchantments whenever -the parched earth cried out for the refreshing moisture. -At Rome the sluices of heaven were opened by means of a -sacred stone, and the ceremony appears to have formed -part of the ritual of Jupiter Elicius, the god who elicits from -the clouds the flashing lightning and the dripping rain.<a id='r589' /><a href='#f589' class='c005'><sup>[589]</sup></a> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>And who so well fitted to perform the ceremony as the king, -the living representative of the sky-god?</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Many local Jupiters in Latium.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The conclusion which we have reached as to the kings -of Rome and Alba probably holds good of all the kings of -ancient Latium: each of them, we may suppose, represented -or embodied the local Jupiter. For we can hardly doubt -that of old every Latin town or settlement had its own -Jupiter, as every town and almost every church in modern -Italy has its own Madonna; and like the Baal of the -Semites the local Jupiter was commonly worshipped on -high places. Wooded heights, round which the rain-clouds -gather, were indeed the natural sanctuaries for a god of the -sky, the rain, and the oak. At Rome he occupied one -summit of the Capitoline hill, while the other summit was -assigned to his wife Juno, whose temple, with the long flight -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Capitoline Jupiter and Juno.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -of stairs leading up to it, has for ages been appropriately -replaced by the church of St. Mary “in the altar of the sky” -(<i>in Araceli</i>).<a id='r590' /><a href='#f590' class='c005'><sup>[590]</sup></a> That both heights were originally wooded -seems certain, for down to imperial times the saddle which -joins them was known as the place “between the two -groves.”<a id='r591' /><a href='#f591' class='c005'><sup>[591]</sup></a> Virgil tells us that the hilltop where gilded -temples glittered in his day had been covered of old by -shaggy thickets, the haunt of woodland elves and savage -men, “born of the tree-trunks and the heart of oak.”<a id='r592' /><a href='#f592' class='c005'><sup>[592]</sup></a> These -thickets were probably composed of oaks, for the oak crown -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The hills of Rome once wooded with oaks.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -was sacred to Capitoline Juno as well as to Jupiter;<a id='r593' /><a href='#f593' class='c005'><sup>[593]</sup></a> it was to -a sacred oak on the Capitol that Romulus fastened the spoils,<a id='r594' /><a href='#f594' class='c005'><sup>[594]</sup></a> -and there is evidence that in early times oak-woods clothed -other of the hills on which Rome was afterwards built. Thus -<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>the Caelian hill went originally by the name of the Mountain -of the Oak Grove on account of the thickets of oak by which -it was overgrown,<a id='r595' /><a href='#f595' class='c005'><sup>[595]</sup></a> and Jupiter was here worshipped in his -character of the oak-god;<a id='r596' /><a href='#f596' class='c005'><sup>[596]</sup></a> one of the old gates of Rome, apparently -between the Caelian and the Esquiline hills, was called -the Gate of the Oak Grove for a similar reason;<a id='r597' /><a href='#f597' class='c005'><sup>[597]</sup></a> and within -the walls hard by was a Chapel of the Oak Grove dedicated -to the worship of the oak-nymphs.<a id='r598' /><a href='#f598' class='c005'><sup>[598]</sup></a> These nymphs appear -on coins of the Accoleian family as three women supporting -on their shoulders a pole from which rise leafy branches.<a id='r599' /><a href='#f599' class='c005'><sup>[599]</sup></a> -The Esquiline hill seems also to have derived its name from -its oaks. After mentioning the Chapel of the Oak and other -hallowed groves which still dotted the hill in his time, the -antiquary Varro tells us that their bounds were now much -curtailed, adding with a sigh that it was no wonder the sacred -old trees should give way to the modern worship of Mammon.<a id='r600' /><a href='#f600' class='c005'><sup>[600]</sup></a> -Apparently the Roman nobles of those days sold the ancient -woods, as their descendants sell their beautiful gardens, for -building-land. To this list of oak-clad hills on the left bank -of the Tiber must be added the Quirinal, if Quirinus, who -had a very ancient shrine on the hill, was the oak-god.<a id='r601' /><a href='#f601' class='c005'><sup>[601]</sup></a> -Under the Aventine was a grove of evergreen oaks,<a id='r602' /><a href='#f602' class='c005'><sup>[602]</sup></a> which -appears to have been no other than the grove of Egeria -outside the Porta Capena.<a id='r603' /><a href='#f603' class='c005'><sup>[603]</sup></a> The old grove of Vesta, which -once skirted the foot of the Palatine hill on the side of the -Forum,<a id='r604' /><a href='#f604' class='c005'><sup>[604]</sup></a> must surely have been a grove of oaks; for not only -<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>does an oak appear growing beside the temple of Vesta on a -fine relief preserved in the gallery of the Uffizi at Florence, but -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The sacred Vestal fire fed with oak-wood.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -charred embers of the sacred Vestal fire have in recent years -been discovered at the temple of Vesta in the Forum, and a -microscopic analysis of them has proved that they consist of -the pith or heart of trunks or great branches of oak (<i>quercus</i>).<a id='r605' /><a href='#f605' class='c005'><sup>[605]</sup></a> -The full significance of this discovery will appear later on. -When the plebeians seceded to the Janiculum in the third -century before Christ, the dictator Q. Hortensius summoned -a meeting of the people and passed a law in an oak grove, -which perhaps grew on the hill.<a id='r606' /><a href='#f606' class='c005'><sup>[606]</sup></a> In this neighbourhood -there was a street called the Street of the Oak Grove; it is -mentioned in an inscription found in its original position near -the modern Garibaldi bridge.<a id='r607' /><a href='#f607' class='c005'><sup>[607]</sup></a> On the Vatican hill there -stood an evergreen oak which was believed to be older than -Rome; an inscription in Etruscan letters on a bronze tablet -proclaimed the sanctity of the tree.<a id='r608' /><a href='#f608' class='c005'><sup>[608]</sup></a> Finally, that oak -woods existed at or near Rome in the earliest times has -lately been demonstrated by the discovery in the Forum itself -of a prehistoric cemetery, which contains amongst other -sepultures the bones of several young children deposited in -rudely hollowed trunks of oak.<a id='r609' /><a href='#f609' class='c005'><sup>[609]</sup></a> With all this evidence -before us we need not wonder that Virgil should speak of -the primitive inhabitants of Rome as “born of the tree-trunks -and the heart of oak,” and that the Roman kings -<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>should have worn crowns of oak leaves in imitation of the -oak-god Jupiter, who dwelt in his sacred grove on the Capitol.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Alban kings may have imitated Latian Jupiter, who dwelt on the top -of the Alban Mount.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -If the kings of Rome aped Capitoline Jove, their predecessors -the kings of Alba probably laid themselves out to -mimic the great Latian Jupiter, who had his seat above the -city on the summit of the Alban Mountain. Latinus, the -legendary ancestor of the dynasty, was said to have been -changed into Latian Jupiter after vanishing from the world -in the mysterious fashion characteristic of the old Latin -kings.<a id='r610' /><a href='#f610' class='c005'><sup>[610]</sup></a> The sanctuary of the god on the top of the -mountain was the religious centre of the Latin League, as -Alba was its political capital till Rome wrested the supremacy -from its ancient rival. Apparently no temple, in our -sense of the word, was ever erected to Jupiter on this his holy -mountain; as god of the sky and thunder he appropriately -received the homage of his worshippers in the open air. The -massive wall, of which some remains still enclose the old -garden of the Passionist monastery, seems to have been part -of the sacred precinct which Tarquin the Proud, the last -king of Rome, marked out for the solemn annual assembly -of the Latin League.<a id='r611' /><a href='#f611' class='c005'><sup>[611]</sup></a> The god’s oldest sanctuary on this -airy mountain-top was a grove;<a id='r612' /><a href='#f612' class='c005'><sup>[612]</sup></a> and bearing in mind -not merely the special consecration of the oak to Jupiter, but -also the traditional oak crown of the Alban kings and the -analogy of the Capitoline Jupiter at Rome, we may suppose -that the trees in the grove were oaks.<a id='r613' /><a href='#f613' class='c005'><sup>[613]</sup></a> We know that in -antiquity Mount Algidus, an outlying group of the Alban -hills, was covered with dark forests of oak;<a id='r614' /><a href='#f614' class='c005'><sup>[614]</sup></a> and among the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>tribes who belonged to the Latin League in the earliest days, -and were entitled to share the flesh of the white bull sacrificed -on the Alban Mount, there was one whose members styled -themselves the Men of the Oak,<a id='r615' /><a href='#f615' class='c005'><sup>[615]</sup></a> doubtless on account of -the woods among which they dwelt.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Theophrastus’s description of the woods of Latium.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But we should err if we pictured to ourselves the country -as covered in historical times with an unbroken forest of oaks. -Theophrastus has left us a description of the woods of Latium -as they were in the fourth century before Christ. He says: -“The land of the Latins is all moist. The plains produce -laurels, myrtles, and wonderful beeches; for they fell trees -of such a size that a single stem suffices for the keel of a -Tyrrhenian ship. Pines and firs grow in the mountains. What -they call the land of Circe is a lofty headland thickly wooded -with oak, myrtle, and luxuriant laurels. The natives say that -Circe dwelt there, and they shew the grave of Elpenor, from -which grow myrtles such as wreaths are made of, whereas the -other myrtle-trees are tall.”<a id='r616' /><a href='#f616' class='c005'><sup>[616]</sup></a> Thus the prospect from the top -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The prospect from the Alban Mount in antiquity.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -of the Alban Mount in the early days of Rome must have been -very different in some respects from what it is to-day. The -purple Apennines, indeed, in their eternal calm on the one -hand, and the shining Mediterranean in its eternal unrest on -the other, no doubt looked then much as they look now, -whether bathed in sunshine, or chequered by the fleeting -shadows of clouds; but instead of the desolate brown -expanse of the fever-stricken Campagna, spanned by its -long lines of ruined aqueducts, like the broken arches of the -bridge in the vision of Mirza, the eye must have ranged over -woodlands that stretched away, mile after mile, on all sides, -till their varied hues of green or autumnal scarlet and -gold melted insensibly into the blue of the distant mountains -and sea.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Thus the Alban Mount was to the Latins what Olympus -was to the Greeks, the lofty abode of the sky-god, who -hurled his thunderbolts from above the clouds. The white -<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>steers which were here sacrificed to him in his sacred grove, -as in the Capitol at Rome,<a id='r617' /><a href='#f617' class='c005'><sup>[617]</sup></a> remind us of the white bulls -which the Druids of Gaul sacrificed under the holy oak when -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Resemblance between the Latin worship of Jupiter and the -Druidical worship of the oak.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -they cut the mistletoe;<a id='r618' /><a href='#f618' class='c005'><sup>[618]</sup></a> and the parallel would be all the -closer if, as we have seen reason to think, the Latins -worshipped Jupiter originally in groves of oak. Other -resemblances between ancient Gaul and Latium will meet us -later on. When we remember that the ancient Italian and -Celtic peoples spoke languages which are nearly related to each -other,<a id='r619' /><a href='#f619' class='c005'><sup>[619]</sup></a> we shall not be surprised at discovering traces of -community in their religion, especially in what concerns the -worship of the god of the oak and the thunder. For that -worship, as we shall see presently, belongs to the oldest -stratum of Aryan civilisation in Europe.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sacred marriage of Jupiter and Juno.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But Jupiter did not reign alone on the top of his holy -mountain. He had his consort with him, the goddess Juno, -who was worshipped here under the same title, Moneta, as -on the Capitol at Rome.<a id='r620' /><a href='#f620' class='c005'><sup>[620]</sup></a> As the oak crown was sacred to -Jupiter and Juno on the Capitol,<a id='r621' /><a href='#f621' class='c005'><sup>[621]</sup></a> so we may suppose it was -on the Alban Mount, from which the Capitoline worship -was derived. Thus the oak-god would have his oak-goddess -in the sacred oak grove. So at Dodona the oak-god Zeus -was coupled with Dione, whose very name is only a dialectically -different form of Juno;<a id='r622' /><a href='#f622' class='c005'><sup>[622]</sup></a> and so on the top of -Mount Cithaeron he was periodically wedded to an oaken -<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>image of Hera.<a id='r623' /><a href='#f623' class='c005'><sup>[623]</sup></a> It is probable, though it cannot be -positively proved, that the sacred marriage of Jupiter -and Juno was annually celebrated by all the peoples of -the Latin stock in the month which they named after -the goddess, the midsummer month of June.<a id='r624' /><a href='#f624' class='c005'><sup>[624]</sup></a> Now on -the first of June the Roman pontiffs performed certain rites -in the grove of Helernus beside the Tiber, and on the same -day, and perhaps in the same place, a nymph of the grove, -by name Carna, received offerings of lard and bean-porridge. -She was said to be a huntress, chaste and coy, who gave -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Janus and Carna.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -the slip to her lovers in the depths of the wood, but was -caught by Janus. Some took her to be Diana herself.<a id='r625' /><a href='#f625' class='c005'><sup>[625]</sup></a> -If she were indeed a form of that goddess, her union with -Janus, that is, Dianus, would be appropriate; and as she -had a chapel on the Caelian hill, which was once covered -with oak-woods,<a id='r626' /><a href='#f626' class='c005'><sup>[626]</sup></a> she may have been, like Egeria, an oak-nymph. -Further, Janus, or Dianus, and Diana, as we shall -see later on, were originally mere doubles of Jupiter and -Juno, with whom they coincide in name and to some extent -in function. Hence it appears to be not impossible that -the rite celebrated by the pontiffs on the first of June in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>sacred grove of Helernus was the marriage of Jupiter -and Juno under the forms of Janus and Diana. It would -be some confirmation of this view if we could be sure that, -as Ovid seems to imply, the Romans were in the habit -of placing branches of white thorn or buckthorn in their -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Ancient use of white thorn or buckthorn to ward off witchcraft.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -windows on the first of June to keep out the witches;<a id='r627' /><a href='#f627' class='c005'><sup>[627]</sup></a> -for in some parts of Europe precisely the same custom -is observed, for the same reason, a month earlier, on the -marriage day of the King and Queen of May.<a id='r628' /><a href='#f628' class='c005'><sup>[628]</sup></a> The Greeks -certainly believed that branches of white thorn or buckthorn -fastened to a door or outside the house had power to disarm -the malignant arts of sorcerers<a id='r629' /><a href='#f629' class='c005'><sup>[629]</sup></a> and to exclude spirits. -Hence they hung up branches of it before the door when -sacrifices were being offered to the dead, lest any of the -prowling ghosts should be tempted to revisit their old homes -or to invade those of other people.<a id='r630' /><a href='#f630' class='c005'><sup>[630]</sup></a> When the atheist Bion -lay adying, he not only caused sacrifices to be offered on his -behalf to the gods whose existence he had denied, but got -an old hag to mumble incantations over him and to bind -magical thongs about his arms, and he had boughs of buckthorn -and laurel attached to the lintel to keep out death.<a id='r631' /><a href='#f631' class='c005'><sup>[631]</sup></a> -However, the evidence as to the rites observed by the -Romans on the first of June is too slight and dubious to -allow us to press the parallel with May Day.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>At the sacred marriage of Jupiter and Juno in later times the parts of -the deities may have been acted by the Flamen Dialis and the Flaminica.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -If at any time of the year the Romans celebrated the -sacred marriage of Jupiter and Juno, as the Greeks commonly -celebrated the corresponding marriage of Zeus and -Hera,<a id='r632' /><a href='#f632' class='c005'><sup>[632]</sup></a> we may suppose that under the Republic the ceremony -was either performed over images of the divine pair -or acted by the Flamen Dialis and his wife the Flaminica. -For the Flamen Dialis was the priest of Jove; indeed, -ancient and modern writers have regarded him, with much -<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>probability, as a living image of Jupiter, a human embodiment -of the sky-god.<a id='r633' /><a href='#f633' class='c005'><sup>[633]</sup></a> In earlier times the Roman king, as -representative of Jupiter, would naturally play the part of -the heavenly bridegroom at the sacred marriage, while his -queen would figure as the heavenly bride, just as in Egypt -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Flamen and Flaminica may have been the deputies of the king and queen.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -the king and queen masqueraded in the character of deities, -and as at Athens the queen annually wedded the vine-god -Dionysus. That the Roman king and queen should act the -parts of Jupiter and Juno would seem all the more natural -because these deities themselves bore the title of King and -Queen.<a id='r634' /><a href='#f634' class='c005'><sup>[634]</sup></a> Even if the office of Flamen Dialis existed under -the kings, as it appears to have done, the double representation -of Jupiter by the king and the flamen need not have -seemed extraordinary to the Romans of the time. The -same sort of duplication, as we saw, appears to have taken -place at Alba, when the Julii were allowed to represent the -supreme god in the character of Little Jupiters, while the -royal dynasty of the Silvii continued to wield the divine -thunder and lightning.<a id='r635' /><a href='#f635' class='c005'><sup>[635]</sup></a> And long ages afterwards, history -repeating itself, another member of the Julian house, the -first emperor of Rome, was deified in his lifetime under the -title of Jupiter, while a flamen was appointed to do for him -what the Flamen Dialis did for the heavenly Jove.<a id='r636' /><a href='#f636' class='c005'><sup>[636]</sup></a> It is -said that Numa, the typical priestly king, at first himself -discharged the functions of Flamen Dialis, but afterwards -appointed a separate priest of Jupiter with that title, in -order that the kings, untrammeled by the burdensome -religious observances attached to the priesthood, might be -free to lead their armies to battle.<a id='r637' /><a href='#f637' class='c005'><sup>[637]</sup></a> The tradition may be -substantially correct; for analogy shews that the functions -<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>of a priestly king are too harassing and too incongruous to -be permanently united in the same hands, and that sooner -or later the holder of the office seeks to rid himself of part -of his burden by deputing to others, according to his temper -and tastes, either his civil or his religious duties. Hence we -may take it as probable that the fighting kings of Rome, -tired of parading as Jupiter and of observing all the -elaborate ritual, all the tedious restrictions which the character -of godhead entailed on them, were glad to relegate -these pious mummeries to a substitute, in whose hands they -left the crosier at home while they went forth to wield the -sharp Roman sword abroad. This would explain why the -traditions of the later kings, from Tullus Hostilius onwards, -exhibit so few traces of sacred or priestly functions adhering -to their office. Among the ceremonies which they henceforward -performed by deputy may have been the rite of the -sacred marriage.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>At the sacred marriage the King and Queen of Rome probably -personated the god and goddess of the oak.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Whether that was so or not, the legend of Numa and -Egeria appears to embody a reminiscence of a time when -the priestly king himself played the part of the divine bridegroom; -and as we have seen reason to suppose that the -Roman kings personated the oak-god, while Egeria is expressly -said to have been an oak-nymph, the story of their -union in the sacred grove raises a presumption that at Rome -in the regal period a ceremony was periodically performed -exactly analogous to that which was annually celebrated at -Athens down to the time of Aristotle.<a id='r638' /><a href='#f638' class='c005'><sup>[638]</sup></a> The marriage of the -King of Rome to the oak-goddess, like the wedding of the -vine-god to the Queen of Athens, must have been intended -<span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>to quicken the growth of vegetation by homoeopathic -magic. Of the two forms of the rite we can hardly doubt -that the Roman was the older, and that long before the -northern invaders met with the vine on the shores of the -Mediterranean their forefathers had married the tree-god -to the tree-goddess in the vast oak forests of Central and -Northern Europe. In the England of our day the forests -have mostly disappeared, yet still on many a village green -and in many a country lane a faded image of the sacred -marriage lingers in the rustic pageantry of May Day.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span> - <h2 id='chap14' class='c002'>CHAPTER XIV <br /> THE KING’S FIRE</h2> -</div> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sacred Marriage of the Fire-god with a woman.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus far we have dealt mainly with those instances of the -Sacred Marriage in which a human being is wedded to the -divine powers of vegetation or water. Now we pass to the -consideration of a different class of cases, in which the divine -bridegroom is the fire and his bride a human virgin. And -these cases are particularly important for our present enquiry -into the early Latin kingship, since it appears that the old -Latin kings were commonly supposed to be the offspring -of the fire-god by mortal mothers. The evidence which -points to this conclusion is as follows.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Legend of the birth of King Servius Tullius from the fire.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -First, let us take the legend of the birth of King Servius -Tullius. It is said that one day the virgin Ocrisia, a -slave-woman of Queen Tanaquil, the wife of King Tarquin -the elder, was offering as usual cakes and libations of -wine on the royal hearth, when a flame in the shape of -the male member shot out from the fire. Taking this for -a sign that her handmaiden was to be the mother of a more -than mortal son, the wise Queen Tanaquil bade the girl -array herself as a bride and lie down beside the hearth. -Her orders were obeyed; Ocrisia conceived by the god or -spirit of the fire, and in due time brought forth Servius -Tullius, who was thus born a slave, being the reputed son -of a slave mother and a divine father, the fire-god. His -birth from the fire was attested in his childhood by a lambent -flame which played about his head as he slept at noon in -the king’s palace.<a id='r639' /><a href='#f639' class='c005'><sup>[639]</sup></a> This story, as others have pointed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>out before,<a id='r640' /><a href='#f640' class='c005'><sup>[640]</sup></a> seems clearly to imply that the mother -of Servius was a Vestal Virgin charged with the care and -worship of the sacred fire in the king’s house. Now, in -Promathion’s <i>History of Italy</i>, cited by Plutarch, a similar -tale was told of the birth of Romulus himself. It is -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Legend of the birth of Romulus from the fire.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -said that in the house of the King of Alba a flame -like to the male organ of generation hung over the hearth -for many days. Learning from an oracle that a virgin -should conceive by this phantom and bear a son of great -valour and renown, the king bade one of his daughters -submit to its embraces, but she disdained to do so, and sent -her handmaid instead. Angry at her disobedience, her -father ordered both the maidens to be put to death. But -Vesta appeared to him in a dream, forbade the execution, -and commanded that both the girls should be imprisoned -until they had woven a certain web, after which they were -to be given in marriage. But the web was never finished, -for as fast as they wove it by day, other maidens, in -obedience to the king’s orders, unwove it at night. Meantime -the handmaiden conceived by the flame of fire, and -gave birth to Romulus and Remus.<a id='r641' /><a href='#f641' class='c005'><sup>[641]</sup></a> In this legend, as in -the story of the birth of Servius Tullius, it is plain that the -mother of the future King of Rome was both a slave and -a priestess of Vesta. Orthodox Roman tradition always -admitted that she was a Vestal, but naturally enough -represented her as the king’s daughter rather than his slave. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>The god Mars, it was said, got her with child as she drew -water in his sacred grove.<a id='r642' /><a href='#f642' class='c005'><sup>[642]</sup></a> However, when we compare -this legend with the similar story of the birth of Servius, -we may suspect that Promathion has preserved, though -perhaps in a perverted form, an old feature of the Latin -kingship, namely, that one of the king’s parents might be, -and sometimes was, a slave. Whether that was so or not, -such tales at least bear witness to an old belief that the -early Roman kings were born of virgins and of the fire. -Similarly Caeculus, the founder of Praeneste, passed for a -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Legend of the birth of Caeculus from the fire.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -son of Vulcan. It was said that his mother conceived him -through a spark, which leapt from the fire and struck her as -she sat by the hearth. She exposed the child near a temple -of Jupiter, and he was found there beside a fire by some -maidens who were going to draw water. In after-life he -proved his divine birth by working an appropriate miracle. -When an infidel crowd refused to believe that he was the -son of a god, he prayed to his father, and immediately the -unbelievers were surrounded with a flame of fire.<a id='r643' /><a href='#f643' class='c005'><sup>[643]</sup></a> More -than this, the whole of the Alban dynasty appear to have -traced their descent from a Vestal, for the wife of King -Latinus, their legendary ancestor, was named Amata<a id='r644' /><a href='#f644' class='c005'><sup>[644]</sup></a> or -Beloved, and this was the regular title bestowed on a Vestal -after her election,<a id='r645' /><a href='#f645' class='c005'><sup>[645]</sup></a> a title which cannot be fully understood -except in the light of the foregoing traditions, which seem -to shew that the Vestals were regularly supposed to be beloved -by the fire-god. Moreover, fire is said to have played round -the head of Amata’s daughter Lavinia,<a id='r646' /><a href='#f646' class='c005'><sup>[646]</sup></a> just as it played round -the head of the fire-born Servius Tullius. As the same -prodigy was reported of Julus or Ascanius, the son of -Aeneas,<a id='r647' /><a href='#f647' class='c005'><sup>[647]</sup></a> we may suspect that a similar legend was told of -his miraculous conception at the hearth.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Vestal Virgins seem to have been regarded as the wives of the fire-god.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Now we may take it as certain that the Romans and -Latins would never have traced the descent of their kings from -Vestal Virgins unless they had thought that such a descent, far -from being a stain, was, under certain circumstances, highly -honourable. What the circumstances were that permitted a -Vestal to become a mother, not only with impunity but -with honour and glory, appear plainly from the stories of -the birth of Caeculus, Romulus, and Servius Tullius. If she -might not know a mortal man, she was quite free, and indeed -was encouraged, to conceive and bear a son to the fire-god. -In fact the legends suggest that the Vestals were regularly -regarded as the fire-god’s wives. This would explain why -they were bound to chastity during their term of service: -the bride must be true to her divine bridegroom. And the -theory of chastity could be easily reconciled with the practice -of maternity by allowing a man to masquerade as the fire-god -at a sacred marriage, just as in Egypt the king disguised -himself as the god Ammon when he wedded the queen,<a id='r648' /><a href='#f648' class='c005'><sup>[648]</sup></a> -or as among the Ewe tribes the priest poses as the python-god -when he goes in to the human brides of the serpent.<a id='r649' /><a href='#f649' class='c005'><sup>[649]</sup></a> -Thus the doctrine of the divine birth of kings presents no -serious difficulty to people who believe that a god may be -made flesh in a man, and that a virgin may conceive and -bear him a son. Of course the theory of the divine motherhood -of the Vestals applies only to the early regal and therefore -prehistoric period. Under the Republic the demand for -kings had ceased, and with it, therefore, the supply. Yet a -trace of the old view of the Vestals as virgin mothers lingered -down to the latest times in the character of Vesta herself, -their patroness and type; for Vesta always bore the official -title of Mother, never that of Virgin.<a id='r650' /><a href='#f650' class='c005'><sup>[650]</sup></a> We may surmise that -a similar belief and practice once obtained in Attica. For -<span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>Erichthonius, king of Athens, is said to have been a son of -the fire-god Hephaestus by the virgin goddess Athena: the -story told of his miraculous birth from the ground, which had -been impregnated by the seed of the fire-god, is clearly a later -version devised to save the virginity of his mother.<a id='r651' /><a href='#f651' class='c005'><sup>[651]</sup></a> The -perpetual lamp of Athena, which burned in the Erechtheum -or house of Erechtheus (who was identical with Erichthonius) -on the acropolis of Athens,<a id='r652' /><a href='#f652' class='c005'><sup>[652]</sup></a> may have answered to the -perpetual fire of Vesta at Rome; and it is possible that the -maidens called Arrephoroi or Errephoroi, who dwelt close to -the Erechtheum,<a id='r653' /><a href='#f653' class='c005'><sup>[653]</sup></a> may at one time have personated Athena -and passed, like the Vestals, for wives of the fire-god.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Rationalistic theory of the duties of the Vestals rejected.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -It has, indeed, been held that the Vestals were of old the -king’s daughters, who were kept at home and forbidden to marry -for no other reason than that they might devote themselves to -the domestic duties of drawing water, mopping the house, -tending the fire, and baking cakes.<a id='r654' /><a href='#f654' class='c005'><sup>[654]</sup></a> But this rationalistic -theory could hardly explain the superstitious horror -which the infidelity of a Vestal always excited in the Roman -mind. Customs which begin in reason seldom end in -superstition. It is likely, therefore, that the rule of chastity -imposed on the Vestals was based from the first on a -superstition rather than on a mere consideration of practical -convenience. The belief that the Vestals were the spouses -of the fire-god would explain the rule.<a id='r655' /><a href='#f655' class='c005'><sup>[655]</sup></a> We have seen that -the practice of marrying women to gods has been by no -means uncommon. If the spirit of the water has his -human wife, why not the spirit of the fire? Indeed, -primitive man has a special reason for thinking that the -fire-god should always be married. What that reason -is, I will now try to explain.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Vestal fire of later times was a continuation of the -fire on the king’s hearth.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But first it is necessary to apprehend clearly that the -Vestal fire of republican and imperial Rome was strictly -the successor or continuation of the fire which in the regal -period had burned on the king’s hearth. That it was so -appears plainly from the stories of the birth of Romulus -and Servius Tullius, which shew that Vesta was believed to -be worshipped at the royal fireside by maidens who were -either the king’s daughters or his slaves. This conclusion is -amply confirmed by a study of the temple of Vesta and the -adjoining edifices in the Roman Forum. For the so-called -temple of the goddess never was, strictly speaking, a temple -at all. This fact we have on the authority of Varro -himself, the greatest of Roman antiquaries.<a id='r656' /><a href='#f656' class='c005'><sup>[656]</sup></a> The little -round building in which the sacred fire always burned was -merely a copy of the round hut in which the king, like his -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The round temple of Vesta a copy of the ancient Italian hut.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -subjects, had dwelt in days of old. Tradition preserved a -memory of the time when its walls were made of wattled -osiers and the roof was of thatch;<a id='r657' /><a href='#f657' class='c005'><sup>[657]</sup></a> indeed, with that -peculiar clinging to the forms of the past which is -characteristic of royalty and religion, the inmost shrine -continued down even to late times to be fashioned of the -same simple materials.<a id='r658' /><a href='#f658' class='c005'><sup>[658]</sup></a> The hut of Romulus, or what -passed for it, constructed of wood, reeds, and straw, was -always preserved and carefully repaired in the original style. -It stood on the side of the Palatine hill facing the Circus -Maximus.<a id='r659' /><a href='#f659' class='c005'><sup>[659]</sup></a> A similar hut, roofed with thatch, was in like -manner maintained on the Capitoline hill, and traditionally -associated with Romulus.<a id='r660' /><a href='#f660' class='c005'><sup>[660]</sup></a> The so-called temple of Vesta in -historical times stood not on any of the hills, but in the -Forum, at the northern foot of the Palatine. Its situation -in the flat ground is quite consistent with the view that the -building represents the king’s house of early, though not of -the very earliest, times; for, according to tradition, it was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span>built by Numa in this position between the Palatine and the -Capitol, at the time when he united the two separate towns -on these hills and turned the low swampy ground between -them into their common place of assembly. Here, too, -beside the temple of Vesta, the king built himself a house, -which was ever afterwards known as the Regia or palace; -formerly he had dwelt on the Quirinal.<a id='r661' /><a href='#f661' class='c005'><sup>[661]</sup></a> In after-times this -old palace of the kings was perhaps the official residence of their -successor, the King of the Sacred Rites.<a id='r662' /><a href='#f662' class='c005'><sup>[662]</sup></a> Adjoining it was -the house of the Vestals,<a id='r663' /><a href='#f663' class='c005'><sup>[663]</sup></a> at first, no doubt, a simple and -unpretentious edifice, but afterwards a stately pile gathered -round a spacious open court which must have resembled -the cloister of a mediaeval monastery. We may assume -that the kernel of this group of buildings was the round -temple of Vesta, and that the hearth in it, on which burned -the sacred fire, was originally the hearth of the king’s -house. That the so-called temple was built on the model of -the round huts of the old Latins is proved by the discoveries -made at an ancient necropolis near Albano. The ashes of -the dead were here deposited in urns, which are shaped like -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Hut-urns found at Albano and Rome.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -little round huts with conical roofs, obviously in order that -the souls of the dead might live in houses such as they had -inhabited during life. The roofs of these miniature dwellings -are raised on cross-beams, sometimes with one or more -holes to let out the smoke. The door is fastened by a -crossbar, which is passed through a ring on the outside and -tied to the two side-posts. In some of these hut-urns the -side-posts are duplicated, or even triplicated, for the sake of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span>ornament; and it is probable that the ring of columns -which encircled the little temple of Vesta in historical -times was merely an extension of the door-posts of the -prehistoric hut. The necropolis in which these urns were -found must be very ancient, since it was buried under the -streams of lava vomited by the Alban Mountain in -eruption. But the mountain has not been an active volcano -within historical times, unless, indeed, the showers of stones -and the rain of blood often recorded as ominous prodigies -by Roman writers may be explained as jets of pumice and -red volcanic dust discharged by one of the craters.<a id='r664' /><a href='#f664' class='c005'><sup>[664]</sup></a> The -prehistoric burial-ground lately discovered in the Roman -Forum has yielded several hut-urns of precisely the same -shape as those of the Alban cemetery. Hence we may infer -with tolerable certainty that the earliest Latin settlers both -on the Alban hills and at Rome dwelt in round huts built -of wattle and dab, with peaked roofs of thatch.<a id='r665' /><a href='#f665' class='c005'><sup>[665]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>“Numa’s crockery,” the primitive earthenware vessels -used by the Vestals.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -If further evidence were needed to convince us that the -round temple of Vesta merely reproduced a Roman house -of the olden time, it might be supplied by the primitive -vessels of coarse earthenware in which the Vestals always -presented their offerings, and which, in memory of the -artlessness of an earlier age, went by the name of -“Numa’s crockery.”<a id='r666' /><a href='#f666' class='c005'><sup>[666]</sup></a> A Greek historian, writing when -Rome was at the height of her power and glory under -Augustus, praises the Romans for the austere simplicity -with which, in an age of vulgar wealth and ostentation, -they continued to honour the gods of their fathers. -“I have seen,” said he, “meals set before the gods on -old-fashioned wooden tables, in mats and earthenware -dishes, the food consisting of barley loaves and cakes and -spelt and firstfruits and such-like things, all plain and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>inexpensive and free from any touch of vulgarity. And I -have seen libations offered, not in vessels of silver and gold, -but in little earthen cups and jugs; and I heartily admired -a people which thus walked in the ways of their fathers, -not deviating from the ancient rites into extravagance and -display.”<a id='r667' /><a href='#f667' class='c005'><sup>[667]</sup></a> Specimens of this antique pottery have come to -light of late years at the house of the Vestals, the temple -of Vesta, and other religious centres in the Forum;<a id='r668' /><a href='#f668' class='c005'><sup>[668]</sup></a> others -had been found previously on the Esquiline hill and in the -necropolis of Alba Longa.<a id='r669' /><a href='#f669' class='c005'><sup>[669]</sup></a> We may conjecture that if the -Romans continued to serve the gods their meals in simple -earthenware dishes long after they themselves quaffed their -wine from goblets of crystal and gold or from murrhine cups -with their cloudy iridescent hues of purple and white,<a id='r670' /><a href='#f670' class='c005'><sup>[670]</sup></a> they -did so, not from any principle of severe good taste, but -rather from that superstitious fear of innovation which has -embalmed in religious ritual, as in amber, so many curious -relics of the past. The old forms and materials of the -vessels were consecrated by immemorial usage and might -not be changed with impunity. Indeed, in the ritual of the -Arval Brothers the holy pots themselves appear to have -been an object of worship.<a id='r671' /><a href='#f671' class='c005'><sup>[671]</sup></a> Specimens of these pots have -been found on the site of the sacred grove where the -Brothers performed their quaint service, and they shed an -interesting light on the conservatism of the Roman religion. -Some of them are moulded in the most primitive fashion by -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Rude pottery used by the Arval Brothers.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -the hand without any mechanical appliance. But most of -them belong to a stage of art, later indeed than this rude -beginning, yet earlier than the invention of the potter’s -wheel. In order to give the vessels their proper shape -and prevent the sides from collapsing, wooden hoops were -<span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span>inserted in them, and the marks made by these hoops in the -soft clay may still be seen on the inside of most of the pots -found in the grove. We may suppose that when the -potter’s wheel came into universal use, the old art of making -pottery by the hand was lost; but as religion would have -nothing to do with pots made in the new-fangled way, the -pious workman had to imitate the ancient ware as well -as he could, eking out his imperfect skill with the aid of -wooden hoops.<a id='r672' /><a href='#f672' class='c005'><sup>[672]</sup></a> Perhaps the <i>fictores Vestalium</i> and the -<i>fictores Pontificum</i>, of whom we read in inscriptions,<a id='r673' /><a href='#f673' class='c005'><sup>[673]</sup></a> were -those potters who, combining a retrograde art with sound -religious principles, provided the Vestals and Pontiffs with -the coarse crockery so dear to gods and to antiquaries. -If that was so, they may have had in the exercise of their -craft to observe some such curious rules as are still -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Savage superstitions as to the making of pottery.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -observed in similar circumstances by the savage Yuracares, -a tribe of Indians living dispersed in the depths of beautiful -tropical forests, at the eastern foot of the Bolivian -Andes. We are told by an explorer that “the manufacture -of pottery is not an everyday affair with this superstitious -people, and accordingly they surround it with singular precautions. -The women, who alone are entrusted with the -duty, go away very solemnly to look for the clay, but -they do so only when there is no crop to be gathered. In -the fear of thunder they betake themselves to the most -sequestered spots of the forest in order not to be seen. -There they build a hut. While they are at work they -observe certain ceremonies and never open their mouth, -speaking to each other by signs, being persuaded that one -word spoken would infallibly cause all their pots to break -in the firing; and they do not go near their husbands, for if -they did, all the sick people would die.”<a id='r674' /><a href='#f674' class='c005'><sup>[674]</sup></a> Among the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>Ba-Ronga of South Africa pottery is made by women only, -and they prefer to employ a child under puberty to light -the fire in which the pots are to be baked, because the child -has pure hands and the pots are therefore less likely to crack -in the furnace than if the woman lit the fire herself.<a id='r675' /><a href='#f675' class='c005'><sup>[675]</sup></a> If -the reader objects that Roman potters cannot have been -trammelled by superstitions like those which hamper the -savage potters of America and Africa, I would remind -him of the rules laid down by grave Roman writers for -the moral guidance of cooks, bakers, and butlers. After -mentioning a number of these writers by name, Columella -informs us that “all of them are of opinion that he who -engages in any one of these occupations is bound to be -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Chastity required in persons who handle dishes and food.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -chaste and continent, since everything depends on taking -care that neither the dishes nor the food should be handled -by any one above the age of puberty, or at least by any -one who is not exceedingly abstemious in sexual matters. -Therefore a man or woman who is sexually unclean ought -to wash in a river or running water before he touches the -contents of the storeroom. That is why there should be a -boy or a maid to fetch from the storeroom the things that -are needed.”<a id='r676' /><a href='#f676' class='c005'><sup>[676]</sup></a> When Roman cooks, bakers, and butlers -were expected to be so strict in the service of their human -masters, it might naturally be thought that the potters -should be not less so whose business it was to fashion the -rude yet precious vessels meet for the worship of the gods.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sanctity of the storeroom (<i>penus</i>) and of the -Penates in a Roman house.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -If the storeroom (<i>penus</i>) of a Roman house was deemed -so holy that its contents could only be handled by persons -ceremonially clean, the reason was that the Penates or gods -of the storeroom dwelt in it.<a id='r677' /><a href='#f677' class='c005'><sup>[677]</sup></a> The domestic hearth, where -the household meals were cooked in the simple days of old, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>was the natural altar of the Penates;<a id='r678' /><a href='#f678' class='c005'><sup>[678]</sup></a> their images, together -with those of the Lares, stood by it and shone in the cheerful -glow of the fire, when the family gathered round it in the -evening.<a id='r679' /><a href='#f679' class='c005'><sup>[679]</sup></a> Thus in every house Vesta, the goddess of the -hearth, was intimately bound up with the Penates or gods of -the storeroom; indeed, she was reckoned one of them.<a id='r680' /><a href='#f680' class='c005'><sup>[680]</sup></a> Now -the temple of Vesta, being nothing more than a type of the -oldest form of Roman house, naturally had, like an ordinary -house, its sacred storeroom, and its Penates or gods of the -storeroom.<a id='r681' /><a href='#f681' class='c005'><sup>[681]</sup></a> Hence if in every common house strict chastity -was, theoretically at least, expected of all who entered the -storeroom, we can well understand why such an obligation -should have been laid on the Vestals, who had in their -charge the holiest of all storerooms, the chamber in which -were popularly supposed to be preserved the talismans on -which the safety of the state depended.<a id='r682' /><a href='#f682' class='c005'><sup>[682]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Thus the temple of Vesta, with its perpetual fire and its sacred -storeroom, was merely a copy of the Roman king’s house.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus on the whole we may regard it as highly probable -that the round temple of Vesta in the Forum, with its sacred -storeroom and perpetual fire, was merely a survival, under -changed conditions, of the old house of the Roman kings, -which again may have been a copy of the still older house of -the kings of Alba. Both were modelled on the round huts of -wattled osiers in which the early Latins dwelt among the -woods and hills of Latium in the days when the Alban -Mountain was still an active volcano. Hence it is legitimate -to compare the old legends of the royal hearth with the later -practice in regard to the hearth of Vesta, and from the comparison -to explain, if we can, the meaning both of the -legends and of the practice.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span> - <h2 id='chap15' class='c002'>CHAPTER XV <br /> THE FIRE-DRILL</h2> -</div> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Mode of rekindling the Vestal fire at Rome by -means of the fire-drill.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In historical times, whenever the Vestal fire at Rome -happened to be extinguished, the virgins were beaten by the -pontiff; after which it was their custom, apparently with the -aid of the pontiff, to rekindle the fire by drilling a hole in a -board of lucky wood till a flame was elicited by friction. -The new fire thus obtained was carried into the temple of -Vesta by one of the virgins in a bronze sieve.<a id='r683' /><a href='#f683' class='c005'><sup>[683]</sup></a> As this -mode of producing fire is one of the most primitive known -to man, and has been commonly employed by many savage -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Use of the fire-drill by savages.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -tribes down to modern times,<a id='r684' /><a href='#f684' class='c005'><sup>[684]</sup></a> we need have no difficulty in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>believing that its use in the worship of Vesta was a survival -from prehistoric ages, and that whenever the fire on the -hearth of the Latin kings went out it was regularly relit in -the same fashion. In its simplest form the fire-drill, as the -apparatus has been appropriately named by Professor E. B. -Tylor, consists of two sticks, the one furnished with a point and -the other with a hole. The point of the one stick is inserted -into the hole of the other, which is laid flat on the ground, -while the operator holds the pointed stick upright in position -and twirls it rapidly between his hands till the rubbing of -the two sticks against each other produces sparks and at -last a flame.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Many savages regard the two sticks of the fire-drill as male and -female, and the rubbing of the two together as a sexual union.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Many savages see in this operation a resemblance to the -union of the sexes, and have accordingly named the pointed -stick the man and the holed stick the woman. Thus we are -told that among the Thompson Indians of British Columbia -“fire was obtained by means of the fire-drill, which consisted -of two dried sticks, each over a foot in length, and rounded -off to less than an inch in diameter. One stick was sharpened -at one end; while the other was marked with a couple of -notches close to each other—one on the side, and the other -on top. The sharpened end of the first stick was placed in -the top notch of the other stick, and turned rapidly between -the straightened palms of both hands. The heat thus produced -by the friction of the sticks caused sparks to fall -down the side notch upon tinder placed underneath, which, -when it commenced to smoke, was taken in the hands, and -blown upon until fanned into a flame. The tinder was dry -grass, the shredded dry bark of the sagebrush, or cedar-bark. -The sharpened stick was called the ‘man,’ and was made of -black-pine root, tops of young yellow pine, heart of yellow-pine -cones, service-berry wood, etc. The notched stick was -called the ‘woman,’ and was generally made of poplar-root. -However, many kinds of wood were used for this purpose. -When hot ashes or a spark fell upon the tinder, they said, -‘The woman has given birth.’”<a id='r685' /><a href='#f685' class='c005'><sup>[685]</sup></a> The Hopi Indians kindle -fire ceremonially by the friction of two sticks, which are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>regarded respectively as male and female. The female stick -has a notch in it and is laid flat on the floor; the point of -the male stick is inserted in the notch of the female stick -and is made to revolve rapidly by twirling the stick between -the hands. Pollen is added as a male symbol, and the -spark is caught in a tinder of shredded cedar bark.<a id='r686' /><a href='#f686' class='c005'><sup>[686]</sup></a> The -Urabunna tribe of Central Australia, who also make fire by -means of the fire-drill, call the upright piece “the child-stick,” -while they give to the horizontal or notched piece the -name of “the mother-stick” or “the mother of the fire.”<a id='r687' /><a href='#f687' class='c005'><sup>[687]</sup></a> -So in the Murray Islands, Torres Straits, the upright stick -is called the child (<i>werem</i>), and the horizontal stick the -mother (<i>apu</i>). In Mabuiag, Torres Straits, on the other -hand, the vertical stick is known as the male organ (<i>ini</i>), -and the horizontal stick as the hole (<i>sakai</i>).<a id='r688' /><a href='#f688' class='c005'><sup>[688]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The fire-drill among the Arabs.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -“The ancient Bedouins kindled fire by means of the -fire-drill, which was composed of a horizontal stick, the -<i>zenda</i>, and an upright stick, the <i>zend</i>. The science of -language furnishes us with many parallels for this mode of -regarding the two parts as male and female; the two parts -of the lock are distinguished in like manner; the spark is -then the child, <i>tifl</i>; compare also our German <i>Schraubenmutter</i>, -<i>Muttergewinde</i>. The sticks for making fire by -friction are not taken from the same tree; on the contrary, -they choose one as hard and tough as possible, and the -other soft, which allows the hard one to fit into it more -easily and catches fire the quicker on account of its loose -texture. The soft wood was naturally the horizontal stick, -the <i>zenda</i>, which the Arabs made out of <i>Calotropis procera</i> -(<i>’oshar</i>), while for the upright stick they used a hard branch -of <i>markh</i>.”<a id='r689' /><a href='#f689' class='c005'><sup>[689]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The fire-drill in Africa.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The Ngumbu of South Cameroons, in West Africa, -formerly made fire by rubbing two sticks against each other. -Of the sticks the one, called the male <i>nschio</i>, was put into -a hole of the other, which was called the female <i>nschio</i>.<a id='r690' /><a href='#f690' class='c005'><sup>[690]</sup></a> -In East Africa the Masai men make fire by drilling a hole -in a flat piece of wood with a hard pointed stick. They say -that the hard pointed stick is a man and that the flat piece -of wood is his wife. The former is cut from <i>Ficus sycomorus</i> -and <i>Ekebergia sp.</i>, the latter from any fibrous tree, such -as <i>Kigelia africana</i>, <i>Cordia ovalis</i>, or <i>Acacia albida</i>. The -women get their fire from the one which has thus been -kindled by the men.<a id='r691' /><a href='#f691' class='c005'><sup>[691]</sup></a> The Nandi similarly produce fire by -rapidly drilling a hard pointed stick into a small hole in a -flat piece of soft wood. The hard stick is called the male -(<i>kirkit</i>) and the piece of soft wood the female (<i>kôket</i>). -Among the Nandi, as apparently among the Masai, fire-making -is an exclusive privilege of the men of the tribe.<a id='r692' /><a href='#f692' class='c005'><sup>[692]</sup></a> -The Baganda of Central Africa also made fire by means of -the fire-drill; they called the upright stick the male, and the -horizontal stick the female.<a id='r693' /><a href='#f693' class='c005'><sup>[693]</sup></a> Among the Bantu tribes of -south-eastern Africa, “when the native Africans use special fire, -either in connection with sacrifice or the festival of first-fruits, -it is produced by a doctor, and in the following manner:—Two -sticks, made of the <i>Uzwati</i> tree, and called the ‘husband -and wife,’ are given to him by the chief. These sticks are -prepared by the magicians, and are the exclusive property -of the chief, the ‘wife’ being the shorter of the two. The -doctor cuts a piece off each stick, and proceeds to kindle -fire in the usual manner, by revolving the one rapidly -between the palms of his hands, while its end rests in a -small hollow dug in the side of the other. After he has -<span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span>obtained fire, he gives it to his attendant, who gets the pots -in order, and everything ready for cooking the newly-reaped -fruits. The sticks are handed back to the chief by the -doctor—no other hand must touch them—and put away till -they are required next season. They are regarded as in a -measure sacred, and no one, except the chief’s personal -servant, may go to the side of the hut where they are kept. -After being repeatedly used for fire-making, the doctor disposes -of what remains, and new ones are made and consecrated -by the magician. A special pot is used for the -preparation of the feast, and no other than it may be set on -a fire produced from the ‘husband and wife.’ When the -feast is over, the fire is carefully extinguished, and the pot -placed along with the sticks, where it remains untouched for -another year.”<a id='r694' /><a href='#f694' class='c005'><sup>[694]</sup></a> But even for the purposes of daily life -these tribes still kindle fire in this manner, if they happen to be -without matches. “A native takes two special sticks, made of -a light wood. One of these he points: this is called the -male stick. He then makes a conical hole in the centre of -the other stick, which is called the female. Placing the -female stick on the ground, he holds it firmly by his feet—a -native finds no difficulty in this, as he can easily pick -things off the ground with his toes if his hands are full. He -then places the pointed stick into the conical hole, and -slowly twirls the male stick between his hands. He does -this while using a good deal of pressure, and the wood -becomes powdered, lying round the revolving point in a -little heap of dust. When he thinks he has made sufficient -of the wood dust, he twirls the stick very fast, and in a -moment the powder bursts into flame, which he uses to set -fire to some dried grass.”<a id='r695' /><a href='#f695' class='c005'><sup>[695]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Fire-customs of the Herero.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The Damaras or Herero of Damaraland, in south-western -Africa, maintain sacred fires in their villages, and -their customs and beliefs in this respect present a close -resemblance to the Roman worship of Vesta. Fortunately -the Herero fire-worship has been described by a number -of independent witnesses, and as their accounts agree substantially -with each other, we may assume that they are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span>correct. The people are a tall, finely-built race of nomadic -herdsmen belonging to the Bantu stock, who seem to -have migrated into their present country from the north -and east about a hundred and fifty or two hundred -years ago. The desert character of the country and its -seclusion from the outer world long combined to preserve -the primitive manners of the inhabitants.<a id='r696' /><a href='#f696' class='c005'><sup>[696]</sup></a> In their native -state the Herero are a purely pastoral people, possessing -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Herero a pastoral people.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -immense herds of cattle and flocks of sheep and goats, -which are the pride and joy of their hearts, almost their -idols. They subsist chiefly on the milk of their herds, -which they commonly drink sour. Of the flesh they make -but little use, for they seldom kill any of their cattle, -and never a cow, a calf, or a lamb. Even oxen and -weathers are only slaughtered on solemn and festal occasions, -such as visits, burials, and the like. Such slaughter is a -great event in a village, and young and old flock from far -and near to partake of the meat.<a id='r697' /><a href='#f697' class='c005'><sup>[697]</sup></a> Their huts are of a round -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Huts and villages of the Herero.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -beehive shape, about ten feet in diameter. The framework -consists of stout branches, of which the lower ends are -rammed into the ground, while the upper ends are bent -together and tied with bark. A village is composed of a -number of these round huts arranged in a circle about the -calves’ pen as a centre and surrounded by an artificial hedge -of thorn-bushes.<a id='r698' /><a href='#f698' class='c005'><sup>[698]</sup></a> At night the cattle are driven in through -<span class='pageno' id='Page_213'>213</span>the hedge and take up their quarters in the open space -round the calves’ pen.<a id='r699' /><a href='#f699' class='c005'><sup>[699]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sacred fire of the Herero village maintained in or before the -hut of the chief’s principal wife.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The hut of the great or principal wife of the chief, built -and furnished in a more elaborate style than the rest, -regularly stands to the east of the calves’ pen, in the direction -of sunrise, so that from its position we can always learn -approximately the season of the year when the village was -founded. The chief or headman of the village has no special -hut of his own; he passes the day in the hut of the great -wife, and the night commonly in one of the huts of his other -wives in the northern semicircle. Between the house of the -great wife and the calves’ pen, but somewhat nearer to the -pen, is a large heap of ashes on which, in good weather, a -small, faintly glimmering fire may be seen to burn at any time -of the day. The heap of ashes is the sacred hearth (<i>okuruo</i>); -the fire is the holy fire (<i>omurangere</i> or <i>omurangerero</i>) of the -village. The open space between the sacred hearth and the -house of the great wife is known as the holy ground or the -holy house (<i>otyizero</i>).<a id='r700' /><a href='#f700' class='c005'><sup>[700]</sup></a> Betwixt the hearth and the calves’ -fold stands a great withered branch of the <i>omumborombonga</i> -(<i>Combretum primigenum</i>), the sacred tree of the Herero, -from which they believe that both they and their cattle -<span class='pageno' id='Page_214'>214</span>are descended. When a branch of this tree cannot be -obtained its place is taken by a bough of the <i>omwapu</i> -tree (<i>Grevia spec.</i>)<a id='r701' /><a href='#f701' class='c005'><sup>[701]</sup></a> At night and in rainy weather the -fire is transferred to the hut of the great wife, where it is -carefully kept alight.<a id='r702' /><a href='#f702' class='c005'><sup>[702]</sup></a> According to another account, the -fire is regularly preserved in the house, and a brand is -only brought out into the open air when the cattle are -being milked at morning and evening in order that in presence -of the fire the cow may be healthy and give much milk.<a id='r703' /><a href='#f703' class='c005'><sup>[703]</sup></a> -The custom in this respect perhaps varies in different -villages, and may be determined in some measure by the -climate. The sacred fire is regarded as the centre of the -village; from it at evening the people fetch a light to kindle -the fire on their own hearths, for every householder has his -own private hearth in front of his hut. At the holy hearth -are kept the most sacred possessions of the tribe, to wit, the -bundle of sticks which represent their ancestors; here -sacrifices are offered and enchantments performed; here -the flesh of the victims is cooked; here is the proper place -of the chief; here the elders assemble in council, and judgment -is given; here strangers are received and ambassadors -entertained. At the banquets held on solemn occasions all -may partake of the flesh, whether they be friends or foes; -the stranger’s curse would rest on the churl who should -refuse him his just share; and this curse the Herero dreads -above everything because he believes its effect to be -infallible. So great is the veneration felt by the natives for -the sacred hearth, with its hallowed bough, that they dare -not approach it without testifying the deepest respect. -They take off their sandals, throw themselves on the ground, -and pray their great ancestor (<i>Tate Mukuru</i>) to be gracious -to them. The horns of the oxen slaughtered at festivals lie -beside the hearth; the chief sits on the largest pair when he -is engaged in performing his magical rites. Near the fire, too, -is a stone on which none but the chief has the right to sit.<a id='r704' /><a href='#f704' class='c005'><sup>[704]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The sacred fire among the Herero is watched and fed by the chief’s eldest unmarried -daughter, who performs other priestly duties.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The duty of maintaining the sacred fire and preserving -it from extinction is entrusted to the eldest unmarried -daughter of the chief by his great wife; if he has no -daughter, the task devolves on the unmarried girl who is -next of kin to him. She bears the title of <i>ondangere</i>, derived -from the name of the sacred fire (<i>omurangere</i>).<a id='r705' /><a href='#f705' class='c005'><sup>[705]</sup></a> Besides -keeping up the fire she has other priestly functions to -discharge. Before the men start on a dangerous expedition, -she rubs the holy ashes on their foreheads.<a id='r706' /><a href='#f706' class='c005'><sup>[706]</sup></a> When a -woman brings her new-born infant to the sacred hearth -to receive its name, the maiden priestess or Vestal, as we -may call her, sprinkles water on both mother and child.<a id='r707' /><a href='#f707' class='c005'><sup>[707]</sup></a> -Every morning, when the cattle walk out of the fold, she -besprinkles the fattest of them with a brush dipped in water.<a id='r708' /><a href='#f708' class='c005'><sup>[708]</sup></a> -When an ox dies by accident at the village, she lays a piece -of wood on its back, praying at the same time for long life, -plenty of cattle, and so forth. Moreover, she ties a double -knot in her apron for the dead beast, for a curse would -follow if she neglected to do so.<a id='r709' /><a href='#f709' class='c005'><sup>[709]</sup></a> Lastly, when the site of -the village is changed, the priestess walks at the head of the -people and of the herds, carrying a firebrand from the old -sacred hearth and taking the utmost care to keep it alight.<a id='r710' /><a href='#f710' class='c005'><sup>[710]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'>The chief or headman of the village is also the priest; -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Herero chief acts as a priest.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -he alone may perform religious ceremonies except such as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>fall within the province of the Vestal priestess, his daughter. -In his capacity of priest he keeps the sacred bundle of -sticks which represent the ancestors, and at sacrifices he -offers meat to them that they may consecrate it. When the -old village is abandoned, it is his duty to carry, like Aeneas -quitting the ruins of Troy,<a id='r711' /><a href='#f711' class='c005'><sup>[711]</sup></a> these rude penates to the new -home. However, it is deemed enough if he merely places the -holy bundle on his back, and then hands it to a servant, who -carries it for him. As a priest he introduces the newborn -children to the spirits of the ancestors at the sacred hearth, -and gives the infants their names; and as a priest he has -a cow to himself, whose milk no one else may drink. This -milk is kept in vessels which differ from the ordinary milk -vessels, not only in shape and size, but also in being marked -with the badge of his paternal clan. When a man goes -forth from the village with his family and servants to herd -the cattle on a distant pasture, or to found another village, -he takes with him a burning brand from the sacred hearth -wherewith to kindle the holy fire in his new home. By -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Fire taken from the chief’s hearth by the founder of a new village.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -doing so he acknowledges himself the vassal of the chief -from whose hearth he took the fire. In this way a single -village may give out swarm after swarm, till it has become -the metropolis or capital of a whole group of villages, the -inhabitants of which recognise the supremacy of the parent -community, and regard themselves as all sitting round its -sacred fire. It is thus that a village may grow into a tribe -and its headman into a powerful chief, who, by means of -marriage alliances and the adhesion of weaker rivals, may -extend his sway over alien communities, and so gradually -acquire the rank and authority of a king.<a id='r712' /><a href='#f712' class='c005'><sup>[712]</sup></a> The political -evolution of the Herero has indeed stopped short of this -final stage; but among the more advanced branches of the -Bantu race, such as the Zulus and the Matabeles, it is -possible that the kingship has developed along these lines.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The combined office of chief and priest among the Herero descends in the male line.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The possession of the sacred fire and of the ancestral -sticks, carrying with it both political authority and priestly -dignity, descends in the male line, and hence generally passes -from father to son. In any case, whether the deceased had -a son or not, the double office of chief and priest must -always remain in his paternal clan (<i>oruzo</i>). If it should -happen that the clan becomes extinct by his death, the -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>A chief’s sacred hearth abandoned for some time after his death.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -sacred fire is put out, the hearth destroyed, no brand is taken -from it, and the sticks representing the ancestors are laid -with the dead man in the grave. But should there be an -heir, as usually happens, he takes a fire-brand from the -sacred hearth and departs with all the people to seek a new -home, abandoning the old village for years. In time, however, -they return to the spot, rebuild the huts on the same -sites, and inhabit them again. But in the interval none of -the kinsmen of the deceased may approach the deserted -village under pain of incurring the wrath of the ghost. -When the return at last takes place, and the people have -announced their arrival to the dead chief at his grave, which -is generally in the cattle-pen, they make a new fire by the -friction of the two sacred fire-sticks on the old hearth; for -it is not lawful to bring with them a brand from their last -settlement.<a id='r713' /><a href='#f713' class='c005'><sup>[713]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The sacred Herero fire rekindled by the fire-drill.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -If the sacred fire should go out through the neglect of -the priestess, a sudden shower of rain, or any other accident, -the Herero deem it a very evil omen. The whole tribe is -immediately summoned and large offerings of cattle are made -as an expiation. Then the fire is relit by means of the -friction of two sacred fire-sticks, which have been handed -down from father to son. Every chief possesses such fire-sticks, -and keeps them tied up with the bundle of holy -sticks that represent the ancestors. One of the fire-sticks is -pointed, the other has a hole in the middle, and sometimes -also a notch cut round it. In the notch some fungus or -rotten wood is placed as tinder. The holed stick is held -<span class='pageno' id='Page_218'>218</span>fast on the ground by the knees of the operator, who inserts -the point of the other stick in the hole and twirls it rapidly -between the palms of his hands in the usual way. As soon -as a spark is emitted it catches the tinder, which can then -easily be blown up into a flame. Thus it is from the tinder, -we are told, and not from the sticks, that the flame is -elicited. In this fashion, if everything is very dry, as it -generally is in Hereroland, the native gets fire in about a -minute. The names applied to the two sticks indicate that -the pointed stick (<i>ondume</i>) is regarded as male and the -holed stick (<i>otyiya</i>) as female, and that the process of -making fire by the friction of the two is compared to the -intercourse of the sexes. As to the wood of which the fire-sticks -are made accounts differ. According to Dr. H. -Schinz the holed or female stick is of a soft wood, the -pointed or male stick of a hard wood, generally of the -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The male fire-stick made of the sacred <i>omumborombonga</i> tree.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -sacred <i>omumborombonga</i> tree (<i>Combretum primigenum</i>). -According to Mr. C. G. Büttner, neither of the sticks need -be of a special tree, and any wood that happens to be at -hand may be employed for the purpose; only the wood of -the thorny acacias, which abound in the country, appears to -be unsuitable.<a id='r714' /><a href='#f714' class='c005'><sup>[714]</sup></a> Probably the rule mentioned by Dr. Schinz -is the original one, and if in some places the wood of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_219'>219</span>sacred tree has ceased to be used to light the holy fire, the -reason may be simply that the tree does not grow there, -and that accordingly the people are obliged to use such -wood as they can find. We have seen that a branch of the -sacred <i>omumborombonga</i> tree is regularly planted beside the -village hearth, but that in default of it the people have to -put up with a bough of another kind of tree, the <i>omuwapu</i> -(<i>Grevia spec</i>).<a id='r715' /><a href='#f715' class='c005'><sup>[715]</sup></a> Such substitutions were especially apt to be -forced on the Herero in the southern part of the country, -where the <i>omumborombonga</i> tree is very rare and forests do -not exist, the larger trees growing singly or in clumps. In -the north, on the other hand, vegetation is much richer, and -regular woods are to be found. Here, in particular, the -<i>omumborombonga</i> tree is one of the ornaments of the landscape. -It grows only beside water-courses, and generally -stands solitary, surpassing a tall oak in height, and rivalling -it in girth; indeed, so thick is the trunk that were it -hollowed out a family could lodge in it. Unlike most trees -in the country it is thornless. Whole forests of it grow to -the eastward of Hereroland, in the direction of Lake Ngami. -So close is the grain and so heavy the wood that some of -the early explorers gave it the name of the “iron tree.”<a id='r716' /><a href='#f716' class='c005'><sup>[716]</sup></a> -Hence it is well adapted to form the upright stick of the -fire-drill, for which a hard wood is required.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Herero tradition of the origin of men and cattle from the -sacred <i>omumborombonga</i> tree.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The Herero have a tradition that in the beginning they -and their cattle and all four-footed beasts came forth from -the <i>omumborombonga</i> tree in a single day, whereas birds, -fish, and creeping things sprang from the rain. However, -slightly different versions of the Herero genesis appear to be -current. As to the origin of men and cattle from the tree, -public opinion is unanimous; but some dissenters hold that -sheep and perhaps goats, but certainly sheep, issued from a -flat rock in the north of the country. For some time past, -unfortunately, the tree has ceased to be prolific; it is of no -<span class='pageno' id='Page_220'>220</span>use waiting beside it in the hope of capturing such oxen -and sheep as it might bear. Yet still the Herero testify -great respect for the tree which they regard as their ancestor -(<i>omukuru</i>). To injure it is deemed a sacrilege which the -ancestor will punish sooner or later. In passing it they -bow reverently and stick a bunch of green twigs or grass -into the trunk or throw it down at the foot. They address -the tree, saying, “<i>U-zera tate mukururume</i>, Thou art holy, -grandfather!” and they even enter into conversation with -it, giving the answers themselves in a changed voice. They -hardly dare to sit down in its shadow. All this reverence -they display for every tree of the species.<a id='r717' /><a href='#f717' class='c005'><sup>[717]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Migration from one country to another sometimes -involves a change of sacred tree.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -On the whole, then, we may infer that so long as the -Herero dwelt in a land where their ancestral tree abounded, -they made the male fire-stick from its wood; but that as -they gradually migrated from a region of tropical rains and -luxuriant forests to the arid mountains, open grass lands, -and dry torrid climate of their present country,<a id='r718' /><a href='#f718' class='c005'><sup>[718]</sup></a> they had in -some places to forgo its use and to take another tree in its -stead. Similarly the Aryan invaders of Greece and Italy -were obliged, under a southern sky, to seek substitutes for -the sacred oak of their old northern home; and more and -more, as time went on and the deciduous woods retreated -up the mountain slopes, they found what they sought in the -laurel, the olive, and the vine. Zeus himself had to put up -with the white poplar at his great sanctuary of Olympia in -the hot lowlands of Elis;<a id='r719' /><a href='#f719' class='c005'><sup>[719]</sup></a> and on summer days, when the -light leaves of the poplar hardly stirred in the languid air -and the buzz of the flies was more than usually exasperating, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_221'>221</span>he perhaps looked wistfully away to the Arcadian mountains, -looming blue in the distance through a haze of heat, and -sighed for the shadow and the coolness of their oak -woods.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The worship of the chief’s fire a form of ancestor-worship.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus it appears that the sanctity ascribed by the Herero -to the chief’s fire springs from a custom of kindling it with -the wood of their ancestral tree; in fact, the cult of the fire -resolves itself into a form of ancestor-worship. For the -religion of the Herero, like that of all Bantu peoples, is first -and foremost a propitiation of the spirits of their forefathers -conceived as powerful beings able and willing to harm them. -From youth to death the Herero live in constant dread of -their ancestors (<i>ovakuru</i>, plural of <i>omukuru</i>), who, sometimes -seen and sometimes unseen, return to earth and play their -descendants many a spiteful trick. They glide into the -village, steal the milk, drive the cattle from the fold, and -waylay women. More than that, they can inflict disease -and death, decide the issue of war, and send or withhold -rain at pleasure. They are the cause of every vexation and -misfortune, and the whole aim of the living is by frequent -sacrifices to mollify and appease the dead.<a id='r720' /><a href='#f720' class='c005'><sup>[720]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The sacred hearth a special seat of the ancestral spirits.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Now the sacred hearth seems to be in a special sense -the seat of the worship paid to the ancestral spirits. Here -the head of the family sits and communes with his forefather, -giving himself the answers he thinks fit.<a id='r721' /><a href='#f721' class='c005'><sup>[721]</sup></a> Hither the -newborn child is brought with its mother to be introduced -to the spirits and to receive its name, and the chief, addressing -his ancestors, announces, “To you a child is born in your -village; may this village never come to an end!”<a id='r722' /><a href='#f722' class='c005'><sup>[722]</sup></a> Hither -the bride is conducted at her marriage, and a sheep having -been sacrificed, its flesh is placed on the holy bushes at the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_222'>222</span>hearth.<a id='r723' /><a href='#f723' class='c005'><sup>[723]</sup></a> Hither the sick are carried to be commended to -the care of their ghostly kinsmen, and as the sufferer is -borne round and round the fire his friends chant:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>See, Father, we have come here,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>With this sick man to you,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>That he may soon recover.</i>”<a id='r724' /><a href='#f724' class='c005'><sup>[724]</sup></a></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sacred sticks representing the deceased ancestors of the Herero.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But the most tangible link between the worship of the -fire and the worship of the dead is furnished by the sacred -sticks representing the ancestors, which are kept in a bundle together -with the two sticks used for kindling the fire by friction. -Each of these rude idols or Lares, as we may call them, “symbolises -a definite ancestor of the paternal clan, and, taken -together, they may be regarded as the most sacred possession -of a family. They stand in the closest relation to the holy -hearth, or rather to the priestly dignity, and must therefore -always remain in the same paternal clan.”<a id='r725' /><a href='#f725' class='c005'><sup>[725]</sup></a> These sticks -“are cut from trees or bushes which are dedicated to the -ancestors, and they represent the ancestors at the sacrificial -meals, for the cooked flesh of the victims is always set -before them first. Many people always keep these sticks, -tied up in a bundle with straps and hung with amulets, -in the branches of the sacrificial bushes which stand on the -sacred hearth (<i>okuruo</i>). The sacrificial bush serves to -support the severed pieces of the victim, and thus in a -measure represents an altar or table of sacrifice.”<a id='r726' /><a href='#f726' class='c005'><sup>[726]</sup></a> When -after an absence of years the people return to a village -where a chief died and was buried, a new fire is kindled by -friction on the old hearth, the flesh of the first animal -slaughtered here is cooked in a particular vessel, and the -chief hands a portion of it to every person present. “An -image, consisting of two pieces of wood, supposed to -represent the household deity, or rather the deified parent, -is then produced, and moistened in the platter of each -individual. The chief then takes the image, and, after -affixing a piece of meat to the upper end of it, he plants -it in the ground, on the identical spot where his parent -<span class='pageno' id='Page_223'>223</span>was accustomed to sacrifice. The first pail of milk produced -from the cattle is also taken to the grave; a small -quantity is poured on the ground, and a blessing asked on -the remainder.” Each clan, the writer adds, has a particular -tree or shrub consecrated to it, and of this tree or shrub the -two sticks representing the deceased are made.<a id='r727' /><a href='#f727' class='c005'><sup>[727]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The sacred sticks representing the ancestors are probably the fire-sticks -which were used to kindle fresh fire in the village after a death.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In these accounts the sacred sticks which stand for the -ancestors, and to which the meat of sacrifices is first offered, -are distinguished, expressly or implicitly, from the sacred -sticks which are used to make the holy fire.<a id='r728' /><a href='#f728' class='c005'><sup>[728]</sup></a> Other writers, -however, identify the two sets of sticks. Thus we are told -that the Herero “make images of their ancestors as follows. -They take the two sticks with which they make fire and tie -them together with a fresh wisp of corn. Then they worship -this object as their ancestor. They may approach it only -on their knees. For hours together they sit before it and -talk with it. If you ask them where they imagine their -ancestors to be, since they cannot surely be these sticks, they -answer that they do not know. The sticks are kept in the -house of the great wife.”<a id='r729' /><a href='#f729' class='c005'><sup>[729]</sup></a> Again, another writer defines -the <i>ondume</i> or male fire-stick as a “stick representing an -<i>omukuru</i>, <i>i.e.</i> ancestor, deity, with which and the <i>otyiza</i> the -holy fire is made.”<a id='r730' /><a href='#f730' class='c005'><sup>[730]</sup></a> Again, the Rev. G. Viehe, in describing -the ceremonies observed at the return to a deserted village -where an ancestor (<i>omukuru</i>) is buried, tells us that they -bring no fire with them, “but holy fire must now be obtained -from the <i>omukuru</i>. This is done with the <i>ondume</i> and the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_224'>224</span><i>otyiza</i>. The meaning of these two words plainly shows that -the first represents the <i>omukuru</i>, and the other his wife.”<a id='r731' /><a href='#f731' class='c005'><sup>[731]</sup></a> -The same excellent authority defines the <i>ozondume</i> as “sticks -which represent the <i>ovakuru</i>, <i>i.e.</i> ancestors, deities”;<a id='r732' /><a href='#f732' class='c005'><sup>[732]</sup></a> and -<i>ozondume</i> is simply the plural of <i>ondume</i>, the male fire-stick.<a id='r733' /><a href='#f733' class='c005'><sup>[733]</sup></a> -Hence it appears highly probable that the sticks -representing the ancestors are, in fact, nothing but the male -fire-sticks, each of which was cut to make a new fire on the -return to the old village after a chiefs death. The stick -would be an appropriate emblem of the deceased, who had -been in his lifetime the owner of the sacred fire, and who -now after his death bestowed it on his descendants by means -of the friction of his wooden image. And the symbolism -will appear all the more natural when we remember that the -male fire-stick is generally made from the ancestral tree, -that the process of fire-making is regarded by the Herero as -the begetting of a child, and that their name for the stick, -according to the most probable etymology, signifies “the -begetter.” Such sticks would be far too sacred to be thrown -away when they had served their immediate purpose of -kindling a new fire, and thus in time a whole bundle of -them would accumulate, each of them recalling, and in a -sense representing, one of the great forefathers of the tribe. -When the old sticks had ceased to be used as fire-lighters, -and were preserved merely as memorials of the dead, it is -not surprising that their original function should be overlooked -by some European observers, who have thus been -led to distinguish them from the sticks by which the fire -is actually produced at the present day.<a id='r734' /><a href='#f734' class='c005'><sup>[734]</sup></a> Amongst the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_225'>225</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sacred fire-boards among the Koryaks and Chuckchees of north-eastern Asia.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Koryaks of north-eastern Asia, when the sacred fire-boards, -roughly carved in human form, are so full of holes that -they can no longer be used for the purpose of kindling fire, -they are still kept as holy relics in a shrine near the door -of the house; and a stranger who observed the respect -with which they are treated, but who did not know -their history, might well mistake them for figures of worshipful -ancestors and never guess the practical purpose -which they once served as fire-lighters. A Koryak family -regards its sacred fire-board not only as the deity of the -household fire, the guardian of the family hearth, but also -as the guardian of the reindeer, and they call it the “master -of the herd.” It is supposed to protect the reindeer from -wolves and from sickness and to prevent the animals from -straying away and being lost. When a reindeer is slaughtered, -the sacred fire-board is taken out and smeared with the -blood. The maritime Koryaks, who do not live by reindeer, -regard the sacred fire-board as the master of the -underground house and the helper in the hunt of sea-mammals. -They call it “father” and feed it from time to -time with fat, which they smear on its mouth.<a id='r735' /><a href='#f735' class='c005'><sup>[735]</sup></a> Among -the neighbouring Chuckchees in the north-eastern extremity -of Asia similar ideas and customs obtain in respect of the -fire-boards. These are roughly carved in human form and -personified, almost deified, as the supernatural guardians of -the reindeer. The holes made by drilling in the board are -deemed the eyes of the figure and the squeaking noise produced -by the friction of the fire-drill in the hole is thought -to be its voice. At every sacrifice the mouth of the figure is -greased with tallow or with the marrow of bones. When a -new fire-board is made, it is consecrated by being smeared -with the blood of a slaughtered reindeer, and the owner -says, “Enough! Take up your abode here!” Then the -other fire-boards are brought to the same place and set side -by side on the ground. The owner says, “Ho! these are -your companions. See that I always find easily every kind -of game!” Next he slaughters another reindeer and says, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_226'>226</span>“Hi! Since you are one of my young men, go and drive -the herd hither!” Then after a pause he asks the fire-board, -“Have you brought it?” to which in the name of -the fire-board he answers, “I have.” Thereupon, speaking -in his own person, he says, “Then catch some reindeer! -It seems that you will keep a good watch over the herd. -There, from the actual chief of the fire-boards, you may -learn wisdom.” These sacred fire-boards are often handed -down from generation to generation as family heir-looms. -During the calving-season they are taken from their bag -and placed behind the frame in the outer tent in order that -they may protect the dams.<a id='r736' /><a href='#f736' class='c005'><sup>[736]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The evolution of a fire-god or fire-goddess.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -These Koryak and Chuckchee customs illustrate the -evolution of a fire-god into the patron deity of a family and -his representation in human form by the board which is -used in fire-making. As the fire-board is that part of the -kindling apparatus which is commonly regarded as female -in contradistinction to the drill, which is regarded as male, -we can easily understand why the deity of the fire should -sometimes, as at Rome, be conceived as a goddess rather -than as a god; whereas if the drill itself were viewed as -the essential part of the apparatus we should expect to find -a fire-god and not a fire-goddess.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_227'>227</span> - <h2 id='chap16' class='c002'>CHAPTER XVI <br /> FATHER JOVE AND MOTHER VESTA</h2> -</div> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Similarity between the fire-customs of the Herero and the ancient Latins.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The reader may remember that the preceding account of the -fire-customs of the Herero was introduced for the sake -of comparison with the Latin worship of Vesta. The points -of similarity between the two will now be indicated. In the -first place we have seen reason to hold that the ever-burning -Vestal fire at Rome was merely a survival of the fire on -the king’s hearth. So among the Herero the sacred fire -of the village is the chief’s fire, which is kept burning or -smouldering in his house by day and by night. In Rome, -as in Hereroland, the extinction of the fire was regarded as -an evil omen, which had to be expiated by sacrifices,<a id='r737' /><a href='#f737' class='c005'><sup>[737]</sup></a> and -new fire was procured in primitive fashion by twirling the -point of one stick in the hole of another. The Roman -fire was fed with the wood of the sacred oak tree, just as the -African fire is kindled with the wood of the sacred <i>omumborombonga</i> -tree. Beside both were kept the images of the -ancestors, the Lares at Rome, the <i>ozondume</i> in Hereroland. -The king’s house which sheltered the fire and the -images was originally in Italy what the chief’s hut still is -in Hereroland, a circular hut of osiers, not as ancient -dreamers thought, because the earth is round,<a id='r738' /><a href='#f738' class='c005'><sup>[738]</sup></a> nor yet -because a circle is the symbol of rest, but simply because -it is both easier and cheaper to build a round hut than a -square.<a id='r739' /><a href='#f739' class='c005'><sup>[739]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_228'>228</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Roman Vestals, or some of them, appear to have been -originally the king’s daughters.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Further, in Rome the sacred fire was tended, as it still -is in Hereroland, by unmarried women, and as the Herero -priestesses are the chiefs daughters, so, we may conjecture, -it was with some at least of the Vestals among the ancient -Latins. The Roman Vestals appear to have been under the -<i>patria potestas</i> of the king, and, in republican times, of the -Pontifex Maximus, who succeeded to some of the king’s -functions.<a id='r740' /><a href='#f740' class='c005'><sup>[740]</sup></a> But if they were under the <i>patria potestas</i> of the -king, they must have been either his wives or daughters; -as virgins they cannot have been his wives; it remains, -therefore, that they were his daughters. Various circumstances -confirm this view. Their house at Rome, as we saw, -always adjoined the Regia, the old palace of the kings; -they were treated with marks of respect usually accorded to -royalty;<a id='r741' /><a href='#f741' class='c005'><sup>[741]</sup></a> and the most famous of all the Vestals, the -mother of Romulus, was said to be a daughter of the King -of Alba.<a id='r742' /><a href='#f742' class='c005'><sup>[742]</sup></a> The custom of putting an unfaithful Vestal to -death by immuring her in a subterranean chamber<a id='r743' /><a href='#f743' class='c005'><sup>[743]</sup></a> may -have been adopted in order to avoid the necessity of taking -the life of a princess by violence;<a id='r744' /><a href='#f744' class='c005'><sup>[744]</sup></a> for, as we shall learn later -on, there is a very widespread reluctance to spill royal blood.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_229'>229</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Rites performed by the Vestals for the fertility of the earth -and the fecundity of cattle.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Amongst the Herero the chief’s daughter who tends the -holy fire has also to perform certain priestly rites, which -have for their object the prosperity and multiplication of -the cattle.<a id='r745' /><a href='#f745' class='c005'><sup>[745]</sup></a> So, too, it was with the Roman Vestals. On -the fifteenth of April every year pregnant cows were -sacrificed to the Earth goddess; the unborn calves were -torn from their mothers’ wombs, the chief Vestal burned -them and kept their ashes for use at the shepherds’ festival -of the Parilia. This sacrifice of pregnant cows was a -fertility charm designed, by a curious application of -homoeopathic magic, to quicken both the seed in the ground -and the wombs of the cows and the ewes.<a id='r746' /><a href='#f746' class='c005'><sup>[746]</sup></a> At the Parilia, -held on the twenty-first of April, the Vestals mixed the -ashes of the unborn calves with the blood of a horse which -had been sacrificed in October, and this mixture they distributed -to shepherds, who fumigated their flocks with it -as a means of ensuring their fecundity and a plentiful supply -of milk.<a id='r747' /><a href='#f747' class='c005'><sup>[747]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Vestals were probably regarded as embodiments of Vesta, who was a mother-goddess, -the bestower of offspring on cattle and women.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Strange as at first it may seem to find holy virgins -assisting in operations intended to promote the fertility of -the earth and of cattle, this reproductive function accords -perfectly with the view that they were of old the wives -of the fire-god and the mothers of kings. On that view, -also, we can understand why down to imperial times the -Vestals adored the male emblem of generation,<a id='r748' /><a href='#f748' class='c005'><sup>[748]</sup></a> and why -Vesta herself, the goddess of whom they were the priestesses -and probably the embodiments, was worshipped by the -Romans not as a virgin but as a mother.<a id='r749' /><a href='#f749' class='c005'><sup>[749]</sup></a> She was sometimes -identified with Venus.<a id='r750' /><a href='#f750' class='c005'><sup>[750]</sup></a> Like Diana, with whom she -was identified at Nemi, she appears to have been a goddess -of fecundity, who bestowed offspring both on cattle and on -women. That she was supposed to multiply cattle is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_230'>230</span>indicated by the ceremonies which the Vestals performed -in April; that she made women to be mothers is hinted at -not obscurely by the legends of the birth of the old Latin -kings.<a id='r751' /><a href='#f751' class='c005'><sup>[751]</sup></a> The ancient Aryan practice of leading a bride -thrice round the hearth of her new home<a id='r752' /><a href='#f752' class='c005'><sup>[752]</sup></a> may have been -intended not merely to introduce her to the ancestral spirits -who had their seats there, but also to promote conception, -perhaps by allowing one of these very spirits to enter into -her and be born again. When the ancient Hindoo bridegroom -led his bride round the fire, he addressed the fire-god -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Custom of leading a bride round the fire perhaps a -fertility charm.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Agni with the words, “Mayst thou give back, Agni, to the -husband the wife together with offspring.”<a id='r753' /><a href='#f753' class='c005'><sup>[753]</sup></a> When a -Slavonian bride enters her husband’s house after marriage -she is led thrice round the hearth; then she must stir the fire -with the poker, saying, “As many sparks spring up, so many -cattle, so many male children shall enliven the new home.”<a id='r754' /><a href='#f754' class='c005'><sup>[754]</sup></a> -At Mostar, in Herzegovina, the bride seats herself on a -bag of fruit beside the hearth in her new home and pokes -the fire thrice. While she does so, they bring her a small -<span class='pageno' id='Page_231'>231</span>boy and set him on her lap. She turns the child thrice -round in order that she may give birth to male children.<a id='r755' /><a href='#f755' class='c005'><sup>[755]</sup></a> -Still more clearly does belief in the impregnation of a -woman by fire come out in another South Slavonian custom. -When a wife wishes to have a child, she will hold a vessel -full of water beside the fire on the hearth, while her husband -knocks two burning brands together so that the sparks fly -out. When some of them have fallen into the vessel, the -woman drinks the water which has thus been fertilised by -the fire.<a id='r756' /><a href='#f756' class='c005'><sup>[756]</sup></a> The same belief seems still to linger in England; -for there is a Lincolnshire saying that if a woman’s apron is -burned above the knee by a spark or red-hot cinder flying -out of a fire, she will become a mother.<a id='r757' /><a href='#f757' class='c005'><sup>[757]</sup></a> Thus the superstition -which gave rise to the stories of the birth of the old -Roman kings holds its ground to this day in Europe, even -in our own country. So indestructible are the crude fancies -of our savage forefathers. Thus we may safely infer -that the old practice of leading a bride formally to or -round the hearth was designed to make her fruitful -through the generative virtue ascribed to the fire. The -custom is not confined to peoples of the Aryan stock, for it -is observed also by the Esthonians and the Wotyaks of -Russia<a id='r758' /><a href='#f758' class='c005'><sup>[758]</sup></a> and, as we have seen, by the Herero of South -Africa.<a id='r759' /><a href='#f759' class='c005'><sup>[759]</sup></a> It expresses in daily life the same idea which is -embodied in the myths of the birth of Servius Tullius and -the other Latin kings, whose virgin mothers conceived -through contact with a spark or tongue of fire.<a id='r760' /><a href='#f760' class='c005'><sup>[760]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>New-born children brought to the hearth as a mode of introducing them to -the ancestral spirits.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Accordingly, where beliefs and customs of this sort have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_232'>232</span>prevailed, it is easy to understand why new-born children -should be brought to the hearth, and why their birth should -there be solemnly announced to the ancestors. This is done -by the Herero,<a id='r761' /><a href='#f761' class='c005'><sup>[761]</sup></a> and in like manner on the fifth or seventh -day after a birth the ancient Greeks used to run naked -round the hearth with the new-born babe in their arms.<a id='r762' /><a href='#f762' class='c005'><sup>[762]</sup></a> -This Greek ceremony may perhaps be regarded as merely a -purification, in other words as a means of keeping at bay -the demons who lie in wait for infants. Certainly in other -parts of the world a custom has prevailed of passing a newly -born child backwards and forwards through the smoke of the -fire for the express purpose of warding off evil spirits or -other baleful influences.<a id='r763' /><a href='#f763' class='c005'><sup>[763]</sup></a> Yet on the analogy of the preceding -customs we may conjecture that a practice of -solemnly bringing infants to the domestic hearth has also -been resorted to as a mode of introducing them to the -spirits of their fathers.<a id='r764' /><a href='#f764' class='c005'><sup>[764]</sup></a> In Russia the old belief that the -souls of the ancestors were somehow in the fire on the -hearth has left traces of itself down to the present time. -Thus in the Nijegorod Government it is still forbidden to -break up the smouldering faggots in a stove, because to do -so might cause the ancestors to fall through into hell. And -when a Russian family moves from one house to another, -the fire is raked out of the old stove into a jar and solemnly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_233'>233</span>conveyed to the new one, where it is received with the words, -“Welcome, grandfather, to the new home!”<a id='r765' /><a href='#f765' class='c005'><sup>[765]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Reasons why a procreative virtue was ascribed to fire.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But why, it may be asked, should a procreative virtue -be attributed to the fire, which at first sight appears to be a -purely destructive agent? and why in particular should -the ancestral spirits be conceived as present in it? Two -different reasons perhaps led savage philosophers to these -conclusions. In the first place the common mode of making -fire by means of the fire-drill has suggested, as we have seen, -to many savages the notion that fire is the child of the fire-sticks, -in other words that the rubbing of the fire-sticks -together is a sexual union which begets offspring in the -shape of a flame. This of itself suffices to impress on the -mind of a savage the idea that a capacity of reproduction is -innate in the fire, and consequently that a woman may -conceive by contact with it. Strictly speaking, he ought -perhaps to refer this power of reproduction not to the fire -but to the fire-sticks; but savage thought is in general too -vague to distinguish clearly between cause and effect. If he -thinks the matter out, as he may do if he is more than -usually reflective, the savage will probably conclude that fire -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The process of making fire by friction seems to the savage -an act of generation.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -exists unseen in all wood, and is only elicited from it by -friction,<a id='r766' /><a href='#f766' class='c005'><sup>[766]</sup></a> so that the spark or flame is the child, not so much -of the fire-sticks, as of the parent fires in them. But this -refinement of thought may well be above the reach even of -a savage philosopher. The second reason which seems -to have led early man to associate the fire with the souls -of his ancestors was a superstitious veneration for the -ancestral tree which furnished either the fuel for the -sacred fire or the material out of which he carved one -or both of the fire-sticks. Among the Herero, as we -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Again, the fire was associated with the ancestors through the sacred -ancestral tree which furnished either the fuel or the fire-sticks.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -saw, the male fire-stick commonly is, or used to be, -made out of the holy <i>omumborombonga</i> tree, from which -they believe that they and their cattle sprang in days of -old. Hence nothing could be more natural than that -they should regard the fire produced by the friction of a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_234'>234</span>piece of the ancestral tree, as akin to themselves, the -offspring of the same mighty forefather, to wit, the sacred -tree. Similarly, the Vestal fire at Rome was fed with the -wood of the oak, the sacred tree of Jupiter, and the first -Romans are described as “born of the tree trunks and the -heart of oak.”<a id='r767' /><a href='#f767' class='c005'><sup>[767]</sup></a> No wonder, then, that the Latin kings, -who claimed to represent Jupiter, and in that capacity -masqueraded in his costume and made mock thunder, should -have prided themselves on being sprung from a fire which -was fed with the wood of the god’s holy tree; such an origin -was only another form of descent from the oak and from the -god of the oak, Jupiter himself.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Esthonian marriage custom.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The theory that impregnation by fire is really impregnation -by the wood of the tree with which the fire is kindled, -derives some confirmation from a custom which is observed -at marriage by some of the Esthonians in the neighbourhood -of Oberpahlen. The bride is escorted to a tree, which is -thereupon cut down and burned. When the fire blazes up, -she is led thrice round it and placed between three armed -men, who clash their swords over her head, while the women -sing a song. Then some coins are thrown into the fire, and -when it has died out they are recovered and knocked into -the stump of the tree, which was cut down to serve as -fuel.<a id='r768' /><a href='#f768' class='c005'><sup>[768]</sup></a> This is clearly a mode of rewarding, first the fire, -and next the tree, for some benefit they have conferred on -the bride. But in early society husband and wife desire -nothing so much as offspring; this therefore may very well -be the benefit for which the Esthonian bride repays the tree.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The conception of the Fire-mother intimately bound up with that -of the female fire-stick in the fire-drill.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus far we have regarded mainly the paternal aspect -of the fire, which the Latins mythically embodied in Jupiter, -that is literally Father Jove, the god of the oak. The -maternal aspect of the fire was for them represented by -Mother Vesta, as they called her; and as the Roman king -stood for Father Jove, so his wife or daughter—the practice -on this point appears to have varied—stood for Mother Vesta. -Sometimes, as we have seen, the Vestal virgins, the priestesses -or rather incarnations of Vesta, appear to have been -the daughters, not the wives, of the king. But, on the other -<span class='pageno' id='Page_235'>235</span>hand, there are grounds for thinking that the wife of King -Latinus, the legendary ancestor of the Latins, was traditionally -regarded as a Vestal,<a id='r769' /><a href='#f769' class='c005'><sup>[769]</sup></a> and the analogy of the Flamen -Dialis with his wife the Flaminica, as I shall shew presently, -points also to a married pair of priestly functionaries concerned -with the kindling and maintenance of the sacred fire. -However that may have been, we may take it as probable -that the notion of the fire-mother was intimately associated -with, if it did not spring directly from, the female fire-stick -of the fire-drill, just as the conception of the fire-father was -similarly bound up with the male fire-stick.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Fire-father and the Fire-mother represented by a priest and priestess who -together made the sacred fire by means of the fire-drill.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Further, it seems that these mythical beings, the fire-father -and the fire-mother, were represented in real life by a -priest and a priestess, who together made the sacred fire, the -priest appropriately twirling the pointed male stick, while -the priestess held fast on the ground the holed female stick, -ready to blow up into a flame the spark which fell on the -tinder. In the composite religion of Rome, formed like the -Roman state by the fusion of several tribes, each with its -own gods and priests, such pairs of fire-priests may at first -have been duplicated. In one or more of the tribes which -afterwards made up the Roman commonwealth the function -of kindling the holy fire of oak was perhaps assigned to the -Flamen Dialis and his wife the Flaminica, the living -representatives of Jupiter and Juno; and if, as some scholars -think, the name <i>flamen</i> comes from <i>flare</i>, “to blow up,”<a id='r770' /><a href='#f770' class='c005'><sup>[770]</sup></a> the -derivation would fit well with this theory. But in historical -Rome the duty of making the sacred fire lay with the -Vestal virgins and the chief pontiff.<a id='r771' /><a href='#f771' class='c005'><sup>[771]</sup></a> The mode in which -they shared the work between them is not described by -ancient writers, but we may suppose that one of the -virgins held the board of lucky wood on the ground while -the pontiff inserted the point of a peg into the hole of the -board and made the peg revolve rapidly between the palms -of his hands. When the likeness of this mode of producing -fire to the intercourse of the sexes had once struck people, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_236'>236</span>they would deem it unnatural, and even indecent, for -a woman to usurp the man’s function of twirling the pointed -male stick. But the Vestals certainly helped to make fire -by friction; it would seem, therefore, that the part they -took in the process can only have been the one I have -conjecturally assigned to them. At all events, the conjecture -is supported by the following analogies.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Among the Djakuns fire is made by the leader and his unmarried daughter.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The Djakuns, a wild tribe of the Malay Peninsula, are -in the habit of making fire by friction. A traveller has -described the custom as follows: “When a troop was on a -journey and intended either to pitch a temporary camp, or -to make a longer settlement, the first camp fire was kindled -for good luck by an unmarried girl with the help of the -fire-drill. Generally this girl was the daughter of the man -who served the troop as leader. It was deemed of special -importance that on the first night of a settlement the fire of -every band should be lit by the unmarried daughter of a -leader. But she might only discharge this duty if she had -not her monthly sickness on her at the time. This custom -is all the more remarkable inasmuch as the Djakuns in -their migrations always carried a smouldering rope of bark -with them.” “When the fire was to be kindled, the girl -took the piece of soft wood and held it on the ground, while -her father, or any other married man, twirled the vertical -borer upon it. She waited for the spark to spring from the -wood, and fanned it into a flame either by blowing on it or -by waving the piece of wood quickly about in her hand. -For this purpose she caught the spark in a bundle of teased -bark and exposed it to a draught of air.” “Fire so produced -was employed to kindle the other fires for that night. They -ascribed to it good luck in cooking and a greater power of -keeping off tigers and so forth, than if the first fire had been -kindled by a spark from the smouldering bark rope.”<a id='r772' /><a href='#f772' class='c005'><sup>[772]</sup></a> This -<span class='pageno' id='Page_237'>237</span>account suggests a reason why a holy fire should be tended -by a number of virgins: one or more of them might at any -time be incapacitated by a natural infirmity for the discharge -of the sacred duty.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Among the Slavs of the Balkans fire is made by a young -girl and boy.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Again, the Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula ascribe a -healing or protective power to “living fire,” and when an -epidemic is raging in a village they will sometimes -extinguish all the fires on the hearths and procure a “living -fire” by the friction of wood. At the present day this is -done by various mechanical devices, but the oldest method, -now almost obsolete, is said to be as follows:—A girl and a -boy between the ages of eleven and fourteen, having been -chosen to make the fire, are led into a dark room, where -they must strip themselves of all their clothes without -speaking a word. Then two perfectly dry cylindrical pieces -of lime-wood are given them, which they must rub rapidly -against each other, turn about, till they take fire. Tinder is -then lit at the flame and used for the purpose of healing. -This mode of kindling the “living fire” is still practised in -the Schar Mountains of Old Servia. The writer who -describes it witnessed some years ago the use of the sacred -fire at the village of Setonje, at the foot of the Homolye -Mountains, in the heart of the great Servian forest. But on -that occasion the fire was made in the manner described, -not by a boy and girl, but by an old woman and an old -man. Every fire in the village had previously been -extinguished, and was afterwards relit with the new -fire.<a id='r773' /><a href='#f773' class='c005'><sup>[773]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Among the Kachins fire is made by a man and woman jointly.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Among the Kachins of Burma, when people take solemn -possession of a new house, a new fire is made in front of it -by a man and woman jointly. A dry piece of bamboo is -pegged down on the ground; the two fire-makers sit down -<span class='pageno' id='Page_238'>238</span>facing each other at either end of it, and together rub -another piece of bamboo on the horizontal piece, one of -them holding the wrists of the other and both pressing -down firmly till fire is elicited.<a id='r774' /><a href='#f774' class='c005'><sup>[774]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Thus the conception of the fire-sticks as male and female is carried -out by requiring the male stick to be worked by a man and the female stick to be -worked by a woman.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the first at least of these customs, it is plain, the conception -of the fire-sticks as male and female has been logically -carried out by requiring the male fire-stick to be worked -by a man and the female fire-stick to be held by a woman. -But opinions seem to differ on the question whether the fire-makers -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>But opinions differ as to whether the fire-makers should be married or single.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -should be wedded or single. The Djakuns prefer -that the man should be married and the woman unmarried; -on the other hand, the Slavs of the Schar Mountains clearly -think it better that both should be single, since they entrust -the duty of making the fire to a boy and girl. In so far as -the man’s part in the work is concerned, some of our Scottish -Highlanders agree with the Djakuns at the other end of the -world; for the natives of Lewis “did also make use of a fire -called <i>Tin-egin</i>, <i>i.e.</i> a forced fire, or fire of necessity, which -they used as an antidote against the plague or murrain in -cattle; and it was performed thus: all the fires in the parish -were extinguished, and then eighty-one married men, being -thought the necessary number for effecting this design, took -two great planks of wood, and nine of them were employed -by turns, who by their repeated efforts rubbed one of the -planks against the other until the heat thereof produced -fire; and from this forced fire each family is supplied with -new fire, which is no sooner kindled than a pot full of water -is quickly set on it, and afterwards sprinkled upon the people -infected with the plague, or upon the cattle that have the -murrain. And this they all say they find successful by -experiment: it was practised in the main land, opposite to -the south of Skie, within these thirty years.”<a id='r775' /><a href='#f775' class='c005'><sup>[775]</sup></a> On the -other hand, the Germans of Halberstadt sided with the -South Slavs on this point, for they caused the forced fire, or -need fire, as it is commonly called, to be made by two chaste -boys, who pulled at a rope which ran round a wooden -<span class='pageno' id='Page_239'>239</span>cylinder.<a id='r776' /><a href='#f776' class='c005'><sup>[776]</sup></a> The theory and practice of the Basutos in South -Africa were similar. After a birth had taken place they -used to kindle the fire of the hut afresh, and “for this purpose -it was necessary that a young man of chaste habits should -rub two pieces of wood quickly one against another, until a -flame sprung up, pure as himself. It was firmly believed -that a premature death awaited him who should dare to -take upon himself this office, after having lost his innocence. -As soon, therefore, as a birth was proclaimed in the village, -the fathers took their sons to undergo the ordeal. Those -who felt themselves guilty confessed their crime, and -submitted to be scourged rather than expose themselves to -the consequences of a fatal temerity.”<a id='r777' /><a href='#f777' class='c005'><sup>[777]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Reasons for entrusting the making of fire to unmarried -boys and girls.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -It is not hard to divine why the task of twirling the -male fire-stick in the hole of the female fire-stick should by -some people be assigned to married men. The analogy of -the process to the intercourse of the sexes furnishes an -obvious reason. It is less easy to understand why other -people should prefer to entrust the duty to unmarried boys. -But probably the preference is based on a belief that chastity -leaves the boys with a stock of reproductive energy which -they may expend on the operation of fire-making, whereas -married men dissipate the same energy in other channels. -A somewhat similar train of thought may explain a rule of -virginity enjoined on women who assist in the production of -fire by holding the female fire-stick on the ground. As a -virgin’s womb is free to conceive, so, it might be thought, will -be the womb of the female fire-stick which she holds; whereas -had the female fire-maker been already with child, she could -not be reimpregnated, and consequently the female fire-stick -could not give birth to a spark. Thus, in the sympathetic -connexion between the fire-sticks and the fire-makers we -seem to reach the ultimate origin of the order of the Vestal -Virgins: they had to be chaste, because otherwise they could -not light the fire. Once when the sacred fire had gone out, the -Vestal in charge of it was suspected of having brought about -the calamity by her unchastity, but she triumphantly -repelled the suspicion by eliciting a flame from the cold -<span class='pageno' id='Page_240'>240</span>ashes.<a id='r778' /><a href='#f778' class='c005'><sup>[778]</sup></a> Ideas of the same primitive kind still linger among -the French peasantry, who think that if a girl can blow up -a smouldering candle into a flame she is a virgin, but that if -she fails to do so, she is not.<a id='r779' /><a href='#f779' class='c005'><sup>[779]</sup></a> In ancient Greece none but -persons of pure life were allowed to blow up the holy fire -with their mouths; a vile man who had polluted his lips -was deemed unworthy to discharge the duty.<a id='r780' /><a href='#f780' class='c005'><sup>[780]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The holy fire and virgins of St. Brigit in Ireland.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The French superstition, which I have just mentioned, -may well date from Druidical times, for there are some -grounds for thinking that among the old Celts, as among -their near kinsmen the Latins, holy fires were tended by -virgins. In our own country perpetual fires were maintained -in the temple of a goddess whom the Romans identified with -Minerva,<a id='r781' /><a href='#f781' class='c005'><sup>[781]</sup></a> but whose native Celtic name seems to have been -Brigit. Like Minerva, Brigit was a goddess of poetry and -wisdom, and she had two sisters also called Brigit, who -presided over leechcraft and smithcraft respectively. This -appears to be only another way of saying that Brigit was -the patroness of bards, physicians, and smiths.<a id='r782' /><a href='#f782' class='c005'><sup>[782]</sup></a> Now, at -Kildare in Ireland the nuns of St. Brigit tended a perpetual -holy fire down to the suppression of the monasteries under -Henry VIII.; and we can hardly doubt that in doing so -they merely kept up, under a Christian name, an ancient -pagan worship of Brigit in her character of a fire-goddess or -patroness of smiths. The nuns were nineteen in number. -Each of them had the care of the fire for a single night in -turn; and on the twentieth evening the last nun, having -<span class='pageno' id='Page_241'>241</span>heaped wood on the fire, used to say, “Brigit, take charge -of your own fire; for this night belongs to you.” She then -went away, and next morning they always found the fire -still burning and the usual quantity of fuel consumed. Like -the Vestal fire at Rome in the old days, the fire of St. -Brigit burned within a circular enclosure made of stakes -and brushwood, and no male might set foot inside the fence. -The nuns were allowed to fan the fire or blow it up with -bellows, but they might not blow on it with their breath.<a id='r783' /><a href='#f783' class='c005'><sup>[783]</sup></a> -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Not to breathe on a holy fire.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Similarly it is said that the Balkan Slavs will not blow with -their mouths on the holy fire of the domestic hearth;<a id='r784' /><a href='#f784' class='c005'><sup>[784]</sup></a> a -Brahman is forbidden to blow a fire with his mouth;<a id='r785' /><a href='#f785' class='c005'><sup>[785]</sup></a> and -among the Parsees the priests have to wear a veil over their -mouth lest they should defile the sacred fire by their breath.<a id='r786' /><a href='#f786' class='c005'><sup>[786]</sup></a> -The custom of maintaining a perpetual fire was not peculiar -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Other perpetual fires in Ireland.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -to Kildare, but seems to have been common in Ireland, for -the native records shew that such fires were kept up in -several monasteries, in each of which a small church or -oratory was set apart for the purpose. This was done, for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_242'>242</span>example, at the monasteries of Seirkieran, Kilmainham, and -Inishmurray.<a id='r787' /><a href='#f787' class='c005'><sup>[787]</sup></a> We may conjecture that these holy fires -were merely survivals of the perpetual fires which in pagan -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>St. Brigit’s fire perhaps fed with oak-wood.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -times had burned in honour of Brigit. The view that Brigit -was a fire-goddess is confirmed by the observation that in -the Christian calendar her festival falls the day before -Candlemas, and the customs observed at that season by -Celtic peasantry seem to prove that she was a goddess of -the crops as well as of fire.<a id='r788' /><a href='#f788' class='c005'><sup>[788]</sup></a> If that was so, it is another -reason for comparing her to Vesta, whose priestesses performed -ceremonies to fertilise both the earth and the cattle.<a id='r789' /><a href='#f789' class='c005'><sup>[789]</sup></a> -Further, there are some grounds for connecting Brigit, like -Vesta, with the oak; for at Kildare her Christian namesake, -St. Brigit, otherwise known as St. Bride or St. Bridget, built -her church under an oak-tree, which existed till the tenth -century, and gave its name to the spot, for Kildare is <i>Cilldara</i>, -“the church of the oak-tree.”<a id='r790' /><a href='#f790' class='c005'><sup>[790]</sup></a> The “church of the -oak” may well have displaced a temple or sanctuary of the -oak, where in Druidical days the holy fire was fed, like the -Vestal fire at Rome, with the wood of the sacred tree.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Early Irish monasteries built in oak groves.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -We may suspect that a conversion of this sort was often -effected in Ireland by the early Christian missionaries. The -monasteries of Derry and Durrow, founded by St. Columba, -were both named after the oak groves amidst which they -were built; and at Derry the saint spared the beautiful trees -and strictly enjoined his successors to do the same. In his -old age, when he lived an exile on the shores of the bleak -storm-swept isle of Iona, his heart yearned to the home of -his youth among the oak groves of Ireland, and he gave -expression to the yearning in passionate verse:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>That spot is the dearest on Erin’s ground,</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>For the treasures that peace and purity lend,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>For the hosts of bright angels that circle it round,</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>Protecting its borders from end to end.</i></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_243'>243</span>“<i>The dearest of any on Erin’s ground,</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>For its peace and its beauty I gave it my love;</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Each leaf of the oaks around Derry is found</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>To be crowded with angels from heaven above.</i></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>My Derry! my Derry! my little oak grove,</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>My dwelling, my home, and my own little cell,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>May God the Eternal in Heaven above</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>Send death to thy foes, and defend thee well.</i>”<a id='r791' /><a href='#f791' class='c005'><sup>[791]</sup></a></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>A feeling of the same sort came over a very different -exile in a very different scene, when growing old amid the -turmoil, the gaieties, the distractions of Paris, he remembered -the German oak woods of his youth.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Ich hatte einst ein schönes Vaterland.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Der Eichenbaum</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Wuchs dort so hoch, die Veilchen nickten sanft.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Es war ein Traum.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Virgin priestesses of fire among the Incas of Peru.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Far from the oaks of Erin and the saint’s last home -among the stormy Hebrides, a sacred fire has been -tended by holy virgins, with statelier rites and in more -solemn fanes, under the equinoctial line. The Incas of -Peru, who deemed themselves the children of the Sun, -procured a new fire from their great father at the solstice -in June, our Midsummer Day. They kindled it by holding -towards the sun a hollow mirror, which reflected his beams -on a tinder of cotton wool. But if the sky happened to be -overcast at the time, they made the new fire by rubbing two -sticks against each other; and they looked upon it as a -bad omen when they were obliged to do this, for they said -the Sun must be angry with them, since he refused to kindle -the flame with his own hand. The sacred fire, however -obtained, was deposited at Cuzco, the capital of Peru, in the -temple of the Sun, and also in a great convent of holy -virgins, who guarded it carefully throughout the year, and it -was an evil augury if they suffered it to go out. These -<span class='pageno' id='Page_244'>244</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Wives of the Sun in Peru.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -virgins were regarded as the wives of the Sun, and they -were bound to perpetual chastity. If any of them proved -unfaithful to her husband the Sun, she was buried alive, like -a Roman Vestal, and her paramour was strangled. The -reason for putting her to death in this manner was probably, -as at Rome, a reluctance to shed royal blood; for all -these virgins were of the royal family, being daughters of -the Incas or of his kinsmen. Besides tending the holy fire, -they had to weave and make all the clothes worn by the -Inca and his legitimate wife, to bake the bread that was -offered to the Sun at his great festivals, and to brew the -wine which the Inca and his family drank on these occasions. -All the furniture of the convent, down to the pots, -pans, and jars, were of gold and silver, just as in the temple -of the Sun, because the virgins were deemed to be his wives. -And they had a golden garden, where the very clods were -of fine gold; where golden maize reared its stalks, leaves -and cobs, all of the precious metal; and where golden -shepherds, with slings and crooks of gold, tended golden -sheep and lambs.<a id='r792' /><a href='#f792' class='c005'><sup>[792]</sup></a> The analogy of these virgin guardians -<span class='pageno' id='Page_245'>245</span>of the sacred flame furnishes an argument in favour of the -view set forth in the preceding pages; for if the Peruvian -Vestals were the brides of the Sun, may not the Roman -Vestals have been the brides of the Fire?</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Virgin priestesses of fire in Mexico and Yucatan.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -On the summit of the great pyramidal temple at Mexico -two fires burned continually on stone hearths in front of two -chapels, and dreadful misfortunes were supposed to follow if -the fires were allowed to go out. They were kept up by -priests and maidens, some of whom had taken a vow of perpetual -virginity. But most of these girls seem to have served -only for a year or more until their marriage. They offered -incense to the idols, wove cloths for the service of the temple, -swept the sacred area, and baked the cakes which were presented -to the gods but eaten by their priests. They were -clad all in white, without any ornament. A broom and a -censer were their emblems. Death was the penalty inflicted -on the faithless virgin who polluted by her incontinence the -temple of the god.<a id='r793' /><a href='#f793' class='c005'><sup>[793]</sup></a> In Yucatan there was an order of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_246'>246</span>Vestals instituted by a princess, who acted as lady-superior -and was deified after her death under the title of the Virgin -of the Fire. The members enrolled themselves voluntarily -either for life or for a term of years, after which they might -marry. Their duty was to tend the sacred fire, the emblem -of the sun. If they broke their vow of chastity or allowed -the fire to go out, they were shot to death with arrows.<a id='r794' /><a href='#f794' class='c005'><sup>[794]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Virgin priestesses of fire among the Baganda.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Amongst the Baganda of Central Africa there used to -be an order of Vestal Virgins (<i>bakaja</i>) who were attached -to the temples of the gods. Their duties were to keep the -fire of the god burning all night, to see that there was a -good supply of firewood, and to watch that the suppliants -did not bring to the deity anything that was tabooed to -him. These maidens are also said to have had charge of -some of the vessels. All of them were young girls; no -man might touch them; and when they reached the age of -puberty, the god ordered them to be given in marriage. -The place of a girl who thus vacated office had to be -supplied by another girl taken from the same clan.<a id='r795' /><a href='#f795' class='c005'><sup>[795]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Resemblance between the Flamen Dialis of the Romans and the -<i>Agnihotri</i> or fire-priest of the Brahmans.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -We have seen that some people commit the task of -making fire by friction to married men; and following the -opinion of other scholars I have conjectured that in some of -the Latin tribes the duty of kindling and feeding the sacred -fire may have been assigned to the Flamen Dialis, who had -always to be married; if his wife died, he vacated his office.<a id='r796' /><a href='#f796' class='c005'><sup>[796]</sup></a> -The sanctity of his fire is proved by the rule that no brand -might be taken from his house except for the purpose of a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span>sacrifice.<a id='r797' /><a href='#f797' class='c005'><sup>[797]</sup></a> Further, the importance ascribed to the discharge -of his duties is attested by another old rule which forbade -him to be absent from his house in Rome for a single -night.<a id='r798' /><a href='#f798' class='c005'><sup>[798]</sup></a> The prohibition would be intelligible if one of his -duties had formerly been to superintend the maintenance of -a perpetual fire. However that may have been, the life of -the priest was regulated by a whole code of curious restrictions -or taboos, which rendered the office so burdensome -and vexatious that, in spite of the high honours attached -to the post, for a period of more than seventy years together -no man was found willing to undertake it.<a id='r799' /><a href='#f799' class='c005'><sup>[799]</sup></a> Some -of these restrictions will be examined later on.<a id='r800' /><a href='#f800' class='c005'><sup>[800]</sup></a> Their -similarity to the rules of life still observed in India by -the Brahmans who are fire-priests (<i>Agnihotris</i>) seems to -confirm the view that the Flamen also was originally a fire-priest. -The parallel between the two priesthoods would be -all the more remarkable if, as some scholars hold, the very -names Brahman and Flamen are philologically identical.<a id='r801' /><a href='#f801' class='c005'><sup>[801]</sup></a> -As to these Brahmanical fire-priests or Agnihotris we are -told that the number of them nowadays is very limited, -because the ceremonies involve heavy expenditure, and the -rules which regulate them are very elaborate and difficult. -The offering of food to the fire at meals is, indeed, one of the -five daily duties of every Brahman; but the regular fire-service -is the special duty of the Agnihotri. In order that -he may be ceremonially pure he is bound by certain obligations -not to travel or remain away from home for any long -time; to sell nothing which is produced by himself or his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_248'>248</span>family; to pay little attention to worldly affairs; to speak -the truth; to bathe and worship the deities in the afternoon -as well as in the morning; and to sacrifice to his deceased -ancestors on the fifteenth of every month. He is not -allowed to take food at night. He may not eat alkaline -salt, meat, honey, and inferior grain, such as some varieties -of pulse, millet, and the egg plant. He never wears shoes -nor sleeps on a bed, but always on the ground. He is -expected to keep awake most of the night and to study the -Shâstras. He may have no connexion with, nor unholy -thoughts regarding, any woman but his wife; and he must -abstain from every other act that involves personal impurity.<a id='r802' /><a href='#f802' class='c005'><sup>[802]</sup></a> -With these rules we may compare some of the obligations -laid on the Flamen Dialis. In the old days, as we saw, he -was bound never to be absent from his house for a single -night. He might not touch or even name raw meat, beans, -ivy, and a she-goat; he might not eat leavened bread, nor -touch a dead body; and the feet of his bed had always to -be smeared with mud.<a id='r803' /><a href='#f803' class='c005'><sup>[803]</sup></a> This last rule seems to be a mitigation -of an older custom of sleeping on the ground, a custom -which is still observed by the fire-priest in India, as it was -in antiquity by the priests of Zeus at Dodona.<a id='r804' /><a href='#f804' class='c005'><sup>[804]</sup></a> Similarly -the priest of the old Prussian god Potrimpo was bound to -sleep on the bare earth for three nights before he sacrificed -to the deity.<a id='r805' /><a href='#f805' class='c005'><sup>[805]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Mode in which the <i>Agnihotri</i> procures fresh fire -by the friction of fire-sticks.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Every Agnihotri has a separate room in his house where -the sacred fire is kept burning in a small pit of a cubit -square. Should the fire chance to go out, the priest must -get fresh fire from another priest or procure it by the -friction of fire-sticks (<i>arani</i>). These comprise, first, a block -of <i>sami</i> wood (<i>Prosopis spicigera</i>) in which a small hole is -made emblematical of the female principle (<i>sakti yoni</i>), and, -second, an upright shaft which is made to revolve in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_249'>249</span>hole of the block by means of a rope. The point in the -drill where the rope is applied to cause it to revolve is called -<i>deva yoni</i>. Two priests take part in the operation. Before -they begin they sing a hymn in honour of the fire-god Agni. -When the fire has been kindled they place it in a copper -vessel and sprinkle it with powdered cow-dung. When it -is well alight, they cover it with another copper vessel, -sprinkle it with drops of water, and sing another hymn in -honour of Agni. Finally, the new fire is consigned to the -fire-pit.<a id='r806' /><a href='#f806' class='c005'><sup>[806]</sup></a> According to another description of the modern -Indian fire-drill, the lower block is usually made of the hard -wood of the <i>khadira</i> or <i>khair</i> tree (<i>Acacia catechu</i>), and it -contains two shallow holes. In one of these holes the -revolving drill works and produces sparks by friction; the -other hole contains tinder which is ignited by means of the -sparks. This latter hole is known as the <i>yoni</i>, the female -organ of generation. The upper or revolving portion of the -drill is called the <i>pramantha</i>. It consists of a round shaft -of hard wood, with a spike of softer wood inserted in its -lower end. One priest causes the shaft to revolve by -pulling a cord, while another priest presses the spike down -into the hole in the block by leaning hard upon a flat board -placed on the top of the shaft. The spike is generally -made of the peepul or sacred fig-tree. When it has become -charred by friction, it is replaced by another.<a id='r807' /><a href='#f807' class='c005'><sup>[807]</sup></a> According to -one account, the fire is made in this fashion, not by two -priests, but by the Brahman and his wife; she pulls the -cord, while he holds the borer in the hole and recites the -spells necessary for the production of the fire.<a id='r808' /><a href='#f808' class='c005'><sup>[808]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Indian fire-sticks made from the sacred fig and <i>sami</i> wood.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -This practice of the modern Agnihotri or fire-priest of -India is in general accord with the precepts laid down in -the ancient sacred books of his religion. For these direct -that the upper or male stick of the fire-drill should be made -of the sacred fig-tree (<i>asvattha</i>), and the lower or female -stick of <i>sami</i> wood (<i>Prosopis spicigera</i>); and they draw out -the analogy between the process of fire-making and the -intercourse of the sexes in minute detail.<a id='r809' /><a href='#f809' class='c005'><sup>[809]</sup></a> It deserves to be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_250'>250</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The male fire-stick made by preference from a sacred fig-tree -growing as a parasite on the female <i>sami</i> tree.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -noted that the male fire-stick was cut by preference from a -sacred fig-tree which grew as a parasite on a <i>sami</i> or female -tree. The reason for this preference is obvious to the -primitive mind. A parasite clasping a tree with its tendrils -is conceived as a man embracing a woman, hence a pair of -fire-sticks made from a pair of trees thus interlaced will -naturally possess the power of procreating fire by friction in -an unusually high degree.<a id='r810' /><a href='#f810' class='c005'><sup>[810]</sup></a> So completely, in the Hindoo -mind, does the process of making fire by friction blend with -the union of the human sexes that it is actually employed -as part of a charm to procure male offspring.<a id='r811' /><a href='#f811' class='c005'><sup>[811]</sup></a> Such a confusion -of thought helps us to understand the part played by -the domestic fire in the ritual of marriage and birth as well -as in the legends of the miraculous origin of the Latin -kings.<a id='r812' /><a href='#f812' class='c005'><sup>[812]</sup></a> In ancient India the male and the female fire-stick -were identified with King Pururavas and the nymph Urvasi, -whose loves and sorrows formed the theme of a beautiful -tale.<a id='r813' /><a href='#f813' class='c005'><sup>[813]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_251'>251</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Greeks also preferred to make one of the fire-sticks from a -parasitic plant.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Like the ancient Indians, the Greeks seem to have -preferred that one of the two fire-sticks should be made from -a parasitic or creeping plant. They recommended that the -borer of the fire-drill should be made of laurel and the board -of ivy or another creeper, apparently a kind of wild vine -which grew like ivy upon trees; but in practice both the -borer and the board were sometimes made of other woods, -among which buckthorn, the evergreen oak, and the lime are -particularly mentioned.<a id='r814' /><a href='#f814' class='c005'><sup>[814]</sup></a> When we consider the analogy of -the Indian preference for a borer made from a parasite, and -remember how deeply rooted in the primitive mind is the -comparison of the friction of the fire-sticks to the union -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The reason for such a preference is the analogy of -the union of the sexes.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -of the sexes, we shall hardly doubt that the Greeks originally -chose the ivy or wild vine for a fire-stick from motives of -the sort which led the Hindoos to select the wood of a -parasitic fig-tree for the same purpose. But while the -Hindoos regarded the parasite as male and the tree to which -it clung as female, the Greeks of Theophrastus’s time seem -to have inverted this conception, since they recommended -that the board, which plays the part of the female in the -fire-drill, should be made of ivy or another creeper, whereas -the borer, which necessarily represents the male, was to be -fashioned out of laurel. This would imply that the ivy was -a female and the laurel a male. Yet in Greek, on the contrary, -the word for ivy is masculine, and the plant was -identified mythologically with the male god Dionysus;<a id='r815' /><a href='#f815' class='c005'><sup>[815]</sup></a> -whereas the word for laurel is feminine and the tree was -identified with a nymph. Hence we may conjecture that at -first the Greeks, like the Hindoos, regarded the clinging -<span class='pageno' id='Page_252'>252</span>creeper as the male and the tree which it embraced as the -female, and that of old, therefore, they made the borer of the -fire-drill out of ivy and the board out of laurel. If this was -so, the reasons which led them to reverse the usage can only -be guessed at. Perhaps practical convenience had a share -in bringing about the change. For the laurel is, as the late -Professor H. Marshall Ward kindly informed me, a harder wood -than the ivy, and to judge by general, though not universal, -practice most people find it easier to make fire by the -friction of a hard borer on a soft board than by rubbing a -hard board with a soft point. This, therefore, would be a -reason for making the borer of laurel and the board of ivy. If -such a change took place in the history of the Greek fire-drill, -it would be an interesting example of superstition modified, if -not vanquished, by utility in the struggle for existence.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_253'>253</span> - <h2 id='chap17' class='c002'>CHAPTER XVII <br /> THE ORIGIN OF PERPETUAL FIRES</h2> -</div> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The custom of maintaining a perpetual fire probably originated in the -difficulty of making fire by friction.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Whatever superstitions may have gathered about it in -the course of ages, the custom of maintaining a perpetual -fire probably sprang from a simple consideration of practical -convenience. The primitive mode of making fire by the -friction of wood is laborious at all times, and it is especially -so in wet weather. Hence the savage finds it convenient to -keep a fire constantly burning or smouldering in order to -spare himself the troubling of kindling it. This convenience -becomes a necessity with people who do not know how to -make fire. That there have been such tribes down to our -own time is affirmed by witnesses whose evidence we have -no reason to doubt. Thus Mr. E. H. Man, who resided -eleven years in the Andaman Islands and was intimately -acquainted with the natives, tells us that, being ignorant of -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Some races said to be ignorant of the means of making fire.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -the art of making fire, they take the utmost pains to prevent -its extinction. When they leave a camp intending to -return in a few days, they not only take with them one or -more smouldering logs, wrapped in leaves if the weather be -wet, but they also place a large burning log or faggot of -suitable wood in some sheltered spot, where it smoulders for -several days and can be easily rekindled when it is needed. -While it is the business of the women to gather the wood, -the duty of keeping up the fires both at home and in -travelling by land or sea is not confined to them, but is -undertaken by persons of either sex who have most leisure -or are least burdened.<a id='r816' /><a href='#f816' class='c005'><sup>[816]</sup></a> The Russian traveller, Baron -<span class='pageno' id='Page_254'>254</span>Miklucho-Maclay, who lived among the natives of the -Maclay coast of northern New Guinea at a time when they -had hardly come into contact with Europeans, writes: “It -is remarkable that here almost all the inhabitants of the -coast possess no means whatever of making fire, hence they -always and everywhere carry burning or glowing brands -about with them. If they go in the morning to the -plantation they carry a half-burnt brand from their hearth -in order to kindle a fire at the corner of the plantation. If -they go on a longer journey into the mountains, they again -take fire with them for the purpose of smoking, since their -cigars, wrapped in green leaves, continually go out. On -sea voyages they usually keep glowing coals in a half-broken -pot partly filled with earth. The people who remain -behind in the village never forget to keep up the fire.” -They repeatedly told him that they had often to go to other -villages to fetch fire when the fires in all the huts of their -own village had chanced to go out. Yet the same traveller -tells us that the mountain tribes of this part of New Guinea, -such as the Englam-Mana and Tiengum-Mana, know how -to make fire by friction. They partially cleave a log of dry -wood with a stone axe and then draw a stout cord, formed -of a split creeper, rapidly to and fro in the cleft, till sparks -fly out and set fire to a tinder of dry coco-nut fibres.<a id='r817' /><a href='#f817' class='c005'><sup>[817]</sup></a> It is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_255'>255</span>odd that the people of the coast should not have learned -this mode of producing fire from their neighbours in the -mountains. The Russian explorer’s observations, however, -have been confirmed by German writers. One of them, a -Mr. Hoffmann, says of these people: “In every house care -is taken that fire burns day and night on the hearth. For -this purpose they choose a kind of wood which burns slowly, -but glimmers for a long time and retains its glow. When -a man sets out on a journey or goes to the field he has -always a glimmering brand with him. If he wishes to make -fire, he waves the smouldering wood to and fro till it bursts -into a glow.” On frequented paths, crossways, and so forth, -you may often see trunks of trees lying which have been -felled for the purpose of being ignited and furnishing fire to -passers-by. Such trees continue to smoulder for weeks.<a id='r818' /><a href='#f818' class='c005'><sup>[818]</sup></a> -Similarly the dwarf tribes of Central Africa “do not know -how to kindle a fire quickly, and in order to get one readily -at any moment they keep the burning trunks of fallen trees -in suitable spots, and watch over their preservation like the -Vestals of old.”<a id='r819' /><a href='#f819' class='c005'><sup>[819]</sup></a> It seems to be at least doubtful whether -these dwarfs of the vast and gloomy equatorial forests are -acquainted with the art of making fire at all. A German -traveller observes that the care which they take to preserve -fire is extremely remarkable. “It appears,” he says, “that -the pygmies, as other travellers have reported, do not know -how to kindle fire by rubbing sticks against each other. -Like the Wambuba of the forest, in leaving a camp, they take -with them a thick glowing brand, and carry it, often for hours, -in order to light a fire at their next halting place.”<a id='r820' /><a href='#f820' class='c005'><sup>[820]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Fire kindled by natural causes was probably used by men long -before they learned to make it for themselves.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Whether or not tribes ignorant of the means of making -fire have survived to modern times, it seems likely that mankind -possessed and used fire long before they learned how to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_256'>256</span>kindle it. In the violent thunderstorms which accompany -the end of the dry season in Central and Eastern Africa, it -is not uncommon for the lightning to strike and ignite a -tree, from which the fire soon spreads to the withered herbage, -till a great conflagration is started. From a source of -this sort a savage tribe may have first obtained fire, and the -same thing may have happened independently in many parts -of the world.<a id='r821' /><a href='#f821' class='c005'><sup>[821]</sup></a> Other people, perhaps, procured fire from -volcanoes, the lava of which will, under favourable circumstances, -remain hot enough to kindle shavings of wood years -after an eruption has taken place.<a id='r822' /><a href='#f822' class='c005'><sup>[822]</sup></a> Others again may have -lit their first fire at the jets of inflammable gas which spring -from the ground in various parts of the world, notably at -Baku on the Caspian, where the flames burn day and night, -summer and winter, to a height of fifteen or twenty feet.<a id='r823' /><a href='#f823' class='c005'><sup>[823]</sup></a> It -is harder to conjecture how man first learned the great -secret of making fire by friction. The discovery was perhaps -made by jungle or forest races, who saw dry bamboos or -branches thus ignited by rubbing against each other in a -high wind. Fires are sometimes started in this way in the -forests of New Zealand.<a id='r824' /><a href='#f824' class='c005'><sup>[824]</sup></a> It has also been suggested that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_257'>257</span>savages may have accidentally elicited a flame for the first -time in the process of chipping flints over dry moss, or boring -holes with hard sticks in soft wood.<a id='r825' /><a href='#f825' class='c005'><sup>[825]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Many savages carry fire constantly with them as a matter of convenience.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But even when the art of fire-making has been acquired, -the process itself is so laborious that many savages keep fire -always burning rather than be at the trouble of extracting it -by friction. This, for example, was true of the roving -Australian aborigines before they obtained matches from the -whites. On their wanderings they carried about with them -pieces of smouldering bark or cones of the Banksia tree -wherewith to kindle their camp fires.<a id='r826' /><a href='#f826' class='c005'><sup>[826]</sup></a> The duty of thus -transporting fire from one place to another seems commonly -to have fallen to the women. “A stick, a piece of decayed -wood, or more often the beautiful seed-stem of the Banksia, -is lighted at the fire the woman is leaving; and from her -bag, which, in damp weather, she would keep filled with dry -cones, or from materials collected in the forest, she would -easily, during her journey, preserve the fire got at the last -encampment.”<a id='r827' /><a href='#f827' class='c005'><sup>[827]</sup></a> Another writer tells us that the Australian -native always had his fire-stick with him, and if his wife let -it go out, so much the worse for her. The dark brown -velvety-looking core of the Banksia is very retentive of fire -and burns slowly, so that one of these little fire-sticks would -last a considerable time, and a bag of them would suffice for -a whole day.<a id='r828' /><a href='#f828' class='c005'><sup>[828]</sup></a> The Tasmanians knew how to make fire -<span class='pageno' id='Page_258'>258</span>by twirling the point of a stick in a piece of soft bark; -“but as it was difficult at times to obtain fire by this means, -especially in wet weather, they generally, in their peregrinations, -carried with them a fire-stick lighted at their last -encampment.”<a id='r829' /><a href='#f829' class='c005'><sup>[829]</sup></a> With them, as with the Australians, it was -the special task of the women to keep the fire-brand alight -and to carry it from place to place.<a id='r830' /><a href='#f830' class='c005'><sup>[830]</sup></a> When the natives of -Materbert, off New Britain, are on a voyage they carry fire -with them. For this purpose they press some of the soft -fibrous husk of the ripe coco-nut into a coco-nut shell, and -then place a red-hot ember in the middle of it. This will -smoulder for three or four days, and from it they obtain a -light for their fires wherever they may land.<a id='r831' /><a href='#f831' class='c005'><sup>[831]</sup></a> The Polynesians -made fire by the friction of wood, rubbing a score in -a board with a sharp-pointed stick till the dust so produced -kindled into sparks, which were caught in a tinder of dry -leaves or grass. While they rubbed, they chanted a prayer -or hymn till the fire appeared. But in wet weather the task -of fire-making was laborious, so at such times the natives -usually carried fire about with them in order to avoid -the trouble of kindling it.<a id='r832' /><a href='#f832' class='c005'><sup>[832]</sup></a> The Fuegians make fire by -striking two lumps of iron pyrites together and letting -the sparks fall on birds’ down or on dry moss, which -serves as tinder. But rather than be at the pains of doing -this they carry fire with them everywhere, both by sea and -land, taking great care to prevent its extinction.<a id='r833' /><a href='#f833' class='c005'><sup>[833]</sup></a> The -Caingua Indians of Paraguay make fire in the usual way by -the fire-drill, but to save themselves trouble they keep fire -<span class='pageno' id='Page_259'>259</span>constantly burning in their huts by means of great blocks of -wood.<a id='r834' /><a href='#f834' class='c005'><sup>[834]</sup></a> The Indians of Guiana also produce fire by twirling -the point of one stick in the hole of another, but they -seldom need to resort to this laborious process, for they keep -fire burning in every house, and on long journeys they -usually carry a large piece of smouldering timber in their -canoes. Even in walking across the savannah an Indian -will sometimes take a fire-brand with him.<a id='r835' /><a href='#f835' class='c005'><sup>[835]</sup></a> The Jaggas, a -Bantu tribe in the Kilimanjaro district of East Africa, keep -up fire day and night in their huts on account of their -cattle. If it goes out, the women fetch glowing brands -from a neighbour’s house; these they carry wrapped up in -banana leaves. Thus they convey fire for great distances, -sometimes the whole day long. Hence they seldom need -to kindle fire, though the men can make it readily by means -of the fire-drill.<a id='r836' /><a href='#f836' class='c005'><sup>[836]</sup></a> The tribes of British Central Africa also -know how to produce fire in this fashion, but they do not -often put their knowledge in practice. For there is sure to -be a burning brand on one or other of the hearths of the -village from which a fire can be lit; and when men go on -a journey they take smouldering sticks with them and nurse -the glowing wood rather than be at the trouble of making -fire by friction.<a id='r837' /><a href='#f837' class='c005'><sup>[837]</sup></a> In the huts of the Ibos on the lower Niger -burning embers are always kept and never allowed to go -out.<a id='r838' /><a href='#f838' class='c005'><sup>[838]</sup></a> And this is the regular practice among all the tribes -of West Africa who have not yet obtained matches. If the -fire in a house should go out, a woman will run to a neighbour’s -hut and fetch a burning stick from the hearth. Hence -in most of their villages fire has probably not needed to be -made for years and years. Among domesticated tribes, like -the Effiks or Agalwa, when the men are going out to the -plantation they will enclose a burning stick in a hollow piece -of a certain kind of wood, which has a lining of its pith left -in it, and they will carry this “fire-box” with them.<a id='r839' /><a href='#f839' class='c005'><sup>[839]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_260'>260</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The theft of fire by Prometheus.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Before the introduction of matches Greek peasants used -to convey fire from place to place in a stalk of giant fennel. -The stalks of the plant are about five feet long by three -inches thick, and are encased in a hard bark. The core of -the stalk consists of a white pith which, when it is dry, -burns slowly like a wick without injury to the bark.<a id='r840' /><a href='#f840' class='c005'><sup>[840]</sup></a> Thus -when Prometheus, according to the legend, stole the first fire -from heaven and brought it down to earth hidden in a stalk -of giant fennel,<a id='r841' /><a href='#f841' class='c005'><sup>[841]</sup></a> he carried his fire just as every Greek -peasant and mariner did on a journey.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>When people settled in villages, it would be convenient to keep up a perpetual -fire in the house of the head man.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -When a tribe ceased to be nomadic and had settled in -more or less permanent villages, it would be a convenient -custom to keep a fire perpetually burning in every house. -Such a custom, as we have seen, has been observed by -various peoples, and it appears to have prevailed universally -among all branches of the Aryans.<a id='r842' /><a href='#f842' class='c005'><sup>[842]</sup></a> Arnobius implies that -it was formerly practised by the Romans, though in his own -time the usage had fallen into abeyance.<a id='r843' /><a href='#f843' class='c005'><sup>[843]</sup></a> But it would be -obviously desirable that there should be some one place in -the village where every housewife could be sure of obtaining -fire without having to kindle it by friction, if her own should -chance to go out. The most natural spot to look for it -would be the hearth of the head man of the village, who -would come in time to be regarded as responsible for its -maintenance. This is what seems to have happened not -only among the Herero of South Africa and the Latin -peoples of Italy, but also among the ancestors of the -Greeks; for in ancient Greece the perpetual fire kept up in -the Prytaneum, or town-hall, was at first apparently the fire -<span class='pageno' id='Page_261'>261</span>on the king’s hearth.<a id='r844' /><a href='#f844' class='c005'><sup>[844]</sup></a> From this simple origin may have -sprung the custom which in various parts of the world -associates the maintenance of a perpetual fire with chiefly or -royal dignity. Thus it was a distinguishing mark of the -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Hence the maintenance of a perpetual fire came to be -associated with chiefly or royal dignity.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -chieftainship of one of the Samoan nobility, that his fire -never went out. His attendants had a particular name, from -their special business of keeping his fire ablaze all night long -while he slept.<a id='r845' /><a href='#f845' class='c005'><sup>[845]</sup></a> Among the Gallas the maintenance of a -perpetual fire, even when it serves no practical purpose, is a -favourite mode of asserting high rank, and the chiefs often -indulge in it.<a id='r846' /><a href='#f846' class='c005'><sup>[846]</sup></a> The Chitomé, a grand pontiff in the kingdom -of Congo, of whom we shall hear more hereafter, kept up in -his hut, day and night, a sacred fire, of which he dispensed -brands to such as came to ask for them and could pay for -them. He is said to have done a good business in fire, for -the infatuated people believed that it preserved them from -many accidents.<a id='r847' /><a href='#f847' class='c005'><sup>[847]</sup></a> In Uganda a perpetual sacred fire, supposed -to have come down to earth with the first man Kintu, -is maintained by a chief, who is put to death if he suffers it -to be extinguished. From this sacred fire the king’s fire -(<i>gombolola</i>) is lighted and kept constantly burning at the -gate of the royal enclosure during the whole of his reign. -By day it burns in a small hut, but at night it is brought -out and set in a little hole in the ground, where it blazes -brightly till daybreak, whatever the weather may be. When -the king journeys the fire goes with him, and when he dies -it is extinguished. The death of a king is indeed announced -to the people by the words, “The fire has gone out.” A -man who bears a special title is charged with the duty of -maintaining the fire, and of looking after all the fuel and -torches used in the royal enclosure. When the king dies -the guardian of his fire is strangled near the hearth.<a id='r848' /><a href='#f848' class='c005'><sup>[848]</sup></a> -Similarly in Dageou, a country to the west of Darfur, it is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_262'>262</span>said that a custom prevailed of kindling a fire on the inauguration -of a king and keeping it alight till his death.<a id='r849' /><a href='#f849' class='c005'><sup>[849]</sup></a> -Among the Mucelis of Angola, when the king of Amboin or -Sanga dies, all fires in the kingdom are extinguished. Afterwards -the new king makes new fire by rubbing two sticks -against each other.<a id='r850' /><a href='#f850' class='c005'><sup>[850]</sup></a> Such a custom is probably nothing -more than an extension of the practice of putting out a -chief’s own fire at his death. Similarly, when a new Muata -Jamwo, a great potentate in the interior of Angola, comes -to the throne, one of his first duties is to make a new fire -by the friction of wood, for the old fire may not be used.<a id='r851' /><a href='#f851' class='c005'><sup>[851]</sup></a> -Before the palace gate of the king of Siam there burns, or -used to burn, a perpetual fire, which was said to have been -lit from heaven with a fiery ball.<a id='r852' /><a href='#f852' class='c005'><sup>[852]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Perpetual fire maintained by the chief called the Great Sun -among the Natchez Indians.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Among the Natchez Indians of the lower Mississippi a -perpetual fire, supposed to have been brought down from -the sun, was maintained in a square temple which stood -beside the hut of the supreme chief of the nation. He bore -the title of the Great Sun, and believed himself to be a -descendant or brother of the luminary his namesake. Every -morning when the sun rose he blew three whiffs of his pipe -towards it, and raising his hands above his head, and turning -from east to west, he marked out the course which the -bright orb was to pursue in the sky. The sacred fire in the -temple was fed with logs of walnut or oak, and the greatest -care was taken to prevent its extinction; for such an event -would have been thought to put the whole nation in jeopardy. -Eight men were appointed to guard the fire, two of whom -were bound to be always on watch; and the Great Sun -himself looked to the maintenance of the fire with anxious -attention. If any of the guardians of the fire failed to do -his duty, the rule was that he should be put to death. -When the great chief died his bones were deposited in the -temple, along with the bones of many attendants who were -strangled in order that their souls might wait upon him in -the spirit land. On such an occasion the chief’s fire was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_263'>263</span>extinguished, and this was the signal for putting out all the -other fires in the country. Every village had also its own -temple in which a perpetual fire was maintained under the -guardianship of a subordinate chief. These lesser chiefs -also bore the title of Suns, but acknowledged the supremacy -of the head chief, the Great Sun. All of these Suns were supposed -to be descended from a man and woman who had come -down from the luminary from which they took their names. -There were female Suns as well as male Suns, but they might -not marry among themselves; they had always to mate with a -woman or a man of lower rank. Their nobility was transmitted -in the maternal line; that is, the children of a female Sun, both -sons and daughters, were Suns, but the children of a male -Sun were not. Hence a chief was never succeeded by his own -son, but always by the son either of his sister or of his nearest -female relation. The Natchez knew how to produce fire -by means of the fire-drill; but if the sacred fire in the temple -went out, they relit it, not by the friction of wood, but by a -brand brought from another temple or from a tree which had -been ignited by lightning.<a id='r853' /><a href='#f853' class='c005'><sup>[853]</sup></a> In these customs of the Natchez -we have clearly fire-worship and sun-worship of the same -general type which meets us again at a higher state of evolution -among the Incas of Peru. Both sets of customs probably sprang -originally from the perpetual fire on the chief’s domestic hearth.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Fire carried before chiefs and kings as a symbol of royalty.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -When a perpetual fire has thus become a symbol of -royalty, it is natural that it should be carried before the -king or chief on the march. Among the Indians of the -Mississippi a lighted torch used to be borne in front of a -chief, and no commoner would dare to walk between a chief -<span class='pageno' id='Page_264'>264</span>and his torch-bearer.<a id='r854' /><a href='#f854' class='c005'><sup>[854]</sup></a> A sacred fire, supposed to have -descended from heaven, was carried in a brazier before the -Persian kings,<a id='r855' /><a href='#f855' class='c005'><sup>[855]</sup></a> and the custom was adopted as a badge of -imperial dignity by later Roman emperors.<a id='r856' /><a href='#f856' class='c005'><sup>[856]</sup></a> The practice -appears to have been especially observed in time of war. -Amongst the Ovambo of South Africa the chief appoints a -general to lead the army to battle, and next to the general the -greatest officer is he who carries a fire-brand at the head of -the warriors. If the fire goes out on the march, it is an evil -omen and the army beats a retreat.<a id='r857' /><a href='#f857' class='c005'><sup>[857]</sup></a> When the king of -Monomotapa, or Benomotapa, was at war, a sacred fire was -kept burning perpetually in a hut near his tent.<a id='r858' /><a href='#f858' class='c005'><sup>[858]</sup></a> In old -days it is said that the king of Mombasa in East Africa -could put an army of eighty thousand men in the field. On -the march his guards were preceded by men carrying fire.<a id='r859' /><a href='#f859' class='c005'><sup>[859]</sup></a> -High above the tent of Alexander the Great hung a fiery -cresset on a pole, and “the flame of it was seen by night, -and the smoke by day.”<a id='r860' /><a href='#f860' class='c005'><sup>[860]</sup></a> When a Spartan king was about -to lead an army abroad he first sacrificed at home to Zeus -the Leader. Then a man called the fire-bearer took fire -from the altar and marched with it at the head of the troops -to the frontier. There the king again sacrificed to Zeus -and Athena, and if the omens were favourable, he crossed -the border, preceded by the fire from the sacrifices, which -thenceforth led the way and might not be quenched. To -perform such sacrifices the king always rose very early in -the morning, while it was still dark, in order to get the ear -of the god before the enemy could forestall him.<a id='r861' /><a href='#f861' class='c005'><sup>[861]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The custom of keeping up a perpetual fire during a king’s reign and extinguishing -it at his death, might lead to a belief that his life was bound up with the fire.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -A custom of maintaining a fire during a king’s reign and -extinguishing it at his death, even if it did not originate in a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_265'>265</span>superstition, would naturally lend itself to a superstitious -interpretation. The distinction between the sign and the -cause of an event is not readily grasped by a dull mind; -hence the extinction of the king’s fire, from being merely a -signal of his death, might come in time to be regarded as a -cause of it. In other words, a vital connexion might be -supposed to exist between the king and the fire, so that if -the fire were put out the king would die. That a sympathetic -bond of some sort united the king’s life with the fire -on his hearth was apparently believed by the ancient -Scythians. For their most solemn oath was by the king’s -hearth, and if any man who had taken this oath forswore -himself, they believed that the king would fall ill.<a id='r862' /><a href='#f862' class='c005'><sup>[862]</sup></a> The -story of Meleager,<a id='r863' /><a href='#f863' class='c005'><sup>[863]</sup></a> whose life was said to be bound up with -a brand plucked from the fire on the hearth, belongs to the -same class of ideas, which will be examined at large in a -later part of this work. Wherever a superstition of this sort -gathered round the king’s hearth, it is obvious that he would -be moved to watch over the fire with redoubled vigilance. -On a certain day the Vestal Virgins at Rome used to go to -the King of the Sacred Rites, the successor of the old -Roman kings, and say to him, “Watchest thou, O King? -Watch.”<a id='r864' /><a href='#f864' class='c005'><sup>[864]</sup></a> The ceremony may have been a reminiscence or -survival of a time when the king’s life as well as the general -safety was supposed to hang on the maintenance of the fire, -to the guardianship of which he would thus be impelled by the -motive of self-preservation as well as of public duty. When -natives of the Kei Islands in the East Indies are away on a -long voyage, a sacred fire is kept up the whole time of their -absence by their friends at home. Three or four young girls -are appointed to feed it and watch over it day and night with -a jealous care lest it should go out; its extinction would be -deemed a most evil omen, for the fire is the symbol of the life -of the absent ones.<a id='r865' /><a href='#f865' class='c005'><sup>[865]</sup></a> This belief and this practice may help -us to understand the corresponding beliefs and practices -concerned with the maintenance of a perpetual fire at Rome.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_266'>266</span> - <h2 id='chap18' class='c002'>CHAPTER XVIII <br /> THE SUCCESSION TO THE KINGDOM IN ANCIENT LATIUM</h2> -</div> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Vestal fire and the great priesthoods appear to have been -institutions common to the whole Latin race.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus it appears that a variety of considerations combined -to uphold, if not to originate, the custom of maintaining -a perpetual fire. The sanctity of the wood which fed it, -the belief in the generative virtue of the process by which it -was kindled, the supposed efficacy of fire in repelling the -powers of evil, the association of the hearth with the spirits -of the dead and with the majesty or even the life of the king -all worked together to invest the simple old custom with a -halo of mystery and romance. If this was so at Rome we -may assume that matters were not very different in the other -Latin towns which kept up a Vestal fire. These too had -their kings of the Sacred Rites, their flamens, and their -pontiffs, as well as their Vestal Virgins.<a id='r866' /><a href='#f866' class='c005'><sup>[866]</sup></a> All the great -priesthoods of Rome appear, in fact, to have had their -doubles in the other ancient cities of Latium; all were -probably primitive institutions common to the whole Latin -race.<a id='r867' /><a href='#f867' class='c005'><sup>[867]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Priestly or divine functions of the Roman kings, including -the maintenance of the Vestal fire.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Accordingly, whatever is true or probable of the Roman -priesthoods, about which we know most, may reasonably be -regarded as true or probable of the corresponding priesthoods -elsewhere in Latium, about which for the most part -we know nothing more than the names. Now in regard to -the Roman king, whose priestly functions were inherited by -his successor the king of the Sacred Rites, the foregoing -discussion has led us to the following conclusions. He -<span class='pageno' id='Page_267'>267</span>represented and indeed personated Jupiter, the great god -of the oak, the sky, and the thunder, and in that character -made rain, thunder, and lightning for the good of his subjects, -like many more kings of the weather in other parts of -the world. Further, he not only mimicked the oak-god by -wearing an oak wreath and other insignia of divinity, but he -was married to an oak-nymph Egeria, who appears to have -been merely a local form of Diana in her character of a -goddess of woods, of waters, and of childbirth. Moreover, he -was descended from the oak, since he was born of a virgin -who conceived by contact with a fire of sacred oak-wood. -Hence he had to guard the ancestral fire and keep it constantly -burning, inasmuch as on its maintenance depended -the continuance of the royal family. Only on certain stated -occasions was it lawful and even necessary to extinguish the -old fire in order to revive it in a purer and more vigorous -form by the friction of the sacred wood. This was done -once a year on the first of March,<a id='r868' /><a href='#f868' class='c005'><sup>[868]</sup></a> and we may conjecture -that it was also done by the new king on his accession to -power; for, as we have seen, it has been customary in -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>But the fire was formally extinguished and rekindled on certain -occasions, perhaps on the death of the king.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -various places to extinguish the king’s fire at his death.<a id='r869' /><a href='#f869' class='c005'><sup>[869]</sup></a> -Among the ancient Persians the perpetual sacred fire was -put out on the death of a king and remained unlit until -after his funeral.<a id='r870' /><a href='#f870' class='c005'><sup>[870]</sup></a> It is a common practice to extinguish -the fire in any house where a death has taken place,<a id='r871' /><a href='#f871' class='c005'><sup>[871]</sup></a> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_268'>268</span>apparently from a fear that the ghost may scorch or singe -himself at it, like a moth at the flame of a candle; and the -custom of putting out the king’s fire at his decease may in -its origin have been nothing more than this. But when the -fire on the king’s hearth came to be viewed as bound up in -a mysterious fashion with his life, it would naturally be -extinguished at his death, not to spare his fluttering ghost -the risk and pain of falling into it, but because, as a sort of -life-token or external soul, it too must die at his death and -be born again from the holy tree. At all events, it seems -probable that whenever and from whatever cause it became -necessary to rekindle the royal and sacred fire by the friction -of wood, the operation was performed jointly by the king -and the Vestals, one or more of whom may have been his -daughters or the daughters of his predecessor. Regarded -as impersonations of Mother Vesta herself, these priestesses -would be the chosen vessels, not only to bring to birth the -seed of fire in working the fire-drill, but also to receive the -seed of the fire-god in their chaste wombs, and so to become -the mothers of fire-begotten kings.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>What is true of the Roman kings is probably true of the Latin kings in general.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -All these conclusions, which we have reached mainly by -a consideration of the Roman evidence, may with great -probability be applied to the other Latin communities. -They too probably had of old their divine or priestly kings, -who transmitted their religious functions, without their civil -powers, to their successors the kings of the Sacred Rites.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>What was the rule of succession to the Latin kingship?<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But we have still to ask, What was the rule of succession -to the kingdom among the old Latin tribes? We possess -two lists of Latin kings both professedly complete. One is -the list of the kings of Alba, the other is the list of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_269'>269</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The list of the Alban kings seems to imply that the kingship was -hereditary in the male line.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -kings of Rome. If we accept as authentic the list of the -Alban kings, we can only conclude that the kingdom was -hereditary in the male line, the son regularly succeeding his -father on the throne.<a id='r872' /><a href='#f872' class='c005'><sup>[872]</sup></a> But this list, if it is not, as Niebuhr -held, a late and clumsy fabrication, has somewhat the appearance -of an elastic cord which ancient historians stretched in -order to link Aeneas to Romulus.<a id='r873' /><a href='#f873' class='c005'><sup>[873]</sup></a> Yet it would be rash -to set these names wholly aside as a chronological stop-gap -deliberately foisted in by later annalists. In early -monarchies, before the invention of writing, tradition is -remarkably retentive of the names of kings. The Baganda -of Central Africa, for example, remember the names of more -than thirty of their kings in an unbroken chain of twenty-two -generations.<a id='r874' /><a href='#f874' class='c005'><sup>[874]</sup></a> Even the occurrence of foreign names -among the Alban kings is not of itself sufficient to condemn -the list as a forgery; for, as I shall shew presently, -this feature is explicable by a rule of descent which appears -to have prevailed in many ancient monarchies, including that -of Rome. Perhaps the most we can say for the history of -the Alban kings is that their names may well be genuine, -and that some general features of the monarchy, together -with a few events which happened to strike the popular -imagination, may have survived in the memory of the -people till they found their way into written history. But -no dependence can be placed either on the alleged years of -their reigns, or on the hereditary principle which is assumed -to have connected each king with his predecessor.</p> - -<p class='c004'>When we come to the list of the Roman kings we are -on much firmer, though still slippery ground. According -<span class='pageno' id='Page_270'>270</span>to tradition there were in all eight kings of Rome,<a id='r875' /><a href='#f875' class='c005'><sup>[875]</sup></a> and -with regard to the five last of them, at all events, we can -hardly doubt that they actually sat on the throne, and that -the traditional history of their reigns is, in its main outlines, -correct.<a id='r876' /><a href='#f876' class='c005'><sup>[876]</sup></a> Now it is very remarkable that though the first -king of Rome, Romulus, is said to have been descended -from the royal house of Alba, in which the kingship is -represented as hereditary in the male line, not one of the -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>On the other hand none of the Roman kings was immediately succeeded -by his son, but three were succeeded by their sons-in-law, who were foreigners.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Roman kings was immediately succeeded by his son on the -throne. Yet several left sons or grandsons behind them.<a id='r877' /><a href='#f877' class='c005'><sup>[877]</sup></a> -On the other hand, one of them was descended from a -former king through his mother, not through his father,<a id='r878' /><a href='#f878' class='c005'><sup>[878]</sup></a> and -three of the kings, namely Tatius, the elder Tarquin, and -Servius Tullius, were succeeded by their sons-in-law,<a id='r879' /><a href='#f879' class='c005'><sup>[879]</sup></a> who -were all either foreigners or of foreign descent.<a id='r880' /><a href='#f880' class='c005'><sup>[880]</sup></a> This -<span class='pageno' id='Page_271'>271</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>This suggests that the kingship was transmitted in the female line and -was held by foreigners who married the royal princesses.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -suggests that the right to the kingship was transmitted -in the female line, and was actually exercised by foreigners -who married the royal princesses. To put it in technical -language, the succession to the kingship at Rome and -probably in Latium generally would seem to have been -determined by certain rules which have moulded early society -in many parts of the world, namely exogamy, <i>beena</i> marriage, -and female kinship or mother-kin. Exogamy is the rule -which obliges a man to marry a woman of a different clan -from his own; <i>beena</i> marriage is the rule that he must leave -the home of his birth and live with his wife’s people;<a id='r881' /><a href='#f881' class='c005'><sup>[881]</sup></a> and -female kinship or mother-kin is the system of tracing relationship -and transmitting the family name through women instead -of through men.<a id='r882' /><a href='#f882' class='c005'><sup>[882]</sup></a> If these principles regulated descent of the -kingship among the ancient Latins, the state of things in -this respect would be somewhat as follows. The political -and religious centre of each community would be the -perpetual fire on the king’s hearth tended by Vestal Virgins -of the royal clan. The king would be a man of another -clan, perhaps of another town or even of another race, who -had married a daughter of his predecessor and received the -kingdom with her. The children whom he had by her -would inherit their mother’s name, not his; the daughters -would remain at home; the sons, when they grew up, would -go away into the world, marry, and settle in their wives’ -country, whether as kings or commoners. Of the daughters -who stayed at home, some or all would be dedicated as -Vestal Virgins for a longer or shorter time to the service of -the fire on the hearth, and one of them would in time -become the consort of her father’s successor.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_272'>272</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>This hypothesis explains some obscure features in the traditional history of -the Latin kings, such as the stories of their miraculous birth.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -This hypothesis has the advantage of explaining in a -simple and natural way some obscure features in the -traditional history of the Latin kingship. Thus the legends -which tell how Latin kings were born of virgin mothers and -divine fathers become at least more intelligible. For, -stripped of their fabulous element, tales of this sort mean -no more than that a woman has been gotten with child by -a man unknown; and this uncertainty as to fatherhood is -more easily compatible with a system of kinship which -ignores paternity than with one which makes it all-important. -If at the birth of the Latin kings their fathers -were really unknown,<a id='r883' /><a href='#f883' class='c005'><sup>[883]</sup></a> the fact points either to a general -looseness of life in the royal family or to a special relaxation -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Latin kings perhaps begotten at a Saturnalia.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -of moral rules on certain occasions, when men and -women reverted for a season to the licence of an earlier age. -Such Saturnalias are not uncommon at some stages of social -evolution. In our own country traces of them long survived -in the practices of May Day and Whitsuntide, if not of -Christmas. Children born of the more or less promiscuous -intercourse which characterises festivals of this kind would -naturally be fathered on the god to whom the particular -festival was dedicated.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Roman festival of Midsummer was a kind of Saturnalia, and was -specially associated with the fire-born King Servius Tullius.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In this connexion it may not be without significance -that a festival of jollity and drunkenness was celebrated by -the plebeians and slaves at Rome on Midsummer Day, -and that the festival was specially associated with the fire-born -King Servius Tullius, being held in honour of Fortuna, -the goddess who loved Servius as Egeria loved Numa. -The popular merrymakings at this season included foot-races -and boat-races; the Tiber was gay with flower-wreathed -boats, in which young folk sat quaffing wine.<a id='r884' /><a href='#f884' class='c005'><sup>[884]</sup></a> -The festival appears to have been a sort of Midsummer -Saturnalia answering to the real Saturnalia which fell at -Midwinter. In modern Europe, as we shall learn later on, -the great Midsummer festival has been above all a festival -<span class='pageno' id='Page_273'>273</span>of lovers and of fire; one of its principal features is the -pairing of sweethearts, who leap over the bonfires hand in -hand or throw flowers across the flames to each other. -And many omens of love and marriage are drawn from the -flowers which bloom at this mystic season.<a id='r885' /><a href='#f885' class='c005'><sup>[885]</sup></a> It is the time -of the roses and of love. Yet the innocence and beauty of -such festivals in modern times ought not to blind us to the -likelihood that in earlier days they were marked by coarser -features, which were probably of the essence of the rites. -Indeed, among the rude Esthonian peasantry these features -seem to have lingered down to our own generation, if not to -the present day. One other feature in the Roman celebration -of Midsummer deserves to be specially noticed. -The custom of rowing in flower-decked boats on the river -on this day proves that it was to some extent a water -festival; and, as we shall learn later on, water has always, -down to modern times, played a conspicuous part in the -rites of Midsummer Day, which explains why the Church, -in throwing its cloak over the old heathen festival, chose to -dedicate it to St. John the Baptist.<a id='r886' /><a href='#f886' class='c005'><sup>[886]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>But the uncertainty as to the paternity of the Roman kings may only mean -that in later times the names of their fathers were forgotten.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The hypothesis that the Latin kings may have been -begotten at an annual festival of love is necessarily a mere -conjecture, though the traditional birth of Numa on the -festival of the Parilia, when shepherds leaped across the -spring bonfires,<a id='r887' /><a href='#f887' class='c005'><sup>[887]</sup></a> as lovers leap across the Midsummer fires, -may perhaps be thought to lend it a faint colour of probability. -But it is quite possible that the uncertainty as to their -fathers may not have arisen till long after the death of the -kings, when their figures began to melt away into the -cloudland of fable, assuming fantastic shapes and gorgeous -colouring as they passed from earth to heaven. If they -were alien immigrants, strangers and pilgrims in the land -they ruled over, it would be natural enough that the people -should forget their lineage, and forgetting it should provide -them with another, which made up in lustre what it lacked -in truth. The final apotheosis, which represented the kings -as not merely sprung from gods but as themselves deities -<span class='pageno' id='Page_274'>274</span>incarnate, would be much facilitated if in their lifetime, as -we have seen reason to think, they had actually laid claim -to divinity.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Where descent is traced through women only, girls of the highest rank may -be married to men of humble birth, even to aliens and slaves.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -If among the Latins the women of royal blood always -stayed at home and received as their consorts men of another -stock, and often of another country, who reigned as kings -in virtue of their marriage with a native princess, we can -understand not only why foreigners wore the crown at Rome, -but also why foreign names occur in the list of the Alban -kings. In a state of society where nobility is reckoned only -through women—in other words, where descent through the -mother is everything, and descent through the father is -nothing—no objection will be felt to uniting girls of the -highest rank to men of humble birth, even to aliens or slaves, -provided that in themselves the men appear to be suitable -mates. What really matters is that the royal stock, on -which the prosperity and even the existence of the people is -supposed to depend, should be perpetuated in a vigorous -and efficient form, and for this purpose it is necessary that -the women of the royal family should bear children to -men who are physically and mentally fit, according to the -standard of early society, to discharge the important duty of -procreation. Thus the personal qualities of the kings at -this stage of social evolution are deemed of vital importance. -If they, like their consorts, are of royal and divine descent, -so much the better; but it is not essential that they should -be so.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>In Ashantee, where the kingdom descends through women, the rank -of the king’s father is not regarded.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The hypothesis which we have been led to frame of the -rule of succession to the Latin kingship will be confirmed -by analogy if we can shew that elsewhere, under a -system of female kinship, the paternity of the kings is a -matter of indifference—nay, that men who are born slaves -may, like Servius Tullius, marry royal princesses and be -raised to the throne. Now this is true of the Tshi-speaking -peoples of the Gold Coast in West Africa. Thus -in Ashantee, where the kingdom descends in the female -line to the king’s brothers and afterwards to the sons of his -sister in preference to his own sons, the sisters of the reigning -monarch are free to marry or intrigue with whom they -please, provided only that their husband or lover be a very -<span class='pageno' id='Page_275'>275</span>strong and handsome man, in order that the kings whom -he begets may be men of finer presence than their subjects. -It matters not how low may be the rank and position -of the king’s father. If the king’s sisters, however, have no -sons, the throne will pass to the king’s own son, and failing a -son, to the chief vassal or the chief slave. But in the Fantee -country the principal slave succeeds to the exclusion of the -son. So little regard is paid by these people to the lineage, -especially the paternal lineage, of their kings.<a id='r888' /><a href='#f888' class='c005'><sup>[888]</sup></a> Yet Ashantee -has attained a barbaric civilisation as high perhaps as that -of any negro state, and probably not at all inferior to that -of the petty Latin kingdoms at the dawn of history.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Traces of a similar state of things in Uganda.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -A trace of a similar state of things appears to survive in -Uganda, another great African monarchy. For there the -queen dowager and the queen sister are, or were, allowed -to have as many husbands as they choose, without going -through any marriage ceremony. “Of these two women it -is commonly said all Uganda is their husband; they appear -to be fond of change, only living with a man for a few days -and then inviting some one else to take his place.” We are -reminded of the legends of the lustful queen Semiramis, and -the likeness may be more than superficial. Yet these women -are not allowed, under pain of death, to bear children; hence -they practise abortion.<a id='r889' /><a href='#f889' class='c005'><sup>[889]</sup></a> Both the licence and the prohibition -may be explained if we suppose that formerly the kingdom -descended, as it still does in Ashantee, first to the king’s -brothers and next to the sons of his sisters. For in that case -the next heirs to the throne would be the sons of the king’s -mother and of his sisters, and these women might accordingly -be allowed, as the king’s sisters still are allowed in -Ashantee, to mate with any handsome men who took their -fancy, in order that their offspring might be of regal part. -But when the line of descent was changed from the female -to the male line, in other words, when the kings were -<span class='pageno' id='Page_276'>276</span>succeeded by their sons instead of by their brothers or their -sisters’ sons, then the king’s mother and his sisters would -be forbidden to bear children lest the descent of the -crown to the king’s own children should be endangered by -the existence of rivals who, according to the old law of the -kingdom, had a better right to the throne. We may surmise -that the practice of putting the king’s brothers to -death at the beginning of his reign, which survived till -Uganda passed under English protection,<a id='r890' /><a href='#f890' class='c005'><sup>[890]</sup></a> was instituted at -the same time as the prohibition of child-bearing laid on the -king’s mother and sisters. The one custom got rid of existing -rivals; the other prevented them from being born. That -the kingship in Uganda was formerly transmitted in the -female line is strongly indicated by the rule that the kings -and the rest of the royal family take their totems from their -mothers, whereas all the other people of the country get -their totems from their fathers.<a id='r891' /><a href='#f891' class='c005'><sup>[891]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>In Loango also, where the blood royal is traced in the female line, the princesses -are free to cohabit with whom they please, and their consorts are -practically their slaves.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In Loango the blood royal is traced in the female line, -and here also the princesses are free to choose and divorce -their husbands at pleasure, and to cohabit at the same time -with other men. These husbands are nearly always plebeians, -for princes and princesses, who are very numerous and form -a ruling caste in the country, may not marry each other. The -lot of a prince consort is not a happy one, for he is rather the -slave and prisoner than the mate of his imperious princess. -In marrying her he engages never more to look at a woman -during the whole time he cohabits with his royal spouse. -When he goes out he is preceded by guards who drive away -all females from the road where he is to pass. If in spite of -these precautions he should by ill-luck cast his eyes on a -woman, the princess may have his head chopped off, and -commonly exercises, or used to exercise, the right. This -sort of libertinism, sustained by power, often carries the -princesses to the greatest excesses, and nothing is so much -<span class='pageno' id='Page_277'>277</span>dreaded as their anger. No wonder that commoners in -general avoid the honour of a royal alliance. Only poor -and embarrassed men seek it as a protection against their -creditors and enemies. All the children of such a man by -such a wife are princes and princesses, and any one of the -princes may in time be chosen king; for in Loango the -crown is not hereditary but elective.<a id='r892' /><a href='#f892' class='c005'><sup>[892]</sup></a> Thus it would seem -that the father of the King of Loango is nearly always a -plebeian, and often little better than a slave.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Similar rights enjoyed by queens in Central Africa.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Near the Chambezi river, which falls into Lake Bengweolo -in Central Africa, there is a small state governed by -a queen who belongs to the reigning family of Ubemba. -She bears the title of <i>Mamfumer</i> or Mother of Kings. -“The privileges attached to this dignity are numerous. The -most singular is that the queens may choose for themselves -their husband among the common people. The chosen -man becomes prince-consort without sharing in the administration -of affairs. He is bound to leave everything to -follow his royal and often but little accommodating spouse. -To shew that in these households the rights are inverted -and that a man may be changed into a woman, the queen -takes the title of <i>Monsieur</i> and her husband that of -<i>Madame</i>.”<a id='r893' /><a href='#f893' class='c005'><sup>[893]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Traces of female descent of the kingship in ancient Greece.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -At Athens, as at Rome, we find traces of succession -to the throne by marriage with a royal princess; for two -of the most ancient kings of Athens, namely Cecrops and -Amphictyon, are said to have married the daughters of -their predecessors.<a id='r894' /><a href='#f894' class='c005'><sup>[894]</sup></a> This tradition is confirmed by the -evidence, which I shall adduce presently, that at Athens -male kinship was preceded by female kinship.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_278'>278</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>With this rule of descent of the kingship males rule over -different kingdoms in successive generations.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Further, if I am right in supposing that in ancient -Latium the royal families kept their daughters at home and -sent forth their sons to marry princesses and reign among -their wives’ people, it will follow that the male descendants -would reign in successive generations over different kingdoms. -Now this seems to have happened both in ancient Greece -and in ancient Sweden; from which we may legitimately -infer that it was a custom practised by more than one -branch of the Aryan stock in Europe. Take, for instance, -the great house of Aeacus, the grandfather of Achilles and -Ajax. Aeacus himself reigned in Aegina, but his descendants, -as has been justly observed, “from the beginning went -forth to other lands.”<a id='r895' /><a href='#f895' class='c005'><sup>[895]</sup></a> His son Telamon migrated to the -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Migrations of the male descendants of Aeacus.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -island of Salamis, married the king’s daughter, and reigned -over the country.<a id='r896' /><a href='#f896' class='c005'><sup>[896]</sup></a> Telamon’s son Teucer, in his turn, -migrated to Cyprus, wedded the king’s daughter, and succeeded -his father-in-law on the throne.<a id='r897' /><a href='#f897' class='c005'><sup>[897]</sup></a> Again, Peleus, -another son of Aeacus, quitted his native land and went -away to Phthia in Thessaly, where he received the hand of -the king’s daughter, and with her a third of the kingdom.<a id='r898' /><a href='#f898' class='c005'><sup>[898]</sup></a> -Of Achilles, the son of Peleus, we are told that in his youth -he was sent to the court of Lycomedes, King of Scyros, -where he got one of the princesses with child.<a id='r899' /><a href='#f899' class='c005'><sup>[899]</sup></a> The tradition -seems to shew that Achilles followed the custom of his -family in seeking his fortune in a foreign land. His son -Neoptolemus, after him, went away to Epirus, where he -settled and became the ancestor of the kings of the country.<a id='r900' /><a href='#f900' class='c005'><sup>[900]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Migrations of the male descendants of Tydeus and Pelops.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Again, Tydeus was a son of Oeneus, the King of -Calydon in Aetolia, but he went to Argos and married the -king’s daughter.<a id='r901' /><a href='#f901' class='c005'><sup>[901]</sup></a> His son Diomede migrated to Daunia in -Italy, where he helped the king in a war with his enemies, -receiving as his reward the king’s daughter in marriage and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_279'>279</span>part of the kingdom.<a id='r902' /><a href='#f902' class='c005'><sup>[902]</sup></a> As another example we may take -the family of the Pelopidae, whose tragic fortunes the Greek -poets never wearied of celebrating. Their ancestor was -Tantalus, King of Sipylus in Asia Minor. But his son -Pelops passed into Greece, won Hippodamia, the daughter -of the King of Pisa, in the famous chariot-race, and succeeded -his father-in-law on the throne.<a id='r903' /><a href='#f903' class='c005'><sup>[903]</sup></a> His son Atreus -did not remain in Pisa, but migrated to Mycenae, of which -he became king;<a id='r904' /><a href='#f904' class='c005'><sup>[904]</sup></a> and in the next generation Menelaus, -son of Atreus, went to Sparta, where he married Helen, the -king’s daughter, and himself reigned over the country.<a id='r905' /><a href='#f905' class='c005'><sup>[905]</sup></a> -Further, it is very notable that, according to the old lyric -poets, Agamemnon himself, the elder brother of Menelaus, -reigned not at Mycenae but in Lacedaemon, the native land -of his wife Clytaemnestra, and that he was buried at -Amyclae, the ancient capital of the country.<a id='r906' /><a href='#f906' class='c005'><sup>[906]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>These migrations not understood in later times.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Various reasons are assigned by ancient Greek writers -for these migrations of the princes. A common one is that -the king’s son had been banished for murder. This would -explain very well why he fled his own land, but it is no -reason at all why he should become king of another. We -may suspect that such reasons are afterthoughts devised by -writers who, accustomed to the rule that a son should -succeed to his father’s property and kingdom, were hard put -to it to account for so many traditions of kings’ sons who -quitted the land of their birth to reign over a foreign -kingdom.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Traces of similar migrations in Scandinavian tradition.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In Scandinavian tradition we meet with traces of similar -customs. For we read of daughters’ husbands who received -a share of the kingdoms of their royal fathers-in-law, even -when these fathers-in-law had sons of their own; in particular, -during the five generations which preceded Harold -the Fair-haired, male members of the Ynglingar family, -which is said to have come from Sweden, are reported in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_280'>280</span>the <i>Heimskringla</i> or <i>Sagas of the Norwegian</i> Kings to have -obtained at least six provinces in Norway by marriage with -the daughters of the local kings.<a id='r907' /><a href='#f907' class='c005'><sup>[907]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>A reminiscence of the transmission of the kingship through women is -preserved in popular tales.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus it would seem that among some Aryan peoples, -at a certain stage of their social evolution, it has been -customary to regard women and not men as the channels in -which royal blood flows, and to bestow the kingdom in each -successive generation on a man of another family, and often -of another country, who marries one of the princesses and -reigns over his wife’s people. A common type of popular -tale, which relates how an adventurer, coming to a strange -land, wins the hand of the king’s daughter and with her the -half or the whole of the kingdom, may well be a reminiscence -of a real custom.<a id='r908' /><a href='#f908' class='c005'><sup>[908]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Where such customs prevail, the kingship is an appanage -of marriage with a princess.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Where usages and ideas of this sort prevail, it is obvious -that the kingship is merely an appanage of marriage with a -woman of the blood royal. The old Danish historian Saxo -Grammaticus puts this view of the kingship very clearly in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_281'>281</span>the mouth of Hermutrude, a legendary queen of Scotland, -and her statement is all the more significant because, as we -shall see presently, it reflects the actual practice of the Pictish -kings. “Indeed she was a queen,” says Hermutrude, “and -but that her sex gainsaid it, might be deemed a king; nay -(and this is yet truer), whomsoever she thought worthy of -her bed was at once a king, and she yielded her kingdom -with herself. Thus her sceptre and her hand went together.”<a id='r909' /><a href='#f909' class='c005'><sup>[909]</sup></a> -Wherever a custom of this sort is observed, a man may clearly -acquire the kingdom just as well by marrying the widow as -the daughter of his predecessor. This is what Aegisthus -did at Mycenae, and what Hamlet’s uncle Feng and Hamlet’s -successor Wiglet did in Denmark; all three slew their predecessors, -married their widows, and then sat peacefully on -the throne.<a id='r910' /><a href='#f910' class='c005'><sup>[910]</sup></a> The tame submission of the people to their -rule would be intelligible, if they regarded the assassins, in -spite of their crime, as the lawful occupants of the throne -by reason of their marriage with the widowed queens. -Similarly, Gyges murdered Candaules, King of Lydia, -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Lydian kingship apparently transmitted through women.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -married his queen, and reigned over the country.<a id='r911' /><a href='#f911' class='c005'><sup>[911]</sup></a> Nor was -this the only instance of such a succession in the history of -Lydia. The wife of King Cadys conspired against his life -with her paramour Spermus, and though her husband -recovered from the dose of poison which she administered -to him, he died soon afterwards, and the adulterer married -his leman and succeeded to the throne.<a id='r912' /><a href='#f912' class='c005'><sup>[912]</sup></a> These cases excite -a suspicion that in the royal house of Lydia descent was -traced in the female line, and the suspicion is strengthened -by the legendary character of Omphale, the ancestress of -the dynasty. For she is represented as a masculine but -dissolute queen of the Semiramis type, who wore male -attire and put all her favoured lovers to death, while on the -other hand her consort Hercules was her purchased slave, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_282'>282</span>was treated with indignity, and went about dressed as -a woman.<a id='r913' /><a href='#f913' class='c005'><sup>[913]</sup></a> This plainly implies that the queen was -a far more powerful and important personage than the -king, as would naturally happen wherever it is the -queen who confers royalty on her consort at marriage -instead of receiving it from him. The story that she -prostituted the daughters of the Lydians to their male slaves<a id='r914' /><a href='#f914' class='c005'><sup>[914]</sup></a> -is of a piece with the tradition that she herself married -her slave Hercules. It may mean little more than that -the Lydians were indifferent to paternity, and that the -children of freewomen by slaves ranked as free. Such an -indifference to fatherhood, coupled with the ancient accounts -of the loose morals of the Lydian girls, who were accustomed -to earn a dowry by prostitution,<a id='r915' /><a href='#f915' class='c005'><sup>[915]</sup></a> is a mark of the system -of female kinship. Hence we may conjecture that -Herodotus was wrong in saying that from Hercules to -Candaules the crown of Lydia had descended for twenty-two -generations from father to son.<a id='r916' /><a href='#f916' class='c005'><sup>[916]</sup></a> The old mode of -transmitting the crown of Lydia through women probably -did not end with Candaules. At least we are told that his -murderer and successor Gyges, like Hercules, the mythical -founder of the dynasty, gave himself and his kingdom into -the hands of the woman he loved, and that when she died -he collected all the slaves from the country round about and -raised in her memory a mound so lofty that it could be -seen from every part of the Lydian plain, and for centuries -after was known as the Harlot’s Tomb.<a id='r917' /><a href='#f917' class='c005'><sup>[917]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Marriage of Canute with the widow of his predecessor.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -When Canute the Dane had been acknowledged King of -England, he married Emma, the widow of his predecessor -Ethelred, whose throne he had overturned and whose -children he had driven into exile. The marriage has not -unnaturally puzzled the historians, for Emma was much -<span class='pageno' id='Page_283'>283</span>older than her second husband, she was then living in -Normandy, and it is very doubtful whether Canute had -ever seen her before she became his bride. All, however, -becomes plain if, as the cases of Feng and Wiglet seem -to shew, it was an old Danish custom that marriage with -a king’s widow carried the kingdom with it as a matter -of right. In that case the young but prudent Canute -married the mature widow merely out of policy in order to -clinch, according to Danish notions, by a legal measure his -claim to that crown which he had already won for himself -by the sword.<a id='r918' /><a href='#f918' class='c005'><sup>[918]</sup></a> Among the Saxons and their near kinsmen -the Varini it appears to have been a regular custom for the -new king to marry his stepmother. Thus Hermegisclus, -King of the Varini, on his deathbed enjoined his son Radigis -to wed his stepmother in accordance with their ancestral -practice, and his injunction was obeyed.<a id='r919' /><a href='#f919' class='c005'><sup>[919]</sup></a> Edbald, King of -Kent, married his stepmother after the death of his father -Ethelbert;<a id='r920' /><a href='#f920' class='c005'><sup>[920]</sup></a> and as late as the ninth century Ethelbald, -King of the West Saxons, wedded Judith, the widow of -his father Ethelwulf.<a id='r921' /><a href='#f921' class='c005'><sup>[921]</sup></a> Such marriages are intelligible -if we suppose that old Saxon as well as old Danish law -gave the kingdom to him who married the late king’s -widow.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Traces of the system of female kinship among the Aryans.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -To the view that the right to the Latin kingship was -derived from women and not from men, it may be objected -that the system of female kinship or mother-kin is unknown -among the Aryans,<a id='r922' /><a href='#f922' class='c005'><sup>[922]</sup></a> and that even if faint traces of it may -be met with elsewhere, the last place in the world where we -should look for it would be Rome, the stronghold of the -patriarchal family. To meet this objection it is necessary -to point to some facts which appear to be undoubted -<span class='pageno' id='Page_284'>284</span>survivals among Aryan peoples of a custom of tracing -descent through the mother only.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Female kinship among the Athenians, the Epizephyrian Locrians, -the Cantabrians, and the Germans.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In Attica tradition ran that of old the women were the -common property of the men, who coupled with them like -beasts, so that while every one knew his mother, nobody -knew who his father was. This system of sexual communism -was abolished by Cecrops, the first King of Athens, -who introduced individual marriage in its place.<a id='r923' /><a href='#f923' class='c005'><sup>[923]</sup></a> Little -weight could be attached to this tradition, if it were not -supported to a certain extent by the Attic usage which -always allowed a man to marry his half-sister by the same -father but not his half-sister by the same mother.<a id='r924' /><a href='#f924' class='c005'><sup>[924]</sup></a> Such a -rule seems clearly to be a relic of a time when kinship was -counted only through women. Again, the Epizephyrian -Locrians in Italy traced all ancestral distinction in the -female, not the male line. Among them the nobles were -the members of the hundred houses from whom were chosen -by lot the maidens to be sent to Troy.<a id='r925' /><a href='#f925' class='c005'><sup>[925]</sup></a> For in order, it is -said, to expiate the sacrilege committed by the Locrian Ajax -when he violated Cassandra in the sanctuary of Athena at -Troy, the cities of Locris used annually to send to the -Trojan goddess two maidens, whom the Trojans slew, and, -burning their bodies on the wood of certain trees which bore -no fruit, threw the ashes into the sea. If the maidens contrived -to escape they took refuge in the sanctuary of Athena, -which they thenceforth swept and washed, never quitting it -except at night, and always going barefoot, shorn, and clad -in a single garment. The custom is said to have been -observed for a thousand years down to the fourth century -before our era.<a id='r926' /><a href='#f926' class='c005'><sup>[926]</sup></a> Among the Locrians, as elsewhere, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_285'>285</span>system of female kinship would seem to have gone hand in -hand with dissolute morals; for there is reason to think -that of old the Locrians, like the Lydians and Armenians, -had been wont to prostitute their daughters before marriage, -though in later times the custom fell into abeyance.<a id='r927' /><a href='#f927' class='c005'><sup>[927]</sup></a> The -Cantabrians of Spain seem also to have had mother-kin; -for among them it was the daughters who inherited property -and who portioned out their brothers in marriage.<a id='r928' /><a href='#f928' class='c005'><sup>[928]</sup></a> Again, -the ancient Germans deemed the tie between a man and his -sister’s children as close as that between a father and his -children; indeed some regarded the bond as even closer and -more sacred, and therefore in exacting hostages they chose -the children of a man’s sister rather than his own children, -believing that this gave them a firmer hold on the family.<a id='r929' /><a href='#f929' class='c005'><sup>[929]</sup></a> -The superiority thus assigned to the maternal uncle over the -father is an infallible mark of mother-kin, either present -or past, as may be observed, for instance, in very many -African tribes to this day, among whom both property and -political power pass, not from father to son, but from the -maternal uncle to his nephews.<a id='r930' /><a href='#f930' class='c005'><sup>[930]</sup></a> Similarly, in Melanesia -the close relation of the mother’s brother to his nephew is -maintained even where the system of relationship has become -patriarchal.<a id='r931' /><a href='#f931' class='c005'><sup>[931]</sup></a> Amongst the Germans in the time of Tacitus, -it is true, a man’s heirs were his own children,<a id='r932' /><a href='#f932' class='c005'><sup>[932]</sup></a> but the -mother’s brother could never have attained the position he -held except under a system of maternal descent. Another -vestige of mother-kin among a Teutonic people appears -to be found in the Salic law. For it was a custom with the -Salian Franks that when a widow married again, a price -had to be paid to her family, and in laying down the order -in which her kinsmen were entitled to receive this payment -<span class='pageno' id='Page_286'>286</span>the law gave a decided preference to the female over the -male line; thus the first person entitled to claim the money -was the eldest son of the widow’s sister.<a id='r933' /><a href='#f933' class='c005'><sup>[933]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Among the Picts the kingship was transmitted through women.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -It is a moot point whether the Picts of Scotland belonged -to the Aryan family or not;<a id='r934' /><a href='#f934' class='c005'><sup>[934]</sup></a> but among them the -kingdom was certainly transmitted through women. Bede -tells us that down to his own time, in the early part of the -eighth century, whenever a doubt arose as to the succession, -the Picts chose their king from the female rather than the -male line.<a id='r935' /><a href='#f935' class='c005'><sup>[935]</sup></a> The statement is amply confirmed by historical -evidence. For we possess a list of the Pictish kings and -their fathers which was drawn up in the reign of Cenaed, -King of the Scots, towards the end of the tenth century; -and for the period from the year 583 to the year 840 the -register is authenticated by the Irish Annals of Tigernach -and Ulster. Now, it is significant that in this list the fathers -of the kings are never themselves kings; in other words, no -king was succeeded on the throne by his son. Further, if -we may judge by their names, the fathers of the Pictish -kings were not Picts but foreigners—men of Irish, Cymric, -or English race. The inference from these facts seems to be -that among the Picts the royal family was exogamous, and -that the crown descended in the female line; in other words, -that the princesses married men of another clan or even of -another race, and that their issue by these strangers sat on -the throne, whether they succeeded in a prescribed order -according to birth, or whether they were elected from among -the sons of princesses, as the words of Bede might be taken -to imply.<a id='r936' /><a href='#f936' class='c005'><sup>[936]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Female kinship among the Etruscans.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Another European, though apparently not Aryan, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_287'>287</span>people among whom the system of female kinship appears -to have prevailed were the Etruscans. For in Etruscan -sepulchral inscriptions the name of the mother of the -deceased is regularly recorded along with or even without -the name of the father; and where the names of both -father and mother are mentioned, greater prominence is -given to the mother’s name by writing it in full, whereas -the father’s name is, in accordance with Roman usage, merely -indicated by an initial.<a id='r937' /><a href='#f937' class='c005'><sup>[937]</sup></a> The statement of Theopompus that -among the Etruscans sexual communism was a recognised -practice, and that paternity was unknown,<a id='r938' /><a href='#f938' class='c005'><sup>[938]</sup></a> may be only an -exaggerated way of saying that they traced their descent -through their mothers and not through their fathers. Yet -apparently in Etruria, as elsewhere, this system of relationship -was combined with a real indifference to fatherhood and -with the dissolute morals which that indifference implies; for -Etruscan girls were wont to earn a dowry by prostitution.<a id='r939' /><a href='#f939' class='c005'><sup>[939]</sup></a> -In these customs the Etruscans resembled the Lydians, and -the similarity confirms the common opinion of antiquity, which -modern historians have too lightly set aside, that the Etruscans -were of Lydian origin.<a id='r940' /><a href='#f940' class='c005'><sup>[940]</sup></a> However that may be, in considering -the vestiges of mother-kin among the Latins, we -shall do well to bear in mind that the same archaic mode of -tracing descent appears to have prevailed among the neighbouring -Etruscans, who not only exercised a powerful influence -on Rome, but gave her two, if not three, of her kings.<a id='r941' /><a href='#f941' class='c005'><sup>[941]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_288'>288</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Mother-kin may survive in the royal family after it has been exchanged -for father-kin in all others.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -It would be neither unnatural nor surprising if among -the ancient Latins mother-kin survived in the royal family -after it had been exchanged for father-kin in all others. -For royalty, like religion, is essentially conservative; it -clings to old forms and old customs which have long -vanished from ordinary life. Thus in Uganda persons of -royal blood still inherit their totems from their mothers, -while other people inherit them from their fathers. So in -Denmark and Scandinavia, as we have seen, the kingdom -would appear to have been transmitted through women long -after the family name and property had become hereditary -in the male line among the people. Sometimes the difference -in custom between kings and commoners is probably -based rather on a distinction of race than on varying degrees -of social progress; for a dynasty is often a family of alien -origin who have imposed their rule on their subjects by force -of arms, as the Normans did on the Saxons, and the -Manchus on the Chinese. More rarely, perhaps, it may -have happened that from motives of policy or superstition a -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sometimes a conquering race may have left a nominal kingship -to members of the old royal house.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -conquering tribe has left a nominal kingship to the members -of the old royal house. Such a concession would be most -likely to be made where the functions of the king were rather -religious than civil, and where the prosperity of the country -was supposed to depend on the maintenance of the established -relations between the people and the gods of the land. -In that case the new-comers, knowing not how to appease -and conciliate these strange deities, might be glad to let the -priestly kings of the conquered race perform the quaint rites -and mumble the venerable spells, which had been found to -answer their purpose time out of mind.<a id='r942' /><a href='#f942' class='c005'><sup>[942]</sup></a> In a commonwealth -<span class='pageno' id='Page_289'>289</span>like the Roman, formed by the union of different -stocks, the royal family might thus belong either to the conquerors -or to the conquered; in other words, either to the -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>This perhaps happened at Rome, where many of the kings seem to have been plebeians.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -patricians or to the plebeians. But if we leave out of -account Romulus and Tatius, who are more or less legendary -figures, and the two Tarquins, who came of a noble Etruscan -house, all the other Roman kings appear from their names -to have been men of plebeian, not patrician, families.<a id='r943' /><a href='#f943' class='c005'><sup>[943]</sup></a> Hence -it seems probable that they belonged to the indigenous race, -who may have retained mother-kin, at least in the royal -succession, after they had submitted to invaders who knew -father-kin only.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The abolition of the monarchy at Rome may have been a revolution whereby the patricians -wrested the shadow of sovereignty from the plebeians and transferred it to themselves, -who already wielded the substance.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -If that was so, it confirms the view that the old Roman -kingship was essentially a religious office; for the conquerors -would be much more ready to leave an office of this -sort in the hands of the conquered than a kingship of the -type with which we are familiar. “Let these puppets,” they -might think, “render to the gods their dues, while we rule -the people in peace and lead them in war.” Of such priestly -kings Numa was the type. But not all of his successors -were willing to model themselves on his saintly figure and, -rejecting the pomps and vanities of earth, to devote -themselves to communion with heaven. Some were men of -strong will and warlike temper, who could not brook the -dull routine of the cloister. They longed to exchange the -stillness and gloom of the temple or the sacred grove for the -sunshine, the dust, and the tumult of the battlefield. Such -men broke bounds, and when they threatened to get completely -out of hand and turn the tables on the patricians, it -was time that they should go. This, we may conjecture, -was the real meaning of the abolition of the kingship at -Rome. It put an end to the solemn pretence that the state -was still ruled by the ancient owners of the soil: it took the -shadow of power from them and gave it to those who had -long possessed the substance. The ghost of the monarchy -had begun to walk and grow troublesome: the revolution -laid it for centuries.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_290'>290</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>At first the intention seems to have been to leave the annual -kingship or consulship to the old royal family.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But though the effect of the revolution was to substitute -the real rule of the patricians for the nominal rule of the -plebeians, the break with the past was at the outset less -complete than it seems. For the first two consuls were -both men of the royal blood. One of them, L. Junius -Brutus, was sister’s son of the expelled King Tarquin the -Proud.<a id='r944' /><a href='#f944' class='c005'><sup>[944]</sup></a> As such he would have been the heir to the throne -under a strict system of mother-kin. The other consul, -L. Tarquinius Collatinus, was a son of the late king’s cousin -Egerius.<a id='r945' /><a href='#f945' class='c005'><sup>[945]</sup></a> These facts suggest that the first intention of the -revolutionaries was neither to abolish the kingship nor to -wrest it from the royal family, but, merely retaining the -hereditary monarchy, to restrict its powers. To achieve this -object they limited the tenure of office to a year and doubled -the number of the kings, who might thus be expected to -check and balance each other. But it is not impossible -that both restrictions were merely the revival of old rules which -the growing power of the kings had contrived for a time to -set aside in practice. The legends of Romulus and Remus, -and afterwards of Romulus and Tatius, may be real reminiscences -of a double kingship like that of Sparta;<a id='r946' /><a href='#f946' class='c005'><sup>[946]</sup></a> and in -the yearly ceremony of the <i>Regifugium</i> or Flight of the -King we seem to detect a trace of an annual, not a life-long, -tenure of office.<a id='r947' /><a href='#f947' class='c005'><sup>[947]</sup></a> The same thing may perhaps be -true of the parallel change which took place at Athens when -the people deprived the Medontids of their regal powers and -reduced them from kings to responsible magistrates, who -held office at first for life, but afterwards only for periods -of ten years.<a id='r948' /><a href='#f948' class='c005'><sup>[948]</sup></a> Here, too, the limitation of the tenure of -the kingship may have been merely the reinforcement of -an old custom which had fallen into abeyance. At Rome, -however, the attempt to maintain the hereditary principle, -if it was made at all, was almost immediately abandoned, -and the patricians openly transferred to themselves the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_291'>291</span>double kingship, which thenceforth was purely elective, and -was afterwards known as the consulship.<a id='r949' /><a href='#f949' class='c005'><sup>[949]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The abolition of the monarchy at Rome seems to have been hastened by an -attempt of the last king to shift the succession from the female to -the male line.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The history of the last king of Rome, Tarquin the -Proud, leads us to suspect that the offence which he gave -by his ambitious and domineering character was heightened -by an attempt to shift the succession of the kingship from -the female to the male line. He himself united both rights -in his own person; for he had married the daughter of his -predecessor, Servius Tullius, and he was the son or grandson -of Tarquin the Elder,<a id='r950' /><a href='#f950' class='c005'><sup>[950]</sup></a> who preceded Servius Tullius on -the throne. But in asserting his right to the crown, if we -can trust Roman history on this point, Tarquin the Proud -entirely ignored his claim to it through women as the -son-in-law of his predecessor, and insisted only on his claim -in the male line as the son or grandson of a former king.<a id='r951' /><a href='#f951' class='c005'><sup>[951]</sup></a> -And he evidently intended to bequeath the kingdom to one -of his sons; for he put out of the way two of the men -who, if the succession had been through women in the -way I have indicated, would have been entitled to sit -on the throne before his own sons, and even before -himself. One of these was his sister’s husband, the -other was her elder son. Her younger son, the famous -Lucius Junius Brutus, only escaped the fate of his father -and elder brother by feigning, like Hamlet, imbecility, and -thus deluding his wicked uncle into the belief that he had -nothing to fear from such a simpleton.<a id='r952' /><a href='#f952' class='c005'><sup>[952]</sup></a> This design of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_292'>292</span>Tarquin to alter the line of succession from the female to the -male side of the house may have been the last drop which filled -his cup of high-handed tyranny to overflowing. At least it is a -strange coincidence, if it is nothing more, that he was deposed by -the man who, under a system of female kinship, was the rightful -heir, and who in a sense actually sat on the throne from -which he pushed his uncle. For the curule chair of the consul -was little less than the king’s throne under a limited tenure.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The hereditary principle does not necessarily exclude the elective in the succession -to a monarchy; many African chieftainships or kingships are both -hereditary and elective.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -It has often been asked whether the Roman monarchy -was hereditary or elective. The question implies an opposition -between the two modes of succession which by no -means necessarily exists. As a matter of fact, in many -African tribes at the present day the succession to the -kingdom or the chieftainship is determined by a combination -of the hereditary and the elective principle, that -is, the kings or chiefs are chosen by the people or by a -body of electors from among the members of the royal -family. And as the chiefs have commonly several wives -and many children by them, the number of possible -candidates may be not inconsiderable. For example, we -are told that “the government of the Banyai is rather -peculiar, being a sort of feudal republicanism. The chief -is elected, and they choose the son of the deceased chief’s -sister in preference to his own offspring. When dissatisfied -with one candidate, they even go to a distant tribe for a -successor, who is usually of the family of the late chief, a -brother, or a sister’s son, but never his own son or daughter. -When first spoken to on the subject, he answers as if he -thought himself unequal to the task and unworthy of the -honour, but, having accepted it, all the wives, goods, and -children of his predecessor belong to him, and he takes care -to keep them in a dependent position.” Among these -people “the children of the chief have fewer privileges than -common free men. They may not be sold, but, rather than -choose any one of them for a chief at any future time, the -free men would prefer to elect one of themselves who bore -only a very distant relationship to the family.”<a id='r953' /><a href='#f953' class='c005'><sup>[953]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_293'>293</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Chiefs and kings in Africa elected from several -families in rotation.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Sometimes the field of choice is extended still further -by a rule that the chief may or must be chosen from one -of several families in a certain order. Thus among the -Bangalas of the Cassange Valley in Angola the chief is -elected from three families in rotation.<a id='r954' /><a href='#f954' class='c005'><sup>[954]</sup></a> And Diagara, a -country bordering on Senegambia, is ruled by an absolute -monarch who is chosen alternately from two families, one -of which lives in Diapina and the other in Badumar.<a id='r955' /><a href='#f955' class='c005'><sup>[955]</sup></a> -In the Winamwanga tribe, to the south of Lake Tanganyika, -“the first male child born to a chief after he succeeds -to the chieftainship is the natural heir, but many years -ago there were two claimants to the throne, whose supporters -were about equal, and to avoid a civil war the -following arrangement was made. One of them was -allowed to reign, but the other claimant or his son was to -succeed him. This was carried out, so that now there are -continually alternate dynasties.”<a id='r956' /><a href='#f956' class='c005'><sup>[956]</sup></a> So in the Matse tribe -of Togoland in West Africa, there are two royal families -descended from two women, which supply a king alternately. -Hence the palm forest which belongs to the crown is -divided into two parts; the reigning king has the right to -one part, and the representative of the other royal house has -a right to the other part.<a id='r957' /><a href='#f957' class='c005'><sup>[957]</sup></a> Among the Yorubas in western -Africa the sovereign chief is always taken from one or more -families which have the hereditary right of furnishing the -community with rulers. In many cases the succession -passes regularly from one to a second family alternately; -but in one instance, apparently unique, the right of -succession to the sovereignty seems to be possessed by -four princely families, from each of which the head chief is -elected in rotation. The principle of primogeniture is not -necessarily followed in the election, but the choice of the -electors must always fall on one who is related to a former -chief in the male line. For paternal descent alone is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_294'>294</span>recognised in Yorubaland, where even the greatest chief may -take to wife a woman of the lowest rank. Sometimes the -choice of the ruling chief is made by divine authority, intimated -to the people through the high priest of the principal -god of the district.<a id='r958' /><a href='#f958' class='c005'><sup>[958]</sup></a> Among the Igaras, on the lower -Niger, the royal family is divided into four branches, each -of which provides a king in turn. The capital and its -district, both of which bear the name of Idah, are always -occupied by the reigning branch of the royal family, while -the three other branches, not being allowed to live there, -retreat into the interior. Hence at the death of a king a -double change takes place. On the one hand the late -reigning family, with all their dependants, have to leave the -homes in which many of them have been born and brought -up, and to migrate to towns in the forest, which they know -only by name. On the other hand, the new reigning -family come into the capital, and their people settle in the -houses occupied by their forefathers four reigns ago. The -king is generally elected by the leading men of his branch -of the royal family; they choose the richest and most -powerful of their number.<a id='r959' /><a href='#f959' class='c005'><sup>[959]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Among the Khasis of Assam, also, the succession to the kingdom -is partly hereditary and partly elective.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Again, among the Khasis of Assam we meet with the -same combination of the hereditary with the elective principle -in the succession to the kingdom. Indeed, in this -people the kingship presents several features of resemblance -to the old Latin kingship as it appears to have existed at -the dawn of history. For a Khasi king is the religious as -well as the secular head of the state; along with the sooth-sayers -he consults the auspices for the public good, and -sometimes he has priestly duties to perform. Succession to -the kingship always runs in the female line, for the Khasis -have a regular system of mother-kin as opposed to father-kin; -hence it is not the king’s sons, but his uterine brothers -and the sons of his uterine sisters who succeed him on the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_295'>295</span>throne in order of birth. But this hereditary principle is -controlled by a body of electors, who have the right of -rejecting unsuitable claimants to the throne. Generally the -electors are a small body composed of the heads of certain -priestly clans; but in some Khasi states the number of -the electors has been greatly increased by the inclusion of -representative headmen of certain important lay clans, or -even by the inclusion of village headmen or of the chief -superintendents of the village markets. Nay, in the Langrim -state all the adult males regularly vote at the election of a -monarch; and here the royal family is divided into two -branches, a Black and a White, from either of which, apparently, -the electors are free to choose a king. Similarly, in -the Nobosohpoh state there are two royal houses, a Black -and a White, and the people may select the heir to the -throne from either of them.<a id='r960' /><a href='#f960' class='c005'><sup>[960]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Thus the Roman monarchy may have combined the hereditary with the elective principle.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus the mere circumstance that all the Roman kings, -with the exception of the two Tarquins, appear to have -belonged to different families, is not of itself conclusive -against the view that heredity was one of the elements -which determined the succession. The number of families -from whom the king might be elected may have been -large. And even if, as is possible, the electors were free -to chose a king without any regard to his birth, the -hereditary principle would still be maintained if, as we have -seen reason to conjecture, it was essential that the chosen -candidate should marry a woman of the royal house, who -would generally be either the daughter or the widow of his -predecessor. In this way the apparently disparate principles -of unfettered election and strict heredity would be -combined; the marriage of the elected king with the -hereditary princess would furnish the link between the two. -Under such a system, to put it otherwise, the kings are -elective and the queens hereditary. This is just the converse -of what happens under a system of male kinship, where -the kings are hereditary and the queens elective.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the later times of Rome it was held that the custom -had been for the people to elect the kings and for the senate -<span class='pageno' id='Page_296'>296</span>to ratify the election.<a id='r961' /><a href='#f961' class='c005'><sup>[961]</sup></a> But we may suspect, with Mommsen, -that this was no more than an inference from the mode of -electing the consuls. The magistrates who, under the -republic, represented the kings most closely were the dictator -and the King of the Sacred Rites, and neither of these was -elected by the people. Both were nominated, the dictator -by the consul, and the King of the Sacred Rites by the -chief pontiff.<a id='r962' /><a href='#f962' class='c005'><sup>[962]</sup></a> Accordingly it seems probable that under -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The king was probably nominated either by his predecessor -or by an interim king.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -the monarchy the king was nominated either by his predecessor -or, failing that, by an interim king (<i>interrex</i>) chosen -from the senate.<a id='r963' /><a href='#f963' class='c005'><sup>[963]</sup></a> Now if, as we have been led to think, an -essential claim to the throne was constituted by marriage -with a princess of the royal house, nothing could be more -natural than that the king should choose his successor, who -would commonly be also his son-in-law. If he had several -sons-in-law and had omitted to designate the one who -was to reign after him, the election would be made by his -substitute, the interim king.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Personal qualities which commended a man for marriage with a -princess and succession to the throne.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The personal qualities which recommended a man -for a royal alliance and succession to the throne would -naturally vary according to the popular ideas of the time -and the character of the king or his substitute, but it is -reasonable to suppose that among them in early society -physical strength and beauty would hold a prominent place.<a id='r964' /><a href='#f964' class='c005'><sup>[964]</sup></a> -We have seen that in Ashantee the husbands or paramours -of the princesses must always be men of fine presence, -because they are to be the fathers of future kings. Among -the Ethiopians in antiquity, as among the Ashantees and -many other African tribes to this day, the crown passed in -the female line to the son of the king’s sister, but if there -<span class='pageno' id='Page_297'>297</span>was no such heir they chose the handsomest and most valiant -man to reign over them.<a id='r965' /><a href='#f965' class='c005'><sup>[965]</sup></a> We are told that the Gordioi -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Fat kings.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -elected the fattest man to the kingship,<a id='r966' /><a href='#f966' class='c005'><sup>[966]</sup></a> nor is this incredible -when we remember that in Africa corpulence is still regarded -as a great distinction and beauty, and that both the chiefs -and their wives are sometimes so fat that they can hardly -walk. Thus among the Caffres chiefs and rich men attain -to an enormous bulk, and the queens fatten themselves on -beef and porridge, of which they partake freely in the -intervals of slumber. To be fat is with them a mark of -riches, and therefore of high rank; common folk cannot -afford to eat and drink and lounge as much as they would -like to do.<a id='r967' /><a href='#f967' class='c005'><sup>[967]</sup></a> The Syrakoi in antiquity are reported to have -bestowed the crown on the tallest man or on the man with -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Long-headed kings and chiefs.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -the longest head in the literal, not the figurative, sense of -the word.<a id='r968' /><a href='#f968' class='c005'><sup>[968]</sup></a> They seem to have been a Sarmatian people -to the north of the Caucasus,<a id='r969' /><a href='#f969' class='c005'><sup>[969]</sup></a> and are probably the same -with the long-headed people described by Hippocrates, -who says that among them the men with the longest heads -were esteemed the noblest, and that they applied bandages -and other instruments to the heads of their children in -infancy for the sake of moulding them into the shape which -they admired.<a id='r970' /><a href='#f970' class='c005'><sup>[970]</sup></a> Such reports are probably by no means -fabulous, for among the Monbuttu or Mang-bettou of Central -Africa down to this day “when the children of chiefs are -young, string is wound round their heads, which are -gradually compressed into a shape that will allow of the -longest head-dress. The skull thus treated in childhood -takes the appearance of an elongated egg.”<a id='r971' /><a href='#f971' class='c005'><sup>[971]</sup></a> Similarly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_298'>298</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Heads artificially moulded as a mark of high rank.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -some of the Indian tribes on the north-west coast of -America artificially mould the heads of their children -into the shape of a wedge or a sugar-loaf by compressing -them between boards; some of them regard such -heads as a personal beauty, others as a mark of high birth.<a id='r972' /><a href='#f972' class='c005'><sup>[972]</sup></a> -For instance, “the practice among some of the Salish -seems to have had a definite social, as well as aesthetic, -significance. There appear to have been recognised degrees -of contortion marking the social status of the individual. -For example slaves, of which the Salish kept considerable -numbers, were prohibited from deforming the heads of their -children at all, consequently a normal, undeformed head -was the sign and badge of servitude. And in the case of -the base-born of the tribes the heads of their children were -customarily but slightly deformed, while the heads of the -children born of wealthy or noble persons, and particularly -those of chiefs, were severely and excessively deformed.”<a id='r973' /><a href='#f973' class='c005'><sup>[973]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Among the Bororos the best singers are the chiefs.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Among the Bororos of Brazil at the present day the -title to chieftaincy is neither corpulence nor an egg-shaped -head, but the possession of a fine musical ear and a rich -baritone, bass, or tenor voice. The best singer, in fact, -becomes the chief. There is no other way to supreme -power but this. Hence in the education of the Bororo -youth the main thing is to train, not their minds, but their -voices, for the best of the tuneful quire will certainly be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_299'>299</span>chief. In this tribe, accordingly, there is no such thing as -hereditary chieftainship; for if the son of a chief has an -indifferent ear or a poor voice, he will be a commoner to the -end of his days. When two rival songsters are found in -the same village, they sing against each other, and he who -is judged to have acquitted himself best in the musical -contest mounts the throne. His defeated rival sometimes -retires in a huff with his admirers and founds a new village. -Once seated in the place of power, the melodious singer is -not only highly honoured and respected, but can exact -unconditional obedience from all, and he gives his orders, -like an operatic king or hero, in a musical recitativo. -It is especially at eventide, when the sun has set and the -labours of the day are over, that he pours out his soul in -harmony. At that witching hour he takes up his post in -front of the men’s club-house, and while his subjects are -hushed in attention he bursts into sacred song, passing from -that to lighter themes, and concluding the oratorio by -chanting his commands to each individual for the next -day.<a id='r974' /><a href='#f974' class='c005'><sup>[974]</sup></a> When Addison ridiculed the new fashion of the -Italian opera, in which generals sang the word of command, -ladies delivered their messages in music, and lovers chanted -their billet-doux, he little suspected that among the backwoods -of Brazil a tribe of savages in all seriousness observed -a custom which he thought absurd even on the stage.<a id='r975' /><a href='#f975' class='c005'><sup>[975]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Succession to the throne determined by a race.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Sometimes apparently the right to the hand of the -princess and to the throne has been determined by a race. -The Alitemnian Libyans awarded the kingdom to the fleetest -runner.<a id='r976' /><a href='#f976' class='c005'><sup>[976]</sup></a> Amongst the old Prussians, candidates for nobility -raced on horseback to the king, and the one who reached -him first was ennobled.<a id='r977' /><a href='#f977' class='c005'><sup>[977]</sup></a> According to tradition the earliest -games at Olympia were held by Endymion, who set his -sons to run a race for the kingdom. His tomb was said -to be at the point of the racecourse from which the -runners started.<a id='r978' /><a href='#f978' class='c005'><sup>[978]</sup></a> The famous story of Pelops and Hippodamia -<span class='pageno' id='Page_300'>300</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Greek traditions of princesses whose hands were won in a race.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -is perhaps only another version of the legend that -the first races at Olympia were run for no less a prize than -a kingdom. For Oenomaus was king of Pisa, a town close -to Olympia; and having been warned by an oracle that he -would die by the hand of the man who married his daughter -Hippodamia, he resolved to keep her a maid. So when any -one came a-wooing her, the king made the suitor drive away -in a chariot with Hippodamia, while he himself pursued the -pair in another car drawn by fleet horses, and, overtaking the -unlucky wight, slew him. In this way he killed twelve -suitors and nailed their heads to his house, the ruins of -which were shewn at Olympia down to the second century -of our era. The bodies of the suitors were buried under a -lofty mound, and it is said that in former days sacrifices were -offered to them yearly. When Pelops came to win the hand -of Hippodamia, he bribed the charioteer of Oenomaus not to -put the pins into the wheels of the king’s chariot. So -Oenomaus was thrown from the car and dragged by his -horses to death. But some say he was despatched by -Pelops according to the oracle. Anyhow, he died, and -Pelops married Hippodamia and succeeded to the kingdom.<a id='r979' /><a href='#f979' class='c005'><sup>[979]</sup></a> -The grave of Oenomaus was shown at Olympia; it was a -mound of earth enclosed with stones.<a id='r980' /><a href='#f980' class='c005'><sup>[980]</sup></a> Here, too, precincts -were dedicated to Pelops and Hippodamia, in which sacrifices -were offered to them annually; the victim presented to -Pelops was a black ram, whose blood was poured into a pit.<a id='r981' /><a href='#f981' class='c005'><sup>[981]</sup></a> -Other traditions were current in antiquity of princesses who -were offered in marriage to the fleetest runner and won by -the victor in the race. Thus Icarius at Sparta set the wooers -of his daughter Penelope to run a race; Ulysses won and -wedded her. His father-in-law is said to have tried to -induce him to take up his abode in Sparta; which seems to -shew that if Ulysses had accepted the invitation he would -have inherited the kingdom through his wife.<a id='r982' /><a href='#f982' class='c005'><sup>[982]</sup></a> So, too, -the Libyan King Antaeus placed his beautiful daughter -Barce or Alceis at the end of the racecourse; her many -<span class='pageno' id='Page_301'>301</span>noble suitors, both Libyans and foreigners, ran to her as the -goal, and Alcidamus, who touched her first, gained her in -marriage.<a id='r983' /><a href='#f983' class='c005'><sup>[983]</sup></a> Danaus, also, at Argos is said to have stationed -his many daughters at the goal, and the runner who -reached them first had first choice of the maidens.<a id='r984' /><a href='#f984' class='c005'><sup>[984]</sup></a> -Somewhat different from these traditions is the story of -Atalante, for in it the wooers are said to have contended, -not with each other, but with the coy maiden herself in a -foot-race. She slew her vanquished suitors and hung up -their heads in the racecourse, till Hippomenes gained the -race and her hand by throwing down the golden apples -which she stooped to pick up.<a id='r985' /><a href='#f985' class='c005'><sup>[985]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Custom of racing for a bride among the Kirghiz and Calmucks.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -These traditions may very well reflect a real custom of -racing for a bride, for such a custom appears to have prevailed -among various peoples, though in practice it has -degenerated into a mere form or pretence. Thus “there is -one race, called the ‘Love Chase,’ which may be considered -a part of the form of marriage among the Kirghiz. In this -the bride, armed with a formidable whip, mounts a fleet -horse, and is pursued by all the young men who make any -pretensions to her hand. She will be given as a prize to -the one who catches her, but she has the right, besides -urging on her horse to the utmost, to use her whip, often -with no mean force, to keep off those lovers who are unwelcome -to her, and she will probably favour the one whom -she has already chosen in her heart. As, however, by -Kirghiz custom, a suitor to the hand of a maiden is obliged -to give a certain <i>kalym</i>, or purchase-money, and an agreement -must be made with the father for the amount of dowry -which he gives his daughter, the ‘Love Chase’ is a mere -matter of form.”<a id='r986' /><a href='#f986' class='c005'><sup>[986]</sup></a> Similarly “the ceremony of marriage -among the Calmucks is performed on horseback. A girl is -first mounted, who rides off in full speed. Her lover -pursues; and if he overtakes her, she becomes his wife, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_302'>302</span>the marriage is consummated on the spot, after which she -returns with him to his tent. But it sometimes happens -that the woman does not wish to marry the person by whom -she is pursued, in which case she will not suffer him to -overtake her; and we were assured that no instance occurs -of a Calmuck girl being thus caught unless she has a -partiality for her pursuer. If she dislikes him she rides, to -use the language of English sportsmen, ‘neck or nothing,’ -until she has completely escaped, or until the pursuer’s -horse is tired out, leaving her at liberty to return, to be -afterwards chased by some more favoured admirer.”<a id='r987' /><a href='#f987' class='c005'><sup>[987]</sup></a> The -race for the bride is found also among the Koryaks of -north-eastern Asia. It takes place in a large tent, round -which many separate compartments called <i>pologs</i> are arranged -in a continuous circle. The girl gets a start and is clear of -the marriage if she can run through all the compartments -without being caught by the bridegroom. The women of -the encampment place every obstacle in the man’s way, -tripping him up, belabouring him with switches, and so forth, -so that he has little chance of succeeding unless the girl -wishes it and waits for him.<a id='r988' /><a href='#f988' class='c005'><sup>[988]</sup></a> Among some of the rude -indigenous tribes of the Malay Peninsula “marriage is -preceded by a singular ceremony. An old man presents -the future couple to the assembled guests, and, followed by -their families, he leads them to a great circle, round which -the girl sets off to run as fast as she can. If the young -man succeeds in overtaking her, she becomes his mate; -otherwise he loses all rights, which happens especially when -he is not so fortunate as to please his bride.”<a id='r989' /><a href='#f989' class='c005'><sup>[989]</sup></a> Another -writer tells us that among these savages, when there is a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_303'>303</span>river at hand, the race takes place on the water, the bride -paddling away in one canoe and pursued by the bridegroom -in another.<a id='r990' /><a href='#f990' class='c005'><sup>[990]</sup></a> Before the wedding procession starts for the -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Caffre race for bride.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -bridegroom’s hut, a Caffre bride is allowed to make one -last bid for freedom, and a young man is told off to catch -her. Should he fail to do so, she is theoretically allowed -to return to her father, and the whole performance has to -be repeated; but the flight of the bride is usually a -pretence.<a id='r991' /><a href='#f991' class='c005'><sup>[991]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The bride-race among Teutonic peoples, and its -traces in modern Europe.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Similar customs appear to have been practised by all the -Teutonic peoples; for the German, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse -languages possess in common a word for marriage which -means simply bride-race.<a id='r992' /><a href='#f992' class='c005'><sup>[992]</sup></a> Moreover, traces of the custom -survived into modern times. Thus in the Mark of Brandenburg, -down to the first half of the nineteenth century at -least, it was the practice for bride and bridegroom to run a -race on their wedding day in presence of all the guests. -Two sturdy men took the bride between them and set off. -The bridegroom gave them a start and then followed hot-foot. -At the end of the course stood two or three young -married women, who took from the bride her maiden’s -crown and replaced it by the matron’s cap. If the bridegroom -failed to overtake his bride, he was much ridiculed.<a id='r993' /><a href='#f993' class='c005'><sup>[993]</sup></a> -In other parts of Germany races are still held at marriage, -but the competitors are no longer the bride and bridegroom. -Thus in Hesse at the wedding of a well-to-do farmer his -friends race on horseback to the house of the bride, and her -friends similarly race on horseback to the house of the -bridegroom. The prize hangs over the gate of the farmyard -or the door of the house. It consists of a silken or woollen -<span class='pageno' id='Page_304'>304</span>handkerchief, which the winner winds round his head or -fastens to his breast. The victors have also the right to -escort the marriage procession.<a id='r994' /><a href='#f994' class='c005'><sup>[994]</sup></a> In Upper Bavaria, down -at least to some fifty years ago, a regular feature of -a rustic wedding used to be what was called the “bride-race” -or the “key-race.” It generally took place when the -bridal party was proceeding from the church to the alehouse. -A course was marked out and two goals, consisting of heaps -of straw, were set up at distances of three and four hundred -yards respectively. The strongest and fleetest of the young -fellows raced barefoot, clad only in shirt and trousers. He -who first reached the further goal received the first prize; -this was regularly a key of gilt wood, which the winner -fastened to his hat. Often, as in some of the Greek legends, -the bride herself was the goal of the race. The writers who -record the custom suggest that the race was originally for -the key of the bridechamber, and that the bridegroom ran -with the rest.<a id='r995' /><a href='#f995' class='c005'><sup>[995]</sup></a> In Scotland also the guests at a rustic -wedding used to ride on horseback for a prize, which sometimes -consisted of the bride’s cake set up on a pole in front -of the bridegroom’s house. The race was known as the -<i>broose</i>.<a id='r996' /><a href='#f996' class='c005'><sup>[996]</sup></a> At Weitensfeld, in Carinthia, a festival called the -Bride-race is still held every year. It is popularly supposed -to commemorate a time when a plague had swept away the -whole people except a girl and three young men. These -three, it is said, raced with each other in order that the -winner might get the maiden to wife, and so repeople the -land. The race is now held on horseback. The winner -receives as the prize a garland of flowers called the Bride-wreath, -and the man who comes in last gets a wreath of -ribbons and pig’s bristles.<a id='r997' /><a href='#f997' class='c005'><sup>[997]</sup></a> It seems not impossible that this -custom is a relic of a fair at which the marriageable maidens -of the year were assigned in order of merit to the young -men who distinguished themselves by their feats of strength -<span class='pageno' id='Page_305'>305</span>and agility. A practice of this sort appears to have prevailed -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Assignment of brides to picked young men among the Samnites.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -among the ancient Samnites. Every year the youths -and maidens were tested publicly, and the young man who -was adjudged best had first choice of the girls; the second -best had the next choice, and so on with the rest.<a id='r998' /><a href='#f998' class='c005'><sup>[998]</sup></a> “They -say,” writes Strabo, “that the Samnites have a beautiful -custom which incites to virtue. For they may not give -their daughters in marriage to whom they please, but every -year the ten best maidens and the ten best youths are -picked out, and the best of the ten maidens is given to the -best of the ten youths, and the second to the second, and so -on. But if the man who wins one of these prizes should -afterwards turn out a knave, they disgrace him and take the -girl from him.”<a id='r999' /><a href='#f999' class='c005'><sup>[999]</sup></a> The nature of the test to which the young -men and women were subjected is not mentioned, but we -may conjecture that it was mainly athletic.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Contests for a bride other than races.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The contests for a bride may be designed to try the -skill, strength, and courage of the suitors as well as their -horsemanship and speed of foot. Speaking of King’s -County, Ireland, in the latter part of the eighteenth century, -Arthur Young says: “There is a very ancient custom here, -for a number of country neighbours among the poor people, -to fix upon some young woman that ought, as they think, -to be married; they also agree upon a young fellow as a -proper husband for her; this determined, they send to the -fair one’s cabin to inform her that on the Sunday following -‘she is to be horsed,’ that is, carried on men’s backs. She -must then provide whisky and cyder for a treat, as all will -pay her a visit after mass for a hurling match. As soon as -she is horsed, the hurling begins, in which the young fellow -appointed for her husband has the eyes of all the company -fixed on him: if he comes off conqueror, he is certainly -married to the girl; but if another is victorious, he as certainly -loses her, for she is the prize of the victor. These -trials are not always finished in one Sunday, they take sometimes -two or three, and the common expression when they -are over is, that ‘such a girl was goal’d.’ Sometimes one -<span class='pageno' id='Page_306'>306</span>barony hurls against another, but a marriageable girl is -always the prize. Hurling is a sort of cricket, but instead -of throwing the ball in order to knock down a wicket, the -aim is to pass it through a bent stick, the ends stuck in the -ground.”<a id='r1000' /><a href='#f1000' class='c005'><sup>[1000]</sup></a> In the great Indian epic the <i>Mahabharata</i> it is -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Indian <i>Svayamvara</i>.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -related that the hand of the lovely Princess Draupadi or -Krishna, daughter of the King of the Panchalas, was only -to be won by him who could bend a certain mighty bow -and shoot five arrows through a revolving wheel so as to hit -the target beyond. After many noble wooers had essayed -the task in vain, the disguised Arjun was successful, and -carried off the princess to be the wife of himself and his four -brothers.<a id='r1001' /><a href='#f1001' class='c005'><sup>[1001]</sup></a> This was an instance of the ancient Indian -practice of <i>Svayamvara</i>, in accordance with which a maiden -of high rank either chose her husband from among her -assembled suitors or was offered as the prize to the conqueror -in a trial of skill. The custom was occasionally observed -among the Rajputs down to a late time.<a id='r1002' /><a href='#f1002' class='c005'><sup>[1002]</sup></a> The Tartar king -Caidu, the cousin and opponent of Cublay Khan, is said to -have had a beautiful daughter named Aijaruc, or “the -Bright Moon,” who was so tall and brawny that she outdid -all men in her father’s realm in feats of strength. She -vowed she would never marry till she found a man who -could vanquish her in wrestling. Many noble suitors came -and tried a fall with her, but she threw them all; and -from every one whom she had overcome she exacted a -hundred horses. In this way she collected an immense -stud.<a id='r1003' /><a href='#f1003' class='c005'><sup>[1003]</sup></a> In the <i>Nibelungenlied</i> the fair Brunhild, Queen of -Iceland, was only to be won in marriage by him who could -beat her in three trials of strength, and the unsuccessful -wooers forfeited their heads. Many had thus perished, but -at last Gunther, King of the Burgundians, vanquished and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_307'>307</span>married her.<a id='r1004' /><a href='#f1004' class='c005'><sup>[1004]</sup></a> It is said that Sithon, King of the Odomanti -in Thrace, had a lovely daughter, Pallene, and that many -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Hippoclides at Sicyon, and how he danced away his marriage.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -men came a-wooing her not only from Thrace but from -Illyria and the country of the Don. But her father said that -he who would wed his daughter must first fight himself and -pay with his life the penalty of defeat. Thus he slew many -young men. But when he was grown old and his strength -had failed, he set two of the wooers, by name Dryas and -Clitus, to fight each other for the kingdom and the hand of -the princess. The combat was to take place in chariots, but -the princess, being in love with Clitus, bribed his rival’s -charioteer to put no pins in the wheels of his chariot; so -Dryas came to the ground, and Clitus slew him and married -the king’s daughter.<a id='r1005' /><a href='#f1005' class='c005'><sup>[1005]</sup></a> The tale agrees closely with that of -Pelops and Hippodamia. Both stories probably contain, in -a legendary form, reminiscences of a real custom. Within -historical times Clisthenes, tyrant of Sicyon, made public -proclamation at the Olympian games that he would give his -daughter Agariste in marriage to that suitor who, during a -year’s trial, should prove himself the best. So many -young men who prided themselves on their persons and on -their lineage assembled at Sicyon from all parts of the -Greek world. The tyrant had a racecourse and a wrestling -school made on purpose for them, and there he put them -through their paces. Of all the suitors none pleased him so -much as Hippoclides, the handsomest and richest man of -Athens, a scion of the old princely house of Cypselus. And -when the year was up and the day had come on which the -award was to be made, the tyrant sacrificed a hundred oxen -and entertained the suitors and all the people of Sicyon at a -splendid banquet. Dinner being over, the wine went round -and the suitors fell to wrangling as to their accomplishments -and their wit. In this feast of reason the gay Hippoclides -outshone himself and them all until, flushed with triumph -and liquor, he jumped on a table, danced to music, and then, -as a finishing touch, stood on his head and sawed the air with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_308'>308</span>his legs. This was too much. The tyrant in disgust told -him he had danced away his marriage.<a id='r1006' /><a href='#f1006' class='c005'><sup>[1006]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The annual flight of the king (<i>regifugium</i>) at Rome may have been -a relic of his contest for the kingdom and for the hand of the princess.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus it appears that the right to marry a girl, and -especially a princess, has often been conferred as a prize in -an athletic contest. There would be no reason, therefore, for -surprise if the Roman kings, before bestowing their daughters -in marriage, should have resorted to this ancient mode of -testing the personal qualities of their future sons-in-law and -successors. If my theory is correct, the Roman king and -queen personated Jupiter and his divine consort, and in the -character of these divinities went through the annual ceremony -of a sacred marriage for the purpose of causing the -crops to grow and men and cattle to be fruitful and multiply. -Thus they did what in more northern lands we may suppose -the King and Queen of May were believed to do in days of -old. Now we have seen that the right to play the part of -the King of May and to wed the Queen of May has sometimes -been determined by an athletic contest, particularly -by a race.<a id='r1007' /><a href='#f1007' class='c005'><sup>[1007]</sup></a> This may have been a relic of an old marriage -custom of the sort we have examined, a custom designed to -test the fitness of a candidate for matrimony. Such a test -might reasonably be applied with peculiar rigour to the -king in order to ensure that no personal defect should -incapacitate him for the performance of those sacred rites -and ceremonies on which, even more than on the despatch -of his civil and military duties, the safety and prosperity of -the community were believed to depend. And it would be -natural to require of him that from time to time he should -submit himself afresh to the same ordeal for the sake of -publicly demonstrating that he was still equal to the discharge -of his high calling. A relic of that test perhaps -survived in the ceremony known as the Flight of the King -(<i>regifugium</i>), continued to be annually observed at Rome -down to imperial times. On the twenty-fourth day of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_309'>309</span>February a sacrifice used to be offered in the Comitium, and -when it was over the King of the Sacred Rites fled from the -Forum.<a id='r1008' /><a href='#f1008' class='c005'><sup>[1008]</sup></a> We may conjecture that the Flight of the King was -originally a race for an annual kingship, which may have been -awarded as a prize to the fleetest runner. At the end of the -year the king might run again for a second term of office; -and so on, until he was defeated and deposed or perhaps -slain. In this way what had once been a race would tend -to assume the character of a flight and a pursuit. The king -would be given a start; he ran and his competitors ran after -him, and if he were overtaken he had to yield the crown and -perhaps his life to the lightest of foot among them. In time -a man of masterful character might succeed in seating himself -permanently on the throne and reducing the annual race -or flight to the empty form which it seems always to have been -within historical times.<a id='r1009' /><a href='#f1009' class='c005'><sup>[1009]</sup></a> The rite was sometimes interpreted -as a commemoration of the expulsion of the kings from Rome; -but this appears to have been a mere afterthought devised -to explain a ceremony of which the old meaning was forgotten. -It is far more likely that in acting thus the King of -the Sacred Rites was merely keeping up an ancient custom -which in the regal period had been annually observed by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_310'>310</span>his predecessors the kings. What the original intention of -the rite may have been must probably always remain more -or less a matter of conjecture. The present explanation is -suggested with a full sense of the difficulty and obscurity in -which the subject is involved.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The theory is confirmed by the evidence that at the Saturnalia a man used -to personate the god Saturn and to be put to death in that character.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus, if my theory is correct, the yearly flight of the -Roman king was a relic of a time when the kingship was -an annual office awarded, along with the hand of a princess, to -the victorious athlete or gladiator, who thereafter figured along -with his bride as a god and goddess at a sacred marriage -designed to ensure the fertility of the earth by homoeopathic -magic. Now this theory is to a certain extent remarkably -confirmed by an ancient account of the Saturnalia which was -discovered and published some years ago by a learned Belgian -scholar, Professor Franz Cumont of Ghent. From that -account we learn that down to the beginning of the fourth -century of our era, that is, down nearly to the establishment -of Christianity by Constantine, the Roman soldiers stationed -on the Danube were wont to celebrate the Saturnalia in a -barbarous fashion which must certainly have dated from a -very remote antiquity. Thirty days before the festival they -chose by lot from among themselves a young and handsome -man, who was dressed in royal robes to resemble the god Saturn. -In that character he was allowed to indulge all his passions -to the fullest extent; but when his brief reign of thirty days -was over, and the festival of Saturn was come, he had to cut -his own throat on the altar of the god he personated.<a id='r1010' /><a href='#f1010' class='c005'><sup>[1010]</sup></a> -We can hardly doubt that this tragic figure, whom a fatal -lot doomed to masquerade for a short time as a deity and to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_311'>311</span>die as such a violent death, was the true original of the merry -monarch or King of the Saturnalia, as he was called, whom a -happier lot invested with the playful dignity of Master of the -Winter Revels.<a id='r1011' /><a href='#f1011' class='c005'><sup>[1011]</sup></a> In all probability the grim predecessor of -the frolicsome King of the Saturnalia belonged to that class -of puppets who in some countries have been suffered to reign -nominally for a few days each year merely for the sake of -discharging a burdensome or fatal obligation which otherwise -must have fallen on the real king.<a id='r1012' /><a href='#f1012' class='c005'><sup>[1012]</sup></a> If that is so, we may -infer that the part of the god Saturn, who was commonly -spoken of as a king,<a id='r1013' /><a href='#f1013' class='c005'><sup>[1013]</sup></a> was formerly played at the Saturnalia -by the Roman king himself. And a trace of the Sacred -Marriage may perhaps be detected in the licence accorded to -the human representatives of Saturn, a licence which, if I am -right, is strictly analogous to the old orgies of May Day and -other similar festivals. It is to be observed that Saturn was -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Saturn the god of seed, and the Saturnalia a festival of sowing.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -the god of the seed, and the Saturnalia the festival of sowing -held in December,<a id='r1014' /><a href='#f1014' class='c005'><sup>[1014]</sup></a> when the autumn sowing was over and the -husbandman gave himself up to a season of jollity after the -long labours of summer and autumn.<a id='r1015' /><a href='#f1015' class='c005'><sup>[1015]</sup></a> On the principles of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_312'>312</span>homoeopathic magic nothing could be more natural than that, -when the last seeds had been committed to the earth, the -marriage of the powers of vegetation should be simulated by -their human representatives for the purpose of sympathetically -quickening the seed. In short, no time could be more suitable -for the celebration of the Sacred Marriage. We have -seen as a matter of fact that the sowing of the seed has often -been accompanied by sexual orgies with the express intention -of thereby promoting the growth of the crops. At all events -the view that the King’s Flight at Rome was a mitigation of -an old custom of putting him to death at the end of a year’s -tenure of office, is confirmed by the practice of annually -slaying a human representative of the divine king Saturn, -which survived in some parts of the Roman empire, though -not at Rome itself, down to Christian times.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>If the Latin kings were begotten at the licentious festival of the Saturnalia, -we could understand why their paternity was sometimes uncertain, and why -they might be of servile parentage.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -This theory would throw light on some dark passages in -the legends of the Roman kingship, such as the obscure and -humble births of certain kings and their mysterious ends. -For if the sacred marriage took place at a licentious festival -like the Saturnalia, when slaves were temporarily granted the -privileges of freemen,<a id='r1016' /><a href='#f1016' class='c005'><sup>[1016]</sup></a> it might well be that the paternity -of the children begotten at this time, including those of the -royal family, was a matter of uncertainty; nay, it might be -known that the king or queen had offspring by a slave. -Such offspring of a royal father and a slave mother, or of a -royal mother and a slave father, would rank as princes and -princesses according as male or female kinship prevailed. -Under a system of male kinship the union of the king with -a slave woman would give birth to a Servius Tullius, and, -according to one tradition, to a Romulus. If female kinship -prevailed in the royal family, as we have seen reason to suppose, -it is possible that the stories of the birth of Romulus and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_313'>313</span>Servius from slave mothers is a later inversion of the facts, -and that what really happened was that some of the old -Latin kings were begotten by slave fathers on royal princesses -at the festival of the Saturnalia. The disappearance of -female kinship would suffice to account for the warping of the -tradition. All that was distinctly remembered would be that -some of the kings had had a slave for one of their parents; -and people living under a system of paternal descent would -naturally conclude that the slave parent of a king could only -be the mother, since according to their ideas no son of a -slave father could be of royal blood and sit on the throne.<a id='r1017' /><a href='#f1017' class='c005'><sup>[1017]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The violent ends of the Roman kings.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Again, if I am right in supposing that in very early -times the old Latin kings personated a god and were -regularly put to death in that character, we can better -understand the mysterious or violent ends to which so many -of them are said to have come. Too much stress should -not, however, be laid on such legends, for in a turbulent state -of society kings, like commoners, are apt to be knocked -on the head for much sounder reasons than a claim to -divinity. Still, it is worth while to note that Romulus is said -to have vanished mysteriously like Aeneas, or to have -been cut to pieces by the patricians whom he had offended,<a id='r1018' /><a href='#f1018' class='c005'><sup>[1018]</sup></a> -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Death of Romulus on the seventh of July, the <i>Nonae Caprotinae</i>, -at a festival resembling the Saturnalia.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -and that the seventh of July, the day on which he perished, -was a festival which bore some resemblance to the Saturnalia. -For on that day the female slaves were allowed to take -certain remarkable liberties. They dressed up as free women -in the attire of matrons and maids, and in this guise they -went forth from the city, scoffed and jeered at all whom -they met, and engaged among themselves in a fight, striking -and throwing stones at each other. Moreover, they feasted -under a wild fig-tree, made use of a rod cut from the tree -for a certain purpose, perhaps to beat each other with, and -offered the milky juice of the tree in sacrifice to Juno -Caprotina, whose name appears to mean either the goddess -of the goat (<i>caper</i>) or the goddess of the wild fig-tree, for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_314'>314</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The <i>Nonae Caprotinae</i> seems to have been the festival of the -fertilisation of the fig.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -the Romans called a wild fig-tree a goat-fig (<i>caprificus</i>). -Hence the day was called the <i>Nonae Caprotinae</i> after the -animal or the tree. The festival was not peculiar to Rome, -but was held by women throughout Latium.<a id='r1019' /><a href='#f1019' class='c005'><sup>[1019]</sup></a> It can hardly -be dissociated from a custom which was observed by ancient -husbandmen at this season. They sought to fertilise the -fig-trees or ripen the figs by hanging strings of fruit from a -wild fig-tree among the boughs. The practice appears to -be very old. It has been employed in Greece both in -ancient and modern times, and Roman writers often refer -to it. Palladius recommends the solstice in June, that is -Midsummer Day, as the best time for the operation; -Columella prefers July.<a id='r1020' /><a href='#f1020' class='c005'><sup>[1020]</sup></a> In Sicily at the present day the -operation is performed either on Midsummer Day (the -festival of St. John the Baptist) or in the early days of July;<a id='r1021' /><a href='#f1021' class='c005'><sup>[1021]</sup></a> -in Morocco and North Africa generally it takes place -on Midsummer Day.<a id='r1022' /><a href='#f1022' class='c005'><sup>[1022]</sup></a> The wild fig-tree is a male and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_315'>315</span>the cultivated fig-tree is a female, and the fertilisation -is effected by insects, which are engendered in the fruit -of the male tree and convey the pollen to the blossom -of the female.<a id='r1023' /><a href='#f1023' class='c005'><sup>[1023]</sup></a> Thus the placing of wild figs, laden with -pollen and insects, among the boughs of the cultivated fig-tree -is, like the artificial fertilisation of the date-palm,<a id='r1024' /><a href='#f1024' class='c005'><sup>[1024]</sup></a> a real -marriage of the trees, and it may well have been regarded -as such by the peasants of antiquity long before the true -theory of the process was discovered. Now the fig is an -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Importance of the fig as an article of diet.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -important article of diet in countries bordering on the -Mediterranean. In Palestine, for example, the fruit is not, -as with us, merely an agreeable luxury, but is eaten daily -and forms indeed one of the staple productions of the -country. “To sit every man under his vine, and under his -fig tree” was the regular Jewish expression for the peaceable -possession of the Holy Land; and in the fable of Jotham -the fig-tree is invited by the other trees, next after the olive, -to come and reign over them.<a id='r1025' /><a href='#f1025' class='c005'><sup>[1025]</sup></a> When Sandanis the Lydian -<span class='pageno' id='Page_316'>316</span>attempted to dissuade Croesus from marching against the -Persians, he represented to him that there was nothing to be -gained by conquering the inhabitants of a barren country who -neither drank wine nor ate figs.<a id='r1026' /><a href='#f1026' class='c005'><sup>[1026]</sup></a> An Arab commentator on -the Koran observes that “God swears by these two trees, the -fig and the olive, because among fruit-trees they surpass all -the rest. They relate that a basket of figs was offered to the -prophet Mohammed, and when he had eaten one he bade -his comrades do the same, saying, ‘Truly, if I were to say -that any fruit had come down from Paradise, I would say it -of the fig.’”<a id='r1027' /><a href='#f1027' class='c005'><sup>[1027]</sup></a> Hence it would be natural that a process -supposed to be essential to the ripening of so favourite a -fruit should be the occasion of a popular festival. We may -suspect that the license allowed to slave women on this day -formed part of an ancient Saturnalia, at which the loose -behaviour of men and women was supposed to secure the -fertilisation of the fig-trees by homoeopathetic magic.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>At the festival of the seventh of July women were probably thought to -be fertilised by the fig as well as to fertilise it.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But it is possible and indeed probable that the fertilisation -was believed to be mutual; in other words, it may have -been imagined, that while the women caused the fig-tree to -bear fruit, the tree in its turn caused them to bear children. -This conjecture is confirmed by a remarkable African parallel. -The Akikuyu of British East Africa attribute to the wild fig-tree -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Supposed fertilisation of barren women by the wild fig-tree -among the Akikuyu of British East Africa.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -the power of fertilising barren women. For this purpose -they apply the white sap or milk to various parts of the body -of the would-be mother; then, having sacrificed a goat, they -tie the woman to a wild fig-tree with long strips cut from the -intestines of the sacrificial animal. “This seems,” writes Mr. -C. W. Hobley, who reports the custom, “to be a case of the -tree marriage of India. I fancy there is an idea of ceremonial -marriage with the ancestral spirits which are said to inhabit -certain of these fig-trees; in fact it supports the Kamba idea -of the spiritual husbands.”<a id='r1028' /><a href='#f1028' class='c005'><sup>[1028]</sup></a> The belief in spiritual husbands, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_317'>317</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Belief of the Akamba that the spirits of the dead live in wild fig-trees.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -to which Mr. Hobley here briefly refers, is as follows. The -Akamba of British East Africa imagine that every married -woman is at the same time the wife of a living man and also -the wife of the spirit of some departed ancestor (<i>aimu</i>). -They are firmly convinced that the fertility of a wife depends -to a great extent on the attentions of her spiritual husband, -and if she does not conceive within six months after marriage -they take it as a sign that her spiritual husband is neglecting -her; so they offer beer and kill a goat as a propitiatory -sacrifice. If after that the woman still remains barren, they -make a bigger feast and kill a bullock. On the other hand, -if a wife is found to be with child soon after marriage, they -are glad and consider it a proof that she has found favour in -the eyes of her ghostly husband. Further, they believe that -at death the human spirit quits the bodily frame and takes -up its abode in a wild fig-tree (<i>mumbo</i>); hence they build -miniature huts at the foot of those fig-trees which are thought -to be haunted by the souls of the dead, and they periodically -sacrifice to these spirits.<a id='r1029' /><a href='#f1029' class='c005'><sup>[1029]</sup></a> Accordingly, we may conjecture, -though we are not told, that amongst the Akamba, as among -the Akikuyu, a barren woman sometimes resorts to a wild fig-tree -in order to obtain a child, since she believes that her -spiritual spouse has his abode in the tree. The Akikuyu clearly -attribute a special power of fertilisation to the milky sap of -the tree, since they apply it to various parts of the woman -who desires to become a mother: perhaps they regard it as -the seed of the fig. This may explain why the Roman slave-women -offered the milky juice of the tree to Juno Caprotina; -they may have intended thereby to add to the fecundity of -the mother goddess. And we can scarcely doubt that the -rods which they cut from the wild fig-tree, for the purpose -apparently of beating each other, were supposed to communicate -the generative virtue of the tree to the women who -<span class='pageno' id='Page_318'>318</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Supposed fertilisation of women by the wild banana-tree among the Baganda.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -were struck by them. The Baganda of Central Africa appear -to ascribe to the wild banana-tree the same power of removing -barrenness which the Akikuyu attribute to the wild fig-tree. -For when a wife has no child, she and her husband -will sometimes repair to a wild banana-tree and there, -standing one on each side of the tree, partake of the male -organs of a goat, the man eating the flesh and drinking -the soup and the woman drinking the soup only. This -is believed to ensure conception after the husband has gone -in to his wife.<a id='r1030' /><a href='#f1030' class='c005'><sup>[1030]</sup></a> Here again, as among the Akikuyu, we -see that the fertilising virtue of the tree is reinforced by -the fertilising virtue of the goat; and we can therefore -better understand why the Romans called the male wild -fig-tree “goat-fig,” and why the Messenians dubbed it simply -“he-goat.”</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Roman king may have celebrated a sacred marriage on the <i>Nonae Caprotinae</i> -as a charm to make the fig-trees bear fruit.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The association of the death of Romulus with the festival -of the wild fig-tree can hardly be accidental, especially as -he and his twin-brother Remus were said to have been -suckled by the she-wolf under a fig-tree, the famous <i>ficus -Ruminalis</i>, which was shewn in the forum as one of the -sacred objects of Rome and received offerings of milk down to -late times.<a id='r1031' /><a href='#f1031' class='c005'><sup>[1031]</sup></a> Indeed, some have gone so far both in ancient -and modern times as to derive the names of Romulus and -Rome itself from this fig-tree (<i>ficus Ruminalis</i>); if they are -right, Romulus was “the fig-man” and Rome “the fig-town.”<a id='r1032' /><a href='#f1032' class='c005'><sup>[1032]</sup></a> -Be that as it may, the clue to the association of Romulus -with the fig is probably furnished by the old belief that -the king is responsible for the fruits of the earth and the rain -from heaven. We may conjecture that on this principle the -Roman king was expected to make the fig-trees blossom and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_319'>319</span>bear figs, and that in order to do so he masqueraded as -the god of the fig-tree and went through a form of sacred -marriage, either with his queen or with a slave-woman, -on the July day when the husbandmen resorted to a -more efficacious means of producing the same result. The -ceremony of the sacred marriage need not have been restricted -to a single day in the year. It may well have been -repeated for many different crops and fruits. If the Queen -of Athens was annually married to the god of the vine, -why should not the King of Rome have annually wedded -the goddess of the fig?</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The marriage of the divine king or human god often followed by his death.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But, as we have seen, Romulus, the first king of -Rome, is said to have perished on the day of this festival -of the fig, which, if our hypothesis is correct, was also -the day of his ceremonial marriage to the tree. That -the real date of his death should have been preserved by -tradition is very improbable; rather we may suppose -that the reason for dating his death and his marriage -on the same day was drawn from some ancient ritual in -which the two events were actually associated. But we -have still to ask, Why should the king’s wedding-day -be also the day of his death? The answer must be -deferred for the present. All we need say now is that -elsewhere the marriage of the divine king or human god -has been regularly followed at a brief interval by his -violent end. For him, as for others, death often treads on -the heels of love.<a id='r1033' /><a href='#f1033' class='c005'><sup>[1033]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_320'>320</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Violent ends of Tatius, Tullus Hostilius, and other Roman kings.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Another Roman king who perished by violence was -Tatius, the Sabine colleague of Romulus. It is said that he -was at Lavinium offering a public sacrifice to the ancestral -gods, when some men to whom he had given umbrage -despatched him with the sacrificial knives and spits which -they had snatched from the altar.<a id='r1034' /><a href='#f1034' class='c005'><sup>[1034]</sup></a> The occasion and the -manner of his death suggest that the slaughter may have -been a sacrifice rather than an assassination. Again, -Tullus Hostilius, the successor of Numa, was commonly -said to have been killed by lightning, but many held that -he was murdered at the instigation of Ancus Marcius, who -reigned after him.<a id='r1035' /><a href='#f1035' class='c005'><sup>[1035]</sup></a> Speaking of the more or less mythical -Numa, the type of the priestly king, Plutarch observes that -“his fame was enhanced by the fortunes of the later kings. -For of the five who reigned after him the last was deposed -and ended his life in exile, and of the remaining four not -one died a natural death; for three of them were assassinated -and Tullus Hostilius was consumed by thunderbolts.”<a id='r1036' /><a href='#f1036' class='c005'><sup>[1036]</sup></a> -This implies that King Ancus Marcius, as well as Tarquin -the Elder and Servius Tullius, perished by the hand of an -assassin. No other ancient historian, so far as I know, -records this of Ancus Marcius, though one of them says that -the king “was carried off by an untimely death.”<a id='r1037' /><a href='#f1037' class='c005'><sup>[1037]</sup></a> Tarquin -the Elder was slain by two murderers whom the sons of his -predecessor, Ancus Marcius, had hired to do the deed.<a id='r1038' /><a href='#f1038' class='c005'><sup>[1038]</sup></a> -Lastly, Servius Tullius came by his end in circumstances -which recall the combat for the priesthood of Diana at -Nemi. He was attacked by his successor and killed by his -orders, though not by his hand. Moreover, he lived among -the oak groves of the Esquiline Hill at the head of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_321'>321</span>Slope of Virbius, and it was here, beside a sanctuary of -Diana, that he was slain.<a id='r1039' /><a href='#f1039' class='c005'><sup>[1039]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The succession to the Latin kingshipmay sometimes have been -decided by single combat.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -These legends of the violent ends of the Roman kings -suggest that the contest by which they gained the throne -may sometimes have been a mortal combat rather than a -race. If that were so, the analogy which we have traced -between Rome and Nemi would be still closer. At both -places the sacred kings, the living representatives of the godhead, -would thus be liable to suffer deposition and death at the -hand of any resolute man who could prove his divine right -to the holy office by the strong arm and the sharp sword. It -would not be surprising if among the early Latins the claim to -the kingdom should often have been settled by single combat; -for down to historical times the Umbrians regularly submitted -their private disputes to the ordeal of battle, and he who -cut his adversary’s throat was thought thereby to have -proved the justice of his cause beyond the reach of cavil.<a id='r1040' /><a href='#f1040' class='c005'><sup>[1040]</sup></a> -“Any one who remembers how in the forests of Westphalia -the <i>Femgericht</i> set the modern civil law at defiance down -into the eighteenth century, and how in the mountains of -Corsica and Sardinia blood-revenge has persisted and persists -to our own days, will not wonder that hardly a century -after the union of Italy the Roman legislation had not yet -succeeded in putting down the last relics of this ancient -Italian or rather Indo-European mode of doing justice in -the nests of the Apennines.”<a id='r1041' /><a href='#f1041' class='c005'><sup>[1041]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Combats for the kingdom in Africa.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -A parallel to what I conceive to have been the rule of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_322'>322</span>old Latin kingship is furnished by a West African custom -of to-day. When the Maluango or king of Loango, who -is deemed the representative of God on earth, has been -elected, he has to take his stand at <i>Nkumbi</i>, a large tree -near the entrance to his sacred ground. Here, encouraged -by one of his ministers, he must fight all rivals who present -themselves to dispute his right to the throne.<a id='r1042' /><a href='#f1042' class='c005'><sup>[1042]</sup></a> This is one -of the many instances in which the rites and legends of -ancient Italy are illustrated by the practice of modern Africa. -Similarly among the Banyoro of Central Africa, whose -king had to take his life with his own hand whenever his -health and strength began to fail, the succession to the -throne was determined by a mortal combat among the -claimants, who fought till only one of them was left alive.<a id='r1043' /><a href='#f1043' class='c005'><sup>[1043]</sup></a> -Even in England a relic of a similar custom survived till -lately in the coronation ceremony, at which a champion -used to throw down his glove and challenge to mortal -combat all who disputed the king’s right to the crown. The -ceremony was witnessed by Pepys at the coronation of -Charles the Second.<a id='r1044' /><a href='#f1044' class='c005'><sup>[1044]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>In Greece and Italy kings probably personated Cronus and Saturn, the god of the seed, -before they personated Zeus and Jupiter, the god of the oak.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the foregoing enquiry we have found reason to suppose -that the Roman kings personated not only Jupiter the -god of the oak, but Saturn the god of the seed and perhaps -also the god of the fig-tree. The question naturally -arises, Did they do so simultaneously or successively? In -other words, did the same king regularly represent the oak-god -at one season of the year, the seed-god at another, and -the fig-god at a third? or were there separate dynasties of -oak-kings, seed-kings, and fig-kings, who belonged perhaps -to different stocks and reigned at different times? The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_323'>323</span>evidence does not allow us to answer these questions -definitely. But tradition certainly points to the conclusion -that in Latium and perhaps in Italy generally the seed-god -Saturn was an older deity than the oak-god Jupiter, just -as in Greece Cronus appears to have preceded Zeus. Perhaps -Saturn and Cronus were the gods of an old indigenous -and agricultural people; while Jupiter and Zeus were the -divinities of a ruder invading race, which swarmed down -into Italy and Greece from the forests of central Europe, -bringing their wild woodland deities to dwell in more fertile -lands, under softer skies, side by side with the gods of the -corn and the vine, the olive and the fig. If that was so, -we may suppose that before the irruption of these northern -barbarians the old kings of Greece and Italy personated the -gods of the fat field and fruitful orchard, and that it was -not till after the conquest that their successors learned to -pose as the god of the verdant oak and the thundering sky. -However, on questions so obscure we must be content to -suspend our judgment. It is unlikely that the student’s -search-light will ever pierce the mists that hang over these -remote ages. All that we can do is to follow the lines of -evidence backward as far as they can be traced, till, after -growing fainter and fainter, they are lost altogether in the -darkness.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_324'>324</span> - <h2 id='chap19' class='c002'>CHAPTER XIX <br /> ST. GEORGE AND THE PARILIA</h2> -</div> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The early Italians were as much a pastoral as an agricultural people, and their -kings would be expected to ensure the safety and fecundity of the flocks and herds.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the course of the preceding investigation we found -reason to assume that the old Latin kings, like their -brethren in many parts of the world, were charged with -certain religious duties or magical functions, amongst which -the maintenance of the fertility of the earth held a principal -place. By this I do not mean that they had to see to it -only that the rain fell, and that the corn grew and trees -put forth their fruit in due season. In those early days it -is probable that the Italians were quite as much a pastoral -as an agricultural people, or, in other words, that they -depended for their subsistence no less on their flocks and -herds than on their fields and orchards. To provide their -cattle with grass and water, to ensure their fecundity and -the abundance of their milk, and to guard them from the -depredations of wild beasts, would be objects of the first -importance with the shepherds and herdsmen who, according -to tradition, founded Rome;<a id='r1045' /><a href='#f1045' class='c005'><sup>[1045]</sup></a> and the king, as the -representative or embodiment of the deity, would be expected -to do his part towards procuring these blessings for -his people by the performance of sacred rites. The Greeks -of the Homeric age, as we have seen, thought that the -reign of a good king not only made the land to bear wheat -<span class='pageno' id='Page_325'>325</span>and barley, but also caused the flocks to multiply and the -sea to yield fish.<a id='r1046' /><a href='#f1046' class='c005'><sup>[1046]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Numa is said to have been born and Rome to have been founded on the shepherds’ -festival of the Parilia, the twenty-first of April.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In this connexion, accordingly, it can be no mere -accident that Rome is said to have been founded and -the pious king Numa to have been born on the twenty-first -of April, the day of the great shepherds’ festival of the -Parilia.<a id='r1047' /><a href='#f1047' class='c005'><sup>[1047]</sup></a> It is very unlikely that the real day either of the -foundation of the city or of Numa’s birth should have been -remembered, even if we suppose Numa to have been an -historical personage rather than a mythical type; it is far -more probable that both events were arbitrarily assigned to -this date by the speculative antiquaries of a later age on -the ground of some assumed fitness or propriety. In what -did this fitness or propriety consist? The belief that the -first Romans were shepherds and herdsmen would be reason -enough for supposing that Rome was founded on the day of -the shepherds’ festival, or even that the festival was instituted -to commemorate the event.<a id='r1048' /><a href='#f1048' class='c005'><sup>[1048]</sup></a> But why should Numa be -thought to have been born on that day of all days? -Perhaps it was because the old sacred kings, of whom he -was the model, had to play an important part in the ceremonies -of the day. The birthdays of the gods were -celebrated by festivals;<a id='r1049' /><a href='#f1049' class='c005'><sup>[1049]</sup></a> the kings were divine or semi-divine; -it would be natural, therefore, that their birthdays -should be identified with high feasts and holidays. -Whether this was so or not, the festival of the Parilia -presents so many points of resemblance to some of -the popular customs discussed in these volumes that a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_326'>326</span>brief examination of it may not be inappropriate in this -place.<a id='r1050' /><a href='#f1050' class='c005'><sup>[1050]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Parilia, a festival celebrated by shepherds and herdsmen -in honour of Pales, for the safety and increase of their flocks and herds.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The spring festival of the twenty-first of April, known -as the birthday of Rome,<a id='r1051' /><a href='#f1051' class='c005'><sup>[1051]</sup></a> was deemed second in importance -to none in the calendar.<a id='r1052' /><a href='#f1052' class='c005'><sup>[1052]</sup></a> It was held by shepherds and -herdsmen for the welfare and increase of their flocks and -herds.<a id='r1053' /><a href='#f1053' class='c005'><sup>[1053]</sup></a> The pastoral deity to whom they paid their devotions -was Pales, as to whose sex the ancients themselves -were not at one. In later times they commonly spoke of -her as a goddess; but Varro regarded Pales as masculine,<a id='r1054' /><a href='#f1054' class='c005'><sup>[1054]</sup></a> -and we may follow his high authority. The day was -celebrated with similar rites both in the town and the -country, but in its origin it must have been a strictly rural -festival. Indeed, it could hardly be carried out in full -except among the sheepfolds and cattle-pens. At some -time of the day, probably in the morning, the people repaired -to the temple of Vesta, where they received from the -Vestal Virgins ashes, blood, and bean-straw to be used in -fumigating themselves and probably their beasts. The -ashes were those of the unborn calves which had been torn -from their mothers’ wombs on the fifteenth of April; the -blood was that which had dripped from the tail of a horse -sacrificed in October.<a id='r1055' /><a href='#f1055' class='c005'><sup>[1055]</sup></a> Both were probably supposed to -exercise a fertilising as well as a cleansing influence on the -people and on the cattle;<a id='r1056' /><a href='#f1056' class='c005'><sup>[1056]</sup></a> for apparently one effect of the -ceremonies, in the popular opinion, was to quicken the -wombs of women no less than of cows and ewes.<a id='r1057' /><a href='#f1057' class='c005'><sup>[1057]</sup></a> At break -<span class='pageno' id='Page_327'>327</span>of day the shepherd purified his sheep, after sprinkling and -sweeping the ground. The fold was decked with leafy -boughs, and a great wreath was hung on the door.<a id='r1058' /><a href='#f1058' class='c005'><sup>[1058]</sup></a> The -purification of the flocks apparently consisted in driving -them over burning heaps of grass, pine-wood, laurel, and -branches of the male olive-tree.<a id='r1059' /><a href='#f1059' class='c005'><sup>[1059]</sup></a> Certainly at some time of -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The flocks purified by being driven through fire.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -the day the sheep were compelled to scamper over a fire.<a id='r1060' /><a href='#f1060' class='c005'><sup>[1060]</sup></a> -Moreover, the bleating flocks were touched with burning -sulphur and fumigated with its blue smoke.<a id='r1061' /><a href='#f1061' class='c005'><sup>[1061]</sup></a> Then the -shepherd offered to Pales baskets of millet, cakes of millet, -and pails of warm milk. Next he prayed to the god -that he would guard the fold from the evil powers, including -probably witchcraft;<a id='r1062' /><a href='#f1062' class='c005'><sup>[1062]</sup></a> that the flocks, the men, -and the dogs might be hale and free from disease; that -the sheep might not fall a prey to wolves; that grass -and leaves might abound; that water might be plentiful; -that the udders of the dams might be full of milk; -that the rams might be lusty, and the ewes prolific; that -many lambs might be born; and that there might be much -wool at shearing.<a id='r1063' /><a href='#f1063' class='c005'><sup>[1063]</sup></a> This prayer the shepherd had to repeat -four times, looking to the east; then he washed his hands -in the morning dew. After that he drank a bowl of milk -and wine, and, warmed with the liquor, leaped ever burning -heaps of crackling straw. This practice of jumping over a -straw fire would seem to have been a principal part of the -ceremonies: at least it struck the ancients themselves, for -they often refer to it.<a id='r1064' /><a href='#f1064' class='c005'><sup>[1064]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The shepherd’s prayer.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The shepherd’s prayer at the Parilia is instructive, -because it gives us in short a view of the chief wants of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_328'>328</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The shepherd has to propitiate the tree-spirits and water-spirits.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -the pastoral life. The supplication for grass and leaves -and water reminds us that the herdsman no less than the -husbandman depends ultimately on vegetation and rain; -so that the same divine powers which cover the fields of -the one with yellow corn may be conceived to carpet the -meadows of the other with green grass, and to diversify them -with pools and rivers for the refreshment of the thirsty -cattle. And it is to be borne in mind that in countries -where grass is less plentiful than under the rainy skies of -northern Europe, sheep, goats, and cattle still subsist in -great measure on the leaves and juicy twigs of trees.<a id='r1065' /><a href='#f1065' class='c005'><sup>[1065]</sup></a> Hence -in these lands the pious shepherd and goatherd cannot -afford to ignore or to offend the tree-spirits, on whose favour -and bounty his flocks are dependent for much of their -fodder. Indeed, at the Parilia the shepherd made elaborate -excuses to these divine beings for any trespass he might -unwittingly have committed on their hallowed domain by -entering a sacred grove, sitting in the shadow of a holy tree, -or lopping leafy branches from it with which to feed a sickly -sheep.<a id='r1066' /><a href='#f1066' class='c005'><sup>[1066]</sup></a> In like manner he craved pardon of the water-nymphs, -if the hoofs of his cattle had stirred up the mud in -their clear pools; and he implored Pales to intercede for -him with the divinities of springs “and the gods dispersed -through every woodland glade.”<a id='r1067' /><a href='#f1067' class='c005'><sup>[1067]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Parilia was perhaps the time when the flocks and herds were turned out -for the first time in spring to graze in the open.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The Parilia was generally considered to be the best -time for coupling the rams and the ewes;<a id='r1068' /><a href='#f1068' class='c005'><sup>[1068]</sup></a> and it has been -<span class='pageno' id='Page_329'>329</span>suggested that it was also the season when the flocks and -herds, after being folded and stalled throughout the winter, -were turned out for the first time to pasture in spring.<a id='r1069' /><a href='#f1069' class='c005'><sup>[1069]</sup></a> The -occasion is an anxious one for the shepherd, especially in -countries which are infested with wolves, as ancient Italy -was.<a id='r1070' /><a href='#f1070' class='c005'><sup>[1070]</sup></a> Accordingly the Italian shepherd propitiated Pales -with a slaughtered victim before he drove his flocks afield -in spring;<a id='r1071' /><a href='#f1071' class='c005'><sup>[1071]</sup></a> but it is doubtful whether this sacrifice formed -part of the Parilia. None of the ancient authors who expressly -describe the Parilia mention the slaughter of a -victim; and in Plutarch’s day a tradition ran that of old no -blood was shed at the festival.<a id='r1072' /><a href='#f1072' class='c005'><sup>[1072]</sup></a> But such a tradition seems -to point to a contrary practice in after-times. In the -absence of decisive evidence the question must be left open; -but modern analogy, as we shall see, strongly supports the -opinion that immediately at the close of the Parilia the -flocks and herds were driven out to graze in the open -pastures for the first time after their long winter confinement. -On this view a special significance is seen to attach to some -of the features of the festival, such as the prayer for protection -against the wolf; for the brute could hardly do the -sheep and kine much harm so long as they were safely pent -within the walls of the sheepcote and the cattle-stall.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Roman kings had perhaps to discharge some important -religious function at the Parilia.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -As the Parilia is said to have been celebrated by -Romulus, who sacrificed to the gods and caused the people -to purify themselves by leaping over flames,<a id='r1073' /><a href='#f1073' class='c005'><sup>[1073]</sup></a> some scholars -have inferred that it was customary for the king, and afterwards -for his successor, the chief pontiff, or the King of the -Sacred Rites, to offer sacrifices for the people at the Parilia.<a id='r1074' /><a href='#f1074' class='c005'><sup>[1074]</sup></a> -The inference is reasonable and receives some confirmation, -as we shall see presently, from the analogy of modern -custom. Further, the tradition that Numa was born on the -day of the Parilia may be thought to point in the same way, -since it is most naturally explicable on the hypothesis that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_330'>330</span>the king had to discharge some important function at the -festival. Still, it must be confessed that the positive -evidence for connecting the Roman kings with the celebration -of the twenty-first of April is slight and dubious.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Parilia intended to ensure the welfare of the cattle and to -guard them against witches and wolves.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -On the whole the festival of the Parilia, which probably -fell at or near the time of turning out the cattle to pasture -in spring, was designed to ensure their welfare and increase, -and to guard them from the insidious machinations or the -open attacks of their various enemies, among whom witches -and wolves were perhaps the most dreaded.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>A celebration of the same sort is still held in eastern Europe on the twenty-third -of April, the festival of St. George, the patron saint of cattle, horses, and wolves.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Now it can hardly be a mere coincidence that down to -modern times a great popular festival of this sort has been -celebrated only two days later by the herdsmen and shepherds -of eastern Europe, who still cherish a profound belief -in witchcraft, and still fear, with far better reason, the raids -of wolves on their flocks and herds. The festival falls on -the twenty-third of April and is dedicated to St. George, the -patron saint of cattle, horses, and wolves. The Esthonians -say that on St. George’s morning the wolf gets a ring round -his snout and a halter about his neck, whereby he is rendered -less dangerous till Michaelmas. But if the day should -chance to be a Friday at full moon, or if before the day -came round any person should have been so rash as to -thump the dirty linen in the wash-tub with two beetles, the -cattle will run a serious risk of being devoured by wolves. -Many are the precautions taken by the anxious Esthonians -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Precautions taken by the Esthonians against wolves -and witches on St. George’s Day.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -on this day to guard their herds from the ravening beasts. -Thus some people gather wolf’s dung on the preceding -night, burn it, and fumigate the cattle with it in the morning. -Or they collect bones from the pastures and burn them at a -cross-road, which serves as a charm against sickness, sorcery, -and demons quite as well as against wolves. Others smoke -the cattle with <i>asa foetida</i> or sulphur to protect them against -witchcraft and noxious exhalations. They think, too, that -if you sew stitches on St. George’s morning the cubs of the -wolves will be blind, no doubt because their eyes are sewed -up by the needle and thread. In order to forecast the fate of -their herds the peasants put eggs or a sharp weapon, such as -an axe or a scythe, before the doors of the stalls, and the -animal which crushes an egg or wounds itself will surely be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_331'>331</span>rent by a wolf or will perish in some other fashion before -the year is out. So certain is its fate that many a man -prefers to slaughter the doomed beast out of hand for the -sake of saving at least the beef.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Esthonians generally drive their cattle out to pasture for the first -time on St. George’s Day.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -As a rule the Esthonians drive their cattle out to pasture -for the first time on St. George’s Day, and the herdsman’s -duties begin from then. If, however, the herds should have -been sent out to graze before that day, the boys who look -after them must eat neither flesh nor butter while they are -on duty; else the wolves will destroy many sheep, and the -cream will not turn to butter in the churn. Further, the -boys may not kindle a fire in the wood, or the wolf’s tooth -would be fiery and he would bite viciously. By St. -George’s Day, the twenty-third of April, there is commonly -fresh grass in the meadows. But even if the spring should -be late and the cattle should have to return to their stalls -hungrier than they went forth, many Esthonian farmers -insist on turning out the poor beasts on St. George’s Day in -order that the saint may guard them against his creatures -the wolves. On this morning the farmer treats the herdsman -to a dram of brandy, and gives him two copper kopecks -as “tail-money” for every cow in the herd. This money -the giver first passes thrice round his head and then lays it -on the dunghill; for if the herdsman took it from his hand, -it would in some way injure the herd. Were this ceremony -omitted, the wolves would prove very destructive, because -they had not been appeased on St. George’s Day. After -receiving the “tail-money” some herdsmen are wont to -collect the herd on the village common. Here they set up -their crook in the ground, place their hat on it, and walk -thrice round the cattle, muttering spells or the Lord’s Prayer -as they do so. The pastoral crook should be cut from the -rowan or mountain-ash and consecrated by a wise man, who -carves mystic signs on it. Sometimes the upper end of the -crook is hollowed out and filled with quicksilver and <i>asa -foetida</i>, the aperture being stopped up with resin. Some -Esthonians cut a cross with a scythe under the door through -which the herd is to be driven, and fill the furrows of the -cross with salt to prevent certain evil beings from harming -the cattle. Further, it is an almost universal custom in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_332'>332</span>Esthonia not to hang bells on the necks of the kine till -St. George’s Day; the few who can give a reason for the -rule say that the chiming of the bells before that season -would attract the wild beasts.<a id='r1075' /><a href='#f1075' class='c005'><sup>[1075]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sacrifices for horses offered on St. George’s Day by -the Esthonians of Dago.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the island of Dago down to the early part of the -nineteenth century there were certain holy trees from which -no one dared to break a bough; in spite of the lack of -wood in the island the fallen branches were allowed to rot -in heaps on the ground. Under such trees the Esthonians -used to offer sacrifices on St. George’s Day for the safety -and welfare of their horses. The offerings, which consist of -an egg, a piece of money, and a bunch of horse-hair tied up -with a red thread, were buried in the earth.<a id='r1076' /><a href='#f1076' class='c005'><sup>[1076]</sup></a> The custom -is interesting because it exhibits St. George in the two-fold -character of a patron of horses and of trees. In the latter -capacity he has already met us more than once under the -name of Green George.<a id='r1077' /><a href='#f1077' class='c005'><sup>[1077]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>St. George as the patron of wolves and cattle in Russia; the herds are driven -out to pasture for the first time on his day.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In Russia the saint is known as Yegory or Yury, and -here, as in Esthonia, he is a patron of wolves as well as of -flocks and herds. Many legends speak of the connexion -which exists between St. George and the wolf. In Little -Russia the beast is known as “St. George’s Dog,” and the -carcases of sheep which wolves have killed are not eaten, -it being held that they have been made over by divine -command to the beasts of the field.<a id='r1078' /><a href='#f1078' class='c005'><sup>[1078]</sup></a> The festival of St. -George on the twenty-third of April has a national as well -as an ecclesiastical character in Russia, and the mythical -features of the songs which are devoted to the day prove -that the saint has supplanted some old Slavonian deity who -used to be honoured at this season in heathen times. It is -not as a slayer of dragons and a champion of forlorn -damsels that St. George figures in these songs, but as a -patron of farmers and herdsmen who preserves cattle from -harm, and on whose day accordingly the flocks and herds -<span class='pageno' id='Page_333'>333</span>are driven out to browse the fresh pastures for the first time -after their confinement through the long Russian winter. -“What the wolf holds in its teeth, that Yegory has given,” -is a proverb which shews how completely he is thought to -rule over the fold and the stall. Here is one of the -songs:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>We have gone around the field,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>We have called Yegory ...</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>‘O thou, our brave Yegory,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Save our cattle,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>In the field, and beyond the field,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>In the forest, and beyond the forest,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Under the bright moon,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Under the red sun,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>From the rapacious wolf,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>From the cruel bear,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>From the cunning beast.’</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>A White-Russian song represents St. George as opening -with golden keys, probably the sunbeams, the soil which has -been frost-bound all the winter:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Holy Jury, the divine envoy,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Has gone to God,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>And having taken the golden keys,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Has unlocked the moist earth,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Having scattered the clinging dew</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Over White-Russia and all the world.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>In Moravia they “meet the Spring” with a song in which -they ask Green Thursday, that is, the day before Good Friday, -what he has done with the keys, and he answers: “I gave -them to St. George. St. George arose and unlocked the -earth, so that the grass grew—the green grass.” In White -Russia it is customary on St. George’s Day to drive the -cattle afield through the morning dew, and in Little Russia -and Bulgaria young folk go out early and roll themselves in -it.<a id='r1079' /><a href='#f1079' class='c005'><sup>[1079]</sup></a> In the Smolensk Government on this day the cattle -are driven out first to the rye-fields and then to the pastures. -A religious service is held in the stalls before the departure -of the herd and afterwards in the field, where the stool -<span class='pageno' id='Page_334'>334</span>which supported the holy picture is allowed to stand for -several weeks till the next procession with the pictures of -the saints takes place. St. George’s Day in this government -is the herdsmen’s festival, and it is the term from -which their engagements are dated.<a id='r1080' /><a href='#f1080' class='c005'><sup>[1080]</sup></a> And in the Smolensk -Government, when the herds are being sent out to graze -on St. George’s Day, the following spell is uttered:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Deaf man, deaf man, dost thou hear us?</i>”</div> - <div class='line'>“<i>I hear not.</i>”</div> - <div class='line'>“<i>God grant that the wolf may not hear our cattle!</i>”</div> - <div class='line'>“<i>Cripple, cripple, canst thou catch us?</i>”</div> - <div class='line'>“<i>I cannot catch.</i>”</div> - <div class='line'>“<i>God grant that the wolf may not catch our cattle!</i>”</div> - <div class='line'>“<i>Blind man, blind man, dost thou see us?</i>”</div> - <div class='line'>“<i>I see not.</i>”</div> - <div class='line'>“<i>God grant that the wolf may not see our cattle!</i>”<a id='r1081' /><a href='#f1081' class='c005'><sup>[1081]</sup></a></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>In Russia witches try to steal the milk of the cattle on -the eve of St. George.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But in the opinion of the Russian peasant wolves are -not the only foes of cattle at this season. On the eve of St. -George’s Day, as well as on the night before Whitsunday -and on Midsummer Eve, witches go out naked in the dark -and cut chips from the doors and gates of farmyards. These -they boil in a milk-pail, and thus charm away the milk from -the farms. Hence careful housewives examine their doors -and smear mud in any fresh gashes they may find in them, -which frustrates the knavish tricks of the milk-stealing witch. -Not to be baffled, however, the witches climb the wooden -crosses by the wayside and chip splinters from them, or lay -their hands on stray wooden wedges. These they stick into -a post in the cattle-shed and squeeze them with their hands -till milk flows from them as freely as from the dugs of -a cow. At this time also wicked people turn themselves by -magic art into dogs and black cats, and in that disguise they -suck the milk of cows, mares, and ewes, while they slaughter -the bulls, horses, and rams.<a id='r1082' /><a href='#f1082' class='c005'><sup>[1082]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_335'>335</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>St. George’s Day among the Ruthenians.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The Ruthenians of Bukowina and Galicia believe that at -midnight before St. George’s Day (the twenty-third of April) -the witches come in bands of twelve to the hills at the -boundaries of the villages and there dance and play with fire. -Moreover, they cull on the mountains the herbs they need for -their infernal enchantments. Like the Esthonians and the -Russians, the Ruthenians drive their cattle out to pasture for -the first time on St. George’s Day; hence during the preceding -night the witches are very busy casting their spells -on the cows; and the farmer is at great pains to defeat -their fell purpose. With this intent many people catch -a snake, skin it, and fumigate the cows with the skin on the -eve of the saint’s day. To rub the udders and horns of the -cows with serpent’s fat is equally effective. Others strew -meal about the animals, saying, “Not till thou hast gathered -up this meal, shalt thou take the milk from my cow So-and-so.” -Further, sods of turf, with thorn-branches stuck in -them, are laid on the gate-posts; and crosses are painted -with tar on the doors. These precautions keep the witches -from the cows. If, however, a beast should after all be -bewitched, the farmer’s wife drags a rope about in the dew -on the morning of St. George’s Day. Then she chops it up -small, mixes salt with it, and scatters the bits among the -cow’s fodder. No sooner has the afflicted animal partaken -of this compound than the spell is broken.<a id='r1083' /><a href='#f1083' class='c005'><sup>[1083]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>St. George’s Day among the Huzuls of the Carpathians.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The Huzuls of the Carpathian Mountains believe that -when a cow gives milk tinged with blood, or no milk -at all, a witch is the cause of it. These maleficent beings -play their pranks especially on the eve of St. George’s Day -and on Midsummer Eve, but they are most dangerous at the -former season, for that night they and the foul fiends hold -their greatest gathering or sabbath. To steal the cows’ -milk they resort to various devices. Sometimes they run -about in the shape of dogs and smell the cows’ udders. -Sometimes they rub the udders of their own cows with milk -taken from a neighbour’s kine; then their own cows yield -abundant milk, but the udders of the neighbour’s cows shrivel -up or give only blood. Others again make a wooden cow -<span class='pageno' id='Page_336'>336</span>on the spot where the real cows are generally milked, taking -care to stick into the ground the knife they used in carving -the image. Then the wooden cow yields the witch all the -milk of the cattle which are commonly milked there, while -the owner of the beasts gets nothing but blood from them.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Precautions taken by the Huzuls against the witches who try to -steal milk on the eve of St. George.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Hence the Huzuls take steps to guard their cows from -the machinations of witches at this season. For this purpose -they kindle a great fire before the house on the eve of -St. George’s Day, using as fuel the dung which has accumulated -during the winter. Also they place on the gate-posts -clods in which are stuck the branches consecrated on Palm -Sunday or boughs of the silver poplar, the wood of which is -deemed especially efficacious in banning fiends. Moreover, -they make crosses on the doors, sprinkle the cows with mud, -and fumigate them with incense or the skin of a snake. -To tie red woollen threads round the necks or tails of the -animals is also a safeguard against witchcraft. And in June, -when the snow has melted and the cattle are led to the high -mountain pastures, the herds have no sooner reached their -summer quarters than the herdsman makes “living fire” by -the friction of wood and drives the animals over the ashes in -order to protect them against witches and other powers of -evil. The fire thus kindled is kept constantly burning in -the herdsman’s hut till with the chill of autumn the time -comes to drive the herds down the mountains again. If the -fire went out in the interval, it would be an ill omen for the -owner of the pastures.<a id='r1084' /><a href='#f1084' class='c005'><sup>[1084]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Sacrifice for horses in Silesia on St. George’s Day.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In some parts of Silesia the might of the witches is -believed to be at the highest pitch on St. George’s Day. -The people deem the saint very powerful in the matter of -cattle-breeding and especially of horse-breeding. At the -Polish village of Ostroppa, not far from Gleiwitz, a sacrifice -for horses used to be offered at the little village church. It -has been described by an eye-witness. Peasants on horseback -streamed to the spot from all the neighbouring villages, -not with the staid and solemn pace of pilgrims, but with the -noise and clatter of merrymakers hastening to a revel. The -sorry image of the saint, carved in wood and about an ell -<span class='pageno' id='Page_337'>337</span>high, stood in the churchyard on a table covered with a -white cloth. It represented him seated on horseback and -spearing the dragon. Beside it were two vessels to receive -offerings of money and eggs respectively. As each farmer -galloped up, he dismounted, led his horse by the bridle, -knelt before the image of the saint, and prayed. After that -he made his offering of money or eggs, according to his -means, in the name of his horse. Then he led the beast -round the church and churchyard, tethered it, and went into -the church to hear mass and a sermon. Having thus paid -his devotions to the saint, every man leaped into the saddle -and made for the nearest public-house as fast as his horse -could lay legs to the ground.<a id='r1085' /><a href='#f1085' class='c005'><sup>[1085]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Festival of St. George, as the patron of horses, at Ertringen in Bavaria.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -At Ertringen, in South Bavaria, there is a chapel of St. -George, where a festival of the saint used to be held on -April the twenty-fourth down to the beginning of the nineteenth -century. From the whole neighbourhood people -streamed thither on horseback and in waggons to take part -in the ceremony. More than fourteen hundred riders are -said to have been present on one occasion. The foundation -of the chapel was attributed to the monastery of Holy Cross -Vale (<i>Heiligkreuztal</i>), and the abbot and prior with their -suite attended the festival in state mounted on white horses. -A burgher of Ertringen had to ride as patron in the costume -of St. George, whom he represented. He alone -bestrode a fiery stallion. After the celebration of high mass -the horses were blessed at the chapel. Then the procession -of men on horseback moved round the common lands, winding -up at the parish church, where it broke up.<a id='r1086' /><a href='#f1086' class='c005'><sup>[1086]</sup></a> In many -villages near Freiburg in Baden St. George is the patron of -horses, and in some parts of Baden the saint’s day (April -the twenty-third) is the season when cattle are driven out to -pasture for the first time in spring.<a id='r1087' /><a href='#f1087' class='c005'><sup>[1087]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>St. George’s Day among the Saxons and Roumanians of Transylvania.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The Saxons of Transylvania think that on the eve of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_338'>338</span>St. George’s Day the witches ride on the backs of the cows -into the farmyard, if branches of wild rosebushes or other -thorny shrubs are not stuck over the gate of the yard to -keep them out.<a id='r1088' /><a href='#f1088' class='c005'><sup>[1088]</sup></a> Beliefs and practices of this sort are shared -by the Roumanians of Transylvania. They hold that on -St. George’s Day the witches keep their sabbath in -sequestered spots, such as woodland glades, deserted farm-steadings, -and the like. In Walachia green sods are laid on -the window-sills and on the lintels of the doors to avert the -uncanny crew. But in Transylvania the Roumanians, not -content with setting a thorn-bush in the doorway of the -house, keep watch and ward all night beside the cattle or -elsewhere, to catch the witches who are at work stealing the -milk from the cows. Here, as elsewhere, the day is above -all the herdsman’s festival. It marks the beginning of -spring; the shepherds are preparing to start for the distant -pastures, and they listen with all their ears to some wiseacre -who tells them how, if the milk should fail in the -udders of the sheep, they have only to thrash the shepherd’s -pouch, and every stroke will fall on the witch who is -pumping the lost milk into her pails.<a id='r1089' /><a href='#f1089' class='c005'><sup>[1089]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>St. George’s Day the herdsman’s festival among the Walachians.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The Walachians look on St. George’s Day as very holy; -for they are mainly a pastoral folk, and St. George is the -patron of herds and herdsmen. On that day also, as well -as on the day before and the day after, the Walachian -numbers his herd, beginning at one and counting continuously -up to the total. This he never does at any other -time of the year. On this day, too, he milks his sheep -for the first time into vessels which have been carefully -scoured and are wreathed with flowers. Then too a cake of -white meal is baked in the shape of a ring, and is rolled on -the ground in sight of the herd; and from the length of its -course omens are drawn as to the good or bad luck of the -cattle in their summer pastures. If the herd is owned by -several men, they afterwards lay hold of the ring, and break -<span class='pageno' id='Page_339'>339</span>it among them, and the one who gets the largest piece will -have the best luck. The milk is made into a cheese which -is divided; and the pieces of the cake are given to the -shepherds. In like manner the wreaths of flowers which -crowned the pails are thrown into the water, and from the -way in which they float down-stream the shepherds presage -good or evil fortune.<a id='r1090' /><a href='#f1090' class='c005'><sup>[1090]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>St. George’s Day among the Bulgarians and South Slavs.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The Bulgarians seem to share the belief that cattle are -especially exposed to the machinations of witches at this season, -for it is a rule with them not to give away milk, butter, or -cheese on the eve of St. George’s Day; to do so, they say, -would be to give away the profit of the milch kine.<a id='r1091' /><a href='#f1091' class='c005'><sup>[1091]</sup></a> They -rise very early on the morning of this day, and wash themselves -in the dew, that they may be healthy.<a id='r1092' /><a href='#f1092' class='c005'><sup>[1092]</sup></a> It is said, too, -that a regular sacrifice is still offered on St. George’s Day -in Bulgaria. An old man kills a ram, while girls spread -grass on which the blood is poured forth.<a id='r1093' /><a href='#f1093' class='c005'><sup>[1093]</sup></a> The intention of -the sacrifice may be to make the herbage grow abundantly -in the pastures. Amongst the South Slavs the twenty-third -of April, St. George’s Day, is the chief festival of the -spring. The herdsman thinks that if his cattle are well on -that day they will thrive throughout the year. As we have -already seen,<a id='r1094' /><a href='#f1094' class='c005'><sup>[1094]</sup></a> he crowns the horns of his cows with garlands -of flowers to guard them against witchcraft, and in the evening -the garlands are hung on the doors of the stalls, where they -remain until the next St. George’s Day. Early in the -morning of that day, when the herdsman drives the cows -from the byres, the housewife takes salt in one hand and a -potsherd with glowing coals in the other. She offers the -salt to the cow, and the beast must step over the smouldering -coals, on which various kinds of roses are smoking. This -deprives the witches of all power to harm the cow. On the -eve or the morning of the day old women cut thistles and -fasten them to the doors and gates of the farm; and they -make crosses with cow’s dung on the doors of the byres to -ward off the witches. Many knock great nails into the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_340'>340</span>doors, which is thought to be a surer preventive even than -thistles. In certain districts the people cut thistles before -sunrise and put some on each other’s heads, some on the -fences, the windows, the doors, and some in the shape of -wreaths round the necks of the cows, in order that the -witches may be powerless to harm man and beast, house and -homestead, throughout the year. If, nevertheless, a witch -should contrive to steal through the garden fence and into -the byre, it is all over with the cows. A good housewife -will also go round her house and cattle-stalls early in the -morning of the fateful day and sprinkle them with holy -water. Another approved means of driving the witches -away is furnished by the froth which is shot from the spokes -of a revolving mill-wheel; for common-sense tells us that -just as the froth flies from the wheel, so the witches will -fly from our house, if only we apply the remedy in the right -way. And the right way is this. On the eve of St. -George’s Day you must send a child to fetch froth from the -mill, three stones from three cross-roads, three twigs of a -blackberry bush, three sprigs of beech, and three shoots of a -wild vine. Then you insert the plants in a buttered roll, -put the stones in the fire, boil the froth, toast the buttered -roll over the glowing stones, and speak these words: “The -blackberry twigs gather together, the beeches pull together, -but the foam from the wheel shakes all evil away.” Do -this, and you may take my word for it that no witch will be -able to charm away the milk from your cows.<a id='r1095' /><a href='#f1095' class='c005'><sup>[1095]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Precautions of the same sort are taken against wolves and witches whenever -the cattle are driven out to pasture for the first time in spring.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus on the whole the festival of St. George at the -present day, like the Parilia of ancient Italy, is a ceremony -intended to guard the cattle against their real and their -imaginary foes, the wolves and the witches, at the critical -season when the flocks and herds are driven out to pasture -for the first time in spring. Precautions of the same sort -are naturally taken by the superstitious herdsman whenever, -the winter being over, he turns his herds out into the open -for the first time, whether it be on St. George’s Day or not. -Thus in Prussia and Lithuania, when the momentous -morning broke, the herd-boy ran from house to house in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_341'>341</span>village, knocked at the windows, and cried: “Put out the -fire, spin not, reel not, but drive the cattle out!” Meantime -the herdsman had fetched sand from the church, which -he strewed on the road by which the beasts must go from -the farmyard. At the same time he laid a woodcutter’s axe -in every doorway, with the sharp edge outwards, over which -the cows had to step. Then he walked in front of them, -speaking never a word, and paying no heed to the herd, -which was kept together by the herd-boys alone. His -thoughts were occupied by higher things, for he was busy -making crosses, blessing the cattle, and murmuring prayers, -till the pastures were reached. The axe in the doorway -signified that the wolf should flee from the herd as from the -sharp edge of the axe: the sand from the church betokened -that the cattle should not disperse and wander in the -meadows, but should keep as close together as people in -church.<a id='r1096' /><a href='#f1096' class='c005'><sup>[1096]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Swedish observances at turning out the cattle to graze after their winter confinement.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In Sweden the cattle are confined almost wholly to their -stalls during the long and dreary northern winter; and the -first day in spring on which they are turned out into the -forest to graze has been from time immemorial a great -popular festival. The time of its celebration depends -more or less on the mildness or severity of the season. -For the most part it takes place about the middle of May. -On the preceding evening bonfires are kindled everywhere -in the forest, because so far as their flickering light extends -the cattle will be safe from the attacks of wild beasts -throughout the summer. For the same reason people go -about the woods that night firing guns, blowing horns, and -making all kinds of discordant noises. The mode of -celebrating the festival, which in some places is called the -feast of flowers, varies somewhat in different provinces. In -Dalsland the cattle are driven home that day from pasture -at noon instead of at evening. Early in the morning the -herd-boy repairs with the herd to the forest, where he decks -their horns with wreaths of flowers and provides himself -with a wand of the rowan or mountain-ash. During his -absence the girls pluck flowers, weave them into a garland, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_342'>342</span>and hang it on the gate through which the cattle must pass -on their return from the forest. When they come back, the -herd-boy takes the garland from the gate, fastens it to the -top of his wand, and marches with it at the head of his -beasts to the hamlet. Afterwards the wand with the -garland on it is set up on the muck-heap, where it remains -all the summer. The intention of these ceremonies is not -said, but on the analogy of the preceding customs we may -conjecture that both the flowers and the rowan-wand are -supposed to guard the cattle against witchcraft. A little -later in the season, when the grass is well grown in the -forest, most of the cattle are sent away to the <i>säter</i>, or -summer pastures, of which every hamlet commonly has one -or more. These are clearings in the woods, and may be -many miles distant from the village. In Dalecarlia the -departure usually takes place in the first week of June. It -is a great event for the pastoral folk. An instinctive -longing seems to awaken both in the people and the beasts. -The preparations of the women are accompanied by the -bleating of the sheep and goats and the lowing of the -cattle, which make incessant efforts to break through the -pens near the house where they are shut up. Two or more -girls, according to the size of the herd, attend the cattle on -their migration and stay with them all the summer. Every -animal as it goes forth, whether cow, sheep, or goat, is -marked on the brow with a cross by means of a tar-brush -in order to protect it against evil spirits. But more -dangerous foes lie in wait for the cattle in the distant -pastures, where bears and wolves not uncommonly rush -forth on them from the woods. On such occasions the -herd-girls often display the utmost gallantry, belabouring -the ferocious beasts with sticks, and risking their own lives -in defence of the herds.<a id='r1097' /><a href='#f1097' class='c005'><sup>[1097]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>These modern parallels throw light on some features of the Parilia.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The foregoing customs, practised down to modern times -by shepherds and herdsmen with a full sense of their -meaning, throw light on some features of the Parilia which -might otherwise remain obscure. They seem to shew that -when the Italian shepherd hung green boughs on his folds, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_343'>343</span>and garlands on his doors, he did so in order to keep the -witches from the ewes; and that in fumigating his flocks -with sulphur and driving them over a fire of straw he -sought to interpose a fiery barrier between them and the -powers of evil, whether these were conceived as witches or -mischievous spirits.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Green George a personification of a spirit of trees or of vegetation in general.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But St. George is more than a patron of cattle. The -mummer who dresses up in green boughs on the saint’s day -and goes by the name of Green George<a id='r1098' /><a href='#f1098' class='c005'><sup>[1098]</sup></a> clearly personifies -the saint himself, and such a disguise is appropriate only to -a spirit of trees or of vegetation in general. As if to -make this quite clear, the Slavs of Carinthia carry a tree -decked with flowers in the procession in which Green -George figures; and the ceremonies in which the leaf-clad -masker takes a part plainly indicate that he is thought to -stand in intimate connexion with rain as well as with -cattle. This counterpart of our Jack in the Green is known -in some parts of Russia, and the Slovenes call him Green -George. Dressed in leaves and flowers, he appears in public -on St. George’s Day carrying a lighted torch in one hand -and a pie in the other. Thus arrayed he goes out to the -cornfields, followed by girls, who sing appropriate songs. -A circle of brushwood is then lighted, and the pie is set -in the middle of it. All who share in the ceremony -sit down around the fire, and the pie is divided among -them. The observance has perhaps a bearing on the cattle -as well as on the cornfields, for in some parts of Russia -when the herds go out to graze for the first time in spring a -pie baked in the form of a sheep is cut up by the chief -herdsman, and the bits are kept as a cure for the ills to -which sheep are subject.<a id='r1099' /><a href='#f1099' class='c005'><sup>[1099]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>“Ringing out the grass” on St. George’s Day.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -At Schwaz, an old Tyrolese town in the lower valley -of the Inn, young lads assemble on St. George’s Day, -which is here the twenty-fourth of April, and having provided -themselves with bells, both large and small, they go -in procession ringing them to the various farms of the -neighbourhood, where they are welcomed and given milk to -drink. These processions, which take place in other parts -<span class='pageno' id='Page_344'>344</span>of the Tyrol also, go by the name of “ringing out the grass” -(<i>Grasausläuten</i>), and it is believed that wherever the bell-ringers -come, there the grass grows and the crops will be -abundant. This beneficial effect appears to be ascribed to -the power of the bells to disperse the evil spirits, which are -thought to be rampant on St. George’s Day. For the -same purpose of averting demoniac influence at this -time, people in Salzburg and the neighbouring districts of -Upper Austria go in procession round the fields and stick -palm branches or small crosses in them; also they fasten -branches of the <i>Prunus Padus</i>, L., at the windows of the -houses and cattle-stalls.<a id='r1100' /><a href='#f1100' class='c005'><sup>[1100]</sup></a> In some parts of Germany the -farmer looks to the height of his corn on St. George’s Day, -expecting that it should then be high enough to hide a -crow.<a id='r1101' /><a href='#f1101' class='c005'><sup>[1101]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>St. George supposed to get barren women with child.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Even when we have said that St. George of Eastern -Europe represents an old heathen deity of sheep, cattle, -horses, wolves, vegetation, and rain, we have not exhausted -all the provinces over which he is supposed to bear sway. -According to an opinion which appears to be widely spread, -he has the power of blessing barren women with offspring. -This belief is clearly at the root of the South Slavonian -custom, described above, whereby a childless woman hopes -to become a mother by wearing a shirt which has hung all -night on a fruitful tree on St. George’s Eve.<a id='r1102' /><a href='#f1102' class='c005'><sup>[1102]</sup></a> Similarly, a -Bulgarian wife who desires to have a child will strike off a -serpent’s head on St. George’s Day, put a bean in its mouth, -and lay the head in a hollow tree or bury it in the earth at -a spot so far from the village that the crowing of the cocks -cannot be heard there. If the bean buds, her wishes will -be granted.<a id='r1103' /><a href='#f1103' class='c005'><sup>[1103]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_345'>345</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Love-charms practised among the Slavs on St. George’s Day.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -It is natural to suppose that a saint who can bestow -offspring can also bring fond lovers together. Hence -among the Slavs, with whom St. George is so popular, his -day is one of the seasons at which youths and maidens -resort to charms and divination in order to win or discover -the affections of the other sex. Thus, to take examples, a -Bohemian way of gaining a girl’s love is as follows. You -catch a frog on St. George’s Day, wrap it in a white cloth, -and put it in an ant-hill after sunset or about midnight. -The creature croaks terribly while the ants are gnawing the -flesh from its bones. When silence reigns again, you will -find nothing left of the frog but one little bone in the shape -of a hook and another little bone in the shape of a shovel. -Take the hook-shaped bone, go to the girl of your choice, -and hook her dress with the bone, and she will fall over -head and ears in love with you. If you afterwards tire of -her, you have only to touch her with the shovel-shaped -bone, and her affection will vanish as quickly as it came.<a id='r1104' /><a href='#f1104' class='c005'><sup>[1104]</sup></a> -Again, at Ceklinj, in Crnagora, maidens go at break of day -on St. George’s morning to a well to draw water, and look -down into its dark depth till tears fill their eyes and they -fancy they see in the water the image of their future -husband.<a id='r1105' /><a href='#f1105' class='c005'><sup>[1105]</sup></a> At Krajina, in Servia, girls who would pry into -the book of fate gather flowers in the meadows on the eve -of St. George, make them up into nosegays, and give to the -nosegays the names of the various lads whose hearts they -would win. Late at night they place the flowers by stealth -under the open sky, on the roof or elsewhere, and leave -them there till daybreak. The lad on whose nosegay most -dew has fallen will love the girl most truly throughout the -year. Sometimes mischievous young men secretly watch -these doings, and steal the bunches of flowers, which makes -sore hearts among the girls.<a id='r1106' /><a href='#f1106' class='c005'><sup>[1106]</sup></a> Once more, in wooded -districts of Bohemia a Czech maiden will sometimes go out -on St. George’s Eve into an oak or beech forest and catch a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_346'>346</span>young wild pigeon. It may be a ring-dove or a wood-pigeon, -but it must always be a male. She takes the bird -home with her, and covers it with a sieve or shuts it up in -a box that nobody may know what she is about. Having -kept and fed it till it can fly, she rises very early in the -morning, while the household is still asleep, and goes with -the dove to the hearth. Here she presses the bird thrice to -her bare breast, above her heart, and then lets it fly away -up the chimney, while she says:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Out of the chimney, dove,</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>Fly, fly from here.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Take me, dear Hans, my love,</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>None, none so dear.</i></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Fly to your rocks, fair dove,</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>Fly to your lea.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>So may I get, my love,</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>None, none but thee.</i>”<a id='r1107' /><a href='#f1107' class='c005'><sup>[1107]</sup></a></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>St. George in Syria esteemed a giver of offspring to childless women.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the East, also, St. George is reputed to be a giver -of offspring to barren women, and in this character he is -revered by Moslems as well as Christians. His shrines may -be found in all parts of Syria; more places are associated -with him than with any other saint in the calendar. The -most famous of his sanctuaries is at Kalat el Hosn, in -Northern Syria. Childless women of all sects resort to it -in order that the saint may remove their reproach. Some -people shrug their shoulders when the shrine is mentioned -in this connexion. Yet many Mohammedan women who -desired offspring used to repair to it with the full consent -of their husbands. Nowadays the true character of the -place is beginning to be perceived, and many Moslems have -forbidden their wives to visit it.<a id='r1108' /><a href='#f1108' class='c005'><sup>[1108]</sup></a> Such beliefs and practices -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Syrian St. George may represent Tammuz.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -lend some colour to the theory that in the East the saint has -taken the place of Tammuz or Adonis.<a id='r1109' /><a href='#f1109' class='c005'><sup>[1109]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_347'>347</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>In Europe St. George seems to have displaced an old Aryan -god of the spring, such as the Lithuanian Pergrubius.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But we cannot suppose that the worship of Tammuz has -been transplanted to Europe and struck its roots deep among -the Slavs and other peoples in the eastern part of our continent. -Rather amongst them we must look for a native -Aryan deity who now masquerades in the costume of the -Cappadocian saint and martyr St. George. Perhaps we may -find him in the Pergrubius of the Lithuanians, a people who -retained their heathen religion later than any other branch -of the Aryan stock in Europe. This Pergrubius is described -as “the god of the spring,” as “he who makes leaves and -grass to grow,” or more fully as “the god of flowers, plants, -and all buds.” On St. George’s Day, the twenty-third of -April, the heathen Prussians and Lithuanians offered a sacrifice -to Pergrubius. A priest, who bore the title of <i>Wurschait</i>, -held in his hand a mug of beer, while he thus addressed the -deity: “Thou drivest away the winter; thou bringest back -the pleasant spring. By thee the fields and gardens are -green, by thee the groves and the woods put forth leaves.” -According to another version, the prayer ran as follows: -“Thou drivest the winter away, and givest in all lands -leaves and grass. We pray thee that thou wouldst make -our corn to grow and wouldst put down all weeds.” After -praying thus, the priest drank the beer, holding the mug -with his teeth, but not touching it with his hands. Then -without handling it he threw the mug backward over his -head. Afterwards it was picked up and filled again, and -all present drank out of it. They also sang a hymn in -praise of Pergrubius, and then spent the whole day in feasting -and dancing.<a id='r1110' /><a href='#f1110' class='c005'><sup>[1110]</sup></a> Thus it appears that Pergrubius was a -Lithuanian god of the spring, who caused the grass and the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_348'>348</span>corn to grow and the trees to burst into leaf. In this he -resembles Green George, the embodiment of the fresh -vegetation of spring, whose leaf-clad representative still -plays his pranks on the very same day in some parts of -Eastern Europe. Nothing, indeed, is said of the relation of -Pergrubius to cattle, and so far the analogy between him -and St. George breaks down. But our accounts of the old -Lithuanian mythology are few and scanty; if we knew more -about Pergrubius we might find that as a god or personification -of spring he, like St. George, was believed to exert all -the quickening powers of that genial season—in other -words, that his beneficent activity was not confined to clothing -the bare earth with verdure, but extended to the care -of the teeming flocks and herds, as well as to the propagation -of mankind. Certainly it is not easy to draw a sharp -line of division between the god who attends to cattle and -the god who provides the food on which they subsist.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Roman equivalent of St. George was Pales, who may have been -personated by the king at the Parilia.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus Pergrubius may perhaps have been the northern -equivalent of the pastoral god Pales, who was worshipped by -the Romans only two days earlier at the spring festival of the -Parilia. It will be remembered that the Roman shepherds -prayed to Pales for grass and leaves, the very things which -it was the part of Pergrubius to supply. Is it too bold to -conjecture that in rural districts of Italy Pales may have -been personated by a leaf-clad man, and that in the early -age of Rome the duty of thus representing the god may -have been one of the sacred functions of the king? The -conjecture at least suggests a reason for the tradition that -Numa, the typical priestly king of Rome, was born on the -day of the Parilia.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_349'>349</span> - <h2 id='chap20' class='c002'>CHAPTER XX <br /> THE WORSHIP OF THE OAK</h2> -</div> -<h3 class='c006'>§ 1. The Diffusion of the Oak in Europe</h3> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Latin kings represented Jupiter, the god of the oak, the sky, -the thunder, and the rain.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In a preceding chapter some reasons were given for -thinking that the early Latin kings posed as living representatives -of Jupiter, the god of the oak, the sky, the rain, -and the thunder, and that in this capacity they attempted -to exercise the fertilising functions which were ascribed to -the god. The probability of this view will be strengthened -if it can be proved that the same god was worshipped under -other names by other branches of the Aryan stock in -Europe, and that the Latin kings were not alone in arrogating -to themselves his powers and attributes. In this -chapter I propose briefly to put together a few of the -principal facts which point to this conclusion.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Why should the god of the oak be also the god of the sky, -the thunder, and the rain?<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -But at the outset a difficulty presents itself. To us the -oak, the sky, the rain, and the thunder appear things totally -distinct from each other. How did our forefathers come to -group them together and imagine them as attributes of one -and the same god? A connexion may be seen between -the sky, the rain, and the thunder; but what has any -of them to do with the oak? Yet one of these apparently -disparate elements was probably the original nucleus round -which in time the others gathered and crystallised into the -composite conception of Jupiter. Accordingly we must ask, -Which of them was the original centre of attraction? If -men started with the idea of an oak-god, how came they to -enlarge his kingdom by annexing to it the province of the -sky, the rain, and the thunder? If, on the other hand, they -<span class='pageno' id='Page_350'>350</span>set out with the notion of a god of the sky, the rain, and -the thunder, or any one of them, why should they have -added the oak to his attributes? The oak is terrestrial; -the sky, the thunder, and the rain are celestial or aerial. -What is the bridge between the two?</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>In the composite character of Jupiter the oak is probably primary, the sky, -the rain, and the thunder secondary and derivative.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the sequel I shall endeavour to shew that on the -principle of primitive thought the evolution of a sky-god -from an oak-god is more easily conceivable than the converse; -and if I succeed, it becomes probable that in the -composite character of Jupiter the oak is primary and -original, the sky, the rain, and the thunder secondary and -derivative.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Europe covered with vast oak forests in prehistoric times.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -We have seen that long before the dawn of history -Europe was covered with vast primaeval woods, which must -have exercised a profound influence on the thought as well -as on the life of our rude ancestors who dwelt dispersed under -the gloomy shadow or in the open glades and clearings of -the forest.<a id='r1111' /><a href='#f1111' class='c005'><sup>[1111]</sup></a> Now, of all the trees which composed these -woods the oak appears to have been both the commonest -and the most useful. The proof of this is drawn partly -from the statements of classical writers, partly from the -remains of ancient villages built on piles in lakes and -marshes, and partly from the oak forests which have been -found embedded in peat-bogs.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Remains of oak forests found in peat-bogs.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -These bogs, which attain their greatest development in -Northern Europe, but are met with also in the central and -southern parts of the Continent, have preserved as in a -museum the trees and plants which sprang up and flourished -after the end of the glacial epoch. Thus in Scotland the -peat, which occupies wide areas both in the highlands and -lowlands, almost everywhere covers the remains of forests, -among which the commoner trees are pine, oak, and birch. -The oaks are of great size, and are found at heights above -the sea such as the tree would not now naturally attain to. -Equally remarkable for their size are the pines, but though -they also had a wider distribution than at present, they -appear not to have formed any extensive forests at the -lowest levels of the country. Still, remains of them have -been dug up in many lowland peat-mosses, where the bulk -<span class='pageno' id='Page_351'>351</span>of the buried timber is oak.<a id='r1112' /><a href='#f1112' class='c005'><sup>[1112]</sup></a> When Hatfield Moss in -Yorkshire was drained, there were found in it trunks of oak -a hundred feet long and as black as ebony. One giant -actually measured a hundred and twenty feet in length, with -a diameter of twelve feet at the root and six feet at the top. -No such tree now exists in Europe.<a id='r1113' /><a href='#f1113' class='c005'><sup>[1113]</sup></a> Sunken forests and -peat occur at many places on the coasts of England, especially -on low shelving shores where the land falls away with -a gentle slope to the sea. These submerged areas were -once mud flats which, as the sea retreated from them, -gradually became clothed with dense forests, chiefly of oak -and Scotch fir, though ash, yew, alder, and other trees sooner -or later mingled with them.<a id='r1114' /><a href='#f1114' class='c005'><sup>[1114]</sup></a> The great peat-bogs of -Ireland shew that there was a time when vast woods of oak -and yew covered the country, the oak growing on the hills -up to a height of four hundred feet or thereabout above the -sea, while at higher levels deal was the prevailing timber. -Human relics have often been discovered in these Irish bogs, -and ancient roadways made of oak have also come to light.<a id='r1115' /><a href='#f1115' class='c005'><sup>[1115]</sup></a> -In the peat-bog near Abbeville, in the valley of the Somme, -trunks of oak have been dug up fourteen feet thick, a diameter -rarely met with outside the tropics in the old Continent.<a id='r1116' /><a href='#f1116' class='c005'><sup>[1116]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Former oak woods of Denmark and Scandinavia.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -At present the woods of Denmark consist for the most -part of magnificent beeches, which flourish here as luxuriantly -as anywhere in the world. Oaks are much rarer and appear -to be on the decline. Yet the evidence of the peat-bogs -proves that before the advent of the beech the country was -overspread with dense forests of tall and stately oaks. It -was during the ascendency of the oak in the woods that -bronze seems to have become known in Denmark; for -swords and shields of that metal, now in the museum of -Copenhagen, have been taken out of peat in which oaks -abound. Yet at a still earlier period the oak had been preceded -by the pine or Scotch fir in the Danish forests; and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_352'>352</span>the discovery of neolithic implements in the peat-bogs shews -that savages of the Stone Age had their homes in these old -pine woods as well as in the later forests of oak. Some -antiquaries are of opinion that the Iron Age in Denmark -began with the coming of the beech, but of this there is no -evidence; for aught we know to the contrary the beautiful -beech forests may date back to the Age of Bronze.<a id='r1117' /><a href='#f1117' class='c005'><sup>[1117]</sup></a> The -peat-bogs of Norway abound in buried timber; and in -many of them the trees occur in two distinct layers. The -lower of these layers consists chiefly of oak, hazel, ash, and -other deciduous trees; the upper is composed of Scotch firs -and birches. In the bogs of Sweden also the oak forests -underlie the pine forests.<a id='r1118' /><a href='#f1118' class='c005'><sup>[1118]</sup></a> However, it appears to be doubtful -whether Scandinavia was inhabited in the age of the oak -woods. Neolithic tools have indeed been found in the peat, -but generally not deeper down than two feet or so; hence -one antiquary infers that in these bogs not more than two -feet of peat has formed within historical times.<a id='r1119' /><a href='#f1119' class='c005'><sup>[1119]</sup></a> But -negative evidence on such a point goes for little, as only -a small portion of the bogs can have been explored.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The ancient lake dwellings of Europe were built to a great -extent on oaken piles.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Unequivocal proof of the prevalence of the oak and its -usefulness to man in early times is furnished by the remains -of the pile villages which have been discovered in many of -the lakes of Europe. In the British Islands the piles and -the platforms on which these crannogs or lake dwellings -rested appear to have been generally of oak, though fir, -birch, and other trees were sometimes used in their construction. -Speaking of the Irish and Scotch crannogs a -learned antiquary remarks: “Every variety of structure -observed in the one country is to be found in the other, -from the purely artificial island, framed of oak-beams, -mortised together, to the natural island, artificially fortified -or enlarged by girdles of oak-piles or ramparts of loose -stones.”<a id='r1120' /><a href='#f1120' class='c005'><sup>[1120]</sup></a> Canoes hollowed out of trunks of oak have been -found both in the Scotch and in the Irish crannogs.<a id='r1121' /><a href='#f1121' class='c005'><sup>[1121]</sup></a> In -<span class='pageno' id='Page_353'>353</span>the lake dwellings of Switzerland and Central Europe the -piles are very often of oak, but by no means as uniformly -so as in the British Islands; fir, birch, alder, ash, elm, and -other timber were also employed for the purpose.<a id='r1122' /><a href='#f1122' class='c005'><sup>[1122]</sup></a> That -the inhabitants of these villages subsisted partly on the produce -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The inhabitants of the lake dwellings subsisted partly on acorns.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -of the oak, even after they had adopted agriculture, is -proved by the acorns which have been found in their -dwellings along with wheat, barley, and millet, as well as -beech-nuts, hazel-nuts, and the remains of chestnuts and -cherries.<a id='r1123' /><a href='#f1123' class='c005'><sup>[1123]</sup></a> In the valley of the Po the framework of logs -and planks which supports the prehistoric villages is most -commonly of elm wood, but evergreen oak and chestnut were -also used; and the abundance of oaks is attested by the -great quantities of acorns which were dug up in these settlements. -As the acorns were sometimes found stored in -earthenware vessels, it appears that they were eaten by the -people as well as by their pigs.<a id='r1124' /><a href='#f1124' class='c005'><sup>[1124]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Evidence of classical writers as to the oak forests of Europe.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The evidence of classical writers proves that great oak -forests still existed down to their time in various parts of -Europe. Thus the Veneti on the Atlantic coast of Brittany -made their flat-bottomed boats out of oak timber, of which, -we are told, there was abundance in their country.<a id='r1125' /><a href='#f1125' class='c005'><sup>[1125]</sup></a> Pliny -informs us that, while the whole of Germany was covered -with cool and shady woods, the loftiest trees were to be seen -not far from the country of the Chauci, who inhabited the -coast of the North Sea. Among these giants of the forest -he speaks especially of the oaks which grew on the banks -of two lakes. When the waves had undermined their roots, -the oaks are said to have torn away great portions of the -bank and floated like islands on the lakes.<a id='r1126' /><a href='#f1126' class='c005'><sup>[1126]</sup></a> The same -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The oak woods of Germany.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_354'>354</span>writer speaks of the vast Hercynian wood of Germany as an -oak forest, old as the world, untouched for ages, and passing -wonderful in its immortality. So huge were the trees, he -says, that when their roots met they were forced up above -ground in the shape of arches, through which a troop of -horse could ride as through an open gate.<a id='r1127' /><a href='#f1127' class='c005'><sup>[1127]</sup></a> His testimony -as to the kind of trees which composed this famous forest -is confirmed by its name, which seems to mean no more -than “oak wood.”<a id='r1128' /><a href='#f1128' class='c005'><sup>[1128]</sup></a> In the second century before our era -oak forests were still so common in the valley of the Po that -the herds of swine which browsed on the acorns sufficed to -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The oak woods of ancient Italy and Greece.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -supply the greater part of the demand for pork throughout -Italy, although nowhere in the world, according to Polybius, -were more pigs butchered to feed the gods, the people, and -the army.<a id='r1129' /><a href='#f1129' class='c005'><sup>[1129]</sup></a> Elsewhere the same historian describes the -immense herds of swine which roamed the Italian oak -forests, especially on the coasts of Tuscany and Lombardy. -In order to sort out the different droves when they mingled -with each other in the woods, each swineherd carried a horn, -and when he wound a blast on it all his own pigs came -trooping to him with such vehemence that nothing could -stop them; for all the herds knew the note of their own -horn. In the oak forests of Greece this device was unknown, -and the swineherds there had harder work to come by their -own when the beasts had strayed far in the woods, as they -were apt to do in autumn while the acorns were falling.<a id='r1130' /><a href='#f1130' class='c005'><sup>[1130]</sup></a> -Down to the beginning of our era oak woods were interspersed -among the olive groves and vineyards of the Sabine -country in central Italy.<a id='r1131' /><a href='#f1131' class='c005'><sup>[1131]</sup></a> Among the beautiful woods -which clothed the Heraean mountains in Sicily the oaks -were particularly remarked for their stately growth and the -great size of their acorns.<a id='r1132' /><a href='#f1132' class='c005'><sup>[1132]</sup></a> In the second century after -<span class='pageno' id='Page_355'>355</span>Christ the oak forests of Arcadia still harboured wild boars, -bears, and huge tortoises in their dark recesses.<a id='r1133' /><a href='#f1133' class='c005'><sup>[1133]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The oak still the chief forest tree of Europe.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Even now the predominance of the oak as the principal -forest tree of Europe has hardly passed away. Thus we -are told that among the leaf-bearing trees of Greece, as -opposed to the conifers, the oak still plays by far the most -important part in regard both to the number of the individuals -and the number of the species.<a id='r1134' /><a href='#f1134' class='c005'><sup>[1134]</sup></a> And the British -oak in particular (<i>Quercus robur</i>) is yet the prevailing tree -in most of the woods of France, Germany, and southern -Russia, while in England the coppice and the few fragments -of natural forest still left are mainly composed of this -species.<a id='r1135' /><a href='#f1135' class='c005'><sup>[1135]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>In Europe acorns have been used as human food both in ancient -and modern times.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus the old classical tradition that men lived upon -acorns before they learned to till the ground<a id='r1136' /><a href='#f1136' class='c005'><sup>[1136]</sup></a> may very well -be founded on fact. Indeed acorns were still an article of -diet in some parts of southern Europe within historical -times. Speaking of the prosperity of the righteous, Hesiod -declares that for them the earth bears much substance, -and the oak on the mountains puts forth acorns.<a id='r1137' /><a href='#f1137' class='c005'><sup>[1137]</sup></a> The -Arcadians in their oak-forests were proverbial for eating -acorns,<a id='r1138' /><a href='#f1138' class='c005'><sup>[1138]</sup></a> but not the acorns of all oaks, only those of a particular -sort.<a id='r1139' /><a href='#f1139' class='c005'><sup>[1139]</sup></a> Pliny tells us that in his day acorns still -constituted the wealth of many nations, and that in time of -dearth they were ground and baked into bread.<a id='r1140' /><a href='#f1140' class='c005'><sup>[1140]</sup></a> According -to Strabo, the mountaineers of Spain subsisted on acorn -bread for two-thirds of the year;<a id='r1141' /><a href='#f1141' class='c005'><sup>[1141]</sup></a> and in that country -acorns were served up as a second course even at the meals -of the well-to-do.<a id='r1142' /><a href='#f1142' class='c005'><sup>[1142]</sup></a> In the same regions the same practice -<span class='pageno' id='Page_356'>356</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Acorns as food in modern Europe.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -has survived to modern times. The commonest and finest -oak of modern Greece is the <i>Quercus Aegilops</i>, with a -beautiful crown of leaves, and the peasants eat its acorns -both roasted and raw.<a id='r1143' /><a href='#f1143' class='c005'><sup>[1143]</sup></a> The sweeter acorns of the <i>Quercus -Ballota</i> also serve them as food, especially in Arcadia.<a id='r1144' /><a href='#f1144' class='c005'><sup>[1144]</sup></a> In -Spain people eat the acorns of the evergreen oak (<i>Quercus -Ilex</i>), which are known as <i>bellotas</i>, and are said to be much -larger and more succulent than the produce of the British oak. -The duchess in <i>Don Quixote</i> writes to Sancho’s wife to send -her some of them. But oaks are now few and far between -in La Mancha.<a id='r1145' /><a href='#f1145' class='c005'><sup>[1145]</sup></a> Even in England and France acorns have -been boiled and eaten by the poor as a substitute for bread -in time of dearth.<a id='r1146' /><a href='#f1146' class='c005'><sup>[1146]</sup></a> And naturally the use of acorns as food -for swine has also lasted into modern times. It is on acorns -that those hogs are fattened in Estremadura which make the -famous Montanches hams.<a id='r1147' /><a href='#f1147' class='c005'><sup>[1147]</sup></a> Large herds of swine in all the -great oak woods of Germany depend on acorns for their -autumn subsistence; and in the remaining royal forests of -England the inhabitants of the neighbouring villages still -claim their ancient right of <i>pannage</i>, turning their hogs into -the woods in October and November.<a id='r1148' /><a href='#f1148' class='c005'><sup>[1148]</sup></a></p> -<h3 class='c006'>§ 2. The Aryan God of the Oak and the Thunder<a id='r1149' /><a href='#f1149' class='c005'><sup>[1149]</sup></a></h3> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The many benefits received by the ancient Aryans from the -oak naturally led them to worship the tree.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus we may conclude that the primitive Aryans of -Europe lived among oak woods, used oak sticks for the -lighting of their fires, and oak timber for the construction of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_357'>357</span>their villages, their roads, their canoes, fed their swine on -acorns, and themselves subsisted in part on the same simple -diet. No wonder, then, if the tree from which they received -so many benefits should play an important part in their -religion, and should be invested with a sacred character. -We have seen that the worship of trees has been world-wide, -and that, beginning with a simple reverence and dread of -the tree as itself animated by a powerful spirit, it has -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The worship of the tree itself gradually grew into a worship of the god -of the tree, but no sharp line of distinction can be drawn between the two.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -gradually grown into a cult of tree gods and tree goddesses, -who with the advance of thought become more and more -detached from their old home in the trees, and assume the -character of sylvan deities and powers of fertility in general, -to whom the husbandman looks not merely for the prosperity -of his crops, but for the fecundity of his cattle and his women. -Where this evolution has taken place it has necessarily been -slow and long. Though it is convenient to distinguish in -theory between the worship of trees and the worship of gods -of the trees, it is impossible to draw a hard and fast line -between them in practice, and to say, “Here the one begins -and the other ends.” Such distinctions, however useful they -may be as heads of classification to the student, evade in -general the duller wit of the tree worshipper. We cannot -therefore hope to lay our finger on that precise point in the -history of the Aryans when they ceased to worship the oak -for its own sake, and began to worship a god of the oak. -That point, if it were ideally possible to mark it, had doubtless -been left far behind them by the more intelligent, at -least, of our forefathers before they emerged into the light of -history. We must be content for the most part to find -among them gods of whom the oak was an attribute or -sacred adjunct rather than the essence. If we wish to find -the original worship of the tree itself we must go for it to -the ignorant peasantry of to-day, not to the enlightened -writers of antiquity. Further, it is to be borne in mind -that while all oaks were probably the object of superstitious -awe, so that the felling of any of them for timber or firewood -would be attended with ceremonies designed to appease the -injured spirit of the tree,<a id='r1150' /><a href='#f1150' class='c005'><sup>[1150]</sup></a> only certain particular groves or -individual oaks would in general receive that measure of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_358'>358</span>homage which we should term worship. The reasons which -led men to venerate some trees more than others might be -various. Amongst them the venerable age and imposing -size of a giant oak would naturally count for much. And -any other striking peculiarity which marked a tree off from -its fellows would be apt to attract the attention, and to concentrate -on itself the vague superstitious awe of the savage. -We know, for example, that with the Druids the growth of -mistletoe on an oak was a sign that the tree was especially -sacred; and the rarity of this feature—for mistletoe does not -commonly grow on oaks—would enhance the sanctity and -mystery of the tree. For it is the strange, the wonderful, -the rare, not the familiar and commonplace, which excites -the religious emotions of mankind.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The worship of the oak tree or of the oak god seems to have been -common to all the Aryans of Europe.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The worship of the oak tree or of the oak god appears -to have been shared by all the branches of the Aryan stock -in Europe. Both Greeks and Italians associated the tree -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Worship of the oak in Greece; its association with Zeus.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -with their highest god, Zeus or Jupiter, the divinity of the -sky, the rain, and the thunder.<a id='r1151' /><a href='#f1151' class='c005'><sup>[1151]</sup></a> Perhaps the oldest and -certainly one of the most famous sanctuaries in Greece was -that of Dodona, where Zeus was revered in the oracular -oak.<a id='r1152' /><a href='#f1152' class='c005'><sup>[1152]</sup></a> The thunder-storms which are said to rage at -Dodona more frequently than anywhere else in Europe,<a id='r1153' /><a href='#f1153' class='c005'><sup>[1153]</sup></a> -would render the spot a fitting home for the god whose -voice was heard alike in the rustling of the oak leaves and -in the crash of thunder. Perhaps the bronze gongs which -kept up a humming in the wind round the sanctuary<a id='r1154' /><a href='#f1154' class='c005'><sup>[1154]</sup></a> were -<span class='pageno' id='Page_359'>359</span>meant to mimick the thunder that might so often be heard -rolling and rumbling in the coombs of the stern and barren -mountains which shut in the gloomy valley.<a id='r1155' /><a href='#f1155' class='c005'><sup>[1155]</sup></a> In Boeotia, -as we have seen, the sacred marriage of Zeus and Hera, the -oak god and the oak goddess, was celebrated with much -pomp by a religious federation of states.<a id='r1156' /><a href='#f1156' class='c005'><sup>[1156]</sup></a> And on Mount -Lycaeus in Arcadia the character of Zeus as god both of -the oak and of the rain comes out clearly in the rain charm -practised by the priest of Zeus, who dipped an oak branch -in a sacred spring.<a id='r1157' /><a href='#f1157' class='c005'><sup>[1157]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Zeus as the rain god of the Greeks.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In his latter capacity Zeus was the god to whom the -Greeks regularly prayed for rain. Nothing could be more -natural; for often, though not always, he had his seat on -the mountains where the clouds gather and the oaks grow. -On the acropolis at Athens there was an image of Earth -praying to Zeus for rain.<a id='r1158' /><a href='#f1158' class='c005'><sup>[1158]</sup></a> And in time of drought the -Athenians themselves prayed, “Rain, rain, O dear Zeus, on -the cornland of the Athenians and on the plains.”<a id='r1159' /><a href='#f1159' class='c005'><sup>[1159]</sup></a> The -mountains which lay round their city, and to which they -looked through the clear Attic air for signs of the weather, -were associated by them with the worship of the weather-god -Zeus. It was a sign of rain when, away to sea, a cloud -rested on the sharp peak of Aegina, which cuts the sky-line -like a blue horn.<a id='r1160' /><a href='#f1160' class='c005'><sup>[1160]</sup></a> On this far-seen peak Panhellenian Zeus -was worshipped,<a id='r1161' /><a href='#f1161' class='c005'><sup>[1161]</sup></a> and legend ran that once, when all Greece -was parched with drought, envoys assembled in Aegina from -every quarter and entreated Aeacus, the king of the island, -that he would intercede with his father Zeus for rain. The -king complied with the request, and by sacrifices and prayers -wrung the needed showers from his sire the sky-god.<a id='r1162' /><a href='#f1162' class='c005'><sup>[1162]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_360'>360</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Zeus as the god of fertility.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Again, it was a sign of rain at Athens when clouds in -summer lay on the top or the sides of Hymettus,<a id='r1163' /><a href='#f1163' class='c005'><sup>[1163]</sup></a> the chain -of barren mountains which bounds the Attic plain on the east, -facing the westering sun and catching from his last beams -a solemn glow of purple light. If during a storm a long -bank of clouds was seen lowering on the mountain, it meant -that the storm would increase in fury.<a id='r1164' /><a href='#f1164' class='c005'><sup>[1164]</sup></a> Hence an altar -of Showery Zeus stood on Hymettus.<a id='r1165' /><a href='#f1165' class='c005'><sup>[1165]</sup></a> Again, omens of -weather were drawn when lightning flashed or clouds hung -on the top of Mount Parnes to the north of Athens;<a id='r1166' /><a href='#f1166' class='c005'><sup>[1166]</sup></a> and -there accordingly an altar was set up to sign-giving Zeus.<a id='r1167' /><a href='#f1167' class='c005'><sup>[1167]</sup></a> -The climate of eastern Argolis is dry, and the rugged -mountains are little better than a stony waterless wilderness. -On one of them, named Mount Arachnaeus, or the Spider -Mountain, stood altars of Zeus and Hera, and when rain -was wanted the people sacrificed there to the god and -goddess.<a id='r1168' /><a href='#f1168' class='c005'><sup>[1168]</sup></a> On the ridge of Mount Tmolus, near Sardes, -there was a spot called the Birthplace of Rainy Zeus,<a id='r1169' /><a href='#f1169' class='c005'><sup>[1169]</sup></a> probably -because clouds resting on it were observed to presage -rain. The members of a religious society in the island of -Cos used to go in procession and offer sacrifices on an altar -of Rainy Zeus, when the thirsty land stood in need of refreshing -showers.<a id='r1170' /><a href='#f1170' class='c005'><sup>[1170]</sup></a> Thus conceived as the source of fertility, -it was not unnatural that Zeus should receive the title of -the Fruitful One,<a id='r1171' /><a href='#f1171' class='c005'><sup>[1171]</sup></a> and that at Athens he should be worshipped -under the surname of the Husbandman.<a id='r1172' /><a href='#f1172' class='c005'><sup>[1172]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Zeus as the god of thunder and lightning.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Again, Zeus wielded the thunder and lightning as well -<span class='pageno' id='Page_361'>361</span>as the rain.<a id='r1173' /><a href='#f1173' class='c005'><sup>[1173]</sup></a> At Olympia and elsewhere he was worshipped -under the surname of Thunderbolt;<a id='r1174' /><a href='#f1174' class='c005'><sup>[1174]</sup></a> and at Athens there was -a sacrificial hearth of Lightning Zeus on the city wall, where -some priestly officials watched for lightning over Mount -Parnes at certain seasons of the year.<a id='r1175' /><a href='#f1175' class='c005'><sup>[1175]</sup></a> Further, spots which -had been struck by lightning were regularly fenced in by -the Greeks and consecrated to Zeus the Descender, that is, -to the god who came down in the flash from heaven. -Altars were set up within these enclosures and sacrifices -offered on them. Several such places are known from -inscriptions to have existed in Athens.<a id='r1176' /><a href='#f1176' class='c005'><sup>[1176]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Greek kings personified Zeus, as the Italian kings personified Jupiter.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus when ancient Greek kings claimed to be descended -from Zeus, and even to bear his name,<a id='r1177' /><a href='#f1177' class='c005'><sup>[1177]</sup></a> we may reasonably -suppose that they also attempted to exercise his divine -functions by making thunder and rain for the good of their -people or the terror and confusion of their foes. In this -respect the legend of Salmoneus<a id='r1178' /><a href='#f1178' class='c005'><sup>[1178]</sup></a> probably reflects the pretensions -of a whole class of petty sovereigns who reigned of -old, each over his little canton, in the oak-clad highlands of -Greece. Like their kinsmen the Irish kings, they were expected -to be a source of fertility to the land and of fecundity -to the cattle;<a id='r1179' /><a href='#f1179' class='c005'><sup>[1179]</sup></a> and how could they fulfil these expectations -better than by acting the part of their kinsman Zeus, the -great god of the oak, the thunder, and the rain? They -personified him, apparently, just as the Italian kings personified -Jupiter.<a id='r1180' /><a href='#f1180' class='c005'><sup>[1180]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Jupiter in Italy as the god of the oak, the thunder, and the rain.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In ancient Italy every oak was sacred to Jupiter, -the Italian counterpart of Zeus;<a id='r1181' /><a href='#f1181' class='c005'><sup>[1181]</sup></a> and on the Capitol at -Rome the god was worshipped as the deity not merely -of the oak, but of the rain and the thunder.<a id='r1182' /><a href='#f1182' class='c005'><sup>[1182]</sup></a> Contrasting -<span class='pageno' id='Page_362'>362</span>the piety of the good old times with the scepticism -of an age when nobody thought that heaven was heaven, or -cared a fig for Jupiter, a Roman writer tells us that in former -days noble matrons used to go with bare feet, streaming -hair, and pure minds, up the long Capitoline slope, praying -to Jupiter for rain. And straightway, he goes on, it rained -bucketsful, then or never, and everybody returned dripping -like drowned rats. “But nowadays,” says he, “we are no -longer religious, so the fields lie baking.”<a id='r1183' /><a href='#f1183' class='c005'><sup>[1183]</sup></a> And as Jupiter -conjured up the clouds and caused them to discharge their -genial burden on the earth, so he drove them away and -brought the bright Italian sky back once more. Hence he -was worshipped under the titles of the Serene, he who -restores serenity.<a id='r1184' /><a href='#f1184' class='c005'><sup>[1184]</sup></a> Lastly, as god of the fertilising showers -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Jupiter as the god of fertility.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -he made the earth to bring forth; so people called him the -Fruitful One.<a id='r1185' /><a href='#f1185' class='c005'><sup>[1185]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The god of the oak and the thunder among the northern Aryans.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -When we pass from southern to central Europe we still -meet with the great god of the oak and the thunder among -the barbarous Aryans who dwelt in the vast primaeval -forests.<a id='r1186' /><a href='#f1186' class='c005'><sup>[1186]</sup></a> Thus among the Celts of Gaul the Druids esteemed -nothing more sacred than the mistletoe and the oak on which -it grew; they chose groves of oaks for the scene of their -solemn service, and they performed none of their rites without -oak leaves.<a id='r1187' /><a href='#f1187' class='c005'><sup>[1187]</sup></a> “The Celts,” says a Greek writer, “worship -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Celtic worship of the oak.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Zeus, and the Celtic image of Zeus is a tall oak.”<a id='r1188' /><a href='#f1188' class='c005'><sup>[1188]</sup></a> The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_363'>363</span>Celtic conquerors who settled in Asia in the third century -before our era appear to have carried the worship of the -oak with them to their new home; for in the heart of Asia -Minor the Galatian senate met in a place which bore the -pure Celtic name of Drynemetum, “the sacred oak grove” -or “the temple of the oak.”<a id='r1189' /><a href='#f1189' class='c005'><sup>[1189]</sup></a> Indeed the very name of -Druids is believed by good authorities to mean no more than -“oak men.”<a id='r1190' /><a href='#f1190' class='c005'><sup>[1190]</sup></a> When Christianity displaced Druidism in -Ireland, the churches and monasteries were sometimes built -in oak groves or under solitary oaks,<a id='r1191' /><a href='#f1191' class='c005'><sup>[1191]</sup></a> the choice of the site -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Traces of sacred oaks in Ireland.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -being perhaps determined by the immemorial sanctity of the -trees, which might predispose the minds of the converts to -receive with less reluctance the teaching of the new faith.<a id='r1192' /><a href='#f1192' class='c005'><sup>[1192]</sup></a> -But there is no positive evidence that the Irish Druids performed -their rites, like their Gallic brethren, in oak groves,<a id='r1193' /><a href='#f1193' class='c005'><sup>[1193]</sup></a> so -that the inference from the churches of Kildare, Derry, and -the rest is merely a conjecture based on analogy.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the religion of the ancient Germans the veneration -for sacred groves seems to have held the foremost place,<a id='r1194' /><a href='#f1194' class='c005'><sup>[1194]</sup></a> and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_364'>364</span>according to Grimm the chief of their holy trees was the -oak.<a id='r1195' /><a href='#f1195' class='c005'><sup>[1195]</sup></a> It appears to have been especially dedicated to the -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The Teutonic god of the oak and the thunder.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -god of thunder, Donar or Thunar, the equivalent of the Norse -Thor; for a sacred oak near Geismar, in Hesse, which -Boniface cut down in the eighth century, went among the -heathen by the name of Jupiter’s oak (<i>robur Jovis</i>), which in -old German would be <i>Donares eih</i>, “the oak of Donar.”<a id='r1196' /><a href='#f1196' class='c005'><sup>[1196]</sup></a> -That the Teutonic thunder god Donar, Thunar, Thor was -identified with the Italian thunder god Jupiter appears from -our word Thursday, Thunar’s day, which is merely a rendering -of the Latin <i>dies Jovis</i>.<a id='r1197' /><a href='#f1197' class='c005'><sup>[1197]</sup></a> Thus among the ancient -Teutons, as among the Greeks and Italians, the god of the -oak was also the god of the thunder. Moreover, he was -regarded as the great fertilising power, who sent rain and -caused the earth to bear fruit; for Adam of Bremen tells -us that “Thor presides in the air; he it is who rules thunder -and lightning, wind and rains, fine weather and crops.”<a id='r1198' /><a href='#f1198' class='c005'><sup>[1198]</sup></a> In -these respects, therefore, the Teutonic thunder god again -resembled his southern counterparts Zeus and Jupiter. And -like them Thor appears to have been the chief god of the -pantheon; for in the great temple at Upsala his image -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The worship of Thor at Upsala.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -occupied the middle place between the images of Odin and -Frey,<a id='r1199' /><a href='#f1199' class='c005'><sup>[1199]</sup></a> and in oaths by this or other Norse trinities he was -always the principal deity invoked.<a id='r1200' /><a href='#f1200' class='c005'><sup>[1200]</sup></a> Beside the temple at -Upsala there was a sacred grove, but the kinds of trees -which grew in it are not known. Only of one tree are we -told that it was of mighty size, with great spreading branches, -and that it remained green winter and summer alike. Here -too was a spring where sacrifices were offered. They used -to plunge a living man into the water, and if he disappeared -they drew a favourable omen. Every nine years, at the -spring equinox, a great festival was held at Upsala in honour -of Thor, the god of thunder, Odin, the god of war, and Frey, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_365'>365</span>the god of peace and pleasure. The ceremonies lasted nine -days. Nine male animals of every sort were sacrificed, that -their blood might appease the gods. Each day six victims -were slaughtered, of whom one was a man. Their bodies -were fastened to the trees of the grove, where dogs and -horses might be seen hanging beside men.<a id='r1201' /><a href='#f1201' class='c005'><sup>[1201]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Perun, the god of the oak and the thunder among the Slavs.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Amongst the Slavs also the oak appears to have been -the sacred tree of the thunder god Perun, the counterpart of -Zeus and Jupiter.<a id='r1202' /><a href='#f1202' class='c005'><sup>[1202]</sup></a> It is said that at Novgorod there used -to stand an image of Perun in the likeness of a man with a -thunder-stone in his hand. A fire of oak wood burned day -and night in his honour; and if ever it went out the attendants -paid for their negligence with their lives.<a id='r1203' /><a href='#f1203' class='c005'><sup>[1203]</sup></a> Perun seems, like -Zeus and Jupiter, to have been the chief god of his people; -for Procopius tells us that the Slavs “believe that one god, -the maker of lightning, is alone lord of all things, and they -sacrifice to him oxen and every victim.”<a id='r1204' /><a href='#f1204' class='c005'><sup>[1204]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Perkunas, the chief Lithuanian god.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The chief deity of the Lithuanians was Perkunas or -Perkuns, the god of thunder and lightning, whose resemblance -to Zeus and Jupiter has often been pointed out.<a id='r1205' /><a href='#f1205' class='c005'><sup>[1205]</sup></a> Oaks -<span class='pageno' id='Page_366'>366</span>were sacred to him, and when they were cut down by the -Christian missionaries, the people loudly complained that -their sylvan deities were destroyed.<a id='r1206' /><a href='#f1206' class='c005'><sup>[1206]</sup></a> Perpetual fires, kindled -with the wood of certain oak-trees, were kept up in honour -of Perkunas; if such a fire went out, it was lighted again -by friction of the sacred wood.<a id='r1207' /><a href='#f1207' class='c005'><sup>[1207]</sup></a> Men sacrificed to oak-trees -for good crops, while women did the same to lime-trees; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_367'>367</span>from which we may infer that they regarded oaks as male -and lime-trees as female.<a id='r1208' /><a href='#f1208' class='c005'><sup>[1208]</sup></a> And in time of drought, when -they wanted rain, they used to sacrifice a black heifer, a -black he-goat, and a black cock to the thunder-god in the -depths of the woods. On such occasions the people -assembled in great numbers from the country round about, -ate and drank, and called upon Perkunas. They carried a -bowl of beer thrice round the fire, then poured the liquor on -the flames, while they prayed to the god to send showers.<a id='r1209' /><a href='#f1209' class='c005'><sup>[1209]</sup></a> -Thus the chief Lithuanian deity presents a close resemblance -to Zeus and Jupiter, since he was the god of the oak, the -thunder, and the rain.<a id='r1210' /><a href='#f1210' class='c005'><sup>[1210]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The god of the oak and the thunder among the Esthonians.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Wedged in between the Lithuanians and the Slavs are -the Esthonians, a people who do not belong to the Aryan -family. But they also shared the reverence for the oak, -and associated the tree with their thunder-god Taara, the -deity of their pantheon, whom they called “Old -Father,” or “Father of Heaven.”<a id='r1211' /><a href='#f1211' class='c005'><sup>[1211]</sup></a> It is said that down to -the beginning of the nineteenth century Esthonians used to -smear the holy oaks, lime-trees, and ash-trees with the fresh -blood of animals at least once a year.<a id='r1212' /><a href='#f1212' class='c005'><sup>[1212]</sup></a> The following prayer -to thunder is instructive, because it shews how easily thunder, -through its association with rain, may appear to the rustic -<span class='pageno' id='Page_368'>368</span>mind in the character of a beneficent and fertilising power. -It was taken down from the lips of an Esthonian peasant -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Esthonian prayer to thunder.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -in the seventeenth century. “Dear Thunder,” he prayed, “we -sacrifice to thee an ox, which has two horns and four claws, -and we would beseech thee for the sake of our ploughing -and sowing, that our straw may be red as copper, and our -corn yellow as gold. Drive somewhere else all black, thick -clouds over great marshes, high woods, and wide wastes. -But to us ploughmen and sowers give a fruitful time and -sweet rain. Holy Thunder, guard our fields, that they may -bear good straw below, good ears above, and good grain -within.”<a id='r1213' /><a href='#f1213' class='c005'><sup>[1213]</sup></a> Sometimes in time of great drought an Esthonian -farmer would carry beer thrice round a sacrificial fire, then -pour it on the flames with a prayer that the thunder-god -would be pleased to send rain.<a id='r1214' /><a href='#f1214' class='c005'><sup>[1214]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Parjanya, the old Indian god of thunder, rain, and fertility.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In like manner, Parjanya, the old Indian god of thunder -and rain, whose name is by some scholars identified with -the Lithuanian Perkunas,<a id='r1215' /><a href='#f1215' class='c005'><sup>[1215]</sup></a> was conceived as a deity of -fertility, who not only made plants to germinate, but caused -cows, mares, and women to conceive. As the power who -impregnated all things, he was compared to a bull, an animal -which to the primitive herdsman is the most natural type of -the procreative energies. Thus in a hymn of the Rigveda -it is said of him:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>The Bull, loud roaring, swift to send his bounty, lays in the plants the seed for germination.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>He smites the trees apart, he slays the demons: all life fears him who wields the mighty weapon.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>From him exceeding strong flees e’en the guiltless when thundering Parjanya smites the wicked.</i></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Like a car-driver whipping on his horses, he makes the messengers of rain spring forward.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Far off resounds the roaring of the lion what time Parjanya fills the sky with rain-cloud.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Forth burst the winds, down come the lightning-flashes: the plants shoot up, the realm of light is streaming.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Food springs abundant for all living creatures what time Parjanya quickens earth with moisture.</i>”<a id='r1216' /><a href='#f1216' class='c005'><sup>[1216]</sup></a></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_369'>369</span>In another hymn Parjanya is spoken of as “giver of growth -to plants, the god who ruleth over the waters and all moving -creatures,” and it is said that “in him all living creatures -have their being.” Then the poet goes on:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>May this my song to sovran lord Parjanya come near unto his heart and give him pleasure.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>May we attain the showers that bring enjoyment, and god-protected plants with goodly fruitage.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>He is the Bull of all, and their impregner: he holds the life of all things fixed and moving.</i>”<a id='r1217' /><a href='#f1217' class='c005'><sup>[1217]</sup></a></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>And in yet another hymn we read:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Sing forth and laud Parjanya, son of Heaven, who sends the gift of rain:</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>May he provide our pasturage.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Parjanya is the god who forms in kine, in mares, in plants of earth</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>And womanhood, the germ of life.</i>”<a id='r1218' /><a href='#f1218' class='c005'><sup>[1218]</sup></a></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>In short, “Parjanya is a god who presides over the lightning, -the thunder, the rain, and the procreation of plants and living -creatures. But it is by no means clear whether he is originally -a god of the rain, or a god of the thunder. For, as both phenomena -are always associated in India, either of the two opinions -is admissible, if no deciding evidence comes from another -quarter.”<a id='r1219' /><a href='#f1219' class='c005'><sup>[1219]</sup></a> On this point something will be said presently. -Here it is enough to have indicated the ease with which the -notion of the thunder-god passes into, or is combined with, -the idea of a god of fertility in general.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>God of thunder, rain, and fertility among the Iroquois.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The same combination meets us in Heno, the thunder-spirit -of the Iroquois. His office was not only to hurl his -bolts at evil-doers, but to cool and refresh the ground with -showers, to ripen the harvest, and to mature the fruits of -the earth. In spring, when they committed the seeds -to the soil, the Indians prayed to him that he would -water them and foster their growth: and at the harvest -<span class='pageno' id='Page_370'>370</span>festival they thanked him for his gift of rain.<a id='r1220' /><a href='#f1220' class='c005'><sup>[1220]</sup></a> The Hos -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Goddess of lightning, rain, and fertility among the Hos.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -of Togoland in West Africa distinguish two deities of the -lightning, a god Sogble and a goddess Sodza, who are -husband and wife and talk with each other in the sound of -thunder. The goddess has epithets applied to her which -seem to shew that she is believed to send the rain and to -cause the plants to grow. She is addressed as “Mother of -men and beasts, ship full of yams, ship full of the most -varied fullness.” Further, it is said to be she who blesses -the tilled land. Moreover, like the Hindoo thunder-god -Parjanya, who slays demons, the Ho thunder-goddess drives -away evil spirits and witches from people’s houses; under -her protection children multiply and the inmates of the -house remain healthy.<a id='r1221' /><a href='#f1221' class='c005'><sup>[1221]</sup></a> The Indians of the Andes, about -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Gods of thunder, rain, and fertility among the Indians of the -Andes and the Abchases of the Caucasus.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Lake Titicaca, believe in a thunder-god named Con or Cun, -whom they call the “lord” or “father” of the mountains -(<i>Ccollo-auqui</i>). He is regarded as a powerful being, but -irritable and difficult of access, who dwells on the high -mountains above the line of perpetual snow. Yet he gives -great gifts to those who win his favour; and when the -crops are languishing for lack of rain, the Indians try to -rouse the god from his torpor by pouring a small libation of -brandy into a tarn below the snow-line; for they dare not -set foot on the snow lest they should meet the dreadful -thunder-god face to face. His bird is the condor as the -eagle was the bird of the Greek thunder-god Zeus.<a id='r1222' /><a href='#f1222' class='c005'><sup>[1222]</sup></a> Similarly -in time of drought the Abchases of the Caucasus -sacrifice an ox to Ap-hi, the god of thunder and lightning, -and an old man prays him to send rain, thunder, and -lightning, telling him that the crops are parched, the grass -burnt up, and the cattle starving.<a id='r1223' /><a href='#f1223' class='c005'><sup>[1223]</sup></a> These examples shew -how readily a thunder-god may come to be viewed as a -power of fertility; the connecting link is furnished by the -fertilising rain which usually accompanies a thunder-storm.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Traces of the worship of the oak in modern Europe.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -As might have been expected, the ancient worship of -the oak in Europe has left its print in popular custom and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_371'>371</span>superstition down to modern times. Thus in the French -department of Maine it is said that solitary oak-trees in the -fields are still worshipped, though the priests have sought to -give the worship a Christian colour by hanging images of -saints on the trees.<a id='r1224' /><a href='#f1224' class='c005'><sup>[1224]</sup></a> In various parts of Lower Saxony and -Westphalia, as late as the first half of the nineteenth century, -traces survived of the sanctity of certain oaks, to which the -people paid a half-heathenish, half-Christian worship. In -the principality of Minden young people of both sexes used -to dance round an old oak on Easter Saturday with loud -shouts of joy. And not far from the village of Wormeln, -in the neighbourhood of Paderborn, there stood a holy oak -in the forest, to which the inhabitants of Wormeln and -Calenberg went every year in solemn procession.<a id='r1225' /><a href='#f1225' class='c005'><sup>[1225]</sup></a> Another -vestige of superstitious reverence for the oak in Germany is -the custom of passing sick people and animals through a -natural or artificial opening in the trunk of an oak for the -purpose of healing them of their infirmities.<a id='r1226' /><a href='#f1226' class='c005'><sup>[1226]</sup></a> At a village -near Ragnit in East Prussia there was an oak which, down -to the seventeenth century, the villagers regarded as sacred, -firmly believing that any person who harmed it would be -visited with misfortune, especially with some bodily ailment.<a id='r1227' /><a href='#f1227' class='c005'><sup>[1227]</sup></a> -About the middle of the nineteenth century the Lithuanians -still laid offerings for spirits under ancient oaks;<a id='r1228' /><a href='#f1228' class='c005'><sup>[1228]</sup></a> and old-fashioned -people among them preferred to cook the viands -for funeral banquets on a fire of oak-wood, or at least under -an oak-tree.<a id='r1229' /><a href='#f1229' class='c005'><sup>[1229]</sup></a> On the rivulet Micksy, between the governments -of Pskov and Livonia in Russia, there stood a stunted, -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Worship of the oak in modern Russia.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -withered, but holy oak, which received the homage of the -neighbouring peasantry down at least to 1874. An eye-witness -has described the ceremonies. He found a great -crowd of people, chiefly Esthonians of the Greek Church, -assembled with their families about the tree, all dressed in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_372'>372</span>gala costume. Some of them had brought wax candles and -were fastening them about the trunk and in the branches. -Soon a priest arrived, and, having donned his sacred robes, -proceeded to sing a canticle, such as is usually sung in the -Orthodox Church in honour of saints. But instead of saying -as usual, “Holy saint, pray the Lord for us,” he said, “Holy -Oak Hallelujah, pray for us.” Then he incensed the tree -all round. During the service the tapers on the oak were -lighted, and the people, throwing themselves on the ground, -adored the holy tree. When the pastor had retired, his -flock remained till late at night, feasting, drinking, dancing, -and lighting fresh tapers on the oak, till everybody was -drunk and the proceedings ended in an orgy.<a id='r1230' /><a href='#f1230' class='c005'><sup>[1230]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Ceremonial fires kindled by the friction of oak-wood.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Another relic of the ancient sanctity of the oak has survived -to modern times in the practice of kindling ceremonial -fires by means of the friction of oak-wood. This has been -done, either at stated seasons of the year or on occasions of -distress, by Slavs, Germans, and Celts.<a id='r1231' /><a href='#f1231' class='c005'><sup>[1231]</sup></a> Taken together with -the perpetual sacred fires of oak-wood which we have found -among the Slavs, the Lithuanians, and the ancient Romans,<a id='r1232' /><a href='#f1232' class='c005'><sup>[1232]</sup></a> -the wide prevalence of the practice seems clearly to point -back to a time when the forefathers of the Aryans in Europe -dwelt in forests of oak, fed their fires with oak-wood, and -rekindled them, when they chanced to go out, by rubbing -two oaken sticks against each other.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>In the great European god of the oak, the thunder, and the rain, the -original element seems to have been the oak.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -From the foregoing survey of the facts it appears that a -god of the oak, the thunder, and the rain was worshipped of -old by all the main branches of the Aryan stock in Europe, -and was indeed the chief deity of their pantheon.<a id='r1233' /><a href='#f1233' class='c005'><sup>[1233]</sup></a> It was -natural enough that the oak should loom large in the religion -<span class='pageno' id='Page_373'>373</span>of people who lived in oak forests, used oak timber for building, -oak sticks for fuel, and oak acorns for food and fodder; -but we have still to explain how they were led to associate the -thunder and the rain with the oak in their conception of this -great divinity. From the nature of the case our solution of -the problem must be conjectural; we can only guess at the -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The clue to the development of a lightning-god out of an oak-god may -have been the notion that the heavenly fire or lightning was made, like the -earthly fire, by the friction of oak-wood.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -train of thought which prompted our forefathers to link -together things which to us seem so very different. -Thunder and rain may indeed naturally be regarded as -akin since the two so often occur together; but the difficulty -is to understand why the oak should be joined with -them. Which of the three elements was the original nucleus -about which the others afterwards clustered? In our -ignorance of the facts, this question amounts to asking -whether, on the principles of savage thought, it is easier to -suppose that an original god of thunder and rain should -afterwards add the oak-tree to his attributes, or that, on the -contrary, an old god of the oak should annex to himself the -thunder and the rain? In favour of the first of these -suppositions it may be said that a god of thunder and rain -might in time be regarded as a god of the oak, because -thunder and rain come from the sky, and the oak reaches -skyward and is often struck by lightning.<a id='r1234' /><a href='#f1234' class='c005'><sup>[1234]</sup></a> But this train of -thought is hardly likely to carry conviction even to the mind -of a savage. On the other hand, it is not difficult to imagine -how early man in Europe might suppose the thunder, or -rather the lightning, to be derived from the oak. Seeing -that fire on earth was regularly kindled by the rubbing of -oaken sticks together, he might readily infer that fire in -heaven was produced in like manner; in other words, that -the flash of lightning was the spark elicited by some one who -was lighting his fire in the usual fashion up aloft; for the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_374'>374</span>savage commonly explains natural phenomena by ideas -drawn from the circle of his own daily life. Similarly, -people who are accustomed to make fire by means of -flints sometimes suppose that lightning is produced in the -same way. This is reported of the Armenians,<a id='r1235' /><a href='#f1235' class='c005'><sup>[1235]</sup></a> and it may -be inferred of the many peoples who believe that the flint -implements of prehistoric races are thunder-bolts.<a id='r1236' /><a href='#f1236' class='c005'><sup>[1236]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>When an oak-god had once grown into a lightning-god, he would -easily develop into a god of the rain and the sky.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus it is easy to conceive how a god of the oak, viewed -as the source of earthly fire, should come to be regarded as -a god of the lightning, and hence, by an easy extension of -ideas, as a god of thunder and rain. Accordingly we may -provisionally assume that the great Aryan gods who combine -these various functions have been evolved in this fashion. -A further step in their promotion would be taken when the -whole sky was assigned to their dominion. The Greeks and -Italians certainly advanced their Zeus and Jupiter to this -lofty position;<a id='r1237' /><a href='#f1237' class='c005'><sup>[1237]</sup></a> but there seems to be no evidence that the -Aryans of the north ever raised their corresponding deities -<span class='pageno' id='Page_375'>375</span>to the rank of sky-gods in general. It is commonly indeed -assumed that the sky was the original province of all these -deities, or rather of the single Aryan god from which they -are descended. But on this theory it is hard to see why the -god of the sky should have taken up with the oak, and not -only that, but should have clung to it even after he had, in -some places at least, begun to sit very loose to his old home, -the vault of heaven. Surely his fidelity to the oak from the -earliest to the latest times among all the different families of -his European worshippers is a strong argument for regarding -the tree as the primary, not a secondary, element in his -composite nature.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_376'>376</span> - <h2 id='chap21' class='c002'>CHAPTER XXI <br /> DIANUS AND DIANA</h2> -</div> -<p class='c003'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Recapitulation.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In this chapter I propose to recapitulate the conclusions to -which the enquiry has thus far led us, and drawing together -the scattered rays of light, to turn them on the dark figure -of the priest of Nemi.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Rise of sacred kings, who are supposed to be endowed -with magical or divine powers.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -We have found that at an early stage of society men, -ignorant of the secret processes of Nature and of the narrow -limits within which it is in our power to control and direct -them, have commonly arrogated to themselves functions -which in the present state of knowledge we should deem -superhuman or divine. The illusion has been fostered and -maintained by the same causes which begot it, namely, -the marvellous order and uniformity with which Nature -conducts her operations, the wheels of her great machine -revolving with a smoothness and precision which enable -the patient observer to anticipate in general the season, -if not the very hour, when they will bring round the -fulfilment of his hopes or the accomplishment of his fears. -The regularly recurring events of this great cycle, or -rather series of cycles, soon stamp themselves even on the -dull mind of the savage. He foresees them, and foreseeing -them mistakes the desired recurrence for an effect -of his own will, and the dreaded recurrence for an effect of -the will of his enemies. Thus the springs which set the vast -machine in motion, though they lie far beyond our ken, -shrouded in a mystery which we can never hope to penetrate, -appear to ignorant man to lie within his reach: he -fancies he can touch them and so work by magic art all -manner of good to himself and evil to his foes. In time the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_377'>377</span>fallacy of this belief becomes apparent to him: he discovers -that there are things he cannot do, pleasures which he is -unable of himself to procure, pains which even the most -potent magician is powerless to avoid. The unattainable -good, the inevitable ill, are now ascribed by him to the action -of invisible powers, whose favour is joy and life, whose anger -is misery and death. Thus magic tends to be displaced by -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Transition from magic to religion.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -religion, and the sorcerer by the priest. At this stage of -thought the ultimate causes of things are conceived to be -personal beings, many in number and often discordant in -character, who partake of the nature and even of the frailty -of man, though their might is greater than his, and their life -far exceeds the span of his ephemeral existence. Their -sharply-marked individualities, their clear-cut outlines have -not yet begun, under the powerful solvent of philosophy, -to melt and coalesce into that single unknown substratum of -phenomena which, according to the qualities with which our -imagination invests it, goes by one or other of the high-sounding -names which the wit of man has devised to hide -his ignorance. Accordingly, so long as men look on their -gods as beings akin to themselves and not raised to an -unapproachable height above them, they believe it to be -possible for those of their own number who surpass their -fellows to attain to the divine rank after death or even in -life. Incarnate human deities of this latter sort may be said -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Incarnate human deities.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -to halt midway between the age of magic and the age of -religion. If they bear the names and display the pomp of -deities, the powers which they are supposed to wield are -commonly those of their predecessor the magician. Like -him, they are expected to guard their people against hostile -enchantments, to heal them in sickness, to bless them with -offspring, and to provide them with an abundant supply of -food by regulating the weather and performing the other -ceremonies which are deemed necessary to ensure the -fertility of the earth and the multiplication of animals. -Men who are credited with powers so lofty and far-reaching -naturally hold the highest place in the land, and while the -rift between the spiritual and the temporal spheres has not -yet widened too far, they are supreme in civil as well as -religious matters: in a word, they are kings as well as gods. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_378'>378</span>Thus the divinity which hedges a king has its roots deep -down in human history, and long ages pass before these are -sapped by a profounder view of nature and man.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The King of the Wood at Nemi seems to have been one of these divine -kings and to have mated with the divine Queen of the Wood, Diana.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -In the classical period of Greek and Latin antiquity the -reign of kings was for the most part a thing of the past; -yet the stories of their lineage, titles, and pretensions suffice -to prove that they too claimed to rule by divine right and to -exercise superhuman powers. Hence we may without undue -temerity assume that the King of the Wood at Nemi, though -shorn in later times of his glory and fallen on evil days, -represented a long line of sacred kings who had once -received not only the homage but the adoration of their -subjects in return for the manifold blessings which they were -supposed to dispense. What little we know of the functions -of Diana in the Arician grove seems to prove that she -was here conceived as a goddess of fertility, and particularly -as a divinity of childbirth.<a id='r1238' /><a href='#f1238' class='c005'><sup>[1238]</sup></a> It is reasonable, therefore, to -suppose that in the discharge of these important duties she -was assisted by her priest, the two figuring as King and -Queen of the Wood in a solemn marriage, which was -intended to make the earth gay with the blossoms of spring -and the fruits of autumn, and to gladden the hearts of men -and women with healthful offspring.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Virbius, whom the King of the Wood represented, was probably a -form of Jupiter regarded as god of the greenwood, and especially -of the oak.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -If the priest of Nemi posed not merely as a king, but as -a god of the grove, we have still to ask, What deity in -particular did he personate? The answer of antiquity is -that he represented Virbius, the consort or lover of Diana.<a id='r1239' /><a href='#f1239' class='c005'><sup>[1239]</sup></a> -But this does not help us much, for of Virbius we know little -more than the name. A clue to the mystery is perhaps -supplied by the Vestal fire which burned in the grove.<a id='r1240' /><a href='#f1240' class='c005'><sup>[1240]</sup></a> For -the perpetual holy fires of the Aryans in Europe appear to -have been commonly kindled and fed with oak-wood,<a id='r1241' /><a href='#f1241' class='c005'><sup>[1241]</sup></a> and -we have seen that in Rome itself, not many miles from Nemi, -the fuel of the Vestal fire consisted of oaken sticks or logs, -which in early days the holy maidens doubtless gathered or -cut in the coppices of oak that once covered the Seven -Hills.<a id='r1242' /><a href='#f1242' class='c005'><sup>[1242]</sup></a> But the ritual of the various Latin towns seems -<span class='pageno' id='Page_379'>379</span>to have been marked by great uniformity;<a id='r1243' /><a href='#f1243' class='c005'><sup>[1243]</sup></a> hence it -is reasonable to conclude that wherever in Latium a -Vestal fire was maintained, it was fed, as at Rome, -with wood of the sacred oak. If this was so at Nemi, it -becomes probable that the hallowed grove there consisted -of a natural oak-wood, and that therefore the tree -which the King of the Wood had to guard at the peril of -his life was itself an oak; indeed it was from an -evergreen oak, according to Virgil, that Aeneas plucked -the Golden Bough.<a id='r1244' /><a href='#f1244' class='c005'><sup>[1244]</sup></a> Now the oak was the sacred tree of -Jupiter, the supreme god of the Latins. Hence it follows -that the King of the Wood, whose life was bound up in a -fashion with an oak, personated no less a deity than Jupiter -himself. At least the evidence, slight as it is, seems to point -to this conclusion. The old Alban dynasty of the Silvii or -Woods, with their crown of oak leaves, apparently aped the -style and emulated the powers of Latian Jupiter, who dwelt on -the top of the Alban Mount.<a id='r1245' /><a href='#f1245' class='c005'><sup>[1245]</sup></a> It is not impossible that the -King of the Wood, who guarded the sacred oak a little lower -down the mountain, was the lawful successor and representative -of this ancient line of the Silvii or Woods.<a id='r1246' /><a href='#f1246' class='c005'><sup>[1246]</sup></a> At all events, -if I am right in supposing that he passed for a human Jupiter, -it would appear that Virbius, with whom legend identified -him, was nothing but a local form of Jupiter, considered -perhaps in his original aspect as a god of the greenwood.<a id='r1247' /><a href='#f1247' class='c005'><sup>[1247]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_380'>380</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Diana and the oak.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -The hypothesis that in later times at all events the -King of the Wood played the part of the oak god Jupiter, -is confirmed by an examination of his divine partner Diana. -<span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Diana, the divine partner of the King of the Wood at Nemi, seems to -have been especially associated with the oak.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -For two distinct lines of argument converge to shew that -if Diana was a queen of the woods in general, she was -at Nemi a goddess of the oak in particular. In the first -place, she bore the title of Vesta, and as such presided -over a perpetual fire, which we have seen reason to believe -was fed with oak wood.<a id='r1248' /><a href='#f1248' class='c005'><sup>[1248]</sup></a> But a goddess of fire is not -far removed from a goddess of the fuel which burns in the -fire; primitive thought perhaps drew no sharp line of distinction -between the blaze and the wood that blazes. In the -second place, the nymph Egeria at Nemi appears to have -been merely a form of Diana, and Egeria is definitely said -to have been a Dryad, a nymph of the oak.<a id='r1249' /><a href='#f1249' class='c005'><sup>[1249]</sup></a> Elsewhere in -Italy the goddess had her home on oak-clad mountains. Thus -Mount Algidus, a spur of the Alban hills, was covered in antiquity -with dark forests of oak, both of the evergreen and the -deciduous sort. In winter the snow lay long on these cold -hills, and their gloomy oak-woods were believed to be a -favourite haunt of Diana, as they have been of brigands in -modern times.<a id='r1250' /><a href='#f1250' class='c005'><sup>[1250]</sup></a> Again, Mount Tifata, the long abrupt ridge -of the Apennines which looks down on the Campanian plain -behind Capua, was wooded of old with evergreen oaks, among -which Diana had a temple. Here Sulla thanked the goddess -for his victory over the Marians in the plain below, attesting -his gratitude by inscriptions which were long afterwards to be -seen in the temple.<a id='r1251' /><a href='#f1251' class='c005'><sup>[1251]</sup></a> On the whole, then, we conclude that at -Nemi the King of the Wood personated the oak-god Jupiter -and mated with the oak-goddess Diana in the sacred grove. -An echo of their mystic union has come down to us in the -legend of the loves of Numa and Egeria, who according to -some had their trysting-place in these holy woods.<a id='r1252' /><a href='#f1252' class='c005'><sup>[1252]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_381'>381</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>In nature and in name Dianus (Janus) and Diana seem to be only dialectically -different forms of Jupiter and Juno.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -To this theory it may naturally be objected that the -divine consort of Jupiter was not Diana but Juno, and that -if Diana had a mate at all he might be expected to bear the -name not of Jupiter, but of Dianus or Janus, the latter of -these forms being merely a corruption of the former. All -this is true, but the objection may be parried by observing -that the two pairs of deities, Jupiter and Juno on the one -side, and Dianus and Diana, or Janus and Jana, on the other -side, are merely duplicates of each other, their names and -their functions being in substance and origin identical. With -regard to their names, all four of them come from the same -Aryan root <i>DI</i>, meaning “bright,” which occurs in the -names of the corresponding Greek deities, Zeus and his old -female consort Dione.<a id='r1253' /><a href='#f1253' class='c005'><sup>[1253]</sup></a> In regard to their functions, Juno -and Diana were both goddesses of fecundity and childbirth, -and both were sooner or later identified with the moon.<a id='r1254' /><a href='#f1254' class='c005'><sup>[1254]</sup></a> As -to the true nature and functions of Janus the ancients themselves -were puzzled;<a id='r1255' /><a href='#f1255' class='c005'><sup>[1255]</sup></a> and where they hesitated, it is not for -us confidently to decide. But the view mentioned by Varro -that Janus was the god of the sky<a id='r1256' /><a href='#f1256' class='c005'><sup>[1256]</sup></a> is supported not only -by the etymological identity of his name with that of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_382'>382</span>sky-god Jupiter, but also by the relation in which he appears -to have stood to Jupiter’s two mates, Juno and Juturna. -For the epithet Junonian bestowed on Janus<a id='r1257' /><a href='#f1257' class='c005'><sup>[1257]</sup></a> points to a -marriage union between the two deities; and according to -one account Janus was the husband of the water-nymph -Juturna,<a id='r1258' /><a href='#f1258' class='c005'><sup>[1258]</sup></a> who according to others was beloved by Jupiter.<a id='r1259' /><a href='#f1259' class='c005'><sup>[1259]</sup></a> -Moreover, Janus, like Jove, was regularly invoked, and commonly -spoken of, under the title of Father.<a id='r1260' /><a href='#f1260' class='c005'><sup>[1260]</sup></a> Indeed, he was -identified with Jupiter not merely by the logic of a Christian -doctor,<a id='r1261' /><a href='#f1261' class='c005'><sup>[1261]</sup></a> but by the piety of a pagan worshipper who dedicated -an offering to Jupiter Dianus.<a id='r1262' /><a href='#f1262' class='c005'><sup>[1262]</sup></a> A trace of his relation to -the oak may be found in the oak-woods of the Janiculum, -the hill on the right bank of the Tiber, where Janus is said -to have reigned as a king in the remotest ages of Italian -history.<a id='r1263' /><a href='#f1263' class='c005'><sup>[1263]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Zeus and Dione, Jupiter and Juno, Dianus (Janus) and Diana represent -a single original pair of Aryan deities, which through purely dialectical differences -of nomenclature gradually diverged from each other and came to be regarded as -separate pairs of deities.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -Thus, if I am right, the same ancient pair of deities was -variously known among the Greek and Italian peoples as -Zeus and Dione, Jupiter and Juno, or Dianus (Janus) and -Diana (Jana), the names of the divinities being identical in -substance, though varying in form with the dialect of the -particular tribe which worshipped them. At first, when the -peoples dwelt near each other, the difference between the -deities would be hardly more than one of name; in other -words, it would be almost purely dialectical. But the gradual -dispersion of the tribes, and their consequent isolation from -each other, would favour the growth of divergent modes of -conceiving and worshipping the gods whom they had carried -<span class='pageno' id='Page_383'>383</span>with them from their old home, so that in time discrepancies -of myth and ritual would tend to spring up and thereby to -convert a nominal into a real distinction between the divinities. -Accordingly when, with the slow progress of culture, -the long period of barbarism and separation was passing -away, and the rising political power of a single strong community -had begun to draw or hammer its weaker neighbours -into a nation, the confluent peoples would throw their gods, -like their dialects, into a common stock; and thus it might -come about that the same ancient deities, which their forefathers -had worshipped together before the dispersion, would -now be so disguised by the accumulated effect of dialectical -and religious divergencies that their original identity might -fail to be recognised, and they would take their places side by -side as independent divinities in the national pantheon.<a id='r1264' /><a href='#f1264' class='c005'><sup>[1264]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>This explanation of Janus as equivalent to Jupiter is more probable than -the view that Janus was originally nothing but the god of the door (<i>janua</i>); -for the door (<i>janua</i>) seems rather to have been named after Janus than -he after it.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -This duplication of deities, the result of the final fusion -of kindred tribes who had long lived apart, would account -for the appearance of Janus beside Jupiter, and of Diana or -Jana beside Juno in the Roman religion.<a id='r1265' /><a href='#f1265' class='c005'><sup>[1265]</sup></a> At least this -appears to be a more probable theory than the opinion, -which has found favour with some modern scholars, that -Janus was originally nothing but the god of doors.<a id='r1266' /><a href='#f1266' class='c005'><sup>[1266]</sup></a> That a -deity of his dignity and importance, whom the Romans -revered as a god of gods<a id='r1267' /><a href='#f1267' class='c005'><sup>[1267]</sup></a> and the father of his people, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_384'>384</span>should have started in life as a humble, though doubtless -respectable, doorkeeper appears to me, I confess, very -unlikely. So lofty an end hardly consorts with so lowly -a beginning. It is more probable that the door (<i>janua</i>) -got its name from Janus than that he got his name -from it. This view is strengthened by a consideration of -the word <i>janua</i> itself. The regular word for door is the -same in all the languages of the Aryan family from India -to Ireland. It is <i>dur</i> in Sanscrit, <i>thura</i> in Greek, <i>Tür</i> in -German, <i>door</i> in English, <i>dorus</i> in old Irish, and <i>foris</i> in -Latin.<a id='r1268' /><a href='#f1268' class='c005'><sup>[1268]</sup></a> Yet besides this ordinary name for door, which the -Latins shared with all their Aryan brethren, they had also -the name <i>janua</i>, to which there is no corresponding term in -any Indo-European speech. The word has the appearance -of being an adjectival form derived from the noun <i>Janus</i>. I -conjecture that it may have been customary to set up an -image or symbol of Janus at the principal door of the house -in order to place the entrance under the protection of the -great god. A door thus guarded might be known as a -<i>janua foris</i>, that is, a Januan door, and the phrase might in -time be abridged into <i>janua</i>, the noun <i>foris</i> being understood -but not expressed. From this to the use of <i>janua</i> to -designate a door in general, whether guarded by an image -of Janus or not, would be an easy and natural transition.<a id='r1269' /><a href='#f1269' class='c005'><sup>[1269]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>The double-headed figure of Janus may have originated in a custom -of placing his image as guardian of doorways so as to face both ways, outwards -and inwards, at the same time.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -If there is any truth in this conjecture, it may explain -very simply the origin of the double head of Janus, which -has so long exercised the ingenuity of mythologists. When -it had become customary to guard the entrance of houses -and towns by an image of Janus, it might well be deemed -necessary to make the sentinel god look both ways, before -and behind, at the same time, in order that nothing should -escape his vigilant eye. For if the divine watchman always -faced in one direction, it is easy to imagine what mischief -might have been wrought with impunity behind his back.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_385'>385</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>This explanation is confirmed by the double-headed idols which the Bush -negroes of Surinam set to guard the entrances of their villages.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -This explanation of the double-headed Janus at Rome is -confirmed by the double-headed idol which the Bush -negroes in the interior of Surinam regularly set up as -a guardian at the entrance of a village. The idol consists -of a block of wood with a human face rudely carved on -each side; it stands under a gateway composed of two -uprights and a cross-bar. Beside the idol generally lies a -white rag intended to keep off the devil; and sometimes -there is also a stick which seems to represent a bludgeon -or weapon of some sort. Further, from the cross-bar hangs -a small log which serves the useful purpose of knocking -on the head any evil spirit who might attempt to pass -through the gateway.<a id='r1270' /><a href='#f1270' class='c005'><sup>[1270]</sup></a> Clearly this double-headed fetish -at the gateway of the negro villages in Surinam bears a -close resemblance to the double-headed images of Janus -which, grasping a stick in one hand and a key in the other, -stood sentinel at Roman gates and doorways;<a id='r1271' /><a href='#f1271' class='c005'><sup>[1271]</sup></a> and we -can hardly doubt that in both cases the heads facing two -ways are to be similarly explained as expressive of the -vigilance of the guardian god, who kept his eye on spiritual -foes behind and before, and stood ready to bludgeon them on -the spot. We may, therefore, dispense with the tedious and -unsatisfactory explanations which the wily Janus himself -fobbed off an anxious Roman enquirer.<a id='r1272' /><a href='#f1272' class='c005'><sup>[1272]</sup></a> In the interior of -Borneo the Kenyahs generally place before the main -entrance of their houses the wooden image of Balli Atap, -that is, the Spirit or God (<i>Balli</i>) of the Roof, who protects -the household from harm of all kinds.<a id='r1273' /><a href='#f1273' class='c005'><sup>[1273]</sup></a> But it does not -appear that this divine watchman is provided with more -than one face.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_386'>386</span><span class='sni'><span class='hidev'>|</span>Thus the King of the Wood at Nemi seems to have personated the great -Aryan god of the oak, Jupiter or Janus, and to have mated with the oak-goddess -Diana.<span class='hidev'>|</span></span> -To apply these conclusions to the priest of Nemi, we -may suppose that as the mate of Diana he represented -originally Dianus or Janus rather than Jupiter, but that the -difference between these deities was of old merely superficial, -going little deeper than the names, and leaving practically -unaffected the essential functions of the god as a power of -the sky, the thunder, and the oak. If my analysis of this -great divinity is correct, the original element in his composite -nature was the oak. It was fitting, therefore, that his -human representative at Nemi should dwell, as we have seen -reason to believe he did, in an oak grove. His title of King -of the Wood clearly indicates the sylvan character of the -deity whom he served; and since he could only be assailed -by him who had plucked the bough of a certain tree in -the grove, his own life might be said to be bound up with -that of the sacred tree. Thus he not only served but -embodied the great Aryan god of the oak; and as an -oak-god he would mate with the oak-goddess, whether she -went by the name of Egeria or Diana. Their union, -however consummated, would be deemed essential to the -fertility of the earth and the fecundity of man and beast. -Further, as the oak-god had grown into a god of the sky, -the thunder, and the rain, so his human representative -would be required, like many other divine kings, to cause the -clouds to gather, the thunder to peal, and the rain to descend -in due season, that the fields and orchards might bear fruit and -the pastures be covered with luxuriant herbage. The reputed -possessor of powers so exalted must have been a very important -personage; and the remains of buildings and of -votive offerings which have been found on the site of the -sanctuary combine with the testimony of classical writers -to prove that in later times it was one of the greatest and -most popular shrines in Italy. Even in the old days when the -champaign country around was still parcelled out among -the petty tribes who composed the Latin League, the sacred -grove is known to have been an object of their common -reverence and care. And just as the kings of Cambodia -used to send offerings to the mystic kings of Fire and Water -far in the dim depths of the tropical forest, so, we may -well believe, from all sides of the broad Latian plain the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_387'>387</span>eyes and footsteps of Italian pilgrims turned to the quarter -where, standing sharply out against the faint blue line of -the Apennines or the deeper blue of the distant sea, the -Alban Mountain rose before them, the home of the mysterious -priest of Nemi, the King of the Wood. There, among the -green woods and beside the still waters of the lonely hills the -ancient Aryan worship of the god of the oak, the thunder, and -the dripping sky lingered in its early, almost Druidical form, -long after a great political and intellectual revolution had -shifted the capital of Latin religion from the forest to the -city, from Nemi to Rome.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_389'>389</span> - <h2 id='index' class='c002'>INDEX</h2> -</div> -<ul class='index c010'> - <li class='c011'>Abbas Effendi, i. 402</li> - <li class='c011'>Abchases of the Caucasus, the, ii. <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Abolition of the kingship at Rome, ii. <a href='#Page_289'>289</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Abraham and Sarah, ii. <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Acacia-tree worshipped, ii. <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Achelous and Dejanira, ii. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Achilles, ii. <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Acorns as food, ii. <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>as fodder for swine, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Adam of Bremen, ii. <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Adonis at Byblus, i. 30</li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Venus (Aphrodite), i. 21, 25, 40, 41</li> - <li class='c011'>—— or Tammuz, ii. <a href='#Page_346'>346</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Adoption, pretence of birth at, i. 74 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Adultery supposed to blight the fruits of the earth, ii. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Aeacus, ii. <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Aegira, priestess of Earth at, i. 381 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Aegisthus, ii. <a href='#Page_281'>281</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Aeneas and the Golden Bough, i. 11, ii. <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>; - <ul> - <li>his disappearance in a thunderstorm, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Aeolus, i. 326</li> - <li class='c011'>Aeschines, spurious epistles of, ii. <a href='#Page_162'>162</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Aesculapius brings Hippolytus to life, i. 20; - <ul> - <li>at Cos, ii. <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Africa, rise of magicians, especially rain-makers, to chieftainship and kingship in, i. 342 <i>sqq.</i>, 352; - <ul> - <li>human gods in, 392 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— North, magical images in, i. 65 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Afterbirth (placenta), contagious magic of, i. 182-201; - <ul> - <li>placed in tree, 182, 187, 190, 191, 194, 199;</li> - <li>part of child’s spirit in, 184;</li> - <li>regarded as brother or sister of child, 189, 191, 192, 193;</li> - <li>regarded as a second child, 195;</li> - <li>seat of external soul, 200 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Agamemnon, ii. <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>; - <ul> - <li>sceptre of, i. 365</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Agni, the fire-god, ii. <a href='#Page_249'>249</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Agnihotris</i>, Brahman fire-priests, ii. <a href='#Page_247'>247</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Agriculture of the Nabataeans</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Ainos, i. 60</li> - <li class='c011'>Akamba, the, ii. <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Akikuyu, the, ii. <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>; - <ul> - <li>pretence of new birth among the, i. 75 <i>sq.</i>, 96 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Alba Longa, the kings of, ii. <a href='#Page_178'>178</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Alban Hills, i. 2</li> - <li class='c011'>—— Mountain, the, ii. <a href='#Page_187'>187</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Albigenses, the, i. 407</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Alcheringa</i>, legendary time, i. 98</li> - <li class='c011'>Alfai, priesthood of the, ii. <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Algidus, Mount, ii. <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Algonquins, the, ii. <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Amata, “Beloved,” title of Vestals, ii. <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>; - <ul> - <li>Amata, wife of King Latinus, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Amboyna, ii. <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Amenophis III., birth of, ii. <a href='#Page_131'>131</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>American Indians, power of medicine-men among the, i. 355 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Amethyst, i. 165</li> - <li class='c011'>Ammon, the god, married to the Queen of Egypt, ii. <a href='#Page_130'>130</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>human wives of the god, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>costume of the god, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>;</li> - <li>King of Egypt masqueraded as, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>;</li> - <li>at Thebes, high priests of, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Ammonite, black fossil, ii. <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Amphictyon, ii. <a href='#Page_277'>277</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Amulius Sylvius, ii. <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Anaitis, Oriental goddess, i. 16 <i>sq.</i>, 37 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Anatomie of Abuses</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Anazarbus, the olives of, ii. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Ancestor-worship among the Bantu peoples, ii. <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>; - <ul> - <li>in relation to fire-worship, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Ancestors, prayers to, i. 285, 287, 345, 352; - <ul> - <li>sacrifices to, 339;</li> - <li>souls of, in trees, ii. <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>;</li> - <li>dead, regarded as mischievous beings, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;</li> - <li>represented by sacred fire-sticks, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>souls of, in the fire on the hearth, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Ancestral spirits worshipped at the hearth, ii. <a href='#Page_221'>221</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_390'>390</span>Ancestral tree, fire kindled from, ii. <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Ancus Martius, his death, ii. <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Andaman Islanders, ii. <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Andania, ii. <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Anderida, forest of, ii. <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Andromeda and Perseus, ii. <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Animals, homoeopathic magic of, i. 150 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>rain-making by means of, 287 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Animism passing into polytheism, ii. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Anitos</i>, spirits of ancestors, ii. <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Anjea, mythical being, who causes conception in women, i. 100, 184</li> - <li class='c011'>Annals of Tigernach and Ulster, ii. <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Annandale, Nelson, ii. <a href='#Page_237'>237</a> <i>n.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Anointing weapon which caused wound, i. 202 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Antaeus, ii. <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Antigone, death of, ii. <a href='#Page_228'>228</a> <i>n.</i> 5</li> - <li class='c011'>Antigonus, i. 391 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Antimores of Madagascar, i. 354</li> - <li class='c011'>Apaches, land of the, i. 306</li> - <li class='c011'>Apepi, Egyptian fiend, i. 67</li> - <li class='c011'>Apes thought to be related to twins, i. 265</li> - <li class='c011'>Ap-hi, god of thunder and lightning, ii. <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Aphrodite and Adonis, i. 25</li> - <li class='c011'>—— Askraia, i. 26</li> - <li class='c011'>Apollo, i. 384, 386; - <ul> - <li>at Delos, 32, 34 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>at Delphi, 28;</li> - <li>grave of, at Delphi, 35;</li> - <li>Erithasean, ii. <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>;</li> - <li>at Patara, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Artemis, birthdays of, i. 32</li> - <li class='c011'>—— Diradiotes, i. 381</li> - <li class='c011'>Apologies offered to trees for cutting them down, ii. <a href='#Page_18'>18</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Apples at festival of Diana, i. 14, 16</li> - <li class='c011'>April 15th, sacrifice on, ii. <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— 21st, date of the Parilia, ii. <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— 23rd, St. George’s Day, ii. <a href='#Page_330'>330</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— 24th, in some places St. George’s Day, ii. <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Arab charms, i. 152, 153, 157, 165 <i>sq.</i>, 181, 303</li> - <li class='c011'>Arabs of Moab, i. 276</li> - <li class='c011'>Aratus, sacrifices to, i. 105</li> - <li class='c011'>Araucanians of Chili, the, ii. <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Arden, forest of, ii. <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Ardennes, goddess of the, ii. <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Aren</i> palm-tree, ii. <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Ariadne and Dionysus, ii. <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Aricia, i. 3, 4, 10, ii. <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>; - <ul> - <li>“many Manii at,” i. 22</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Arician grove, the sacred, i. 20, 22, ii. <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>; - <ul> - <li>horses excluded from, i. 20</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Arikara Indians, i. 115</li> - <li class='c011'>Aristotle, ii. <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Arkon, in Rügen, ii. <a href='#Page_241'>241</a> <i>n.</i> 4</li> - <li class='c011'>Armenia, rain-making in, i. 275 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Arrephoroi at Athens, the, ii. <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Arrian, on sacrifices to Artemis, ii. <a href='#Page_125'>125</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Arrows shot at sacred trees, ii. <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>; - <ul> - <li>fire-tipped, shot at sun during an eclipse, i. 311</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Artemis, temple dedicated to her by Xenophon, i. 7; - <ul> - <li>birthday of, i. 32, ii. <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>;</li> - <li>the Asiatic, i. 7;</li> - <li>at Delos, 28;</li> - <li>of Ephesus, 7, 37 <i>sq.</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>;</li> - <li>a goddess of the wild life of nature, i. 35 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>sacrifices to, ii. <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>;</li> - <li>worshipped by the Celts, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>Saronian, i. 26;</li> - <li>Wolfish, 26 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Apollo, birthdays of, i. 32; - <ul> - <li>and Hippolytus, 19 <i>sq.</i>, 24 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— <i>Parthenos</i>, i. 36</li> - <li class='c011'>Arunta, the, of Central Australia, i. 98; - <ul> - <li>magical ceremonies among, 85 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>burial customs of the, 102</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Arval Brothers, the, ii. <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Aryan god of the oak and thunder, ii. <a href='#Page_356'>356</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>god of the sky, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Aryans, magical powers ascribed to kings among the, i. 366 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>perpetual fires among the, ii. <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>;</li> - <li>female kinship among the, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Ascanius or Julus, ii. <a href='#Page_197'>197</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Ascension Day, ii. <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Ashantee, licence accorded to king’s sisters in, ii. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Ashes scattered as rain-charm, i. 304; - <ul> - <li>in magic, 314;</li> - <li>of unborn calves used in a fertility charm, ii. <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Asia Minor, pontiffs in, i. 47</li> - <li class='c011'>Assimilation of rain-maker to water, i. 269 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Association of ideas, magic based on a misapplication of the, i. 221 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Assumption of the Virgin in relation to the festival of Diana, i. 14-16</li> - <li class='c011'>Astarte at Byblus, i. 30</li> - <li class='c011'>Atalante, ii. <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Athenian sacrifices to the Seasons, i. 310</li> - <li class='c011'>Athens, barrow of Hippolytus at, i. 25; - <ul> - <li>new fire brought to, 32 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>King and Queen at, 44 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>marriage of Dionysus at, ii. <a href='#Page_136'>136</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>female kinship at, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Atkinson, J. C., i. 199</li> - <li class='c011'>Atreus, ii. <a href='#Page_279'>279</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Attacking the wind, i. 327 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Attica, traces of female kinship in, ii. <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Attis and Cybele (Mother of the Gods), i. 18, 21, 40, 41</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Atua</i>, Polynesian term for god, i. 387 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>August, the Ides (13th) of, Diana’s day, i. 12, 14-17</li> - <li class='c011'>—— 15th, the day of the Assumption of the Virgin, i. 14-16</li> - <li class='c011'>Augustine on the one God, i. 121 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_391'>391</span>Australia, aboriginal paintings in, i. 87 <i>n.</i> 1; - <ul> - <li>magic universally practised but religion nearly unknown among the aborigines of, 234;</li> - <li>government of old men in aboriginal, 334 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>influence of magicians in aboriginal, 334 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— Central, magical ceremonies for the supply of food in, i. 85 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Australian aborigines, magical images among the, i. 62; - <ul> - <li>ceremonies of initiation among the, 92 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>contagious magic of teeth among the, 176;</li> - <li>magic of navel-string and afterbirth among the, 183 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Autun, procession of goddess at, ii. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Auxesia and Damia, i. 39</li> - <li class='c011'>Avebury, Lord, i. 225 <i>n.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Aventine, Diana on the, ii. <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> - <li class='c010'>Baal, prophets of, cutting themselves, i. 258</li> - <li class='c011'>Baalim, the, lords of underground waters, ii. <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Babar Archipelago, i. 72, 131</li> - <li class='c011'>Babaruda, i. 273</li> - <li class='c011'>Babylon, magical images in ancient, i. 66 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>sanctuary of Bel at, ii. <a href='#Page_129'>129</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Babylonian kings, divinity of the early, i. 417</li> - <li class='c011'>Bacchanals chew ivy, i. 384</li> - <li class='c011'>Bachofen, J. J., ii. <a href='#Page_313'>313</a> <i>n.</i> 1, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Bacon, Francis, on anointing weapon that caused wound, i. 202</li> - <li class='c011'>Badonsachen, King of Burma, i. 400</li> - <li class='c011'>Baganda, the, i. 395; - <ul> - <li>superstitions as to the navel-string and afterbirth (placenta), 195 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>their customs in regard to twins, ii. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>their belief in the influence of the sexes on vegetation, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>Vestal Virgins among the, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>;</li> - <li>their list of kings, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Bagba, a fetish, i. 327</li> - <li class='c011'>Bagishu, i. 103</li> - <li class='c011'>Bahaus or Kayans of Borneo, ii. <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Bakers, Roman, required to be chaste, ii. <a href='#Page_115'>115</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Balli Atap, ii. <a href='#Page_385'>385</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Baloi</i>, mythical beings, i. 177</li> - <li class='c011'>Bambaras, the, ii. <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Banana-tree, wild, supposed to fertilise barren women, ii. <a href='#Page_318'>318</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Bandicoot in rain-charm, i. 288</li> - <li class='c011'>Bangalas, the, ii. <a href='#Page_293'>293</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Banks’ Islanders, i. 314</li> - <li class='c011'>Bantu peoples, ancestor-worship among the, ii. <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Banyai, chieftainship among the, ii. <a href='#Page_292'>292</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Banyoro, the, ii. <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>; - <ul> - <li>king of the, as rain-maker, i. 348</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Baobab-trees, ii. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Baptist, St. John the, i. 277</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Bar</i>-tree (<i>Ficus Indica</i>), ii. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Barea, the, ii. <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Barenton, fountain of, i. 306, 307</li> - <li class='c011'>Bari, rain-making among the, i. 346 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Barotse, the, i. 392 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Barren women, charms to procure offspring for, i. 70 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>thought to sterilise gardens, 142;</li> - <li>fertilised by trees, ii. <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>thought to blight the fruits of the earth, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;</li> - <li>fertilised by water-spirits, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><i>Basilai</i> at Olympia, i. 46 <i>n.</i> 4</li> - <li class='c011'>Basoga, the, ii. <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Basutos, the, i. 71, 177</li> - <li class='c011'>Bath before marriage, intention of, ii. <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Bathing as a rain-charm, i. 277 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Battas or Bataks of Sumatra, i. 71, 398 <i>sq.</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_108'>108</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Battus, King, i. 47</li> - <li class='c011'>Bayfield, M. A., ii. <a href='#Page_228'>228</a> <i>n.</i> 5</li> - <li class='c011'>Bean, sprouting of, in superstitious ceremony, i. 266</li> - <li class='c011'>Beasts, sacred, in Egypt held responsible for failure of crops, i. 354</li> - <li class='c011'>Bechuana charms, i. 150 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Bechuanas, the, i. 313</li> - <li class='c011'>Bedouins, fire-drill of the ancient, ii. <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Beech-woods of Denmark, ii. <a href='#Page_351'>351</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Beena</i> marriage, ii. <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Bees, the King Bees (Essenes) at Ephesus, ii. <a href='#Page_135'>135</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Bel of Babylon, ii. <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Belep, the, of New Caledonia, i. 150</li> - <li class='c011'>Bell-ringing as a charm to dispel evil influences, ii. <a href='#Page_343'>343</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Benefits conferred by magic, i. 218 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Benin, king of, as a god, i. 396</li> - <li class='c011'>Benvenuto Cellini, ii. <a href='#Page_197'>197</a> <i>n.</i> 6</li> - <li class='c011'>Benzoni, G., i. 57 <i>n.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Bes, the god, ii. <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Betsileo, the, i. 397</li> - <li class='c011'>Bevan, Professor A. A., ii. <a href='#Page_210'>210</a> <i>n.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Bezoar stone in rain-charms, i. 305</li> - <li class='c011'>Bhagavati, goddess of Cochin, i. 280</li> - <li class='c011'>Birch, crowns of, ii. <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>; - <ul> - <li>leaves, girl clad in, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>;</li> - <li>tree dressed in woman’s clothes, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>;</li> - <li>a protection against witches, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Birth, pretence of, at adoption, i. 74 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>at return of supposed dead man, 75;</li> - <li>at circumcision, 75 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>simulation of a new, 380 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>from the fire, ii. 195 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Birthday, Greek custom of sacrificing to a dead man on his, i. 105</li> - <li class='c011'>Birthdays of Apollo and Artemis, i. 32</li> - <li class='c011'>“Birthplace of Rainy Zeus,” ii. <a href='#Page_360'>360</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Black animals in rain-charms, i. 250, 290 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>colour in magic, 83;</li> - <li>in rain-making ceremonies, 269 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_392'>392</span>Blackfoot Indians, i. 116, 150; - <ul> - <li>their worship of the sun, ii. <a href='#Page_146'>146</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Bleeding trees, ii. <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Blighting effect of illicit love on the fruits of the earth, ii. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Blindness, charm to cause, i. 147</li> - <li class='c011'>Blood drawn from virgin bride, i. 94; - <ul> - <li>shed at circumcision and subincision, uses of, 92, 94 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>sympathetic connexion between wounded person and his shed blood, 205;</li> - <li>used to imitate rain, 256, 257 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>as a means of inspiration, 381 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>offered to trees, ii. <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>of pigs in purificatory rites, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>;</li> - <li>of incestuous persons, blighting effects attributed to the, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>reluctance to spill royal, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li> - <li>smeared on sacred trees, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Blood, human, in <i>intichiuma</i> ceremonies, i. 85, <i>sqq.</i> 90, <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>offered at grave, 90 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>given to sick people, 91;</li> - <li>used to knit men together, 92</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Blood-stone, i. 165</li> - <li class='c011'>Bloomfield, Professor M., i. 229</li> - <li class='c011'>Boanerges, i. 266</li> - <li class='c011'>Bodio, fetish king, i. 353</li> - <li class='c011'>Bogomiles, the, i. 407</li> - <li class='c011'>Boiled meat offered to the Seasons, i. 310</li> - <li class='c011'>Bones of dead in magic, i. 148; - <ul> - <li>human, buried as rain-charm, 287;</li> - <li>burned as a charm against sorcery, ii. <a href='#Page_330'>330</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Bonfires at midsummer, ii. <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Bongo, the, i. 347</li> - <li class='c011'>Boni, G., ii. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Borewell, the, ii. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Borlase, W., ii. <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Born thrice, said of Brahmans, i. 381</li> - <li class='c011'>Borneo, i. 59, 73; - <ul> - <li>beliefs as to the blighting effect of sexual crime in, ii. <a href='#Page_108'>108</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Bororos, the, ii. <a href='#Page_298'>298</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Bough, the Golden, plucked by Aeneas, i. 11, ii. <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>; - <ul> - <li>the plucking of it not a piece of bravado, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>grew on an evergreen oak, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-boughs'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>Boughs, green, a charm against witches, ii. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>-55, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-branches'>Branches</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Bovillae, ii. <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Bradbury, Professor J. B., ii. <a href='#Page_139'>139</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Brahman, derivation of name, i. 229</li> - <li class='c011'>—— fire-priests, ii. <a href='#Page_247'>247</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>marriage ceremony, i. 160;</li> - <li>householder, temporary inspiration of, i. 380 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Brahmans deemed superior to the gods, i 226; - <ul> - <li>divinity of the, 403 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>thrice-born, 381</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-branches'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>Branches dipped in water as a rain-charm, i. 248, 250, 309. - <ul> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-boughs'>Boughs</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Brazil, Indians of, power of medicine-men among the, i. 358 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Breath, holy fire not to be blown upon with the, ii. <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Brethren of the Free Spirit, i. 408; - <ul> - <li>of the Tilled Fields (<i>Fratres Arvales</i>), ii. <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Brhaspati, as a magician, i. 241</li> - <li class='c011'>Bride tied to tree at marriage, ii. <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>; - <ul> - <li>the Whitsuntide, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>;</li> - <li>the May, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>;</li> - <li>race for a, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>contests for a, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— of God, the, i. 276</li> - <li class='c011'>—— race among Teutonic peoples, ii. <a href='#Page_303'>303</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Bridegroom of May, ii. <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Bridget in Scotland and the Isle of Man, ii. <a href='#Page_94'>94</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Brigit, a Celtic goddess, ii. <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Brimo and Brimos, ii. <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Brincker, Dr. P. H., ii. <a href='#Page_224'>224</a> <i>n.</i> 4</li> - <li class='c011'>Brooke, Rajah, i. 361</li> - <li class='c011'>Brotherhood formed with trees by sucking their sap, ii. <a href='#Page_19'>19</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Brothers reviled by sisters for good luck, i. 279</li> - <li class='c011'>Brown, A. R., ii. <a href='#Page_254'>254</a> <i>n.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Brown, Dr. George, i. 340</li> - <li class='c011'>Brunhild, Queen of Iceland, ii. <a href='#Page_306'>306</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Brutus, L. Junius, ii. <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Bryant, Jacob, i. 334</li> - <li class='c011'>Buckthorn, a protection against witches, ii. <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Buddha, images of, drenched as a rain-charm, i. 308</li> - <li class='c011'>Buddhas, living, i. 410 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Buddhist animism not a philosophical theory, ii. <a href='#Page_13'>13</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Bühler, G., ii. <a href='#Page_367'>367</a> <i>n.</i> 3, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Bulgaria, rain-making in, i. 274</li> - <li class='c011'>Bull, the thunder-god compared to a, ii. <a href='#Page_368'>368</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Bull-roarer used as a wind-charm, i. 324</li> - <li class='c011'>Bull’s blood drunk as means of inspiration, i. 381 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>as ordeal, i. 382 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Bulls, white, sacrificed, ii. <a href='#Page_188'>188</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Bunjil Kraura, i. 324</li> - <li class='c011'>Bunsen, on St. Hippolytus, i. 21 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Burglars, charms employed by, to cause sleep, i. 148 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Burgundians and their kings, i. 366</li> - <li class='c011'>Burial alive, punishment of unfaithful virgins, ii. <a href='#Page_244'>244</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— customs intended to ensure re-incarnation, i. 101 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Burma, magical images in, i. 62 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Burning of sacred trees or poles, ii. <a href='#Page_141'>141</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Burning-glass or mirror, fire kindled by, ii. <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Buryats, the, ii. <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Bush negroes of Surinam, ii. <a href='#Page_385'>385</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Bushmen, i. 123</li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_393'>393</span>Butlers, Roman, required to be chaste, ii. <a href='#Page_115'>115</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Buttmann, P., i. 40 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Büttner, C. G., ii. <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Byblus, Astarte at, i. 30</li> - <li class='c010'>Cabbages, charm to make cabbages grow, i. 136 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Cactus, sacred, telepathy in search for, i. 123 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Cadys, ii. <a href='#Page_281'>281</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Caeculus born from the fire, ii. <a href='#Page_197'>197</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Caelian hill at Rome, ii. <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Caesar, Julius, his villa at Nemi, i. 5</li> - <li class='c011'>Caesars, their name derived from <i>caesaries</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Caingua Indians, the, ii. <a href='#Page_258'>258</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Calah, ancient capital of Assyria, ii. <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Caland, Dr. W., i. 229</li> - <li class='c011'>Caldwell, Bishop R., i. 382</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Calica Puran</i>, i. 63</li> - <li class='c011'>Caligula, his barges on the lake of Nemi, i. 5; - <ul> - <li>and the priest of Nemi, 11</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Calmucks, race for a bride among the, ii. <a href='#Page_301'>301</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Cambodia, the regalia in, i. 365; - <ul> - <li>Kings of Fire and Water in, ii. <a href='#Page_3'>3</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Cambridge, May Day custom at, ii. <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Camden, W., ii. <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> - <li class='c011'>Camillus, his triumph, ii. <a href='#Page_174'>174</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Camphor, taboos observed in search for, i. 114 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>telepathy in search for, 124 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Candaules, ii. <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Candlemas, ii. <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Cannibalism in Australia, i. 106 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Cantabrians, mother-kin among the, ii. <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Canute, King of England, his marriage with Emma, ii. <a href='#Page_282'>282</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Cape York Peninsula in Queensland, i. 99, 100</li> - <li class='c011'>Capena, the Porta, at Rome, i. 18</li> - <li class='c011'>Capitol, temple of Jupiter on the, ii. <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Caprificatio</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_314'>314</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Caprificus</i>, the wild fig-tree, ii. <a href='#Page_314'>314</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Car Nicobar, i. 314</li> - <li class='c011'>Caribs, war custom of the, i. 134</li> - <li class='c011'>Carna, nymph, ii. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Carpenter, son of, as a human god, i. 376</li> - <li class='c011'>Carpet-snakes, magical ceremony for the multiplication of, i. 90</li> - <li class='c011'>Castor and Pollux, i. 49 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Cat in rain-charm, i. 289, 291, 308 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Cat’s cradle as a charm to catch the sun, i. 316 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Catlin, G., i. 356</li> - <li class='c011'>Cato the Elder on dedication of Arician grove to Diana, i. 22, 23</li> - <li class='c011'>Cato, on expiation, ii. <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Cattle crowned, ii. <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>; - <ul> - <li>charm to recover strayed, i. 212;</li> - <li>influence of tree-spirits on, ii. <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— stall, the, at Athens, ii. <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Caul, superstitions as to, i. 187 <i>sq.</i>, 190 <i>sq.</i>, 199 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Caves, prehistoric paintings of animals in, i. 87 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Cecrops, ii. <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>; - <ul> - <li>said to have instituted marriage, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Cedar, sacred, ii. <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>smoke of, inhaled as mode of inspiration, i. 383 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— tree, girl annually sacrificed to, ii. <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— wood burned as a religious rite, ii. <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Celebes, i. 109; - <ul> - <li>magical virtue of regalia in, 362 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Celtic divinity akin to Artemis, ii. <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Italian languages akin, ii. <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Vestals, ii. <a href='#Page_241'>241</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Celts, their worship of the Huntress Artemis, ii. <a href='#Page_125'>125</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>their worship of the oak, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>of Gaul, their harvest festival, i. 17;</li> - <li>of Ireland, their belief in the blighting effect of incest, ii. <a href='#Page_116'>116</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Ceos, funeral customs in, i. 105</li> - <li class='c011'>Ceremonies, initiatory, of Central Australian aborigines, i. 92 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Chadwick, H. M., ii. <a href='#Page_278'>278</a> <i>n.</i> 1, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Chaka, the Zulu despot, i. 350</li> - <li class='c011'>Champion at English coronation ceremony, ii. <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Chams, the, i. 120, 131, 144</li> - <li class='c011'>Chariot in rain-charm, i. 309</li> - <li class='c011'>—— and horses dedicated to the sun, i. 315</li> - <li class='c011'>Charles II. touches for scrofula, i. 368 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Charms to ensure long life, i. 168 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>to prevent the sun from going down, 316 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-magic'>Magic</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-chastity'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>Chastity observed for sake of absent persons, i. 123, 124, 125, 131; - <ul> - <li>practised to make the crops grow, ii. <a href='#Page_104'>104</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>required of persons who handle dishes and food, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>;</li> - <li>Milton on, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a> <i>n.</i> 1;</li> - <li>as a virtue not understood by savages, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>;</li> - <li>observed by sacred men, perhaps the husbands of a goddess, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>;</li> - <li>observed by sacred women, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>;</li> - <li>required in those who make fire by friction, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-continence'>Continence</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Chauci, the, ii. <a href='#Page_353'>353</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Cheremiss, the, ii. <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Cherokees, homoeopathic magic of plants among the, i. 144, 146 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>homoeopathic magic of animals among the, i. 155 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_394'>394</span>Chibchas, the, i. 416</li> - <li class='c011'>Chi-chi Mama, i. 276</li> - <li class='c011'>Chiefs, supernatural power of, in Melanesia, i. 338 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>as magicians, especially rain-makers, in Africa, 342 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>not allowed to leave their premises, 349;</li> - <li>punished for drought and dearth, 352 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>as priests, ii. <a href='#Page_215'>215</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>chosen from several families in rotation, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Chilcotin Indians, i. 312</li> - <li class='c011'>Child’s Well at Oxford, ii. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Childbirth, Diana as goddess of, i. 12, ii. <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Children, newborn, brought to the hearth, ii. <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Chili</i>, sacred cedar, ii. <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>China, emperors of, i. 47; - <ul> - <li>homoeopathic magic of city sites in, 169 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>the Emperor of, superior to the gods, 416 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-chinese'>Chinese</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Chinchvad, human gods at, i. 405 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-chinese'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>Chinese, magical images among the, i. 60 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— belief in spirits of plants, ii. <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— charms to ensure long life, i. 168 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— emperor responsible for drought, i. 355</li> - <li class='c011'>—— empire, incarnate human gods in the, i. 412 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— modes of compelling the rain-god to give rain, i. 297 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— superstition as to placenta (after-birth), i. 194</li> - <li class='c011'>Chingilli, the, i. 99</li> - <li class='c011'>Chios, kings of, i. 45</li> - <li class='c011'>Chissumpe, the, i. 393</li> - <li class='c011'>Chitomé, the, a pontiff of Congo, ii. <a href='#Page_261'>261</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Christians, pretenders to divinity among, i. 407 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Christs, Russian sect of the, i. 407 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Chuckchees, sacred fire-boards of the, ii. <a href='#Page_225'>225</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Churinga</i>, in Australia, i. 88, 199, 335</li> - <li class='c011'>Cimbrians, the, i. 331 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Ciminian forest, ii. <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Circassians, their custom as to pear-trees, ii. <a href='#Page_55'>55</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Circumcision, pretence of new birth at, i. 76, 96 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>uses of blood shed at, 92, 94 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>suggested origin of, 96 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Cithaeron, Mount, ii. <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Clans, paternal and maternal, of the Herero, ii. <a href='#Page_217'>217</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Cleanliness promoted by contagious magic, i. 175, 342</li> - <li class='c011'>Clisthenes and Hippoclides, ii. <a href='#Page_307'>307</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Clitus and Pallene, ii. <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Clothes, sympathetic connexion between a person and his, i. 205-207</li> - <li class='c011'>Clouds imitated by smoke, i. 249; - <ul> - <li>by stones, i. 256;</li> - <li>by rain-maker, 261, 262, 263</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Clouds, magicians painted in imitation of, i. 323</li> - <li class='c011'>Clove-trees in blossom treated like pregnant women, ii. <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Cloves, ceremony to make cloves grow ii. <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Clown in spring ceremonies, ii. <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Clytaemnestra, ii. <a href='#Page_279'>279</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Cockatoos, ceremony for the magical multiplication of, i. 89</li> - <li class='c011'>Coco-nut sacred, ii. <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— palms worshipped, ii. <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Codrington, Dr. R. H., quoted, i. 227 <i>sq.</i>, 338</li> - <li class='c011'>Coligny calendar, i. 17 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Collatinus, L. Tarquinius, ii. <a href='#Page_290'>290</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Columella, ii. <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>; - <ul> - <li>quoted, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Combat, mortal, for the kingdom, ii. <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Communism, tradition of sexual, ii. <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Compelling rain-gods to give rain, i. 296 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Complexity of social phenomena, i. 332</li> - <li class='c011'>Comrie, ii. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Con or Cun, a thunder-god, ii. <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Conception in women, supposed cause of, i. 100; - <ul> - <li>caused by trees, ii. <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>-318</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Concord, temple of, at Rome, i. 11, 21 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Concordia, nurse of St. Hippolytus, i. 21 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Condor, the bird of the thunder-god, ii. <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Confession of sins, i. 266</li> - <li class='c011'>Conflicts, sanguinary, as rain-charm, i. 258</li> - <li class='c011'>Conquerors sometimes leave a nominal kingship to the conquered, ii. <a href='#Page_288'>288</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>“Consort, the divine,” ii. <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Consuls, the first, ii. <a href='#Page_290'>290</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Consulship at Rome, institution of, ii. <a href='#Page_290'>290</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Contact or contagion in magic, law of, i. 52, 53</li> - <li class='c011'>Contagious Magic, i. 174-214; - <ul> - <li>of teeth, 176-182;</li> - <li>of navel-string and afterbirth (placenta), 182-201;</li> - <li>of wound and weapon, 201 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>of footprints, 207-212;</li> - <li>of other impressions, 213 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— taboos, i. 117</li> - <li class='c011'>Contest for the kingship at Whitsuntide, ii. <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Contests for a bride, ii. <a href='#Page_305'>305</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-continence'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>Continence required in magical ceremonies, i. 88; - <ul> - <li>required at rain-making ceremonies, 257, 259;</li> - <li>required of parents of twins, 266;</li> - <li>practised in order to make the crops grow, ii. <a href='#Page_104'>104</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-chastity'>Chastity</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_395'>395</span>Conway, Professor R. S., ii. <a href='#Page_379'>379</a> <i>n.</i> 5</li> - <li class='c011'>Conybeare, F. C., i. 407 <i>n.</i> 3</li> - <li class='c011'>Cook, A. B., i. 23 <i>n.</i>, 40 <i>n.</i> 3 and 4, 42 <i>n.</i> 1, ii. <a href='#Page_172'>172</a> <i>n.</i> 3, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> <i>n.</i> 2, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a> <i>n.</i> 6, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a> <i>n.</i> 3, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a> <i>n.</i> 4, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a> <i>n.</i> 3, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a> <i>n.</i> 3, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a> <i>n.</i> 2, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a> <i>n.</i> 1, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a> <i>n.</i> 4, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a> <i>n.</i> 4 and <i>n.</i> 5, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a> <i>n.</i> 4, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Cooks, Roman, required to be chaste, ii. <a href='#Page_115'>115</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Cora Indians, i. 55 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Corc, his purification, ii. <a href='#Page_116'>116</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Corn, defiled persons kept from the, ii. <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>; - <ul> - <li>reaped ear of, displayed at mysteries of Eleusis, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— -mother, the, at Eleusis, ii. <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -reaping in Greece, date of, i. 32</li> - <li class='c011'>Cornel-tree, sacred, ii. <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Cornish customs on May Day, ii. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Corp chre</i>, i. 68, 69</li> - <li class='c011'>Corpus Christi Day, ii. <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Cos, King of, i. 45</li> - <li class='c011'>Crab in rain-charm, i. 289</li> - <li class='c011'>Crannogs, ii. <a href='#Page_352'>352</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Crannon in Thessaly, i. 309</li> - <li class='c011'>Crawley, E., i. 201 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Crocodiles, girls sacrificed to, ii. <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Cronus and Zeus, ii. <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Crooke, W., i. 406 <i>n.</i> 1, ii. <a href='#Page_57'>57</a> <i>n.</i> 4, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Cross River, i. 349</li> - <li class='c011'>Crossbills in magic, i. 81 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Crown of oak leaves, ii. <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Crowning cattle, ii. <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— dogs, custom of, i. 14, ii. <a href='#Page_125'>125</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Crowns, magical virtue of royal, i. 364 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>of birch at Whitsuntide, ii. <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>;</li> - <li>or wreaths, custom of wearing, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Crows in magic, i. 83</li> - <li class='c011'>Crystals, magic of, i. 176; - <ul> - <li>used in rain-making, 254, 255, 304, 345, 346</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Cumont, Professor Franz, ii. <a href='#Page_310'>310</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Cup-and-ball as a charm to hasten the return of the sun, i. 317</li> - <li class='c011'>Curses, public, i. 45; - <ul> - <li>supposed beneficial effects of, i. 279 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Cursing at sowing, i. 281</li> - <li class='c011'>—— fishermen and hunters for good luck, i. 280 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Curtiss, Professor S. I., i. 402</li> - <li class='c011'>Cuzco, ii. <a href='#Page_243'>243</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Cybele, ii. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>and Attis, i. 18, 21, 40, 41</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Cyrene, kingship at, i. 47</li> - <li class='c010'>Daedala, festival of the, ii. <a href='#Page_140'>140</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Dainyal or Sibyl, i. 383</li> - <li class='c011'>Dalai Lama of Lhasa, i. 411 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Damaras or Herero, their fire-customs, ii. <a href='#Page_211'>211</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Damia and Auxesia, i. 39</li> - <li class='c011'>Danaus, ii. <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Dance at giving of oracles, i. 379; - <ul> - <li>of milkmaids on May-day, ii. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Dances of women while men are away fighting, i. 131-134; - <ul> - <li>as means of inspiration, 408 <i>n.</i> 1;</li> - <li>round sacred trees, ii. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li> - <li>found the May-pole, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>on graves, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Dancing as a fertility charm, i. 137 <i>sqq.</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Danes, female descent of the kingship among the, ii. <a href='#Page_282'>282</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Daphnephoria, ii. <a href='#Page_63'>63</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Date-month, the, ii. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-date-palm'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -palm, artificial fertilisation of the, ii. <a href='#Page_24'>24</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Dawn, the rosy, i. 334</li> - <li class='c011'>Day of Stones, i. 279</li> - <li class='c011'>De Groot, J. J. M., i. 416 <i>sq.</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Dead, hair offered to the, i. 31; - <ul> - <li>pretence of new birth at return of supposed dead man, 75;</li> - <li>homoeopathic magic of the, 147 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>sacrifices to, 163;</li> - <li>making rain by means of the, 284 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>trees animated by the souls of the, ii. <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>the illustrious, represented by masked men, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>;</li> - <li>thunder and lightning made by the, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>;</li> - <li>spirits of the, in wild fig-trees, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Death, pretence of, in magic, i. 84; - <ul> - <li>infection of, 143;</li> - <li>at ebb tide, 167 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>puppet called, carried out of village, ii. <a href='#Page_73'>73</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Deceiving the spirits of plants and trees, ii. <a href='#Page_22'>22</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Deir el Bahari, paintings at, ii. <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Deities duplicated through dialectical differences in their names, ii. <a href='#Page_380'>380</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Dejanira and Achelous, ii. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Delivery, easy, granted to women by trees, ii. <a href='#Page_57'>57</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Delos, graves of Hyperborean maidens in, i. 28, 33 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>Apollo and Artemis at, 28, 32-35</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Delphi, Apollo at, i. 28; - <ul> - <li>new fire sent from, 32 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>King of, 45 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Demeter and Zeus, their marriage at Eleusis, ii. <a href='#Page_138'>138</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Demetrius Poliorcetes deified at Athens, i. 390 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Denmark, Whitsun bride in, ii. <a href='#Page_91'>91</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>the beech-woods of, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Dennett, R. E., ii. <a href='#Page_277'>277</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Deòce</i>, a divine spirit, i. 410</li> - <li class='c011'>Departmental kings of nature, ii. <a href='#Page_1'>1</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Derry, the oaks of, ii. <a href='#Page_242'>242</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Devil-dancers, i. 382</li> - <li class='c011'>Dew on May morning, custom of washing in the, ii. <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>; - <ul> - <li>rolling in the, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>“Dew-treading” in Holland, ii. <a href='#Page_104'>104</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Dhurma Rajah, i. 410</li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_396'>396</span><i>DI</i>, Aryan root meaning “bright,” ii. <a href='#Page_381'>381</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Dia, grove of the goddess, ii. <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Dialectical differences a cause of the duplication of deities, ii. <a href='#Page_382'>382</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Diana, her sanctuary at Nemi, i. 2 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>as huntress at Nemi, 6;</li> - <li>as patroness of cattle, 7, ii. <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>;</li> - <li>her priest at Nemi, i. 8 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>the Tauric, 10 <i>sq.</i>, 24;</li> - <li>as goddess of childbirth, 12, ii. <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</li> - <li>as Vesta at Nemi, i. 13, ii. <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>;</li> - <li>in relation to vines, i. 15 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>the mate of the King of the Wood at Nemi, 40, 41, ii. <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>;</li> - <li>as a goddess of fertility, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>in relation to animals of the woods, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>as the moon, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</li> - <li>the goddess of fruits, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</li> - <li>as a goddess of the oak at Nemi, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Dianus, ii. <a href='#Page_376'>376</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— (Jana), a double of Juno, ii. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>“Diana’s Mirror,” i. 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Dianus (Janus), a double of Jupiter, ii. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Diels, Professor H., i. 390 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Dieri, the, i. 90, 177, ii. <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>; - <ul> - <li>rain-making ceremonies of the, i. 255 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Dinka or Denka nation, i. 347</li> - <li class='c011'>Diodorus Siculus, i. 74</li> - <li class='c011'>Diomede, ii. <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>; - <ul> - <li>at Troezen, i. 27;</li> - <li>sacred grove of, 27</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Dione, wife of Zeus at Dodona, ii. <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>; - <ul> - <li>the old consort of Zeus, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Dionysius of Halicarnassus, quoted, ii. <a href='#Page_202'>202</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Dionysus, marriage of, to the Queen of Athens, ii. <a href='#Page_136'>136</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>and Ariadne, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Discovery of fire, ii. <a href='#Page_255'>255</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Disease-makers in Tana, i. 341 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>“Divine consort, the,” ii. <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Divinity of kings, i. 48 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>among the Hovas, 397;</li> - <li>among the Malays, 398;</li> - <li>in great historical empires, 415 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>growth of the conception of the, ii. <a href='#Page_376'>376</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— of the Brahmans, i. 403 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Division of labour in relation to social progress, i. 420</li> - <li class='c011'>Diwali, the feast of lamps, ii. <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Dixon, Dr. W. E., ii. <a href='#Page_139'>139</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Djakuns, their mode of making fire, ii. <a href='#Page_236'>236</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Djuldjul, i. 274</li> - <li class='c011'>Dodola, the, i. 273</li> - <li class='c011'>Dodona, oracular spring at, ii. <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>; - <ul> - <li>Zeus at, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;</li> - <li>Zeus and Dione at, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>;</li> - <li>oracular oak at, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Dog, black, sacrificed for rain, i. 291; - <ul> - <li>used to stop rain, 303</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Dogs crowned, i. 14, ii. <a href='#Page_125'>125</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Dollar-bird associated with rain, i. 287 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Domalde, a Swedish king, i. 366 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Donar or Thunar, the German thunder god, ii. <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Doors, Janus as a god of, ii. <a href='#Page_383'>383</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Doreh, in New Guinea, i. 125</li> - <li class='c011'>Dos Santos, J., i. 392</li> - <li class='c011'>Double-headed fetish among the Bush negroes of Surinam, ii. <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>; - <ul> - <li>Janus, explanation of, ii. <a href='#Page_384'>384</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Dragon, rain-god represented as, i. 297; - <ul> - <li>or serpent of water, ii. <a href='#Page_155'>155</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>of Rouen, destroyed by St. Romain, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>the Slaying of the, at Furth, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Dramas, magical, to promote vegetation, ii. <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Dramatic exhibitions sometimes originate in magical rites, ii. <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>; - <ul> - <li>weddings of gods and goddesses, ii. <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Draupadi or Krishna, ii. <a href='#Page_306'>306</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Dreams, modes of counteracting evil, i. 172 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Drenching people with water as a rain-charm, i. 250, 251, 269 <i>sq.</i>, 272, 273, 274, 275, 277 <i>sq.</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Dropsy, ancient Greek mode of preventing, i. 78</li> - <li class='c011'>Drought supposed to be caused by unburied dead, i. 287; - <ul> - <li>and dearth, chiefs and kings punished for, 352 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>supposed to be caused by sexual crime, ii. <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Drowning as a punishment, ii. <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>; - <ul> - <li>sacrifice by, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Druids, oak-worship of the, ii. <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>; - <ul> - <li>of Gaul, their sacrifices of white bulls, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>;</li> - <li>female, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a> <i>n.</i> 1;</li> - <li>venerate the oak and the mistletoe, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>;</li> - <li>derivation of the name, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Drums, homoeopathic magic at the making of, i. 134 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>beaten as a charm against a storm, 328</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Drynemetum, ii. <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Du Pratz, ii. <a href='#Page_263'>263</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Dudulé, the, i. 274</li> - <li class='c011'>Duplication of deities an effect of dialectical differences, ii. <a href='#Page_382'>382</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Durostorum, martyrdom of St. Dasius at, ii. <a href='#Page_310'>310</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Dwarf tribes of Central Africa, ii. <a href='#Page_255'>255</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Dyaks of Borneo, the, i. 73, 127, ii. <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>; - <ul> - <li>the Sea, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c010'>Ea, the inventor of magic, i. 240</li> - <li class='c011'>Eagle hunters, taboos observed by, i. 116; - <ul> - <li>charms employed by, 149 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— -wood, telepathy in search for, i. 120</li> - <li class='c011'>Eagles, sacred, ii. <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Earth and Sun, marriage of the, ii. <a href='#Page_98'>98</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— goddess, pregnant cows sacrificed to, ii. <a href='#Page_229'>229</a></li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_397'>397</span>Earthquakes supposed to be caused by incest, ii. <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Ebb tide, death at, i. 167 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Eclipse, ceremonies at an, i. 311 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Economic progress a condition of intellectual progress, i. 218</li> - <li class='c011'>Egeria, water nymph at Nemi, i. 17-19, 41, ii. <a href='#Page_171'>171</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>an oak-nymph, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>;</li> - <li>a double of Diana, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>;</li> - <li>and Numa, i. 18, ii. <a href='#Page_172'>172</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Egerius Baebius or Laevius, i. 22</li> - <li class='c011'>Eggs collected at spring ceremonies, ii. <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>; - <ul> - <li>or egg-shells, painted, in spring ceremonies, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>;</li> - <li>in purificatory rite, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Egypt, magical images in ancient, i. 66, 67 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>magicians in ancient, 225;</li> - <li>confusion of magic and religion in ancient, 230 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>kings of, deified in their lifetime, 418 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>the Queen of, married to the god Ammon, ii. <a href='#Page_131'>131</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>king of, masquerading as Ammon, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Egyptian kings and queens, their begetting and birth depicted on the monuments, ii. <a href='#Page_131'>131</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— worship of sacred beasts, i. 29 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Egyptians, the ancient, worshipped men and animals, i. 389 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>sycamores worshipped by the ancient, ii. <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><i>Eiresione</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Elder-tree, ii. <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Elective and hereditary monarchy, combination of the two, ii. <a href='#Page_292'>292</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Electric lights on mast-heads, spears, etc., i. 49 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Elephant-hunters, telepathy of, i. 123</li> - <li class='c011'>Eleusis, mysteries of, ii. <a href='#Page_138'>138</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Elipandus of Toledo, i. 407</li> - <li class='c011'>Elizabeth, Queen, i. 368</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Emblica officinalis</i>, a sacred tree, ii. <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Emin Pasha, ii. <a href='#Page_297'>297</a> <i>n.</i> 7</li> - <li class='c011'>Empedocles, his claim to divinity, i. 390</li> - <li class='c011'>Emus, ceremony for the multiplication of, i. 85 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Endymion, ii. <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Ephesian Artemis, ii. <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Ephesus, Artemis of, i. 37 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>nominal kings at, 47;</li> - <li>the Essenes or King Bees at, ii. <a href='#Page_135'>135</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Epicurus, sacrifices offered to, i. 105</li> - <li class='c011'>Erechtheum, the, ii. <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Erechtheus and Erichthonius, ii. <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Erhard, Professor A., ii. <a href='#Page_310'>310</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Erichthonius, i. 21; - <ul> - <li>and Erechtheus, ii. <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Eruptions of volcanoes supposed to be caused by incest, ii. <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Esquiline hill at Rome, ii. <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Esquimaux, i. 70, 113, 121, 316, 327</li> - <li class='c011'>Essenes or King Bees at Ephesus, i. 47 <i>n.</i> 2, ii. <a href='#Page_135'>135</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Esthonian folk-tale of a tree-elf, ii. <a href='#Page_71'>71</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>marriage custom, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Esthonians, St. George’s Day among the, ii. <a href='#Page_330'>330</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>their thunder-god Taara, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Etruscans, female kinship among the, ii. <a href='#Page_286'>286</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Eudanemi, the, at Athens, i. 325 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Europe, contagious magic of footprints in, i. 210 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>confusion of magic and religion in modern, 231-233;</li> - <li>forests of ancient, ii. <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>relics of tree-worship in modern, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>diffusion of the oak in, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— South-Eastern, rain-making ceremonies in, i. 272 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Euros, magical ceremony for the multiplication of, i. 89</li> - <li class='c011'>Evelyn, John, i. 369</li> - <li class='c011'>Evergreen oak, the Golden Bough grew on, ii. <a href='#Page_379'>379</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— trees in Italy, i. 8</li> - <li class='c011'>Evolution of kings out of magicians or medicine-men, i. 420 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>industrial, from uniformity to diversity of function, 421;</li> - <li>political, from democracy to despotism, 421</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Exaggerations of anthropological theories, i. 333</li> - <li class='c011'>Exogamy, ii. <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Expiation for adultery or fornication, ii. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>for incest, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>External soul in afterbirth or navel-string, i. 200 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Extinction of fires at king’s death, ii. <a href='#Page_261'>261</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>; - <ul> - <li>in houses after any death, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Ezekiel, i. 87 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c010'>Falerii, Juno at, ii. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Falstaff, death of, i. 168</li> - <li class='c011'>Families, royal, kings chosen from several, ii. <a href='#Page_292'>292</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Fan tribe, i. 349</li> - <li class='c011'>Farnell, Dr. L. R., i. 36, ii. <a href='#Page_379'>379</a> <i>n.</i> 5</li> - <li class='c011'>Fasting obligatory, i. 124, 131</li> - <li class='c011'>Father Jove and Mother Vesta, ii. <a href='#Page_227'>227</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Fattest men chosen kings, ii. <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></li> - <li class='c011'>February, first of, St. Bride’s day, i. 94 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Fehrle, E., ii. <a href='#Page_199'>199</a> <i>n.</i> 5</li> - <li class='c011'>Female descent of the kingship in Rome, ii. <a href='#Page_270'>270</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>in Africa, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>in Greece, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>in Scandinavia, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>in Lydia, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>among Danes and Saxons, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-female-kinship'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— kinship in descent of the Roman kingship, ii. <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>; - <ul> - <li>indifference to paternity of kings under female kinship, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_398'>398</span>at Athens, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>;</li> - <li>indifference to paternity in general under, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>;</li> - <li>among the Aryans, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-mother-kin'>Mother-kin</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Female slaves, licence accorded to them on the <i>Nonae Caprotinae</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_313'>313</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Feng and Wiglet, ii. <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Fennel, fire carried in giant, ii. <a href='#Page_260'>260</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Fertilisation, artificial, of the date palm, ii. <a href='#Page_24'>24</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>of the fig-tree, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— of women by the wild fig-tree, ii. <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>; - <ul> - <li>by the wild banana-tree, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Fertilising virtue attributed to trees, ii. <a href='#Page_49'>49</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Fertility, Diana as a goddess of, ii. <a href='#Page_120'>120</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>the thunder-god conceived as a deity of fertility, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><i>Fictores Vestalium, fictores Pontificum</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_204'>204</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Ficus Ruminalis</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_318'>318</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Fierte</i> or shrine of St. Romain, ii. <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Fig, as an article of diet, ii. <a href='#Page_315'>315</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Fig-tree of Romulus (<i>ficus Ruminalis</i>), ii. <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— artificial fertilisation (<i>caprificatio</i>) of the, ii. <a href='#Page_314'>314</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— sacred, ii. <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— the wild, a male, ii. <a href='#Page_314'>314</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>supposed to fertilise women, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>haunted by spirits of the dead, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Fiji, catching the sun in, i. 316</li> - <li class='c011'>Fijians, gods of the, i. 389</li> - <li class='c011'>Finnish-Ugrian peoples, sacred groves of the, ii. <a href='#Page_10'>10</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Finnish wizards and witches, i. 325</li> - <li class='c011'>Fire in the worship of Diana, i. 12 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>supposed to be subject to Catholic priests, 231;</li> - <li>used to stop rain, 252 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>as a charm to rekindle the sun, 311, 313;</li> - <li>of Vesta at Rome fed with oak wood, ii. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>;</li> - <li>birth from the, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>the king’s, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>impregnation of women by, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>;</li> - <li>taken from sacred hearth to found a new village, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</li> - <li>on the hearth, souls of ancestors in the, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>;</li> - <li>reasons for attributing a procreative virtue to, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>made jointly by man and woman or boy and girl, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>custom of extinguishing fire and rekindling it by the friction of wood, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>need-fire made by married men, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>;</li> - <li>holy, not to be blown upon with the breath, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>;</li> - <li>tribes reported to be ignorant of the art of kindling, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>discovery of, by mankind, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>carried about by savages, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>kept burning in houses of chiefs and kings, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>carried before king or chief, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>a symbol of life, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>;</li> - <li>leaping over a, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Fire and Water, Kings of, ii. <a href='#Page_3'>3</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -bearer, the, i. 33</li> - <li class='c011'>—— -boards, sacred, of the Chuckchees and Koryaks, ii. <a href='#Page_225'>225</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— customs of the Herero or Damaras, ii. <a href='#Page_211'>211</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>compared to those of the Romans, ii. <a href='#Page_227'>227</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— -drill, the, ii. <a href='#Page_207'>207</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>; - <ul> - <li>the kindling of fire by it regarded by savages as a form of sexual intercourse, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>of the Herero, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— -god married to a human virgin, ii. <a href='#Page_195'>195</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— kindled by the friction of wood, ii. <a href='#Page_207'>207</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>; - <ul> - <li>from ancestral tree, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>by natural causes, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>;</li> - <li>by lightning, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— “living,” ii. <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>; - <ul> - <li>a charm against witchcraft, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— “new,” ii. <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>; - <ul> - <li>sent from Delos and Delphi, i. 32 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>made at beginning of king’s reign, ii. <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>;</li> - <li>made at Midsummer, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— -priests (<i>Agnihotris</i>) of the Brahmans, ii. <a href='#Page_247'>247</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -sticks of fire-drill regarded as male and female, ii. <a href='#Page_208'>208</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -worship a form of ancestor-worship, ii. <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Fires ceremonially extinguished, i. 33; - <ul> - <li>kept up for sake of absent persons, 120 <i>sq.</i>, 128, 129;</li> - <li>extinguished at death of kings, ii. <a href='#Page_261'>261</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>;</li> - <li>at any death, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>ceremonial, kindled by the friction of oak-wood, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— perpetual, of Vesta, i. 13 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>in Ireland, ii. <a href='#Page_240'>240</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>in Peru and Mexico, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>origin of, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>associated with royal dignity, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>of oak-wood, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>First-fruits, dedication of, i. 32</li> - <li class='c011'>Fish, magical ceremony for the multiplication of, i. 90; - <ul> - <li>in rain-charm, 288 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Fishermen, Shetland, i. 69</li> - <li class='c011'>—— and hunters cursed for good luck, i. 280 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Fishing and hunting, homoeopathic magic in, i. 108 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>telepathy in, 120 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Fison, Rev. Lorimer, i. 316, 331 <i>n.</i> 2, 378, 389 <i>n.</i> 3, ii. <a href='#Page_13'>13</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Fladda’s chapel, i. 322</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Flamen</i>, derivation of the name, ii. <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Dialis, the, ii. <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>; - <ul> - <li>an embodiment of Jupiter, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_399'>399</span>Flaminica, the, ii. <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Flax, charms to make flax grow tall, i. 138 <i>sq.</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Flight of the king (<i>Regifugium</i>) at Rome, ii. <a href='#Page_308'>308</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a> <i>n.</i> 4; - <ul> - <li>of sacrificer after the sacrifice, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>;</li> - <li>of the People at Rome, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Flint implements supposed to be thunderbolts, ii. <a href='#Page_374'>374</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Floquet, A., ii. <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Flowers, divination from, ii. <a href='#Page_345'>345</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Food, homoeopathic magic for the supply of, i. 85 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Foods tabooed, i. 117 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Footprints, contagious magic of, i. 207-212</li> - <li class='c011'>“Forced fire” or need-fire, ii. <a href='#Page_238'>238</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Foreigners marry princesses and receive the kingdom with them, ii. <a href='#Page_270'>270</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Foreskins removed at circumcision, uses of, i. 92 <i>sq.</i>, 95; - <ul> - <li>used in rain-making, 256 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Forests of ancient Europe, ii. <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Fortuna and Servius Tullius, ii. <a href='#Page_193'>193</a> <i>n.</i> 1, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Forum at Rome, prehistoric cemetery in the, ii. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Foucart, P., ii. <a href='#Page_139'>139</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Fowler, W. Warde, ii. <a href='#Page_311'>311</a> <i>n.</i> 4, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a> <i>n.</i> 1, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a> <i>n.</i> 2, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a> <i>n.</i> 6, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a> <i>n.</i> 3</li> - <li class='c011'>Fox in magic, i. 151</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Fratres Arvales</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Free Spirit, Brethren of the, i. 408</li> - <li class='c011'>French peasants ascribe magical powers to priests, i. 231-233</li> - <li class='c011'>Frey, the god of fertility and his human wife, ii. <a href='#Page_143'>143</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>his image and festival at Upsala, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Friction of wood, fire kindled by, ii. <a href='#Page_207'>207</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Frog, magic of, i. 151; - <ul> - <li>worshipped, 294 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>love-charm made from the bone of a, ii. <a href='#Page_345'>345</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— flayer, the, ii. <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Frogs in relation to rain, i. 292 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Froth from a mill-wheel as a charm against witches, ii. <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Fruit-trees fertilised by women, i. 140 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Fruits blessed on day of Assumption of the Virgin, i. 14 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>Artemis and Diana as patronesses of, 15 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Fuegians, the, ii. <a href='#Page_258'>258</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Fumigating flocks and herds as a charm against witchcraft, ii. <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Furth in Bavaria, the Slaying of the Dragon at, ii. <a href='#Page_163'>163</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Furtwängler, A., i. 309 <i>n.</i> 6</li> - <li class='c011'>Futuna, i. 388</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Fylgia</i> or guardian spirit in Iceland, i. 200</li> - <li class='c010'>Galatians, their Celtic language, ii. <a href='#Page_126'>126</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Galelareesc, the, i. 110, 113, 131, 143, 145, ii. <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Gallas, kings of the, i. 48; - <ul> - <li>sacred trees of the, ii. <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Garcilasso de la Vega, ii. <a href='#Page_244'>244</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Gardiner, Professor J. Stanley, ii. <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Gargouille</i> or dragon destroyed by St. Romain, ii. <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Garlands on May Day, ii. <a href='#Page_60'>60</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Gaul, the Druids of, ii. <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Gauri, harvest-goddess, ii. <a href='#Page_77'>77</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Gayos, the, ii. <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Gennep, A. van, ii. <a href='#Page_385'>385</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Geomancy in China, i. 170</li> - <li class='c011'>George, Green, ii. <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Germans, worship of women among the ancient, i. 391; - <ul> - <li>tree-worship among the ancient, ii. <a href='#Page_8'>8</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>evidence of mother-kin among the, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>;</li> - <li>worship of the oak among the ancient, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><i>Gerontocracy</i> in Australia, i. 335</li> - <li class='c011'>Gervasius of Tilbury, i. 301</li> - <li class='c011'>Getae, the, i. 392</li> - <li class='c011'>Ghosts in Melanesia, supposed powers of, i. 338 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Gilyaks, the, i. 122, ii. <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Girl annually sacrificed to cedar-tree, ii. <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Girls married to nets, ii. <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>; - <ul> - <li>sacrificed to crocodiles, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Glory, the Hand of, i. 149</li> - <li class='c011'>Glover, T. R., ii. <a href='#Page_231'>231</a> <i>n.</i> 6</li> - <li class='c011'>Goat, blood of, drunk as means of inspiration, i. 382, 383</li> - <li class='c011'>God, Bride of, i. 276; - <ul> - <li>savage ideas of, different from those of civilised men, 375 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>“God-boxes,” i. 378</li> - <li class='c011'>Gods viewed as magicians, i. 240 <i>sqq.</i>, 375; - <ul> - <li>sacrifice themselves by fire, 315 <i>n.</i> 1;</li> - <li>conception of, slowly evolved, 373 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>incarnate human, 373 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>gods and men, no sharp line of distinction between, in Fiji, 389;</li> - <li>and goddesses, dramatic weddings of, ii. <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>;</li> - <li>the marriage of the, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>married to women, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Gold in magic, i. 80 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Golden Bough plucked by Aeneas, i. 11, ii. <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>; - <ul> - <li>the breaking of it not a piece of bravado, i. 123 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>grew on an evergreen oak, ii. <a href='#Page_379'>379</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Golden lamb of Mycenae, i. 365</li> - <li class='c011'>“Golden summer,” the, i. 32</li> - <li class='c011'>Gonds, their belief in reincarnation, i. 104 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Gongs beaten in a storm, i. 328 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>at Dodona, ii. <a href='#Page_358'>358</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_400'>400</span>Government of old men in aboriginal Australia, i. 334 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Grafting, superstitious ceremony at, ii. <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Granger, Professor F., i. 42 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Grasausläuten</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Grass King, the, ii. <a href='#Page_85'>85</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— seed, magical ceremony for the multiplication of, i. 87 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>continence at magical ceremony for growth of, ii. <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Graveclothes, homoeopathic magic of, in China, i. 168 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Graves, rain-charms at, i. 268, 286, 291; - <ul> - <li>trees planted on graves, ii. <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>;</li> - <li>dances on, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a> <i>n.</i> 2;</li> - <li>of Hyperborean maidens at Delos, i. 28, 33 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Great Sun, the, title of chief, ii. <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Greece, priestly kings in, i. 44 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>kings and chiefs sacred or divine in ancient, 366;</li> - <li>human gods in ancient, 390 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>forests of, ii. <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>;</li> - <li>female descent of kingship in ancient, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Greek kings called Zeus, ii. <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Greeks, the modern, rain-making ceremonies among, i. 272 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>and Romans, rain-charms among the ancient, 309 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Green boughs a charm against witches, ii. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>-55, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— George, ii. <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Thursday, ii. <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Greenwich-hill, custom of rolling down, ii. <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Gregory of Tours, ii. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Grimm, J., ii. <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a> <i>n.</i> 6, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Grizzly bears supposed to be related to human twins, i. 264 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Groves, sacred, ii. <a href='#Page_10'>10</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>; - <ul> - <li>Arician, i. 20, 22, ii. <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>;</li> - <li>in Chios, i. 45;</li> - <li>in ancient Greece and Rome, ii. <a href='#Page_121'>121</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Grunau, Simon, ii. <a href='#Page_366'>366</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Guanches of Teneriffe, i. 303</li> - <li class='c011'>Guardian spirit associated with caul, i. 199 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Guaycurus, the, i. 330</li> - <li class='c011'>Gunkel, H., i. 101 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Gunnar Helming, ii. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Gunputty, elephant-headed god, human incarnation of, i. 405 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Gyges, ii. <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Gypsies, Green George among the, ii. <a href='#Page_75'>75</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Gypsy ceremonies for stopping rain, i. 295 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c010'>Hack-thorn sacred, ii. <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Haddon, Dr. A. C., i. 262</li> - <li class='c011'>Hahn, Dr. C. H., ii. <a href='#Page_213'>213</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Haida Indians, i. 70, 133</li> - <li class='c011'>Hair offered to gods and goddesses, heroes and heroines, i. 28 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>offered to the dead, 31, 102;</li> - <li>offered to rivers, 31;</li> - <li>clippings of, used in magic, 57, 64, 65, 66;</li> - <li>charms to make hair grow, 83, 145, 153 <i>sq.</i>, 154;</li> - <li>loose as a charm, 136;</li> - <li>human, used in rain-making, 251 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>long, a symbol of royalty, ii. <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Hakea flowers, ceremony for the multiplication of, i. 86</li> - <li class='c011'>Hakim Singh, i. 409</li> - <li class='c011'>Halford in Warwickshire, May Day customs at, ii. <a href='#Page_88'>88</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Hamlet, ii. <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Hammer worshipped, i. 317 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Hammurabi, code of, ii. <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Hand of Glory, i. 149</li> - <li class='c011'>Hardy, Thomas, i. 136</li> - <li class='c011'>Hares as witches, i. 212, ii. <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Harran, the heathen of, i. 383, ii. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Harris, J. Rendel, i. 15 <i>n.</i> 1, 21 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Harrison, Miss J. E., ii. <a href='#Page_137'>137</a> <i>n.</i> 1, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Hartland, E. S., i. 52 <i>n.</i> 1, ii. <a href='#Page_156'>156</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Harvest in Greece, date of, i. 32</li> - <li class='c011'>—— May, the, ii. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Hatshopsitou, birth of Queen, ii. <a href='#Page_131'>131</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-hawaii'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>Hawaii, insignia of royal family of, i. 388 <i>n.</i> 3</li> - <li class='c011'>Hawthorn on May Day, ii. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>; - <ul> - <li>a protection against witches, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Head-hunters, rules observed by people at home in absence of, i. 129</li> - <li class='c011'>Headmen of totem clans in Central Australia, i. 335</li> - <li class='c011'>Heads, custom of moulding heads artificially, ii. <a href='#Page_297'>297</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Hearn, Dr. W. E., ii. <a href='#Page_283'>283</a> <i>n.</i> 5</li> - <li class='c011'>Hearth, the king’s, at Rome, ii. <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>; - <ul> - <li>sacred, of the Herero, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>;</li> - <li>the sacred, seat of the ancestral spirits, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;</li> - <li>custom of leading a bride round the, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>;</li> - <li>new-born children brought to the, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Hearts of men and animals offered to the sun, i. 315</li> - <li class='c011'>Heaven, vault of, imitated in rain-charm, i. 261, 262</li> - <li class='c011'>Heavenly Master, the, i. 413</li> - <li class='c011'>Hebrew prohibition of images, i. 87 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>—— prophets, their ethical religion, i. 223</li> - <li class='c011'>Hebrews, their notion of the blighting effect of sexual crime, ii. <a href='#Page_114'>114</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Hegel on magic and religion, i. 235 <i>n.</i> 1, 423 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Hehn, V., on evergreens in Italy, i. 8 <i>n.</i> 4</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Heimskringla</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_280'>280</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Heine, H., <i>Pilgrimage to Kevlaar</i>, i. 77</li> - <li class='c011'>Hekaerge and Hekaergos, i. 33, 34, 35</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Helaga</i>, taboo, ii. <a href='#Page_106'>106</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_401'>401</span>Helbig, W., i. 20 <i>n.</i> 5</li> - <li class='c011'>Helernus, grove of, ii. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Hellebore, curses at cutting black, i. 281</li> - <li class='c011'>Hemlock as an anaphrodisiac, ii. <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Hemp, charms to make hemp grow tall, i. 137 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Heno, the thunder-spirit of the Iroquois, ii. <a href='#Page_369'>369</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Hera and Hercules, i. 74</li> - <li class='c011'>Hercules, sacrifice to, i. 281</li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Achelous, ii. <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Hera, i. 74</li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Omphale, ii. <a href='#Page_281'>281</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Hercynian forest, the, ii. <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>; - <ul> - <li>etymology of the name, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Hereditary and elective monarchy, combination of the two, ii. <a href='#Page_292'>292</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Herero or Damaras, their fire-customs, ii. <a href='#Page_211'>211</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Hermutrude, legendary queen of Scotland, ii. <a href='#Page_281'>281</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Herodotus, i. 49, 331</li> - <li class='c011'>Hersilia, a Sabine goddess, ii. <a href='#Page_193'>193</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Heyne, C. G., ii. <a href='#Page_329'>329</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Hidatsa Indians, ii. <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Hierapolis, i. 29</li> - <li class='c011'>Hierophant at Eleusis temporarily deprived of his virility, ii. <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Highlands of Scotland, St. Bride’s day in, ii. <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Hindoo Koosh, sacred cedar of the, i. 383; - <ul> - <li>the Kafirs of the, 385</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— Trinity, i. 225</li> - <li class='c011'>Hindoos, magical images among the, i. 63 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Hippoclides and Clisthenes, ii. <a href='#Page_307'>307</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Hippocrates, sacrifices offered to, i. 105</li> - <li class='c011'>Hippodamia and Pelops, ii. <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Hippolytus in relation to Virbius at Nemi, i. 19 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>offerings of hair to, 28</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Artemis, i. 19 <i>sq.</i>, 24 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Saint, martyrdom of, i. 21</li> - <li class='c011'>Hirn, Y., i. 52 <i>n.</i> 1, 54 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Hirt, Professor H., ii. <a href='#Page_367'>367</a> <i>n.</i> 3</li> - <li class='c011'>Hobby Horse at Padstow, ii. <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Hobley, C. W., ii. <a href='#Page_316'>316</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Hog’s blood, purifying virtue of, i. 107</li> - <li class='c011'>Holed stone in magic, i. 313</li> - <li class='c011'>Holland, Whitsuntide customs in, ii. <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Holy Basil, ii. <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Homoeopathic taboos, i. 116; - <ul> - <li>magic for the making of rain, 247 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-magic'>Magic</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Hopi Indians, the, ii. <a href='#Page_208'>208</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Horse, sacred, i. 364; - <ul> - <li>sacrificed at Rome in October, ii. <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Horses excluded from Arician grove, i. 20; - <ul> - <li>dedicated by Hippolytus to Aesculapius, 21 <i>n.</i> 2, 27;</li> - <li>branded with mark of wolf, 27;</li> - <li>in relation to Diomede, 27;</li> - <li>sacrifice of white, 27;</li> - <li>sacrificed to the sun, 315 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>sacrificed to trees, ii. <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>;</li> - <li>sanctity of white, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a> <i>n.</i> 2;</li> - <li>sacrifices for, on St. George’s Day, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Horus, the golden, i. 418</li> - <li class='c011'>Hos, the, of Togoland, i. 396 <i>sq.</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Hot water drunk as a charm, i. 129</li> - <li class='c011'>House-timber, homoeopathic magic of, i. 146</li> - <li class='c011'>Housebreakers, charms employed by, to cause sleep, i. 148 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Hovas, divinity of kings among the, i. 397</li> - <li class='c011'>Howitt, A. W., i. 176, 207, 208</li> - <li class='c011'>Hubert and Mauss, Messrs., i. 111 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Huichol Indians, i. 71, 123</li> - <li class='c011'>Human gods, i. 373 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— victims sacrificed to water-spirits, ii. <a href='#Page_157'>157</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Humboldt, A. von, i. 416</li> - <li class='c011'>Hunters employ contagious magic of footprints, i. 211 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Huntin, a tree-god, ii. <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Hunting and fishing, homoeopathic magic in, i. 108 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>telepathy in, 120 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>“Hurling” for a bride, ii. <a href='#Page_305'>305</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Hurons, the, ii. <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>; - <ul> - <li>reincarnation among the, i. 105;</li> - <li>their mode of counteracting an evil dream, 172 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Husbands, spiritual, ii. <a href='#Page_316'>316</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Hut-urns of ancient Latins, ii. <a href='#Page_201'>201</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Huts, round, of the ancient Latins, ii. <a href='#Page_200'>200</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>in Africa, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a> <i>n.</i> 3</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Huzuls, the, i. 113, 137; - <ul> - <li>their precautions against witches, ii. <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Hymettus, ii. <a href='#Page_360'>360</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Hyperborean maidens at Delos, i. 33</li> - <li class='c010'>Ibn Batutah, ii. <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Icarius, ii. <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Iceland, superstitions as to the caul in, i. 199 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Iddah, king of, i. 396</li> - <li class='c011'>Igaras, succession to the kingship among the, ii. <a href='#Page_294'>294</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Illicit love supposed to blight the fruits of the earth, ii. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Images, Hebrew prohibition of, i. 87 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>—— magical, to injure people, i. 55 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>to procure offspring, 70-74;</li> - <li>to win love, 77</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Impressions, bodily, contagious magic of, i. 213 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Incarnate human gods, i. 373 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Incarnation of gods in human form temporary or permanent, i. 376; - <ul> - <li>examples of temporary incarnation, 376 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>examples of permanent incarnation, 386 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>mystery of, 396 <i>n.</i> 5</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_402'>402</span>Incas, the children of the Sun, i. 415</li> - <li class='c011'>Incense, fumes of, inhaled to produce inspiration, i. 379, 384</li> - <li class='c011'>—— -gatherers, chastity of, ii. <a href='#Page_106'>106</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Incest, blighting effects attributed to, ii. <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>of domestic animals abhorred by the Basoga, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>of animals employed as a rain-charm, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>India, ancient, confusion of magic and religion in, i. 228 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>magical power of kings in, 366;</li> - <li>incarnate human gods in, 376, 402 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Indifference to paternity of kings under female kinship, ii. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Indra, thunderbolt of, i. 269</li> - <li class='c011'>Industrial evolution from uniformity to diversity of function, i. 421</li> - <li class='c011'>Infidelity of wife disastrous to absent husband, i. 123, 131</li> - <li class='c011'>Influence of the sexes on vegetation, ii. <a href='#Page_97'>97</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Initiatory ceremonies of Central Australian aborigines, i. 92 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— rites of Australian aborigines, suggested explanation of, i. 106.</li> - <li class='c011'>Inquisition, the, i. 407, 408</li> - <li class='c011'>Insects, homoeopathic magic of, i. 152</li> - <li class='c011'>Inspiration, i. 376 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>by incense, 379;</li> - <li>by blood, 381 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>by sacred plant or tree, 383 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>of victims, 384 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Inspired or religious type of man-god, i. 244</li> - <li class='c011'>—— priests and priestesses, i. 377 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Intellectual progress dependent on economic progress, i. 218</li> - <li class='c011'>Intercourse of the sexes practised to make the crops and fruits grow, ii. <a href='#Page_98'>98</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Intichiuma</i>, magical totemic ceremonies in Central Australia, i. 85</li> - <li class='c011'>Invulnerability, charm to produce, i. 146 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Ireland, perpetual fires in, ii. <a href='#Page_240'>240</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— sacred oak groves in ancient, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Irish kings, magical virtues attributed to, i. 367</li> - <li class='c011'>Irle, J., ii. <a href='#Page_223'>223</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Iron, homoeopathic magic of, i. 159 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Iroquois, the, ii. <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>; - <ul> - <li>their thunder-god, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Isle of Man, St. Bridget in the, ii. <a href='#Page_94'>94</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— of May, ii. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Ivy chewed by Bachanals, i. 384; - <ul> - <li>in fire-making, ii. <a href='#Page_251'>251</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c010'>Jack-in-the-Green, ii. <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Jana, another form of Diana, ii. <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Jangam</i>, priest of the Lingayats, i. 404</li> - <li class='c011'>Janiculum hill, the, ii. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Janua</i>, derived from Janus, ii. <a href='#Page_384'>384</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Janus, as a god of doors, ii. <a href='#Page_383'>383</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>explanation of the two-headed, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Carna, ii. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— (Dianus) and Diana, doubles of Jupiter and Juno, ii. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Jaundice treated by homoeopathic magic, i. 79 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Java, ceremonies to procure offspring in, i. 73; - <ul> - <li>ceremonies for preventing rain in, 270 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Jerome of Prague, i. 317</li> - <li class='c011'>Jevons, F. B., i. 105, 225 <i>n.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Jewitt, J. R., i. 264</li> - <li class='c011'>Jinnee of the sea, virgins married to, ii. <a href='#Page_153'>153</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Job’s protest, ii. <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Johnson, Dr. S., i. 368, 370</li> - <li class='c011'>Johnston, Sir H. H., ii. <a href='#Page_227'>227</a> <i>n.</i> 3</li> - <li class='c011'>Jordan, H., ii. <a href='#Page_321'>321</a> <i>n.</i> 3</li> - <li class='c011'>Joubert, quoted, i. 223 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Jove (Father) and Mother Vesta, ii. <a href='#Page_227'>227</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Jubainville, H. d’Arbois de, ii. <a href='#Page_362'>362</a> <i>n.</i> 6</li> - <li class='c011'>Judah, idolatrous kings of, i. 315</li> - <li class='c011'>Jukagirs, the, i. 122</li> - <li class='c011'>Julian, the Emperor, ii. <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Julii, the, ii. <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Julus, the Little Jupiter, ii. <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a></li> - <li class='c011'>July the 7th, the <i>Nonae Caprotinae</i>, a Roman festival, ii. <a href='#Page_313'>313</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>June, the first of, a Roman festival, ii. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Juno on the Capitol, ii. <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>; - <ul> - <li>at Falerii, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a> <i>n.</i> 2;</li> - <li>a duplicate of Diana, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— Caprotina, ii. <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Moneta, ii. <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Jupiter, costume of, ii. <a href='#Page_174'>174</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>the Roman kings in the character of, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>Capitoline, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>;</li> - <li>the Little, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>;</li> - <li>Latian, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>;</li> - <li>as god of the oak, the thunder, the rain, and the sky, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>as sky-god, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>;</li> - <li>a duplicate of Janus (Dianus), <a href='#Page_381'>381</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Juno, doubles of Janus and Diana, ii. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>sacred marriage of, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— Dianus, ii. <a href='#Page_382'>382</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Elicius, ii. <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Indiges, ii. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Jupiters, many local, in Latium, ii. <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Juturna, a nymph, ii. <a href='#Page_382'>382</a></li> - <li class='c010'>Kachins of Burma, the, ii. <a href='#Page_237'>237</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Kafirs of the Hindoo Koosh, i. 133 <i>sq.</i>, 385</li> - <li class='c011'>Kaitish tribe of Central Australia, i. 87</li> - <li class='c011'>Kali, the goddess, i. 383</li> - <li class='c011'>Kamilaroi, the, i. 101</li> - <li class='c011'>Kangaroos, ceremony for the multiplication of, i. 87 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Kara-Kirghiz, ii. <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_403'>403</span>Karens of Burma, i. 209; - <ul> - <li>their custom in regard to fornication and adultery, ii. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Karo-Bataks, the, of Sumatra, i. 277</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Kausika Sutra</i>, i. 209, 229</li> - <li class='c011'>Kayans or Bahaus of Borneo, i. 328, ii. <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Kei Islands, i. 126, 131, 145</li> - <li class='c011'>Kenyahs of Borneo, i. 59, ii. <a href='#Page_385'>385</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Keremet, a god of the Wotyaks, ii. <a href='#Page_145'>145</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Kevlaar, Virgin Mary of, i. 77</li> - <li class='c011'>“Key-race,” ii. <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Keys, the golden, ii. <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Khasis of Assam, succession to the kingdom among the, ii. <a href='#Page_294'>294</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Khnoumou, the god, ii. <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Kidd, Dudley, i. 49 <i>n.</i> 3, 350, ii. <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a> <i>n.</i> 4</li> - <li class='c011'>Kildare, fire and nuns of St. Brigit at, ii. <a href='#Page_240'>240</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Kimbugwe, high official in Uganda, i. 196</li> - <li class='c011'>King, J. E., i. 105 <i>n.</i> 4</li> - <li class='c011'>King gives oracles, i. 377; - <ul> - <li>the Grass, ii. <a href='#Page_85'>85</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>the Leaf, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>;</li> - <li>the Roman, as Jupiter, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Queen at Athens, i. 44 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— of Sacred Rites at Rome, i. 44, ii. <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>; - <ul> - <li>his flight, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— of the Saturnalia, ii. <a href='#Page_311'>311</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— of the Wood at Nemi, i. 1 <i>sqq.</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>; - <ul> - <li>a mate of Diana, i. 40, 41, ii. <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>;</li> - <li>a personification of the oak-god Jupiter, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-priest-nemi'>Priest of Nemi</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— Bees (Essenes) at Ephesus, ii. <a href='#Page_135'>135</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Kingdom, mortal combat for the, ii. <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>; - <ul> - <li>in ancient Latium, succession to, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Kings, priestly, i. 44 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>titular or sacred, in Greece, 44 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>Teutonic, 47;</li> - <li>magicians as, 332 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>as rain-makers in Africa, 348, 350 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>punished for drought and dearth, 353 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>among the Aryans, magical powers attributed to, 366 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>divinity of, in great historical empires, 415 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>of nature, ii. <a href='#Page_1'>1</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>of rain, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>;</li> - <li>Roman, as deities in a Sacred Marriage, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>Greek, called Zeus, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>;</li> - <li>expected to make thunder, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>the Latin, thought to be the sons of the fire-god by mortal mothers, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>perpetual fire in houses of, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>Roman, as personifications of Jupiter, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>paternity of, a matter of indifference under female kinship, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>sometimes of a different race from their subjects, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>chosen from several royal families in rotation, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>fat, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>;</li> - <li>handsomest men, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>;</li> - <li>long-headed, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>;</li> - <li>sacred or divine, development of, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-latin'>Latin</a> <i>and</i> <a href='#idx-roman'>Roman</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Kings’ Evil (scrofula), touching for the, i. 368 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— fire, the, ii. <a href='#Page_195'>195</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Race, the, ii. <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— sisters, licence accorded to, ii. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Kingship, annual, in ancient Greece, i. 46</li> - <li class='c011'>—— contest for the, at Whitsuntide, ii. <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— descent of the, in the female line, at Rome, ii. <a href='#Page_270'>270</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>in Africa, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>in Greece, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>in Scandinavia, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>in Lydia, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>among the Danes and Saxons, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— evolution of the sacred, i. 420 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— nominal, left by conquerors to indigenous race, ii. <a href='#Page_288'>288</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Roman, abolition of the, ii. <a href='#Page_289'>289</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— the old Roman, a religious office, ii. <a href='#Page_289'>289</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Kingsley, Miss Mary H., i. 411 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Kintu, ii. <a href='#Page_261'>261</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Kirghiz, “Love Chase” among the, ii. <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Knocking out of teeth as initiatory ceremony in Australia, i. 97 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Knots, tying up the wind in, i. 326</li> - <li class='c011'>Kolkodoons, the, i. 93</li> - <li class='c011'>Kondhs, their belief in reincarnation, i. 104</li> - <li class='c011'>Koniags, the, i. 121</li> - <li class='c011'>Koryaks, sacred fire-boards of the, ii. <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>; - <ul> - <li>race for a bride among the, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Krishna, i. 406; - <ul> - <li>marriage of, to the Holy Basil, ii. <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Kunama, the, ii. <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Kvasir, i. 241</li> - <li class='c011'>Kwakiutl Indians, their superstitions as to twins, i. 263</li> - <li class='c010'>Lac, taboos observed in gathering, i. 115</li> - <li class='c011'>Lacueva, Father, ii. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a> <i>n.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Ladder to facilitate the descent of the sun, ii. <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Laetare</i> Sunday, ii. <a href='#Page_63'>63</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Laibon</i>, i. 343</li> - <li class='c011'>Lake-dwellings of prehistoric Europe, ii. <a href='#Page_352'>352</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Lakes, gods of lakes married to women, ii. <a href='#Page_150'>150</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Lakshmi, wife of Vishnu, ii. <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Lamas, transmigrations of the Grand, i. 410 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Lamb of Mycenae, the golden, i. 365</li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_404'>404</span>Lamb, blood of, as means of inspiration, i. 381</li> - <li class='c011'>Lambing, time of, ii. <a href='#Page_328'>328</a> <i>n.</i> 4</li> - <li class='c011'>Lamps, dedication of burning, i. 12 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Lane, E. W., ii. <a href='#Page_209'>209</a> <i>n.</i> 4</li> - <li class='c011'>Language, special, for kings and persons of blood royal, i. 401</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Lapis manalis</i> at Rome, i. 310</li> - <li class='c011'>Larch-tree, sacred, ii. <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Lares, the, ii. <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-latin'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>Latin confederacy, the, in relation to sacred Arician grove, i. 22 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— kings thought to be the sons of the fire-god by mortal mothers, ii. <a href='#Page_195'>195</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>lists of, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>stories of their miraculous birth, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Latinus, changed into Latian Jupiter, ii. <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>; - <ul> - <li>his wife a Vestal, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Latium, many local Jupiters in, ii. <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>; - <ul> - <li>in antiquity, the woods of, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>;</li> - <li>succession to the kingdom in ancient, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Latuka, rain-makers among the, i. 346, 354</li> - <li class='c011'>Laurel chewed as means of inspiration, i. 384; - <ul> - <li>in fire-making, ii. <a href='#Page_251'>251</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Lavinium, worship of Vesta at, i. 14</li> - <li class='c011'>Lazy Man, the, ii. <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Leaf-clad mummers, ii. <a href='#Page_74'>74</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>mock marriage of, ii. <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Leaf King, the, ii. <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Man, the Little, ii. <a href='#Page_80'>80</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Leafy bust at Nemi, portrait of the King of the Wood, i. 41 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Leaping over a fire, ii. <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— and dancing to make the crops grow high, i. 137 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Lemnos, new fire brought to, i. 32</li> - <li class='c011'>Lengua Indians, i. 313, 330, 359</li> - <li class='c011'>Lent, fourth Sunday in, ii. <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Lerons of Borneo, i. 59</li> - <li class='c011'>Leschiy, a woodland spirit, ii. <a href='#Page_124'>124</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Leto, ii. <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Lévi, Professor Sylvain, i. 228</li> - <li class='c011'>Lhasa, i. 411 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Licence accorded to slaves at the Saturnalia, ii. <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>; - <ul> - <li>to female slaves at the <i>Nonae Caprotinae</i>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Lightning, charm against, i. 82; - <ul> - <li>imitation of, 248, 303;</li> - <li>thought to be the father of twins, 266;</li> - <li>wood of tree that has been struck by, 319;</li> - <li>fire kindled by, ii. <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>;</li> - <li>African deities of, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>;</li> - <li>supposed to be produced by means of flints, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>;</li> - <li>Zeus, i. 33, ii. <a href='#Page_361'>361</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Lime-trees sacred, ii. <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Lindus in Rhodes, i. 281</li> - <li class='c011'>Lingayats, the, i. 404</li> - <li class='c011'>Lithuanians, the heathen, i. 317, ii. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>; - <ul> - <li>tree-worship among the, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>;</li> - <li>sacrifice to Pergrubius, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>;</li> - <li>the thunder-god Perkunas of the, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>their reverence for oaks, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Little Jupiter, the, ii. <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Leaf Man, ii. <a href='#Page_80'>80</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>“Living fire,” ii. <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>; - <ul> - <li>as a charm against witchcraft, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Lo Bengula, i. 351, 352, 394</li> - <li class='c011'>Loango, king of, revered as a god, i. 396; - <ul> - <li>fights all rivals for his crown, ii. <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— licence of princesses in, ii. <a href='#Page_276'>276</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Lobo</i>, spirit-house, ii. <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Local totem centres, i. 96</li> - <li class='c011'>Locrians, the Epizephyrian, ii. <a href='#Page_284'>284</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>“Longevity garments,” i. 169</li> - <li class='c011'>Long-headed men chosen kings, ii. <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Loon, the bird, associated with rain, i. 288</li> - <li class='c011'>Lord of the Wood, ii. <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>; - <ul> - <li>of Misrule, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Lady of the May, ii. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Loucheux, the, i. 356</li> - <li class='c011'>Love, cure for, i. 161; - <ul> - <li>illicit, thought to blight the fruits of the earth, ii. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Love-charms practised on St. George’s Day, ii. <a href='#Page_345'>345</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>“Love Chase” among the Kirghiz, ii. <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Lovers of goddesses, their unhappy ends, i. 39 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Low, Sir Hugh, ii. <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Lubare</i>, god, i. 395</li> - <li class='c011'>Lucian on hair offerings, i. 28</li> - <li class='c011'>Lucius, E., i. 13 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Luxor, paintings at, ii. <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Lyall, Sir A. C., i. 224 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Lycaeus, Mount, ii. <a href='#Page_359'>359</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Lycurgus, king of Thrace, i. 366</li> - <li class='c011'>Lydia, female descent of kingship in, ii. <a href='#Page_281'>281</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c010'>Mabuiag, i. 59, 263, 323</li> - <li class='c011'>Macdonald, Rev. J., i. 110, ii. <a href='#Page_210'>210</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>“Macdonald’s disease, the,” i. 370 <i>n.</i> 3</li> - <li class='c011'>MacGregor, Sir William, i. 337</li> - <li class='c011'>“Macleod’s Fairy Banner,” i. 368</li> - <li class='c011'>Macrobius, ii. <a href='#Page_385'>385</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Madagascar, King of, i. 47 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>foods tabooed in, 117 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>custom of women in Madagascar while men are at war, 131;</li> - <li>modes of counteracting evil omens in, 173 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Madness, cure of, i. 161</li> - <li class='c011'>Maeander, the river, supposed to take the virginity of brides, ii. <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Magian priests, ii. <a href='#Page_241'>241</a> <i>n.</i> 4</li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-magic'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>Magic, principles of, i. 52 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>negative, 111 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>public and private, 214 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>benefits conferred by, 218 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>its analogy to science, 220 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>attraction of, 221;</li> - <li>fatal flaw of, 221 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>based on a misapplication of the association of ideas, 221 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_405'>405</span>opposed in principle to religion, 224;</li> - <li>older than religion, 233 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>universality of belief in, 234-236;</li> - <li>transition from magic to religion, 237 <i>sqq.</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_376'>376</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>the fallacy of, not easy to detect, i. 242 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Magic, Contagious, i. 52-54, 174-214; - <ul> - <li>of teeth, 176-182;</li> - <li>of navel-string and afterbirth (placenta), 182-201;</li> - <li>ofwound and weapon, 201 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>of foot-prints, 207-212;</li> - <li>of other impressions, 213 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— Homoeopathic or Imitative, i. 52 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>in medicine, 78 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>for the supply of food, 85 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>in fishing and hunting, 108 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>to make plants grow, 136 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>of the dead, 147 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>of animals, 150 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>of inanimate things, 157 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>to annul evil omens, 170-174;</li> - <li>for the making of rain, 247 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— Sympathetic, i. 51 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>the two branches of, 54;</li> - <li>examples of, 55 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and religion, i. 220-243, 250, 285, 286, 347, 352; - <ul> - <li>confused together, 226 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>their historical antagonism comparatively late, 226;</li> - <li>Hegel on, 423 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Magical control of rain, i. 247 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>of the sun, 311 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>of the wind, 319 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— dramas to promote vegetation, ii. <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— origin of certain religious dramas, ii. <a href='#Page_142'>142</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— type of man-god, i. 244</li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-magician'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>Magician, public, his rise to power, i. 215 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Magician’s progress, the, i. 214 <i>sqq.</i>, 335 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Magicians claim to compel the gods, i. 225; - <ul> - <li>gods viewed as, 240 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>importance of rise of professional magicians, 245 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>as kings, 332 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>develop into kings, 420 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-medicine-men'>Medicine-men</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><i>Mahabharata</i>, the, ii. <a href='#Page_306'>306</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Maharajas, a Hindoo sect, i. 406, ii. <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Maidu Indians, i. 122, 357</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Maillotins</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_63'>63</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Maimonides, i. 140, ii. <a href='#Page_100'>100</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Maize, continence at sowing, ii. <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Makalakas, the, i. 394</li> - <li class='c011'>Makatisses, the, i. 71</li> - <li class='c011'>Makrizi, i. 252, ii. <a href='#Page_151'>151</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Malay charms, i. 57 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— magic, i. 110 <i>sq.</i>, 114 <i>sq.</i>, 127</li> - <li class='c011'>—— Peninsula, the wild tribes of the, i. 360</li> - <li class='c011'>—— region, divinity of kings in, i. 398</li> - <li class='c011'>Malays, their superstitious veneration for their rajahs, i. 361; - <ul> - <li>regalia among the, 362</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Maldive Islands, ii. <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Malecki (Maeletius, Menecius), J., ii. <a href='#Page_366'>366</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Man, E. H., ii. <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li> - <li class='c011'>“Man, the True,” i. 413</li> - <li class='c011'>—— -god, the two types of, i. 244 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>notion of a man-god belongs to early period of religious history, 374 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><i>Mana</i>, supernatural or magical power in Melanesia, i. 111 <i>n.</i> 2, 227, 228 <i>n.</i> 1, 339</li> - <li class='c011'>Mangaia, i. 378</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Mania</i>, a bogey, i. 22</li> - <li class='c011'>Manii at Aricia, i. 22</li> - <li class='c011'>Manius Egerius, i. 22</li> - <li class='c011'>Manna, ceremony for the magical multiplication of, i. 88 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Mannhardt, W., i. 140 <i>n.</i> 6, ii. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Mantras</i>, sacred texts, i. 403 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Manu, the Laws of</i>, i. 366, 402</li> - <li class='c011'>Maoris, the, i. 71; - <ul> - <li>magic of navel-string and afterbirth among the, 182 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>their belief as to fertilising virtue of trees, ii. <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Maraves, the, i. 393, ii. <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Marcellus of Bordeaux, i. 84</li> - <li class='c011'>Marduk, chief Babylonian god, as a magician, i. 240 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>his wives, ii. <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Marett, R. R., i. 111 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Marigolds, magic of, i. 211</li> - <li class='c011'>Marquesas or Washington Islands, human gods in the, i. 386 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Marriage to trees, i. 40 <i>sq.</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>; - <ul> - <li>of trees to each other, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>mock, of leaf-clad mummers, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>;</li> - <li>the Sacred, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>of the gods, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>bath before, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Marsh-marigolds, a protection against witches, ii. <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>; - <ul> - <li>on May Day, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Martius, C. F. Phil. von, i. 359</li> - <li class='c011'>Martyrdom of St. Hippolytus, i. 21</li> - <li class='c011'>Masai, power of medicine-men among the, i. 343 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Mashona, the, i. 393</li> - <li class='c011'>Maskers, representing the dead, ii. <a href='#Page_178'>178</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Maspéro, Sir Gaston, i. 230, ii. <a href='#Page_133'>133</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>“Mass of the Holy Spirit,” i. 231 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Mass of Saint Sécaire, i. 232 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Master, the Heavenly, i. 413</li> - <li class='c011'>—— of Sorrows, i. 280</li> - <li class='c011'>Matabeles, king of the, i. 48; - <ul> - <li>as rain-maker, 351 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— magical effigies among the, i. 63</li> - <li class='c011'>Maternal uncle preferred to father, mark of mother-kin, ii. <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Maurer, K., ii. <a href='#Page_280'>280</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Mauss and Hubert, Messrs., i. 111 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>May Bride, the, ii. <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a></li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_406'>406</span>May bridegroom, ii. <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -bush, ii. <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Day, celebration of, ii. <a href='#Page_59'>59</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>licence of, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— Fools, ii. <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— garlands, ii. <a href='#Page_60'>60</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— King, ii. <a href='#Page_85'>85</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Lady, the, ii. <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -poles, ii. <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Queen, ii. <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Rose, the Little, ii. <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -trees, ii. <a href='#Page_59'>59</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>or may-poles, fertilising virtue of, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Mayos or Mayes, ii. <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-medicine-men'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>Medicine-men (magicians, sorcerers), power of, among African tribes, i. 342 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>power of, among the American Indians, 355 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>progressive differentiation of, 420 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>develop into kings, 420 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>the oldest professional class, 420.</li> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-magician'>Magicians</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Melampus and Iphiclus, i. 158</li> - <li class='c011'>Melanesia, homoeopathic magic of stones in, i. 164; - <ul> - <li>supernatural power of chiefs in, 338 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Merker, Captain M., i. 343</li> - <li class='c011'>Merlin, i. 306</li> - <li class='c011'>Messiah, pretended, i. 409</li> - <li class='c011'>Metsik, a forest spirit, ii. <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Mexican kings, their oath, i. 356</li> - <li class='c011'>Mexicans, human sacrifices of the ancient, i. 314 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Micah, quoted, i. 223</li> - <li class='c011'>Mice and rats, teeth of, in magic, i. 178 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Midsummer, new fire made at, ii. <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>; - <ul> - <li>festival of, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— bonfires, ii. <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Bride, ii. <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— customs, ii. <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>; - <ul> - <li>in Sweden, ii. <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— Eve, a witching time, ii. <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Mikado, the, an incarnation of the sun goddess, i. 417</li> - <li class='c011'>Miklucho-Maclay, Baron von, ii. <a href='#Page_253'>253</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Milk, witches steal milk on Walpurgis Night or May Day, ii. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>witches steal milk on Midsummer Eve, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>;</li> - <li>witches steal milk on Eve of St. George, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a> sqq;</li> - <li>not given away on St. George’s Eve, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— -pails wreathed with flowers, ii. <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -stones, i. 165</li> - <li class='c011'>Milkmen of the Todas sacred or divine, i. 402 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Milton on chastity, ii. <a href='#Page_118'>118</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Minangkabauers of Sumatra, i. 58, 140</li> - <li class='c011'>Miris of Assam, the, ii. <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Mirror or burning-glass, fire made by means of, ii. <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a> <i>n.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Mistletoe venerated by the Druids, ii. <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Moab, Arabs of, i. 276</li> - <li class='c011'>Mock sun, i. 314</li> - <li class='c011'>Moffat, Dr. R., i. 351</li> - <li class='c011'>Mohammed, on the fig, ii. <a href='#Page_316'>316</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Mommsen, Th., i. 23 <i>n.</i> 3, ii. <a href='#Page_174'>174</a> <i>n.</i> 1, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a> <i>n.</i> 1, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Monarchy in ancient Greece and Rome, tradition of its abolition, i. 46; - <ul> - <li>rise of, 216 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>essential to emergence of mankind from savagery, 217;</li> - <li>hereditary and elective, combination of the two, ii. <a href='#Page_292'>292</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Money, old Italian, i. 23</li> - <li class='c011'>Montanus, the Phrygian, i. 407</li> - <li class='c011'>Montezuma, i. 416</li> - <li class='c011'>Moon, singing to the, i. 125; - <ul> - <li>charm to hasten the, 319;</li> - <li>in relation to child-birth, ii. <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</li> - <li>woman chosen to represent the, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><i>Morbus regius</i>, jaundice, i. 371 <i>n.</i> 4</li> - <li class='c011'>Morgan, Professor M. H., ii. <a href='#Page_207'>207</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>“Mother of Kings,” ii. <a href='#Page_277'>277</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— of the Gods, i. 21</li> - <li class='c011'>—— of the Rain, i. 276</li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-mother-kin'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>Mother-kin, ii. <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>; - <ul> - <li>in succession to Roman kingship, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>;</li> - <li>among the Aryans, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>superiority of maternal uncle to father under mother-kin, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>.</li> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-female-kinship'>Female Kinship</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Mother’s brother preferred to father, mark of mother-kin, ii. <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Motu, the, i. 317, ii. <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Motumotu, the, i. 317, 327, 337; - <ul> - <li>or Toaripi, the, in New Guinea, 125</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Moulton, Professor J. H., ii. <a href='#Page_182'>182</a> <i>n.</i> 2, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a> <i>n.</i> 3, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a> <i>n.</i> 5</li> - <li class='c011'>Moxos Indians, i. 123</li> - <li class='c011'>Muata Jamwo, the, ii. <a href='#Page_262'>262</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Mukasa, god of the Baganda, ii. <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Müller, Max, i. 333 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Mulongo</i>, “twin,” name applied by the Baganda to the navel-string, i. 195, 196</li> - <li class='c011'>Mummers dressed in leaves, branches, and flowers, ii. <a href='#Page_74'>74</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Mundaris, the, ii. <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Mundas, the, ii. <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Munro, Dr. R., ii. <a href='#Page_352'>352</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Mura-muras, i. 255 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Mycenae, golden lamb of, i. 365</li> - <li class='c011'>Mysteries of Eleusis, ii. <a href='#Page_138'>138</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Mytilene, kings at, i. 45</li> - <li class='c010'><i>Nabataeans, Agriculture of the</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Nabu, marriage of the god, ii. <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Nahak</i>, rubbish used in magic, i. 341</li> - <li class='c011'>Nails knocked into trees, ii. <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>; - <ul> - <li>a charm against witchcraft, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— pegs, or pins knocked into images, i. 61, 64, 65, 68, 69</li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_407'>407</span>Nails, parings of, used in magic, i. 57, 64, 65, 66</li> - <li class='c011'>Names of kings changed to procure rain, i. 355</li> - <li class='c011'>Nandi, power of medicine-men among the, i. 344</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Nanja</i> spots or local totem centres, i. 96, 97</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Nat</i>, spirit, ii. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Natchez, the, i. 249; - <ul> - <li>their perpetual fires, ii. <a href='#Page_262'>262</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>“Nativity of the sun’s walking-stick,” i. 312</li> - <li class='c011'>Navarre, rain-making in, i. 307 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Navel-string, contagious magic of, i. 182-201; - <ul> - <li>regarded as brother or sister of child, 186, 189;</li> - <li>called the “twin,” 195;</li> - <li>seat of external soul, 200 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Navel-strings hung on trees, ii. <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Negative magic or taboo, i. 111 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Nemi, the lake of, i. 1 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>sanctuary of Diana at, 2 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>the priest of, 8 <i>sqq.</i>, 40, 41, ii. <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Neoptolemus, ii. <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Nerthus, procession of, ii. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Nets, marriage of girls to, ii. <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li> - <li class='c011'>New birth, simulation of, i. 380 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -born children brought to the hearth, ii. <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Caledonia, i. 78; - <ul> - <li>homoeopathic magic of stones in, 162 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— Caledonians, the, i. 312, 313, 314</li> - <li class='c011'>—— fire, ii. <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>; - <ul> - <li>made at Midsummer, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>;</li> - <li>made at beginning of a king’s reign, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— Guinea, influence of magicians in, i. 337 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Year festival, i. 251</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Ngai</i>, god, ii. <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Nias, i. 109, 143</li> - <li class='c011'>Nicholson, General, worshipped, i. 404</li> - <li class='c011'>Niebuhr, B. G., ii. <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Nightingale in magic, i. 154</li> - <li class='c011'>Nile, the Upper, rain-makers on the, i. 345 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>the bride of the, ii. <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Nine animals sacrificed daily at a festival, ii. <a href='#Page_365'>365</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— years’ festival at Upsala, ii. <a href='#Page_364'>364</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Noah’s ark, i. 334</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Nonae Caprotinae</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_314'>314</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Nootkas, superstitions as to twins among the, i. 263 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Norse trinities, ii. <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Noses bored, i. 94</li> - <li class='c011'>Numa, his birthday, ii. <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>; - <ul> - <li>a priestly king, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Egeria, i. 18, ii. <a href='#Page_172'>172</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Numa’s birthday, ii. <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>; - <ul> - <li>“Numa’s crockery,” ii. <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Numbering the herds on St. George’s Day, ii. <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Numicius, the river, ii. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Nuns of St. Brigit, ii. <a href='#Page_240'>240</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Nurin, i. 275, 276</li> - <li class='c011'>Nusku, Babylonian fire-god, i. 67</li> - <li class='c011'>Nyanza, Lake, god of, i. 395</li> - <li class='c010'>Oak, its diffusion in Europe, ii. <a href='#Page_349'>349</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>worship of the, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>oracular, at Dodona, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>;</li> - <li>worshipped in modern Europe, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and thunder, the Aryan god of the, ii. <a href='#Page_356'>356</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>sky, rain, and thunder, god of the, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— evergreen, in making fire, ii. <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>; - <ul> - <li>the Golden Bough grew on an, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— branch in rain charm, i. 309</li> - <li class='c011'>—— -god married to the oak-goddess, ii. <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>; - <ul> - <li>and oak-goddess, marriage of, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>;</li> - <li>how he became a god of lightning, thunder, and rain, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— groves in ancient Ireland, ii. <a href='#Page_242'>242</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— leaves, crown of, ii. <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -nymphs at Rome, ii. <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -tree guarded by the King of the Wood at Nemi, i. 42</li> - <li class='c011'>—— -trees, sacrifices to, ii. <a href='#Page_366'>366</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -wood, Vesta’s fire at Rome fed with, ii. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>; - <ul> - <li>perpetual fire of, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>;</li> - <li>ceremonial fires kindled by the friction of, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— -woods on the site of ancient Rome, ii. <a href='#Page_184'>184</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -worship of the Druids, ii. <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Oaken image dressed as a bride, ii. <a href='#Page_140'>140</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Oaks at Troezen, i. 26; - <ul> - <li>of Ireland, ii. <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>;</li> - <li>sacred among the old Prussians, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Oaths on stones, i. 160 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Ocrisia, ii. <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Octopus in magic, i. 156</li> - <li class='c011'>Odin as a magician, i. 241 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>the Norse god of war, ii. <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Oedipus, ii. <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Oenomaus, ii. <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Oesel, island of, i. 329</li> - <li class='c011'>Offspring, charms to procure, i. 70 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Ojebways, magical images among the, i. 55</li> - <li class='c011'>Olaf, King, i. 367</li> - <li class='c011'>Old men, government by, in aboriginal Australia, i. 334 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Oldenberg, Professor H., i. 225 <i>n.</i>, 228, 235 <i>n.</i> 1, 269, 270</li> - <li class='c011'>Olives planted and gathered by pure boys and virgins, ii. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Olympia, races for the kingdom at, ii. <a href='#Page_299'>299</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Omahas, the, i. 249, 320</li> - <li class='c011'>Omens, homoeopathic magic to annul evil omens, i. 170-174</li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_408'>408</span>Omphale and Hercules, ii. <a href='#Page_281'>281</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Omumborombonga</i> (<i>Combretum primigenum</i>), the sacred tree of the Herero, ii. <a href='#Page_213'>213</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Omuwapu</i> tree (<i>Grevia spec.</i>), ii. <a href='#Page_219'>219</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Opprobrious language levelled at goddess to please her, i. 280</li> - <li class='c011'>Oracles given by king, i. 377</li> - <li class='c011'>Oraons, marriage of Sun and Earth among the, ii. <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>; - <ul> - <li>spring festival of the, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Oracular spring at Dodona, ii. <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Ordeal of battle among the Umbrians, ii. <a href='#Page_321'>321</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Orestes at Nemi, i. 10 <i>sq.</i>, 21 <i>n.</i> 2, 24; - <ul> - <li>at Troezen, 26;</li> - <li>cured of his madness, 161</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Orgies, sexual, as fertility charms, ii. <a href='#Page_98'>98</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Orontes, the river, ii. <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Osiris threatened by magicians, i. 225</li> - <li class='c011'>Ostyaks, tree-worship among the, ii. <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Ovambo, the, i. 63, 209, ii. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Ovid, ii. <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>; - <ul> - <li>on Nemi, i. 4, 17</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c010'>Pacific, human gods in the, i. 386 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Padstow, custom of the Hobby Horse at, ii. <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Pages</i>, medicine-men, i. 358</li> - <li class='c011'>Paint-house, the, ii. <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Paintings, prehistoric, of animals in caves, i. 87 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Pais, E., i. 23 <i>n.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Pales, ii. <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Pallades, female consorts of Ammon, ii. <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Palladius, ii. <a href='#Page_314'>314</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Pallene, daughter of Sithon, ii. <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Palm-tree, ceremony of tapping it for wine, ii. <a href='#Page_100'>100</a> <i>sq.</i> - <ul> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-date-palm'>Date-palm</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Panamara in Caria, i. 29</li> - <li class='c011'>Paparuda, i. 273</li> - <li class='c011'>Parasitic plants, superstitions as to, ii. <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Parilia, the, ii. <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>; - <ul> - <li>a shepherds’ festival, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Parjanya, the ancient Hindoo god of thunder and rain, i. 270, ii. <a href='#Page_368'>368</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Parkinson, R., i. 175</li> - <li class='c011'>Parricide, Roman punishment of, ii. <a href='#Page_110'>110</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Parsees, the, ii. <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Partheniai</i>, i. 36 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Parthenos</i> as applied to Artemis, i. 36</li> - <li class='c011'>Parthian monarchs brothers of the Sun, i. 417 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Partridge, C., ii. <a href='#Page_394'>394</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Patara, Apollo at, ii. <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Paternity, uncertainty of, a ground for a theological distinction, ii. <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>; - <ul> - <li>of kings a matter of indifference under female kinship, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Patriarchal family at Rome, ii. <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Paulicians, the, i. 407</li> - <li class='c011'>Payaguas, the, i. 330</li> - <li class='c011'>Payne, E. J., i. 415 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Pear-tree as protector of cattle, ii. <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Peat-bogs of Europe, ii. <a href='#Page_350'>350</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Peking Gazette</i>, i. 355</li> - <li class='c011'>Peleus, ii. <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Pelew Islands, human gods in, i. 389</li> - <li class='c011'>Pelopidae, the, ii. <a href='#Page_279'>279</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Pelops, ii. <a href='#Page_279'>279</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Hippodamia, ii. <a href='#Page_299'>299</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Penates, the, ii. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Pennefather River in Queensland, i. 99, 100</li> - <li class='c011'>Peoples said to be ignorant of the art of kindling fire, ii. <a href='#Page_253'>253</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Peperuga, i. 274</li> - <li class='c011'>Pepys, S., i. 369, ii. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Pergrubius, a Lithuanian god of the spring, ii. <a href='#Page_347'>347</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Periphas, king of Athens, ii. <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Perkunas or Perkuns, the Lithuanian god of thunder and lightning, ii. <a href='#Page_365'>365</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>derivation of his name, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a> <i>n.</i> 3</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Perperia, i. 273</li> - <li class='c011'>Perpetual fires, origin of, ii. <a href='#Page_253'>253</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>associated with royal dignity, ii. <a href='#Page_261'>261</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Perseus and Andromeda, ii. <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Peru, Indians of, i. 265, ii. <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>; - <ul> - <li>the Incas of, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Perun, the thunder-god of the Slavs, ii. <a href='#Page_365'>365</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Peruvian Indians, i. 56</li> - <li class='c011'>—— Vestals, ii. <a href='#Page_243'>243</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Pessinus, i. 47</li> - <li class='c011'>Peter of Dusburg, ii. <a href='#Page_366'>366</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Phaedra and Hippolytus, i. 25</li> - <li class='c011'>Pheneus, lake of, ii. <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Phigalia, i. 31</li> - <li class='c011'>Philostratus, i. 167</li> - <li class='c011'>Phosphorescence of the sea, superstitions as to the, ii. <a href='#Page_154'>154</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Picts, female descent of kingship among the, ii. <a href='#Page_280'>280</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Piers, Sir Henry, ii. <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Pig, blood of, drunk as a means of inspiration, i. 382; - <ul> - <li>in purificatory rites, ii. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>;</li> - <li>expiatory sacrifice of, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Pigeon used in a love-charm, ii. <a href='#Page_345'>345</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Pile-villages in the valley of the Po, ii. <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>; - <ul> - <li>of Europe, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Pipal-tree (<i>ficus religiosa</i>), ii. <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Pipiles, the, of Central America, ii. <a href='#Page_98'>98</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Pity of rain-gods, appeal to, i. 302 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Placenta (afterbirth) and navel-string, contagious magic of, i. 182-201</li> - <li class='c011'>Plantain-trees, navel-strings of Baganda buried at foot of, i. 195</li> - <li class='c011'>Plants, homoeopathic magic to make plants grow, i. 136 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_409'>409</span>influenced homoeopathically by a person’s act or state, 139 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>influence persons homoeopathically, 144 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>sexes of, ii. <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>;</li> - <li>marriage of, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Plataea, festival of the Daedala at, ii. <a href='#Page_140'>140</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Plato, i. 45, 104</li> - <li class='c011'>Plebeians, the Roman kings, ii. <a href='#Page_289'>289</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Pleiades, rising of the, i. 32</li> - <li class='c011'>Pliny the Elder, i. 49; - <ul> - <li>on sacredness of woods, ii. <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>;</li> - <li>the Younger, i. 6</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Ploughing by women as a rain-charm, i. 282 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Plover in connexion with rain, i. 259, 261</li> - <li class='c011'>Plutarch, i. 28, 80, ii. <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a> <i>n.</i> 3, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a> <i>n.</i> 3; - <ul> - <li>on Numa and Egeria, i. 18</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Pole-star, homoeopathic magic of the, i. 166</li> - <li class='c011'>Political evolution from democracy to despotism, i. 421</li> - <li class='c011'>Polybius, ii. <a href='#Page_354'>354</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Polydorus, ii. <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Poplar, the white, at Olympia, a substitute for the oak, ii. <a href='#Page_220'>220</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Porphyry, i. 390, ii. <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Porta Capena at Rome, i. 18</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Porta Querquetulana</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_185'>185</a> <i>n.</i> 3</li> - <li class='c011'>Poso in Celebes, i. 379, ii. <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Potrimpo, old Prussian god, ii. <a href='#Page_248'>248</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Pottery, primitive, employed in Roman ritual, ii. <a href='#Page_202'>202</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>superstitions as to the making of, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><i>Pramantha</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_249'>249</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Prayers for rain, ii. <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>; - <ul> - <li>to Thunder, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>to an oak, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Precautions against witches, ii. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Precious stones, homoeopathic magic of, i. 164 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Pregnancy, ceremony in seventh month of, i. 72 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Pregnant cows sacrificed to the Earth goddess, ii. <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>; - <ul> - <li>victims sacrificed to ensure fertility, i. 141;</li> - <li>women employed to fertilise crops and fruit-trees, i. 140 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Pretenders to divinity among Christians, i. 407 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Priest drenched with water as a rain-charm, ii. <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>; - <ul> - <li>rolled on fields as fertility charm, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>;</li> - <li>of Diana at Nemi, i. 8 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-priest-nemi'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— of Nemi, i. 8 <i>sqq.</i>, 40, 41, ii. <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-king-of-wood'>King of the Wood</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Priestesses, inspired, i. 379 <i>sq.</i>, 381 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Priestly kings, i. 44 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Priests, magical powers attributed to priests by French peasants, i. 231-233; - <ul> - <li>inspired, 377 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Princesses married to foreigners or men of low birth, ii. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Private magic, i. 214 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Procopius, ii. <a href='#Page_365'>365</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Procreative virtue attributed to fire, ii. <a href='#Page_233'>233</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Proculus Julius, ii. <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Progress, intellectual, dependent on economic progress, i. 218; - <ul> - <li>social, 421</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Promathion’s <i>History of Italy</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Prometheus, ii. <a href='#Page_260'>260</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Prophetic powers conferred by certain springs, ii. <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Prophets, the Hebrew, their ethical religion, i. 223</li> - <li class='c011'>Propitiation essential to religion, i. 222</li> - <li class='c011'>Prostitution before marriage, practice of, ii. <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Prothero, G. W., ii. <a href='#Page_71'>71</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Provence, magical powers attributed to priests in, i. 232</li> - <li class='c011'>Prpats, i. 274</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Prunus Padus</i>, L., ii. <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Prussians, the old, their worship of trees, ii. <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Prytaneum, fire in the, ii. <a href='#Page_260'>260</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Psylli, the, i. 331</li> - <li class='c011'>Public magic, i. 215</li> - <li class='c011'>Purification by fire, ii. <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Purificatory rites for sexual crimes, ii. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Pururavas and Urvasi, ii. <a href='#Page_250'>250</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Pythagoras, maxims of, i. 211, 213 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Pythaists at Athens, i. 33</li> - <li class='c011'>Python, sacred, ii. <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li> - <li class='c010'>Quack, the, ii. <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Quartz-crystals used in rain-making, i. 254, 255, 304</li> - <li class='c011'>Queen of Egypt married to the god Ammon, ii. <a href='#Page_131'>131</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>of Athens married to Dionysus, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>of May, ii. <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>Charlotte Islands, i. 70;</li> - <li>sister in Uganda, licence accorded to the ii. <a href='#Page_275'>275</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Queensland, rain-making in, i. 254 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Querquetulani</i>, Men of the Oak, ii. <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Quirinal hill, the, ii. <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Quirinus, ii. <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Quiteve, the, i. 392</li> - <li class='c011'>Quivering of the body in a rain-charm, i. 260, 361</li> - <li class='c010'>Ra, the Egyptian sun-god, i. 418, 419</li> - <li class='c011'>Race, the King’s, ii. <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>; - <ul> - <li>succession to kingdom determined by a, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>for a bride, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Races at Whitsuntide, ii. <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Raccoons in rain-charm, i. 288</li> - <li class='c011'>Rain, extraction of teeth in connexion with, i. 98 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>the magical control of, 247 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>made by homoeopathic or imitative magic, 247 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_410'>410</span>Mother of the, 276;</li> - <li>supposed to fall only as a result of magic, 353;</li> - <li>excessive, supposed to be an effect of sexual crime, ii. <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>;</li> - <li>Zeus as the god of, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Rain-bird, i. 287</li> - <li class='c011'>“Rain-bush,” ii. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -charm by ploughing, i. 282 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Country, i. 259</li> - <li class='c011'>—— -doctor, i. 271</li> - <li class='c011'>—— -god as dragon, i. 297</li> - <li class='c011'>—— -gods compelled to give rain by threats and violence, i. 296 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>appeal to the pity of the, 302 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Rain King, i. 275, ii. <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -maker among the Arunta, costume of the, i. 260; - <ul> - <li>assimilates himself to water, 269 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— makers, their importance in savage communities, i. 247; - <ul> - <li>in Africa, their rise to political power, 342 <i>sqq.</i>, 352;</li> - <li>on the Upper Nile, 345 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>unsuccessful, punished or killed, 345, 352 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— -making by means of the dead, i. 284 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>by means of animals, 287 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>by means of stones, 304 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>“Rain-stick,” i. 254</li> - <li class='c011'>“Rain-stones,” i. 254, 305, 345, 346</li> - <li class='c011'>—— -temple, i. 250</li> - <li class='c011'>—— totem, i. 258</li> - <li class='c011'>Rainbow in rain-charm, picture of, i. 258</li> - <li class='c011'>Rajahs among the Malays, supernatural powers attributed to, i. 361</li> - <li class='c011'>Ramsay, Sir W. M., i. 36 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Rats and mice, teeth of, in magic, i. 178 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Raven in wind-charm, i. 320</li> - <li class='c011'>Raven’s eggs in magic, i. 154</li> - <li class='c011'>Ray, S. H., ii. <a href='#Page_208'>208</a> <i>n.</i> 3</li> - <li class='c011'>Red colour in magic, i. 79, 81, 83</li> - <li class='c011'>—— Karens of Burma, ii. <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— woollen threads, a charm against witchcraft, ii. <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Reddening the faces of gods, custom of, ii. <a href='#Page_175'>175</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Regalia of Malay kings, i. 362 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>supernatural powers of, 398</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Regia, the king’s palace at Rome, ii. <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Regifugium</i> at Rome, ii. <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>; - <ul> - <li>perhaps a relic of a contest for the kingdom, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Regillus, battle of Lake, i. 50</li> - <li class='c011'>Reinach, Salomon, i. 27 <i>n.</i> 6, 87 <i>n.</i> 1, ii. <a href='#Page_232'>232</a> <i>n.</i> 2, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Reincarnation, belief of the aboriginal Australians in, i. 96, 99 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>certain funeral rites perhaps intended to ensure, 101 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Religion defined, i. 222; - <ul> - <li>two elements of, a theoretical and a practical, 222 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>opposed in principle to science, 224;</li> - <li>transition from magic to, 237 <i>sqq.</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_376'>376</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and magic, i. 220-243, 250, 285, 286, 347; - <ul> - <li>Hegel on, 423 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Religious dramas sometimes originate in magical rites, ii. <a href='#Page_142'>142</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Remulus, ii. <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Renan, E., i. 236 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Renouf, Sir P. le P., i. 418</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Rex Nemorensis</i>, i. 11</li> - <li class='c011'>Rhetra, i. 383</li> - <li class='c011'>Rheumatism caused by magic, i. 207 <i>sq.</i>, 213</li> - <li class='c011'>Rhodians worship the sun, i. 315</li> - <li class='c011'>Rhys, Sir John, i. 17 <i>n.</i> 2, ii. <a href='#Page_363'>363</a> <i>n.</i> 4</li> - <li class='c011'>Ribald songs in rain-charm, i. 267</li> - <li class='c011'>Rice, charm to make rice grow, i. 140; - <ul> - <li>in bloom treated like pregnant woman, ii. <a href='#Page_28'>28</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>chastity at sowing, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Ridgeway, Professor W., ii. <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Rig Veda, i. 294; - <ul> - <li>quoted, ii. <a href='#Page_368'>368</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>“Ringing out the grass,” ii. <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Rivers as lovers of women in Greek mythology, ii. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Rivers, Dr. W. H. R., i. 230 <i>n.</i>, 403 <i>n.</i> 1, 421 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Rivos, harvest-god of Celts in Gaul, i. 17</li> - <li class='c011'>Rivros, a Celtic month, i. 17 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Robertson, Sir George Scott, i. 133</li> - <li class='c011'>Rock-crystals in rain-charms, i. 345</li> - <li class='c011'>Rogations, Monday of, ii. <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Rolling on the fields as a fertility charm, ii. <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>; - <ul> - <li>at harvest, ii. <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— cakes on the ground for omens, ii. <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-roman'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>Roman fire-customs compared to those of the Herero, ii. <a href='#Page_227'>227</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— kings as deities in a Sacred Marriage, ii. <a href='#Page_172'>172</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>as personifications of Jupiter, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>list of, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>rule of succession among, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>plebeians, not patricians, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>;</li> - <li>how nominated, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>their mysterious or violent ends, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>their obscure birth, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— kingship, descent of, in the female line, ii. <a href='#Page_270'>270</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>abolition of the, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>a religious office, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— punishment of parricide, 110 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Rome, the kings of, ii. <a href='#Page_171'>171</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>oak woods on the site of ancient, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Romove, Romow, or Romowo, ii. <a href='#Page_366'>366</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Romulus, fig-tree of, ii. <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>; - <ul> - <li>legend of his birth from the fire, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>;</li> - <li>hut of, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>;</li> - <li>death of, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Roscher, W. H., ii. <a href='#Page_137'>137</a> <i>n.</i> 1, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a> <i>n.</i> 3</li> - <li class='c011'>Roscoe, Rev. J., ii. <a href='#Page_276'>276</a> <i>n.</i> 2, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a> <i>n.</i> 1, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_411'>411</span>Rose, the Little May, ii. <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Rostowski, S., ii. <a href='#Page_366'>366</a> <i>n.</i> 2.</li> - <li class='c011'>Rouen, St. Romain at, ii. <a href='#Page_164'>164</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Roumania, rain-making ceremonies in, i. 273 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Round huts of the ancient Latins, ii. <a href='#Page_200'>200</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Rouse, Dr. W. H. D., i. 15 <i>n.</i> 3, ii. <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Rowan or mountain-ash used as a charm, ii. <a href='#Page_331'>331</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— tree, a protection against witches, ii. <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Royalty conservative of old customs, ii. <a href='#Page_288'>288</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Rukmini, wife of Krishna, ii. <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Runaway slave, charm to bring back a, i. 317</li> - <li class='c011'>Runes, the magic, i. 241</li> - <li class='c011'>Russia, St. George’s Day in, ii. <a href='#Page_332'>332</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Russian celebration of Whitsuntide, ii. <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— sect of the Christs, i. 407 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c010'>Sacred beasts in Egypt, i. 29 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— groves in ancient Greece and Rome, ii. <a href='#Page_121'>121</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Marriage, the, ii. <a href='#Page_120'>120</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— men, i. 386</li> - <li class='c011'>—— sticks representing ancestors, ii. <a href='#Page_222'>222</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— women, i. 391</li> - <li class='c011'>Sacrifices offered to regalia, i. 363, 365; - <ul> - <li>to trees, 366</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Sacrificial King at Rome, i. 44</li> - <li class='c011'>St. Anthony’s fire treated by homoeopathic magic, i. 81 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Bride in the Highlands of Scotland, ii. <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Bridget, ii. <a href='#Page_94'>94</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#idx-st-brigit'>St. Brigit</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-st-brigit'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Brigit, holy fire and nuns of, at Kildare, ii. <a href='#Page_240'>240</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Columba, i. 407, ii. <a href='#Page_242'>242</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Dasius, ii. <a href='#Page_310'>310</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>—— Eany’s Well, ii. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Fillan, well of, ii. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Francis of Paola, i. 300</li> - <li class='c011'>—— George and the Dragon, ii. <a href='#Page_163'>163</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>and the Parilia, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>patron saint of cattle, horses, and wolves, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>;</li> - <li>chapel of, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>;</li> - <li>as a spirit of trees or vegetation, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>as giver of offspring to women, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>in relation to serpents, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a> <i>n.</i> 4;</li> - <li>in Syria, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— George’s Day (23rd April), ii. <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a> <i>n.</i> 1, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>eve of, a time when witches steal milk from the cows, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— Gervais, spring of, i. 307</li> - <li class='c011'>—— Hippolytus, i. 21</li> - <li class='c011'>—— James, i. 266; - <ul> - <li>quoted, 223, 224</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>St. John, Eve of, in Sweden, ii. <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>; - <ul> - <li>Sweethearts of, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— John the Baptist, day of, i. 377; - <ul> - <li>his Midsummer festival, ii. <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— Leonhard, i. 7 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Mary, Wells of, ii. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>; - <ul> - <li><i>in Araceli</i>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— Ouen, ii. <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Paul, i. 407</li> - <li class='c011'>—— Peter, as giver of rain, i. 307</li> - <li class='c011'>—— Peter’s Day (29th June), ii. <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Romain and the dragon of Rouen, ii. <a href='#Page_164'>164</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>the shrine (<i>fierte</i>) of, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— Sécaire, Mass of, i. 232 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Saints, violence done to images of saints in Sicily to procure rain, i. 300; - <ul> - <li>images of saints dipped in water as a rain-charm, 307 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Sakai, the, i. 360</li> - <li class='c011'>Sakkalava, the, i. 397</li> - <li class='c011'>Ṣakvarī song, i. 269 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Sâl</i> trees, ii. <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>; - <ul> - <li>and flowers, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><i>Salagrama</i>, fossil ammonite, ii. <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Salic law, re-marriage of widow under, ii. <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Salmon, twins thought to be, i. 263</li> - <li class='c011'>Salmoneus, King of Elis, i. 310, ii. <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Salt, abstinence from, i. 124, 266, ii. <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>; - <ul> - <li>as a charm, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Samagitians, the, ii. <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>; - <ul> - <li>their sacred groves, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><i>Sami</i> wood (<i>Prosopis spicigera</i>), ii. <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a> <i>n.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Samnites, marriage custom of the, ii. <a href='#Page_305'>305</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Samoa, gods of, in animal and human form, i. 389</li> - <li class='c011'>Sandwich Islands, King of, i. 377. - <ul> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-hawaii'>Hawaii</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Santiago, the horse of, i. 267</li> - <li class='c011'>Sarah and Abraham, ii. <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Sardinia, Midsummer customs in, ii. <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Satapatha-Brâhmana</i>, i. 380</li> - <li class='c011'>Saturn personified at the Saturnalia, ii. <a href='#Page_310'>310</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Jupiter, ii. <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Saturnalia, ii. <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>; - <ul> - <li>as a fertility rite, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>;</li> - <li>how celebrated by Roman soldiers on the Danube, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>;</li> - <li>Saturn personified at the, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>King of the, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>;</li> - <li>the festival of sowing, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Savile, Lord, his excavations at Nemi, i. 3 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Saxo Grammaticus, i. 160, ii. <a href='#Page_280'>280</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Saxons, marriage with a stepmother among the, ii. <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>; - <ul> - <li>of Transylvania, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'><i>Scaloi</i>, i. 274</li> - <li class='c011'>Scamander, the river, supposed to take the virginity of brides, ii. <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_412'>412</span>Scandinavia, female descent of the kingship in, ii. <a href='#Page_279'>279</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Sceptre of Agamemnon, i. 365</li> - <li class='c011'>Schinz, Dr. H., ii. <a href='#Page_213'>213</a> <i>n.</i> 2, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Scotland, magical images in, i. 68-70</li> - <li class='c011'>Scott, Sir Walter, i. 326</li> - <li class='c011'>Scratching the person with the fingers forbidden, i. 254</li> - <li class='c011'>Scrofula, kings thought to heal scrofula by their touch, i. 368 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Scythian kings, their regalia, i. 365</li> - <li class='c011'>Scythians put their kings in bonds, i. 354</li> - <li class='c011'>Sea, virgins married to the jinnee of the, ii. <a href='#Page_153'>153</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>phosphorescence of the, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Seasons, Athenian sacrifices to the, i. 310</li> - <li class='c011'>Secret societies, i. 340</li> - <li class='c011'>Semiramis, ii. <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Sena, island of, ii. <a href='#Page_241'>241</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Seneca, on sacred groves, ii. <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Serpent, dried, in ceremony for stopping rain, i. 295 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>or dragon of water, 155 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Serpents in relation to St. George, ii. <a href='#Page_344'>344</a> <i>n.</i> 4</li> - <li class='c011'>Servia, rain-making ceremony in, i. 273</li> - <li class='c011'>Servius on Virbius, i. 20 <i>sq.</i>, 40</li> - <li class='c011'>—— Tullius, laws of, ii. <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>; - <ul> - <li>and Fortuna, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a> <i>n.</i> 1, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>;</li> - <li>legend of his birth from the fire, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>his death, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Sewing forbidden, i. 121, 128</li> - <li class='c011'>Sexes, influence of the, on vegetation, ii. <a href='#Page_97'>97</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>of plants, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Sexual communism, tradition of, ii. <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— crime, blighting effects attributed to, ii. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— intercourse practised to make the crops and fruits grow, ii. <a href='#Page_98'>98</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— orgies as a fertility charm, ii. <a href='#Page_98'>98</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Shaking of victim as sign of its acceptance, i. 384 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Shans of Burma, i. 128</li> - <li class='c011'>Sheaf of oats made up to represent St. Bride or Bridget, ii. <a href='#Page_94'>94</a> <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>the last, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Sheep, black, sacrificed for rain, i. 290</li> - <li class='c011'>—— driven through fire, ii. <a href='#Page_327'>327</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Shepherd’s prayer, ii. <a href='#Page_327'>327</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Shepherds’ festival, ancient Italian, ii. <a href='#Page_326'>326</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Shetland, witches in, i. 326</li> - <li class='c011'>Shrew-mouse in magic, i. 83</li> - <li class='c011'>Shuswap Indians, i. 265</li> - <li class='c011'>Siam, King of, ii. <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>; - <ul> - <li>divinity of, i. 401</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Sibyl, the, and the Golden Bough, i. 11</li> - <li class='c011'>Sicily, attempts to compel the saints to give rain in, i. 299 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Sick people passed through a hole in an oak, ii. <a href='#Page_371'>371</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Sickness, homoeopathic magic for the cure of, i. 78 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Silesia, Whitsuntide customs in, ii. <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Silk-cotton trees reverenced, ii. <a href='#Page_14'>14</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Silvanus, forest god, ii. <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Silver poplar a charm against witchcraft, ii. <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Silvii, the family name of the kings of Alba, ii. <a href='#Page_178'>178</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Silvius, first king of Alba, ii. <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Similarity in magic, law of, i. 52, 53</li> - <li class='c011'>Simplification, danger of excessive simplification in science, i. 332 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Singer, the best, chosen chief, ii. <a href='#Page_298'>298</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Sins, confession of, i. 266</li> - <li class='c011'>Sinuessa, waters of, ii. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Sister’s children preferred to man’s own children, mark of mother-kin, ii. <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Sisters of king, licence accorded to, ii. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Siva, i. 404, ii. <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Skeat, W. W., i. 360 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Skeleton in rain-charm, i. 284</li> - <li class='c011'>Skene, W. F., ii. <a href='#Page_286'>286</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Skoptsy, the, a Russian sect, ii. <a href='#Page_145'>145</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Skulls, ancestral, used in magical ceremonies, i. 163; - <ul> - <li>in rain-charm, 285</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Sky, twins called the children of the, i. 267, 268; - <ul> - <li>Aryan god of the, ii. <a href='#Page_374'>374</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Slave, charm to bring back a runaway, i. 152, 317</li> - <li class='c011'>—— priests at Nemi, i. 11</li> - <li class='c011'>Slaves, licence granted to, at Saturnalia, ii. <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>; - <ul> - <li>female, licence accorded to, at the <i>Nonae Caprotinae</i>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Slavs, tree-worship among the heathen, ii. <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>; - <ul> - <li>the thunder-god Perun, of the, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Sleep, charms employed by burglars to cause, i. 148 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>“Sleep of war,” ii. <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Smith, W. Robertson, i. 301 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Smiths sacred, i. 349</li> - <li class='c011'>Smoke made as a rain-charm, i. 249; - <ul> - <li>of cedar inhaled as means of inspiration, 383 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>as a charm against witchcraft, ii. <a href='#Page_330'>330</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Snake-bites, charms against, i. 152 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— skin a charm against witchcraft, ii. <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Snakes, human wives of, ii. <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li> - <li class='c011'>“Sober” sacrifices, i. 311 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Social progress, i. 420</li> - <li class='c011'>Sodza, a lightning goddess, ii. <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Sofala, King of, i. 392</li> - <li class='c011'>Sogamozo, the pontiff of, i. 416</li> - <li class='c011'>Sogble, a lightning god, ii. <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Solar myth theory, i. 333</li> - <li class='c011'>Somerville, Professor W., ii. <a href='#Page_328'>328</a> <i>n.</i> 4</li> - <li class='c011'>Sophocles, ii. <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Sorcerers. <i>See</i> <a href='#idx-magician'>Magicians</a>, <a href='#idx-medicine-men'>Medicine-men</a></li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_413'>413</span>Sorcery. <i>See</i> <a href='#idx-magic'>Magic</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Sorrows, Master of, i. 280</li> - <li class='c011'>Soul, external, in afterbirth (placenta) or navel-string, i. 200 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Souls ascribed to trees, ii. <a href='#Page_12'>12</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>of ancestors supposed to be in fire on the hearth, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Sowing, curses at, i. 281; - <ul> - <li>homoeopathic magic at, 136 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>sexual intercourse before, ii. <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>;</li> - <li>continence at, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>;</li> - <li>in Italy and Sicily, time of, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a> <i>n.</i> 5</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Sparks of fire supposed to impregnate women, ii. <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Sparta, the two kings of, i. 46 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>their relation to Castor and Pollux, 48-50</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Spartan sacrifice of horses to the sun, i. 315 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Spencer and Gillen, i. 89, 107 <i>n.</i> 4</li> - <li class='c011'>Spieth, J., i. 397</li> - <li class='c011'>Spinning forbidden, i. 113 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Spirit, Brethren of the Free, i. 408</li> - <li class='c011'>Spiritual husbands, ii. <a href='#Page_316'>316</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Spittle, divination by, i. 99; - <ul> - <li>used in magic, 57</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Spring, oracular at Dodona, ii. <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Springs troubled to procure rain, i. 301; - <ul> - <li>which confer prophetic powers, ii. <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Squirting water as a rain-charm, i. 249 <i>sq.</i>, 277 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Star, falling, in magic, i. 84</li> - <li class='c011'>Stepmother, marriage with a, among the Saxons, ii. <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Stewart, C. S., i. 387 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Sticks, sacred, representing ancestors, ii. <a href='#Page_222'>222</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Stone, holed, in magic, i. 313</li> - <li class='c011'>—— curlew in magic, i. 80</li> - <li class='c011'>—— throwing as a fertility charm, i. 39</li> - <li class='c011'>Stones tied to trees to make them bear fruit, i. 140; - <ul> - <li>oaths upon, 160 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>homoeopathic magic of, 160 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>employed to make fruits and crops grow, 162 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>precious, homoeopathic magic of, 164 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>the Day of, 279;</li> - <li>rain-making by means of, 304 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>in charms to make the sun shine, 312, 313, 314;</li> - <li>put in trees to prevent sun from setting, 318;</li> - <li>in wind charms, 319, 322 <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Storeroom (<i>penus</i>), sacred, ii. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Strabo, ii. <a href='#Page_305'>305</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Stubbes, P., ii. <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Subincision, use of blood shed at, i. 92, 94 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Succession to the chieftainship or kingship alternating between several families, ii. <a href='#Page_292'>292</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— to the kingdom, in ancient Latium, ii. <a href='#Page_266'>266</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>determined by a race, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>determined by mortal combat, ii. <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Sulka, the, of New Britain, ii. <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Sumatra, i. 58, 71</li> - <li class='c011'>Summer, bringing in the, ii. <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Sun, homoeopathic magic of setting, i. 165 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>supposed to send new teeth, 181;</li> - <li>magical control of the, 311 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>charms to cause the sun to shine, 311 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>eclipse of, ceremonies at 311, 312;</li> - <li>human sacrifices to the 314 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>chief deity of the Rhodians, 315;</li> - <li>supposed to drive in chariot, 315;</li> - <li>caught by net or string, 316;</li> - <li>charms to prevent the sun from going down, 316 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>the father of the Incas, 415;</li> - <li>Parthian monarchs the brothers of the, 417 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>sanctuary of the, ii. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>;</li> - <li>high priest of the, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>marriage of a woman to the, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>worshipped by the Blackfoot Indians, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>;</li> - <li>round temple of the, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>;</li> - <li>temple of the Sun at Cuzco, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>;</li> - <li>virgins of the Sun in Peru, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>the Great, title of chief, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Earth, marriage of the, ii. <a href='#Page_98'>98</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -god, no wine offered to the, i. 311</li> - <li class='c011'>—— -god Ra in Egypt, i. 418, 419</li> - <li class='c011'>—— goddess, i. 417</li> - <li class='c011'>Superstitions as to the making of pottery, ii. <a href='#Page_204'>204</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'><i>Svayamvara</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_306'>306</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Swami Bhaskaranandaji Saraswati, i. 404</li> - <li class='c011'>Swearing on stones, i. 160 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Sweden, midsummer customs in, ii. <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>; - <ul> - <li>Frey and his priestess in, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>customs observed in, at turning out the cattle to graze for the first time in spring, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Swedes sacrifice their kings, i. 366 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Sweethearts of St. John, ii. <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Swine, herds of, in ancient Italy, ii. <a href='#Page_354'>354</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Sycamores worshipped, ii. <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>; - <ul> - <li>sacred among the Gallas, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Sylvii or Woods, the kings of Alba, ii. <a href='#Page_379'>379</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Sympathetic Magic, i. 51 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>its two branches, 54;</li> - <li>examples of, 55 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li><i>See also</i> <a href='#idx-magic'>Magic</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Syria, St. George in, ii. <a href='#Page_346'>346</a></li> - <li class='c010'>Taara, the thunder-god of the Esthonians, ii. <a href='#Page_367'>367</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Taboo, a negative magic, i. 111 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Taboos, homoeopathic, i. 116; - <ul> - <li>contagious, 117;</li> - <li>on food, 117 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>laid on the parents of twins, 262, 263 <i>sq.</i>, 266;</li> - <li>observed after house-building, ii. <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Tacitus, ii. <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Tagales, the, ii. <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Tahiti, kings of, deified, i. 388</li> - <li class='c011'>“Tail-money,” ii. <a href='#Page_331'>331</a></li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_414'>414</span><i>Tāli</i>, tying the, ii. <a href='#Page_57'>57</a> <i>n.</i> 4</li> - <li class='c011'>Tamarinds, sacred, ii. <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Tammuz or Adonis, ii. <a href='#Page_346'>346</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Tana, power of the disease-makers in, i. 341</li> - <li class='c011'>Tanaquil, the Queen, ii. <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Taoism, religious head of, i. 413 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Tapio, woodland god, ii. <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Tarahumares of Mexico, i. 249</li> - <li class='c011'>Tarquin the Elder, ii. <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— the Proud, his attempt to shift the line of descent of the kingship, ii. <a href='#Page_291'>291</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Tasmanians, the, ii. <a href='#Page_257'>257</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Tatius, death of, ii. <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Tauric Diana, i. 10 <i>sq.</i>, 24</li> - <li class='c011'>Taylor, Isaac, ii. <a href='#Page_189'>189</a> <i>n.</i> 3</li> - <li class='c011'>Teeth, ceremony of knocking out teeth at initiation, i. 97 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>extraction of teeth in connexion with rain, 98 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>charms to strengthen, 153, 157;</li> - <li>contagious magic of, 176-182;</li> - <li>of rats and mice in magic, 178 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Telamon, ii. <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Telchines, the, of Rhodes, i. 310</li> - <li class='c011'>Telepathy, magical, i. 119 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>in hunting and fishing, 120 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>in war, 126 <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>in voyages, 126</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Tertullian, i. 407; - <ul> - <li>on the Etruscan crown, ii. <a href='#Page_175'>175</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Teucer, ii. <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Teutonic kings, i. 47; - <ul> - <li>thunder god, ii. <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Thargelion, Greek harvest month, i. 32</li> - <li class='c011'>Thebes, the Egyptian, ii. <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>; - <ul> - <li>high priests of Ammon at, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Theocritus, witch in, i. 206</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Theogamy</i>, divine marriage, ii. <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Theophrastus, on the woods of Latium, ii. <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Theopompus, ii. <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Thevet, F. A., i. 358</li> - <li class='c011'>Thieves’ candles, i. 148, 149</li> - <li class='c011'>Things, homoeopathic magic of inanimate, i. 157 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Thistles, a charm against witchcraft, ii. <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Thompson Indians, i. 70, 132; - <ul> - <li>the fire-drill of the, ii. <a href='#Page_208'>208</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Thor, the Norse thunder god, ii. <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Thorn-bushes as charms against witches, ii. <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Thoth, Egyptian god, ii. <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Threatening the thunder god, ii. <a href='#Page_183'>183</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Thrice born, said of Brahmans, i. 381</li> - <li class='c011'>Thrones, sanctity of, i. 365</li> - <li class='c011'>Thunder, imitation of, i. 248; - <ul> - <li>kings expected to make, ii. <a href='#Page_180'>180</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>thought to be the roll of the drums of the dead, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>;</li> - <li>rain, sky, and oak, god of the, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>Esthonian prayer to, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and oak, the Aryan god of the, ii. <a href='#Page_356'>356</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Thunder-bird, i. 309</li> - <li class='c011'>—— god, threatening the, ii. <a href='#Page_183'>183</a> <i>n.</i> 2; - <ul> - <li>conceived as a deity of fertility, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Thunderbolt of Indra, i. 269</li> - <li class='c011'>—— Zeus, ii. <a href='#Page_361'>361</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Thunderbolts, kings killed by, ii. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>; - <ul> - <li>flint implements regarded as, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Thunderstorms, disappearance of Roman kings in, ii. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Thurston, E., i. 56 <i>n.</i> 3</li> - <li class='c011'>Thyiads, the, i. 46</li> - <li class='c011'>Tibet, the Grand Lamas of, i. 411 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Tides, homoeopathic magic of the, i. 166 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Tiele, C. P., i. 419 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Tifata, Mount, ii. <a href='#Page_380'>380</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Timber, homoeopathic magic of house timber, i. 146; - <ul> - <li>of houses, tree-spirits propitiated in, ii. <a href='#Page_39'>39</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Timor, telepathy of high-priest of, in war, i. 128 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Tinneh Indians, the, i. 357</li> - <li class='c011'>Toad in charm against storms, i. 325</li> - <li class='c011'>Toaripi or Motumotu, the, in New Guinea, i. 125, 337</li> - <li class='c011'>Toboongkoos, the, ii. <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Todas, the, i. 56; - <ul> - <li>divine milkmen of the, 402 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>magic and medicine among the, 421 <i>n.</i> 1</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Togoland, i. 265</li> - <li class='c011'>Tomori, the, of Celebes, ii. <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Tonga, chiefs of, believed to heal scrofula, i. 371</li> - <li class='c011'>Tonquin, kings of, responsible for drought and dearth, i. 355</li> - <li class='c011'>Töppen, M., ii. <a href='#Page_365'>365</a> <i>n.</i> 5</li> - <li class='c011'>Toradjas, the, i. 109, 114, 129, 159</li> - <li class='c011'>Torres Straits, i. 59</li> - <li class='c011'>Tortoise, magic of, i. 151, 170</li> - <li class='c011'>Totem, confusion between a man and his totem, i. 107 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Totemism in Central Australia not a religion, i. 107 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Totems in Central Australia, magical ceremonies for the multiplication of, i. 85 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>custom of eating the, 107</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Touch-me-not (<i>Impatiens sp.</i>), ii. <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Touching for the King’s Evil (scrofula), i. 368 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Transmigrations of human deities, i. 410 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Tree, life of child connected with, i. 184; - <ul> - <li>that has been struck by lightning, 319;</li> - <li>culprits tied to sacred, ii. <a href='#Page_112'>112</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>fire kindled from ancestral, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;</li> - <li>spirit represented simultaneously in vegetable and human form, ii. <a href='#Page_73'>73</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— -spirits, ii. <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>in house-timber propitiated, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>beneficent powers of, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>give rain and sunshine, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_415'>415</span>make crops grow, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>make cattle and women fruitful, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>in human form or embodied in living people, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Tree-worship among the European families of the Aryan stock, ii. <a href='#Page_9'>9</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>in modern Europe, relics of, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Trees, marriage to, i. 40 <i>sq.</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>; - <ul> - <li>extracted teeth placed in, i. 98;</li> - <li>burial in, 102;</li> - <li>navel-strings placed in, 182, 183, 185, 186;</li> - <li>afterbirth (placenta) placed in, 182, 187, 190, 191, 194, 199;</li> - <li>worship of, ii. <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>regarded as animate, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>sacrifices to, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>sensitive, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;</li> - <li>apologies offered to trees for cutting them down, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>bleeding, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>;</li> - <li>threatened to make them bear fruit, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>married to each other, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>animated by the souls of the dead, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>planted on graves, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>;</li> - <li>as the abode of spirits, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>ceremonies at cutting down, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>drenched with water as a rain-charm, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>grant women an easy delivery, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and plants, attempts to deceive the spirits of, ii. <a href='#Page_22'>22</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— sacred, ii. <a href='#Page_40'>40</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>smeared with blood, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Trinity, the Hindoo, i. 225, 404; - <ul> - <li>the Norse, ii. <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Triumph, the Roman, ii. <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Troezen, sanctuary of Hippolytus at, i. 24 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Troy, sanctuary of Athena at, ii. <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li> - <li class='c011'>“True Man, the,” i. 413</li> - <li class='c011'>Trumpets, sacred, ii. <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Tshi-speaking peoples of Gold Coast, i. 132</li> - <li class='c011'>Tullius Hostilius, killed by lightning, ii. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Tumleo, i. 213</li> - <li class='c011'>Turner, Dr. George, i. 341</li> - <li class='c011'>Turner’s picture of “The Golden Bough,” i. 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Turning or whirling round, custom of, observed by mummers, i. 273, 275, ii. <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li> - <li class='c011'>“Twin,” name applied by the Baganda to the navel-string, i. 195, 196</li> - <li class='c011'>Twins, i. 145; - <ul> - <li>in war, 49 <i>n.</i> 3;</li> - <li>taboos laid on parents of, 262, 263 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>supposed to possess magical powers, especially over the weather and rain, 262-269;</li> - <li>supposed to be salmon, 263;</li> - <li>thought to be related to grizzly-bears, 264 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>thought to be related to apes, 265;</li> - <li>thought to be the sons of lightning, 266;</li> - <li>called the children of the sky, 267, 268;</li> - <li>water poured on graves of twins as a rain-charm, 268;</li> - <li>customs of the Baganda in regard to, ii. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Two-headed bust at Nemi, portrait of the King of the Wood, i. 41 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Tydeus, ii. <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Tylor, E. B., i. 53 <i>n.</i> 1, ii. <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a> <i>n.</i> 1, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a> <i>n.</i> 2; - <ul> - <li>on fertilisation of date-palm, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a> <i>n.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Tyndarids (Castor and Pollux), i. 49</li> - <li class='c010'>Uganda, Queen Dowager and Queen Sister in, ii. <a href='#Page_275'>275</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Ulysses and Aeolus, i. 326; - <ul> - <li>and Penelope, ii. <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Umbrians, ordeal of battle among the, ii. <a href='#Page_321'>321</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Uncle, maternal, preferred to father, mark of mother-kin, ii. <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Upsala, sacred grove at, ii. <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>; - <ul> - <li>temple of Frey at, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>;</li> - <li>great temple and festival at, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Urns, funereal, in shape of huts, ii. <a href='#Page_201'>201</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Urvasi and Pururavas, ii. <a href='#Page_250'>250</a></li> - <li class='c010'>Vallabhacharyas, the, Hindoo sect, ii. <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Varro, ii. <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Vatican hill, the, ii. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Vaughan Stevens, H., ii. <a href='#Page_236'>236</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Vegetation, influence of the sexes on, ii. <a href='#Page_97'>97</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>spirit of, represented by a king or queen, ii. <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</li> - <li>newly awakened in spring, ii. <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>;</li> - <li>brought to houses, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>;</li> - <li>represented by mummers dressed in leaves, branches, and flowers, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>represented by a tree and a living man, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>;</li> - <li>represented in duplicate by a girl and an effigy, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>;</li> - <li>men and women masquerading as, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Vejovis, the Little Jupiter, ii. <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Veleda, deified woman, i. 391</li> - <li class='c011'>Veneti, the, ii. <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>; - <ul> - <li>breeders of horses, i. 27</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Ventriloquism a basis of political power, i. 347</li> - <li class='c011'>Venus (Aphrodite) and Adonis, i. 21, 25, 40, 41</li> - <li class='c011'>Verrall, A. W., ii. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Vesta, her sacred fires in Latium, i. 13 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>at Rome, the grove of, ii. <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</li> - <li>called Mother, not Virgin, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>;</li> - <li>round temple of, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>as Mother, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>a goddess of fecundity, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>her fire at Rome fed with oak wood, ii. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Vestal fire at Rome a successor of the fire on the king’s hearth, ii. <a href='#Page_200'>200</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>kindled by the friction of wood, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>;</li> - <li>at Nemi, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>;</li> - <li>Virgins in Latium, i. 13 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>become mothers by the fire, ii. <a href='#Page_196'>196</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_416'>416</span>regarded as wives of the fire-god, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>;</li> - <li>among the Baganda, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Vestals, house of the, ii. <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>; - <ul> - <li>of the Herero, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>;</li> - <li>custom of burying alive unfaithful Vestals, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li> - <li>adore the male organ, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>;</li> - <li>rites performed by them for the fertility of the earth and the fecundity of cattle, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>;</li> - <li>African, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>;</li> - <li>at Rome the wives or daughters of the kings, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li> - <li>Celtic, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a> <i>n.</i> 1;</li> - <li>Peruvian, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>in Yucatan, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Victims give signs of inspiration by shaking themselves, i. 384 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Victoria, the late Queen, worshipped in Orissa, i. 404</li> - <li class='c011'>Victoria Nyanza, god of the, ii. <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Viehe, Rev. G., ii. <a href='#Page_213'>213</a> <i>n.</i> 2, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Vines blessed on the Assumption of the Virgin (15th August), i. 14 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Violent deaths of the Roman kings, ii. <a href='#Page_313'>313</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Viracocha, i. 56</li> - <li class='c011'>Virbius, the slope of, i. 4 <i>n.</i> 5, ii. <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>; - <ul> - <li>the mate of Diana at Nemi, i. 19-21, 40 <i>sq.</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>;</li> - <li>etymology of the name, 379 <i>n.</i> 5</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Virgil, ii. <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>; - <ul> - <li>an antiquary as well as a poet, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Virgin, the Assumption of the, in relation to Diana, i. 14-16; - <ul> - <li>festival of the, in the Armenian Church, 16;</li> - <li>Mary of Kevlaar, i. 77;</li> - <li>priestesses in Peru, Mexico, and Yucatan, ii. <a href='#Page_243'>243</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Virginity offered to rivers, ii. <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Virility, hierophant at Eleusis temporarily deprived of his, ii. <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>; - <ul> - <li>sacrifice of, to a goddess, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Vishnu, ii. <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Vitellius at Nemi, i. 5</li> - <li class='c011'>Vituperation thought to cause rain, i. 278</li> - <li class='c011'>Votive offerings at Nemi, i. 4, 6, 12, 19, 23</li> - <li class='c011'>Voyages, telepathy in, i. 126</li> - <li class='c011'>Vulcan, father of Caeculus, ii. <a href='#Page_197'>197</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Vulture, magic of, i. 151</li> - <li class='c010'>Wagogo, the, i. 123</li> - <li class='c011'>Wagtail, the yellow, in magic, i. 79</li> - <li class='c011'><i>Walber</i>, the, ii. <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Waldemar, I., King of Denmark, i. 367</li> - <li class='c011'>Wallace, Sir D. Mackenzie, i. 407 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Walos, the, of Senegal, i. 370</li> - <li class='c011'>Walpurgis Night, ii. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Walton, Izaak, i. 326 <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>War, telepathy in, i. 126 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>“War, the sleep of,” ii. <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Ward, Professor H. Marshall, ii. <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Ward, Professor James, i. 423</li> - <li class='c011'>Warramunga, the, i. 93, 95, 99</li> - <li class='c011'>Wasps in magic, i. 152</li> - <li class='c011'>Water sprinkled as rain-charm, i. 248 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>serpent or dragon of, ii. <a href='#Page_155'>155</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Fire, kings of, ii. <a href='#Page_3'>3</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -lilies, charms to make water-lilies grow, i. 95, 97, 98</li> - <li class='c011'>—— nymphs, fertilising virtue of, ii. <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -spirits, propitiation of, ii. <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>; - <ul> - <li>sacrifices to, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>as beneficent beings, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>;</li> - <li>bestow offspring on women, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— totem, i. 259</li> - <li class='c011'>Waterfalls, spirits of, ii. <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Wax melted in magic, i. 77</li> - <li class='c011'>Wealth acquired by magicians, i. 347, 348, 351, 352</li> - <li class='c011'>Weapon and wound, contagious magic of, i. 201 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Weaving and twining thread forbidden, i. 131</li> - <li class='c011'>Wellhausen, J., i. 303</li> - <li class='c011'>Wells cleansed as rain-charm, i. 267; - <ul> - <li>married to the holy basil, ii. <a href='#Page_26'>26</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>bestow offspring on women, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Wends, their superstition as to oaks, ii. <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Werner, Miss A., ii. <a href='#Page_317'>317</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Wernicke, quoted, i. 35 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Wetting people with water as a rain-charm, i. 250, 251, 269 <i>sq.</i>, 272, 273, 274, 275, 277 <i>sq.</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Whale-fishing, telepathy in, i. 121</li> - <li class='c011'>Whirling or turning round, custom of, observed by mummers, i. 273, 275, ii. <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Whirlwind, attacking the, i. 329 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>White bulls sacrificed, ii. <a href='#Page_188'>188</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— horses, sacred, ii. <a href='#Page_174'>174</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>—— poplar, the, at Olympia, ii. <a href='#Page_220'>220</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— thorn, a charm against witches, ii. <a href='#Page_191'>191</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— victims sacrificed for sunshine, i. 291, 292</li> - <li class='c011'>Whitekirk, ii. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Whit-Monday, the king’s game on, ii. <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Whitsun-bride in Denmark, ii. <a href='#Page_91'>91</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Whitsunday customs in Russia, ii. <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>; - <ul> - <li>races, ii. <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>;</li> - <li>contest for the kingship at, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>;</li> - <li>custom of rolling on the fields at, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>;</li> - <li>customs in Holland, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— Bride, the, ii. <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Basket, the, ii. <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Flower, ii. <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— King, ii. <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— -lout, the, ii. <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Man, the Little, ii. <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Queen, ii. <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Widow, re-marriage of, in Salic law, ii. <a href='#Page_285'>285</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Wiedemann, A., i. 230 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_417'>417</span>Wiglet and Feng, ii. <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Wilhelmina, a Bohemian woman, worshipped, i. 409</li> - <li class='c011'>Wilkinson, R. J., ii. <a href='#Page_383'>383</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>William the Third, i. 369</li> - <li class='c011'>Willow tree on St. George’s Day, ii. <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Wind, magical control of the, i. 319 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>charms to make the wind drop, 320;</li> - <li>fighting and killing the spirit of the, 327 <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— clan, i. 320</li> - <li class='c011'>—— of the Cross, i. 325</li> - <li class='c011'>—— doctor, i. 321</li> - <li class='c011'>Winds tied up in knots, i. 326</li> - <li class='c011'>Wine not offered to the sun-god, i. 311</li> - <li class='c011'>Wiradjuri tribe, i. 335</li> - <li class='c011'>Wissowa, Professor G., i. 22 <i>n.</i> 5, 23 <i>n.</i>, ii. <a href='#Page_382'>382</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Witches raising the wind, i. 322, 326; - <ul> - <li>buried under trees, ii. <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>;</li> - <li>steal milk on May Day or Walpurgis Night, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>steal milk on Midsummer Eve, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>;</li> - <li>steal milk on Eve of St. George, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>precautions against, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>as cats and dogs, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Witches’ sabbath on the Eve of St. George, ii. <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Witchetty grubs, ceremony for the multiplication of, i. 85</li> - <li class='c011'>“Wives of Marduk,” ii. <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Wizards who raise winds, i. 323 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>Finnish, 325</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Wolves in relation to horses, i. 27; - <ul> - <li>feared by shepherds, ii. <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Women, fruitful, supposed to fertilise crops and fruit-trees, i. 140 <i>sq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>employed to sow the fields, 141 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>ploughing as a rain-charm, 282 <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>worshipped by the ancient Germans, 391;</li> - <li>married to gods, ii. <a href='#Page_129'>129</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>fertilised by water-spirits, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>impregnated by fire, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>alone allowed to make pottery, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— barren, thought to sterilise gardens, i. 142; - <ul> - <li>fertilised by trees, ii. <a href='#Page_316'>316</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Wood, fire kindled by the friction of, ii. <a href='#Page_207'>207</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a></li> - <li class='c011'><a id='idx-king-of-wood'></a></li> - <li class='c011'>Wood, the King of the, i. 1 <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>Lord of the, ii. <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Woods, species of, used in making fire by friction, ii. <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>-252</li> - <li class='c011'>Wordsworth, W., i. 104</li> - <li class='c011'>Worship of trees, ii. <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> <i>sqq.</i>; - <ul> - <li>of the oak, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Wotyaks, the, ii. <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Wound and weapon, contagious magic of, i. 201 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Wyse, Miss A., ii. <a href='#Page_88'>88</a> <i>n.</i> 1</li> - <li class='c011'>Wyse, William, i. 101 <i>n.</i> 2, 105 <i>n.</i> 5, ii. <a href='#Page_356'>356</a> <i>n.</i> 3</li> - <li class='c010'>Yakuts, the, i. 319</li> - <li class='c011'>Yam vines, continence at training, ii. <a href='#Page_105'>105</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Yegory or Yury (St. George), ii. <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Yellow birds in magic, i. 79 <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— colour in magic, i. 79 <i>sqq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— River, girls married to the, ii. <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Ynglingar family, ii. <a href='#Page_279'>279</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Yorubas, the, i. 364; - <ul> - <li>chieftainship among the, ii. <a href='#Page_293'>293</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> - <li>rule of succession to the chieftainship among the, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>Yucatan, Vestals in, ii. <a href='#Page_245'>245</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>Yuracares, the, of Bolivia, ii. <a href='#Page_204'>204</a></li> - <li class='c010'>Zela, i. 47</li> - <li class='c011'>Zeus, Greek kings called, ii. <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>; - <ul> - <li>as god of the oak, the rain, the thunder, and the sky, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> - <li>surnamed Lightning, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>;</li> - <li>surnamed Thunderbolt, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>;</li> - <li>as sky-god, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Demeter, their marriage at Eleusis, ii. <a href='#Page_138'>138</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Dione, at Dodona, ii. <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— and Hera, sacred marriage of, ii. <a href='#Page_140'>140</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a> <i>sq.</i></li> - <li class='c011'>—— at Dodona, ii. <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>; - <ul> - <li>priests of, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c011'>—— at Panamara in Caria, i. 28</li> - <li class='c011'>—— Dictaean, ii. <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Lightning, i. 33</li> - <li class='c011'>—— Lycaeus, i. 309</li> - <li class='c011'>—— Panhellenian, ii. <a href='#Page_359'>359</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Rainy, ii. <a href='#Page_376'>376</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— Showery, ii. <a href='#Page_360'>360</a></li> - <li class='c011'>—— the Descender, ii. <a href='#Page_361'>361</a></li> - <li class='c011'>Zimmer, H., ii. <a href='#Page_286'>286</a> <i>n.</i> 2</li> - <li class='c011'>Zulus, foods tabooed among the, i. 118 <i>sq.</i></li> -</ul> - -<p class='c004'>THE END</p> - -<p class='c004'><i>Printed by</i> <span class='sc'>R. & R. 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Bastian, <i>Die deutsche Expedition -an der Loango-Küste</i>, ii. 230.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f2'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. </span>“Excursion de M. Brun-Rollet -dans la région supérieure du Nil,” -<i>Bulletin de la Société de Géographie</i> -(Paris), IVme Série, iv. (1852) pp. -421-423; <i>ib.</i> viii. (1854) pp. 387 <i>sq.</i>; -Brun-Rollet, <i>Le Nil Blanc et le Soudan</i> -(Paris, 1855), pp. 227 <i>sqq.</i> As to the -rain-making chiefs of this region see -above, vol. i. pp. 345 <i>sqq.</i> As to the -distress and privations endured by these -people in the dry season, see E. de -Pruyssenaere, “Reisen und Forschungen -im Gebiete des Weissen und Blauen -Nil,” <i>Petermann’s Mittheilungen</i>, -<i>Ergänzungsheft</i> No. 50 (Gotha, 1877), -p. 23.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f3'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. </span>W. Munzinger, <i>Ostafrikanische -Studien</i> (Schaffhausen, 1864), p. 474.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f4'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. </span>Mgr. Cuénot, in <i>Annales de la -Propagation de la Foi</i>, xiii. (1841) p. -143; H. Mouhot, <i>Travels in the -Central Parts of Indo-China</i> (London, -1864), ii. 35; A. Bastian, “Beiträge -zur Kenntniss der Gebirgsstämme in -Kambodia,” <i>Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft -für Erdkunde zu Berlin</i>, i. (1866) -p. 37; J. Moura, <i>Le Royaume du -Cambodge</i> (Paris, 1883), i. 432-436; -E. Aymonier, “Notes sur les coutumes -et croyances superstitieuses des Cambodgiens,” -in <i>Cochinchine Française: -Excursions et reconnaissances</i>, No. -16 (Saigon, 1883), pp. 172 <i>sq.</i>; <i>id.</i>, -<i>Notes sur le Laos</i> (Saigon, 1885), p. -60; Le Capitaine Cupet, “Chez les -populations sauvages du Sud de l’Annam,” -<i>Tour du monde</i>, No. 1682, -April 1, 1893, pp. 193-204; <i>id.</i>, in -<i>Mission Pavie, Indo-Chine 1879-1895, -Géographie et voyages</i>, iii. (Paris, 1900) -pp. 297-318; Tournier, <i>Notice sur le -Laos Français</i> (Hanoi, 1900), pp. 111 -<i>sq.</i>; A. Lavallée, “Notes ethnographiques -sur diverses tribus du Sud-Est -de l’Inde-Chine,” <i>Bulletin de -l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient</i>, -i. (Hanoi, 1901) pp. 303 <i>sq.</i> Mgr. -Cuénot mentions only the King of -Fire. Bastian speaks as if the King -of Fire was also the King of Water. -Both writers report at second hand.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f5'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. </span>Caesar, <i>Bell. Gall.</i> vi. 25.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f6'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. </span>Julian, Fragm. 4, ed. Hertlein, -pp. 608 <i>sq.</i> On the vast woods of -Germany, their coolness and shade, -see also Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xvi. 5.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f7'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. </span>Ch. Elton, <i>Origins of English -History</i> (London, 1882), pp. 3, 106 -<i>sq.</i>, 224.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f8'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. </span>W. Helbig, <i>Die Italiker in der -Poebene</i> (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 25 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f9'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. </span>H. Nissen, <i>Italische Landeskunde</i>, -i. (Berlin, 1883) pp. 431 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f10'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. </span>Livy, ix. 36-38. The Ciminian -mountains (<i>Monte Cimino</i>) are still -clothed with dense woods of majestic -oaks and chestnuts. Modern writers -suppose that Livy has exaggerated the -terrors and difficulties of the forest. -See G. Dennis, <i>Cities and Cemeteries -of Etruria</i>, 3rd Ed., i. 146-149.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f11'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. </span>C. Neumann und J. Partsch, -<i>Physikalische Geographie von Griechenland</i> -(Breslau, 1885), pp. 357 <i>sqq.</i> I -am told that the dark blue waters of -the lake of Pheneus, which still reflected -the sombre pine-forests of the -surrounding mountains when I travelled -in Arcadia in the bright unforgetable -autumn days of 1895, have since disappeared, -the subterranean chasms -which drain this basin having been, -whether accidentally or artificially, -cleared so as to allow the pent-up -waters to escape. The acres which -the peasants have thereby added to -their fields will hardly console future -travellers for the loss of the watery -mirror, which was one of the most -beautiful, as it was one of the rarest, -scenes in the parched land of Greece.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f12'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. </span>J. Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, 4th Ed., -i. 53 <i>sqq.</i>; O. Schrader, <i>Reallexikon -der indo-germanischen Altertumskunde</i> -(Strasburg, 1901), <i>s.v.</i> “Tempel,” -pp. 855 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f13'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xvi. 249 <i>sqq.</i>; -Maximus Tyrius, <i>Dissert.</i> viii. 8.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f14'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. </span>O. Schrader, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 857 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f15'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. </span>Tacitus, <i>Germania</i>, 9, 39, 40, 43; -<i>id.</i>, <i>Annals</i>, ii. 12, iv. 73; <i>id.</i>, <i>Hist.</i> iv. -14; J. Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, 4th Ed., -pp. 541 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>Bavaria Landes- und -Volkeskunde des Königreichs Bayern</i>, -iii. 929 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f16'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. </span>J. Grimm, <i>Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer</i>, -pp. 519 <i>sq.</i>; W. Mannhardt, -<i>Baumkultus</i> (Berlin, 1875), pp. 26 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f17'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. </span>Adam of Bremen, <i>Descriptio insularum -Aquilonis</i>, 27 (Migne’s <i>Patrologia -Latina</i>, vol. cxlvi. col. 644).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f18'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. </span>L. Leger, <i>La Mythologie slave</i> -(Paris, 1901), pp. 73-75, 188-190.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f19'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. </span>Mathias Michov, “De Sarmatia -Asiana atque Europea,” in Simon -Grynaeus’s <i>Novus Orbis regionum ac -insularum veteribus incognitarum</i> -(Paris, 1532), pp. 455 <i>sq.</i> [wrongly -numbered 445, 446]; Martin Cromer, -<i>De origine et rebus gestis Polonorum</i> -(Basel, 1568), p. 241; Fabricius, -<i>Livonicae historiae compendiosa series</i> -(<i>Scriptores rerum Livonicarum</i>, ii. -(Riga and Leipsic, 1848) p. 441).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f20'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r20'>20</a>. </span>See C. Bötticher, <i>Der Baumkultus -der Hellenen</i> (Berlin, 1856); L. Preller, -<i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd. Ed., i. 105-114.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f21'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r21'>21</a>. </span><i>The Classical Review</i>, xix. (1905) -p. 331, referring to an inscription found -in Cos some years ago.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f22'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r22'>22</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xv. 77; Tacitus, -<i>Ann.</i> xiii. 58. The fig-tree is represented -on Roman coins and on the -great marble reliefs which stand in the -Forum. See E. Babelon, <i>Monnaies de -la République romaine</i>, ii. 336 <i>sq.</i>; -R. Lanciani, <i>Ruins and Excavations -of Ancient Rome</i> (London, 1897), p. -258; E. Petersen, <i>Vom alten Rom</i> -(Leipsic, 1900), pp. 26, 27.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f23'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r23'>23</a>. </span>Plutarch, <i>Romulus</i>, 20.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f24'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r24'>24</a>. </span>K. Rhamm, “Der heidnische Gottesdienst -des finnischen Stammes,” -<i>Globus</i>, lxvii. (1895) pp. 343, 348. -This article is an abstract of a Finnish -book <i>Suomen suvun pakanillinen jumalen -palvelus</i>, by J. Krohn (Helsingfors, -1894).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f25'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r25'>25</a>. </span>“Heilige Haine und Bäume der -Finnen,” <i>Globus</i>, lix. (1891) pp. 350 -<i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f26'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r26'>26</a>. </span>P. S. Pallas, <i>Reise durch verschiedene -Provinzen des russischen Reichs</i> -(St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), iii. 60 -<i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f27'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r27'>27</a>. </span>Porphyry, <i>De abstinentia</i>, i. 6. -This was an opinion of the Stoic and -Peripatetic philosophy.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f28'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r28'>28</a>. </span>Washington Matthews, <i>Ethnography -and Philology of the Hidatsa -Indians</i> (Washington, 1877), pp. 48 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f29'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r29'>29</a>. </span>L. H. Morgan, <i>League of the Iroquois</i> -(Rochester, 1851), pp. 162, 164.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f30'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r30'>30</a>. </span>J. L. Krapf, <i>Travels, Researches, -and Missionary Labours during an -Eighteen Years’ Residence in Eastern -Africa</i> (London, 1860), p. 198.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f31'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r31'>31</a>. </span>Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter -to the author dated November 3, -1898.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f32'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r32'>32</a>. </span>J. Teit, “The Thompson Indians -of British Columbia,” p. 349 (<i>Memoir -of the American Museum of Natural -History, The Jesup North Pacific Expedition</i>, -vol. i. part iv.).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f33'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r33'>33</a>. </span>C. Hupe, “Over de godsdienst, -zeden enz. der Dajakkers,” <i>Tijdschrift -voor Neêrlands Indië</i>, 1846 (Batavia), -dl. iii. p. 158.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f34'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r34'>34</a>. </span>De la Loubere, <i>Du royaume -de Siam</i> (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 382. -Compare Mgr. Bruguière, in <i>Annales -de l’Association de la Propagation de -la Foi</i>, v. (1831) p. 127.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f35'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r35'>35</a>. </span>The Buddhist conception of trees -as animated often comes out in the -<i>Jatakas</i>. For examples see H. Oldenberg, -<i>Die Religion des Veda</i>, pp. 259 -<i>sqq.</i>; <i>The Jātaka</i>, bk. xii. No. 465, -vol. iv. pp. 96 <i>sqq.</i> (English translation -edited by E. B. Cowell).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f36'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r36'>36</a>. </span>J. J. M. de Groot, <i>The Religious -System of China</i>, iv. (Leyden, 1901) -pp. 272 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f37'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r37'>37</a>. </span>J. J. M. de Groot, <i>The Religious -System of China</i>, v. (Leyden, 1907) -p. 663.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f38'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r38'>38</a>. </span>F. S. Krauss, <i>Volksglaube und -religiöser Brauch der Südslaven</i> (Münster -i. W., 1890), p. 33.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f39'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r39'>39</a>. </span>A. B. Ellis, <i>The Ewe-speaking -Peoples of the Slave Coast</i> (London, -1890), pp. 49 <i>sqq.</i> Compare <i>id.</i>, <i>The -Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast</i> -(London, 1887), pp. 34 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>Missions -Catholiques</i>, ix. (1877) p. 71.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f40'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r40'>40</a>. </span>G. Maspero, <i>Histoire ancienne des -peuples de l’Orient classique: les origines</i> -(Paris, 1895), pp. 121 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f41'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r41'>41</a>. </span>Merolla, “Voyage to Congo,” in -Pinkerton’s <i>Voyages and Travels</i>, xvi. -236.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f42'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r42'>42</a>. </span>C. C. von der Decken, <i>Reisen in -Ost-Afrika</i> (Leipsic and Heidelberg, -1869-1871), i. 216. The writer does -not describe the mode of appeasing the -tree-spirit in the case mentioned. As to -the Wanika beliefs, see above, p. <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f43'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r43'>43</a>. </span>Sir Harry Johnston, <i>The Uganda -Protectorate</i> (London, 1902), ii. -832.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f44'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r44'>44</a>. </span>J. B. L. Durand, <i>Voyage au -Sénégal</i> (Paris, 1802), p. 119.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f45'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r45'>45</a>. </span>S. J. Curtiss, <i>Primitive Semitic -Religion To-day</i> (Chicago, 1902), p. -94.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f46'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r46'>46</a>. </span>A. d’Orbigny, <i>Voyage dans l’Amérique -Méridionale</i> (Paris and Strasburg, -1839-1843), ii. 157, 159 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f47'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r47'>47</a>. </span>A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <i>In Centraal-Borneo</i> -(Leyden, 1900), i. 146.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f48'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r48'>48</a>. </span>H. H. Romilly, <i>From my Verandah -in New Guinea</i> (London, 1889), -p. 86.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f49'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r49'>49</a>. </span>D. C. J. Ibbetson, <i>Outlines of -Panjab Ethnography</i> (Calcutta, 1883), -p. 120.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f50'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r50'>50</a>. </span>W. von Schulenberg, “Volkskundliche -Mittheilungen aus der -Mark,” <i>Verhandlungen der Berliner -Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie -und Urgeschichte</i> (1896), p. 189. -Compare A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, -<i>Nord-deutsche Sagen, Märchen und -Gebräuche</i>, p. 407, § 142; E. Meier, -<i>Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche -aus Schwaben</i>, p. 463, § 208; A. Kuhn, -<i>Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus -Westfalen</i>, ii. pp. 108 <i>sq.</i>, §§ 326, 327, -p. 116, §§ 356, 358; A. Birlinger, -<i>Volksthümliches aus Schwaben</i>, i. pp. -464 <i>sq.</i>, § 6; K. Bartsch, <i>Sagen, -Märchen und Gebräuche aus Meklenburg</i>, -ii. 228 <i>sq.</i>; W. Kolbe, <i>Hessische -Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche</i>, 2nd Ed., p. 29; R. -Andree, <i>Braunschweiger Volkskunde</i> -(Brunswick, 1896), p. 234; R. Wuttke, -Sächsische Volkskunde 2nd Ed., (Dresden, 1901), -p. 370. The custom has been discussed -by U. Jahn, <i>Die deutschen Opfergebräuche -bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht</i> -(Breslau, 1884), pp. 214-220. -He comes to the conclusion, which I -cannot but regard as erroneous, that -the custom was in origin a rational precaution -to keep the caterpillars from -the trees. Compare the marriage of -trees, below, pp. <a href='#Page_24'>24</a> <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f51'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r51'>51</a>. </span>J. Aubrey, <i>Remaines of Gentilisme -and Judaisme</i> (London, 1881), p. 247.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f52'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r52'>52</a>. </span>Peter Jones, <i>History of the Ojebway -Indians</i>, p. 104.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f53'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r53'>53</a>. </span>J. J. M. de Groot, <i>Religious -System of China</i>, iv. 274.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f54'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r54'>54</a>. </span>A. Peter, <i>Volksthümliches aus -Österreichisch-Schlesien</i> (Troppau, 1865-67), -ii. 30.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f55'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r55'>55</a>. </span>P. Wagler, <i>Die Eiche in alter und -neuer Zeit</i>, ii. (Berlin, 1891) p. 56 -note 1.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f56'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r56'>56</a>. </span>A. Bastian, <i>Indonesien</i>, i. 154; -compare <i>id.</i>, <i>Die Völker des östlichen -Asien</i>, ii. 457 <i>sq.</i>, iii. 251 <i>sq.</i>, iv. -42 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f57'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r57'>57</a>. </span>J. de los Reyes y Florentino, -“Die religiosen Anschauungen der -Ilocanen (Luzon),” <i>Mittheilungen der -k. k. Geograph. Gesellschaft in Wien</i>, -xxxi. (1888) p. 556.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f58'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r58'>58</a>. </span>F. Gardner, “Philippine (Tagalog) -Superstitions,” <i>Journal of American -Folk-lore</i>, xix. (1906) p. 191. These -superstitions are translated from an old -and rare work <i>La Pratica del ministerio</i>, -by Padre Tomas Ortiz (Manila, 1713).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f59'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r59'>59</a>. </span>Th. Nöldeke, “Tigre-Texte,” -<i>Zeitschrift für Assyriologie</i>, xxiv. -(1910) p. 298, referring to E. -Littmann, <i>Publications of the Princeton -Expedition to Abyssinia</i> (Leyden, -1910).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f60'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r60'>60</a>. </span>J. Spieth, <i>Die Ewe-Stämme</i> (Berlin, -1906), pp. 394-396.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f61'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r61'>61</a>. </span>J. H. Neumann, “De <i>tĕndi</i> in -verband met Si Dajang,” <i>Mededeelingen -van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</i>, -xlviii. (1904) pp. 124 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f62'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r62'>62</a>. </span>From a letter of the Rev. J. -Roscoe, written in Busoga, 21st May, -1908.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f63'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r63'>63</a>. </span><i>Satapatha-Brâhmana</i>, translated -by J. Eggeling, Part II. pp. 165 <i>sq.</i> -(<i>Sacred Books of the East</i>, vol. xxvi.); -H. Oldenberg, <i>Die Religion des Veda</i>, -pp. 256 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f64'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r64'>64</a>. </span>De la Loubere, <i>Du royaume de -Siam</i> (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 383.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f65'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r65'>65</a>. </span>G. Turner, <i>Samoa</i>, p. 63.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f66'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r66'>66</a>. </span>I. v. Zingerle, “Der heilige Baum -bei Nauders,” <i>Zeitschrift für deutsche -Mythologie und Sittenkunde</i>, iv. (1859), -pp. 33 <i>sqq.</i> According to Lucan -(<i>Pharsal.</i> iii. 429-431), the soldiers -whom Caesar ordered to cut down the -sacred oak-grove of the Druids at Marseilles -believed that the axes would rebound -from the trees and wound themselves.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f67'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r67'>67</a>. </span>W. W. Skeat, <i>Malay Magic</i>, pp. -198 <i>sq.</i> As to the durian-tree and its -fruit, see A. R. Wallace, <i>The Malay -Archipelago</i> 6th Ed., (London, 1877), pp. 74 -<i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f68'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r68'>68</a>. </span>W. G. Aston, <i>Shinto</i> (London, 1905), -p. 165.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f69'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r69'>69</a>. </span>F. S. Krauss, <i>Volksglaube und -religiöser Brauch der Südslaven</i>, p. 34; -A. Strausz, <i>Die Bulgaren</i> (Leipsic, -1898), p. 352. Compare R. F. -Kaindl, “Aus der Volksüberlieferung -der Bojken,” <i>Globus</i>, lxxix. (1901) p. -152.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f70'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r70'>70</a>. </span>G. Pitrè, <i>Spettacoli e feste popolari</i> -(Palermo, 1881), p. 221; <i>id.</i>, -<i>Usi e costumi, credenze e pregiudizi -del popolo siciliano</i>, iii. (Palermo, -1889) p. 111; G. Vuillier, “Chez les -magiciens et les sorciers de la Corrèze,” -<i>Tour du monde</i>, N.S. v. (1899) p. -512.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f71'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r71'>71</a>. </span>M. Tchéraz, “Notes sur la mythologie -Arménienne,” <i>Transactions of -the Ninth International Congress of -Orientalists</i> (London, 1893), ii. 827. -Compare M. Abeghian, <i>Der armenische -Volksglaube</i> (Leipsic, 1899), p. 60.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f72'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r72'>72</a>. </span>G. Finamore, <i>Credenze, usi, e -costumi abruzzesi</i> (Palermo, 1890), -pp. 162 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f73'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r73'>73</a>. </span>Georgeakis et Pineau, <i>Folk-lore de -Lesbos</i> (Paris, 1894), p. 354.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f74'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r74'>74</a>. </span>Boecler-Kreutzwald, <i>Der Ehsten -abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und -Gewohnheiten</i> (St. Petersburg, 1854), -p. 134.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f75'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r75'>75</a>. </span>M. J. van Baarda, “Fabelen, -Verhalen, en Overleveringen der Galelareezen,” -<i>Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- -en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</i>, -xlv. (1895) p. 511.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f76'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r76'>76</a>. </span>A. G. Vorderman, “Planten-animisme -op Java,” <i>Teysmannia</i>, No. 2, -1896, pp. 59 <i>sq.</i>; <i>Internationales Archiv -für Ethnographie</i>, ix. (1896) p. 175.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f77'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r77'>77</a>. </span>A. G. Vorderman, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 60; -<i>Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie</i>, -ix. (1896) p. 176.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f78'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r78'>78</a>. </span>A. G. Vorderman, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. -61-63.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f79'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r79'>79</a>. </span>A. de Humboldt, <i>Voyage aux -régions équinoxiales du Nouveau Continent</i>, -ii. (Paris, 1819) pp. 369 <i>sq.</i>, -429 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f80'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r80'>80</a>. </span>Elsdon Best, “Maori Nomenclature,” -<i>Journal of the Anthropological -Institute</i>, xxxii. (1902) p. 197.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f81'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r81'>81</a>. </span>Herodotus, i. 193; Theophrastus, -<i>Historia plantarum</i>, ii. 8. 4; Pliny, -<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xiii. 31, 34 <i>sq.</i> In this -passage Pliny states that naturalists -distinguished the sexes of all trees and -plants. On Assyrian monuments a -winged figure is often represented holding -an object which looks like a pine-cone -to a palm-tree. The scene has -been ingeniously and with great probability -explained by Professor E. B. -Tylor as the artificial fertilisation of -the date-palm by means of the male -inflorescence. See his paper in <i>Proceedings -of the Society of Biblical -Archaeology</i>, xii. (1890) pp. 383-393. -On the artificial fertilisation of the -date-palm, see C. Ritter, <i>Vergleichende -Erdkunde von Arabien</i> (Berlin, 1847), -ii. 811, 827 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f82'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r82'>82</a>. </span>D. Chwolsohn, <i>Die Ssabier und -der Ssabismus</i> (St. Petersburg, 1856), -ii. 36, 251. Mohammed forbade the -artificial fertilisation of the palm, -probably because of the superstitions -attaching to the ceremony. But he had -to acknowledge his mistake. See D. -S. Margoliouth, <i>Mohammed and the -Rise of Islam</i>, p. 230 (a passage pointed -out to me by Dr. A. W. Verrall).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f83'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r83'>83</a>. </span>Sir W. H. Sleeman, <i>Rambles and -Recollections of an Indian Official</i> -(Westminster, 1893), i. 38 <i>sq.</i>; compare -<i>Census of India, 1901</i>, vol. xiii., -<i>Central Provinces</i>, part i. p. 92.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f84'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r84'>84</a>. </span><i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of -Bengal</i>, lxxii., part iii. (Calcutta, 1904) -p. 42.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f85'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r85'>85</a>. </span>J. A. Dubois, <i>Mœurs, institutions -et cérémonies des peuples de l’Inde</i> -(Paris, 1825), ii. 448 <i>sq.</i>; Monier -Williams, <i>Religious Life and Thought -in India</i>, pp. 333-335; W. Crooke, -<i>Popular Religion and Folklore of -Northern India</i> (Westminster, 1896), -ii. 110 <i>sq.</i> According to another -account, it is Vishnu, not Krishna, to -whom the holy plant is annually -married in every pious Hindoo family. -See <i>Census of India, 1901</i>, vol. xviii., -<i>Baroda</i>, p. 125.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f86'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r86'>86</a>. </span>Sir Henry M. Elliot, <i>Memoirs on -the History, Folklore, and Distribution -of the Races of the North-western Provinces -of India</i>, edited by J. Beames -(London, 1869), i. 233 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f87'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r87'>87</a>. </span>W. Crooke, <i>op. cit.</i> i. 49.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f88'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r88'>88</a>. </span>Sir W. H. Sleeman, <i>Rambles and -Recollections of an Indian Official</i> -(Westminster, 1893), i. 147-149, 175. -The <i>Salagrama</i> is commonly perforated -in one or more places by worms or, as -the Hindoos believe, by the legendary -insect Vajrakita or by Vishnu himself. -The value of the fossil shell depends on -its colour, and the number of its convolutions -and holes. The black are -prized as gracious embodiments of -Vishnu; the violet are shunned as -dangerous avatars of the god. He who -possesses a black <i>Salagrama</i> keeps it -wrapped in white linen, washes and -adores it daily. A draught of the -water in which the shell has been -washed is supposed to purge away all -sin and to secure the temporal and -eternal welfare of the drinker. These -fossils are found in Nepaul, in the -upper course of the river Gandaka, a -northern tributary of the Ganges. -Hence the district goes by the name of -Salagrami, and is highly esteemed for -its sanctity; a visit to it confers great -merit on a man. See Sonnerat, -<i>Voyage aux Indes Orientales et à la -Chine</i> (Paris, 1782), i. 173 <i>sq.</i>; J. A. -Dubois, <i>Mœurs, institutions et cérémonies -des peuples de l’Indie</i> (Paris, -1825), ii. 446-448; Sir W. H. Sleeman, -<i>op. cit.</i> i. 148 <i>sq.</i>, with the editor’s -notes; Monier Williams, <i>Religious -Thought and Life in India</i>, pp. 69 <i>sq.</i>; -G. Watt, <i>Dictionary of the Economic -Products of India</i>, vi. Part II. (London -and Calcutta, 1893) p. 384; W. -Crooke, <i>op. cit.</i> ii. 164 <i>sq.</i>; <i>Indian -Antiquary</i>, xxv. (1896) p. 146; G. -Oppert, <i>On the Original Inhabitants of -Bharatavarsa or India</i> (Westminster -and Leipsic, 1893), pp. 337-359; <i>id.</i>, -“Note sur les Sālagrāmas,” <i>Comptes -rendus de l’Académie des Inscriptions -et Belles-Lettres</i> (Paris, 1900), pp. -472-485. The shell derives its name -of ammonite from its resemblance to -a ram’s horn, recalling the ram-god -Ammon.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f89'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r89'>89</a>. </span><i>Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie</i> -(Chemnitz, 1759), pp. 239 <i>sq.</i>; U. Jahn, -<i>Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau -und Viehzucht</i>, pp. 214 <i>sqq.</i> See -above, p. <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f90'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r90'>90</a>. </span>Van Schmid, “Aanteekeningen -nopens de zeden, gewoonten en gebruiken, -etc., der bevolking van de eilanden -Saparoea, etc.” <i>Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands -Indië</i>, 1843 (Batavia), dl. ii. p. -605; A. Bastian, <i>Indonesien</i>, i. 156.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f91'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r91'>91</a>. </span>G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoëvell, -<i>Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de Oeliasers</i> -(Dordrecht, 1875), p. 62.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f92'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r92'>92</a>. </span>G. A. Wilken, “Het animisme bij -de volken van het Indischen archipel,” -<i>De Indische Gids</i>, June 1884, p. 958; -<i>id.</i>, <i>Handleiding voor de vergelijkende -Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië</i> -(Leyden, 1893), pp. 549 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f93'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r93'>93</a>. </span>E. L. M. Kühr, “Schetsen uit -Borneo’s Westerafdeeling,” <i>Bijdragen -tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van -Nederlandsch-Indië</i>, xlvii. (1897) pp. -58 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f94'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r94'>94</a>. </span>A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische -aanteekeningen omtrent de -Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” <i>Mededeelingen -van wege het Nederlandsche -Zendelinggenootschap</i>, xliv. (1900) p. -221.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f95'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r95'>95</a>. </span>D. Grangeon, “Les Cham et leur -superstitions,” <i>Missions Catholiques</i>, -xxviii. (1896) p. 83.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f96'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r96'>96</a>. </span><i>Indian Antiquary</i>, i. (1872) p. 170.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f97'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r97'>97</a>. </span>A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander -aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk -leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” -<i>Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche -Zendelinggenootschap</i>, xxxix. -(1895) pp. 22, 138.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f98'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r98'>98</a>. </span><i>Id.</i>, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen -omtrent de Toboengkoe -en Tomori,” <i>ib.</i>, xliv. (1900) p. 227.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f99'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r99'>99</a>. </span>C. Snouck Hurgronje, <i>Het Gajōland -en zijne Bewoners</i> (Batavia, 1903), -pp. 344, 345.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f100'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r100'>100</a>. </span>S. Gason, “The Dieyerie Tribe,” -<i>Native Tribes of South Australia</i>, p. -280; A. W. Howitt, “The Dieri and -other kindred Tribes of Central Australia,” -<i>Journal of the Anthropological -Institute</i>, xx. (1891) p. 89.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f101'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r101'>101</a>. </span>F. Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus -und die religiöse Anschauungen der -Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” -<i>Mittheilungen der Wiener Geogr. Gesellschaft</i> -(1882), pp. 159 <i>sq.</i>; <i>id.</i>, <i>Versuch -einer Ethnographie der Philippinen</i> -(Gotha, 1882), pp. 13, 29 (<i>Petermann’s -Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft</i>, No. -67); J. Mallat, <i>Les Philippines</i> (Paris, -1846), i. 63 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f102'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r102'>102</a>. </span>A. Schadenberg, “Beiträge zur -Kenntnis der im Innern Nordluzons -lebenden Stämme,” <i>Verhandlungen -der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, -Ethnologie und Urgeschichte</i> -(1888), p. 40.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f103'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r103'>103</a>. </span>F. Grabowsky, “Der Tod, etc., -bei den Dajaken,” <i>Internationales -Archiv für Ethnographie</i>, ii. (1889) -p. 181.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f104'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r104'>104</a>. </span>H. Low, <i>Sarawak</i> (London, 1848), -p. 264.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f105'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r105'>105</a>. </span>Mrs. Bishop, <i>Korea and her Neighbours</i> -(London, 1898), i. 106 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f106'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r106'>106</a>. </span>J. J. M. de Groot, <i>Religious -System of China</i>, ii. 462 <i>sqq.</i>, iv. -277 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f107'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r107'>107</a>. </span><i>La Mission lyonnaise d’exploration -commerciale en Chine 1895-1897</i> -(Lyons, 1898), p. 361.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f108'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r108'>108</a>. </span>“Der Muata Cazembe und die -Völkerstämme der Maravis, Chevas, -Muembas, Lundas und andere von -Süd-Afrika,” <i>Zeitschrift für allgemeine -Erdkunde</i>, vi. (1856) p. 273.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f109'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r109'>109</a>. </span>Major A. G. Leonard, <i>The Lower -Niger and its Tribes</i> (London, 1906), -pp. 298 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f110'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r110'>110</a>. </span>Ch. Partridge, <i>Cross River -Natives</i> (London, 1905), pp. 272 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f111'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r111'>111</a>. </span>Ch. Partridge, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 5, -194, 205 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f112'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r112'>112</a>. </span>F. S. A. de Clercq, “De Westen -Noordkust van Nederlandsch Nieuw-Guinea,” -<i>Tijdschrift van het kon. Nederlandsch -Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</i>, -Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 199.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f113'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r113'>113</a>. </span>“Shamanism in Siberia and European -Russia,” <i>Journal of the Anthropological -Institute</i>, xxiv. (1895) p. 136.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f114'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r114'>114</a>. </span>Fr. Boas, in <i>Sixth Report on the -North-Western Tribes of Canada</i>, p. 28 -(separate reprint from the <i>Report of the -British Association for 1890</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f115'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r115'>115</a>. </span>F. S. Krauss, <i>Volksglaube und -religiöser Brauch der Südslaven</i>, p. 36.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f116'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r116'>116</a>. </span>F. S. Krauss, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f117'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r117'>117</a>. </span><i>Aeneid</i>, iii. 22 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f118'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r118'>118</a>. </span>Philostratus, <i>Imagines</i>, ii. 29.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f119'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r119'>119</a>. </span>A. Landes, “Contes et légendes -annamites,” No. 9, in <i>Cochinchine -française: excursions et reconnaissances</i>, -No. 20 (Saigon, 1885), p. 310.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f120'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r120'>120</a>. </span>A. B. Ellis, <i>The Yoruba-speaking -Peoples of the Slave Coast of West -Africa</i>, pp. 134-136.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f121'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r121'>121</a>. </span>B. C. A. J. van Dinter, “Eenige -geographische en ethnographische -aanteekeningen betreffende het eiland -Siaoe,” <i>Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- -Land- en Volkenkunde</i>, xli. (1899) pp. -379 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f122'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r122'>122</a>. </span>E. Modigliani, <i>Un Viaggio a Nías</i> -(Milan, 1890), p. 629.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f123'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r123'>123</a>. </span>O. Baumann, <i>Usambara und seine -Nachbargebiete</i> (Berlin, 1891), pp. 57 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f124'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r124'>124</a>. </span>Spencer and Gillen, <i>Northern -Tribes of Central Australia</i>, pp. 162, -330 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f125'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r125'>125</a>. </span>Ph. Paulitschke, <i>Ethnographie -Nordost-Afrikas: Die geistige Cultur -der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl</i> (Berlin, -1896), pp. 34 <i>sq.</i> On the Galla worship -of trees, see further Mgr. Massaja, in -<i>Annales de la Propagation de la Foi</i>, -xxx. (1858) p. 50; Coulbeaux, “Au -pays de Menelik,” <i>Missions Catholiques</i>, -xxx. (1898) p. 418.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f126'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r126'>126</a>. </span>J. Kubary, “Die Religion der -Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s <i>Allerlei aus -Volks- und Menschenkunde</i>, i. 52; <i>id.</i>, -<i>Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Karolinen -Archipels</i>, iii. (Leyden, 1895) p. 228.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f127'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r127'>127</a>. </span>A. B. Ellis, <i>The Yoruba-speaking -Peoples of the Slave Coast</i>, p. 115.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f128'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r128'>128</a>. </span>A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander -aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk -leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” <i>Mededeelingen -van wege het Nederlandsche -Zendelinggenootschap</i>, xl. (1896) pp. 28 -<i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f129'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r129'>129</a>. </span>A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische -aanteekeningen omtrent de -Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” <i>Mededeelingen -van wege het Nederlandsche -Zendelinggenootschap</i>, xliv. (1900) pp. -220 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f130'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r130'>130</a>. </span>A. C. Kruijt, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 242.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f131'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r131'>131</a>. </span>J. Habbema, “Bijgeloof in de -Preanger-Regentschappen,” <i>Bijdragen -tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van -Nederlandsch-Indië</i>, xli. (1900) pp. -113, 115.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f132'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r132'>132</a>. </span>G. Heijmering, “Zeden en Gewoonten -op het eiland Rottie,” <i>Tijdschrift -voor Neêrlands Indië</i> (1844), -dl. i. p. 358.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f133'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r133'>133</a>. </span>C. Snouck Hurgronje, <i>Het Gajōland -en zijne Bewoners</i> (Batavia, 1903), -p. 351.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f134'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r134'>134</a>. </span>Th. A. L. Heyting, “Beschrijving -der onder-afdeeling Groot-mandeling -en Batang-natal,” <i>Tijdschrift van het -Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</i>, -Tweede Serie, xiv. (1897) pp. -289 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f135'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r135'>135</a>. </span>F. Blumentritt, <i>Versuch einer -Ethnographie der Philippinen</i> (Gotha, -1882), p. 13 (<i>Petermanns Mittheilungen, -Ergänzungheft</i>, No. 67). See -above, pp. <a href='#Page_18'>18</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f136'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r136'>136</a>. </span>Crossland, quoted by H. Ling Roth, -<i>The Natives of Sarawak and British -North Borneo</i>, i. 286; compare <i>Journal -of the Anthropological Institute</i>, xxi. -(1892) p. 114.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f137'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r137'>137</a>. </span>“Lettre du curé de Santiago -Tepehuacan à son évêque,” <i>Bulletin de -la Société de Géographie</i> (Paris), IIme. -Série, ii. (1834) pp. 182 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f138'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r138'>138</a>. </span>J. T. Bent, <i>The Cyclades</i>, p. 37.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f139'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r139'>139</a>. </span>A. L. Van Hasselt, <i>Volksbeschrijving -van Midden-Sumatra</i> (Leyden, -1882), p. 156.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f140'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r140'>140</a>. </span>W. Crooke, <i>Popular Religion and -Folk-lore of Northern India</i> (Westminster, -1896), ii. 87.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f141'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r141'>141</a>. </span>I. M. van Baarda, “Île de Halma-heira,” -<i>Bulletins de la Société d’Anthropologie -de Paris</i>, iv. (1893) p. 547.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f142'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r142'>142</a>. </span>L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der -Gilyak,” <i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>, -viii. (1905) p. 246.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f143'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r143'>143</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, p. 83.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f144'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r144'>144</a>. </span><i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic -Society</i>, vii. (1843) p. 29.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f145'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r145'>145</a>. </span>A. Bastian, <i>Indonesien</i>, i. 17.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f146'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r146'>146</a>. </span>J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” -<i>Journal of the Straits Branch of the -Royal Asiatic Society</i>, No. 10 (Dec. -1882), p. 217; H. Ling Roth, <i>The -Natives of Sarawak and British North -Borneo</i>, i. 184.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f147'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r147'>147</a>. </span>W. Kükenthal, <i>Forschungsreise in -den Molukken und in Borneo</i> (Frankfort, -1896), pp. 265 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f148'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r148'>148</a>. </span><i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, -xxv. (1896) p. 170.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f149'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r149'>149</a>. </span>E. T. Dalton, <i>Descriptive Ethnology -of Bengal</i>, pp. 186, 188; compare -A. Bastian, <i>Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra</i>, -p. 9.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f150'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r150'>150</a>. </span>E. T. Dalton, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 33; A. -Bastian, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 16. Compare L. -A. Waddell, “The Tribes of the -Brahmaputra Valley,” <i>Journal of the -Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>, lxix. (1901) -Part III. p. 16; W. Robertson Smith, -<i>The Religion of the Semites</i>, 2nd Ed., pp. 132 -<i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f151'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r151'>151</a>. </span>E. T. Dalton, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 25; A. -Bastian, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 37.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f152'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r152'>152</a>. </span>A. C. Kruijt, “Het koppensnellen -der Toradja’s van Midden-Celebes en -zijne beteekenis,” <i>Verslagen en Mededeelingen -der konink. Akademie van -Wetenschappen</i>, Afdeeling Letterkunde, -IV. Reeks, iii. (1899) p. 195.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f153'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r153'>153</a>. </span>A. W. Niewenhuis, <i>In Centraal-Borneo</i> -(Leyden, 1900), i. 146; <i>id.</i>, -<i>Quer durch Borneo</i>, i. (Leyden, 1904) -p. 107.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f154'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r154'>154</a>. </span><i>Id.</i>, “Tweede Reis van Pontianak -naar Samarinda,” <i>Tijdschrift van het -konink. Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig -Genootschap</i>, II. Serie, xvii. (1900) -p. 427.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f155'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r155'>155</a>. </span>J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” -<i>Journal of the Straits Branch of the -Royal Asiatic Society</i>, No. 10 (December -1882), p. 217; H. Ling Roth, -<i>The Natives of Sarawak and British -North Borneo</i>, i. 184.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f156'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r156'>156</a>. </span>B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss -der Battareligion,” <i>Tijdschrift voor -Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</i>, -xxviii. 530, note.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f157'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r157'>157</a>. </span>W. W. Skeat, <i>Malay Magic</i>, p. 202.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f158'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r158'>158</a>. </span>E. Young, <i>The Kingdom of the -Yellow Robe</i> (Westminster, 1898), pp. -192 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f159'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r159'>159</a>. </span>J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, -<i>Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan -States</i>, Part I. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1900) -pp. 518 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f160'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r160'>160</a>. </span>Captain Macpherson, in <i>North -Indian Notes and Queries</i>, ii. 112 § -428.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f161'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r161'>161</a>. </span>W. Crooke, <i>Popular Religion and -Folk-lore of Northern India</i> (Westminster, -1896), ii. 91.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f162'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r162'>162</a>. </span>A. Bastian, <i>Die Völker des östlichen -Asien</i>, i. 134. The authority quoted -by Bastian calls the people Curka -Coles. As to the Larka Kols, see -E. T. Dalton, <i>Descriptive Ethnology of -Bengal</i>, pp. 177 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f163'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r163'>163</a>. </span>W. Crooke, <i>Tribes and Castes of -the North-Western Provinces and Oudh</i>, -iv. 130.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f164'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r164'>164</a>. </span>S. Mateer, <i>The Land of Charity</i> -(London, 1871), p. 206.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f165'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r165'>165</a>. </span>B. A. Hely, in <i>Annual Report on -British New Guinea for 1894-95</i>, p. -57.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f166'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r166'>166</a>. </span>T. J. Hutchinson, <i>Impressions of -Western Africa</i> (London, 1858), pp. -130 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f167'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r167'>167</a>. </span>Gallieni, “Mission dans le Haut -Niger et à Ségou,” <i>Bulletin de la Société -de Géographie</i> (Paris), viiime Série, -v. (1883) pp. 577 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f168'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r168'>168</a>. </span>Ch. M. Doughty, <i>Travels in -Arabia Deserta</i> (Cambridge, 1888), i. -365.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f169'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r169'>169</a>. </span>Th. Bent, “The Yourouks of Asia -Minor,” <i>Journal of the Anthropological -Institute</i>, xx. (1891) p. 275.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f170'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r170'>170</a>. </span>Erasmus Stella, “De Borussiae -antiquitatibus,” in Simon Grynaeus’s -<i>Novus Orbis regionum ac insularum -veteribus incognitarum</i> (Paris, 1532), -p. 510; J. Lasicius (Lasiczki), “De -diis Samagitarum caeterorumque Sarmatarum,” -in <i>Respublica sive Status -regni Poloniae, Lituaniae, Prussiae, -Livoniae, etc.</i> (Leyden, 1627), pp. -299 <i>sq.</i>; M. C. Hartknoch, <i>Alt und -neues Preussen</i> (Frankfort and Leipsic, -1684), p. 120. Lasiczki’s work has been -reprinted by W. Mannhardt, in <i>Magazin -herausgegeben von der lettisch-lite-rärischen -Gesellschaft</i>, xiv. 82 <i>sqq.</i> -(Mitau, 1868).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f171'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r171'>171</a>. </span>Mathias Michov, in Simon Grynaeus’s -<i>Novus Orbis regionum ac insularum -veteribus incognitarum</i> (Paris, -1532), p. 457.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f172'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r172'>172</a>. </span>J. G. Kohl, <i>Die deutsch-russischen -Ostseeprovinzen</i> (Dresden and Leipsic, -1841), ii. 277.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f173'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r173'>173</a>. </span>Capt. E. C. Luard, <i>in Census of -India, 1901</i>, xix. (Lucknow, 1902) -p. 76.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f174'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r174'>174</a>. </span>J. Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, 4th ed., i. -497; compare <i>id.</i> ii. 540, 541.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f175'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r175'>175</a>. </span>Max Buch, <i>Die Wotjäken</i> (Stuttgart, -1882), p. 124.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f176'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r176'>176</a>. </span>P. v. Stenin, “Ein neuer Beitrag -zur Ethnographie der Tscheremissen,” -<i>Globus</i>, lviii. (1890) p. 204.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f177'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r177'>177</a>. </span>J. G. Dalyell, <i>Darker Superstitions -of Scotland</i> (Edinburgh, 1834), -p. 400.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f178'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r178'>178</a>. </span>J. G. Dalyell, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f179'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r179'>179</a>. </span>J. Biddulph, <i>Tribes of the Hindoo -Koosh</i>, p. 116.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f180'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r180'>180</a>. </span>H. R. Tate, “Further Notes on -the Kikuyu Tribe of British East -Africa,” <i>Journal of the Anthropological -Institute</i>, xxxiv. (1904) p. 263; <i>id.</i> -“The Native Law of the Southern -Gikuyu of British East Africa,” <i>Journal -of the African Society</i>, No. 35 (April -1910), pp. 242 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f181'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r181'>181</a>. </span>On the representations of Silvanus, -the Roman wood-god, see H. Jordan -in L. Preller’s <i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd Ed., i. -393 note; A. Baumeister, <i>Denkmäler -des classischen Altertums</i>, iii. 1665 <i>sq.</i> -A good representation of Silvanus bearing -a pine branch is given in the Sale -Catalogue of H. Hoffmann, Paris, -1888, pt. ii.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f182'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r182'>182</a>. </span>Aeneas Sylvius, <i>Opera</i> (Bâle, 1571), -p. 418 [wrongly numbered 420]; compare -Erasmus Stella, “De Borussiae -antiquitatibus,” in <i>Novus Orbis regionum -ac insularum veteribus incognitarum</i>, -p. 510.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f183'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r183'>183</a>. </span>E. T. Dalton, <i>Descriptive Ethnology -of Bengal</i>, p. 186.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f184'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r184'>184</a>. </span>J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, -<i>Gazetteer of Upper Burmah and the -Shan States</i>, Part II. vol. iii. (Rangoon, -1901), pp. 63 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f185'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r185'>185</a>. </span>E. Aymonier, in <i>Cochinchine française: -excursions et reconnaissances</i>, -No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), pp. 175 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f186'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r186'>186</a>. </span>L. Decle, <i>Three Years in Savage -Africa</i> (London, 1898), p. 489.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f187'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r187'>187</a>. </span>H. Schinz, <i>Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika</i>, -pp. 295 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f188'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r188'>188</a>. </span>See above, vol. i. pp. 248, 250, 309.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f189'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r189'>189</a>. </span>Above, vol. i. p. 284.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f190'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r190'>190</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i> (Berlin, -1875), pp. 158, 159, 170, 197, -214, 351, 514.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f191'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r191'>191</a>. </span>E. T. Dalton, <i>Descriptive Ethnology -of Bengal</i>, p. 188.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f192'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r192'>192</a>. </span>Villault, <i>Relation des costes appellées -Guinée</i> (Paris, 1669), pp. 266 -<i>sq.</i>; <i>Labat, Voyage du chevalier des -Marchais en Guinée, isles voisines, et -à Cayenne</i> (Paris, 1730), i. 338.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f193'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r193'>193</a>. </span>O. Baumann, <i>Usambara und seine -Nachbargebiete</i> (Berlin, 1891), p. 142.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f194'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r194'>194</a>. </span>C. E. X. Rochet d’Hericourt, -<i>Voyage sur la côte orientale de la Mer -Rouge dans le pays d’Adel et le royaume -de Choa</i> (Paris, 1841), pp. 166 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f195'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r195'>195</a>. </span>L. Lloyd, <i>Peasant Life in Sweden</i> -(London, 1870), p. 266.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f196'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r196'>196</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, pp. -190 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f197'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r197'>197</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Antike Wald- und -Feldkulte</i> (Berlin, 1877), pp. 212 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f198'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r198'>198</a>. </span>H. Low, Sarawak, p. 274; <i>id.</i>, -in <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, -xxv. (1896) p. 111.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f199'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r199'>199</a>. </span>T. H. Lewin, <i>Wild Races of -South-Eastern India</i> (London, 1870), -p. 270.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f200'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r200'>200</a>. </span>J. Mackenzie, <i>Ten Years North of -the Orange River</i> (Edinburgh, 1871), -p. 385.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f201'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r201'>201</a>. </span>J. Campbell, <i>Travels in South -Africa, Second Journey</i> (London, 1822), -ii. 203.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f202'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r202'>202</a>. </span>Rev. J. Macdonald, MS. notes; -compare <i>id.</i>, <i>Light in Africa</i>, p. 210; -<i>id.</i>, in <i>Journal of the Anthropological -Institute</i>, xx. (1891) p. 140. The -Nubas will not cut shoots of the <i>nabac</i> -(a thorn-tree) during the rainy season -(<i>Missions Catholiques</i>, xiv. (1882) p. -460). Among some of the hill-tribes -of the Punjaub no one is allowed to -cut grass or any green thing with an -iron sickle till the festival of the ripening -grain has been celebrated; otherwise -the field-god would be angry and -send frost to destroy or injure the -harvest (D. C. J. Ibbetson, <i>Outlines of -Panjab Ethnography</i>, p. 121).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f203'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r203'>203</a>. </span>“Ueber die Religion der heidnischen -Tscheremissen im Gouvernement -Kasan,” <i>Zeitschrift für allgemeine -Erdkunde</i>, N. F. iii. (1857) p. 150.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f204'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r204'>204</a>. </span>J. Biddulph, <i>Tribes of the Hindoo -Koosh</i>, pp. 103 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f205'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r205'>205</a>. </span>J. Biddulph, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 106 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f206'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r206'>206</a>. </span>W. Crooke, <i>Popular Religion and -Folk-lore of Northern India</i> (Westminster, -1896), ii. 102. See also Sir -H. M. Elliot, <i>Memoirs on the History, -Folk-lore, and Distribution of the Races -of the North-Western Provinces of India</i>, -edited by J. Beames, ii. 217, where, -however, the object of the prayers is -said to be the fruitfulness of the tree -itself, not the fruitfulness of women, -animals, and cattle.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f207'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r207'>207</a>. </span>W. Crooke, <i>op. cit.</i> ii. 106.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f208'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r208'>208</a>. </span>Th. J. Hutchinson, <i>Impressions of -Western Africa</i>, p. 128.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f209'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r209'>209</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, p. -161; E. Meier, <i>Deutsche Sagen, Sitten -und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</i>, p. 397; -A. Peter, <i>Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien</i>, -ii. 286.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f210'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r210'>210</a>. </span>W. Camden, <i>Britannia</i>, ed. R. -Gough (London, 1779), iii. 659. -Camden’s authority is Good, a writer -of the sixteenth century.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f211'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r211'>211</a>. </span><i>County Folk-lore: Suffolk</i>, collected -and edited by Lady Eveline Camilla -Gurdon (London, 1893), p. 117.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f212'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r212'>212</a>. </span>Mr. E. F. Benson, in a letter to -the author dated December 15, 1892.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f213'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r213'>213</a>. </span><i>Memoirs of Samuel Pepys, Esq.</i>, -edited by Lord Braybrooke, Second -Edition (London, 1828), ii. 209, -under May 1st, 1667.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f214'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r214'>214</a>. </span>Lady Wilde, <i>Ancient Legends, -Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of -Ireland</i> (London, 1887), i. 196 <i>sq.</i> If -an Irish housewife puts a ring of rowan-tree -or quicken, as it is also called, on -the handle of the churn-dash when she -is churning, no witch can steal her -butter (P. W. Joyce, <i>Social History of -Ancient Ireland</i> (London, 1903), i. -236 <i>sq.</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f215'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r215'>215</a>. </span>W. Camden, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f216'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r216'>216</a>. </span>W. Gregor, <i>Folk-lore of the North-east -of Scotland</i> (London, 1881), p. 188.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f217'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r217'>217</a>. </span>J. G. Campbell, <i>Witchcraft and -Second Sight in the Highlands and -Islands of Scotland</i>, p. 270, compare -<i>ib.</i>, pp. 7 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f218'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r218'>218</a>. </span>J. G. Campbell, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 11 <i>sq.</i> -In Germany also the rowan-tree is a -charm against witchcraft (A. Wuttke, -<i>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube</i>, 2nd Ed., p. 106, -§ 145).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f219'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r219'>219</a>. </span>Sir John Rhys, “The Coligny -Calendar,” <i>Proceedings of the British -Academy</i>, vol. iv. pp. 55 <i>sq.</i> of the -offprint.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f220'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r220'>220</a>. </span>A. Kuhn, <i>Herabkunft des Feuers</i> 2nd Ed., -(Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 178 <i>sq.</i>; W. -Mannhardt, <i>Germanische Mythen</i> (Berlin, -1858), pp. 17 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f221'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r221'>221</a>. </span>J. D. H. Temme, <i>Die Volkssagen -der Altmark</i> (Berlin, 1839), p. 85; E. -Sommer, <i>Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche -aus Sachsen und Thüringen</i> (Halle, -1846), p. 149; A. Kuhn, <i>Sagen, -Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen</i>, -ii. p. 154, § 432, p. 155, § 436; A. -Schleicher, <i>Volkstümliches aus Sonnenberg</i> -(Weimar, 1858), p. 139; A. Peter, -<i>Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien</i> -(Troppau, 1865-67), ii. 252; -R. Eisel, <i>Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes</i> -(Gera, 1871), p. 210; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, -<i>Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen</i>, -p. 210; P. Drechsler, <i>Sitte, Brauch -und Volksglaube in Schlesien</i>, i. (Leipsic, -1903) p. 109.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f222'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r222'>222</a>. </span>A. Kuhn, <i>Herabkunft des Feuers</i>, 2nd Ed., -p. 166.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f223'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r223'>223</a>. </span>P. Drechsler, <i>op. cit.</i> i. 109 <i>sq.</i> -Compare A. Peter, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f224'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r224'>224</a>. </span>W. Müller, <i>Beiträge zur Volkskunde -der Deutschen in Mähren</i> (Vienna and -Olmütz, 1893), p. 324.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f225'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r225'>225</a>. </span>Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <i>Fest-Kalender -aus Böhmen</i>, p. 210.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f226'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r226'>226</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, p. -174.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f227'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r227'>227</a>. </span>J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” -<i>Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen -Gesellschaft zu Dorpat</i>, vii. No. 2 -(Dorpat, 1872), pp. 10 <i>sq.</i>; W. Mannhardt, -Baumkultus, pp. 407 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f228'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r228'>228</a>. </span>Potocki, <i>Voyage dans les steps -d’Astrakhan et du Caucase</i> (Paris, -1829), i. 309.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f229'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r229'>229</a>. </span>W. Foy, in <i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>, -x. (1907) p. 551. For -details of the evidence see W. H. -Goldie, M.D., “Maori Medical Lore,” -<i>Transactions and Proceedings of the -New Zealand Institute</i>, xxxvii. (1904) -pp. 93-95.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f230'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r230'>230</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, pp. -163 <i>sqq.</i> To his authorities add for -France, A. Meyrac, <i>Traditions, -coutumes, légendes et contes des -Ardennes</i>, pp. 84 <i>sqq.</i>; L. F. Sauvé, -<i>Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges</i>, pp. 131 -<i>sq.</i>; Bérenger-Féraud, <i>Superstitions -et survivances</i>, v. 309 <i>sq.</i>; Ch. -Beauquier, <i>Les Mois en Franche-Comté</i> -(Paris, 1900), pp. 69-72; F. Chapiseau, -<i>Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du -Perche</i> (Paris, 1902), ii. 109-111; for -Silesia, F. Tetzner, “Die Tschechen -und Mährer in Schlesien,” <i>Globus</i>, lxxviii. -(1900) p. 340; P. Drechsler, <i>Sitte, -Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien</i>, -i. 112 <i>sq.</i>; for Moravia, W. Müller, -<i>Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen -in Mähren</i>, p. 26; for Sardinia, R. -Tennant, <i>Sardinia and its Resources</i> -(Rome and London, 1885), pp. 185 <i>sq.</i> -In Brunswick the custom is observed -at Whitsuntide (R. Andree, <i>Braunschweiger -Volkskunde</i>, p. 248).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f231'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r231'>231</a>. </span><i>Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde -des Königreichs Bayern</i>, i. 373.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f232'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r232'>232</a>. </span>F. S. Krauss, <i>Volksglaube und religiöser -Brauch der Südslaven</i>, p. 35.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f233'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r233'>233</a>. </span>W. Radloff, <i>Proben der Volkslitteratur -der nördlichen Türkischen -Stämme</i>, v. 2 (St. Petersburg, 1885).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f234'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r234'>234</a>. </span>E. T. Dalton, <i>Descriptive Ethnology -of Bengal</i>, p. 194; a similar -custom is practised among the Kurmis, -<i>ibid.</i>, p. 319. Among the Mundas the -custom seems now to have fallen into -disuse (H. H. Risley, <i>Tribes and -Castes of Bengal: Ethnographic Glossary</i>, -ii. 102).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f235'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r235'>235</a>. </span>The explanation has been suggested -by Mr. W. Crooke (<i>Journal of the Anthropological -Institute</i>, xxviii. (1899) -p. 243). There are other facts, however, -which point to a different explanation, -namely, that the practice -is intended to avert possible evil consequences -from bride or bridegroom. -For example, “the superstition regarding -a man’s third marriage, prevalent -in Barār and, I believe in other -parts of India, is not despised by the -Vēlamās. A third marriage is unlucky. -Should a man marry a third wife, it -matters not whether his former wives -be alive or not, evil will befall either -him or that wife. No father would -give his girl to a man whose third wife -she would be. A man therefore, who -has twice entered the married state -and wishes to mate yet once again, -cannot obtain as a third wife any one -who has both the wit and the tongue -to say no; a tree has neither, so to a -tree he is married. I have not been -able to discover why the tree, or rather -shrub, called in Marāthī <i>ru’i</i> and in -Hindūstānī <i>madar</i> (<i>Asclepias gigantea</i>), -is invariably the victim selected in -Barār, nor do I know whether the -shrub is similarly favoured in other -parts of India. The ceremony consists -in the binding of a <i>mangal sūtra</i> round -the selected shrub, by which the bridegroom -sits, while turmeric-dyed rice -(<i>akṣata</i>) is thrown over both him and -the shrub. This is the whole of the -simple ceremony. He has gone through -his unlucky third marriage, and any -lady whom he may favour after this -will be his fourth wife” (Captain -Wolseley Haig, “Notes on the -Vēlamā Caste in Bārār,” <i>Journal of the -Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>, lxx. part iii. -(1901) p. 28). Again, the Vellalas of -Southern India “observe a curious custom -(derived from Brāhmans) with regard -to marriage, which is not unknown in -other communities. A man marrying -a second wife after the death of his -first has to marry a plantain tree, and -cut it down before tying the <i>tāli</i>, and, -in case of a third marriage, a man has -to tie a <i>tāli</i> first to the erukkan (arka: -<i>Calotropis gigantea</i>) plant. The idea -is that second and fourth wives do not -prosper, and the tree and the plant are -accordingly made to take their places.” -(Mr. Hemingway, quoted by E. Thurston, -<i>Castes and Tribes of Southern India</i>, -vii. 387). Tying the <i>tali</i> to the bride is -the common Hindoo symbol of marriage, -like giving the ring with us. As to these -Indian marriages to trees see further my -<i>Totemism and Exogamy</i>, i. 32 <i>sq.</i>, iv. -210 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>Panjab Notes and Queries</i>, -ii. § 252, iii. §§ 12, 90, 562, iv. § 396; -<i>North Indian Notes and Queries</i>, i. § -110; D. C. J. Ibbetson, <i>Settlement -Report of the Karnal District</i>, p. 155; -H. H. Risley, <i>Tribes and Castes of -Bengal</i>, i. 531; Capt. E. C. Luard, -in <i>Census of India, 1901</i>, vol. xix. 76; -W. Crooke, <i>Tribes and Castes of the -North-Western Provinces and Oudh</i>, -ii. 363; <i>id.</i>, <i>Popular Religion and -Folk-lore of Northern India</i> (Westminster, -1896), ii. 115-121. I was -formerly disposed to connect the -custom with totemism, but of this -there seems to be no sufficient evidence.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f236'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r236'>236</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, pp. -51 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f237'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r237'>237</a>. </span>Merolla, “Voyage to Congo,” in -Pinkerton’s <i>Voyages and Travels</i>, xvi. -236 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f238'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r238'>238</a>. </span>C. Bötticher, <i>Der Baumkultus der -Hellenen</i> (Berlin, 1856), pp. 30 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f239'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r239'>239</a>. </span>Quoted by J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, i. 246 (ed. Bohn).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f240'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r240'>240</a>. </span>T. F. Thiselton Dyer, <i>British -Popular Customs</i> (London, 1876), p. -254.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f241'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r241'>241</a>. </span>W. Borlase, <i>The Natural History -of Cornwall</i> (Oxford, 1758), p. 294.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f242'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r242'>242</a>. </span>J. Brand, <i>op. cit.</i> i. 212 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f243'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r243'>243</a>. </span>T. F. Thiselton Dyer, <i>Popular -British Customs</i>, p. 233.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f244'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r244'>244</a>. </span>R. Chambers, <i>Book of Days</i> (London -and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 578; -T. F. Thiselton Dyer, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. -237 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f245'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r245'>245</a>. </span>W. Hone, <i>Every Day Book</i> (London, -<span class='fss'>N.D.</span>), ii. 615 <i>sq.</i>; T. F. Thiselton -Dyer, <i>British Popular Customs</i>, -pp. 251 <i>sq.</i> At Polebrook in Northamptonshire -the verses sung by the -children on their rounds include two -which are almost identical with those -sung at Abingdon in Berkshire. See -Dyer, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 255 <i>sq.</i> The same -verses were formerly sung on May Day -at Hitchin in Hertfordshire (Hone, -<i>Every Day Book</i>, i. 567 <i>sq.</i>; Dyer, -<i>op. cit.</i> pp. 240 <i>sq.</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f246'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r246'>246</a>. </span>Dyer, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 263.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f247'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r247'>247</a>. </span> Percy Manning, in <i>Folk-lore</i>, iv. -(1893) pp. 403 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f248'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r248'>248</a>. </span><i>Id.</i>, in <i>Folk-lore</i>, viii. (1897) p. -308. Customs of the same sort are -reported also from Combe, Headington, -and Islip, all in Oxfordshire (Dyer, -<i>British Popular Customs</i>, pp. 261 <i>sq.</i>). -See below, pp. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f249'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r249'>249</a>. </span>Dyer, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 243.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f250'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r250'>250</a>. </span>W. H. D. Rouse, in <i>Folk-lore</i>, iv. -(1893) p. 53. I have witnessed the -ceremony almost annually for many -years. Many of the hoops have no -doll, and ribbons or rags of coloured -cloth are more conspicuous than -flowers in their decoration.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f251'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r251'>251</a>. </span>J. P. Emslie, in <i>Folk-lore</i>, xi. -(1900) p. 210.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f252'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r252'>252</a>. </span><i>Memoirs of Anna Maria Wilhelmina -Pickering</i>, edited by her son, -Spencer Pickering (London, 1903), -pp. 160 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f253'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r253'>253</a>. </span>Lady Wilde, <i>Ancient Cures, -Charms, and Usages of Ireland</i> (London, -1890), pp. 101 <i>sq.</i> At the ancient -Greek festival of the Daphnephoria or -“Laurel-bearing” a staff of olive-wood, -decked with laurels, purple ribbons, -and many-coloured flowers, was carried -in procession, and attached to it were -two large globes representing the sun -and moon, together with a number of -smaller globes which stood for the -stars. See Proclus, quoted by Photius, -<i>Bibliotheca</i>, p. 321, ed. Bekker.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f254'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r254'>254</a>. </span>E. Cortet, <i>Essai sur les fêtes religieuses</i> -(Paris, 1867) pp. 167 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f255'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r255'>255</a>. </span><i>Revue des traditions populaires</i>, -ii. (1887) p. 200.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f256'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r256'>256</a>. </span>W. Müller, <i>Beiträge zur Volkskunde -der Deutschen in Mähren</i> (Wien -und Olmütz, 1893), pp. 319 <i>sq.</i>, 355-359.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f257'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r257'>257</a>. </span><i>Folk-lore</i>, i. (1890) pp. 518 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f258'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r258'>258</a>. </span> W. R. S. Ralston, <i>Songs of the -Russian People</i> 2nd Ed., (London, 1872), pp. -234 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f259'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r259'>259</a>. </span>A. Kuhn, <i>Märkische Sagen und -Märchen</i> (Berlin, 1843), p. 315.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f260'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r260'>260</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, p. -162.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f261'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r261'>261</a>. </span>L. Lloyd, <i>Peasant Life in Sweden</i>, -p. 235.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f262'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r262'>262</a>. </span>L. Lloyd, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 257 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f263'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r263'>263</a>. </span>H. Pröhle, <i>Harzbilder</i> (Leipsic, -1855), pp. 19 <i>sq.</i> Compare <i>id.</i>, in -<i>Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und -Sittenkunde</i>, i. (1853) pp. 81 <i>sq.</i>; W. -Mannhardt, <i>Germanische Mythen</i>, pp. -512 <i>sqq.</i>; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, -<i>Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche</i> -(Leipsic, 1848), p. 390, § 80.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f264'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r264'>264</a>. </span>Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <i>Fest-Kalendar -aus Böhmen</i> (Prague, <span class='fss'>N.D.</span>), pp. -308 <i>sq.</i> A fuller description of the -ceremony will be given later.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f265'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r265'>265</a>. </span>For the evidence see J. Brand, -<i>Popular Antiquities</i>, i. 234 <i>sqq.</i>; W. -Hone, <i>Every Day Book</i>, i. 547 <i>sqq.</i>, -ii. 574 <i>sqq.</i>; R. Chambers, <i>Book of -Days</i>, i. 574 <i>sqq.</i>; T. F. Thiselton -Dyer, <i>British Popular Customs</i>, pp. 228 -<i>sqq.</i>; W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, -pp. 168 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f266'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r266'>266</a>. </span>Phillip Stubbes, <i>The Anatomie of -Abuses</i>, p. 149 (F. J. Furnivall’s -reprint). In later editions some verbal -changes were made.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f267'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r267'>267</a>. </span>W. Borlase, <i>Natural History of -Cornwall</i> (Oxford, 1758), p. 294.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f268'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r268'>268</a>. </span>W. Hutchinson, <i>View of Northumberland</i> -(Newcastle, 1778), ii. -Appendix, pp. 13 <i>sq.</i>; Dyer, <i>British -Popular Customs</i>, p. 257.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f269'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r269'>269</a>. </span>“Padstow ‘Hobby Hoss,’” <i>Folklore</i>, -xvi. (1905) pp. 59 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f270'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r270'>270</a>. </span>E. Meier, <i>Deutsche Sagen, Sitten -und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</i> (Stuttgart, -1852), p. 396.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f271'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r271'>271</a>. </span>E. Mogk, in R. Wuttke’s <i>Sächsische -Volkskunde</i> 2nd Ed., (Dresden, 1901), pp. -309 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f272'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r272'>272</a>. </span>M. Rentsch, in R. Wuttke’s <i>op. -cit.</i> p. 359.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f273'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r273'>273</a>. </span>A. De Nore, <i>Coutumes, mythes et -traditions des provinces de France</i> -(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 137.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f274'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r274'>274</a>. </span>Bérenger-Féraud, <i>Superstitions et -survivances</i> (Paris, 1896), v. 308 <i>sq.</i> -Compare <i>id.</i>, <i>Reminiscences populaires -de la Provence</i>, pp. 21 <i>sq.</i>, 26, 27.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f275'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r275'>275</a>. </span>J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, -<i>Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan -States</i>, part i. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1900) -p. 529.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f276'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r276'>276</a>. </span>W. Hone, <i>Every Day Book</i>, i. 547 -<i>sqq.</i>; R. Chambers, <i>Book of Days</i>, i. 571.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f277'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r277'>277</a>. </span><i>Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde -des Königreichs Bayern</i>, i. 372.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f278'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r278'>278</a>. </span>W. Hone, <i>Every Day Book</i>, ii. 597 -<i>sq.</i> Mr. G. W. Prothero tells me -that about the year 1875 he saw a -permanent May-pole decked with -flowers on May Day on the road -between Cambridge and St. Neot’s, -not far from the turning to Caxton.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f279'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r279'>279</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f280'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r280'>280</a>. </span>Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <i>Fest-Kalendar -aus Böhmen</i>, p. 217; W. Mannhardt, -<i>Baumkultus</i>, p. 566.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f281'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r281'>281</a>. </span>A. Birlinger, <i>Volksthümliches aus -Schwaben</i> (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), -ii. 74 <i>sq.</i>; W. Mannhardt, -<i>Baumkultus</i>, p. 566.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f282'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r282'>282</a>. </span>Aristophanes, <i>Plutus</i>, 1054; W. -Mannhardt, <i>Antike Wald- und Feldkulte</i>, -pp. 222 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f283'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r283'>283</a>. </span>Boecler-Kreutzwald, <i>Der Ehsten -abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und -Gewohnheiten</i>, pp. 112-114. Some -traits in this story seem to suggest that -the return of the trooper to his old -home was, like that of the war-broken -veteran in Campbell’s poem, only a -soldier’s dream.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f284'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r284'>284</a>. </span>Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <i>Fest-Kalendar -aus Böhmen</i>, pp. 86 <i>sqq.</i>; W. Mannhardt, -<i>Baumkultus</i>, p. 156.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f285'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r285'>285</a>. </span>R. Chambers, <i>Book of Days</i>, i. 573. -Compare the Cambridge custom, described -above, p. <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f286'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r286'>286</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, p. -312.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f287'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r287'>287</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, p. -313.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f288'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r288'>288</a>. </span><i>Ibid.</i> p. 314.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f289'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r289'>289</a>. </span><i>Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde -des Königreichs Bayern</i>, iii. 357; W. -Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, pp. 312 <i>sq.</i> -The word <i>Walber</i> probably comes from -Walburgis, which is doubtless only -another form of the better known Walpurgis. -The second of May is called -Walburgis Day, at least in this part of -Bavaria.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f290'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r290'>290</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, pp. -313 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f291'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r291'>291</a>. </span>H. von Wlislocki, <i>Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Zigeuner</i> (Münster -i. W., 1891), pp. 148 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f292'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r292'>292</a>. </span>E. T. Dalton, <i>Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal</i>, p. 261.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f293'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r293'>293</a>. </span>B. A. Gupte, “Harvest Festivals in honour of Gauri and Ganesh,” <i>Indian -Antiquary</i>, xxxv. (1906) p. 61.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f294'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r294'>294</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, pp. -315 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f295'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r295'>295</a>. </span>W. R. S. Ralston, <i>Russian Folk-tales</i>, -p. 345. As to Green George -see above, pp. <a href='#Page_75'>75</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f296'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r296'>296</a>. </span>W. R. S. Ralston, <i>Songs of the -Russian People</i>, p. 234.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f297'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r297'>297</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, p. -318; J. Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, 4th ed., -ii. 657.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f298'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r298'>298</a>. </span>A. de Nore, <i>Coutumes, mythes et -traditions des provinces de France</i>, -pp. 17 <i>sq.</i>; Bérenger-Féraud, <i>Réminiscences -populaires de la Provence</i>, pp. 1 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f299'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r299'>299</a>. </span>A. Meyrac, <i>Traditions, coutumes, -légendes et contes des Ardennes</i> (Charleville, -1890), pp. 79-82. The girl was -called the Trimouzette. A custom of -the same general character was practised -down to recent times in the Jura -(Bérenger-Féraud, <i>Réminiscences populaires -de la Provence</i>, p. 18).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f300'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r300'>300</a>. </span>F. A. Reimann, <i>Deutsche Volksfeste -im neunzehnten Jahrhundert</i> (Weimar, -1839), pp. 159 <i>sq.</i>; W. Mannhardt, -<i>Baumkultus</i>, p. 320; A. Witzschel, -<i>Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen</i>, -p. 211.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f301'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r301'>301</a>. </span>W. Kolbe, <i>Hessische Volks-Sitten -und Gebräuche im Lichte der heidnischen -Vorzeit</i> (Marburg, 1888), p. 70.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f302'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r302'>302</a>. </span><i>Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde -des Königreichs Bayern</i>, iv. 2, pp. 359 -<i>sq.</i> Similarly in the Département de -l’Ain (France) on the first of May eight -or ten boys unite, clothe one of their -number in leaves, and go from house -to house begging (W. Mannhardt, -<i>Baumkultus</i>, p. 318).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f303'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r303'>303</a>. </span>E. Hoffmann-Krayer, “Fruchtbarkeitsriten -im schweizerischen Volksbrauch,” -<i>Schweizerisches Archiv für -Volkskunde</i>, xi. (1907) p. 252.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f304'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r304'>304</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, p. -322; W. Hone, <i>Every-Day Book</i>, i. -583 <i>sqq.</i>; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, -<i>British Popular Customs</i>, pp. 230 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f305'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r305'>305</a>. </span>W. H. D. Rouse, “May-Day in -Cheltenham,” <i>Folk-lore</i>, iv. (1893) -pp. 50-53. On May Day 1891 I saw -a Jack-in-the-Green in the streets of -Cambridge.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f306'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r306'>306</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, p. -323.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f307'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r307'>307</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, p. -323; H. Herzog, <i>Schweizerische Volksfeste, -Sitten und Gebräuche</i> (Aarau, -1884), pp. 248 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f308'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r308'>308</a>. </span>A. Birlinger, <i>Volksthümliches aus -Schwaben</i>, ii. 114 <i>sq.</i>; W. Mannhardt, -<i>Baumkultus</i>, p. 325.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f309'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r309'>309</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, pp. -314 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f310'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r310'>310</a>. </span>A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, <i>Norddeutsche -Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche</i>, -p. 380.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f311'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r311'>311</a>. </span>F. Tetzner, “Die Tschechen und -Mährer in Schlesien,” <i>Globus</i>, lxviii -(1900) p. 340.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f312'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r312'>312</a>. </span>A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, <i>op. cit.</i> -pp. 383 <i>sq.</i>; W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, -p. 342.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f313'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r313'>313</a>. </span>R. Andree, <i>Braunschweiger Volkskunde</i> -(Brunswick, 1896), pp. 249 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f314'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r314'>314</a>. </span>K. Seifart, <i>Sagen, Märchen, -Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt -und Stift Hildesheim</i>, Zweite Auflage -(Hildesheim, 1889), pp. 180 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f315'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r315'>315</a>. </span>Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <i>Fest-Kalendar -aus Böhmen</i>, pp. 260 <i>sq.</i>; W. -Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, pp. 342 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f316'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r316'>316</a>. </span>F. A. Reimann, <i>Deutsche Volksfeste -im neunzehnten Jahrhundert</i>, pp. -157-159; W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, -pp. 347 <i>sq.</i>; A. Witzschel, <i>Sagen, Sitten -und Gebräuche aus Thüringen</i> (Vienna, -1878), p. 203.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f317'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r317'>317</a>. </span>Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <i>Fest-Kalendar -aus Böhmen</i>, pp. 253 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f318'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r318'>318</a>. </span>Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <i>Fest-Kalendar -aus Böhmen</i>, p. 262; W. Mannhardt, -<i>Baumkultus</i>, pp. 353 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f319'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r319'>319</a>. </span><i>Baumkultus</i>, p. 355.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f320'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r320'>320</a>. </span>Above, vol. i. pp. 292, 293.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f321'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r321'>321</a>. </span>Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <i>Fest-Kalendar -aus Böhmen</i>, p. 93; W. Mannhardt, -<i>Baumkultus</i>, p. 344.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f322'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r322'>322</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, pp. -343 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f323'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r323'>323</a>. </span>T. F. Thiselton Dyer, <i>British -Popular Customs</i>, pp. 270 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f324'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r324'>324</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, pp. -344 <i>sqq.</i>; E. Cortet, <i>Fêtes religieuses</i>, pp. -160 <i>sqq.</i>; D. Monnier, <i>Traditions populaires -comparées</i>, pp. 282 <i>sqq.</i>; Bérenger-Féraud, -<i>Réminiscences populaires de la -Provence</i>, pp. 17 <i>sq.</i>; Ch. Beauquier, -<i>Les Mois en Franche-Comté</i> (Paris, -1900), pp. 65-69. In Franche-Comté -she seems to be generally known as -<i>l’épousée</i>, “the spouse.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f325'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r325'>325</a>. </span>From information given me by -Mabel Bailey, in the service of Miss A. -Wyse of Halford. My informant’s -father is a native of Stourton, and she -herself has spent much of her life there. -I conjecture that the conical flower-bedecked -structure may once have been -borne by a mummer concealed within -it. Compare the customs described -above, pp. <a href='#Page_82'>82</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f326'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r326'>326</a>. </span>Above, pp. <a href='#Page_24'>24</a> <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f327'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r327'>327</a>. </span>From information given me by -Miss A. Wyse of Halford.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f328'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r328'>328</a>. </span>Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <i>Fest-Kalendar -aus Böhmen</i>, pp. 265 <i>sq.</i>; W. -Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, p. 422.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f329'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r329'>329</a>. </span>P. Drechsler, <i>Sitte, Brauch und -Volksglaube in Schlesien</i>, i. (Leipsic, -1903) pp. 125-129.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f330'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r330'>330</a>. </span>D. Monnier, <i>Traditions populaires -comparées</i> (Paris, 1854), p. 304; E. -Cortet, <i>Fêtes religieuses</i>, p. 161; W. -Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, p. 423.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f331'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r331'>331</a>. </span>J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, i. -233 <i>sq.</i>; W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, -p. 424. We have seen (p. <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>) that -a custom of the same sort used to be -observed at Bampton-in-the-Bush in -Oxfordshire.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f332'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r332'>332</a>. </span>E. Hoffmann-Krayer, “Fruchtbarkeitsriten -im schweizerischen Volksbrauch,” -<i>Schweizerisches Archiv für -Volkskunde</i>, xi. (1907) pp. 257 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f333'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r333'>333</a>. </span>E. Sommer, <i>Sagen, Märchen und -Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen</i> -(Halle, 1843), pp. 151 <i>sq.</i>; W. -Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 431 <i>sq.</i> -The custom is now obsolete (E. Mogk, -in R. Wuttke’s <i>Sächsische Volkskunde</i>, 2nd Ed., -Dresden, 1901, p. 309).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f334'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r334'>334</a>. </span>H. F. Feilberg, in <i>Folk-lore</i>, vi. -(1895) pp. 194 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f335'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r335'>335</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f336'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r336'>336</a>. </span>L. Lloyd, <i>Peasant Life in Sweden</i>, -p. 257.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f337'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r337'>337</a>. </span>Mr. W. C. Crofts, in a letter to me -dated February 3, 1901, 9 Northwich -Terrace, Cheltenham.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f338'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r338'>338</a>. </span>For details see <i>Adonis, Attis, -Osiris</i>, Second Edition, pp. 202 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f339'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r339'>339</a>. </span>This custom was told to W. Mannhardt -by a French prisoner in the war -of 1870-71 (<i>Baumkultus</i>, p. 434).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f340'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r340'>340</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, pp. -434 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f341'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r341'>341</a>. </span><i>Ibid.</i> p. 435.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f342'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r342'>342</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_76'>76</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f343'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r343'>343</a>. </span>M. Martin, <i>Description of the -Western Islands of Scotland</i> (London, -1673 [1703]), p. 119; <i>id.</i> in Pinkerton’s -<i>Voyages and Travels</i>, iii. 613; -W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, p. 436. -According to Martin, the ceremony -took place on Candlemas Day, the -second of February. But this seems -to be a mistake. See J. G. Campbell, -<i>Witchcraft and Second Sight -in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland</i>, -pp. 247 <i>sq.</i> The Rev. James -Macdonald, of Reay in Caithness, was -assured by old people that the sheaf -used in making Briid’s bed was the -last sheaf cut at harvest (J. Macdonald, -<i>Religion and Myth</i>, p. 141). Later on -we shall see that the last sheaf is often -regarded as embodying the spirit of the -corn, and special care is therefore taken -of it.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f344'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r344'>344</a>. </span>John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, <i>Scotland -and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth -Century</i>, edited by Alex. Allardyce -(Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 447. At Ballinasloe -in County Galway it is customary -to fasten a cross of twisted corn in the -roof of the cottages on Candlemas Day. -The cross is fastened by means of a knife -stuck through a potato, and remains in -its place for months, if not for a year. -This custom (of which I was informed -by Miss Nina Hill in a letter dated -May 5, 1898) may be connected with -the Highland one described in the -text.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f345'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r345'>345</a>. </span>J. Train, <i>Historical and Statistical -Account of the Isle of Man</i> (Douglas, -Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 116.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f346'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r346'>346</a>. </span>See below, pp. <a href='#Page_240'>240</a> <i>sqq.</i> Brigit is -the true original form of the name, which -has been corrupted into Breed, Bride, -and Bridget. See Douglas Hyde, <i>A -Literary History of Ireland</i> (London, -1899), p. 53, note 2.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f347'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r347'>347</a>. </span>A. Kuhn, <i>Märkische Sagen und -Märchen</i>, pp. 318 <i>sqq.</i>; W. Mannhardt, -<i>Baumkultus</i>, p. 437.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f348'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r348'>348</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, p. -438.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f349'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r349'>349</a>. </span>R. Andree, <i>Braunschweiger Volkskunde</i> -(Brunswick, 1896), p. 248.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f350'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r350'>350</a>. </span>D. Monnier, <i>Traditions populaires -comparées</i>, pp. 283 <i>sq.</i>; E. Cortet, <i>Fêtes -religieuses</i>, pp. 162 <i>sq.</i>; W. Mannhardt, -<i>Baumkultus</i>, pp. 439 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f351'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r351'>351</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, and below, p. <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f352'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r352'>352</a>. </span>Brasseur de Bourbourg, <i>Histoire -des nations civilisées du Mexique et de -l’Amérique Centrale</i> (Paris, 1857-1859), -ii. 565; H. H. Bancroft, <i>Native Races -of the Pacific States</i>, ii. 719 <i>sq.</i>, iii. -507; O. Stoll, <i>Die Ethnologie der -Indianerstämme von Guatemala</i> (Leyden, -1889), p. 47.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f353'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r353'>353</a>. </span>P. J. de Arriaga, <i>Extirpacion de -la idolatria del Piru</i> (Lima, 1621), pp. -36 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f354'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r354'>354</a>. </span>G. A. Wilken, “Het animisme bij -de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” -<i>De Indische Gids</i>, June 1884, p. 958.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f355'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r355'>355</a>. </span>J. G. F. Riedel, <i>De sluik-en -kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en -Papua</i>, pp. 337, 372-375, 410 <i>sq.</i>; -G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoëvell, in -<i>Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en -Volkenkunde</i>, xxxiii. (1890) pp. 204 -<i>sq.</i>, 206 <i>sq.</i>; <i>id.</i>, in <i>Internationales -Archiv für Ethnographie</i>, viii. (1895) -p. 134; J. A. Jacobsen, <i>Reisen in die -Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres</i> (Berlin, -1896), pp. 123, 125; J. H. de Vries, -“Reis door eenige eilandgroepen der -Residentie Amboina,” <i>Tijdschrift van -het konink</i>. <i>Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig -Genootschap</i>, Tweede Serie, xvii. -(1900) pp. 594, 612, 615 <i>sq.</i> The -name of the festival is variously given -as <i>porĕke</i>, <i>porĕka</i>, <i>porka</i>, and <i>purka</i>. -In the island of Timor the marriage of -the Sun-god with Mother Earth is -deemed the source of all fertility and -growth. See J. S. G. Gramberg, -“Eene maand in de Binnenlanden van -Timor,” <i>Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch -Genootschap van Kunsten en -Wetenschappen</i>, xxxvi. 206 <i>sq.</i>; H. -Sondervan, “Timor en de Timoreezen,” -<i>Tijdschriftvan het Nederlandsch -Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</i>, Tweede -Serie, dl. v. (1888), Afdeeling meer -uitgebreide artikelen, p. 397.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f356'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r356'>356</a>. </span>T. C. Hodson, “The Native -Tribes of Manipur,” <i>Journal of the -Anthropological Institute</i>, xxxi. (1901) -p. 307.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f357'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r357'>357</a>. </span>Maimonides, translated by D. -Chwolsohn, <i>Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus</i>, -ii. 475. It is not quite clear -whether the direction, which Maimonides -here attributes to the heathen of -Harran, is taken by him from the -beginning of <i>The Agriculture of the -Nabataeans</i>, which he had referred to -a few lines before. The first part of -that work appears to be lost, though -other parts of it exist in manuscript at -Paris, Oxford, and elsewhere. See D. -Chwolsohn, <i>op. cit.</i> i. 697 <i>sqq.</i> The -book is an early Mohammedan forgery; -but the superstitions it describes -may very well be genuine. See A. -von Gutschmid, <i>Kleine Schriften</i>, ii. -568-713.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f358'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r358'>358</a>. </span>G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoëvell, -<i>Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de Oeliasers</i> -(Dordrecht, 1875), pp. 62 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f359'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r359'>359</a>. </span>J. Kreemer, “Tiang-dèrès” <i>Mededeelingen -van wege het Nederlandsche -Zendelinggenootschap</i>, xxvi. (1882), pp. -128-132. This and the preceding -custom have been already quoted by -G. A. Wilken (“Het animisme bij de -volken van den Indischen Archipel,” -<i>De Indische Gids</i>, June 1884, pp. 962 -<i>sq.</i>; and <i>Handleiding voor de vorgelijkende -Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</i> -(Leyden, 1893), p. 550).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f360'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r360'>360</a>. </span>Above, p. <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f361'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r361'>361</a>. </span>W. Svoboda, “Die Bewohner des -Nikobaren-Archipels,” <i>Internationales -Archiv für Ethnographie</i>, v. (1892) pp. -193 <i>sq.</i> For other examples of a fruitful -woman making trees fruitful, see -above, vol. i. pp. 140 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f362'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r362'>362</a>. </span>J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the -Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” -<i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, -xxxii. (1902) pp. 32-35, 38, 80. The -Peruvian custom described above (vol. i. -p. 266) may in like manner have been -intended to promote the growth of -beans through the fertilising influence -of the parents of twins. On the contrary -among the Bassari of Togo, in -Western Africa, women who have given -birth to twins may not go near the farm -at the seasons of sowing and reaping, -lest they should destroy the crop. -Only after the birth of another child -does custom allow them to share again -the labour of the fields. See H. -Klose, <i>Togo unter deutscher Flagge</i> -(Berlin, 1899), p. 510.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f363'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r363'>363</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, pp. -480 <i>sq.</i>; <i>id.</i>, <i>Mythologische Forschungen</i> -(Strasburg, 1884), p. 341.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f364'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r364'>364</a>. </span>J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, i. 181.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f365'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r365'>365</a>. </span>My informant is Prof. W. Ridgeway. -The place was a field at the head of the -Dargle vale, near Enniskerry.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f366'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r366'>366</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f367'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r367'>367</a>. </span>G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoëvell, -in <i>Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie</i>, -viii. (1895) p. 134 note. The -custom seems to go by the name of -<i>dauwtroppen</i> or “dew-treading.” As -districts or places in which the practice -is still kept up the writer names South -Holland, Dordrecht, and Rotterdam.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f368'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r368'>368</a>. </span>L. Strackerjan, <i>Aberglaube und -Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</i> -(Oldenburg, 1867), ii. p. 78, § 361; -W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, p. 481; -<i>id.</i>, <i>Mythologische Forschungen</i>, p. 340. -Compare Th. Siebs, “Das Saterland,” -<i>Zeitschrift für Volkskunde</i>, iii. (1893) -p. 277.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f369'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r369'>369</a>. </span>A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander -aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk -leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” -<i>Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche -Zendelinggenootschap</i>, xxxix. -(1895) p. 138, <i>ibid.</i> xl. (1896) pp. 16 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f370'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r370'>370</a>. </span>G. F. Oviedo y Valdes, <i>Histoire -du Nicaragua</i> (published in Ternaux-Compans’ -<i>Voyages, relations et -mémoires originaux</i>, etc.), Paris, 1840, -pp. 228 <i>sq.</i>; A. de Herrera, <i>General -History of the Vast Continent and -Islands called America</i> (Stevens’s translation, -London, 1725-26), iii. 298.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f371'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r371'>371</a>. </span>C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und -religiösen Anschauungen der Kekchi-Indianer,” -<i>Internationales Archiv für -Ethnographie</i>, viii. (1895) p. 203. -Abstinence from women for several -days is also practised before the sowing -of beans and of chilis, but only by -Indians who do a large business in -these commodities (<i>ibid.</i> p. 205).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f372'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r372'>372</a>. </span>A. Heinrich, <i>Agrarische Sitten und -Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens</i> -(Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 7.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f373'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r373'>373</a>. </span>R. Temesvary, <i>Volksbräuche und -Aberglauben in der Geburtshilfe und -der Pflege der Neugebornen in Ungarn</i> -(Leipsic, 1900), p. 16.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f374'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r374'>374</a>. </span>Spencer and Gillen, <i>Northern -Tribes of Central Australia</i>, p. 293. -See above, vol. i. p. 88.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f375'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r375'>375</a>. </span>R. H. Codrington, <i>The Melanesians</i>, -p. 134.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f376'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r376'>376</a>. </span>J. Chalmers, <i>Pioneering in New -Guinea</i> (London, 1887), p. 181. The -word which I have taken to mean -“holy or taboo” is <i>helaga</i>. Mr. -Chalmers does not translate or explain -it. Dr. C. G. Seligmann says that the -word “conveys something of the idea -of ‘sacred,’ ‘set apart,’ ‘charged with -virtue’” (<i>The Melanesians of British -New Guinea</i>, p. 101, note 2).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f377'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r377'>377</a>. </span>A. C. Haddon, <i>Head-hunters</i> -(London, 1901), pp. 270-272, 275 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f378'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r378'>378</a>. </span>T. C. Hodson, “The Native Tribes -of Manipur,” <i>Journal of the Anthropological -Institute</i>, xxxi. (1901) p. 307.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f379'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r379'>379</a>. </span>T. C. Hodson, “The <i>genna</i> -amongst the Tribes of Assam,” <i>Journal -of the Anthropological Institute</i>, xxxvi. -(1906) p. 94.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f380'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r380'>380</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xii. 54; Solinus, -xxxiii. 6 <i>sq.</i>, p. 166, ed. Th. Mommsen -(first edition).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f381'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r381'>381</a>. </span>Theophrastus, <i>Histor. plant.</i> ix. -4. 5 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f382'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r382'>382</a>. </span>Palladius, <i>De re rustica</i>, i. 6. 14; -<i>Geoponica</i>, ix. 3. 5 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f383'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r383'>383</a>. </span>With what follows compare -<i>Psyche’s Task</i>, chapter iv. pp. 31 -<i>sqq.</i>, where I have adduced the same -evidence to some extent in the same -words.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f384'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r384'>384</a>. </span>F. Mason, “On dwellings, works -of art, laws, etc., of the Karens,” -<i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of -Bengal</i>, xxxvii. (1868) Part ii. pp. -147 <i>sq.</i> Compare A. R. M’Mahon, -<i>The Karens of the Golden Chersonese</i> -(London, 1876), pp. 334 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f385'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r385'>385</a>. </span>J. B. Neumann, “Het Pane- en -Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland -Sumatra,” <i>Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch -Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</i>, -Tweede Serie, dl. iii. Afdeeling, meer -uitgebreide artikelen, No. 3 (1886), -pp. 514 <i>sq.</i>; M. Joustra, “Het leven, -de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,” -<i>Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche -Zendelinggenootschap</i>, xlvi. -(1902) p. 411.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f386'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r386'>386</a>. </span>H. Ling Roth, “Low’s natives of -Borneo,” <i>Journal of the Anthropological -Institute</i>, xxi. (1892) pp. 113 <i>sq.</i>, 133, -xxii. (1893) p. 24; <i>id.</i>, <i>Natives of -Sarawak and British North Borneo</i>, -i. 401. Compare Rev. J. Perham, -“Petara, or Sea Dyak Gods,” <i>Journal of -the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic -Society</i>, No. 8, December 1881, p. 150; -H. Ling Roth, <i>Natives of Sarawak and -British North Borneo</i>, i. 180. According -to Archdeacon Perham, “Every -district traversed by an adulterer is -believed to be accursed of the gods until -the proper sacrifice has been offered.” -In respectable Dyak families, when an -unmarried girl is found with child and -the father is unknown, they sacrifice a -pig and sprinkle the doors with its -blood to wash away the sin (Spenser St. -John, <i>Life in the Forests of the Far -East</i>, 2nd Ed., i. 64). In Ceram a person -convicted of unchastity has to expiate -his guilt by smearing every house in the -village with the blood of a pig and a -fowl. See A. Bastian, <i>Indonesien</i>, i. -(Berlin, 1884) p. 144.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f387'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r387'>387</a>. </span>A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <i>Quer durch -Borneo</i> (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 367.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f388'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r388'>388</a>. </span>A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <i>Quer durch -Borneo</i>, ii. 99; <i>id.</i>, <i>In Centraal Borneo</i> -(Leyden, 1900), ii. 278.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f389'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r389'>389</a>. </span>B. F. Matthes, “Over de <i>âdá’s</i> of -gewoonten der Makassaren en Boegineezen,” -<i>Verslagen en Mededeelingen -der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen</i>, -Afdeeling Letterkunde, Derde -Reeks, II. (Amsterdam, 1885) p. 182. -The similar Roman penalty for parricide -(<i>Digest</i>, xlviii. 9. 9; Valerius -Maximus, i. 1. 13; J. E. B. Mayor’s -note on Juvenal <i>Sat.</i> viii. 214) may -have been adopted for a similar reason. -But in that case the scourging which -preceded the drowning can hardly have -been originally a part of the punishment.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f390'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r390'>390</a>. </span>A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische -aanteekeningen omtrent de -Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” <i>Mededeelingen -van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</i>, -xliv. (1900) p. -235.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f391'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r391'>391</a>. </span>A. C. Kruijt, “Van Posso naar -Mori,” <i>Mededeelingen van wege het -Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</i>, -xliv. (1900) p. 162.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f392'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r392'>392</a>. </span>M. J. van Baarda, “Fabelen, -Verhalen en Overleveringen der -Galelareezen,” <i>Bijdragen tot de Taal- -Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</i>, -xlv. (1895) p. 514. -In the Banggai Archipelago, to the -east of Celebes, earthquakes are explained -as punishments inflicted by -evil spirits for indulgence in illicit love -(F. S. A. de Clercq, <i>Bijdragen tot de -Kennis der Residentie Ternate</i> (Leyden, -1890), p. 132).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f393'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r393'>393</a>. </span>O. Dapper, <i>Description de l’Afrique</i> -(Amsterdam, 1686), p. 326; R. E. -Dennett, <i>At the Back of the Black -Man’s Mind</i> (London, 1906), pp. 53, -67-71.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f394'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r394'>394</a>. </span>R. E. Dennett, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 52.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f395'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r395'>395</a>. </span>A. C. Hollis, <i>The Nandi, their -Language and Folk-lore</i> (Oxford, 1909), -p. 76.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f396'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r396'>396</a>. </span>Rev. E. Casalis, <i>The Basutos</i> -(London, 1861), p. 252.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f397'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r397'>397</a>. </span>Sir Harry Johnston, <i>The Uganda -Protectorate</i> (London, 1902), ii. 718 -<i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f398'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r398'>398</a>. </span>A. C. Kruijt, “Regen lokken en -regen verdrijven bij de Toradja’s van -Midden Celebes,” <i>Tijdschrift voor Indische -Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</i>, -xliv. (1901) p. 4.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f399'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r399'>399</a>. </span>Probably a similar extension of the -superstition to animal life occurs also -among savages, though the authorities -I have consulted do not mention it. A -trace, however, of such an extension -appears in a belief entertained by the -Khasis of Assam, that if a man defies -tribal custom by marrying a woman of -his own clan, the women of the tribe -will die in childbed and the people will -suffer from other calamities. See -Colonel P. R. T. Gurdon, <i>The Khasis</i> -(London, 1907), pp. 94, 123.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f400'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r400'>400</a>. </span>Job xxxi. 11 <i>sq.</i> (Revised Version).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f401'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r401'>401</a>. </span>תבואה. See <i>Hebrew and English -Lexicon</i>, by F. Brown, S. R. Driver, -and Ch. A. Briggs (Oxford, 1906), p. -100.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f402'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r402'>402</a>. </span>Genesis xii. 10-20, xx. 1-18.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f403'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r403'>403</a>. </span>Leviticus xviii. 24 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f404'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r404'>404</a>. </span>Sophocles, <i>Oedipus Tyrannus</i>, 22 <i>sqq.</i>, 95 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f405'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r405'>405</a>. </span>Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, xii. 4 and 8.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f406'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r406'>406</a>. </span>Columella, <i>De re rustica</i>, xii. 2 <i>sq.</i>, -appealing to the authority of M. Ambivius, -Maenas Licinius, and C. Matius. -See on this subject below, p. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f407'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r407'>407</a>. </span>G. Keating, <i>History of Ireland</i>, -translated by J. O’Mahony (New York, -1857), pp. 337 <i>sq.</i>; P. W. Joyce, -<i>Social History of Ancient Ireland</i> -(London, 1903), ii. 512 <i>sq.</i>; J. Rhys, -<i>Celtic Heathendom</i> (London and Edinburgh, -1888), pp. 308 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f408'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r408'>408</a>. </span>Compare <i>Totemism and Exogamy</i>, iv. 153 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f409'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r409'>409</a>. </span>“Next (for hear me out now, -readers) that I may tell ye whither my -younger feet wandered; I betook me -among those lofty fables and romances -which recount in solemn cantos the -deeds of knighthood founded by our -victorious kings, and from hence had -in renown over all Christendom. There -I read it in the oath of every knight -that he should defend to the utmost -expense of his best blood, or of his -life, if it so befell him, the honour and -chastity of virgin or matron; from -whence even then I learned what a -noble virtue chastity sure must be, to -the defence of which so many worthies, -by such a dear adventure of themselves, -had sworn; and if I found in the story -afterward any of them by word or deed -breaking that oath, I judged it the -same fault of the poet as that which is -attributed to Homer, to have written -indecent things of the gods. Only -this my mind gave me, that every free -and gentle spirit, without that oath, -ought to be born a knight, nor needed -to expect the gilt spur or the laying of -a sword upon his shoulder to stir him -up both by his counsel and his arm, to -secure and protect the weakness of any -attempted chastity” (Milton, “Apology -for Smectymnuus,” <i>Complete Collection -of the Historical, Political, and Miscellaneous -Works of John Milton</i> (London, -1738), vol. i. p. 111).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f410'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r410'>410</a>. </span>For examples of chastity observed -at home by the friends of the absent -warriors, see above, vol. i. pp. 128, 131, -133. Examples of chastity observed -by the warriors themselves in the field -will be given in the second part of this -work. Meanwhile see <i>The Golden -Bough</i>, 2nd Ed., i. 328, note 2.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f411'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r411'>411</a>. </span>Speaking of the one God who -reveals himself in many forms and -under many names, Augustine says: -“<i>Ipse in aethere sit Jupiter, ipse in -aëre Juno, ipse in mare Neptunus ... -Liber in vineis, Ceres in frumentis, -Diana in silvis</i>,” etc. (<i>De civitate Dei</i>, -iv. 11).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f412'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r412'>412</a>. </span>Servius on Virgil, <i>Georg.</i> iii. -332: “<i>Nam, ut diximus, et omnis -quercus Jovi est consecrata, et omnis -lucus Dianae.</i>”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f413'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r413'>413</a>. </span>W. H. Roscher, <i>Lexikon der griech. -und röm. Mythologie</i>, i. 1005; H. -Dessau, <i>Inscriptiones Latinae selectae</i>, -Nos. 3266-3268.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f414'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r414'>414</a>. </span>Dittenberger, <i>Sylloge inscriptionum -Graecarum</i>, 2nd Ed., No. 568; Ch. Michel, -<i>Recueil d’inscriptions grecques</i>, No. -686; E. S. Roberts, <i>Introduction to -Greek Epigraphy</i>, ii., No. 139.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f415'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r415'>415</a>. </span>Dittenberger, <i>op. cit.</i> No. 653, -lines 79 <i>sqq.</i>; Ch. Michel, <i>op. cit.</i>, -No. 694. As to the grove see -Pausanias, iv. 33. 4 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f416'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r416'>416</a>. </span>Dittenberger, <i>op. cit.</i>, No. 929, -lines 80 <i>sqq.</i> Compare <i>id.</i> No. 569; -Pausanias, ii. 28. 7.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f417'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r417'>417</a>. </span>H. Dessau, <i>Inscriptiones Latinae -selectae</i>, No. 4911.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f418'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r418'>418</a>. </span>Cato, <i>De agri cultura</i>, 139.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f419'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r419'>419</a>. </span>Varro, <i>De lingua Latina</i>, v. 85, -ed. C. O. Müller; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> -xviii. 6.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f420'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r420'>420</a>. </span>G. Henzen, <i>Acta Fratrum Arvalium</i> -(Berlin, 1874), pp. 136-143; H. -Dessau, <i>Inscriptiones Latinae selectae</i>, -ii., Nos. 5042, 5043, 5045, 5046, -5048.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f421'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r421'>421</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 749-755.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f422'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r422'>422</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xii. 3.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f423'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r423'>423</a>. </span>Seneca, <i>Epist.</i> iv. 12. 3. See -further L. Preller, <i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd Ed., -i. 108 <i>sqq.</i> For evidence of the -poets he refers to Virgil, <i>Georg.</i> iii. -332 <i>sqq.</i>; Tibullus, i. 1. 11; Ovid, -<i>Amores</i>, iii. 1. 1 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f424'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r424'>424</a>. </span>On Diana as a huntress see H. -Dessau, <i>Inscriptiones Latinae selectae</i>, -Nos. 3257-3266. For indications of -her care for domestic cattle see Livy, -i. 45; Plutarch, <i>Quaestiones Romanae</i>, -4; and above, vol. i. p. 7.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f425'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r425'>425</a>. </span>Virgil, <i>Aen.</i>, viii. 600 <i>sq.</i>, with -Servius’s note.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f426'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r426'>426</a>. </span>M. A. Castren, <i>Vorlesungen über -die finnische Mythologie</i> (St. Petersburg, -1853), pp. 92-99.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f427'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r427'>427</a>. </span>P. v. Stenin, “Über den Geisterglauben -in Russland,” <i>Globus</i>, lvii. -(1890), p. 283.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f428'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r428'>428</a>. </span>J. Abercromby, <i>The Pre- and -Proto-historic Finns</i> (London, 1898), -i. 161.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f429'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r429'>429</a>. </span>Mathias Michov, “De Sarmatia -Asiana atque Europea,” in <i>Novus Orbis -regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum</i>, -p. 457.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f430'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r430'>430</a>. </span>C. Snouck Hurgronje, <i>Het Gajōland -en zijne Bewoners</i> (Batavia, 1903), -pp. 351, 359.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f431'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r431'>431</a>. </span>See vol. i. p. 14.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f432'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r432'>432</a>. </span>Arrian, <i>Cynegeticus</i>, 33 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f433'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r433'>433</a>. </span>The Galatians retained their Celtic -speech as late as the fourth century of -our era, for Jerome says that in his day -their language hardly differed from -that of the Treveri, a Celtic tribe on -the Moselle, whose name survives in -<i>Treves</i>. See Jerome, <i>Commentar. in -Epist. ad Galatas</i>, lib. ii. praef. (Migne’s -<i>Patrologia Latina</i>, vol. xxvi. col. -357).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f434'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r434'>434</a>. </span>See below, p. <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f435'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r435'>435</a>. </span>H. Dessau, <i>Inscriptiones Latinae -selectae</i>, No. 4633; Ihm, in Pauly-Wissowa’s -<i>Real-Encyclopädie der classischen -Altertumswissenschaft</i>, ii. 616, -<i>s.v.</i> “Arduinna”; compare <i>id.</i> i. -104, <i>s.v.</i> “Abnoba.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f436'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r436'>436</a>. </span>F. S. Krauss, <i>Volksglaube und -religiöser Brauch der Südslaven</i> -(Münster i. W., 1890), p. 125.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f437'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r437'>437</a>. </span>J. H. Schmitz, <i>Sitten und Bräuche, -Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel -des Eifler Volkes</i> (Treves, 1856-1858), -i. 42 <i>sq.</i>; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, -<i>Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und -Gebräuche</i>, pp. 393 <i>sq.</i>; Ch. Beauquier, -<i>Les Mois en Franche-Comté</i> -(Paris, 1900), p. 90. In Sweden and -parts of Germany cattle are crowned -on the day in spring when they are -first driven out to pasture, which is -sometimes at Whitsuntide (A. Kuhn, -<i>Die Herabkunft des Feuers</i>, 2nd Ed., pp. 163 -<i>sq.</i>; L. Lloyd, <i>Peasant Life in Sweden</i>, -pp. 246 <i>sq.</i>; A. Kuhn, <i>Märkische -Sagen und Märchen</i>, pp. 315 sq., -327 <i>sq.</i>; P. Drechsler, <i>Sitte, Brauch -und Volksglaube in Schlesien</i>, i. 123). -Amongst the Romans cattle were -crowned at the Ambarvalia (Tibullus, -ii. 1. 7 <i>sq.</i>; Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, i. 663); and -asses and mill-stones were crowned at -Vesta’s festival on the ninth of June -(Propertius, v. 1. 21; Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, vi. -311 <i>sq.</i>). The original motive of all -these customs may have been the one -indicated in the text. Perhaps the -same explanation might be found to -apply to certain other cases of wearing -wreaths or crowns.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f438'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r438'>438</a>. </span>Tettau und Temme, <i>Die Volkssagen -Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens</i>, -pp. 263 <i>sq.</i>; A. Kuhn und -W. Schwartz, <i>Norddeutsche Sagen, -Märchen und Gebräuche</i>, p. 392; -Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <i>Das festliche -Jahr</i>, p. 181; <i>id.</i>, <i>Calendrier belge</i>, -i. 423 <i>sq.</i>; A. Birlinger, <i>Volksthümliches -aus Schwaben</i>, i. p. 278, § 437; -R. Eisel, <i>Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes</i>, -p. 210; F. J. Wiedemann, <i>Aus dem -inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten</i>, -p. 363; F. S. Krauss, <i>Volksglaube und -religiöser Brauch der Südslaven</i>, p. 128.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f439'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r439'>439</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>-55.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f440'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r440'>440</a>. </span>In Nepaul a festival known as -Khichâ Pûjâ is held, at which worship -is offered to dogs, and garlands of -flowers are placed round the necks of -every dog in the country (W. Crooke, -<i>Popular Religion and Folk-lore of -Northern India</i>, Westminster, 1896, -ii. 221). But as the custom is apparently -not limited to hunting dogs, the -explanation suggested above would -hardly apply.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f441'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r441'>441</a>. </span>Catullus, xxxiv. 9-20; Cicero, -<i>De natura deorum</i>, ii. 26. 68 <i>sq.</i>; -Varro, <i>De lingua Latina</i>, v. 68 <i>sq.</i> -It deserves to be remembered that -Diana’s day was the thirteenth of -August, which in general would be -the time when the splendid harvest -moon was at the full. Indian women -in Peru used to pray to the moon to -grant them an easy delivery. See P. -J. de Arriaga, <i>Extirpacion de la -idolatria del Piru</i> (Lima, 1621), -p. 32.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f442'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r442'>442</a>. </span>See above, vol. i. p. 12.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f443'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r443'>443</a>. </span>In like manner the Greeks conceived -of the goddess Earth as the -mother not only of corn but of cattle -and of human offspring. See the -Homeric <i>Hymn to Earth</i> (No. 30).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f444'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r444'>444</a>. </span>Strabo, iv. 1. 4 and 5, pp. -179 <i>sq.</i> The image on the Aventine -was copied from that at Marseilles, -which in turn was copied from the one -at Ephesus.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f445'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r445'>445</a>. </span>Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, xii. 8. The -Romans feared that the marriage of -Claudius with his paternal cousin -Agrippina, which they regarded as -incest, might result in some public -calamity (Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, xii. 5).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f446'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r446'>446</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a> <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f447'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r447'>447</a>. </span>See above, vol. i. pp. 20 <i>sq.</i>, 40.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f448'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r448'>448</a>. </span>Herodotus, i. 181 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f449'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r449'>449</a>. </span>M. Jastrow, <i>Religion of Babylonia -and Assyria</i>, pp. 117 <i>sq.</i>; L. W. -King, <i>Babylonian Mythology and -Religion</i>, pp. 18, 21.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f450'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r450'>450</a>. </span>H. Winckler, <i>Die Gesetze Hammurabis</i> 2nd Ed., -(Leipsic, 1903), p. 31 -§ 182. The expression is translated -“votary of Marduk” by Mr C. H. W. -Johns (<i>Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, -Contracts, and Letters</i>, Edinburgh, 1904, -p. 60). “The votary of Marduk is -the god’s wife vowed to perpetual -chastity, and is therefore distinct -from the devotees of Ištar. Like -the ordinary courtesan, these formed a -separate class and enjoyed special -privileges” (S. A. Cook, <i>The Laws of -Moses and the Code of Hammurabi</i>, -London, 1903, p. 148).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f451'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r451'>451</a>. </span>M. Jastrow, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 42 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f452'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r452'>452</a>. </span>C. Johnston in <i>Journal of the -American Oriental Society</i>, xviii. First -Half (1897), pp. 153-155; R. F. -Harper, <i>Assyrian and Babylonian -Literature</i> (New York, 1901), p. 249. -For the equivalence of Iyyar or Airu -with May see <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i>, -<i>s.v.</i> “Months,” iii. coll. 3193 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f453'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r453'>453</a>. </span>Herodotus, i. 182.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f454'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r454'>454</a>. </span>G. Maspero, in <i>Journal des Savants</i>, -année 1899, pp. 401-406; A. -Moret, <i>Du caractère religieux de la -royauté Pharaonique</i> (Paris, 1902), pp. -48-73; A. Wiedemann, <i>Herodots -zweites Buch</i> (Leipsic, 1890), pp. 268 -sq. M. Moret shares the view of -Prof. Maspero that the pictures, or -rather painted reliefs, were copied from -masquerades in which the king and -other men and women figured as gods -and goddesses. As to the Egyptian -doctrine of the spiritual double or external -soul (<i>Ka</i>), see A. Wiedemann, -<i>The Ancient Egyptian Doctrine of the -Immortality of the Soul</i> (London, 1895), -pp. 10 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f455'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r455'>455</a>. </span>A. Erman, <i>Die ägyptische Religion</i> -(Berlin, 1905), pp. 75, 165 <i>sq.</i>; -compare <i>id.</i>, <i>Ägypten und ägyptisches -Leben im Altertum</i>, pp. 400 <i>sq.</i> As -to the ghostly rule of the high priests -of Ammon at Thebes see further G. -Maspero, <i>Histoire ancienne des peuples -de l’Orient classique, les premières -mêlées des peuples</i> (Paris, 1897), pp. -559 <i>sqq.</i>; J. H. Breasted, <i>A History of -the Ancient Egyptians</i> (London, 1908), -pp. 350 <i>sq.</i>, 357 <i>sq.</i>; C. P. Tiele, -<i>Geschichte der Religion im Altertum</i>, -i. (Gotha, 1896), p. 66.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f456'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r456'>456</a>. </span>Strabo, xvii. 1. 46, p. 816.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f457'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r457'>457</a>. </span>Diodorus Siculus, <i>Bibliotheca</i>, i. 47.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f458'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r458'>458</a>. </span>Plutarch, <i>Quaestiones conviviales</i>, -viii. 1. 6 sq.; id., <i>Numa</i>, 4.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f459'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r459'>459</a>. </span>Servius on Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> iv. 143. -Compare Horace, <i>Odes</i>, iii. 62 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f460'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r460'>460</a>. </span>Herodotus, i. 182.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f461'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r461'>461</a>. </span>Pausanias, viii. 13. 1. As to the -meaning of the title Essen see Callimachus, -<i>Hymn to Zeus</i>, 16; Hesychius, -Suidas, and <i>Etymologicum Magnum</i>, -<i>s.v.</i> Ἕσσην. The ancients mistook -the Queen bee for a male, and hence -spoke of King bees. See Aristotle, -<i>Histor. animal.</i> v. 21 <i>sq.</i>, ix. 40, pp. -553, 623 <i>sqq.</i>, ed. Bekker; id., <i>De -animalium generatione</i>, iii. 10, p. 760, -ed. Bekker; Aelian, <i>Nat. animal.</i> i. -10, v. 10 <i>sq.</i>; Virgil, <i>Georg.</i> iv. 21, -68; W. Walter-Tornow, <i>De apium -mellisque apud veteres significatione</i> -(Berlin, 1894), pp. 30 <i>sqq.</i> The -Essenes or King Bees are not to be -confounded with the nominal kings -(<i>Basileis</i>) of Ephesus, who probably -held office for life. See above, vol. i. -p. 47.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f462'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r462'>462</a>. </span>J. T. Wood, <i>Discoveries at Ephesus, -Inscriptions from the Temple of Diana</i>, -pp. 2, 14; <i>Inscriptions from the -Augusteum</i>, p. 4; <i>Inscriptions from -the City and Suburbs</i>, p. 38.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f463'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r463'>463</a>. </span>See B. V. Head, <i>Coins of Ephesus</i> -(London, 1880), and above, vol. i. pp. -37 <i>sq.</i> Modern writers sometimes assert -that the priestesses of the Ephesian -Artemis were called Bees. Certain -other Greek priestesses were undoubtedly -called Bees, and it seems -not improbable that the priestesses of -the Ephesian Artemis bore the same -title and represented the goddess in -her character of a bee. But no ancient -writer, so far as I know, affirms it. See -my note on Pausanias, viii. 13. 1.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f464'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r464'>464</a>. </span>Demosthenes, <i>Contra Neaer.</i> 73-78, -pp. 1369-1371; Aristotle, <i>Constitution -of Athens</i>, iii. 5; Hesychius, -<i>s.vv.</i> Διονύσου γάμος and γεραραί; -<i>Etymologicum Magnum</i>, <i>s.v.</i> γεραῖραι; -Pollux, viii. 108; K. F. Hermann, -<i>Gottesdienstliche Alterthümer</i>, 2nd Ed., § 32. 15, -§ 58. 11 <i>sqq.</i>; Aug. Mommsen, <i>Feste -der Stadt Athen im Altertum</i> (Leipsic, -1898), pp. 391 <i>sqq.</i> From Demosthenes, -<i>l.c.</i>, compared with Thucydides, -ii. 15, it seems certain that the oath -was administered by the Queen at the -time and place mentioned in the text. -Formerly it was assumed that her -marriage to Dionysus was celebrated -at the same place and time; -but the assumption as to the place was disproved -by the discovery of Aristotle’s -<i>Constitution of Athens</i>, and with it the -assumption as to the time falls to the -ground. As the Greek months were commonly -named after the festivals -which were held in them, it is tempting -to conjecture that the sacred marriage -took place in the Marriage Month -(<i>Gamelion</i>), answering to our January. -But more probably that month was -named after the sacred marriage of -Zeus and Hera, which was celebrated -at Athens and elsewhere. See below, -p. <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>. This is the view of W. H. -Roscher (<i>Juno und Hera</i>, p. 73, n. -217) and Aug. Mommsen (<i>Feste der -Stadt Athen</i>, p. 383). From the name -Cattle-stall, applied to the scene of the -marriage, Miss J. E. Harrison ingeniously -conjectured that in the rite -Dionysus may have been represented -as a bull (<i>Prolegomena to the Study of -Greek Religion</i>, p. 537). The conjecture -was anticipated by Prof. U. -von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, <i>Aristoteles -und Athen</i> (Berlin, 1893), ii. -42. Dionysus was often conceived by -the Greeks in the form of a bull.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f465'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r465'>465</a>. </span>Above, pp. <a href='#Page_92'>92</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f466'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r466'>466</a>. </span>L. Preller, <i>Ausgewählte Aufsätze</i> -(Berlin, 1864), pp. 293-296; compare -his <i>Griechische Mythologie</i>, 4th ed., ed. C. -Robert, i. 681 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f467'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r467'>467</a>. </span>Hyginus, <i>Astronomica</i>, i. 5.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f468'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r468'>468</a>. </span>Tertullian, <i>Ad nationes</i>, ii. 7, -“<i>Cur rapitur sacerdos Cereris si non -tale Ceres passa est?</i>” Asterius Amasenus, -<i>Encomium in sanctos martyres</i>, -in Migne’s <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, xl. col. -324, Οὐκ ἐκεῖ (at Eleusis) τὸ καταβάσιον -τὸ σκοτεινόν, καὶ αἱ σεμναὶ τοῦ ἱεροφάντου -πρὸς τὴν ἱερείαν συντυχίαι, -μόνου πρὸς μόνην; Οὐχ αἱ λαμπάδες -σβέννυνται, καὶ ὁ πολὺς καὶ ἀναρίθμητος -δῆμος τὴν σωτηρίαν αὐτῶν εἶναι νομίζουσι -τὰ ἐν τῷ σκότῳ παρὰ τῶν δύο -πραττόμενα; Psellus, <i>Quaenam sunt -Graecorum opiniones de daemonibus</i>, p. -39. ed. J. F. Boissonade, τὰ δέ γε -μυστήρια τούτων, οἷα αὐτίκα τὰ Ἐλευσίνια, -τὸν μυθικὸν ὑποκρίνεται Δία -μιγνύμενον τῇ Δηοῖ, ἤγουν τῇ Δήμητρι ... - Ὕποκρίνεται δὲ καὶ τὰς τῆς Δηοῦς -ὠδῖνας. Ἱκετηρίαι γοῦν αὐτίκα Δηοῦς -καὶ χολῆς πόσις καὶ καρδιαλγίαι. Ἐφ’ -οἷς καί τι τραγοσκελὲς μίμημα παθαινόμενον -περὶ τοῖς διδύμοις, ὅτιπερ ὁ Ζεύς, -δίκας ἀποτιννὺς τῆς βίας τῇ Δήμητρι, -τράγου ὄρχεις ἀποτεμών, τῷ κόλπῳ -ταύτης κατέθετο ὥσπερ δὴ καὶ ἑαυτοῦ -(compare Arnobius, <i>Adversus nationes</i>, -v. 20-23); Schol. on Plato, <i>Gorgias</i>, -p. 497 c, Ἐτελεῖτο δὲ ταῦτα (the Eleusinian -mysteries) καὶ Δηοῖ καὶ Κορῇ, -ὅτι ταύτην μὲν Πλούτων ἁρπάξειε, Δηοῖ -δὲ μιγείη Ζεύς; Hippolytus, <i>Refutatio -omnium haeresium</i>, v. 8, pp. 162, -164, ed. Duncker and Schneidewin, -Λέγουσι δὲ αύτον (God), φησί, Φρύγες -καὶ χλοερὸν στάχυν τεθερισμένον, καὶ -μετὰ τοὺς Φρύγας Ἀθηναῖοι μυοῦντες -Ἐλευσίνια, καὶ ἐπιδεικνύντες τοῖς ἐποπτεύουσι -τὸ μέγα καὶ θαυμαστὸν καὶ -τελειότατον ἐποπτικὸν ἐκεῖ μυστήριον -ἐν σιωπῇ, τεθερισμένον στάχυν. Ὁ δὲ -στάχυς οὗτός ἐστι καὶ παρὰ Ἀθηναίοις -ὁ παρὰ τοῦ ἀχαρακτηρίστου φωστὴρ -τέλειος μέγας, καθάπερ αὐτὸς ὁ ἱεροφάντης, -οὐκ ἀποκεκομμένος μέν, ὡς ὁ -Ἄττις, εὐνουχισμένος δὲ διὰ κωνείου -καὶ πᾶσαν παρῃτημένος τὴν σαρκικὴν -γένεσιν, νυκτὸς ἐν Ἐλευσῖνι ὑπὸ πολλῷ -πυρὶ τελῶν τὰ μεγάλα καὶ ἄρρητα -μυστήρια βοᾷ καὶ κέκραγε λέγων· ἱερὸν -ἔτεκε πότνια κοῦρον Βριμὼ Βριμόν, -τουτέστιν ἰσχυρὰ ἰσχυρόν. In combining -and interpreting this fragmentary -evidence I have followed Mr. P. -Foucart (<i>Recherches sur l’origine et la -nature des mystères d’Eleusis</i>, Paris, -1895, pp. 48 <i>sq.</i>; <i>id.</i>, <i>Les Grands Mystères -d’Eleusis</i>, Paris, 1900, p. 69), and Miss -J. E. Harrison (<i>Prolegomena to the Study -of Greek Religion</i>, pp. 549 <i>sqq.</i>). In -antiquity it was believed that an -ointment or plaster of hemlock applied -to the genital organs prevented them -from discharging their function. See -Dioscorides, <i>De materia medica</i>, iv. -79; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxv. 154. -Dr. J. B. Bradbury, Downing Professor -of Medicine in the University of -Cambridge, informs me that this belief is -correct. “Although <i>conium</i> [hemlock] -is not used as an anaphrodisiac at the -present day, there can be no doubt -that it has this effect. When rubbed -into the skin it depresses sensory -nerve-endings and is absorbed. After -absorption it depresses all sympathetic -nerve-cells. Both these effects would -tend to diminish organic reflexes such -as aphrodisia” (Dr. W. E. Dixon, -Pharmacological Laboratory, Cambridge). -Pausanias seems to imply -that the hierophant was forbidden to -marry (ii. 14. 1). It may have been -so in his age, the second century of -our era; but an inscription of the first -century <span class='fss'>B.C.</span> shews that at that time it -was lawful for him to take a wife. See -P. Foucart, <i>Les Grands Mystères -d’Eleusis</i>, pp. 26 <i>sqq.</i> (extract from the -<i>Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions -et Belles-Lettres</i>, vol. xxxvii.).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f469'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r469'>469</a>. </span>Pausanias, ix. 3; Plutarch, quoted -by Eusebius, <i>Praepar. Evang.</i> iii. 1 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f470'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r470'>470</a>. </span>Above, p. <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f471'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r471'>471</a>. </span>Above, p. <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f472'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r472'>472</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, p. -177.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f473'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r473'>473</a>. </span>W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, pp. -177 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f474'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r474'>474</a>. </span>J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, i. -318 <i>sq.</i>; W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, -p. 178.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f475'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r475'>475</a>. </span>W. Hone, <i>Every Day Book</i>, ii. -595 <i>sq.</i>; W. Mannhardt, <i>Baumkultus</i>, -p. 178.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f476'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r476'>476</a>. </span>With regard to Zeus as an oak-god -see below, pp. <a href='#Page_358'>358</a> <i>sq.</i> Hera appears -with an oak-tree and her sacred bird the -peacock perched on it in a group which -is preserved in the Palazzo degli Conservatori -at Rome. In the same group -Pallas is represented with her olive-tree -and her owl; so that the conjunction of -the oak with Hera cannot be accidental. -See W. Helbig, <i>Führer durch die öffentlichen -Sammlungen klassischen Altertümer -in Rom</i> 2nd Ed., (Leipsic, 1899), i. 397, -No. 587.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f477'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r477'>477</a>. </span>Pausanias, viii. 42.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f478'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r478'>478</a>. </span>At Cnossus in Crete, Diodorus -Siculus, v. 72; at Samos, Lactantius, -<i>Instit.</i> i. 17 (compare Augustine, -<i>De civitate Dei</i>, vi. 7); at Athens, -Photius, <i>Lexicon</i>, <i>s.v.</i> ἱερὸν γάμον; -<i>Etymologicum Magnum</i>, <i>s.v.</i> ἱερομνήμονες, -p. 468. 52. A fragment of Pherecydes -relating to the marriage of Zeus -and Hera came to light some years ago. -See Grenfell and Hunt, <i>New Classical -and other Greek and Latin Papyri</i> -(Oxford, 1897), p. 23; H. Weil, in -<i>Revue des Études grecques</i>, x. (1897) -pp. 1-9. The subject has been discussed -by W. H. Roscher (<i>Juno und -Hera</i>, Leipsic, 1875, pp. 72 <i>sqq.</i>). -From the wide prevalence of the rite -he infers that the custom of the sacred -marriage was once common to all the -Greek tribes.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f479'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r479'>479</a>. </span><i>Iliad</i>, xiv. 347 <i>sqq.</i> Hera was -worshipped under the title of Flowery -at Argos (Pausanias, ii. 22. 1; compare -<i>Etymol. Magn.</i> <i>s.v.</i> Ἄνθεια, p. 108, -line 48), and women called Flower-bearers -served in her sanctuary (Pollux, -iv. 78). A great festival of gathering -flowers was celebrated by Peloponnesian -women in spring (Hesychius, <i>s.v.</i> -ἠροσάνθεια, compare Photius, <i>Lexicon</i>, -<i>s.v.</i> Ἠροάνθια). The first of May is still -a festival of flowers in Peloponnese. -See <i>Folk-lore</i>, i. (1890) pp. 518 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f480'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r480'>480</a>. </span>J. Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, 4th ed., -i. 176; P. Herrmann, <i>Nordische -Mythologie</i> (Leipsic, 1903), pp. 198 -<i>sqq.</i>, 217, 520, 529; E. H. Meyer, -<i>Mythologie der Germanen</i> (Strasburg, -1903), pp. 366 <i>sq.</i> The procession of -Frey and his wife in the waggon is -doubtless the same with the procession -of Nerthus in a waggon which Tacitus -describes (<i>Germania</i>, 40). Nerthus -seems to be no other than Freya, the -wife of Frey. See the commentators -on Tacitus, <i>l.c.</i>, and especially K. -Müllenhoff, <i>Deutsche Altertumskunde</i>, -iv. (Berlin, 1900) pp. 468 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f481'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r481'>481</a>. </span>Gregory of Tours, <i>De gloria confessorum</i>, -77 (Migne’s <i>Patrologia -Latina</i>, lxxi. col. 884). Compare -Sulpicius Severus, <i>Vita S. Martini</i>, -12: “<i>Quia esset haec Gallorum -rusticis consuetudo, simulacra daemonum -candido tecta velamine misera -per agros suos circumferre dementia</i>.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f482'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r482'>482</a>. </span>“Passio Sancti Symphoriani,” -chs. 2 and 6 (Migne’s <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, -v. 1463, 1466).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f483'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r483'>483</a>. </span>These crazy wretches castrate men -and mutilate women. Hence they are -known as the Skoptsy (“mutilated”). -See N. Tsakni, <i>La Russie sectaire</i>, pp. -74 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f484'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r484'>484</a>. </span>As to this feature in the ritual of -Cybele, see <i>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</i>, -Second Edition, pp. 219 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f485'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r485'>485</a>. </span>Max Buch, <i>Die Wotjäken</i> (Stuttgart, -1882), p. 137.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f486'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r486'>486</a>. </span>E. A. Gait, in <i>Census of India, -1901</i>, vol. vi. part i. p. 190.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f487'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r487'>487</a>. </span>P. J. de Arriaga, <i>Extirpacion de -la idolatria del Piru</i> (Lima, 1621), -p. 20.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f488'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r488'>488</a>. </span>Father Lacombe, in <i>Missions Catholiques</i>, ii. (1869) pp. 359 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f489'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r489'>489</a>. </span><i>Relations des Jésuites, 1636</i>, p. -109, and <i>1639</i>, p. 95 (Canadian reprint); -Charlevoix, <i>Histoire de la Nouvelle -France</i>, v. 225; Chateaubriand, -<i>Voyage en Amérique</i> (Paris, 1870), pp. -140-142.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f490'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r490'>490</a>. </span>Rev. F. Hahn, “Some Notes -on the Religion and Superstitions of -the Orāos,” <i>Journal of the Asiatic -Society of Bengal</i>, lxxii. part iii. (Calcutta, -1904) p. 12. For another -account of the ceremonies held by the -Oraons in spring see above, pp. <a href='#Page_76'>76</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f491'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r491'>491</a>. </span>P. Rascher, “Die Sulka,” <i>Archiv -für Anthropologie</i>, xxix. (1904) p. -217.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f492'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r492'>492</a>. </span>W. Crooke, <i>Popular Religion and -Folk-lore of Northern India</i> (Westminster, -1896), ii. 118.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f493'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r493'>493</a>. </span>W. Crooke, <i>op. cit.</i> ii. 138.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f494'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r494'>494</a>. </span>A. B. Ellis, <i>The Ewe-speaking -Peoples of the Slave Coast</i>, pp. 139-142.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f495'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r495'>495</a>. </span><i>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</i>, Second -Edition, pp. 58 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f496'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r496'>496</a>. </span>Sir Harry Johnston, <i>The Uganda -Protectorate</i> (London, 1902), ii. 677.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f497'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r497'>497</a>. </span>From notes sent to me by Mr. -A. C. Hollis, 21st May 1908.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f498'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r498'>498</a>. </span>J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, -<i>Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the -Shan States</i>, part ii. vol. i. (Rangoon, -1901) p. 439.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f499'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r499'>499</a>. </span>E. W. Lane, <i>Manners and Customs -of the Modern Egyptians</i> (Paisley -and London, 1895), chap. xxvi. p. -500. The authority for the statement -is the Arab historian Makrizi.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f500'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r500'>500</a>. </span><i>The North China Herald</i>, 4th May -1906, p. 235.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f501'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r501'>501</a>. </span>G. A. Wilken, “Het animisme -bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” -<i>De Indische Gids</i>, June 1884, p. -994 (referring to Veth, <i>Het eiland -Timor</i>, p. 21); A. Bastian, <i>Indonesien</i>, -ii. (Berlin, 1885) p. 8.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f502'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r502'>502</a>. </span>A. Bastian, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 11.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f503'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r503'>503</a>. </span>A. Bastian, <i>Indonesien</i>, i. (Berlin, -1884) p. 134.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f504'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r504'>504</a>. </span><i>Voyages d’Ibn Batoutah, texte -arabe, accompagné d’une traduction</i>, -par C. Defrémery et B. R. Sanguinetti -(Paris, 1853-1858), iv. 126-130.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f505'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r505'>505</a>. </span>The Thanda Pulayans, on the west -coast of India, think that the phosphorescence -on the surface of the sea -indicates the presence of the spirits of -their ancestors, who are fishing in the -backwaters. See E. Thurston, <i>Ethnographic -Notes in Southern India</i>, p. -293. Similarly the Sulkas of New -Britain fancy that the mysterious glow -comes from souls bathing in the water. -See P. Rascher, “Die Sulka,” <i>Archiv -für Anthropologie</i>, xxix. (1904) p. 216.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f506'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r506'>506</a>. </span>For a list of these tales, with -references to the authorities, see my -note on Pausanias, ix. 26. 7. To the -examples there referred to add I. V. -Zingerle, <i>Kinder- und Hausmärchen -aus Tirol</i>, Nos. 8, 21, 35, pp. 35 <i>sqq.</i>, -100 <i>sqq.</i>, 178 <i>sqq.</i>; G. F. Abbott, -<i>Macedonian Folk-lore</i>, pp. 270 <i>sqq.</i> -This type of story has been elaborately -investigated by Mr. E. S. Hartland -(<i>The Legend of Perseus</i>, London, 1894-1896), -but he has not discussed the -custom of the sacred marriage, on which -the story seems to be founded.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f507'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r507'>507</a>. </span>Note on Pausanias, ix. 10. 5.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f508'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r508'>508</a>. </span>Spencer and Gillen, <i>Northern -Tribes of Central Australia</i>, pp. 226 -<i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f509'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r509'>509</a>. </span>R. Salvado, <i>Mémoires historiques -sur l’Australie</i> (Paris, 1854), p. 262.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f510'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r510'>510</a>. </span>H. Ternaux-Compans, <i>Essai sur -l’ancien Cundinamarca</i>, pp. 6 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f511'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r511'>511</a>. </span>H. Coudreau, <i>Chez nos Indiens</i> -(Paris, 1895), pp. 303 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f512'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r512'>512</a>. </span>C. Lumholtz, <i>Unknown Mexico</i> -(London, 1903), ii. 57.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f513'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r513'>513</a>. </span>C. Lumholtz, <i>op. cit.</i> i. 402 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f514'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r514'>514</a>. </span>T. I. Fairclough, “Notes on the -Basutos,” <i>Journal of the African -Society</i>, No. 14, January 1905, p. 201.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f515'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r515'>515</a>. </span>To the examples given in my note -on Pausanias viii. 7. 2, add Ph. Paulitschke, -<i>Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas, -die geistige Cultur der Danâkil, Galla -und Somâl</i> (Berlin, 1896), pp. 46, 50; -“De Dajaks op Borneo,” <i>Mededeelingen -van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</i>, -xiii. (1869) p. 72; A. -D’Orbigny, <i>Voyage dans l’Amérique -Méridionale</i>, ii. 93, 160 (see above, -pp. <a href='#Page_16'>16</a> <i>sq.</i>); F. Blumentritt, “Über die -Eingeborenen der Insel Palawan und -der Inselgruppe der Talamianen,” -<i>Globus</i>, lix. (1891) p. 167; W. -Crooke, <i>Popular Religion and Folk-lore -of Northern India</i> (Westminster, -1896), i. 46; Father Guillemé, in -<i>Annales de la Propagation de la Foi</i>, -lx. (1888) p. 252.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f516'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r516'>516</a>. </span>W. F. W. Owen, <i>Narrative of -Voyages to explore the Shores of Africa, -Arabia, and Madagascar</i> (London, -1833), ii. 354 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f517'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r517'>517</a>. </span>H. Goldie, <i>Calabar and its -Mission</i>, New Edition (Edinburgh and -London, 1901), p. 43.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f518'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r518'>518</a>. </span><i>Annales de la Propagation de la -Foi</i>, xxxiii. (1861) p. 152.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f519'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r519'>519</a>. </span>Father Guillemé, in <i>Annales de -la Propagation de la Foi</i>, lx. (1888) -p. 253.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f520'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r520'>520</a>. </span>Brasseur de Bourbourg, <i>Histoire -des nations civilisées du Mexique et de -l’Amérique-Centrale</i>, i. 327 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f521'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r521'>521</a>. </span>E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et -leurs religions,” <i>Revue de l’histoire -des religions</i>, xxiv. (1891) p. 213.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f522'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r522'>522</a>. </span>W. Robertson Smith, <i>Religion of -the Semites</i>, 2nd Ed., pp. 96-104.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f523'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r523'>523</a>. </span>S. I. Curtiss, <i>Primitive Semitic -Religion To-day</i> (Chicago, 1902), p. -117.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f524'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r524'>524</a>. </span>S. I. Curtiss, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 119.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f525'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r525'>525</a>. </span>W. Crooke, <i>Popular Religion and -Folk-lore of Northern India</i> (Westminster, -1896), ii. 50 <i>sq.</i>, 225 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f526'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r526'>526</a>. </span><i>Census of India, 1901</i>, vol. xvii., -<i>Punjab</i>, p. 164.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f527'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r527'>527</a>. </span>W. Crooke, <i>Tribes and Castes of -the North-Western Provinces and Oudh</i>, -iv. 425. As to the sect of the Maharajas, -see above, vol. i. pp. 406 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f528'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r528'>528</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxi. 8.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f529'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r529'>529</a>. </span>S. I. Curtiss, <i>Primitive Semitic -Religion To-day</i>, pp. 116 <i>sq.</i>; Mrs. H. -H. Spoer, “The Powers of Evil in -Jerusalem,” <i>Folk-lore</i>, xviii. (1907) p. -55; A. Jaussen, <i>Coutumes des Arabes -au pays de Moab</i> (Paris, 1908), p. 360.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f530'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r530'>530</a>. </span>J. M. Mackinlay, <i>Folk-lore of -Scottish Lochs and Springs</i> (Glasgow, -1893), p. 112.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f531'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r531'>531</a>. </span>A. C. Haddon and C. R. Browne, -“The Ethnography of the Aran -Islands,” <i>Proceedings of the Royal -Irish Academy</i>, ii. (1893), p. 819.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f532'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r532'>532</a>. </span>R. C. Hope, <i>The Legendary Lore -of the Holy Wells of England</i> (London, -1893), p. 122.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f533'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r533'>533</a>. </span>R. C. Hope, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 107 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f534'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r534'>534</a>. </span>See, for example, Pausanias, ii. 15. -5, v. 7. 2 <i>sq.</i>, vi. 22. 9, vii. 23. 1 <i>sq.</i>, -viii. 43. 1, ix. 1. 1 <i>sq.</i>, ix. 34. 6 -and 9.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f535'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r535'>535</a>. </span>Sophocles, <i>Trachiniae</i>, 6 <i>sqq.</i> -The combat of Hercules with the -bull-shaped river-god in presence of -Dejanira is the subject of a red-figured -vase painting. See Miss J. E. Harrison, -<i>Prolegomena to the Study of Greek -Religion</i> 2nd Ed., (Cambridge, 1908), Fig. 133, -p. 434.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f536'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r536'>536</a>. </span>Aeschines, <i>Epist.</i> x. The letters -of Aeschines are spurious, but there is -no reason to doubt that the custom -here described was actually observed.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f537'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r537'>537</a>. </span>See the evidence collected by Mr. -Floyd G. Ballentine, “Some Phases of -the Cult of the Nymphs,” <i>Harvard -Studies in Classical Philology</i>, xv. -(1904) pp. 97 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f538'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r538'>538</a>. </span>F. Panzer, <i>Beitrag zur deutschen -Mythologie</i>, i. 107-110, ii. 550. At -Ragusa in Sicily an enormous effigy of -a dragon, with movable tail and eyes, -is carried in procession on St. George’s -Day (April 23rd); and along with it -two huge sugar loaves, decorated with -flowers, figure in the procession. At -the end of the festival these loaves are -broken into little bits, and every farmer -puts one of the pieces in his sowed -fields to ensure a good crop. See G. -Pitrè, <i>Feste patronali in Sicilia</i> (Turin -and Palermo, 1900), pp. 323 <i>sq.</i> In -this custom the fertility charm remains, -though the marriage ceremony appears -to be absent. As to the mummers’ -play of St. George, see E. K. Chambers, -<i>The Mediaeval Stage</i> (Oxford, -1903), i. 205 <i>sqq.</i>; A. Beatty, “The -St. George, or Mummers’, Plays,” <i>Transactions -of the Wisconsin Academy -of Sciences, Arts, and Letters</i>, xv. part -ii. (October, 1906) pp. 273-324. A -separate copy of the latter work was -kindly sent to me by the author.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f539'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r539'>539</a>. </span>See F. N. Taillepied, <i>Recueil des -Antiquitez et singularitez de la ville -de Rouen</i> (Rouen, 1587), pp. 93-105; -A. Floquet, <i>Histoire du privilége de -Saint Romain</i> (2 vols. 8vo, Rouen, -1833). Briefer notices of the custom -and legend will be found in A. -Bosquet’s <i>La Normandie romanesque -et merveilleuse</i> (Paris and Rouen, -1845), pp. 405-409; and A. de -Nore’s <i>Coutumes, mythes, et traditions -des provinces de France</i> (Paris -and Lyons, 1846), pp. 245-250. The -gilt <i>fierte</i>, or portable shrine of St. -Romain, is preserved in the Chapter -Library of the Cathedral at Rouen, -where I saw it in May 1902. It is -in the form of a chapel, on the roof of -which the saint stands erect, trampling -on the winged dragon, while the condemned -prisoner kneels in front of -him. This, however, is not the -original shrine, which was so decayed -that in 1776 the Chapter decided to -replace it by another. See Floquet, -<i>op. cit.</i> ii. 338-346. The custom of -carrying the dragons in procession was -stopped in 1753 because of its tendency -to impair the solemnity of -the ceremony (Floquet, <i>op. cit.</i> ii. 301). -Even more famous than the dragon of -Rouen was the dragon of Tarascon, an -effigy of which used to be carried in -procession on Whitsunday. See A. de -Nore, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 47 <i>sqq.</i> As to other -French dragons see P. Sébillot, <i>Le -Folk-lore de France</i>, i. (Paris, 1904) -pp. 468-470.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f540'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r540'>540</a>. </span>See above, vol. i. pp. 17 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f541'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r541'>541</a>. </span>See above, vol. i. p. 12.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f542'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r542'>542</a>. </span>Catullus, xxxiv. 9 <i>sqq</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f543'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r543'>543</a>. </span>Wernicke, in Pauly-Wissowa, -<i>Real-Encyklopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>, -ii. coll. 1343, 1351.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f544'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r544'>544</a>. </span>Plutarch, <i>De fortuna Romanorum</i>, -9. This statement would be -strongly confirmed by etymology if -we could be sure that, as Mr. A. B. -Cook has suggested, the name Egeria -is derived from a root <i>aeg</i> meaning -“oak.” The name is spelt <i>Aegeria</i> -by Valerius Maximus (i. 2. 1). See -A. B. Cook, “Zeus, Jupiter, and the -Oak,” <i>Classical Review</i>, xviii. (1904) -p. 366; <i>id</i>. “The European Sky-God,” -<i>Folk-lore</i>, xvi. (1905) pp. 283 -<i>sq.</i>; and as to the root <i>aeg</i> see O. -Schrader, <i>Reallexikon der indogermanischen -Atertumskunde</i> (Strasburg, -1901), p. 164.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f545'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r545'>545</a>. </span>Festus, <i>s.v.</i> “Querquetulanae,” pp. -260, 261, ed. C. O. Müller.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f546'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r546'>546</a>. </span>See below, p. <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f547'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r547'>547</a>. </span>Servius on Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> iii. 466.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f548'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r548'>548</a>. </span>Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, ii. 54; Pliny, -<i>Nat. Hist.</i> ii. 232; Pausanias, ix. -2. 11, x. 24. 7; Lucian, <i>Bis accusatus</i>, -1.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f549'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r549'>549</a>. </span>See above, vol. i. p. 18.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f550'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r550'>550</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_130'>130</a> <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f551'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r551'>551</a>. </span>The first, I believe, to point out -a parallelism in detail between Rome -and Aricia was Mr. A. B. Cook -(<i>Classical Review</i>, xvii. (1902) pp. -376 <i>sqq.</i>); but from the similarity he -inferred the humanity of the Arician -priests rather than the divinity of the -Roman kings. A fuller consideration -of all the evidence has since led him, -rightly as I conceive, to reverse the -inference. See his articles “Zeus, -Jupiter, and the Oak,” <i>The Classical -Review</i>, xviii. (1904) pp. 360-375; -“The European Sky-God,” <i>Folk-lore</i>, -xvi. (1905) pp. 260-332. In the first -and second editions of this work I had -suggested that the <i>regifugium</i> at Rome -may have been a relic of a rule of -succession to the throne like that which -obtained at Nemi. The following discussion -of the religious position of the -old Latin kings owes much to Mr. -Cook’s sagacity and learning, of which -he freely imparted to me.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f552'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r552'>552</a>. </span>Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Antiquit. -Rom.</i> iii. 61 <i>sq.</i>, iv. 74, v. 35; -B. G. Niebuhr, <i>History of Rome</i>, ii. -36; Th. Mommsen, <i>History of Rome</i>, -New Edition (London, 1894), i. 83; -A. J. H. Greenidge, <i>Roman Public -Life</i> (London, 1901), pp. 44 <i>sq.</i> But -Mommsen, while he held that the -costume of a Roman god and of the -Roman king was the same, denied that -the king personated the god. A truer -historical insight is displayed by K. O. -Müller in his treatment of the subject -(<i>Die Etrusker</i>, Stuttgart, 1877, i. 348 -<i>sq.</i>). For a discussion of the evidence -see Th. Mommsen, <i>Römisches Staatsrecht</i>, 3rd Ed., -i. 372 <i>sq.</i>, ii. 5 <i>sq.</i>; J. Marquardt, -<i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, ii. -566 <i>sq.</i>, iii. 2nd Ed., 507 <i>sq.</i>; <i>id.</i>, <i>Privatleben -der Römer</i>, 2nd Ed., 542 <i>sq.</i>; K. O. Müller, -<i>op. cit.</i> i. 344-350, ii. 198-200; Aust, -<i>s.v.</i> “Juppiter,” in W. H. Roscher’s -<i>Lexikon der griech. u. röm. Mythologie</i>, -ii. coll. 633, 725-728. Among the -chief passages of ancient authors on -the subject are Dionysius Halicarnasensis, -<i>ll.cc.</i>; Strabo, v. 2. 2, p. 220; -Diodorus Siculus, v. 40; Appian, <i>Pun.</i> -66; Zonaras, <i>Annal.</i> vii. 8 and 21; -Livy, i. 8. 1 <i>sq.</i>, v. 23. 4 <i>sq.</i>, v. 41. 2, -x. 7. 9 <i>sq.</i>; Florus, i. 5. 6; Pliny, -<i>Nat. Hist.</i> viii. 195, xv. 127, 130, -137, xxxiii. 11. 111 <i>sq.</i>; Juvenal, x. -36-43; Ovid, <i>Ex Ponto</i>, ii. 57 <i>sq.</i>; -Macrobius, <i>Saturn.</i> i. 6. 7-9; Servius -on Virgil, <i>Ecl.</i> vi. 22, x. 27; Ael. -Lampridius, <i>Alexander Severus</i>, 40. 8; -Jul. Capitolinus, <i>Gordiani tres</i>, 4. 4; -Aulus Gellius, v. 6. 5-7; Tertullian, -<i>De corona militis</i>, 13. The fullest descriptions -of a Roman triumph are -those of Appian and Zonaras (vii. 21).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f553'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r553'>553</a>. </span>Camillus triumphed in a chariot -drawn by white horses like the sacred -white horses of Jupiter and the Sun. -His Republican contemporaries were -offended at what they regarded as a -too close imitation of the gods (Livy, -v. 23. 5 <i>sq.</i>; Plutarch, <i>Camillus</i>, 7; -Dio Cassius, lii. 13); but the Roman -emperors followed his example, or -perhaps revived the old custom of the -kings. See Dio Cassius, xliii. 14; Suetonius, -<i>Nero</i>, 25; Pliny, <i>Panegyric</i>, 22; -Propertius, v. 1. 32; Ovid, <i>Ars amat.</i> -i. 214. On the sanctity of white horses -among various branches of the Aryan -stock, see J. von Negelein, “Die volksthümliche -Bedeutung der weissen -Farbe,” <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, -xxxiii. (1901) pp. 62-66; W. Ridgeway, -<i>The Origin and Influence of -the Thoroughbred Horse</i> (Cambridge, -1905), pp. 105, 186, 187, 294, 295, -419. As to the horses of the Sun, see -above, vol. i. pp. 315 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f554'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r554'>554</a>. </span>Tertullian, <i>De corona militis</i>, 13, -“<i>Coronant et publicos ordines laureis -publicae causae magistratus vero insuper -aureis. Praeferuntur etiam illis -Hetruscae. Hoc vocabulum est coronarum, -quas gemmis et foliis ex auro -quercinis ob Jovem insignes ad deducendas -thensas cum palmatis togis sumunt.</i>” -The <i>thensae</i> were the sacred cars in -which the images of the gods were -carried at the procession of the Circensian -games (see W. Smith’s <i>Dictionary -of Greek and Roman Antiquities</i>, 3rd Ed., <i>s.v.</i>). -That the Etruscan crown described by -Tertullian was the golden crown held -by a slave over the head of a general -on his triumph may be inferred from -Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxiii. 11, “<i>Vulgoque -sic triumphabant, et cum corona -ex auro Etrusca sustineretur a tergo, -anulus tamen in digito ferreus erat -aeque triumphantis et servi fortasse -coronam sustinentis.</i>” Compare Zonaras, -<i>Annal.</i> vii. 21; Juvenal, x. 38 -<i>sqq.</i> Mommsen says that the triumphal -golden crown was made in the -shape of laurel leaves (<i>Römisches -Staatsrecht</i>, i. 3rd Ed., 427); but none of the -ancient authors cited by him appears -to affirm this, with the exception of -Aulus Gellius (v. 6. 5-7, “<i>Triumphales -coronae sunt aureae, quae imperatoribus -ob honorem triumphi mittuntur. Id -vulgo dicitur aurum coronarium. Haec -antiquitus e lauru erant, post fieri ex -aura coeptae</i>”). Gellius may have confused -the wreath of real laurel which -the general wore on his head (Pliny, -<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxiii. 127, 130, 137) with -the golden crown which was held over -him by a slave. The two crowns are -clearly distinguished by Zonaras (<i>l.c.</i>), -though he does not describe the shape -of the golden crown. Thus there is -no good ground for rejecting the express -testimony of Tertullian that the -golden crown was shaped like oak-leaves. -This seems to have been -Mommsen’s own earlier opinion, since -he mentions “a chaplet of oaken leaves -in gold” as part of the insignia of the -Roman kings (<i>Roman History</i>, London, -1894, i. 83).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f555'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r555'>555</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxiii. 111 <i>sq.</i>; -Servius on Virgil, <i>Ecl.</i> vi. 22, x. 27.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f556'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r556'>556</a>. </span>Pausanias, ii. 2. 6, vii. 26. 11, -viii. 39. 6. For other examples of -idols painted red see my note on -Pausanias, ii. 2. 6.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f557'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r557'>557</a>. </span>For instances see Fr. Kunstmann, -“Valentin Ferdinand’s Beschreibung -der Serra Leoa,” <i>Abhandlungen d. -histor. Classe d. kön. Bayer. Akademie -d. Wissenschaften</i>, ix. (Munich, 1866) p. -131; J. B. Labat, <i>Relation historique -de l’Éthiopie Occidentale</i> (Paris, 1732), -i. 250; Gmelin, <i>Reise durch Sibirien</i>, -ii. 476; “Ueber den religiösen Glauben -und die Ceremonien der heidnischen -Samojeden im Kreise Mesen,” -<i>Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde</i>, -N.F. viii. (1860) p. 59; E. Rae, <i>The -White Sea Peninsula</i>, p. 150; J. B. -Müller, “Les Mœurs et usages des -Ostiackes,” <i>Recueil de voiages au Nord</i>, -viii. (Amsterdam, 1727) pp. 414 <i>sq.</i>; -Delamare, in <i>Annales de la Propagation -de la Foi</i>, xii. (1840) p. 482; -Sahagun, <i>Histoire générale des choses -de la Nouvelle-Espagne</i> (Paris, 1880), -p. 185; J. de Velasco, <i>Histoire du -royaume de Quito</i>, p. 121 (Ternaux-Compans, -<i>Voyages, relations et mémoires</i>, -xviii., Paris, 1840); E. J. Payne, -<i>History of the New World called America</i>, -i. 374 n. 1; F. B. Jevons, <i>Introduction -to the History of Religion</i> -(London, 1896), p. 158. Often we -are merely told that the blood is -smeared or sprinkled on the image. -See A. B. Ellis, <i>Ewe-speaking Peoples -of the Slave Coast</i>, pp. 42, 79; <i>id.</i>, -<i>Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave -Coast</i>, pp. 102, 106; A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, -<i>British Nigeria</i> (London, -1902), p. 255; Fr. Kramer, “Der -Götzendienst der Niasser,” <i>Tijdschrift -voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde</i>, -xxxiii. (1890) p. 496. For -more examples see my note on Pausanias, -ii. 2. 6.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f558'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r558'>558</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xii. 3; Phaedrus, -iii. 17. 1 <i>sqq.</i>; Servius on Virgil, -<i>Georg.</i> iii. 332, and on <i>Ecl.</i> i. 17.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f559'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r559'>559</a>. </span>Livy, i. 10. 4 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f560'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r560'>560</a>. </span>Plutarch, <i>Quaest. Rom.</i> 92.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f561'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r561'>561</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Tristia</i>, iii. 31 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f562'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r562'>562</a>. </span>Dio Cassius, liii. 19.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f563'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r563'>563</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, i. 607 <i>sqq.</i>, iv. 953 -<i>sq.</i> Tiberius refused a similar honour -(Suetonius, <i>Tiberius</i>, 26); but Domitian -seems to have accepted it (Martial, -viii. 82. 7). Two statues of Claudius, -one in the Vatican, the other in the -Lateran Museum, represent the emperor -as Jupiter wearing the oak crown -(W. Helbig, <i>Führer durch die öffentlichen -Sammlungen klassischer Altertümer -in Rom</i>, 2nd Ed., i. Nos. 312, 673).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f564'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r564'>564</a>. </span><i>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</i>, -viii. No. 6981.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f565'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r565'>565</a>. </span>J. Overbeck, <i>Griechische Kunstmythologie</i>, -Besonderer Theil, i. 232 <i>sqq.</i>; -L. R. Farnell, <i>The Cults of the Greek -States</i>, i. 107 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f566'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r566'>566</a>. </span>See above, vol. i. p. 310.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f567'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r567'>567</a>. </span>Antoninus Liberalis, <i>Transform.</i> 6. -For this and the two following passages -of Tzetzes I am indebted to Mr. -A. B. Cook. See further his articles, -“Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” <i>Classical -Review</i>, xvii. (1903) p. 409; “The -European Sky-god,” <i>Folk-lore</i>, xv. -(1904) pp. 299 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f568'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r568'>568</a>. </span>H. Ebeling, <i>Lexicon Homericum</i>, -<i>s.vv.</i> βασιλεύς, διοτρεφής, and θεῖος.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f569'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r569'>569</a>. </span>J. Tzetzes, <i>Antehomerica</i>, 102 <i>sq.</i>:</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>οἱ πρὶν γάρ τε Δίας πάντας κάλεον βασιλῆας,</div> - <div class='line'>οὕνεκά μιν καλὸς Διὸς ἀστὴρ σκῆπτρον ὀπάζει.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'><i>id.</i>, <i>Chiliades</i>, i. 474:</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>τοὺς βασιλεῖς δ’ ἀνέκαθε Δίας ἐκάλουν πάντας.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f570'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r570'>570</a>. </span>Polybius, vi. 53 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f571'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r571'>571</a>. </span>As to the situation, see Dionysius -Halicarnasensis, <i>Ant. Rom.</i> i. 66; H. -Nissen, <i>Italische Landeskunde</i>, ii. 582 -<i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f572'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r572'>572</a>. </span>Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> vi. 772. I have to -thank Mr. A. B. Cook for directing -my attention to the Alban kings and -their interesting legends. See his -articles “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” -<i>Classical Review</i>, xviii. (1904) pp. -363 <i>sq.</i>; “The European Sky-god,” -<i>Folk-lore</i>, xvi. (1905) pp. 285 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f573'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r573'>573</a>. </span>Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> vi. 760 <i>sqq.</i>, with -the commentary of Servius; Livy, i. 3. -6 <i>sqq.</i>; Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> xiv. 609 <i>sqq.</i>; -<i>id.</i>, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 39 <i>sqq.</i>; Festus, <i>s.v.</i> -“Silvi,” p. 340, ed. C. O. Müller; -Aurelius Victor, <i>Origo gentis Romanae</i>, -15-17; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, -<i>Antiquit. Rom.</i> i. 70; Diodorus -Siculus, in Eusebius, <i>Chronic.</i> i. coll. -285, 287, ed. A. Schoene; Diodorus -Siculus, vii. 3a and 3b, vol. ii. pp. -110-112, ed. L. Dindorf (Teubner -edition); Joannes Lydus, <i>De magistratibus</i>, -i. 21. As to the derivation -of the name Julus, see Aurelius -Victor, <i>op. cit.</i> 15, “<i>Igitur Latini -Ascanium ob insignem virtutem non -solum Jove ortum crediderunt, sed -etiam per diminutionem, declinato paululum -nomine, primo Jobum, dein -postea Julum appellarant</i>”; also Steuding, -in W. H. Roscher’s <i>Lexikon d. -griech. u. röm. Mythologie</i>, ii. 574. -Compare W. M. Lindsay, <i>The Latin -Language</i> (Oxford, 1894), p. 250. -According to Diodorus, the priesthood -bestowed on Julus was the pontificate; -but the name Julus or Little Jupiter -suggests that the office was rather that -of Flamen Dialis, who was a sort of -living embodiment of Jupiter (see below, -pp. 191 <i>sq.</i>), and whose name of -<i>Dialis</i> is derived from the same root as -Julus. On the Julii and their relation -to Vejovis see R. H. Klausen, <i>Aeneas -und die Penaten</i>, ii. 1059 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f574'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r574'>574</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, and vol. i. p. 44.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f575'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r575'>575</a>. </span><i>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</i>, -xiv. No. 2387; L. Preller, <i>Römische -Mythologie</i>, 3rd Ed., i. 263 <i>sq.</i> On Vejovis -as the Little Jupiter see Festus, <i>s.v.</i> -“Vesculi,” p. 379, “<i>Ve enim syllabam -rei parvae praeponebant, unde -Veiovem parvum Iovem et vegrandem -fabam minutam dicebant</i>”; also Ovid, -<i>Fasti</i>, iii. 429-448. At Rome the -sanctuary of Vejovis was on the saddle -between the two peaks of the Capitoline -hill (Aulus Gellius, v. 12. 1 <i>sq.</i>; -Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iii. 429 <i>sq.</i>); thus he -appropriately dwelt on the same hill -as the Great Jupiter, but lower down -the slope. On coins of the Gargilian, -Ogulnian and Vergilian houses Vejovis -is represented by a youthful beardless -head, crowned with oak. See E. -Babelon, <i>Monnaies de la République -Romaine</i>, i. 532, ii. 266, 529. On -other Republican coins his head is -crowned with laurel. See E. Babelon, -<i>op. cit.</i> i. 77, 505-508, ii. 6, 8. Circensian -games were held at Bovillae -in honour of the Julian family, and -Tiberius dedicated a chapel to them -there. See Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, ii. 41, -xv. 23.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f576'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r576'>576</a>. </span>Festus, <i>s.v.</i> “Caesar,” p. 57, ed. -C. O. Müller. Other but less probable -explanations of the name are -suggested by Aelius Spartianus (<i>Helius</i>, -ii. 3 <i>sq.</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f577'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r577'>577</a>. </span>As to the Frankish kings see -Agathias, <i>Hist.</i> i. 3; J. Grimm, -<i>Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer</i>, pp. 239 -<i>sqq.</i>; <i>The Golden Bough</i>, Second -Edition, i. 368 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f578'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r578'>578</a>. </span>Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Antiquit. -Roman.</i> i. 71; Diodorus Siculus, -in Eusebius, <i>Chronic.</i> bk. i. coll. 287, -289, ed. A. Schoene; Diodorus Siculus, -vii. 3a and 4, ed. L. Dindorf; Zonaras, -<i>Annal.</i> vii. 1; Aurelius Victor, <i>Origo -gentis Romanae</i>, 18; Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> -xiv. 616-618; <i>id.</i>, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 50; Livy, -i. 3. 9. The king is called Romulus -by Livy, Remulus by Ovid, Aremulus -by Aurelius Victor, Amulius by Zonaras, -Amulius or Arramulius by Diodorus, -and Allodius by Dionysius. -A tale of a city submerged in the Alban -lake is still current in the neighbourhood. -See the English translators’ -note to Niebuhr’s <i>History of Rome</i>, 3rd Ed., i. -200. Similar stories are told in many -lands. See my note on Pausanias, -vii. 24. 6.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f579'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r579'>579</a>. </span>See above, vol. i. p. 310.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f580'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r580'>580</a>. </span>See above, vol. i. pp. 342 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f581'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r581'>581</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> ii. 140, xxviii. -13 <i>sq.</i> Other writers speak only of -Numa’s skill in expiating the prodigy -or evil omen of thunderbolts. See -Livy, i. 20. 7; Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iii. 285-348; -Plutarch, <i>Numa</i>, 15; Arnobius, -<i>Adversus nationes</i>, v. 1-4.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f582'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r582'>582</a>. </span>See above, vol. i. pp. 248, 251.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f583'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r583'>583</a>. </span>Apollodorus, i. 9. 7; Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> vi. -592 <i>sqq.</i>; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> ii. 140, xxviii. -14 (referring to the first book of L. -Piso’s <i>Annals</i>); Livy, i. 31. 8; Aurelius -Victor, <i>De viris illustribus</i>, 4; Zonaras, -<i>Annal.</i> vii. 6. According to -another account Tullus Hostilius was -murdered by his successor Ancus Martius -during a violent storm (Dionysius -Halicarnasensis, <i>Antiquit. Rom.</i> iii. -35; Zonaras, <i>l.c.</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f584'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r584'>584</a>. </span>Livy, i. 2. 6; Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> xiv. -598-608; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> iii. 56; -Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Antiquit. -Rom.</i> i. 64; Servius on Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> -i. 259; Aurelius Victor, <i>Origo gentis -Romanae</i>, 14. Only the last writer -mentions the thunderstorm.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f585'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r585'>585</a>. </span>Livy, i. 16; Cicero, <i>De legibus</i>, i. -1. 3; <i>id.</i>, <i>De re publica</i>, i. 16. 25, -ii. 10. 20; Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, ii. 475-512; -Plutarch, <i>Romulus</i>, 27 <i>sq.</i>; Dionysius -Halicarnasensis, <i>Antiquit. Rom.</i> ii. -56 and 63; Zonaras, <i>Annal.</i> vii. 4; -Aurelius Victor, <i>De viris illustribus</i>, 2; -Florus, <i>Epitoma</i>, i. 1. 16-18. From -Cicero (<i>De legibus</i>, i. 1. 3) we learn -that the apparition of Romulus to Proculus -Julius took place near the spot -where the house of Atticus afterwards -stood, and from Cornelius Nepos -(<i>Atticus</i>, 13. 2) we know that Atticus -had an agreeable villa and shady -garden on the Quirinal. As to the -temple of Quirinus see also Varro, -<i>De lingua Latina</i>, v. 51; Festus, pp. -254, 255, ed. C. O. Müller; Pliny, -<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xv. 120. As to the site -of the temple and the question whether -it was identical with the temple dedicated -by L. Papirius Cursor in 293 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span> -(Livy, x. 46. 7; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> -vii. 213) see O. Richter, <i>Topographie -der Stadt Rom</i>, 2nd Ed., pp. 286 <i>sqq.</i>; G. -Wissowa, <i>Gesammelte Abhandlungen</i> -(Munich, 1904), pp. 144 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f586'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r586'>586</a>. </span>See A. B. Cook, “Zeus, Jupiter, -and the Oak,” <i>Classical Review</i>, xviii. -(1904) pp. 368 <i>sq.</i>; <i>id.</i> “The European -Sky-god,” <i>Folk-lore</i>, xvi. (1905) p. -281. But a serious argument against -the proposed derivation of Quirinus -from <i>quercus</i> is that, as I am informed -by my learned philological friend the -Rev. Prof. J. H. Moulton, it is inconsistent -with the much more probable -derivation of Perkunas from <i>quercus</i>. -See below, p. <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>, note 3.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f587'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r587'>587</a>. </span>See above, vol. i. pp. 262 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f588'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r588'>588</a>. </span>J. I. Molina, <i>Geographical, Natural, -and Civil History of Chili</i> (London, -1809), ii. 92 <i>sq.</i> The savage -Conibos of the Ucayali river in eastern -Peru imagine that thunder is the voice -of the dead (W. Smyth and F. Lowe, -<i>Journey from Lima to Para</i>, London, -1836, p. 240); and among them when -parents who have lost a child within -three months hear thunder, they go -and dance on the grave, howling turn -about (De St. Cricq, “Voyage du Pérou -au Brésil,” <i>Bulletin de la Société de -Géographie</i>, ivme série, vi., Paris, 1853, -p. 294). The Yuracares of eastern Peru -threaten the thunder-god with their -arrows and defy him when he thunders -(A. D’Orbigny, <i>L’Homme américain</i>, i. -365), just as the Thracians did of old -(Herodotus, iv. 94). So the Kayans of -Borneo, on hearing a peal of thunder, -have been seen to grasp their swords -for the purpose of keeping off the -demon who causes it (A. W. Nieuwenhuis, -<i>In Centraal Borneo</i>, i. 140 <i>sq.</i>, -146 <i>sq.</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f589'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r589'>589</a>. </span>See above, vol. i. p. 310; and for -the connexion of the rite with Jupiter -Elicius see O. Gilbert, <i>Geschichte und -Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum</i>, -ii. 154 <i>sq.</i>; Aust, in W. H. -Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der griech. und röm. -Mythologie</i>, ii. 657 <i>sq.</i> As to the connexion -of Jupiter with the rain-making -ceremony (<i>aquaelicium</i>), the combined -evidence of Petronius (<i>Sat.</i> 44) and -Tertullian (<i>Apologeticus</i>, 40) seems to -me conclusive.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f590'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r590'>590</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, i. 637 <i>sq.</i>, vi. 183 -<i>sqq.</i>; Livy, vii. 28. 4 <i>sq.</i>; Cicero, <i>De -divinatione</i>, i. 45. 101; Solinus, i. 21. -Although the temple was not dedicated -until 344 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span>, the worship of the -goddess of the hill appears to have been -very ancient. See H. Jordan, <i>Topographie -der Stadt Rom im Altertum</i>, -i. 2, pp. 109 <i>sq.</i>; W. H. Roscher, -<i>Lexikon d. griech. u. röm. Mythologie</i>, -ii. coll. 592 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f591'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r591'>591</a>. </span>Livy, i. 8. 5; Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iii. 430; -Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Antiquit. -Rom.</i> ii. 15.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f592'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r592'>592</a>. </span>Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> viii. 314-318, 347-354.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f593'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r593'>593</a>. </span>Plutarch, <i>Quaest. Rom.</i> 92.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f594'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r594'>594</a>. </span>Livy, i. 10. 5.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f595'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r595'>595</a>. </span><i>Mons Querquetulanus</i>; see Tacitus, -<i>Annals</i>, iv. 65.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f596'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r596'>596</a>. </span>A monument found at Rome represents -Jupiter beside an oak, and -underneath is the dedication: <i>Jovi -Caelio</i>. See H. Dessau, <i>Inscriptiones -Latinae selectae</i>, No. 3080.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f597'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r597'>597</a>. </span><i>Porta Querquetulana</i> or <i>Querquetularia</i>; -see Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xvi. 37; -Festus, pp. 260, 261, ed. C. O. -Müller.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f598'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r598'>598</a>. </span>Festus, <i>ll.cc.</i>; Varro, <i>De lingua -Latina</i>, v. 49.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f599'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r599'>599</a>. </span>E. Babelon, <i>Monnaies de la République -Romaine</i>, i. 99 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f600'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r600'>600</a>. </span>Varro, <i>De lingua Latina</i>, v. 49, -where, however, “<i>alii ab aesculetis</i>” -is a conjecture of C. O. Müller’s. I -do not know what authority O. Richter -has for reading <i>aesculis consitae</i> -(“planted with oaks”) for <i>excultae</i> in -this passage (<i>Topographie der Stadt -Rom</i>, 2nd Ed., p. 302, n. 4). Modern topographers -prefer to derive the name -from <i>ex-colere</i> in the sense of “the hill -outside the city” (O. Richter, <i>l.c.</i>; O. -Gilbert, <i>Geschichte und Topographie der -Stadt Rom im Altertum</i>, i. 166 <i>sq.</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f601'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r601'>601</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f602'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r602'>602</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iii. 295 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f603'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r603'>603</a>. </span>See above, vol. i. p. 18; and for -the identification, O. Gilbert, <i>Geschichte -und Topographie der Stadt Rom im -Altertum</i>, ii. 152 <i>sqq.</i>; A. B. Cook, -“Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” <i>Classical -Review</i>, xviii. (1904) p. 366.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f604'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r604'>604</a>. </span> Cicero, <i>De divinatione</i>, i. 45, 101.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f605'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r605'>605</a>. </span>G. Boni, in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, -May 1900, pp. 161, 172; <i>id.</i>, <i>Aedes -Vestae</i>, p. 14 (extract from the <i>Nuova -Antologia</i>, 1st August 1900). Copies -of these and other papers containing -Commendatore Boni’s account of his -memorable excavations and discoveries -were kindly given me by him during -my stay in Rome in the winter of 1900-1901. -That the fire in question was a -sacrificial one is proved by the bones, -potsherds, and rude copper money -found among the ashes. Commend. -Boni thinks that the charred remains -of the wood prove that the fire was -extinguished, probably by libations, -and that therefore it cannot have been -the perpetual holy fire of Vesta, which -would have burned up completely all -the fuel. But a new fire was annually -lit on the first of March (Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, -iii. 143 <i>sq.</i>; Macrobius, <i>Saturn.</i> i. 12. -6), which may imply that the old fire -was ceremonially extinguished, as often -happens in such cases.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f606'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r606'>606</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xvi. 37.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f607'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r607'>607</a>. </span>O. Richter, <i>Topographie der Stadt -Rom</i>, 2nd Ed., p. 211.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f608'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r608'>608</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xvi. 237. The -inscription was probably not in the -Etruscan language, but only in an -archaic alphabet like that employed in -the inscription on the pyramidal stone -which has been found under the Black -Stone in the Forum.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f609'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r609'>609</a>. </span>G. Boni, “Bimbi Romulei,” <i>Nuova -Antologia</i>, 16th February 1904, pp. 5 -<i>sqq.</i> (separate reprint); E. Burton-Brown, -<i>Recent Excavations in the -Roman Forum</i> (London, 1904), p. 150.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f610'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r610'>610</a>. </span>Festus, <i>s.v.</i> “Oscillantes,” p. 194, -ed. C. O. Müller.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f611'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r611'>611</a>. </span>Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Antiquit. -Rom.</i> iv. 49; A. Schwegler, -<i>Römische Geschichte</i>, i. 341; H. Nissen, -<i>Italische Landeskunde</i>, ii. 580. It is -to be observed that Dionysius does not -here speak of the dedication of a temple -to Jupiter; when he describes the -foundation of the temple of Capitoline -Jupiter by Tarquin (iv. 59 and 61) -his language is quite different. The -monastery, founded in 1777 by Cardinal -York, the last of the Stuarts, has now -been converted into a meteorological -station and an inn (K. Baedeker, <i>Central -Italy and Rome</i>, 13th Ed., p. 400). It is fitting -enough that the atmospheric phenomena -should be observed by modern science -on the spot where they were worshipped -by ancient piety.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f612'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r612'>612</a>. </span>Livy, i. 31. 3.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f613'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r613'>613</a>. </span>According to tradition, the future -site of Alba Longa was marked out by -a white sow and her litter, which were -found lying under evergreen oaks (Virgil, -<i>Aen.</i> viii. 43), as Mr. A. B. Cook -has pointed out (<i>Classical Review</i>, -xviii. 363). The tradition seems to -shew that the neighbourhood of the city -was wooded with oaks.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f614'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r614'>614</a>. </span>See below, p. <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f615'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r615'>615</a>. </span>Querquetulani. See Pliny, <i>Nat. -Hist.</i> iii. 69; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, -<i>Antiquit. Rom.</i> v. 61. As to the -white bulls sacrificed at the great -Latin festival and partaken of by the -members of the League, see Arnobius, -<i>Adversus nationes</i>, ii. 68; Dionysius -Halicarnasensis, <i>Ant. Rom.</i> iv. 49. -Compare Cicero, <i>Pro Plancio</i>, ix. 23; -Varro, <i>De lingua Latina</i>, vi. 25.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f616'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r616'>616</a>. </span>Theophrastus, <i>Histor. plant.</i> v. -8. 3.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f617'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r617'>617</a>. </span>Arnobius, <i>Adversus nationes</i>, ii. -68; Livy, xxii. 10. 7; Ovid, <i>Ex Ponto</i>, -iv. 4. 31; Servius on Virgil, <i>Georg.</i> -ii. 146; Horace, <i>Carmen Saeculare</i>, 49.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f618'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r618'>618</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xvi. 250 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f619'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r619'>619</a>. </span>“Italic and Keltic are so closely -bound together by important phonetic -and morphological affinities that they -are sometimes spoken of as one branch” -of Aryan speech (J. H. Moulton, <i>Two -Lectures on the Science of Language</i>, -Cambridge, 1903, p. 6, note). “The -connection of the Celtic and Italic -languages is structural. It is much -deeper than that of Celts and Teutons, -and goes back to an earlier epoch. -Celts and Latins must have dwelt -together as an undivided people in the -valley of the Danube, and it must have -been at a much later time—after the -Umbrians and Latins had crossed the -Alps—that the contact of Celts and -Teutons came about” (Isaac Taylor, -<i>The Origin of the Aryans</i>, p. 192; -compare <i>id.</i> p. 257). See also P. -Giles, <i>Manual of Comparative Philology</i> 2nd Ed., -(London, 1901), p. 26.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f620'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r620'>620</a>. </span>Livy, xlii. 7. 1, xlv. 15. 10. Compare -Dio Cassius, xxxix. 20. 1. The -temple on the Alban Mount was dedicated -in 168 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span>, but the worship was -doubtless far older.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f621'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r621'>621</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f622'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r622'>622</a>. </span>Strabo, vii. 7. 12, p. 329; Hyperides, -<i>Or.</i> iii. coll. 35-37, pp. 43 <i>sq.</i>, -ed. Blass; G. Curtius, <i>Griech. Etymologie</i>, 5th Ed., -p. 236; W. H. Roscher, -<i>Juno und Hera</i> (Leipsic, 1875), pp. 17 -<i>sq.</i>; <i>id.</i>, <i>Lexikon d. griech. u. röm. -Mythologie</i>, ii. coll. 576, 578 <i>sq.</i> See -below, p. <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f623'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r623'>623</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_140'>140</a> <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f624'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r624'>624</a>. </span>W. H. Roscher, <i>Juno und Hera</i>, -pp. 64 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>id.</i>, <i>Lexikon d. griech. u. -röm. Mythologie</i>, ii. 575 <i>sq.</i>, 591 <i>sqq.</i> -At Falerii the image of Juno was -annually carried in procession from her -sacred grove, and in some respects the -ceremony resembled a marriage procession -(Ovid, <i>Amores</i>, iii. 13; Dionysius -Halicarnasensis, <i>Antiquit. Rom.</i> -i. 21). The name of June was <i>Junius</i> -at Rome, <i>Junonius</i> at Aricia, Laurentum -and Lavinia, and <i>Junonalis</i> at -Tibur and Praeneste (Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, vi. -59-63; Macrobius, <i>Sat.</i> i. 12. 30). -The forms <i>Junonius</i> and <i>Junonalis</i> are -recognised by Festus (p. 103, ed. C. O. -Müller). Their existence among the -Latins seems to render the derivation -of <i>Junius</i> from Juno quite certain, -though that derivation is doubted by -Mr. W. Warde Fowler (<i>Roman Festivals -of the Period of the Republic</i>, pp. 99 -<i>sq.</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f625'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r625'>625</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, vi. 101-168; Macrobius, -<i>Sat.</i> i. 12. 31-33; Tertullian, -<i>Ad nationes</i>, ii. 9; Varro, quoted by -Nonius Marcellus, <i>De compendiosa -doctrina</i>, p. 390, ed. L. Quicherat. -There was a sacred beechen grove of -Diana on a hill called Corne near Tusculum -(Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xvi. 242). But -<i>Corne</i> has probably no connection with -<i>Carna</i>. The grove of Helernus was -crowded with worshippers on the first -of February (Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, ii. 67, where -<i>Helerni</i> is a conjectural emendation -for <i>Averni</i> or <i>Asyli</i>). Nothing else is -known about Helernus, unless with -Merkel (in his edition of Ovid’s <i>Fasti</i>, -pp. cxlviii. <i>sq.</i>) we read <i>Elerno</i> for -<i>Eterno</i> in Festus, p. 93, ed. C. O. -Müller. In that case it would seem -that black oxen were sacrificed to him. -From the association of Carna with -Janus it was inferred by Merkel (<i>l.c.</i>) -that the grove of Helernus stood on or -near the Janiculum, where there was a -grove of oaks (see above, p. 186). But -the language of Ovid (<i>Fasti</i>, ii. 67) -points rather to the mouth of the Tiber.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f626'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r626'>626</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f627'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r627'>627</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, vi. 129-168. A -Roman bride on the way to her husband’s -house was preceded by a boy -bearing a torch of buckthorn (<i>spina -alba</i>, Festus, <i>s.v.</i> “Patrimi,” p. 245, -ed. C. O. Müller; Varro, quoted by -Nonius Marcellus, <i>De compendiosa -doctrina</i>, <i>s.v.</i> “Fax,” p. 116, ed. L. -Quicherat). The intention probably -was to defend her from enchantment -and evil spirits. Branches of buckthorn -were also thought to protect a -house against thunderbolts (Columella, -<i>De re rustica</i>, x. 346 <i>sq.</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f628'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r628'>628</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f629'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r629'>629</a>. </span>Dioscorides, <i>De arte medica</i>, i. -119.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f630'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r630'>630</a>. </span>Scholiast on Nicander, <i>Theriaca</i>, -861.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f631'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r631'>631</a>. </span>Diogenes Laertius, <i>Vitae philosophorum</i>, -iv. 54-57.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f632'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r632'>632</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f633'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r633'>633</a>. </span>Plutarch, <i>Quaest. Rom.</i> 111 εἰκὸς -μὲν οὖν ἐστι καὶ τὸν ἱερέα τοῦ Διὸς ὥσπερ -ἔμψυχον καὶ ἱερὸν ἄγαλμα καταφύξιμον -ἀνεῖσθαι τοῖς δεομένοις; L. Preller, -<i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd Ed., i. 201; F. B. -Jevons, <i>Plutarch’s Romane Questions</i>, -p. lxxiii.; C. Julian, in Daremberg et -Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités -grecques et romaines</i>, ii. 1156 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f634'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r634'>634</a>. </span>Cicero, <i>De re publica</i>, iii. 13. 22; -Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> x. 112; Horace, <i>Sat.</i> -ii. 1. 42 <i>sq.</i>; Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, vi. 37; -Varro, <i>De lingua Latina</i>, v. 6. 7; -Livy, v. 21. 2, v. 23. 7; Pliny, <i>Nat. -Hist.</i> xxxv. 115; Flavius Vopiscus, -<i>Probus</i>, xii. 7; L. Preller, <i>Römische -Mythologie</i>, 3rd Ed., i. 205, 284; W. H. -Roscher, <i>Lexikon d. griech. u. röm. -Mythologie</i>, ii. 600 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f635'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r635'>635</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_179'>179</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f636'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r636'>636</a>. </span>Cicero, <i>Philippics</i>, ii. 43. 110; -Suetonius, <i>Divus Julius</i>, 76; Dio -Cassius, xliv. 6. The coincidence has -been pointed out by Mr. A. B. Cook -(<i>Classical Review</i>, xviii. 371).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f637'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r637'>637</a>. </span>Livy, i. 20. 1 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f638'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r638'>638</a>. </span>Numa was not the only Roman -king who is said to have enjoyed the -favours of a goddess. Romulus was -married to Hersilia, who seems to have -been a Sabine goddess. Ovid tells us -how, when the dead Romulus had been -raised to the rank of a god under the -name of Quirinus, his widow Hersilia -was deified as his consort. Thus, if -Quirinus was a Sabine oak-god, his -wife would be an oak-goddess, like -Egeria. See Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> xiv. 829-851. -Compare Livy, i. 11. 2; -Plutarch, <i>Numa</i>, 14. On Hersilia as -a goddess see A. Schwegler, <i>Römische -Geschichte</i>, i. 478, note 10; L. Preller, -<i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd Ed., i. 372. Again, -of King Servius Tullius we read how -the goddess Fortuna, smitten with love -of him, used to enter his house nightly -by a window. See Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, vi. 569 -<i>sqq.</i>; Plutarch, <i>Quaestiones Romanae</i>, -36; <i>id.</i>, <i>De fortuna Romanorum</i>, 10. -However, the origin and nature of -Fortuna are too obscure to allow us -to base any conclusions on this legend. -For various more or less conjectural -explanations of the goddess see W. -Warde Fowler, <i>Roman Festivals of the -Period of the Republic</i>, pp. 161-172.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f639'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r639'>639</a>. </span>Plutarch, <i>De fortuna Romanorum</i>, -10; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, -<i>Antiquit. Rom.</i> iv. 1 <i>sq.</i>; Ovid, -<i>Fasti</i>, vi. 627-636; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> -ii. 241, xxxvi. 204; Livy, i. 39; -Servius on Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> ii. 683; -Arnobius, <i>Adversus nationes</i>, v. 18. -According to the Etruscan annals, -Servius Tullius was an Etruscan by -name Mastarna, who came to Rome -with his friend Caeles Vibenna, and, -changing his name, obtained the -kingdom. This was stated by the -Emperor Claudius in a speech of which -fragments are engraved on a bronze -tablet found at Lyons. See Tacitus, -<i>Annals</i>, ed. Orelli, 2nd Ed., p. 342. As the -emperor wrote a history of Etruria -in twenty books (Suetonius, <i>Divus -Claudius</i>, 42) he probably had some -authority for the statement, and the -historical, or at least legendary, -character of Mastarna and Caeles -Vibenna is vouched for by a painting -inscribed with their names, which -was found in 1857 in an Etruscan -tomb at Vulci. See G. Dennis, <i>Cities -and Cemeteries of Etruria</i>, 3rd Ed., ii. 506 <i>sq.</i> -But from this it by no means follows -that the identification of Mastarna -with Servius Tullius was correct. -Schwegler preferred the Roman to -the Etruscan tradition (<i>Römische -Geschichte</i>, i. 720 <i>sq.</i>), and so, after -long hesitation, did Niebuhr (<i>History -of Rome</i>, 3rd Ed., i. 380 <i>sqq.</i>). It is fair to -add that both these historians wrote -before the discovery of the tomb at -Vulci.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f640'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r640'>640</a>. </span>A. Schwegler, <i>Römische Geschichte</i>, -i. 715; L. Preller, <i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd Ed., -ii. 344.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f641'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r641'>641</a>. </span>Plutarch, <i>Romulus</i>, 2.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f642'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r642'>642</a>. </span>Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Ant. -Rom.</i> i. 76 <i>sq.</i>; Livy, i. 3 <i>sq.</i>; -Plutarch, <i>Romulus</i>, 3; Zonaras, -<i>Annal.</i> vii. 1; Justin, xliii. 2. 1-3.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f643'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r643'>643</a>. </span>Servius on Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> vii. 678.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f644'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r644'>644</a>. </span>Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> vii. 343.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f645'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r645'>645</a>. </span>Aulus Gellius, i. 12, 14 and 19. -Compare L. Preller, <i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd Ed., -ii, 161, 344. There was a -very ancient worship of Vesta at -Lavinium, the city named after Amata’s -daughter Lavinia, the ancestress of the -Alban kings. See above, vol. i. p. 14.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f646'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r646'>646</a>. </span>Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> vii. 71-77.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f647'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r647'>647</a>. </span>Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> ii. 680-686. We -may compare the halo with which the -vainglorious and rascally artist of genius, -Benvenuto Cellini, declared his head to -be encircled. “Ever since the time of -my strange vision until now,” says he, -“an aureole of glory (marvellous to -relate) has rested on my head. This -is visible to every sort of men to whom -I have chosen to point it out; but -those have been very few. This halo -can be observed above my shadow in -the morning from the rising of the sun -for about two hours, and far better -when the grass is drenched with dew. -It is also visible at evening about sunset. -I became aware of it in France -at Paris; for the air in those parts is so -much freer from mist, that one can see it -there far better manifested than in Italy, -mists being far more frequent among -us.” See <i>The Life of Benvenuto -Cellini</i>, translated by J. Addington -Symonds 3rd Ed., (London, 1889), pp. 279 -<i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f648'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r648'>648</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_131'>131</a> <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f649'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r649'>649</a>. </span>A. B. Ellis, The <i>Ewe-speaking -peoples of the Slave Coast of West -Africa</i>, p. 60. See above, pp. 149 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f650'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r650'>650</a>. </span>See below, p. <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f651'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r651'>651</a>. </span>Apollodorus iii. 14. 6; Schol. on -Homer, <i>Iliad</i>, ii. 547; J. Tzetzes, -<i>Chiliades</i>, v. 669 <i>sq.</i>; Augustine, <i>De -civitate Dei</i>, xviii. 12.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f652'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r652'>652</a>. </span>Pausanias i. 26. 6 <i>sq.</i>; Strabo ix. -1. 16, p. 396; Plutarch, <i>Numa</i>, 9; <i>id.</i>, -<i>Sulla</i>, 13. As to the identity of -Erechtheus and Erichthonius see my -note on Pausanias, i. 18. 2 (vol. ii. p. -169).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f653'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r653'>653</a>. </span>Pausanias, i. 27. 3, with my note.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f654'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r654'>654</a>. </span>The theory was formerly advocated -by me (<i>Journal of Philology</i>, -xiv. (1885) pp. 154 <i>sqq.</i>) As to the -duties of the Vestals see J. Marquardt, -<i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii. 2nd Ed., pp. -342 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f655'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r655'>655</a>. </span>This explanation was first, so far -as I know, given by me in my <i>Lectures -on the Early History of the Kingship</i> -(London, 1905), p. 221. It has since -been adopted by Mr. E. Fehrle (<i>Die -kultische Keuschheit im Altertum</i>, -Giessen, 1910, pp. 210 <i>sqq.</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f656'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r656'>656</a>. </span>Aulus Gellius, xiv. 7. 7. Compare -Servius on Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> vii. 153, -ix. 4.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f657'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r657'>657</a>. </span><i>Ovid</i>, Fasti, vi. 261 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f658'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r658'>658</a>. </span>Festus, <i>s.v.</i> “penus,” p. 250, ed. -C. O. Müller, where for <i>saepius</i> we -must obviously read <i>saeptus</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f659'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r659'>659</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, i. 199, iii. 183 <i>sq.</i>; -Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Antiquit. -Rom.</i> i. 79. 11. For the situation -of the hut see also Plutarch, <i>Romulus</i>, -20.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f660'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r660'>660</a>. </span>Conon, <i>Narrationes</i>, 48; Vitruvius, -ii. 1. 5, p. 35, ed. Rose and -Müller-Strübing; Macrobius, <i>Saturn.</i> -i. 15. 10. Compare Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> -viii. 653 <i>sq.</i> As to the two huts on -the Palatine and the Capitol see A. -Schwegler, <i>Römische Geschichte</i>, i. -394; L. Jahn on Macrobius, <i>l.c.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f661'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r661'>661</a>. </span>Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Ant. -Rom.</i> ii. 66; Plutarch, <i>Numa</i>, 11 -and 14; Solinus, i. 21; Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, -vi. 263 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>id.</i>, <i>Tristia</i>, iii. 1. 29 -<i>sq.</i>; Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, xv. 41.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f662'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r662'>662</a>. </span>Servius on Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> viii. -363. Festus, however, distinguishes -the old royal palace (<i>Regia</i>) from the -house of the King of the Sacred Rites -(<i>s.v.</i> “Sacram viam,” pp. 290, 293, -ed. C. O. Müller). In classical times -the <i>Regia</i> was the residence or office of -the Pontifex Maximus; but we can -hardly doubt that formerly it was the -house of the <i>Rex Sacrorum</i>. See O. -Gilbert, <i>Geschichte und Topographie -der Stadt Rom im Altertum</i>, i. 225, -235 <i>sq.</i>, 341, 344. As to the existing -remains of the <i>Regia</i>, the temple -of Vesta, and the house of the Vestals, -see O. Richter, <i>Topographie der Stadt -Rom</i>, 2nd Ed., pp. 88 <i>sqq.</i>; Ch. Huelsen, <i>Die -Ausgrabungen auf dem Forum Romanum</i> 2nd Ed., -(Rome, 1903), pp. 62 <i>sqq.</i>, -88 <i>sqq.</i>; Mrs. E. Burton-Brown, -<i>Recent Excavations in the Roman -Forum</i> (London, 1904), pp. 26 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f663'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r663'>663</a>. </span>Dio Cassius, liv. 27, who tells us -that Augustus annexed the house of -the King of the Sacred Rites to the -house of the Vestals, on which it -abutted.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f664'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r664'>664</a>. </span>Many such phenomena are noted -by Julius Obsequens in his book of -prodigies, appended to W. Weissenborn’s -edition of Livy, vol. x. 2, pp. -193 <i>sqq.</i> (Berlin, 1881).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f665'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r665'>665</a>. </span>W. Helbig, <i>Die Italiker in der -Poebene</i>, pp. 50-55; E. Burton-Brown, -<i>Recent Excavations in the Roman -Forum</i>, pp. 30, 152, 154. For -pictures of these hut-urns see G. Boni -in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, May 1900, p. -191, fig. 52; <i>id.</i>, in <i>Nuova Antologia</i>, -August 1900, p. 22.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f666'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r666'>666</a>. </span>Valerius Maximus, iv. 4. 11; Ovid, -<i>Fasti</i>, vi. 310; Acron on Horace, -<i>Odes</i>, i. 31, quoted by G. Boni in -<i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, May 1900, p. 179; -Cicero, <i>Paradoxa</i>, i. 2; <i>id.</i>, <i>De natura -deorum</i>, iii. 17. 43; Persius, <i>Sat.</i> ii. -59 <i>sq.</i>; Juvenal, <i>Sat.</i> vi. 342 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f667'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r667'>667</a>. </span>Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Ant. -Rom.</i> ii. 23. On earthenware vessels -used in religious rites see also Pliny, -<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxv. 108, “<i>In sacris -quidem etiam inter has opes hodie non -murrinis crystallinisve, sed fictilibus -prolibatur simpulis</i>”; Apuleius, <i>De -magia</i>, 18, “<i>Eadem paupertas etiam -populo Romano imperium a primordio -fundavit, proque eo in hodiernum diis -immortalibus simpuvio et catino fictili -sacrificat.</i>”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f668'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r668'>668</a>. </span>G. Boni in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, -May 1900, p. 179; E. Burton-Brown, -<i>Recent Excavations in the Roman -Forum</i>, pp. 23 <i>sq.</i>, 41.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f669'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r669'>669</a>. </span>W. Helbig, <i>Die Italiker in der -Poebene</i>, pp. 82 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f670'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r670'>670</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxvii. 21 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f671'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r671'>671</a>. </span>G. Henzen, <i>Acta Fratrum Arvalium</i> -(Berlin, 1874), pp. 26, 30; H. -Dessau, <i>Inscriptiones Latinae selectae</i>, -No. 5039; J. Marquardt, <i>Römische -Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii. 2nd Ed., 456.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f672'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r672'>672</a>. </span>W. Helbig, <i>Die Italiker in der -Poebene</i>, p. 87.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f673'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r673'>673</a>. </span>G. Wilmanns, <i>Exempla inscriptionum -Latinarum</i>, Nos. 311, 986, -1326, 1331; H. Dessau, <i>Inscriptiones -Latinae selectae</i>, Nos. 456, 3314, 4926, -4933, 4936, 4942, 4943. Modern -writers, following Varro (<i>De lingua -Latina</i>, vii. 44, “<i>fictores dicti a fingendis -libis</i>”), explain these <i>fictores</i> as -bakers of sacred cakes. See Ch. A. -Lobeck, <i>Aglaophamus</i>, pp. 1084 <i>sq.</i>; -J. Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, -iii. 2nd Ed., 249. They may be right, -but it is to be observed that Varro does -not expressly refer to the <i>fictores</i> of the -Vestals and Pontiffs, and further, that -in Latin <i>fictor</i> commonly means a -potter, not a baker, for which the -regular word is <i>pistor</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f674'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r674'>674</a>. </span>A. d’Orbigny, <i>Voyage dans -l’Amérique Méridionale</i>, iii. (Paris -and Strasburg, 1844) p. 194. Much -of d’Orbigny’s valuable information as -to this tribe was drawn from the manuscript -of Father Lacueva, a Spanish -Franciscan monk of wealthy family -and saint-like character, who spent -eighteen or twenty years among the -Yuracares in a vain attempt to convert -them. With regard to the crops -mentioned in the text, these savages -plant banana-trees, manioc, sugar-cane, -and vegetables round about their huts, -which they erect in clearings of the -forest. See d’Orbigny, <i>op. cit.</i> iii. -196 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f675'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r675'>675</a>. </span>H. A. Junod, “Les Conceptions -physiologiques des Bantou Sud-Africains -et leurs tabous,” <i>Revue -d’Ethnographie et de Sociologie</i>, i. -(1910), p. 147.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f676'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r676'>676</a>. </span>Columella, <i>De re rustica</i>, xii. 4. -2 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f677'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r677'>677</a>. </span>Cicero, <i>De natura deorum</i>, ii. -27. 68.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f678'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r678'>678</a>. </span>Servius on Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> xi. 211.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f679'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r679'>679</a>. </span>Horace, <i>Epodes</i>, ii. 65 <i>sq.</i>; -Martial, iii. 58. 3 <i>sq.</i>; L. Preller, -<i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd Ed., ii. 105 <i>sqq.</i>, -155 <i>sqq.</i> See also A. De-Marchi, <i>Il -Culto privato di Roma antica</i>, i. (Milan, -1896) p. 67, with plate iii.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f680'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r680'>680</a>. </span>Macrobius, <i>Saturn.</i> iii. 4. 11; -G. Wissowa, <i>Religion und Kultus der -Römer</i>, pp. 145 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f681'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r681'>681</a>. </span>Festus, <i>s.v.</i> “penus,” pp. 250, -251, ed. C. O. Müller; Tacitus, -<i>Annals</i>, xv. 41; J. Marquardt, -<i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii. 2nd Ed., 252 -<i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f682'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r682'>682</a>. </span>Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Antiquit. -Rom.</i> ii. 66; Livy, xxvi. 27. 14; -J. Marquardt, <i>op. cit.</i> iii. 2nd Ed., 250 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f683'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r683'>683</a>. </span>Festus, <i>s.v.</i> “Ignis,” p. 106, ed. -C. O. Müller: “<i>Ignis Vestae si quando -interstinctus esset, virgines verberibus -afficiebantur a pontifice, quibus mos -erat tabulam felicis materiae tamdiu -terebrare, quousque exceptum ignem -cribro aeneo virgo in aedem ferret</i>.” -In this passage it is not clear whether -<i>quibus</i> refers to the virgins alone or to -the virgins and the pontiff together; -but the strict grammatical construction -is in favour of the latter interpretation. -The point is not unimportant, as we -shall see presently. From a passage -of Plutarch (<i>Numa</i>, 9) it has sometimes -been inferred that the Vestal fire was -rekindled by sunlight reflected from a -burning-glass. But in this passage -Plutarch is describing a Greek, not a -Roman, mode of making fire, as has -been rightly pointed out by Professor -M. H. Morgan (“De ignis eliciendi -modis apud antiquos,” <i>Harvard Studies -in Classical Philology</i>, i. (1890) pp. -56 <i>sqq.</i>). In this memoir Professor -Morgan has collected and discussed the -passages of Greek and Latin writers -which refer to the kindling of fire.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f684'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r684'>684</a>. </span>See E. B. Tylor, <i>Early History -of Mankind</i>, 3rd Ed., pp. 238 <i>sqq.</i> More -evidence might easily be given. See, -for example, J. Dawson, <i>Australian -Aborigines</i>, pp. 15 <i>sq.</i>; C. Lumholtz, -<i>Among Cannibals</i>, p. 191; A. W. -Howitt, <i>Native Tribes of South-East -Australia</i>, pp. 770-773; Maximilian -Prinz zu Wied-Newied, <i>Reise nach -Brasilien</i>, ii. 18 <i>sq.</i>; E. F. im Thurn, -<i>Among the Indians of Guiana</i>, pp. 257-259; -K. von den Steinen, <i>Unter den -Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens</i>, pp. -223 <i>sqq.</i>; H. Ling Roth, <i>The Natives of -Sarawak and British North Borneo</i>, i. -375 <i>sqq.</i>; A. Maass, <i>Bei liebenswürdigen -Wilden, ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss -der Mentawai-Insulaner</i> (Berlin, 1902), -pp. 114, 116; Mgr. Le Roy, “Les -Pygmées,” <i>Missions Catholiques</i>, xxix. -(1897), p. 137; E. Thurston, <i>Ethnographic -Notes in Southern India</i> -(Madras, 1906), pp. 464-470; W. A. -Reed, <i>Negritos of Zambales</i> (Manila, -1904), p. 40.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f685'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r685'>685</a>. </span>J. Teit, “The Thompson Indians -of British Columbia,” pp. 203, 205 -(<i>Memoir of the American Museum of -Natural History, The Jesup North -Pacific Expedition</i>, vol. i. part 4).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f686'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r686'>686</a>. </span>J. Walter Fewkes, “The Lesser -New-fire Ceremony at Walpi,” <i>American -Anthropologist</i>, N.S. iii. (1901) -p. 445.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f687'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r687'>687</a>. </span>Spencer and Gillen, <i>Northern -Tribes of Central Australia</i>, p. 621.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f688'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r688'>688</a>. </span>For this information I am indebted -to Mr. S. H. Ray.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f689'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r689'>689</a>. </span>G. Jacob, <i>Altarabisches Beduineneben</i> 2nd Ed., -(Berlin, 1897), p. 91. In his -<i>Arabic-English Lexicon</i>, book i. p. -1257, E. W. Lane gives the following -account of the subject: “<i>zand</i>, a -piece of stick or wood, for producing -fire; the upper one of the two pieces -of stick, or wood, with which fire is -produced: ... and <i>zanda</i> is the appellation -of the lower one thereof, in -which is the notch or hollow, or in -which is a hole.... One end of the -<i>zand</i> is put into the <i>fard</i> (notch) of the -<i>zanda</i>, and the <i>zand</i> is then rapidly -twirled round in producing fire.... -The best kind of <i>zand</i> is made of <i>’afār</i> -and the best kind of <i>zanda</i> of <i>markh</i>.” -It will be observed that the two -writers differ as to <i>markh</i> wood, Jacob -saying that it is used to make the -upright (male) stick, and Lane that it -is used to make the horizontal (female) -stick. My learned friend Professor A. -A. Bevan, who directed my attention -to both passages and transliterated for -me the Arabic words in Lane, has -kindly consulted the original authorities -on this point and informs me that -Lane is right.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f690'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r690'>690</a>. </span>L. Concradt, “Die Ngumbu in -Südkamerun,” <i>Globus</i>, lxxxi, (1902) -p. 354.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f691'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r691'>691</a>. </span>A. C. Hollis, <i>The Masai</i> (Oxford, -1905), p. 342.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f692'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r692'>692</a>. </span>A. C. Hollis, <i>The Nandi</i> (Oxford, -1909), p. 85.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f693'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r693'>693</a>. </span>Letter of the Rev. J. Roscoe, -dated Mengo, Uganda, 3rd August -1904.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f694'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r694'>694</a>. </span>J. Macdonald, <i>Light in Africa</i> 2nd Ed., -(London, 1890), pp. 216 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f695'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r695'>695</a>. </span>Dudley Kidd, <i>The Essential Kafir</i> -(London, 1904), pp. 51 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f696'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r696'>696</a>. </span>J. Irle, <i>Die Herero</i> (Gütersloh, -1906), pp. 49 <i>sqq.</i>, 53 <i>sqq.</i> Compare -Josaphat Hahn, “Die Ovaherero,” -<i>Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde -zu Berlin</i>, iv. (1869) pp. 227 -<i>sqq.</i>; H. Schinz, <i>Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika</i> -(Oldenburg and Leipsic, <span class='fss'>N.D.</span>), -pp. 142 <i>sq.</i>; E. Dannert, <i>Zum Rechte -der Herero</i> (Berlin, 1906), pp. 1 <i>sqq.</i> -The people call themselves <i>Ovaherero</i> -(plural); the singular form is <i>Omuherero</i>. -The name Damaras was given -them by the English and Dutch. -Under the influence of the missionaries -most of the heathen customs described -in the text seem now to have disappeared. -See P. H. Brincker, -“Character, Sitten, und Gebräuche, -speciell der Bantu Deutsch-Südwest-afrikas,” -<i>Mittheilungen des Seminars -für Orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin</i>, -iii. (1900) Dritte Abtheilung, p. 72.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f697'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r697'>697</a>. </span>C. J. Andersson, <i>Lake Ngami</i> -(London, 1856), p. 230; J. Chapman, -<i>Travels in the Interior of South Africa</i> -(London, 1868), i. 325; J. Hahn, -“Die Ovaherero,” <i>Zeitschrift der -Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin</i>, -iv. (1869) pp. 244-247, 250; C. J. -Büttner, <i>Das Hinterland von Walfischbai -und Angra Pequena</i> (Heidelberg, -1884), pp. 228 <i>sq.</i>; H. Schinz, <i>Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika</i>, -pp. 158-161; J. Irle, -<i>Die Herero</i>, pp. 32 <i>sqq.</i>, 113.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f698'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r698'>698</a>. </span>Francis Galton, <i>Narrative of an -Explorer in Tropical South Africa</i> 3rd Ed., -(London, 1890), p. 116; J. Hahn, <i>op. -cit.</i> iv. (1869), p. 247; H. Schinz, <i>op. -cit.</i> p. 155; J. Irle, <i>Die Herero</i>, pp. -111 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f699'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r699'>699</a>. </span>H. Schinz, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 159.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f700'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r700'>700</a>. </span>H. Schinz, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 155-157; -compare J. Hahn, <i>op. cit.</i> iv. (1869) -p. 499; J. Irle, <i>Die Herero</i>, p. 78; -E. Dannert, <i>Zum Rechte der Herero</i>, -pp. 4 <i>sq.</i> At first sight Dr. Schinz’s -account appears to differ slightly from -that given by the Rev. G. Viehe, who -says: “In the werfts of the Ovaherero, -the houses of the chief are on the -eastern side. Next to these, towards -the west, follow, one after another, -the holy house (<i>otyizero</i>), the place of -the holy fire (<i>okuruo</i>), and the kraal -[<i>i.e.</i> the calves’ pen] (<i>otyunda</i>); thus -the <i>otyizero</i> is on the east, and the -<i>otyunda</i> on the west side of the <i>okuruo</i>” -(“Some Customs of the Ovaherero,” -<i>South African Folk-lore Journal</i>, i. -(1879) p. 62). But it seems clear -that by the chief’s house Mr. Viehe -means what Dr. Schinz calls the house -of the great wife; and that what Mr. -Viehe calls the holy house is the open -space between the sacred hearth and -the house of the great wife or chief. -That space is described as the holy -ground by Dr. Schinz, who uses that -phrase (“<i>der geweihte Boden</i>”) as the -equivalent of the native <i>otyizero</i>. -Thus the two writers are in substantial -agreement with each other. On the -other hand Dr. C. H. Hahn gives the -name of <i>otyizero</i> or sacred house to -“the chief house of the chief, in front -of which is the place of the holy fire.” -He adds that “the chief has several -houses, according to the number of -wives, each wife having her own hut” -(<i>South African Folk-lore Journal</i>, ii. -(1880) p. 62, note 1.) The name -<i>otyizero</i> seems to be derived from <i>zera</i>, -“sacred,” “taboo.” See G. Viehe, <i>op. -cit.</i> pp. 39, 41, 43; Rev. E. Dannert, -in (<i>South African</i>) <i>Folk-lore Journal</i>, -ii. (1880) pp. 63, 65, 105, and the -editor’s note, <i>ib.</i> p. 93.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f701'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r701'>701</a>. </span>H. Schinz, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 155.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f702'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r702'>702</a>. </span>C. J. Andersson, <i>Lake Ngami</i>, p. -223; J. Hahn, <i>op. cit.</i> iv. (1869) p. -500; H. Schinz, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 165.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f703'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r703'>703</a>. </span>H. Brincker, <i>Wörterbuch und -kurzgefasste Grammatik des Otjiherero</i> -(Leipsic, 1886), <i>s.v.</i> “<i>okuruo</i>”; -<i>id.</i> “Pyrolatrie in Südafrika,” <i>Globus</i>, -lxvii. (January 1895) p. 97; Meyer, -quoted by J. Kohler, “Das Recht der -Herero,” <i>Zeitschrift für vergleichende -Rechtswissenschaft</i>, xiv. (1900) p. 315.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f704'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r704'>704</a>. </span>J. Hahn, <i>op. cit.</i> iv. (1869) pp. -499 <i>sq.</i>; Rev. H. Beiderbecke, in -(<i>South African</i>) <i>Folk-lore Journal</i>, ii. -(1880) p. 84; C. G. Büttner, “Ueber -Handwerke und technische Fertigkeiten -der Eingeborenen in Damaraland,” -<i>Ausland</i>, 7th July 1884, p. 522; -P. H. Brincker, in <i>Mittheilungen des -Seminars für Orientalische Sprachen -zu Berlin</i>, iii. (1900) Dritte Abtheilung, -p. 75; <i>id.</i>, <i>Wörterbuch des Otjiherero</i>, -<i>s.v.</i> “<i>okuruo</i>”; <i>id.</i>, “Pyrolatrie -in Südafrika,” <i>Globus</i>, lxvii. (January -1895) p. 97; H. Schinz, <i>op. cit.</i> -p. 183; Meyer, <i>l.c.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f705'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r705'>705</a>. </span>C. J. Andersson, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 223; -J. Hahn, <i>op. cit.</i> iv. (1869) p. 500; -Rev. E. Dannert, in (<i>South African</i>) -<i>Folk-lore Journal</i>, ii. (1880) p. 66; -Rev. H. Beiderbecke, <i>ibid.</i> p. 83, -note 4; C. G. Büttner, <i>l.c.</i>; H. -Schinz, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 165; J. Irle, <i>Die -Herero</i>, pp. 78 <i>sq.</i>; E. Dannert, <i>Zum -Rechte der Herero</i>, p. 5. According -to Meyer (<i>l.c.</i>) and E. Dannert (<i>Zum -Rechte der Herero</i>, p. 5), if the chief’s -eldest daughter marries, the duty of -tending the fire passes to his eldest wife. -This statement is at variance with all -the other testimony on the subject, and -for reasons which will appear presently -I regard it as improbable. At least -it can hardly represent the original -custom.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f706'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r706'>706</a>. </span>Rev. H. Beiderbecke, in (<i>South -African</i>) <i>Folk-lore Journal</i>, ii. (1880) -p. 84.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f707'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r707'>707</a>. </span>Rev. E. Dannert, in (<i>South -African</i>) <i>Folk-lore Journal</i>, ii. (1880) -p. 66; H. Schinz, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 168.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f708'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r708'>708</a>. </span>Francis Galton, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 115.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f709'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r709'>709</a>. </span>C. J. Andersson, <i>Lake Ngami</i>, -p. 223.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f710'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r710'>710</a>. </span>C. J. Andersson, <i>l.c.</i>; J. Hahn, -<i>op. cit.</i> iv. (1869) p. 500; H. Schinz, -<i>op. cit.</i> p. 167.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f711'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r711'>711</a>. </span>Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> ii. 717 <i>sqq.</i>, 747.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f712'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r712'>712</a>. </span>C. J. Andersson, <i>Lake Ngami</i>, p. -224; Rev. G. Viehe, in (<i>South African</i>) -<i>Folk-lore Journal</i>, i. (1879) p. 43; Rev. -E. Dannert, in (<i>South African</i>) <i>Folk-lore -Journal</i>, ii. (1880) p. 67; C. G. -Büttner, <i>l.c.</i>; H. Schinz, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. -166, 167, 186; Meyer, quoted by -J. Kohler, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 315; P. H. -Brincker, in <i>Mittheilungen des Seminars -für Orientalische Sprachen zu -Berlin</i>, iii. (1900) Dritte Abtheilung, -pp. 75 <i>sq.</i>; J. Irle, <i>Die Herero</i>, p. 80; -E. Dannert, <i>Zum Rechte der Herero</i> -(Berlin, 1906), p. 5.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f713'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r713'>713</a>. </span>C. J. Andersson, <i>Lake Ngami</i>, pp. -228 <i>sq.</i>; Rev. G. Viehe, <i>op. cit.</i> i. -(1879) pp. 61 <i>sq.</i>; C. G. Büttner, <i>l.c.</i>; -H. Schinz, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 165, 180. The -Herero have a curious twofold system -of paternal clans (<i>otuzo</i>, plural; <i>oruzo</i>, -singular) and maternal clans (<i>omaanda</i>, -plural; <i>eanda</i>, singular). Every person -inherits an <i>oruzo</i> from his father -and an <i>eanda</i> from his mother. See -my <i>Totemism and Exogamy</i>, ii. 357 -<i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f714'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r714'>714</a>. </span>C. J. Andersson, <i>Lake Ngami</i>, pp. -223 <i>sq.</i>; J. Hahn, <i>op. cit.</i> iv. (1869) -p. 500; Rev. G. Viehe, <i>op. cit.</i> i. -(1879) pp. 39, 61; C. G. Büttner, -<i>l.c.</i>; H. Brincker, <i>Wörterbuch des -Otji-herero</i>, <i>s.vv.</i> <i>ondume</i> and <i>otjija</i>; -<i>id.</i> “Character, Sitten, und Gebräuche, -speciell der Bantu Deutsch-Südwest-afrikas,” -<i>Mittheilungen des Seminars -für Orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin</i>, -iii. (1900) Dritte Abtheilung, p. 75; <i>id.</i> -“Pyrolatrie in Südafrika,” <i>Globus</i>, lxvii. -(January, 1895) p. 96; H. Schinz, <i>op. -cit.</i> pp. 165 <i>sq.</i>; J. Kohler, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. -305, 315; J. Irle, <i>Die Herero</i>, pp. 79 <i>sq.</i> -According to Dr. Schinz, the meaning -of the names applied to the fire-sticks -has been much disputed; he himself -adopts the view given in the text, and -supports it by weighty reason which, -taken along with analogous designations -in many other parts of the world, -may be regarded as conclusive. He -tells us that <i>otyiza</i> means <i>pudendum -muliebre</i>, and this is actually the name -of the holed stick according to Mr. -Viehe (<i>ll.cc.</i>), though Dr. Schinz gives -<i>otyia</i> as the name. I have followed -Dr. Brincker in accepting <i>otyiya</i> -(<i>otjija</i>) as the correct form of the word. -Further, Dr. Schinz derives <i>ondume</i>, -the name of the pointed stick, from -a verb <i>ruma</i>, meaning “to have -intercourse with a woman.” Moreover, -he reports that the Ai San -Bushmen, near Noihas, in the Kalahari -desert, call the vertical fire-stick -<i>tau doro</i> and the horizontal fire-stick -<i>gai doro</i>, where <i>tau</i> is the masculine -prefix and <i>gai</i> the feminine. Finally, -a Herero explained to him the significance -of the names by referring in an -unmistakable manner to the corresponding -relations in the animal kingdom. -That the two sticks are regarded as -male and female is positively affirmed -by Mr. Viehe, Mr. Meyer (quoted by -J. Kohler), and Dr. Brincker.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f715'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r715'>715</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_213'>213</a> <i>sq.</i> Mr. G. -Viehe says that the <i>omuwapu</i> tree -“acts a very important part in almost -all the religious ceremonies” of the -Herero (<i>op. cit.</i> i. 45). Probably it is -only used where the <i>omumborombonga</i> -cannot be had.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f716'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r716'>716</a>. </span>J. Hahn, “Das Land der Herero,” -<i>Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde -zu Berlin</i>, iii. (1868) pp. 200, -213, 214 <i>sq.</i>; C. J. Andersson, -<i>Lake Ngami</i>, pp. 218, 221; <i>id.</i>, <i>The -Okavango River</i> (London, 1861), pp. -21 <i>sq.</i>; H. Schinz, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 182.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f717'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r717'>717</a>. </span>C. J. Andersson, <i>Lake Ngami</i>, p. -221; Francis Galton, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 115; -J. Hahn, <i>op. cit.</i> iii. (1868) p. 215, -iv. (1869) p. 498, note; Rev. H. -Beiderbecke, in <i>(South African) Folk-lore -Journal</i>, ii. (1880) pp. 92 <i>sq.</i>; H. -Schinz, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 182 <i>sq.</i>; Meyer, -quoted by J. Kohler, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 297; -P. H. Brincker, in <i>Mittheilungen des -Seminars für Orientalische Sprachen -zu Berlin</i> (1900), Dritte Abtheilung, -p. 73; J. Irle, <i>Die Herero</i>, pp. 75 <i>sq.</i>, -77; E. Dannert, <i>Zum Rechte der -Herero</i>, pp. 3 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f718'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r718'>718</a>. </span>On the evidence for this migration -see J. Chapman, <i>Travels in the -Interior of South Africa</i>, i. 325-327; -J. Hahn, <i>op. cit.</i> iii. (1868) pp. 227 -<i>sqq.</i> As to the physical features and -climate of Hereroland, see J. Hahn, -“Das Land der Ovaherero,” <i>Zeitschrift -der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde -zu Berlin</i>, iii. (1868) pp. 193 <i>sqq.</i>; -J. Irle, <i>Die Herero</i>, pp. 9 <i>sqq.</i>, -19 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f719'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r719'>719</a>. </span>Pausanias, v. 13. 3, v. 14. 2. On -the substitution of the poplar for the -oak, see Mr. A. B. Cook in <i>Folk-lore</i>, -xv. (1904) pp. 297 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f720'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r720'>720</a>. </span>Rev. G. Viehe, “Some Customs -of the Ovaherero,” (<i>South African</i>) -<i>Folk-lore Journal</i>, i. (1879) pp. 64-66; -Rev. H. Beiderbecke, in (<i>South -African</i>) <i>Folk-lore Journal</i>, ii. (1880) -p. 91; H. Schinz, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 183 <i>sq.</i>; -P. H. Brincker, in <i>Mittheilungen des -Seminars für Orientalische Sprachen -zu Berlin</i>, iii. (1900) Dritte Abtheilung, -pp. 89 <i>sq.</i>; J. Irle, <i>Die Herero</i>, -pp. 74, 75, 77. Apparently it is only -a powerful or eminent man who becomes -an <i>omukuru</i> after his death. -Or rather, perhaps, though all dead -men become <i>ovakuru</i>, only the strong -and brave are feared and worshipped.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f721'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r721'>721</a>. </span>H. Schinz, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 183.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f722'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r722'>722</a>. </span>Rev. E. Dannert, “Customs of -the Ovaherero at the Birth of a Child,” -(<i>South African</i>) <i>Folk-lore Journal</i>, ii. -(1880) pp. 66 <i>sq.</i> Compare Rev. G. -Viehe, <i>op. cit.</i> i. (1879) p. 41; H. -Schinz, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 168.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f723'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r723'>723</a>. </span>Rev. G. Viehe, in (<i>South African</i>) -<i>Folk-lore Journal</i>, i. (1879) pp. 49 -<i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f724'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r724'>724</a>. </span>Rev. G. Viehe, <i>op. cit.</i> i. 51.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f725'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r725'>725</a>. </span>H. Schinz, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 166. Compare -J. Irle, <i>Die Herero</i>, p. 77.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f726'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r726'>726</a>. </span>J. Hahn, <i>op. cit.</i> iv. (1869) p. -500, note.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f727'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r727'>727</a>. </span>C. J. Andersson, <i>Lake Ngami</i>, pp. -228 <i>sq.</i> The ceremony is described -more fully by the Rev. G. Viehe, -“Some Customs of the Ovaherero,” -(<i>South African</i>) <i>Folk-lore Journal</i>, i. -(1879) pp. 61 <i>sq.</i>, from whose account -some of the details in the text are -borrowed.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f728'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r728'>728</a>. </span>The distinction is made also by -Mr. J. Irle. According to him, while -the fire-sticks are called <i>ozondume</i> -(plural of <i>ondume</i>), the sticks which -represent the ancestors are called -<i>ozohongue</i> and are made from the -<i>omuvapu</i> bush. In every chief’s house -there is a bundle of about twenty of -these ancestral sticks. When a chief -dies, the sticks are wrapped in a portion -of the sacred bull (<i>omusisi</i>) which -is slaughtered on this occasion, and a -new stick is added to the bundle. At -the same time Mr. Irle tells us that -the fire-sticks (<i>ozondume</i>) also represent -the ancestors and are made like -them from the <i>omuvapu</i> bush. See -J. Irle, <i>Die Herero</i>, pp. 77, 79.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f729'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r729'>729</a>. </span>Bensen, quoted by J. Kohler, -“Das Recht der Herero,” <i>Zeitschrift -für vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft</i>, -xiv. (1900) p. 305.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f730'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r730'>730</a>. </span>Rev. G. Viehe, or his editor, -<i>op. cit.</i> i. (1879) p. 39. The <i>otyiza</i> -(<i>otyiya</i>) is the female fire-stick. See -above, p. <a href='#Page_218'>218</a> note 1.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f731'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r731'>731</a>. </span>Rev. G. Viehe, in (<i>South African</i>) -<i>Folk-lore Journal</i>, i. (1879) p. 61.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f732'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r732'>732</a>. </span><i>Ibid.</i> p. 43, compare p. 50.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f733'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r733'>733</a>. </span>J. Irle, <i>Die Herero</i>, p. 79.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f734'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r734'>734</a>. </span>I have assumed that the ancestral -sticks, whatever their origin, represent -only men. This is plainly implied by -Dr. Brincker, who tells us that “each -of these sticks represents the male -member of generation and in the -Bantu sense a personality, which stands -for the presence of the deceased chief -on all festive occasions and especially -at religious ceremonies” (“Character, -Sitten, und Gebräuche, speciell der -Bantu Deutsch-Südwestafrikas,” <i>Mittheilungen -des Seminars für Orientalische -Sprachen zu Berlin</i>, iii. (1900) -Dritte Abtheilung, p. 74). In savage -society women are of too little account -for their ghosts to be commonly worshipped. -Speaking of the Bantu -peoples, a writer who knows them -well observes: “This lack of respect -for old women is a part of the natives’ -religious system, and is connected with -their conception of a future life, in -which women play a subordinate part, -their spirits not being able to cause -much trouble, and therefore not being -of much account” (Dudley Kidd, <i>The -Essential Kafir</i>, p. 23).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f735'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r735'>735</a>. </span>W. Jochelson, “The Koryak,” pp. -32-36 (<i>Memoir of the American Museum -of Natural History, The Jesup North -Pacific Expedition</i>, vol. vi., Leyden -and New York, 1908).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f736'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r736'>736</a>. </span>W. Bogaras, “The Chukchee -Religion,” pp. 349-353 (<i>Memoir of the -American Museum of Natural History, -The Jesup North Pacific Expedition</i>, -vol. vii. part ii., Leyden and New -York, 1904).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f737'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r737'>737</a>. </span>Livy, xxviii. 11. 6 <i>sq.</i>; Dionysius -Halicarnasensis, <i>Antiquit. Rom.</i> ii. -67. 5.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f738'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r738'>738</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, vi. 265 <i>sqq.</i>; Festus, -p. 262, ed. C. O. Müller.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f739'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r739'>739</a>. </span>Dudley Kidd, <i>The Essential Kafir</i>, -pp. 11 <i>sq.</i> On the diffusion of the -round hut in Africa Sir H. H. Johnston -says: “The original form of -house throughout all British Central -Africa was what the majority of the -houses still are—circular and somewhat -like a beehive in shape, with round -walls of wattle and daub and thatched -roof. This style of house is characteristic -of (<i>a</i>) all Africa south of the Zambezi; -(<i>b</i>) all British Central Africa; as -much of the Portuguese provinces of Zambezia -and Moçambique as are not under -direct Portuguese or Muhammedan influence -which may have introduced the -rectangular dwelling; (<i>c</i>) all East Africa -up to and including the Egyptian Sudan, -where Arab influence has not introduced -the oblong rectangular building; (<i>d</i>) the -Central Nigerian Sudan, much of Senegambia, -and perhaps the West Coast of -Africa as far east and south as the Gold -Coast, subject, of course, to the same -limitations as to foreign influence” -(<i>British Central Africa</i>, London, 1897, -P. 453).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f740'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r740'>740</a>. </span>J. Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, -iii. 2nd Ed., pp. 250, 341 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f741'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r741'>741</a>. </span>J. Marquardt, <i>op. cit.</i> iii. 2nd Ed., pp. 340 -<i>sq.</i>; <i>Journal of Philology</i>, xiv. (1885) -pp. 155 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f742'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r742'>742</a>. </span>Livy, i. 3 <i>sq.</i>; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, -<i>Antiquit. Rom.</i> i. 76 <i>sq.</i>; -Plutarch, <i>Romulus</i>, 3.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f743'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r743'>743</a>. </span>Plutarch, <i>Numa</i>, 10; Dionysius -Halicarnasensis, <i>Ant. Rom.</i> ii. 67. 4, -viii. 89. 5.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f744'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r744'>744</a>. </span>The suggestion is due to Mr. M. A. -Bayfield (<i>Classical Review</i>, xv. -1901, p. 448). He compares the -similar execution of the princess Antigone -(Sophocles, <i>Antigone</i>, 773 <i>sqq.</i>). -However, we must remember that a -custom of burying people alive has -been practised as a punishment or a -sacrifice by Romans, Persians, and -Germans, even when the victims were -not of royal blood. See Livy, xxii. -57. 6; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxviii. 12; -Plutarch, <i>Marcellus</i>, 3; <i>id.</i>, <i>Quaest. -Rom.</i> 83; Herodotus, vii. 114; J. -Grimm, <i>Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer</i>, 3rd Ed., -pp. 694 <i>sq.</i> As to the objection to -spill royal blood, see <i>The Golden Bough</i>, -Second Edition, i. 354 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f745'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r745'>745</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f746'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r746'>746</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 629-672. Compare -Varro, <i>De lingua Latina</i>, vi. 15; -Joannes Lydus, <i>De mensibus</i>, iv. 49.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f747'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r747'>747</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 731-782. See -below, p. <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f748'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r748'>748</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxviii. 39; -“<i>Quamquam religione tutatur et -fascinus, imperatorum quoque, non -solum infantium custos, qui deus inter -sacra Romana Vestalibus colitur</i>.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f749'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r749'>749</a>. </span>Virgil, <i>Georg.</i> i. 498; Ovid, -<i>Fasti</i>, iv. 828; G. Henzen, <i>Acta -fratrum Arvalium</i>, pp. 124, 147; H. -Dessau, <i>Inscriptiones Latinae selectae</i>, -Nos. 5047, 5048. Ennius represented -Vesta as the mother of Saturn and -Titan. See Lactantius, <i>Divin. inst.</i> -i. 14.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f750'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r750'>750</a>. </span>Augustine, <i>De civitate Dei</i>, iv. 10.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f751'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r751'>751</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_195'>195</a> <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f752'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r752'>752</a>. </span><i>Grihya Sûtras</i>, translated by H. -Oldenberg, vol. i. pp. 37, 168, 279, -283, 382, 384, vol. ii. pp. 46, 191, -260; M. Winternitz, “Das altindische -Hochzeitsrituell,” pp. 4, 56-62 (<i>Denkschriften -der kaiserl. Akademie der -Wissenschaften in Wien</i>, xl., Vienna, -1892); H. Zimmer, <i>Altindisches Leben</i>, -p. 312; G. A. Grierson, <i>Bihār Peasant -Life</i> (Calcutta, 1885), p. 368; F. S. -Krauss, <i>Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven</i>, -pp. 386, 436, cp. 430; J. Lasicius, -“De diis Samagitarum caeterorumque -Sarmatarum,” in <i>Magazin herausgegeben -von der Lettisch-Literarischen Gesellschaft</i>, -xiv. 99; J. Maeletius (Maletius), -“De sacrificiis et idolatria veterum -Borussorum Livonum aliarumque -vicinarum gentium,” in <i>Mitteilungen -der Litterarischen Gesellschaft Masovia</i>, -viii. (1902) pp. 191, 204 (this work -is also reprinted under the name of J. -Menecius in <i>Scriptores rerum Livonicarum</i>, -ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) -pp. 389-392); F. Woeste, in <i>Zeitschrift -für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde</i>, -ii. (1855) p. 91; A. Kuhn und W. -Schwartz, <i>Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen -und Gebräuche</i>, pp. 433, 522; A. Kuhn, -<i>Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus -Westfalen</i>, ii. 38; J. H. Schmitz, <i>Sitten -und Sagen, etc., des Eifler Volkes</i>, -i. 67; Montanus, <i>Die deutsche Volksfeste, -Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube</i>, -p. 85; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, -<i>Hochzeitsbuch</i> (Leipsic, 1871), p. 222; -L. v. Schroeder, <i>Die Hochzeitsbräuche -der Esten</i> (Berlin, 1888), pp. 127 <i>sqq.</i>; -E. Samter, <i>Familienfeste der Griechen -und Römer</i> (Berlin, 1901), pp. 59-62; -O. Schrader, <i>Reallexikon der indogermanischen -Altertumskunde</i>, pp. 356 -<i>sq.</i> This evidence proves that the -custom has been practised by the -Indian, Slavonian, Lithuanian, and -Teutonic branches of the Aryan race, -from which we may fairly infer that it -was observed by the ancestors of the -whole family before their dispersion.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f753'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r753'>753</a>. </span><i>Grihya-Sûtras</i>, translated by H. -Oldenberg, vol. i. p. 283 (<i>Sacred Books -of the East</i>, vol. xxix.).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f754'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r754'>754</a>. </span>Prof. Vl. Titelbach, “Das heilige -Feuer bei den Balkanslaven,” <i>Internationales -Archiv für Ethnographie</i>, -xiii. (1900) p. 1.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f755'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r755'>755</a>. </span>F. S. Krauss, <i>Sitte und Brauch -der Südslaven</i> (Vienna, 1885), p. 430.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f756'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r756'>756</a>. </span>F. S. Krauss, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 531.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f757'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r757'>757</a>. </span>This saying was communicated to -me by Miss Mabel Peacock in a letter -dated Kirton-in-Lindsey, Lincolnshire, -30th October 1905.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f758'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r758'>758</a>. </span>Max Buch, <i>Die Wotjäken</i> (Stuttgart, -1882), pp. 52, 59; L. v. Schroeder, -<i>op. cit.</i> pp. 129, 132.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f759'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r759'>759</a>. </span>Above, pp. <a href='#Page_221'>221</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f760'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r760'>760</a>. </span>As it is believed that fire may -impregnate human beings, so conversely -some people seem to imagine -that it may be impregnated by them. -Thus Mr. T. R. Glover, Fellow of St. -John’s College, Cambridge, writes to -me (18th June 1906): “A curious -and not very quotable instance of (I -suppose) Sacred Marriage was brought -to my notice by Mr. Brown of the -Canadian Baptist Mission to the -Telugus. He said that in Hindoo -temples (in South India chiefly?) -sometimes a scaffolding is erected over -a fire. A man and a woman are got -to copulate on it and allow the human -seed to fall into the fire.” But perhaps -this ceremony is only another -way of conveying the fertilising virtue -of the fire to the woman, in other -words, of getting her with child.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f761'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r761'>761</a>. </span>Above, pp. <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f762'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r762'>762</a>. </span>Suidas, Harpocration, and <i>Etymologicum -Magnum</i>, <i>s.v.</i> Ἀμφιδρόμια; -Hesychius, <i>s.v.</i> δρομάφιον ἧμαρ; Schol. -on Plato, <i>Theaetetus</i>, p. 160 <span class='fss'>E</span>. On -this custom see S. Reinach, <i>Cultes, -mythes, et religions</i>, i. (Paris, 1905) -pp. 137-145. He suggests that the -running of the naked men who carried -the babies was intended, by means of -sympathetic magic, to impart to the -little ones in after-life the power of -running fast. But this theory does not -explain why the race took place round -the hearth.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f763'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r763'>763</a>. </span>The custom has been practised -with this intention in Scotland, China, -New Britain, the Tenimber and Timorlaut -Islands, and by the Ovambo of -South Africa. See Pennant’s “Second -Tour in Scotland,” Pinkerton’s <i>Voyages -and Travels</i>, iii. 383; Miss C. F. -Gordon Cumming, <i>In the Hebrides</i>, -ed. 1883, p. 101; <i>China Review</i>, ix. -(1880-1881) p. 303; R. Parkinson, -<i>Im Bismarck-Archipel</i>, pp. 94 <i>sq.</i>; -J. G. F. Riedel, <i>De sluik- en kroesharige -rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua</i>, -p. 303; H. Schinz, <i>Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika</i>, -p. 307. A similar custom was -observed, probably for the same reason, -in ancient Mexico and in Madagascar. -See Clavigero, <i>History of Mexico</i>, -translated by Cullen, i. 31; W. Ellis, -<i>History of Madagascar</i>, i. 152. Compare -my note, “The Youth of Achilles,” -<i>Classical Review</i>, vii. (1893) pp. 293 -<i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f764'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r764'>764</a>. </span>Compare E. Samter, <i>Familienfeste -der Griechen und Römer</i> (Berlin, 1901), -pp. 59-62.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f765'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r765'>765</a>. </span>W. R. S. Ralston, <i>The Songs of the -Russian People</i>, pp. 120 <i>sq.</i> Ralston -held that the Russian house-spirit -Domovoy, who is supposed to live -behind the stove, is the modern representative -of an ancestral spirit. Compare -<i>ibid.</i> pp. 84, 86, 119.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f766'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r766'>766</a>. </span>Evidence of this view will be -adduced later on. See <i>The Golden -Bough</i>, Second Edition, iii. 456.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f767'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r767'>767</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_185'>185</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f768'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r768'>768</a>. </span>L. v. Schroeder, <i>Die Hochzeitsbräuche -der Esten</i> (Berlin, 1888), pp. -129 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f769'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r769'>769</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f770'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r770'>770</a>. </span>Th. Mommsen, <i>History of Rome</i>, -New Edition (London, 1894), i. 215 -<i>sq.</i>; J. Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, -iii. 2nd Ed., p. 326; W. Warde -Fowler, <i>Roman Festivals of the Period -of the Republic</i>, p. 147. For another -derivation of their name see below, -p. <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f771'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r771'>771</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f772'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r772'>772</a>. </span>H. Vaughan Stevens, “Mitteilungen -aus dem Frauenleben der Ôrang -Belendas, der Ôrang Djâkun und der -Ôrang Lâut,” bearbeitet von Dr. Max -Bartels, <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, -xxviii. (1896) pp. 168 <i>sq.</i> The writer -adds that any person, boy, man, or -woman (provided she was not menstruous) -might light the fire, if it were -more convenient that he or she should -do so. Thus the co-operation of a -married man and an unmarried girl, -though apparently deemed the best, -was not the only permissible way of -igniting the wood. The good faith -or at all events the accuracy of the -late German traveller H. Vaughan -Stevens is not, I understand, above -suspicion; but Mr. Nelson Annandale, -joint author of <i>Fasciculi Malayenses</i>, -writes to me of him that “he certainly -had a knowledge and experience of the -wild tribes of the Malay region which -few or none have excelled, for he lived -literally as one of themselves.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f773'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r773'>773</a>. </span>Prof. Vl. Titelbach, “Das heilige -Feuer bei den Balkanslaven,” <i>Internationales -Archiv für Ethnographie</i>, -xiii. (1900) pp. 2-4. The ceremony -witnessed by Prof. Titelbach will be -described later on in this work. Kinglake -rode through the great Servian -forest on his way from Belgrade to -Constantinople, and from his description -(<i>Eothen</i>, ch. ii.) we gather that it -is chiefly composed of oak. He says: -“Endless and endless now on either -side the tall oaks closed in their ranks, -and stood gloomily lowering over -us.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f774'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r774'>774</a>. </span>Ch. Gilhodes, “La Culture matérielle -des Katchins (Birmanie),” <i>Anthropos</i>, -v. (1910) p. 629.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f775'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r775'>775</a>. </span>M. Martin’s “Description of the -Western Islands of Scotland,” in -Pinkerton’s <i>Voyages and Travels</i>, iii. -611. The first edition of Martin’s -work was published in 1703, and the -second in 1716.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f776'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r776'>776</a>. </span>J. Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, 4th ed., -i. 504.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f777'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r777'>777</a>. </span>E. Casalis, <i>The Basutos</i>, pp. -267 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f778'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r778'>778</a>. </span>Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Antiquit. -Rom.</i> ii. 68; Valerius Maximus, -i. 1. 7.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f779'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r779'>779</a>. </span>J. Lecœur, <i>Esquisses du Bocage -Normand</i>, ii. (Condé-sur-Noireau, -1887) p. 27; B. Souché, <i>Croyances, -présages et traditions diverses</i> (Niort, -1880), p. 12.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f780'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r780'>780</a>. </span>Polybius, xii. 13. In Darfur a -curious power over fire is ascribed to -women who have been faithful to their -husbands. “It is a belief among the -Forians, that if the city takes fire, the -only means of arresting the progress -of the flames is to bring near them a -woman, no longer young, who has -never been guilty of intrigue. If she -be pure, by merely waving a mantle, -she puts a stop to the destruction. -Success has sometimes rewarded a -virtuous woman” (<i>Travels of an Arab -Merchant</i> [Mohammed Ibn-Omar El-Tounsy] -<i>in Soudan</i>, abridged from the -French by Bayle St. John (London, -1854), p. 112). Compare R. W. -Felkin, “Notes on the For Tribe of -Central Africa,” <i>Proceedings of the -Royal Society of Edinburgh</i>, xiii. -(1884-1886) p. 230.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f781'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r781'>781</a>. </span>Solinus, xxii. 10. The Celtic -Minerva, according to Caesar (<i>De bello -Gallico</i>, vi. 17), was a goddess of the -mechanical arts.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f782'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r782'>782</a>. </span>J. Rhys, <i>Celtic Heathendom</i>, pp. -73-77; P. W. Joyce, <i>Social History of -Ancient Ireland</i>, i. 260 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f783'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r783'>783</a>. </span>Giraldus Cambrensis, <i>The Topography -of Ireland</i>, chaps. xxxiv.-xxxvi., -translated by Thomas Wright; P. W. -Joyce, <i>Social History of Ancient Ireland</i>, -i. 334 <i>sq.</i> It is said that in the -island of Sena (the modern <i>Sein</i>), off -the coast of Brittany, there was an -oracle of a Gallic deity whose worship -was cared for by nine virgin priestesses. -They could raise storms by their incantations, -and turn themselves into -any animals they pleased (<i>Mela</i>, iii. -48); but it is not said that they maintained -a perpetual holy fire, though -Ch. Elton affirms that they did (<i>Origins -of English History</i>, p. 27). M. Salomon -Reinach dismisses these virgins as -a fable based on Homer’s description of -the isle of Circe (<i>Odyssey</i>, x. 135 <i>sqq.</i>), -and he denies that the Gauls employed -virgin priestesses. See his article, -“Les Vierges de Sena,” <i>Revue Celtique</i>, -xviii. (1897) pp. 1-8; <i>id.</i>, <i>Cultes, -mythes, et religions</i>, i. (Paris, 1905) -pp. 195 <i>sqq.</i> To me the nuns of -St. Brigit seem to be most probably -the successors of a Celtic order -of Vestals. That there were female -Druids is certain, but it does not appear -whether they were virgins. See Lampridius, -<i>Alexander Severus</i>, 60; Vopiscus, -<i>Aurelianus</i>, 44; <i>id.</i>, <i>Numerianus</i>, -14 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f784'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r784'>784</a>. </span>Prof. Vl. Titelbach, “Das heilige -Feuer bei den Balkanslaven,” <i>Internationales -Archiv für Ethnographie</i>, -xiii. (1900) p. 1.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f785'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r785'>785</a>. </span><i>Laws of Manu</i>, iv. 53, translated -by G. Bühler (<i>Sacred Books of the East</i>, -vol. xxv. p. 137).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f786'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r786'>786</a>. </span>Martin Haug, <i>Essays on the Sacred -Language, Writings, and Religion of -the Parsees</i> 3rd Ed., (London, 1884), p. 243, -note 1. Strabo describes the mouth-veil -worn by the Magian priests in -Cappadocia (xiv. 3. 15, p. 733). At -Arkon, in the island of Rügen, there -was a shrine so holy that none but the -priest might enter it, and even he -might not breathe in it. As often as -he needed to draw in or give out -breath, he used to run out of the door -lest he should taint the divine presence -with his breath. See Saxo Grammaticus, -<i>Historia Danica</i>, bk. xiv. p. -824, ed. P. E. Müller (p. 393 of -Elton’s English translation).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f787'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r787'>787</a>. </span>P. W. Joyce, <i>Social History of -Ancient Ireland</i>, i. 335 <i>sq.</i>; Standish -H. O’Grady, <i>Sylva Gadelica</i>, translation -(London, 1892), pp. 15, 16, 41.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f788'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r788'>788</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_94'>94</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f789'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r789'>789</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f790'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r790'>790</a>. </span>Douglas Hyde, <i>A Literary History -of Ireland</i> (London, 1899), p. 158. -The tradition of the oak of Kildare -survives in the lines,</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>That oak of Saint Bride, which nor Devil nor Dane</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Nor Saxon nor Dutchman could rend from her fane</i>,”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>which are quoted by Mr. D. Fitzgerald -in <i>Revue Celtique</i>, iv. (1879-1880) p. -193.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f791'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r791'>791</a>. </span>Douglas Hyde, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 169-171. -At Kells, also, St. Columba -dwelt under a great oak-tree. The -writer of his Irish life, quoted by Mr. -Hyde, says that the oak-tree “remained -till these latter times, when it -fell through the crash of a mighty wind. -And a certain man took somewhat of -its bark to tan his shoes with. Now, -when he did on the shoes, he was -smitten with leprosy from his sole to -his crown.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f792'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r792'>792</a>. </span>Garcilasso de la Vega, <i>Royal Commentaries -of the Yncas</i>, pt. i. bk. iv. -chaps. 1-3, bk. vi. chaps. 20-22 -(vol. i. pp. 292-299, vol. ii. pp. 155-164, -Markham’s translation); P. de -Cieza de Leon, <i>Travels</i>, p. 134 (Markham’s -translation); <i>id.</i>, <i>Second Part of -the Chronicle of Peru</i>, pp. 85 <i>sq.</i> (Markham’s -translation); Acosta, <i>Natural -and Moral History of the Indies</i>, bk. -v. chap. 15 (vol. ii. pp. 331-333, -Hakluyt Society). Professor E. B. -Tylor discredits Garcilasso’s description -of these Peruvian priestesses on the -ground that it resembles Plutarch’s -account of the Roman Vestals (<i>Numa</i>, -9 <i>sq.</i>) too closely to be independent; -he thinks that “the apparent traces of -absorption from Plutarch invalidate -whatever rests on Garcilasso de la Vega’s -unsupported testimony.” See his <i>Researches -into the Early History of Mankind</i>, 3rd Ed., -pp. 249-253. In particular, he -stumbles at the statement that an unfaithful -Peruvian priestess was buried -alive. But that statement was made -by Cieza de Leon, who travelled in -Peru when Garcilasso was a child, and -whose book, or rather the first part of -it, containing the statement, was published -more than fifty years before that -of Garcilasso. Moreover, when we -understand that the punishment in -question was based on a superstition -which occurs independently in many -parts of the world, the apparent improbability -of the coincidence vanishes. -As to the mode of kindling the sacred -fire, Professor Tylor understands Plutarch -to say that the sacred fire at -Rome was kindled, as in Peru, by a -burning-glass. To me it seems that -Plutarch is here speaking of a Greek, -not a Roman usage, and this is made -still clearer when his text is read correctly. -For the words ὑπὸ Μήδων, -περὶ δὲ τὰ Μιθριδιατικά should be altered -to ὑπὸ Μαίδων περὶ τὰ Μιθριδιατικά. See -H. Pomtow in <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, -N. F. li. (1896) p. 365, and my note -on Pausanias, x. 19. 4 (vol. v. p. -331). Thus Plutarch gives two instances -when a sacred fire was extinguished -and had to be relit with a -burning-glass; but both instances are -Greek, neither is Roman. The Greek -mode of lighting a sacred fire by means -of a crystal is described also in the -Orphic poem on precious stones, verses -177 <i>sqq.</i> (<i>Orphica</i>, ed. E. Abel, p. -115). Nor were the Greeks and -Peruvians peculiar in this respect. -The Siamese and Chinese have also -been in the habit of kindling a sacred -fire by means of a metal mirror or -burning-glass. See Pallegoix, <i>Description -du royaume Thai ou Siam</i>, ii. 55; A. -Bastian, <i>Die Völker des östlichen Asien</i>, -iii. 516; J. H. Plath, “Die Religion -und der Cultus der alten Chinesen,” -<i>Abhandlungen der k. bayer. Akademie -der Wissen</i>, i. Cl. ix. (1863) pp. 876 <i>sq.</i> -Again, the full description of the golden -garden of the Peruvian Vestals, which -may sound to us fabulous, is given -by Cieza de Leon in a work (the -<i>Second Part of the Chronicle of Peru</i>) -which it is unlikely that Garcilasso -ever saw, since it was not printed till -1873, centuries after his death. Yet -Garcilasso’s brief description of the -garden agrees closely with that of -Cieza de Leon, differing from it just as -that of an independent witness naturally -would—namely, in the selection of -some other details in addition to those -which the two have in common. He -says that the virgins “had a garden of -trees, plants, herbs, birds and beasts, -made of gold and silver, like that in -the temple” (vol. i. p. 298, Markham’s -translation). Thus the two -accounts are probably independent and -therefore trustworthy, for a fiction of -this kind could hardly have occurred to -two romancers separately. A strong -confirmation of Garcilasso’s fidelity is -furnished by the close resemblance -which the fire customs, both of Rome -and Peru, present to the well-authenticated -fire customs of the Herero at -the present day. There seems to be -every reason to think that all three -sets of customs originated independently -in the simple needs and superstitious -fancies of the savage. On the -whole, I see no reason to question the -good faith and accuracy of Garcilasso.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f793'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r793'>793</a>. </span>B. de Sahagun, <i>Histoire des choses -de la Nouvelle Espagne</i>, pp. 196 <i>sq.</i>, -386; Acosta, <i>Natural and Moral -History of the Indies</i>, bk. v. ch. 15 -(vol. ii. pp. 333 <i>sq.</i>, Hakluyt Society); -A. de Herrera, <i>General History of the -vast Continent and Islands of America</i>, -iii. 209 <i>sq.</i>, Stevens’s translation -(London, 1725, 1726); Clavigero, -<i>History of Mexico</i>, i. 264, 274 <i>sq.</i>; -Brasseur de Bourbourg, <i>Histoire des -nations civilisées du Mexique et de -l’Amérique Centrale</i>, i. 289, iii. 661; -H. H. Bancroft, <i>Native Races of the -Pacific States</i>, ii. 204 <i>sqq.</i>, 245, 583, -iii. 435 <i>sq.</i> However, Sahagun -(pp. 186, 194), Acosta (vol. ii. p. 336) -and Herrera seem to imply that the -duty of maintaining the sacred fire was -discharged by men only.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f794'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r794'>794</a>. </span>Brasseur de Bourbourg, <i>op. cit.</i> -ii. 6; H. H. Bancroft, <i>op. cit.</i> iii. 473. -Fire-worship seems to have lingered -among the Indians of Yucatan down -to about the middle of the nineteenth -century, and it may still survive among -them. See D. G. Brinton, “The -Folk-lore of Yucatan,” <i>Folk-lore Journal</i>, -i. (1883) pp. 247 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f795'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r795'>795</a>. </span>Letter of the Rev. J. Roscoe, -dated Kampala, Uganda, 9th April -1909.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f796'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r796'>796</a>. </span>Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 22; Ateius -Capito, cited by Plutarch, <i>Quaest. -Rom.</i> 50. On the other hand, Servius -on Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> iv. 29, says that the -Flamen might marry another wife after -the death of the first. But the statement -of Aulus Gellius and Ateius -Capito is confirmed by other evidence. -See J. Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, -iii. 2nd Ed., 329, note 8. As to the -rule see my note, “The Widowed -Flamen,” <i>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</i>, Second -Edition, pp. 407 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f797'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r797'>797</a>. </span>Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 7; Festus, -p. 106, ed. C. O. Müller.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f798'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r798'>798</a>. </span>Livy, v. 52. 13 <i>sq.</i> In later times -the rule was so far relaxed that he was -allowed to be absent from Rome for -two nights or even longer, provided he -got leave from the chief pontiff on the -score of ill-health. See Aulus Gellius, -x. 15. 14; Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, iii. 71.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f799'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r799'>799</a>. </span>Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, iii. 58; Dio -Cassius, liv. 36. As to the honours -attached to the office, see Livy, xxvii. -8. 8; Plutarch, <i>Quaest. Rom.</i> 113.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f800'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r800'>800</a>. </span>See <i>The Golden Bough</i>, Second -Edition, i. 241 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f801'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r801'>801</a>. </span>P. Kretschmer, <i>Einleitung in die -Geschichte der griechischen Sprache</i> -(Göttingen, 1896), pp. 127 <i>sqq.</i>; O. -Schrader, <i>Reallexikon der indogermanischen -Altertumskunde</i>, pp. 637 <i>sq.</i> -For a different derivation of the name -Flamen see above, p. <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>. Being no -philologer, I do not pretend to decide -between the rival etymologies. My -friend Prof. J. H. Moulton prefers the -equation <i>Flamen</i> = <i>Brahman</i>, which -he tells me is philologically correct, -because if <i>Flamen</i> came from <i>flare</i> we -should expect a form like <i>flator</i> rather -than <i>flamen</i>. The form <i>flator</i> was -used in Latin, though not in this sense.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f802'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r802'>802</a>. </span>W. Crooke, <i>The Tribes and Castes -of the North-Western Provinces and -Oudh</i>, i. 30-32. Compare Monier -Williams, <i>Religious Thought and Life -in India</i>, pp. 364, 365, 392.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f803'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r803'>803</a>. </span>Aulus Gellius, x. 15.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f804'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r804'>804</a>. </span>Homer, <i>Iliad</i>, xvi. 233-235; -Sophocles, <i>Trachiniae</i>, 1166 <i>sq.</i>; -Callimachus, <i>Hymn to Delos</i>, 284-286.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f805'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r805'>805</a>. </span>Ch. Hartknoch, <i>Selectae dissertationes -historicae de variis rebus -Prussicis</i>, p. 163 (bound up with his -edition of Düsburg’s <i>Chronicon -Prussiae</i>, Frankfort and Leipsic, -1679); Simon Grunau, <i>Preussischer -Chronik</i>, ed. M. Perlbach, i. (Leipsic, -1876) p. 95.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f806'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r806'>806</a>. </span>W. Crooke, <i>op. cit.</i> i. 31-33.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f807'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r807'>807</a>. </span>W. Crooke, <i>Popular Religion and -Folk-lore of Northern India</i> (Westminster, -1896), ii. 194 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f808'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r808'>808</a>. </span>J. C. Nesfield, in <i>Panjab Notes and -Queries</i>, ii. p. 12, § 77.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f809'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r809'>809</a>. </span><i>Rigveda</i>, iii. 29, translated by -R. T. H. Griffith (Benares, 1889-1892), -vol. ii. pp. 25-27; <i>Satapatha Brâhmana</i>, -translated by J. Eggeling, part i. p. 389, -note 3, part ii. pp. 90 <i>sq.</i>, part v. pp. -68-74; <i>Hymns of the Atharva-Veda</i>, -translated by M. Bloomfield, pp. 91, 97 -<i>sq.</i>, 334, 460; W. Caland, <i>Altindisches -Zauberritual</i>, pp. 115 <i>sq.</i>; A. Kuhn, -<i>Herabkunft des Feuers</i>, 2nd Ed., pp. 40, 64-78, -183-185; H. Zimmer, <i>Altindisches -Leben</i>, pp. 58, 59. The <i>sami</i> wood -is sometimes identified with the <i>Acacia -Suma</i> (<i>Mimosa Suma</i>); but the modern -Bengalee name of <i>Prosopis spicigera</i> is -<i>shami</i> or <i>somi</i>, which seems to be conclusive -evidence of the identity of -<i>Prosopis spicigera</i> with <i>sami</i>. The -<i>Prosopis spicigera</i> is a deciduous thorny -tree of moderate size, which grows in -the arid zones of the Punjaub, Rajputana, -Gujarat, Bundelcund, and the -Deccan. The heart of the wood is of -a purplish brown colour and extremely -hard. It is especially valued for fuel, -as it gives out much heat. See G. -Watt, <i>Dictionary of the Economic -Products of India</i>, <i>s.v.</i> “Prosopis -spicigera.” For a reference to this -work I am indebted to the kindness of -the late Professor H. Marshall Ward.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f810'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r810'>810</a>. </span>A. Kuhn, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 40, 66, 175.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f811'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r811'>811</a>. </span><i>Hymns of the Atharva-Veda</i>, translated -by M. Bloomfield, pp. 97 <i>sq.</i>, -460; W. Caland, <i>Altindisches Zauberritual</i>, -pp. 115 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f812'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r812'>812</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_195'>195</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a> <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f813'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r813'>813</a>. </span><i>Rigveda</i>, x. 95, translated by R. -T. H. Griffith, <i>Satapatha Brâhmana</i>, -translated by J. Eggeling, part v. -pp. 68-74. Compare H. Oldenberg, -<i>Die Literatur des alten Indien</i> (Stuttgart -and Berlin, 1903), pp. 53-55. On -the story see A. Kuhn, <i>Herabkunft des -Feuers</i>, 2nd Ed., pp. 71 <i>sqq.</i>; F. Max Müller -<i>Selected Essays on Language, Religion, -and Mythology</i> (London, 1881), i. 408 -<i>sqq.</i>; Andrew Lang, <i>Custom and -Myth</i> (London, 1884), pp. 64 <i>sqq.</i>; -K. F. Pischel and Geldner, <i>Vedische -Studien</i>, i. (Stuttgart, 1889), pp. 243-295. -It belongs to the group of -tales which describe the marriage of -a human with an animal mate, of -a mortal with a fairy, and often, -though not always, their unhappy -parting. The story seems to have its -roots in totemism. See my <i>Totemism -and Exogamy</i>, ii. 566 <i>sqq.</i> It will be -illustrated more at length in a later -part of <i>The Golden Bough</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f814'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r814'>814</a>. </span>Homer, <i>Hymn to Mercury</i>, 108-111 -(where a line has been lost; see -the note of Messrs. Allen and Sikes); -Theophrastus, <i>Histor. plant.</i> v. 9. 6; -<i>id.</i>, <i>De igne</i>, ix. 64; Hesychius, <i>s.v.</i> -στορεύς; Schol. on Apollonius Rhodius, -<i>Argon.</i> i. 1184; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> -xvi. 208; Seneca, <i>Nat. Quaest.</i> ii. -22; A. Kuhn, <i>Herabkunft des Feuers</i>, 2nd Ed., -pp. 35-41; H. Blumner, <i>Technologie -und Terminologie der Gewerbe und -Künste</i>, ii. 354-356. Theophrastus -gives the name of <i>athragene</i> to the -plant which, next to or equally with -ivy, makes the best board; he compares -it to a vine. Pliny (<i>l.c.</i>) seems -to have identified it with a species of -wild vine. According to Sprengel, -the <i>athragene</i> is the <i>Clematis cirrhosa</i> -of Linnaeus, the French <i>clématite à -vrilles</i>. See Dioscorides, ed. C. -Sprengel, vol. ii. p. 641. As to the -kinds of wood employed by the -Romans in kindling fire we have no -certain evidence, as Pliny and Seneca -may have merely copied from Theophrastus.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f815'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r815'>815</a>. </span>Pausanias, i. 31. 6, with my -note.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f816'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r816'>816</a>. </span>E. H. Man, <i>On the Aboriginal Inhabitants -of the Andaman Islands</i> (London, -<span class='fss'>N.D.</span>), p. 82. Mr. Man’s evidence -is confirmed by a German traveller, -Mr. Jagor, who says of the Andaman -Islanders: “The fire must never go -out. Here also I am again assured -that the Andamanese have no means of -making fire.” See <i>Verhandlungen der -Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie</i>, -1877, p. (54) (bound with <i>Zeitschrift -für Ethnologie</i>, ix.). I regret that on -this subject I did not question Mr. -A. R. Brown, Fellow of Trinity College, -Cambridge, who resided for about two -years among the Andaman Islanders, -studying their customs and beliefs. -Mr. Brown is now (December 1910) in -West Australia.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f817'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r817'>817</a>. </span>N. von Miklucho-Maclay, “Ethnologische -Bemerkungen über die -Papuas der Maclay-Küste in Neu-Guinea,” -<i>Natuurkundig Tijdschrift -voor Nederlandsch Indie</i>, xxxv. (1875), -pp. 82, 83. Compare C. Hager, -<i>Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und der Bismarck-Archipel</i>, -p. 69; M. Krieger, -<i>Neu-Guinea</i>, p. 153. The natives of -the Maclay Coast are said to have -traditions of a time when they were -ignorant even of the use of fire; they -ate fruits raw, which set up a disease -of the gums, filling their mouths with -blood; they had a special name for -the disease. See N. von Miklucho-Maclay, -in <i>Verhandlungen der Berliner -Gesellschaft für Anthropologie</i>, 1882, -p. (577) (bound with <i>Zeitschrift für -Ethnologie</i>, xiv.). The reports of -people living in ignorance of the use -of fire have hitherto proved, on closer -examination, to be fables. See E. B. -Tylor, <i>Researches into the Early History -of Mankind</i>, 3rd Ed., pp. 229 <i>sqq.</i> The -latest repetition of the story that I -know of is by an American naturalist, -Mr. Titian R. Peale, who confirms the -exploded statement that down to 1841 -the natives of Bowditch Island had -not seen fire. See <i>The American -Naturalist</i>, xviii. (1884) pp. 229-232.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f818'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r818'>818</a>. </span>B. Hagen, <i>Unter den Papuas</i> -(Wiesbaden, 1899), pp. 203 <i>sq.</i> Mr. -Hagen’s account applies chiefly to the -natives of Astrolabe Bay. He tells us -that for the most part they now use -Swedish matches.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f819'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r819'>819</a>. </span>G. Casati, <i>Ten Years in Equatoria</i> -(London and New York, 1891), i. -157. Another writer says that these -dwarfs “keep fire alight perpetually, -starting it in some large tree, which -goes on smouldering for months at a -time” (Captain Guy Burrows, <i>The -Land of the Pigmies</i> (London, 1898), -p. 199).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f820'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r820'>820</a>. </span>F. Stuhlmann, <i>Mit Emin Pascha -ins Herz von Afrika</i> (Berlin, 1894), -pp. 451 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f821'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r821'>821</a>. </span>Sir Harry H. Johnston, <i>British -Central Africa</i> (London, 1897), p. -439; <i>id.</i>, <i>The Uganda Protectorate</i> -(London, 1902), ii. 540. If we may -trust Diodorus Siculus (i. 13. 3), this -was the origin of fire alleged by the -Egyptian priests. Among the Winamwanga -and Wiwa tribes of East Africa, -to the south of Lake Tanganyika, -“when lightning sets fire to a tree, all -the fires in a village are put out, and -fireplaces freshly plastered, while the -head men take the fire to the chief, -who prays over it. It is then sent -to all his villages, the people of the -villages rewarding his messengers.” -See Dr. J. A. Chisholm, “Notes on -the Manners and Customs of the -Winamwanga and Wiwa,” <i>Journal of -the African Society</i>, No. 36 (July -1910), p. 363. The Parsees ascribe -peculiar sanctity to fire which has -been obtained from a tree struck -by lightning. See D. J. Karaka, -<i>History of the Modern Parsis</i> (London, -1884), ii. 213. In Siam and Cambodia -such fire is carefully preserved -and used to light the funeral pyres of -kings and others. See Pallegoix, -<i>Description du royaume Thai ou -Siam</i>, i. 248; J. Moura, <i>Le Royaume -du Cambodge</i>, i. 360.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f822'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r822'>822</a>. </span>Oscar Peschel, <i>Völkerkunde</i> 6th Ed. -(Leipsic, 1885), p. 138. Mr. Man -thinks it likely that the Andaman -Islanders got their fire from one of the -two volcanoes which exist in their -island (<i>On the Aboriginal Inhabitants -of the Andaman Islands</i>, p. 82). The -Creek Indians of North America have -a tradition that some of their ancestors -procured fire from a volcano. See -A. S. Gatschet, <i>A Migration Legend of -the Creek Indians</i>, ii. (St. Louis, 1888) -p. 11 (43).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f823'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r823'>823</a>. </span>O. Peschel, <i>loc. cit.</i> As to the -fires of Baku see further, <i>Adonis, -Attis, Osiris</i>, Second Edition, p. 159.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f824'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r824'>824</a>. </span>R. Taylor, <i>Te Ika A Maui, or -New Zealand and its Inhabitants</i>, 2nd Ed., -p. 367; W. Crooke, <i>Popular Religion -and Folk-lore of Northern India</i> -(Westminster, 1896), ii. 194; A. Kuhn, -<i>Herabkunft des Feuers</i>, 2nd Ed., pp. 92, 102. -Lucretius thought that the first fire was -procured either from lightning or from -the mutual friction of trees in a high -wind (<i>De rerum natura</i>, v. 1091-1101). -The latter source was preferred by -Vitruvius (<i>De architectura</i>, ii. 1. 1).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f825'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r825'>825</a>. </span>Sir Harry H. Johnston, <i>ll.cc.</i> Professor -K. von den Steinen conjectures -that savages, who already possessed -fire, and were wont to use tinder to -nurse a smouldering brand into a -blaze, may have accidentally discovered -the mode of kindling fire in an -attempt to make tinder by rubbing -two dry sticks or reeds against each -other. See K. von den Steinen, -<i>Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens</i>, -pp. 219-228.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f826'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r826'>826</a>. </span>J. Dumont D’Urville, <i>Voyage -autour du monde et à la recherche de -la Perouse</i>, i. (Paris, 1832) pp. 95, -194; Scott Nind, “Description of the -Natives of King George’s Sound,” -<i>Journal of the Royal Geographical -Society</i>, i. (1832) p. 26; E. J. Eyre, -<i>Journals of Expeditions of Discovery -into Central Australia</i>, ii. 357; A. Oldfield, -“The Aborigines of Australia,” -<i>Transactions of the Ethnological -Society of London</i>, N.S., iii. (1865) -pp. 283 <i>sq.</i>; J. Dawson, <i>Australian -Aborigines</i>, p. 15; <i>Annales de la -Propagation de la Foi</i>, xvii. (1845) -pp. 76 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f827'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r827'>827</a>. </span>R. Brough Smyth, <i>The Aborigines -of Victoria</i>, i. 396.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f828'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r828'>828</a>. </span>R. Taylor, <i>Te Ika A Maui, or -New Zealand and its Inhabitants</i>, 2nd Ed., -p. 567. Other writers confirm the -statement that the carrying of the -fire-sticks is the special duty of -the women. See W. Stanbridge, -“On the Aborigines of Victoria,” -<i>Transactions of the Ethnological Society -of London</i>, N.S., i. (1861) p. 291; -J. F. Mann, “Notes on the Aborigines -of Australia,” <i>Proceedings of the -Geographical Society of Australasia</i>, -i. (1885) p. 29.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f829'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r829'>829</a>. </span>Melville, quoted by H. Ling Roth, -<i>The Aborigines of Tasmania</i> (London, -1890), p. 97. It has sometimes been -affirmed that the Tasmanians did not -know how to kindle fire; but the -evidence collected by Mr. Ling Roth -(<i>op. cit.</i>, pp. xii. <i>sq.</i>, 96 <i>sq.</i>), proves -that they were accustomed to light it -both by the friction of wood and by -striking flints together.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f830'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r830'>830</a>. </span>Mr. Dove, quoted by James Bonwick, -<i>Daily Life and Origin of the -Tasmanians</i>, p. 20.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f831'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r831'>831</a>. </span>Wilfred Powell, <i>Wanderings in a -Wild Country</i> (London, 1883), p. 196.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f832'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r832'>832</a>. </span>Captain J. Wilson, <i>Missionary -Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean</i> -(London, 1799), p. 357.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f833'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r833'>833</a>. </span>J. G. Wood, <i>Natural History of -Man</i>, ii. 522; J. G. Garson, “On the -Inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego,” -<i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, -xv. (1886). p. 145; <i>Mission -scientifique du Cap Horn</i>, 1882-1883, -vii. (Paris, 1891) p. 345.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f834'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r834'>834</a>. </span>J. B. Ambrosetti, “Los Indios -Caingua del alto Paraná (misiones),” -<i>Boletino del Instituto Geografico -Argentino</i>, xv. (1895) pp. 703 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f835'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r835'>835</a>. </span>E. F. im Thurn, <i>Among the -Indians of Guiana</i>, pp. 257 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f836'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r836'>836</a>. </span>A. Widenmann, <i>Die Kilimandscharo-Bevölkerung</i> -(Gotha, 1899), pp. -68 <i>sq.</i> (<i>Petermann’s Mittheilungen: -Ergänzungsheft</i>, No. 129).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f837'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r837'>837</a>. </span>Sir Harry H. Johnston, <i>British -Central Africa</i> (London, 1897), p. 438.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f838'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r838'>838</a>. </span>A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, <i>Up -the Niger</i> (London, 1892), p. 37.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f839'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r839'>839</a>. </span>Miss Mary H. Kingsley, <i>Travels -in West Africa</i>, pp. 599 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f840'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r840'>840</a>. </span>P. de Tournefort, <i>Relation d’un -voyage du Levant</i> (Amsterdam, 1718), -i. 93 (Lettre vi.); Sibthorp, in R. Walpole’s -<i>Memoirs relating to European and -Asiatic Turkey</i> (London, 1817), pp. -284 <i>sq.</i>; W. G. Clark, <i>Peloponnesus</i> -(London, 1858), p. 111; J. T. Bent, -<i>The Cyclades</i> (London, 1885), p. 365. -The giant fennel (<i>Ferula communis</i>, L.) -is still known in Greece by its ancient -name, hardly modified (<i>nartheka</i> -instead of <i>narthex</i>), though W. G. -Clark says the modern name is <i>kalami</i>. -Bent speaks of the plant as a reed, -which is a mistake. The plant is -described by Theophrastus (<i>Histor. -plant.</i> vi. 2. 7 <i>sq.</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f841'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r841'>841</a>. </span>Hesiod, <i>Works and Days</i>, 50-52; -<i>id.</i>, <i>Theogony</i>, 565-567; Aeschylus, -<i>Prometheus Bound</i>, 107-111; Apollodorus, -<i>Bibliotheca</i>, i. 7. 1; Hyginus, -<i>Fabulae</i>, 144; <i>id.</i>, <i>Astronomica</i>, ii. 15.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f842'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r842'>842</a>. </span>See my article, “The Prytaneum, -the Temple of Vesta, the Vestals, -Perpetual Fires,” <i>Journal of Philology</i>, -xiv. (1885) pp. 169-171.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f843'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r843'>843</a>. </span>Arnobius, <i>Adversus nationes</i>, ii. -67.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f844'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r844'>844</a>. </span>See my article, “The Prytaneum, -the Temple of Vesta, the Vestals, Perpetual -Fires,” <i>Journal of Philology</i>, xiv. -(1885) pp. 145 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f845'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r845'>845</a>. </span>G. Turner, <i>Nineteen Years in -Polynesia</i> (London, 1861), p. 326.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f846'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r846'>846</a>. </span>Ph. Paulitschke, <i>Ethnographie -Nordost-Afrikas, die materielle Cultur -der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl</i> (Berlin, -1893), p. 145.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f847'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r847'>847</a>. </span>J. B. Labat, <i>Relation historique -de l’Éthiopie Occidentale</i>, i. 256 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f848'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r848'>848</a>. </span>J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the -Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” -<i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, -xxxii. (1902) pp. 43, 51 <i>sq.</i>; -<i>id.</i>, in a letter to me dated Mengo, -Uganda, 3rd August 1904.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f849'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r849'>849</a>. </span>W. G. Browne, <i>Travels in Africa, -Egypt, and Syria</i> (London, 1799), -p. 306.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f850'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r850'>850</a>. </span>J. J. Monteiro, <i>Angola and the -River Congo</i> (London, 1875), ii. 167.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f851'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r851'>851</a>. </span>P. Pogge, <i>Im Reiche des Muata -Jamwo</i> (Berlin, 1880), p. 234.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f852'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r852'>852</a>. </span>A. Bastian, <i>Die Völker des östlichen -Asien</i>, iii. 515 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f853'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r853'>853</a>. </span>Du Pratz, <i>History of Louisiana</i> -(London, 1774), pp. 330-334, 346 <i>sq.</i>, -351-358; Charlevoix, <i>Histoire de la -Nouvelle France</i>, vi. 172 <i>sqq.</i>; Lafitau, -<i>Mœurs des sauvages Ameriquains</i>, i. -167 <i>sq.</i>; <i>Lettres édifiantes et curieuses</i>, -Nouvelle Édition, vii. (Paris, 1781) -pp. 7-16 (reprinted in <i>Recueil de -voyages au nord</i>, ix. Amsterdam, -1737, pp. 3-13); “Relation de la -Louisianne,” <i>Recueil de voyages au -Nord</i>, v. (Amsterdam, 1734) pp. -23 <i>sq.</i>; Bossu, <i>Nouveaux Voyages aux -Indes Occidentales</i> (Paris, 1768), i. -42-44; Chateaubriand, <i>Voyage en -Amérique</i> (Paris, 1870), pp. 227 <i>sqq.</i>; -H. R. Schoolcraft, <i>Indian Tribes</i>, v. -68. The accounts differ from each -other in some details. Thus Du Pratz -speaks as if there were only two fire-temples -in the country, whereas the -writer in the <i>Lettres édifiantes</i> says -that there were eleven villages each -with its fire-temple, and that formerly -there had been sixty villages and -temples. The account in the text is -based mainly on the authority of Du -Pratz, who lived among the Natchez -on terms of intimacy for eight years, -from the end of 1718 to 1726.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f854'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r854'>854</a>. </span>Hennepin, <i>Nouvelle Découverte -d’un très grand pays situé dans -l’Amérique</i> (Utrecht, 1697), p. 306.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f855'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r855'>855</a>. </span>Xenophon, <i>Cyropaedia</i>, viii. 3. -12; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxiii. 6. -34; Quintus Curtius, iii. 3. 7.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f856'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r856'>856</a>. </span>Dio Cassius, lxxi. 35. 5; Herodian, -i. 8. 4, i. 16. 4, ii. 3. 2, ii. 8. 6, vii. -1. 9, vii. 6. 2.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f857'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r857'>857</a>. </span>H. Schinz, <i>Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika</i>, -p. 320.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f858'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r858'>858</a>. </span>O. Dapper, <i>Description de l’Afrique</i> -(Amsterdam, 1686), p. 392.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f859'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r859'>859</a>. </span>O. Dapper, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 400.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f860'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r860'>860</a>. </span>Quintus Curtius, v. 2. 7. Curtius -represents this as a signal adopted by -Alexander, because the sound of the -bugle was lost in the trampling and -hum of the great multitude. But this -maybe merely the historian’s interpretation -of an old custom.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f861'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r861'>861</a>. </span>Xenophon, <i>Respublica Lacedaemoniorum</i>, -xiii. 2 <i>sq.</i>; Nicolaus Damascenus, -quoted by Stobaeus, <i>Florilegium</i>, -xliv. 41 (vol. ii. p. 188 ed. Meineke); -Hesychius, <i>s.v.</i> πυρσοφόρος.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f862'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r862'>862</a>. </span>Herodotus, iv. 68.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f863'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r863'>863</a>. </span>Aeschylus, <i>Choëph.</i> 604 <i>sqq.</i>; -Apollodorus, <i>Bibliotheca</i>, i. 8. 2 <i>sq.</i>; -Diodorus Siculus, iv. 34. 6 <i>sq.</i>; Ovid, -<i>Metamorph.</i> viii. 445 <i>sqq.</i>; Hyginus, -<i>Fab.</i> 171 and 174.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f864'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r864'>864</a>. </span>Servius, on Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> x. 228.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f865'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r865'>865</a>. </span>Le P. H. Geurtjens, “Le Cérémonial -des Voyages aux Îles Keij,” -<i>Anthropos</i>, v. (1910) pp. 337 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f866'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r866'>866</a>. </span>J. Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, -iii. 2nd Ed., 237, 321; C. Julian, in -Daremberg et Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des -antiquités grecques et romaines</i>, ii. -1173. As to Vesta and the Vestals, -see above, vol. i. pp. 13 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f867'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r867'>867</a>. </span>C. Julian, <i>l.c.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f868'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r868'>868</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a> note 1.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f869'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r869'>869</a>. </span>Above, pp. <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>-263.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f870'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r870'>870</a>. </span>Diodorus Siculus, xvii. 114.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f871'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r871'>871</a>. </span>Thus in some African tribes the -household fire is put out after a death, -and afterwards relit by the friction of -sticks (Sir H. H. Johnston, <i>British -Central Africa</i>, p. 439; L. Concradt, -“Die Ngumbu in Südkamerun,” -<i>Globus</i>, lxxxi, (1902) p. 352). In -Laos the fire on the hearth is extinguished -after a death and the ashes are -scattered; afterwards a new fire is -obtained from a neighbour (Tournier, -<i>Notice sur le Laos français</i>, p. 68). -A custom of the same sort is observed -in Burma, but there the new fire must -be bought (C. J. F. S. Forbes, <i>British -Burma</i>, p. 94). Among the Miris of -Assam the new fire is made by the -widow or widower (W. H. Furness, -in <i>Journal of the Anthrop. Institute</i>, -xxxii. (1902) p. 462). In Armenia -it is made by flint and steel (M. -Abeghian, <i>Der armenische Volksglaube</i>, -p. 71). In Argos fire was extinguished -after a death, and fresh fire -obtained from a neighbour (Plutarch, -<i>Quaest. Graec.</i> 24). In the Highlands -of Scotland all fires were put out -in a house where there was a corpse -(Pennant’s “Tour in Scotland,” in Pinkerton’s -<i>Voyages and Travels</i>, iii. 49). -Amongst the Bogos of East Africa no -fire may be lit in a house after a death -until the body has been carried out -(W. Munzinger, <i>Sitten und Recht der -Bogos</i>, p. 67). In the Pelew Islands, -when a death has taken place, fire is -transferred from the house to a shed -erected beside it (J. S. Kubary, “Die -Todtenbestattung auf den Pelau-Inseln,” <i>Original-Mittheilungen aus -der Ethnologischen Abtheilung der -Königlichen Museen zu Berlin</i>, i. 7). -In the Marquesas Islands fires were -extinguished after a death (Vincendon-Dumoulin -et Desgraz, <i>Iles Marquises</i>, -p. 251). Among the Indians of Peru -and the Moors of Algiers no fire might -be lighted for several days in a house -where a death had occurred (Cieza -de Leon, <i>Travels</i>, Markham’s translation, -p. 366; Dapper, <i>Description de -l’Afrique</i>, p. 176). The same custom -is reported of the Mohammedans of -India (Mandelsloe, in J. Harris’s -<i>Voyages and Travels</i>, i. (London, -1744) p. 770). In the East Indian -island of Wetter no fire may burn in -a house for three days after a death, -and according to Bastian the reason is -the one given in the text, to wit, a fear -that the ghost might fall into it and -hurt himself (A. Bastian, <i>Indonesien</i>, -ii. 60). For more evidence, see my -article “On certain Burial Customs,” -<i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, -xv. (1886) p. 90.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f872'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r872'>872</a>. </span>For the list of the Alban kings -see Livy, i. 3. 5-11; Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. -39-56; <i>id.</i>, <i>Metam.</i> xiv. 609 <i>sqq.</i>; -Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Antiquit. -Rom.</i> i. 70 <i>sq.</i>; Eusebius, <i>Chronic.</i> -bk. i. vol. i. coll. 273, 275, 285, 287, -289, 291, ed. A. Schoene; Diodorus -Siculus, vii. 3rd ed. L. Dindorf; Sextus -Aurelius Victor, <i>Origo gentis Romanae</i>, -17-19; Zonaras, <i>Annales</i>, vii. 1.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f873'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r873'>873</a>. </span>See B. G. Niebuhr, <i>History of -Rome</i>, i. 205-207; A. Schwegler, -<i>Römische Geschichte</i>, i. 339, 342-345. -However, Niebuhr admits that some -of the names may have been taken -from older legends.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f874'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r874'>874</a>. </span>H. M. Stanley, <i>Through the Dark -Continent</i> (London, 1878), i. 380; -C. T. Wilson and R. W. Felkin, <i>Uganda -and the Egyptian Soudan</i> (London, -1882), i. 197; Fr. Stuhlman, <i>Mit -Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika</i> -(Berlin, 1894), pp. 192 <i>sq.</i>; J. Roscoe, -“Farther Notes on the Manners and -Customs of the Baganda,” <i>Journal of -the Anthropological Institute</i>, xxxii. -(1902) p. 25, with plates i. and ii.; -Sir Harry Johnston, <i>The Uganda Protectorate</i>, -ii. 681 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f875'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r875'>875</a>. </span>Romulus and Tatius reigned for -a time together; after Romulus the -kings were, in order of succession, -Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, -Ancus Marcius, the elder Tarquin, -Servius Tullius, and Tarquin the -Proud.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f876'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r876'>876</a>. </span>See A. Schwegler, <i>Römische Geschichte</i>, -i. 579 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f877'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r877'>877</a>. </span>According to one account, Romulus -had a son and a daughter (Plutarch, -<i>Romulus</i>, 14). Some held that Numa -had four sons (Plutarch, <i>Numa</i>, 21). -Ancus Marcius left two sons (Livy, -i. 35. 1, i. 40; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, -<i>Ant. Rom.</i> iii. 72 <i>sq.</i>, iv. -34. 3). Tarquin the Elder left two -sons or grandsons (Livy, i. 46; -Dionysius Halic., <i>Ant. Rom.</i> iv. 6 <i>sq.</i> -iv. 28).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f878'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r878'>878</a>. </span>Pompilia, the mother of Ancus -Marcius, was a daughter of Numa. -See Cicero, <i>De re publica</i>, ii. 18. 33; -Livy, i. 32. 1; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, -<i>Ant. Rom.</i> ii. 76. 5, iii. -35. 3, iii. 36. 2; Plutarch, <i>Numa</i>, 21.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f879'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r879'>879</a>. </span>Numa married Tatia, the daughter -of Tatius (Plutarch, <i>Numa</i>, 3 and 21); -Servius Tullius married the daughter -of the elder Tarquin (Livy, i. 39. 4); -and Tarquin the Proud married Tullia -the daughter of Servius Tullius (Livy, -i. 42. 1, i. 46. 5).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f880'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r880'>880</a>. </span>Numa was a Sabine from Cures -(Livy, i. 18; Plutarch, <i>Numa</i>, 3; -Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Ant. Rom.</i> -ii. 58); Servius Tullius, according to -the common account, was the son of -Ocrisia, a slave woman of Corniculum -(Livy, i. 39. 5; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, -<i>Ant. Rom.</i> iv. 1.), but according -to another account he was an -Etruscan (see above, p. <a href='#Page_196'>196</a> note); and -Tarquin the Proud was a son of the -elder Tarquin, who was an Etruscan -from Tarquinii (Livy, i. 34; Cicero, -<i>De re publica</i>, ii. 19 <i>sq.</i>, §§ 34 <i>sq.</i>). -The foreign birth of their kings naturally -struck the Romans themselves. -See the speech put by Livy (i. 35. 3), -in the mouth of the elder Tarquin: -<i>“Se non rem novam petere, quippe qui -non primus, quod quisquam indignari -mirarive posset, sed tertius Romae -peregrinus regnum adfectet; et Tatium -non ex peregrino solum sed etiam ex -hoste regem factum, et Numam ignarum -urbis non petentem in regnum ultro -accitum: se, ex quo sui potens fuerit, -Romam cum conjuge ac fortunis omnibus -commigrasse.</i>” And see a passage -in a speech actually spoken by the -Emperor Claudius: “<i>Quondam reges -hanc tenuere urbem, nec tamen domesticis -successoribus eam tradere contigit. -Supervenere alieni et quidem -externi, ut Numa Romulo successerit -ex Sabinis veniens, vicinus quidem -sed tunec externus</i>,” etc. The speech -is engraved on bronze tablets found at -Lyons. See Tacitus, ed. Baiter and -Orelli, i. 2nd Ed., p. 342.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f881'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r881'>881</a>. </span>“In Ceylon, where the higher -and lower polyandry co-exist, marriage -is of two sorts—Deega or Beena—according -as the wife goes to live in -the house and village of her husbands, -or as the husband or husbands come to -live with her in or near the house of -her birth” (J. F. McLennan, <i>Studies -in Ancient History</i> (London, 1886), -p. 101).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f882'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r882'>882</a>. </span>The system of mother-kin, that is, of -tracing descent through females instead -of through males, is often called the -matriarchate. But this term is inappropriate -and misleading, as it implies -that under the system in question the -women govern the men. Even when -the so-called matriarchate regulates the -descent of the kingdom, this does not -mean that the women of the royal -family reign; it only means that they -are the channel through which the -kingship is transmitted to their husbands -or sons.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f883'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r883'>883</a>. </span>Ancient writers repeatedly speak -of the uncertainty as to the fathers of -the Roman kings. See Livy, i. 4. 2; -Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Ant. Rom.</i> -ii. 2. 3; Cicero, <i>De re publica</i>, ii. 18. -33; Seneca, <i>Epist.</i> cviii. 30; Aelian, -<i>Var. Hist.</i> xiv. 36.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f884'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r884'>884</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, vi. 773-784; Varro, -<i>De lingua Latina</i>, vi. 17. Compare -L. Preller, <i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd Ed., ii. -180 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f885'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r885'>885</a>. </span>See <i>The Golden Bough</i>, Second -Edition, iii. 266 <i>sqq.</i>, 328 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f886'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r886'>886</a>. </span>See <i>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</i>, Second -Edition, pp. 203 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>The Golden -Bough</i>, Second Edition, iii. 318 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f887'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r887'>887</a>. </span>Plutarch, <i>Numa</i>, 3.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f888'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r888'>888</a>. </span>T. E. Bowdich, <i>Mission from Cape -Coast Castle to Ashantee</i>, New Edition -(London, 1873), pp. 185, 204 <i>sq.</i>; -A. B. Ellis, <i>The Tshi-speaking Peoples -of the Gold Coast</i>, pp. 287, 297 <i>sq.</i>; -<i>id.</i>, <i>The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the -Slave Coast</i>, p. 187.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f889'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r889'>889</a>. </span>J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the -Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” -<i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, -xxxii. (1902) pp. 36, 67. In Benin -“the legitimate daughters of a king -did not <i>marry</i> any one, but bestowed -their favours as they pleased.” (Mr. C. -Punch, in H. Ling Roth’s <i>Great Benin</i> -(Halifax, England, 1903), p. 37).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f890'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r890'>890</a>. </span>C. T. Wilson and R. W. Felkin, -<i>Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan</i> -(London, 1882), i. 200; J. Roscoe, -“Further Notes on the Manners and -Customs of the Baganda,” <i>Journal of -the Anthropological Institute</i>, xxxii. -(1902) p. 67.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f891'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r891'>891</a>. </span>J. Roscoe, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 27, 62. Mr. -Roscoe says: “The royal family traces -its pedigree through the maternal clan, -but the nation through the paternal -clan.” But he here refers to the descent -of the totem only. That the -throne descends from father to son is -proved by the genealogical tables which -he gives (Plates I. and II.).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f892'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r892'>892</a>. </span>Proyart’s “History of Loango,” -in Pinkerton’s <i>Voyages and Travels</i>, -xvi. 570, 579 <i>sq.</i>; L. Degrandpré, -<i>Voyage à la côte occidentale d’Afrique</i> -(Paris, 1801), pp. 110-114; A. Bastian, -<i>Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango -Küste</i>, i. 197 <i>sqq.</i> Time seems not -to have mitigated the lot of these -unhappy prince consorts. See R. E. -Dennett, <i>At the Back of the Black -Man’s Mind</i> (London, 1906), pp. 36 -<i>sq.</i>, 134. Mr. Dennett says that the -husband of a princess is virtually her -slave and may be put to death by her. -All the sisters of the King of Loango -enjoy these arbitrary rights over their -husbands, and the offspring of any of -them may become king.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f893'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r893'>893</a>. </span>Father Guillemé, “Au Bengouéolo,” -<i>Missions Catholiques</i>, xxxiv. -(1902) p. 16. The writer visited the -state and had an interview with the -queen, a woman of gigantic stature, -wearing many amulets.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f894'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r894'>894</a>. </span>Pausanias, i. 2. 6.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f895'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r895'>895</a>. </span>Pausanias, ii. 29. 4. I have to -thank Mr. H. M. Chadwick for pointing -out the following Greek and -Swedish parallels to what I conceive -to have been the Latin practice.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f896'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r896'>896</a>. </span>Diodorus Siculus, iv. 72. 7. According -to Apollodorus (iii. 12. 7), -Cychreus, King of Salamis, died childless, -and bequeathed his kingdom to -Telamon.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f897'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r897'>897</a>. </span>J. Tzetzes, <i>Schol. on Lycophron</i>, -450. Compare Pausanias, ii. 29. -4.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f898'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r898'>898</a>. </span>Apollodorus, iii. 13. 1. According -to Diodorus Siculus (iv. 72. 6), -the king of Phthia was childless, and -bequeathed his kingdom to Peleus.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f899'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r899'>899</a>. </span>Apollodorus, iii. 13. 8; Hyginus, -<i>Fabulae</i>, 96.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f900'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r900'>900</a>. </span>Pausanias, i. 11. 1 <i>sq.</i>; Justin, -xvii. 3.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f901'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r901'>901</a>. </span>Apollodorus, i. 8. 5.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f902'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r902'>902</a>. </span>Antoninus Liberalis, <i>Transform.</i> -37; Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> xiv. 459 <i>sq.</i>, 510 -<i>sq.</i> Compare Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> xi. 243 -<i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f903'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r903'>903</a>. </span>Diodorus, iv. 73; Hyginus, <i>Fabulae</i>, -82-84; Servius, on Virgil, <i>Georg.</i> -iii. 7.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f904'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r904'>904</a>. </span>Thucydides, i. 9; Strabo, viii. 6. -19, p. 377.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f905'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r905'>905</a>. </span>Apollodorus, iii. 10. 8.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f906'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r906'>906</a>. </span>Schol. on Euripides, <i>Orestes</i>, 46; -Pindar, <i>Pyth.</i> xi. 31 <i>sq.</i>; Pausanias, -iii. 19. 6.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f907'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r907'>907</a>. </span>H. M. Chadwick, <i>The Origin of -the English Nation</i> (Cambridge, 1907), -pp. 332 <i>sq.</i> In treating of the succession -to the kingdom in Scandinavia, -the late K. Maurer, one of the highest -authorities on old Norse law, also remarked -that “some ancient authorities -(<i>Quellenberichte</i>) profess to know of a -certain right of succession accorded to -women, in virtue of which under certain -circumstances, though they could -not themselves succeed to the kingdom, -they nevertheless could convey -it to their husbands.” And he cites a -number of instances, how one king -(Eysteinn Halfdanarson) succeeded his -father-in-law (Eirikr Agnarsson) on -the throne; how another (Gudrodr -Halfdanarson) received with his wife -Alfhildr a portion of her father’s kingdom; -and so on. See K. Maurer, -<i>Vorlesungen über altnordische Rechtsgeschichte</i>, -i. (Leipsic, 1907) pp. 233 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f908'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r908'>908</a>. </span>G. W. Dasent, <i>Popular Tales from -the Norse</i>, pp. 131 <i>sqq.</i>; S. Grundtvig, -<i>Dänische Volksmärchen</i>, First Series -(Leipsic, 1878), pp. 285 <i>sqq.</i> (Leo’s -German translation); Cavallius und -Stephens, <i>Schwedische Volkssagen und -Märchen</i>, No. 4, pp. 62 <i>sqq.</i> (Oberleitner’s -German translation); Grimm, -<i>Household Tales</i>, No. 60; Kuhn und -Schwartz, <i>Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen -und Gebräuche</i>, pp. 340 <i>sqq.</i>; J. W. -Wolf, <i>Deutsche Hausmärchen</i>, pp. 372 -<i>sqq.</i>; Philo vom Walde, <i>Schlesien in -Sage und Brauch</i>, pp. 81 <i>sqq.</i>; I. V. -Zingerle, <i>Kinder- und Hausmärchen -aus Tirol</i>, No. 8, pp. 35 <i>sqq.</i> No. 35, -pp. 178 <i>sqq.</i>; J. Haltrich, <i>Deutsche -Volksmärchen aus dem Sachsenlande in -Siebenbürgen</i>, 4th ed., No. 15, pp. 103 <i>sqq.</i>; -J. F. Campbell, <i>Popular Tales of -the West Highlands</i>, No. 4, vol. i. pp. -77 <i>sqq.</i>; A. Schleicher, <i>Litauische -Märchen, Sprichwörte, Rätsel und -Lieder</i>, pp. 57 <i>sqq.</i>; A. Leskien und -K. Brugmann, <i>Litauische Volkslieder -und Märchen</i>, No. 14, pp. 404 -<i>sqq.</i>; Basile, <i>Pentamerone</i>, First day, -seventh tale, vol. i. pp. 97 <i>sqq.</i> -(Liebrecht’s German translation); E. -Legrand, <i>Contes populaires grecques</i>, -pp. 169 <i>sqq.</i>; J. G. von Hahn, -<i>Griechische und albanesische Märchen</i>, -No. 98, vol. ii. pp. 114 <i>sq.</i>; A. und -A. Schott, <i>Walachische Maehrchen</i>, No. -10, pp. 140 <i>sqq.</i>; W. Webster, <i>Basque -Legends</i>, pp. 36-38; A. Schiefner, -<i>Awarische Texte</i> (St. Petersburg, 1873), -No. 2, pp. 21 <i>sqq.</i>; J. Rivière, <i>Contes -populaires de la Kabylie</i>, pp. 195-197.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f909'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r909'>909</a>. </span>Saxo Grammaticus, <i>Historia -Danica</i>, bk. iv. p. 126 (Elton’s -translation). The passage occurs on -p. 158 of P. E. Müller’s edition of -Saxo.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f910'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r910'>910</a>. </span>The story of Hamlet (Amleth) is -told, in a striking form, by Saxo -Grammaticus in the third and fourth -books of his history. Mr. H. M. -Chadwick tells me that Hamlet stands -on the border-line between legend and -history. Hence the main outlines of -his story may be correct.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f911'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r911'>911</a>. </span>Herodotus, i. 7-13.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f912'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r912'>912</a>. </span>Nicolaus Damascenus, vi. frag. 49, -in <i>Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum</i>, -ed. C. Müller, iii. 380.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f913'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r913'>913</a>. </span>Athenaeus, xii. 11, pp. 515 <span class='fss'>F</span>-516 -<span class='fss'>B</span>; Apollodorus, ii. 6. 3; Diodorus -Siculus, iv. 31; Joannes Lydus, <i>De -magistratibus</i>, iii. 64; Lucian, <i>Dialogi -deorum</i>, xiii. 2; Ovid, <i>Heroides</i>, ix. -55 <i>sqq.</i>; Statius, <i>Theb.</i> x. 646-649.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f914'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r914'>914</a>. </span>Athenaeus, <i>l.c.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f915'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r915'>915</a>. </span>Herodotus, i. 93; Clearchus, -quoted by Athenaeus, xii. 11, p. 516 -<span class='fss'>A B</span>. The Armenians also prostituted -their daughters before marriage, dedicating -them for a long time to the -profligate worship of the goddess -Anaitis (Strabo, xi. 14. 16, p. 532 -<i>sq.</i>). The custom was probably practised -as a charm to secure the fertility -of the earth as well as of man and -beast. See <i>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</i>, -Second Edition, pp. 32 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f916'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r916'>916</a>. </span>Herodotus, i. 7.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f917'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r917'>917</a>. </span>Clearchus, quoted by Athenaeus, -xiii. 31, p. 573 <span class='fss'>A B</span>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f918'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r918'>918</a>. </span>See E. A. Freeman, <i>History of -the Norman Conquest of England</i>, i. 3rd Ed., -410-412, 733-737. I am indebted to -my friend Mr. H. M. Chadwick both -for the fact and its explanation.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f919'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r919'>919</a>. </span>Procopius, <i>De bello Gothico</i>, iv. 20 -(vol. ii. p. 593, ed. J. Haury). This and -the following cases of marriage with a -stepmother are cited by K. Weinhold, -<i>Deutsche Frauen</i> 2nd Ed., (Vienna, 1882), ii. -359 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f920'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r920'>920</a>. </span>Bede, <i>Historia ecclesiastica gentis -Anglorum</i>, ii. 5. 102; compare i. 27. -63.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f921'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r921'>921</a>. </span>Prudentius Trecensis, “Annales,” -anno 858, in Pertz’s <i>Monumenta -Germaniae historica</i>, i. 451; Ingulfus, -<i>Historia</i>, quoted <i>ibid.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f922'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r922'>922</a>. </span>This is in substance the view of -Dr. W. E. Hearn (<i>The Aryan House-hold</i>, -pp. 150-155) and of Prof. B. -Delbrück (“Das Mutterrecht bei den -Indogermanen,” <i>Preussische Jahrbücher</i>, -lxxix. (1895) pp. 14-27).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f923'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r923'>923</a>. </span>Clearchus of Soli, quoted by -Athenaeus, xiii. 2. p. 555 <span class='fss'>D</span>; John of -Antioch, in <i>Fragmenta Historicorum -Graecorum</i>, ed. C. Müller, iv. 547; -Charax of Pergamus <i>ib.</i> iii. 638; -J. Tzetzes, <i>Schol. on Lycophron</i>, 111; -<i>id.</i>, <i>Chiliades</i>, v. 650-665; Suidas, -<i>s.v.</i> Κέκροψ; Justin, ii. 6. 7.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f924'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r924'>924</a>. </span>Ὁ μὲν οὖν ἀθηναῖος Σόλων ὁμοπατρίους -ἐφεὶς ἄγεσθαι, τὰς ὁμομητρίους -ἐκώλυσεν, ὁ δὲ Λακεδαιμονίων νομοθέτης -ἔμπαλιν, τὸν ἐπὶ ταῖς ὁμογαστρίοις γάμον -ἐπιτρέψας, τὸν πρὸς τὰς ὁμοπατρίους -ἀπεῖπεν, Philo Judaeus, <i>De specialibus -legibus</i>, vol. ii. p. 303, ed. Th. Mangey. -See also Plutarch, <i>Themistocles</i>, 32; -Cornelius Nepos, <i>Cimon</i>, 1; Schol. -on Aristophanes, <i>Clouds</i>, 1371; L. -Beauchet, <i>Histoire du droit privé de -la République Athénienne</i>, i. (Paris, -1897) pp. 165 <i>sqq.</i> Compare Minucius -Felix, <i>Octavius</i>, 31.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f925'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r925'>925</a>. </span>Polybius, xii. 5.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f926'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r926'>926</a>. </span>Strabo, xiii. 1. 40, pp. 600 <i>sq.</i>; -Plutarch, <i>De sera numinis vindicta</i>, -12; and especially Lycophron, <i>Cassandra</i>, 1141 <i>sqq.</i>, with the scholia of -J. Tzetzes, who refers to Timaeus and -Callimachus as his authorities.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f927'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r927'>927</a>. </span>Justin, xxi. 3. 1-6.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f928'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r928'>928</a>. </span>Strabo, iii. 4. 18.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f929'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r929'>929</a>. </span>Tacitus, <i>Germania</i>, 20. Compare -L. Dargun, <i>Mutterrecht und Raubehe -und ihre Reste im germanischen Recht -und Leben</i> (Breslau, 1883), pp. 21 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f930'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r930'>930</a>. </span>A. Giraud-Teulon, <i>Les Origines du -mariage et de la famille</i>, pp. 206 <i>sqq.</i>; -A. H. Post, <i>Afrikanische Jurisprudenz</i>, -i. 13 <i>sqq.</i>; Sir Harry H. Johnston, -<i>British Central Africa</i>, p. 471; A. B. -Ellis, <i>The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the -Gold Coast</i>, pp. 297 <i>sq.</i>; <i>id.</i>, <i>The -Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave -Coast</i>, pp. 207 <i>sqq.</i> Much more evidence -will be found in my <i>Totemism -and Exogamy</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f931'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r931'>931</a>. </span>R. H. Codrington, <i>The Melanesians</i>, -p. 50, note 2.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f932'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r932'>932</a>. </span>Tacitus, <i>Germania</i>, 20.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f933'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r933'>933</a>. </span>A. W. Howitt, <i>Native Tribes of -South-East Australia</i>, pp. 286 <i>sqq.</i> -The <i>reipus</i> or payment made on the -remarriage of a widow is discussed by -L. Dargun, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 141-152.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f934'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r934'>934</a>. </span>W. F. Skene held that the Picts -were Celts. See his <i>Celtic Scotland</i>, -i. 194-227. On the other hand, H. -Zimmer supposes them to have been -the pre-Celtic inhabitants of the British -Islands. See his paper “Das Mutterrecht -der Pikten,” <i>Zeitschrift der -Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte</i>, -xv. (1894) Romanistische Abtheilung, -pp. 209 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f935'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r935'>935</a>. </span>“<i>Cumque uxores Picti non habentes -peterent a Scottis, ea solum conditione -dare consenserunt, ut ubi res perveniret -in dubium, magis de feminea regum -prosapia quam de masculina regem sibi -eligerent; quod usque hodie apud Pictos -constat esse servatum</i>,” Bede, <i>Historia -ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum</i>, ii. 1. 7.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f936'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r936'>936</a>. </span>W. F. Skene, <i>Celtic Scotland</i>, i. -232-235; J. F. McLennan, <i>Studies in -Ancient History</i> (London, 1886), pp. -68-70; H. Zimmer, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f937'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r937'>937</a>. </span>K. O. Müller, <i>Die Etrusker</i> (Stuttgart, -1877), ii. 376 <i>sq.</i>; J. J. Bachofen, -<i>Die Sage von Tanaquil</i> (Heidelberg, -1870), pp. 282-290.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f938'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r938'>938</a>. </span>Θεόπομπος δ’ ἐν τῇ τεσσαρακοστῇ -τρίτῃ τῶν ἱστοριῶν καὶ νόμον εἶναί φησι -παρὰ τοῖς Τυρρηνοῖς κοινὰς ὑπάρχειν τὰς -γυναῖκας ... τρέφειν δὲ τοὺς Τυρρηνοὺς -πάντα τὰ γινόμενα παιδία, οὐκ -εἰδότας ὅτου πάτρος ἐστὶν ἕκαστον, -Athenaeus, xii. 14, p. 517 <span class='fss'>D E</span>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f939'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r939'>939</a>. </span>“<i>Non enim hic, ubi ex Tusco modo -Tute tibi indigne dotem quaeras corpore</i>” -(Plautus, <i>Cistellaria</i>, ii. 3. 20 <i>sq.</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f940'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r940'>940</a>. </span>Herodotus, i. 94; Strabo, v. 2. 2, -p. 219; Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, iv. 55; -Timaeus, cited by Tertullian, <i>De spectaculis</i>, -5; Festus, <i>s.v.</i> “Turannos,” p. -355, ed. C. O. Müller; Plutarch, -<i>Romulus</i>, 2; Velleius Paterculus, i. -1. 4; Justin, xx. 1. 7; Valerius Maximus, -ii. 4. 4; Servius, on Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> -i. 67. On the other hand, Dionysius -of Halicarnassus held that the Etruscans -were an indigenous Italian race, -differing from all other known peoples -in language and customs (<i>Ant. Rom.</i> -i. 26-30). On this much-vexed question, -see K. O. Müller, <i>Die Etrusker</i> -(Stuttgart, 1877), i. 65 <i>sqq.</i>; G. Dennis, -<i>Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria</i>, 3rd Ed., -i. pp. xxxiii. <i>sqq.</i>; F. Hommel, <i>Grundriss -der Geographie und Geschichte des -Alten Orients</i>, 2nd Ed., pp. 63 <i>sqq.</i> (in Iwan -von Müller’s <i>Handbuch der klassischen -Altertumswissenschaft</i>, vol. iii.).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f941'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r941'>941</a>. </span>It is doubtful whether Servius Tullius -was a Latin or an Etruscan. See -above, p. <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, note 1.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f942'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r942'>942</a>. </span>“All over India the hedge-priest -is very often an autochthon, his long -residence in the land being supposed -to confer upon him the knowledge of -the character and peculiarities of the -local gods, and to teach him the -proper mode in which they may be -conciliated. Thus the Doms preserve -to the present day the animistic and -demonistic beliefs of the aboriginal -races, which the Khasiyas, who have -succeeded them, temper with the worship -of the village deities, the named -and localised divine entities, with the -occasional languid cult of the greater -Hindu gods. The propitiation of the -vague spirits of wood, or cliff, river -or lake, they are satisfied to leave in -charge of their serfs” (W. Crooke, -<i>Natives of Northern India</i>, London, -1907, pp. 104 <i>sq.</i>). When the Israelites -had been carried away captives -into Assyria, the new settlers in the -desolate land of Israel were attacked -by lions, which they supposed to be sent -against them by the god of the country -because, as strangers, they did not know -how to propitiate him. So they petitioned -the king of Assyria and he sent -them a native Israelitish priest, who -taught them how to worship the God -of Israel. See 2 Kings xvii. 24-28.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f943'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r943'>943</a>. </span>H. Jordan, <i>Die Könige im alten -Italien</i> (Berlin, 1884), pp. 15-25.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f944'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r944'>944</a>. </span>Livy, i. 56. 7; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, -<i>Ant. Rom.</i> iv. 68. 1.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f945'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r945'>945</a>. </span>Livy, i. 34. 2 <i>sq.</i>, i. 38. 1, i. 57. -6; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Ant. -Rom.</i> iv. 64.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f946'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r946'>946</a>. </span>I owe to Mr. A. B. Cook the -interesting suggestion that the double -consulship was a revival of a double -kingship.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f947'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r947'>947</a>. </span>As to the <i>Regifugium</i> see below, -pp. <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>-310.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f948'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r948'>948</a>. </span>Pausanias, iv. 5. 10; G. Gilbert, -<i>Handbuch der griech. Staatsalterthümer</i>, -i. 2nd Ed., 122 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f949'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r949'>949</a>. </span>The two supreme magistrates who -replaced the kings were at first called -praetors. See Livy, iii. 55. 12; -B. G. Niebuhr, <i>History of Rome</i>, 3rd Ed., i. -520 <i>sq.</i>; Th. Mommsen, <i>Römisches -Staatsrecht</i>, ii. 3rd Ed., 74 <i>sqq.</i> That the -power of the first consuls was, with -the limitations indicated in the text, -that of the old kings is fully recognised -by Livy (ii. 1. 7 <i>sq.</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f950'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r950'>950</a>. </span>It was a disputed point whether -Tarquin the Proud was the son or -grandson of Tarquin the Elder. Most -writers, and Livy (i. 46. 4) among -them, held that he was a son. Dionysius -of Halicarnassus, on the other -hand, argued that he must have been -a grandson; he insists strongly on the -chronological difficulties to which the -ordinary hypothesis is exposed if Servius -Tullius reigned, as he is said to -have reigned, forty-four years. See -Dionysius Halic. <i>Ant. Rom.</i> iv. 6 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f951'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r951'>951</a>. </span>Livy, i. 48. 2; Dionysius Halic. -<i>Ant. Rom.</i> iv. 31 <i>sq.</i> and 46.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f952'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r952'>952</a>. </span>Livy, i. 56; Dionysius Halic. -<i>Ant. Rom.</i> iv. 67-69, 77; Valerius -Maximus, vii. 3. 2; Aurelius Victor, -<i>De viris illustribus</i>, x. The murder -of Brutus’s father and brother is recorded -by Dionysius; the other writers -mention the assassination of his brother -only. The resemblance between -Brutus and Hamlet has been pointed -out before. See F. York Powell, in -Elton’s translation of Saxo Grammaticus’s -<i>Danish History</i> (London, 1894), -pp. 405-410.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f953'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r953'>953</a>. </span>D. Livingstone, <i>Missionary -Travels and Researches in South Africa</i>, -pp. 617 <i>sq.</i> Many more examples -are given by A. H. Post, <i>Afrikanische -Jurisprudenz</i> (Oldenburg and Leipsic), -i. 134 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f954'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r954'>954</a>. </span>D. Livingstone, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 434.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f955'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r955'>955</a>. </span>H. Hecquard, <i>Reise an die Küste -und in das Innere von West-Afrika</i> -(Leipsic, 1854), p. 104. This and -the preceding example are cited by -A. H. Post, <i>l.c.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f956'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r956'>956</a>. </span>J. A. Chisholm, “Notes on the -Manners and Customs of the Winamwanga -and Wiwa,” <i>Journal of the -African Society</i>, No. 36 (July 1910), -p. 384.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f957'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r957'>957</a>. </span>J. Spieth, <i>Die Ewe-Stämme</i> (Berlin, -1906), pp. 784 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f958'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r958'>958</a>. </span>Sir William MacGregor, “Lagos, -Abeokuta, and the Alake,” <i>Journal of -the African Society</i>, No. 12 (July 1904), -pp. 470 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f959'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r959'>959</a>. </span>C. Partridge, “The Burial of the -Atta of Igaraland, and the ‘Coronation’ -of his Successor,” <i>Blackwood’s -Magazine</i>, September 1904, pp. 329 <i>sq.</i> -Mr. Partridge kindly gave me some -details as to the election of the king in -a letter dated 24th October 1904. He -is Assistant District Commissioner in -Southern Nigeria.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f960'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r960'>960</a>. </span>Major P. R. T. Gurdon, <i>The Khasis</i> (London, 1907), pp. 66-75.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f961'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r961'>961</a>. </span>Livy, i. 17; Cicero, <i>De re publica</i>, -ii. 17. 31.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f962'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r962'>962</a>. </span>As to the nomination of the King -of the Sacred Rites see Livy, xl. 42; -Dionysius Halic. <i>Ant. Rom.</i> v. 1. 4. -The latter writer says that the augurs -co-operated with the pontiff in the -nomination.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f963'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r963'>963</a>. </span>Th. Mommsen, <i>Römisches Staatsrecht</i>, -ii. 3rd Ed., 6-8; A. H. J. Greenidge, -<i>Roman Public Life</i>, pp. 45 <i>sqq.</i> Mr. -Greenidge thinks that the king was -regularly nominated by his predecessor -and only occasionally by an interim -king. Mommsen holds that he was -always nominated by the latter.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f964'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r964'>964</a>. </span>Compare Lucretius, v. 1108 <i>sqq.</i>:</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Condere coeperunt urbis arcemque locare</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Praesidium reges ipsi sibi perfugiumque,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Et pecus atque agros divisere atque dedere</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Pro facie cujusque et viribus ingenioque;</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Nam facies multum valuit viresque vigentes.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f965'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r965'>965</a>. </span>Nicolaus Damascenus, in Stobaeus, -<i>Florilegium</i>, xliv. 41 (<i>Frag. Histor. -Graec.</i> ed. C. Müller, iii. 463). Other -writers say simply that the tallest, -strongest, or handsomest man was -chosen king. See Herodotus, iii. 20; -Aristotle, <i>Politics</i>, iv. 4; Athenaeus, -xiii. 20, p. 566 c.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f966'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r966'>966</a>. </span>Zenobius, <i>Cent.</i> v. 25.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f967'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r967'>967</a>. </span>J. Shooter, <i>The Kafirs of Natal</i>, -pp. 4 <i>sq.</i> Compare D. Livingstone, -<i>Missionary Travels and Researches in -South Africa</i>, p. 186; W. Max Müller, -<i>Asien und Europa</i> (Leipsic, 1893), p. -110.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f968'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r968'>968</a>. </span>Zenobius, <i>Cent.</i> v. 25.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f969'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r969'>969</a>. </span>Strabo, xi. 21, p. 492.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f970'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r970'>970</a>. </span>Hippocrates, <i>De aere locis et aquis</i> -(vol. i. pp. 550 <i>sq.</i> ed. Kühn).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f971'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r971'>971</a>. </span>Captain Guy Burrows, <i>The Land -of the Pigmies</i> (London, 1898), p. -95. Speaking of this tribe, Emin -Pasha observes: “The most curious -custom, however, and one which is -particularly observed in the ruling -families, is bandaging the heads of -infants. By means of these bandages -a lengthening of the head along its -horizontal axis is produced; and -whereas the ordinary Monbutto people -have rather round heads, the form of the -head in the better classes shows an -extraordinary increase in length, which -certainly very well suits their style of -hair and of hats.” See <i>Emin Pasha -in Central Africa, being a Collection of -Letters and Journals</i> (London, 1888), -p. 212.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f972'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r972'>972</a>. </span>Lewis and Clark, <i>Expedition to -the Sources of the Missouri</i>, ch. 23, -vol. ii. 327 <i>sq.</i> (reprinted at London, -1905); D. W. Harmon, quoted by Rev. J. -Morse, <i>Report to the Secretary of War -of the United States on Indian Affairs</i> -(Newhaven, 1822), Appendix, p. 346; -H. R. Schoolcraft, <i>Indian Tribes</i>, -ii. 325 <i>sq.</i>; R. C. Mayne, <i>Four Years -in British Columbia</i>, p. 277; G. M. -Sproat, <i>Scenes and Studies of Savage -Life</i>, pp. 28-30; H. H. Bancroft, -<i>Native Races of the Pacific States</i>, i. -180.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f973'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r973'>973</a>. </span>C. Hill-Tout, <i>The Far West, the -Home of the Salish and Déné</i> (London, -1907), p. 40. As to the custom in -general among these tribes, see <i>ibid.</i> -pp. 38-41. In Melanesia the practice -of artificially lengthening the head -into a cone by means of bandages -applied in infancy is observed by the -natives of Malikolo (Malekula) in the -New Hebrides and also by the natives -of the south coast of New Britain, -from Cape Roebuck to Cape Bedder. -See Beatrice Grimshaw, <i>From Fiji to -the Cannibal Islands</i> (London, 1907), -pp. 258-260; R. Parkinson, <i>Dreissig -Jahre in der Südsee</i> (Stuttgart, 1907), -pp. 204-206.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f974'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r974'>974</a>. </span>V. Fric and P. Radin, “Contributions -to the Study of the Bororo -Indians,” <i>Journal of the Anthropological -Institute</i>, xxxvi. (1906) pp. 388 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f975'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r975'>975</a>. </span>See <i>The Spectator</i>, Nos. 18 and 20.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f976'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r976'>976</a>. </span>Nicolaus Damascenus, in Stobaeus, -<i>Florilegium</i>, xliv. 41 (<i>Fragmenta Historic. -Graecorum</i>, ed. C. Müller, iii. -463).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f977'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r977'>977</a>. </span>Simon Grunau, <i>Preussische Chronik</i>, -Tract. ii. cap. iii. § 2, p. 66, ed. M. -Perlbach. This passage was pointed -out to me by Mr. H. M. Chadwick.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f978'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r978'>978</a>. </span>Pausanias, v. 1. 4, vi. 20. 9.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f979'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r979'>979</a>. </span>Apollodorus, <i>Epitoma</i>, ii. 4-9, ed. -R. Wagner (Apollodorus, <i>Bibliotheca</i>, -ed. R. Wagner, pp. 183 <i>sq.</i>); Diodorus -Siculus, iv. 73; Pausanias, v. 1. 6 <i>sq.</i>, -v. 10. 6 <i>sq.</i>, v. 14. 7, v. 17. 7 <i>sq.</i>, v. -20. 6 <i>sq.</i>, vi. 21. 7-11.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f980'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r980'>980</a>. </span>Pausanias, vi. 21. 3.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f981'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r981'>981</a>. </span>Pausanias, v. 13. 1-6, vi. 20. 7.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f982'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r982'>982</a>. </span>Pausanias, iii. 12. 1, 20. 10 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f983'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r983'>983</a>. </span>Pindar, <i>Pyth.</i> ix. 181-220, with -the Scholia.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f984'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r984'>984</a>. </span>Pindar, <i>Pyth.</i> ix. 195 <i>sqq.</i>; -Pausanias, iii. 12. 2.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f985'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r985'>985</a>. </span>Apollodorus, iii. 9. 2; Hyginus, -<i>Fab.</i> 185; Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> x. 560 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f986'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r986'>986</a>. </span>E. Schuyler, <i>Turkistan</i> (London, -1876), i. 42 <i>sq.</i> This and the four -following examples of the bride-race -have been already cited by J. F. -McLennan, <i>Studies in Ancient History</i> -(London, 1886), pp. 15 <i>sq.</i>, 181-184. -He supposes them to be relics of a -custom of capturing women from -another community.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f987'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r987'>987</a>. </span>E. D. Clarke, <i>Travels in Various -Countries</i>, i. (London, 1810), p. 333. -In the fourth octavo edition of Clarke’s -<i>Travels</i> (vol. i., London, 1816), from -which McLennan seems to have quoted, -there are a few verbal changes.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f988'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r988'>988</a>. </span>J. McLennan, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 183 -<i>sq.</i>, referring to Kennan’s <i>Tent Life -in Siberia</i> (1870), which I have not -seen. Compare W. Jochelson, “The -Koryak” (Leyden and New York, -1908), p. 742 (<i>Memoir of the American -Museum of Natural History, The Jesup -North Pacific Expedition</i>, vol. vi.).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f989'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r989'>989</a>. </span>Letter of the missionary Bigandet, -dated March 1847, in <i>Annales de la -Propagation de la Foi</i>, xx. (1848) p. -431. A similar account of the -ceremony is given by M. Bourien, -“Wild Tribes of the Malay Peninsula,” -<i>Transactions of the Ethnological Society -of London</i>, N.S. iii. (1865) p. 81. -See further W. W. Skeat and C.O. -Blagden, <i>Pagan Races of the Malay -Peninsula</i> (London, 1906), ii. 68, 77 -<i>sq.</i>, 79 <i>sq.</i>, 82 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f990'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r990'>990</a>. </span>J. Cameron, <i>Our Tropical Possessions -in Malayan India</i> (London, -1865), pp. 116 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f991'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r991'>991</a>. </span>Dudley Kidd, <i>The Essential Kafir</i> -(London, 1904), p. 219.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f992'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r992'>992</a>. </span>Middle High German <i>brûtlouf</i>, -modern German <i>Brautlauf</i>, Anglo-Saxon -<i>brydhléap</i>, old Norse <i>brudhlaup</i>, -modern Norse <i>bryllup</i>. See Grimm, -<i>Deutsches Wörterbuch</i>, <i>s.v.</i> “Brautlauf”; -K. Weinhold, <i>Deutsche -Frauen</i>, 2nd Ed., i. 407. The latter writer -supposes the word to refer merely to -the procession from the house of the -bride to the house of the bridegroom. -But Grimm is most probably right in -holding that originally it applied to a -real race for the bride. This is the -view also of K. Simrock (<i>Deutsche -Mythologie</i>, 5th Ed. pp. 598 <i>sq.</i>). Another -writer sees in it a trace of marriage by -capture (L. Dargun, <i>Mutterrecht und -Raubehe</i> (Breslau, 1883), p. 130). -Compare K. Schmidt, <i>Jus primae -noctis</i> (Freiburg i. B. 1881), p. 129.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f993'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r993'>993</a>. </span>A. Kuhn, <i>Märkische Sagen und -Märchen</i> (Berlin, 1843), p. 358.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f994'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r994'>994</a>. </span>W. Kolbe, <i>Hessische Volks-sitten -und Gebräuche</i> (Marburg, 1888), pp. -150 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f995'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r995'>995</a>. </span>Lentner and Dahn, in <i>Bavaria, -Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs -Bayern</i>, i. (Munich, 1860) pp. 398 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f996'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r996'>996</a>. </span>J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, ii. -153-155 (Bohn’s edition); J. Jamieson, -<i>Dictionary of the Scottish Language</i>, -<i>s.v.</i> “Broose.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f997'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r997'>997</a>. </span>E. Herrmann, “Über Lieder -und Bräuche bei Hochzeiten in -Kärnten,” <i>Archiv für Anthropologie</i>, -xix. (1891) p. 169.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f998'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r998'>998</a>. </span>Nicolaus Damascenus, quoted by -Stobaeus, <i>Florilegium</i>, xliv. 41; -<i>Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum</i>, -ed. C. Müller, iii. 457.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f999'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r999'>999</a>. </span>Strabo, v. 4. 12, p. 250.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1000'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1000'>1000</a>. </span>Arthur Young, “Tour in Ireland,” -in Pinkerton’s <i>Voyages and Travels</i>, iii. -860.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1001'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1001'>1001</a>. </span><i>Mahabharata</i>, condensed into -English by Romesch Dutt (London, -1898), pp. 15 <i>sqq.</i>; J. C. Oman, <i>The -Great Indian Epics</i>, pp. 109 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1002'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1002'>1002</a>. </span>J. D. Mayne, <i>A Treatise on Hindu -Law and Usage</i> 3rd Ed., (Madras and London, -1883), p. 56; <i>The Vikramânkadevacharita</i>, -edited by G. Bühler (Bombay, -1875), pp. 38-40; A. Holtzmann, -<i>Das Mahābharata und seine Theile</i>, i. -(Kiel, 1895), pp. 21 <i>sq.</i>; J. Jolly, -<i>Recht und Sitte</i>, pp. 50 <i>sq.</i> (in G. -Bühler’s <i>Grundriss der indo-arischen -Philologie</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1003'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1003'>1003</a>. </span><i>The Book of Ser Marco Polo.</i>, Yule’s -translation, 2nd Ed., bk. iv. ch. 4, vol. ii. pp. -461-463.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1004'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1004'>1004</a>. </span><i>The Lay of the Nibelungs</i>, translated -by Alice Horton (London, 1898), -Adventures vi. and vii.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1005'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1005'>1005</a>. </span>Parthenius, <i>Narrat. Amat.</i> vi. -This passage was pointed out to me -by Mr. A. B. Cook, who has himself -discussed the contest for the kingship. -See his article, “The European Sky-god,” -<i>Folk-lore</i>, xv. (1904) pp. 376 -<i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1006'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1006'>1006</a>. </span>Herodotus, vi. 126-130. It is to -be observed that in this and other of -the examples cited above the succession -to the kingdom did not pass with the -hand of the princess.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1007'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1007'>1007</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a> <i>sq.</i> These -customs were observed at Whitsuntide, -not on May Day. But the Whitsuntide -king and queen are obviously equivalent -to the King and Queen of May. -Hence I allow myself to use the latter -and more familiar titles so as to include -the former.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1008'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1008'>1008</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, ii. 685 <i>sqq.</i>; Plutarch, -<i>Quaest. Rom.</i> 63; J. Marquardt, <i>Römische -Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii. 2nd Ed., 323 <i>sq.</i>; -W. Warde Fowler, <i>Roman Festivals of -the Period of the Republic</i>, pp. 327 -<i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1009'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1009'>1009</a>. </span>Another proposed explanation of -the <i>regifugium</i> is that the king fled -because at the sacrifice he had incurred -the guilt of slaying a sacred animal. -See W. Warde Fowler, <i>Roman Festivals -of the Period of the Republic</i>, -pp. 328 <i>sqq.</i> The best-known example -of such a ritual flight is that -of the men who slew the ox at the -Athenian festival of the <i>Bouphonia</i>. -See <i>The Golden Bough</i>, Second Edition, -ii. 294. Amongst the Pawnees -the four men who assisted at the sacrifice -of a girl to Ti-ra’-wa used to run -away very fast after the deed was done -and wash themselves in the river. See -G. B. Grinnell, <i>Pawnee Hero Stories -and Folk-Tales</i> (New York, 1889), pp. -365 <i>sq.</i> Among the ancient Egyptians -the man whose duty it was to slit open -a corpse for the purpose of embalming -it fled as soon as he had done his part, -pursued by all the persons present, who -pelted him with stones and cursed him, -“turning as it were the pollution on -him; for they suppose that any one -who violates or wounds or does any -harm to the person of a fellow-tribesman -is hateful” (Diodorus Siculus, i. -91. 4). Similarly in the western -islands of Torres Straits the man whose -duty it was to decapitate a corpse for -the purpose of preserving the skull was -shot at with arrows by the relatives of -the deceased as an expiation for the -injury he had done to the corpse of their -kinsman. See <i>Reports of the Cambridge -Anthropological Expedition to -Torres Straits</i>, v. (Cambridge, 1904) -pp. 249, 251. This explanation of the -<i>regifugium</i> certainly deserves to be -considered. But on this as on so many -other points of ancient ritual we can -hardly hope ever to attain to certainty.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1010'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1010'>1010</a>. </span>F. Cumont, “Les Actes de S. -Dasius,” <i>Analecta Bollandiana</i>, xvi. -(1897) pp. 5-16. See further Messrs. -Parmentier and Cumont, “Le Roi des -Saturnales,” <i>Revue de Philologie</i>, xxi. -(1897) pp. 143-153; <i>The Golden -Bough</i>, Second Edition, iii. 138 <i>sqq.</i> -The tomb of St. Dasius, a Christian -soldier who was put to death at Durostorum -in 303 <span class='fss'>A.D.</span> after refusing to play -the part of Saturn at the festival, has -since been discovered at Ancona. A -Greek inscription on the tomb records -that the martyr’s remains were brought -thither from Durostorum. See F. -Cumont, “Le Tombeau de S. Dasius -de Durostorum,” <i>Analecta Bollandiana</i>, -xxvii. (1908) pp. 369-372. Professor -A. Erhard of Strasburg, who has been -engaged for years in preparing an -edition of the <i>Acta Martyrum</i> for the -Berlin Corpus of Greek Fathers, informed -me in conversation at Cambridge -in the summer of 1910 that he -ranks the Acts of St. Dasius among -the authentic documents of their -class. The plain unvarnished narrative -bears indeed the stamp of truth on its -face.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1011'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1011'>1011</a>. </span>Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, xiii. 15; Arrian, -<i>Epicteti dissert.</i> i. 25. 8; Lucian, -<i>Saturnalia</i>, 4.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1012'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1012'>1012</a>. </span>As to these temporary kings see <i>The -Golden Bough</i>, Second Edition, ii. 24 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1013'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1013'>1013</a>. </span>Varro, <i>Rerum rusticarum</i>, iii. 1. -5; Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> viii. 324; Tibullus, -i. 3. 35; Augustine, <i>De civitate Dei</i>, -vii. 19. Compare Wissowa, in W. H. -Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der griech. und röm. -Mythologie</i>, iv. 433 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1014'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1014'>1014</a>. </span>On Saturn as the god of sowing -and the derivation of his name from a -root meaning “to sow,” from which -comes <i>satus</i> “sowing,” see Varro, <i>De -lingua Latina</i>, v. 64; Festus, <i>s.v.</i> -“Opima spolia,” p. 186, ed. C. O. -Müller; Augustine, <i>De civitate Dei</i>, -vii. 2, 3. 13, 15; Wissowa, in W. H. -Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der griech. und röm. -Mythologie</i>, iv. 428. The derivation -is confirmed by the form Saeturnus -which occurs in an inscription (<i>Saeturni -pocolom</i>, H. Dessau, <i>Inscript. Latinae -selectae</i>, No. 2966). As to the Saturnalia -see L. Preller, <i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd Ed., -ii. 15 <i>sqq.</i>; J. Marquardt, <i>Römische -Staatsverwaltung</i>, 2nd Ed., pp. 586 <i>sqq.</i>; -Dezobry, <i>Rome au siècle d’Auguste</i>, -iii. 143 <i>sqq.</i>; W. Warde Fowler, <i>Roman -Festivals of the Period of the Republic</i>, -pp. 268 <i>sqq.</i> The festival was held from -the seventeenth to the twenty-third of -December. I formerly argued that in -the old days, when the Roman year -began with March instead of with -January, the Saturnalia may have been -held from the seventeenth to the twenty-third -of February, in which case the -festival must have immediately preceded -the Flight of the King, which fell on -February the twenty-fourth. See <i>The -Golden Bough</i>, Second Edition, iii. 144 -<i>sqq.</i>; <i>Lectures on the Early History of -the Kingship</i>, p. 266. But this -attempt to bring the ancient Saturnalia -into immediate juxtaposition to the -King’s Flight breaks down when we -observe, as my friend Mr. W. Warde -Fowler has pointed out to me, that the -Saturnalia fell in December under the -Republic, long before Caesar, in his -reform of the calendar, had shifted the -commencement of the year from March -to January. See Livy, xxii. 1. 19 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1015'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1015'>1015</a>. </span>Roman farmers sowed wheat, spelt, -and barley in December, flax up to the -seventh of that month, and beans up to -the eleventh (the festival of Septimontium). -See Palladius, <i>De re rustica</i>, -xiii. 1. In the lowlands of Sicily at the -present day November and December -are the months of sowing, but in the -highlands August and September. See -G. Pitrè, <i>Usi e costumi, credenze e -pregiudizi del popolo siciliano</i>, iii. -(Palermo, 1889) pp. 132 <i>sqq.</i> Hence -we may suppose that in the Roman -Campagna of old the last sowing of -autumn was over before the middle of -December, when the Saturnalia began.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1016'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1016'>1016</a>. </span>This temporary liberty accorded to -slaves was one of the most remarkable -features of the Saturnalia and kindred -festivals in antiquity. See <i>The Golden -Bough</i>, Second Edition, iii. 139 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1017'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1017'>1017</a>. </span>The learned Swiss scholar, J. J. -Bachofen long ago drew out in minute -detail the parallel between these birth -legends of the Roman kings and -licentious festivals like the Roman -Saturnalia and the Babylonian Sacaea. -See his book <i>Die Sage von Tanaquil</i> -(Heidelberg, 1870), pp. 133 <i>sqq.</i> To -be frank, I have not had the patience -to read through his long dissertation.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1018'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1018'>1018</a>. </span>Livy, i. 16; Dionysius Halic. <i>Ant. -Rom.</i> ii. 56; Plutarch, <i>Romulus</i>, 27; -Florus, i. 1. 16 <i>sq.</i> See above, pp. -<a href='#Page_181'>181</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1019'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1019'>1019</a>. </span>Varro, <i>De lingua Latina</i>, vi. 18; -Plutarch, <i>Romulus</i>, 29; <i>id.</i>, <i>Camillus</i>, -33; Macrobius, <i>Saturn.</i> i. 11. 36-40. -The analogy of this festival to the -Babylonian Sacaea was long ago -pointed out by J. J. Bachofen. See his -book <i>Die Sage von Tanaquil</i> (Heidelberg, -1870), pp. 172 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1020'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1020'>1020</a>. </span>Aristotle, <i>Hist. anim.</i> v. 32, p. -557<i>b</i>, ed. Bekker; Theophrastus, <i>Hist. -Plant.</i> ii. 8; <i>id.</i>, <i>De causis plantarum</i>, -ii. 9; Plutarch, <i>Quaest. conviv.</i> vii. 2. -2; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xv. 79-81, xvi. -114, xvii. 256; Palladius, iv. 10. 28, -vii. 5. 2; Columella, xi. 2. 56; <i>Geoponica</i>, -iii. 6, x. 48. As to the practice -in modern Greece and the fig-growing -districts of Asia Minor, see P. de Tournefort, -<i>Relation d’un voyage du Levant</i> -(Amsterdam, 1718), i. 130; W. R. -Paton, “The <i>Pharmakoi</i> and the Story -of the Fall,” <i>Revue archéologique</i>, -IVème Série, ix. (1907) p. 51. For an -elaborate examination of the process -and its relation to the domestication -and spread of the fig-tree, see Graf -zu Solms-Laubach, “Die Herkunft, -Domestication und Verbreitung des -gewöhnlichen Feigenbaums (<i>Ficus -Carica</i>, L.),” <i>Abhandlungen der Königlichen -Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften -zu Göttingen</i>, xxviii. (1882) pp. 1-106. -This last writer thinks that the operation -was not practised by Italian -husbandmen, because it is not mentioned -by Cato and Varro. But their silence -can hardly outweigh the express mention -and recommendation of it by Palladius -and Columella. Theophrastus, -it is true, says that the process was -not in use in Italy (<i>Hist. Plantarum</i>, -ii. 8. 1), but he can scarcely have had -exact information on this subject. -<i>Caprificatio</i>, as this artificial fertilisation -of fig-trees is called, is still -employed by the Neapolitan peasantry, -though it seems to be unknown in -northern Italy. Pliny’s account has no -independent value, as he merely copies -from Theophrastus. The name “goat-fig” -(<i>caprificus</i>) applied to the wild -fig-tree may be derived from the notion -that the tree is a male who mounts the -female as the he-goat mounts the she-goat. -Similarly the Messenians called -the tree simply “he-goat” (τράγος). -See Pausanias, iv. 20. 1-3.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1021'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1021'>1021</a>. </span>G. Pitrè, <i>Usi e costumi, credenze -e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano</i>, iii. -113.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1022'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1022'>1022</a>. </span>Budgett Meakin, <i>The Moors</i> (London, -1902), p. 258; E. Doutté, <i>Magie -et religion dans l’Afrique du Nord</i> -(Algiers, 1908), p. 568.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1023'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1023'>1023</a>. </span>A. Engler, in V. Hehn’s <i>Kulturpflanzen -und Hausthiere</i>, 7th Ed., (Berlin, -1902), p. 99. Compare Graf zu Solms-Laubach, -<i>op. cit.</i>; <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i>, -<i>s.v.</i> “Fig-tree,” vol. iv. 1519. The -ancients were well aware of the production -of these insects in the wild fig-tree -and their transference to the cultivated -fig-tree. Sometimes instead of fertilising -the trees by hand they contented themselves -with planting wild fig-trees near -cultivated fig-trees, so that the fertilisation -was effected by the wind, which blew -the insects from the male to the female -trees. See Aristotle, <i>l.c.</i>; Theophrastus, -<i>De causis plantarum</i>, ii. 9; Pliny, -<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xv. 79-81; Palladius, iv. -10. 28. On subject of the fertilisation -of the fig the late Professor H. Marshall -Ward of Cambridge kindly furnished -me with the following note, -which will serve to supplement and -correct the brief account in the text:—“The -fig is a hollow case full of -flowers. In the wild fig a small gall -wasp (<i>Cynips psenes</i>) lays its eggs: this -kind of fig is still called <i>Caprificus</i>. -The eggs hatch in the female flowers at -the base of the hollow fig: at the top, -near the ostiole observable on any ripe -fig, are the male flowers. When the -eggs hatch, and the little insects creep -through the ostiole, the male flowers -dust the wasp with pollen, and the -insect flies to another flower (to lay its -eggs), and so fertilises many of the -female flowers in return for the nursery -afforded its eggs. Now, the cultivated -fig is apt to be barren of male flowers. -Hence the hanging of branches bearing -wild figs enables the escaping wasps -to do the trick. The ancients knew -the fact that the propinquity of the -<i>Caprificus</i> helped the fertility of the -cultivated fig, but, of course, they did -not know the details of the process. -The further complexities are, chiefly, -that the fig bears two kinds of female -flowers: one especially fitted for the -wasp’s convenience, the other not. -The <i>Caprificus</i> figs are inedible. In -Naples three crops of them are borne -every year, viz. <i>Mamme</i> (in April), -<i>Profichi</i> (in June), and <i>Mammoni</i> (in -August). It is the June crop that bears -most male flowers and is most useful.” -The suggestion that the festival of the -seventh of July was connected with -this horticultural operation is due to L. -Preller (<i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd Ed., i. 287).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1024'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1024'>1024</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_24'>24</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1025'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1025'>1025</a>. </span>1 Kings iv. 25; 2 Kings xviii. -31; Isaiah xxxvi. 16; Micah iv. 4; -Zechariah iii. 10; Judges ix. 10 <i>sq.</i>; -H. B. Tristram, <i>The Natural History -of the Bible</i> 9th Ed. (London, 1898), pp. 350 -<i>sqq.</i>; <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i>, <i>s.v.</i> “Fig -Tree,” vol. ii. 1519 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1026'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1026'>1026</a>. </span>Herodotus, i. 71.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1027'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1027'>1027</a>. </span>Zamachschar, cited by Graf zu -Solms-Laubach, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 82. For -more evidence as to the fig in antiquity -see V. Hehn, <i>Kulturpflanzen und -Hausthiere</i>, 7th Ed., pp. 94 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1028'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1028'>1028</a>. </span>Letter of Mr. C. W. Hobley to -me, dated Nairobi, British East Africa, -July 27th, 1910. This interesting information -was given spontaneously and -not in answer to any questions of -mine.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1029'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1029'>1029</a>. </span>C. W. Hobley, <i>The Ethnology of -A-Kamba and other East African Tribes</i> -(Cambridge, 1910), pp. 85, 89 <i>sq.</i> In -British Central Africa “every village -has its ‘prayer-tree,’ under which the -sacrifices are offered. It stands (usually) -in the <i>bwalo</i>, the open space which Mr. -Macdonald calls the ‘forum,’ and is, -sometimes, at any rate, a wild fig-tree.” -“This is the principal tree used for -making bark-cloth. Livingstone says, -‘It is a sacred tree all over Africa and -India’; and I learn from M. Auguste -Chevalier that it is found in every -village of Senegal and French Guinea, -and looked on as ‘a fetich-tree’” -(Miss A. Werner, <i>The Natives of British -Central Africa</i>, pp. 62 <i>sq.</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1030'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1030'>1030</a>. </span>From the unpublished papers of the -Rev. John Roscoe, which he has kindly -placed at my disposal.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1031'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1031'>1031</a>. </span>Varro, <i>De lingua Latina</i>, v. 54; -Livy, i. 4. 5; Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, ii. 411 <i>sq.</i>; -Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xv. 77; Festus, pp. -266, 270, 271, ed. C. O. Müller; Tacitus, -<i>Annals</i>, xiii. 58; Servius on Virgil, -<i>Aen.</i> viii. 90; Plutarch, <i>Romulus</i>, -4; <i>id.</i>, <i>Quaestiones Romanae</i>, 57; -Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Antiquitates -Romanae</i>, iii. 71. 5. All the Roman -writers speak of the tree as a cultivated -fig (<i>ficus</i>), not a wild fig (<i>caprificus</i>), -and Dionysius agrees with them. -Plutarch alone (<i>Romulus</i>, 4) describes -it as a wild fig-tree (ἐρινεός). See also -above, p. <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1032'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1032'>1032</a>. </span>Festus, p. 266, ed. C. O. Müller; -Ettore Pais, <i>Ancient Legends of Roman -History</i> (London, 1906), pp. 55 <i>sqq.</i> -Festus indeed treats the derivation as -an absurdity, and many people will be -inclined to agree with him.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1033'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1033'>1033</a>. </span>On the fifth of July a ceremony -called the Flight of the People was -performed at Rome. Some ancient -writers thought that it commemorated -the dispersal of the people after the -disappearance of Romulus. But this is -to confuse the dates; for, according to -tradition, the death of Romulus took -place on the seventh, not the fifth of -July, and therefore after instead of -before the Flight of the People. -See Varro, <i>De lingua Latina</i>, -vi. 18; Macrobius, <i>Sat.</i> iii. 2. 14; -Dionysius Halicarn. <i>Ant. Rom.</i> ii. -56. 5; Plutarch, <i>Romulus</i>, 29; <i>id.</i>, -<i>Camillus</i>, 33; W. Warde Fowler, -<i>Roman Festivals of the Period of the -Republic</i>, pp. 174 <i>sqq.</i> Mr. Warde -Fowler may be right in thinking that -some connexion perhaps existed between -the ceremonies of the two days, -the fifth and the seventh; and I agree -with his suggestion that “the story -itself of the death of Romulus had -grown out of some religious rite performed -at this time of year.” I note -as a curious coincidence, for it can -hardly be more, that at Bodmin in -Cornwall a festival was held on the -seventh of July, when a Lord of -Misrule was appointed, who tried -people for imaginary crimes and sentenced -them to be ducked in a quagmire -called Halgaver, which is explained to mean “the goat’s moor.” -See T. F. Thiselton Dyer, <i>British -Popular Customs</i>, p. 339. The “goat’s -moor” is an odd echo of the “goat’s -marsh” at which Romulus disappeared -on the same day of the year (Livy, i. -16. 1; Plutarch, <i>Romulus</i>, 29; <i>id.</i>, -<i>Camillus</i>, 33).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1034'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1034'>1034</a>. </span>Livy, i. 14. 1 <i>sq.</i>; Dionysius -Halicarn. <i>Ant. Rom.</i> ii. 52. 3; -Plutarch, <i>Romulus</i>, 23.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1035'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1035'>1035</a>. </span>Dionysius Halicarn. <i>Ant. Rom.</i> -iii. 35; Zonaras, <i>Annales</i>, vii. 6. As -to his reported death by lightning, see -above, p. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1036'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1036'>1036</a>. </span>Plutarch, <i>Numa</i>, 22. I have -pruned the luxuriant periods in which -Plutarch dwells, with edifying unction, -on the righteous visitation of God -which overtook that early agnostic -Tullus Hostilius.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1037'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1037'>1037</a>. </span>Aurelius Victor, <i>De viris illustribus</i>, -v. 5.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1038'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1038'>1038</a>. </span>Livy, i. 40; Dionysius Halicarn. -<i>Ant. Rom.</i> iii. 73.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1039'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1039'>1039</a>. </span>Livy, i. 48; Dionysius Halicarn. -<i>Ant. Rom.</i> iv. 38 <i>sq.</i>; Solinus, i. 25. -The reading <i>Virbium clivum</i> (“the -slope of Virbius”) occurs only in the -more recent manuscripts of Livy: the -better-attested reading both of Livy and -Solinus is <i>Urbium</i>. But the obscure -<i>Virbium</i> would easily and naturally be -altered into <i>Urbium</i>, whereas the reverse -change is very improbable. See -Mr. A. B. Cook, in <i>Classical Review</i>, -xvi. (1902) p. 380, note 3. In -this passage Mr. Cook was the first to -call attention to the analogy between -the murder of the slave-born king, -Servius Tullius, and the slaughter of -the slave-king by his successor at -Nemi. As to the oak-woods of the -Esquiline see above, p. <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1040'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1040'>1040</a>. </span>Nicolaus Damascenus, in Stobaeus, -<i>Florilegium</i>, x. 70. <i>Fragmenta Historicorum -Graecorum</i>, ed. C. Müller, iii. -457.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1041'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1041'>1041</a>. </span>H. Jordan, <i>Die Könige im alten -Italien</i> (Berlin, 1887), pp. 44 <i>sq.</i> In -this his last work Jordan argues that -the Umbrian practice, combined with -the rule of the Arician priesthood, -throws light on the existence and -nature of the kingship among the -ancient Latins. On this subject I am -happy to be at one with so learned -and judicious a scholar.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1042'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1042'>1042</a>. </span>R. E. Dennett, <i>At the Back of the -Black Man’s Mind</i> (London, 1906), -pp. 11 <i>sq.</i>, 111, 131 <i>sq.</i>, 135. The -word translated “sacred ground” -(<i>xibila</i>, plural <i>bibila</i>) means properly -“sacred grove.” Such “sacred groves” -are common in this part of Africa, but -in the “sacred grove” of the king of -Loango the tree beside which the -monarch takes post to fight for the -crown appears to stand solitary in a -grassy plain. See R. E. Dennett, -<i>op. cit.</i> pp. 11 <i>sq.</i>, 25, 96 <i>sqq.</i>, 110 -<i>sqq.</i> We have seen that the right of -succession to the throne of Loango -descends in the female line (above, -pp. <a href='#Page_276'>276</a> <i>sq.</i>), which furnishes another -point of resemblance between Loango -and Rome, if my theory of the Roman -kingship is correct.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1043'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1043'>1043</a>. </span>J. G. Frazer, <i>Totemism and Exogamy</i>, -ii. 530. My authority is the -Rev. John Roscoe, formerly of the -Church Missionary Society in Uganda.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1044'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1044'>1044</a>. </span><i>Memoirs of Samuel Pepys</i>, edited -by Richard, Lord Braybrooke, Second -Edition (London, 1828), i. 193 <i>sq.</i> -(under April 23rd, 1661).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1045'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1045'>1045</a>. </span>Varro, <i>Rerum rusticarum</i>, ii. 1. -9 <i>sq.</i> “<i>Romanorum vero populum a -pastoribus esse ortum quis non dicit?</i>” -etc. Amongst other arguments in favour -of this view Varro refers to the Roman -personal names derived from cattle, -both large and small, such as <i>Porcius</i>, -“pig-man,” <i>Ovinius</i>, “sheep-man,” -<i>Caprilius</i>, “goat-man,” <i>Equitius</i>, -“horse-man,” <i>Taurius</i>, “bull-man,” -and so forth. On the importance of -cattle and milk among the ancient -Aryans see O. Schrader, <i>Reallexikon -der indogermanischen Altertumskunde</i> -(Strasburg, 1901), pp. 541 <i>sq.</i>, 689 -<i>sqq.</i>, 913 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1046'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1046'>1046</a>. </span>Above, vol. i. p. 366.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1047'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1047'>1047</a>. </span>As to the foundation of Rome on -this date see Varro, <i>Rerum rusticarum</i>, -ii. 1. 9; Cicero, <i>De divinatione</i>, ii. 47. -98; Festus, <i>s.v.</i> “Parilibus,” p. 236, -ed. C. O. Müller; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> -xviii. 247; Propertius, v. 4. 73 <i>sq.</i>; -Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 801-806; <i>id.</i>, <i>Metam.</i> -xiv. 774 <i>sq.</i>; Velleius Paterculus, i. 8. -4; Eutropius, i. 1; Solinus, i. 18; -Censorinus, <i>De die natali</i>, xxi. 6; -Probus on Virgil, <i>Georg.</i> iii. 1; -Schol. Veronens. on Virgil, <i>l.c.</i>; -Dionysius Halicarnas, <i>Ant. Rom.</i> i. -88; Plutarch, <i>Romulus</i>, 12; Dio -Cassius, xliii. 42; Zonaras, <i>Annales</i>, -vii. 3; Joannes Lydus, <i>De mensibus</i>, -i. 14, iv. 50. As to the birth of -Numa, see Plutarch, <i>Numa</i>, 3. The -festival is variously called Parilia and -Palilia by ancient writers, but the -form Parilia seems to be the better -attested of the two. See G. Wissowa, -<i>s.v.</i> “Pales,” in W. H. Roscher’s <i>Lexikon -der griech. und röm. Mythologie</i>, iii. -1278.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1048'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1048'>1048</a>. </span>Dionysius of Halicarnassus (<i>Ant. -Rom.</i> i. 88) hesitates between these -two views. With truer historical insight -Plutarch (<i>Romulus</i>, 12) holds that -the rustic festival was older than the -foundation of Rome.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1049'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1049'>1049</a>. </span>See, for example, vol. i. above, -p. 32.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1050'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1050'>1050</a>. </span>For modern discussions of the -Parilia, see L. Preller, <i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd Ed., -i. 413 <i>sqq.</i>; J. Marquardt, -<i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii. 2nd Ed., 207 -<i>sq.</i>; W. Mannhardt, <i>Antike Wald- und -Feldkulte</i>, pp. 309-317; W. Warde -Fowler, <i>Roman Festivals</i>, pp. 79-85; -G. Wissowa, <i>s.v.</i> “Pales,” in W. -H. Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der griech. u. -röm. Mythologie</i>, iii. 1276-1280; <i>id.</i>, -<i>Religion und Kultus der Römer</i>, pp. -165 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1051'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1051'>1051</a>. </span>Cicero, <i>De divinatione</i>, ii. 47. 98; -Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 806; Calendar of -Philocalus, quoted by W. Warde -Fowler, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 79; Probus on -Virgil, <i>Georg.</i> iii. 1; Plutarch, <i>Romulus</i>, -12; Zonaras, <i>Annales</i>, vii. 3.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1052'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1052'>1052</a>. </span>Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Ant. -Rom.</i> i. 88.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1053'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1053'>1053</a>. </span>Festus, <i>s.v.</i> “Pales,” p. 222, ed. -C. O. Müller; Dionysius Halic. <i>l.c.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1054'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1054'>1054</a>. </span>Servius on Virgil, <i>Georg.</i> iii. 1. -See also Arnobius, <i>Adversus nationes</i>, -iii. 40; Martianus Capella, i. 50.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1055'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1055'>1055</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 637-640, 731-734; -Propertius, v. 1. 19 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1056'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1056'>1056</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>. As to the -sacrifice of the horse in October see <i>The -Golden Bough</i>, Second Edition, ii. 315 -<i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1057'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1057'>1057</a>. </span>Tibullus, ii. 5. 91 <i>sq.</i>:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Et fetus matrona dabit, natusque parenti</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Oscula comprensis auribus cripict.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1058'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1058'>1058</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 735-738. In his -account of the festival Ovid mentions -only shepherds and sheep; but since -Pales was a god of cattle as well as of -sheep (Arnobius, <i>Adversus nationes</i>, -iii. 23), we may suppose that herds -and herdsmen equally participated in -it. Dionysius (<i>l.c.</i>) speaks of four-footed -beasts in general.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1059'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1059'>1059</a>. </span>So Mr. W. Warde Fowler understands -Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 735-742.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1060'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1060'>1060</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 805 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1061'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1061'>1061</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 739 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1062'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1062'>1062</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 747 <i>sq.</i>:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c007'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Consule, dic, pecori pariter pecorisque magistris:</i></div> - <div class='line in2'><i>Effugiat stabulis noxa repulsa meis.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>With this sense of <i>noxa</i> compare <i>id.</i> -vi. 129 <i>sq.</i>, where it is said that buckthorn -or hawthorn “<i>tristes pellere -posset a foribus noxas</i>.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1063'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1063'>1063</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 763-774. The -prayer that the wolves may be kept -far from the fold is mentioned also by -Tibullus (ii. 5. 88).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1064'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1064'>1064</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 779-782; Tibullus, -ii. 5. 89 <i>sq.</i>; Propertius, v. 1. 19, v. -4. 77 sq.; Persius, i. 72; Probus on -Virgil, <i>Georg.</i> iii. 1.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1065'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1065'>1065</a>. </span>I owe this observation to F. A. -Paley, on Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 754. He -refers to Virgil, <i>Georg.</i> ii. 435, <i>Ecl.</i> -x. 30; Theocritus, xi. 73 <i>sq.</i>; to -which may be added Virgil, <i>Georg.</i> iii. -300 <i>sq.</i>, 320 <i>sq.</i>; Horace, <i>Epist.</i> i. -14. 28; Cato, <i>De re rustica</i>, 30; -Columella, <i>De re rustica</i>, vii. 3. 21, xi. -2. 83 and 99-101. From these passages -of Cato and Columella we -learn that the Italian farmer fed his -cattle on the leaves of the elm, the -ash, the poplar, the oak, the evergreen -oak, the fig, and the laurel.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1066'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1066'>1066</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 749-754.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1067'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1067'>1067</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 757-760.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1068'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1068'>1068</a>. </span>Columella, <i>De re rustica</i>, vii. 3. -11. In this respect the practice of -ancient Italian farmers would seem to -have differed from that of modern -English breeders. In a letter (dated -8th February 1908) my friend Professor -W. Somerville of Oxford writes: -“It is against all modern custom to -arrange matters so that lambs are born -five months after April 21, say the end -of September.” And, again, in another -letter (dated 16th February 1908) he -writes to me: “The matter of coupling -ewes and rams in the end of April is -very perplexing. In this country it is -only the Dorset breed of sheep that -will ‘take’ the ram at this time of the -year. In the case of other breeds the -ewe will only take the ram in autumn, -say from July to November, so that the -lambs are born from January to May. -We consider that lambs born late in the -season, say May or June, never thrive -well.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1069'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1069'>1069</a>. </span>The suggestion was made by C. G. -Heyne in his commentary on Tibullus, -i. 5. 88.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1070'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1070'>1070</a>. </span>O. Keller, <i>Thiere des classischen -Alterthums</i> (Innsbruck, 1887), pp. 158 -<i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1071'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1071'>1071</a>. </span>Calpurnius, <i>Bucol.</i> v. 16-28.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1072'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1072'>1072</a>. </span>Plutarch, <i>Romulus</i>, 12.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1073'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1073'>1073</a>. </span>Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <i>Ant. -Rom.</i> 1. 88.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1074'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1074'>1074</a>. </span>This is the view of J. Marquardt -(<i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii. 2nd Ed., 207), -and Mr. W. Warde Fowler (<i>Roman -Festivals</i>, p. 83, note 1).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1075'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1075'>1075</a>. </span>Boecler-Kreutzwald, <i>Der Ehsten -abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und -Gewohnheiten</i>, pp. 82-84, 116-118; -F. J. Wiedemann, <i>Aus dem inneren -und äusseren Leben der Ehsten</i>, pp. -332, 356-361; Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” -<i>Verhandlungen der gelehrten -Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat</i>, vii. -(1872) p. 61.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1076'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1076'>1076</a>. </span>F. J. Wiedemann, <i>op. cit.</i> p. -413.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1077'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1077'>1077</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_75'>75</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1078'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1078'>1078</a>. </span>W. R. S. Ralston, <i>Russian Folk-tales</i>, -pp. 344, 345.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1079'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1079'>1079</a>. </span>W. R. S. Ralston, <i>Songs of the -Russian People</i>, pp. 229-231. In the -island of Rhodes also it is customary -for people to roll themselves on the -grass for good luck on St. George’s -Day. See Mary Hamilton, <i>Greek -Saints and their Festivals</i> (Edinburgh -and London, 1910), p. 166.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1080'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1080'>1080</a>. </span>Olga Bartels, “Aus dem Leben -der weissrussischen Landbevölkerung,” -<i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, xxxv. (1903) -p. 659.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1081'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1081'>1081</a>. </span>W. R. S. Ralston, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 389. -French peasants of the Vosges Mountains -believe that St. George shuts the -mouths of wild beasts and prevents -them from attacking the flocks which -are placed under his protection (L. F. -Sauvé, <i>Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges</i>, -p. 127).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1082'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1082'>1082</a>. </span>W. R. S. Ralston, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. -319 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1083'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1083'>1083</a>. </span>R. F. Kaindl, “Zauberglaube bei den Rutenen in der Bukowina und -Galizien,” <i>Globus</i>, lxi. (1892) p. 280.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1084'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1084'>1084</a>. </span>R. F. Kaindl, <i>Die Huzulen</i> -(Vienna, 1894), pp. 62 <i>sq.</i>, 78, 88 <i>sq.</i>; -<i>id.</i>, “Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen,” -<i>Globus</i>, lxxvi. (1899) p. 233.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1085'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1085'>1085</a>. </span>P. Drechsler, <i>Sitte, Brauch und -Volksglaube in Schlesien</i>, i. (Leipsic, -1903) pp. 106 <i>sq.</i> The authority quoted -for the sacrifice is Tiede, <i>Merkwürdigkeiten -Schlesiens</i> (1804), pp. 123 <i>sq.</i> -It is not expressly said, but we may -assume, that the sacrifice was offered -on St. George’s Day.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1086'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1086'>1086</a>. </span>A. Birlinger, <i>Aus Schwaben</i> (Wiesbaden, -1874), ii. 166. Compare <i>id.</i>, -<i>Volksthümliches aus Schwaben</i>, ii. -21 n. 1.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1087'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1087'>1087</a>. </span>E. H. Meyer, <i>Badisches Volksleben -im neunzehnten Jahrhundert</i> -(Strasburg, 1900), pp. 219, 408.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1088'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1088'>1088</a>. </span>J. Haltrich, <i>Zur Volkskunde der -Siebenbürger Sachsen</i> (Vienna, 1885), -p. 281.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1089'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1089'>1089</a>. </span>W. Schmidt, <i>Das Jahr und seine -Tage in Meinung und Brauch der -Romänen Siebenbürgens</i> (Hermannstadt, -1866), pp. 9, 11. Compare R. F. -Kaindl, “Zur Volkskunde der Rumänen -in der Bukowina,” <i>Globus</i>, xcii. (1907) -p. 284. It does not appear whether -the shepherd’s pouch (“<i>Hirtentaschen</i>”) -in question is the real pouch -or the plant of that name.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1090'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1090'>1090</a>. </span>A. und A. Schott, <i>Walachische -Maehrchen</i> (Stuttgart and Tübingen, -1845), pp. 299 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1091'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1091'>1091</a>. </span>A. Strausz, <i>Die Bulgaren</i> (Leipsic, -1898), p. 287.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1092'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1092'>1092</a>. </span>A. Strausz, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 337.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1093'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1093'>1093</a>. </span>W. R. S. Ralston, <i>Songs of the -Russian People</i>, p. 230.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1094'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1094'>1094</a>. </span>Above, pp. <a href='#Page_126'>126</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1095'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1095'>1095</a>. </span>F. S. Krauss, <i>Volksglaube und -religiöser Brauch der Südslaven</i>, pp. -125-127; <i>id.</i>, <i>Kroatien und Slavonien</i> -(Vienna, 1889), pp. 105 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1096'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1096'>1096</a>. </span>W. J. A. Tettau und J. D. H. -Temme, <i>Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, -Litthauens und Westpreussens</i> (Berlin, -1837), p. 263.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1097'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1097'>1097</a>. </span>L. Lloyd, <i>Peasant Life in Sweden</i>, pp. 246-251; A. Kuhn, <i>Herabkunft -des Feuers</i>, 2nd Ed., pp. 163 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1098'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1098'>1098</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_75'>75</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1099'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1099'>1099</a>. </span>W. R. S. Ralston, <i>Russian Folk-tales</i>, p. 345.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1100'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1100'>1100</a>. </span>Marie Andree-Eysn, <i>Volkskundliches -aus dem bayrisch-österreichischen -Alpengebiet</i> (Brunswick, 1910), -pp. 180-182.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1101'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1101'>1101</a>. </span>E. H. Meyer, <i>Badisches Volksleben -im neunzehnten Jahrhundert</i> -(Strasburg, 1900), p. 423; K. Freiherr -von Leoprechting, <i>Aus dem Lechrain</i> -(Munich, 1855), p. 168.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1102'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1102'>1102</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_56'>56</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1103'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1103'>1103</a>. </span>A. Strausz, <i>Die Bulgaren</i>, pp. -337, 385 <i>sq.</i> There seems to be a -special connexion between St. George -and serpents. In Bohemia and Moravia -it is thought that up to the twenty-third -of April serpents are innocuous, -and only get their poison on the -saint’s day. See J. V. Grohmann, -<i>Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus -Böhmen und Mähren</i>, §§ 326, 580, -pp. 51, 81; W. Müller, <i>Beiträge zur -Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren</i>, -p. 323. Various other charms are -effected by means of serpents on this -day. Thus if you tear out the tongue -of a live snake on St. George’s Day, -put it in a ball of wax, and lay the -ball under your tongue, you will be -able to talk down anybody. See J. -V. Grohmann, <i>op. cit.</i>, §§ 576, 1169, -pp. 81, 166.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1104'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1104'>1104</a>. </span>J. V. Grohmann, <i>op. cit.</i> § 1463, -p. 210.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1105'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1105'>1105</a>. </span>F. S. Krauss, <i>Sitte und Brauch -der Südslaven</i>, p. 175.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1106'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1106'>1106</a>. </span>F. S. Krauss, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 175 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1107'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1107'>1107</a>. </span>Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <i>Fest-Kalender -aus Böhmen</i>, pp. 194 <i>sq.</i>; J. V. -Grohmann, <i>op. cit.</i>, § 554, p. 77.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1108'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1108'>1108</a>. </span>S. J. Curtiss, <i>Primitive Semitic -Religion To-day</i>, pp. 83 <i>sq.</i>, 118 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1109'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1109'>1109</a>. </span>S. Baring-Gould, <i>Curious Myths -of the Middle Ages</i>, pp. 278 <i>sqq.</i> The -authority for this identification is the -nominal translator, but real author, of -the work called <i>The Agriculture of the -Nabataeans</i>. See D. A. Chwolson, -<i>Über Tammuz und die Menschenverehrung -bei den alten Babyloniern</i> (St. -Petersburg, 1860), pp. 56 <i>sq.</i> Although -<i>The Agriculture of the Nabataeans</i> -appears to be a forgery (see above, p. -<a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, note 2), the identification of the -oriental St. George with Tammuz may -nevertheless be correct.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1110'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1110'>1110</a>. </span>J. Maeletius (Menecius), “De -sacrificiis et idolatria veterum Borussorum -Livonum aliarumque vicinarum -gentium,” <i>Mitteilungen der Litterarischen -Gesellschaft Masovia</i>, Heft 8 -(Lötzen, 1902), pp. 185, 187, 200 <i>sq.</i>; -<i>id.</i> in <i>Scriptores rerum Livonicarum</i>, -ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848), pp. 389, -390; J. Lasicius, “De diis Samagitarum -caeterorumque Sarmatarum,” ed. -W. Mannhardt, in <i>Magazin herausgegeben -von der Lettisch-literärischen -Gesellschaft</i>, xiv. (1868) pp. 95 <i>sq.</i> -The first form of the prayer to Pergrubius -is from the Latin, the second -from the German, version of Maeletius’s -(Jan Malecki’s) work. The description -of Pergrubius as “he who makes -leaves and grass to grow” (“<i>der lest -wachssen laub unnd gras</i>”) is also from -the German. According to M. Praetorius, -Pergrubius was a god of husbandry -(<i>Deliciae Prussicae</i>, Berlin, -1871, p. 25).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1111'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1111'>1111</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1112'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1112'>1112</a>. </span>J. Geikie, <i>Prehistoric Europe</i> -(Edinburgh, 1881), pp. 420 <i>sq.</i>, 482 -<i>sqq.</i>, 495.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1113'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1113'>1113</a>. </span>R. Munro, <i>Ancient Scottish Lake -Dwellings or Crannogs</i> (Edinburgh, -1882), p. 266, quoting Alton’s <i>Treatise -on the Origin, Qualities, and Cultivation -of Moss Earth</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1114'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1114'>1114</a>. </span>J. Geikie, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 432-436.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1115'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1115'>1115</a>. </span>J. Geikie, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 461-463.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1116'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1116'>1116</a>. </span>A. von Humboldt, <i>Kosmos</i>, i. -(Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1845) p. -298. The passage is mistranslated -in the English version edited by E. -Sabine.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1117'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1117'>1117</a>. </span>Sir Charles Lyell, <i>The Geological -Evidence of the Antiquity of Man</i> 4th ed., -(London, 1873), pp. 8, 17, 415 <i>sq.</i>; -Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury), -<i>Prehistoric Times</i> 5th Ed., (London, 1890), -pp. 251, 387; J. Geikie, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. -485-487.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1118'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1118'>1118</a>. </span>J. Geikie, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 487 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1119'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1119'>1119</a>. </span>J. Geikie, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 489.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1120'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1120'>1120</a>. </span>R. Munro, <i>Ancient Scottish Lake -Dwellings</i>, p. 20, quoting the article -“Crannoges” in <i>Chambers’s Encyclopædia</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1121'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1121'>1121</a>. </span>R. Munro, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 23. For -more evidence of the use of oak in -British crannogs, see <i>id.</i>, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. -6-8, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33 <i>sq.</i>, -37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 51 <i>sq.</i>, 53, 61, 62, -97, 122, 208, 262, 291-299; <i>id.</i> <i>The -Lake Dwellings of Europe</i> (London, -Paris, and Melbourne, 1890), pp. 350, -364, 372, 377.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1122'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1122'>1122</a>. </span>F. Keller, <i>The Lake Dwellings of -Switzerland and other Parts of Europe</i> 2nd Ed., -(London, 1878), i. 37, 48, 65, 87, -93, 105, 110, 129, 156, 186, 194, -201, 214, 264, 268, 289, 300, 320, -375, 382, 434, 438, 440, 444, 446, -465, 639.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1123'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1123'>1123</a>. </span>F. Keller, <i>op. cit.</i> i. 332, 334, -375, 586.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1124'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1124'>1124</a>. </span>W. Helbig, <i>Die Italiker in der -Poebene</i> (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 12, 16 <i>sq.</i>, -26. The bones of cattle, pigs, goats, -and sheep prove that these animals -were bred by the people of the Italian -pile villages. See W. Helbig, <i>op. cit.</i> -p. 14.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1125'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1125'>1125</a>. </span>Strabo, v. 4. 1, p. 195.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1126'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1126'>1126</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xvi. 5.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1127'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1127'>1127</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xvi. 6 “<i>Hercyniae -silvae roborum vastitas ... glandiferi -maxime generis omnes, quibus -honos apud Romanos perpetuus.</i>”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1128'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1128'>1128</a>. </span>H. Hirt, “Die Urheimat der -Indogermanen,” <i>Indogermanische Forschungen</i>, -i. (1892), p. 480; P. Kretschmer, -<i>Einleitung in die Geschichte der -griechischen Sprache</i> (Göttingen, 1896), -p. 81; O. Schrader, <i>Reallexikon der -Indogermanischen Altertumskunde</i>, <i>s.v.</i> -“Eiche,” p. 164. This etymology -assumes that <i>Hercynia</i> represents an -original <i>Perkunia</i>, and is connected -with the Latin <i>quercus</i>. However, the -derivation is not undisputed. See O. -Schrader, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 1015 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1129'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1129'>1129</a>. </span>Polybius, ii. 15. Compare Strabo, -v. 1. 12, p. 218.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1130'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1130'>1130</a>. </span>Polybius, xii. 4.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1131'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1131'>1131</a>. </span>Strabo, v. 3. 1, p. 228.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1132'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1132'>1132</a>. </span>Diodorus Siculus, iv. 84.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1133'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1133'>1133</a>. </span>Pausanias, viii. 23. 8 <i>sq.</i> For -notices of forests and groves of oak in -Arcadia and other parts of Greece, see -<i>id.</i> ii. 11. 4, iii. 10. 6, vii. 26. 10, -viii. 11. 1, viii. 25. 1, viii. 42. 12, -viii. 54. 5, ix. 3. 4, ix. 24. 5. The -oaks in the Arcadian forests were of -various species (<i>id.</i> viii. 12. 1).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1134'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1134'>1134</a>. </span>C. Neumann und J. Partsch, <i>Physikalische -Geographie von Griechenland</i> -(Breslau, 1885), p. 378.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1135'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1135'>1135</a>. </span><i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, 9th Ed., xvii. -690.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1136'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1136'>1136</a>. </span>Virgil, <i>Georg.</i>, i. 7 <i>sq.</i>, 147-149; -Lucretius, v. 939 <i>sq.</i>, 965; Tibullus, -ii. 1. 37 <i>sq.</i>, ii. 3. 69; Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> -i. 106; <i>id.</i>, <i>Fasti</i>, i. 675 <i>sq.</i>, iv. 399-402; -Juvenal, xiv. 182-184; Aulus -Gellius, v. 6. 12; Dionysius Halicarnas. -<i>Ars rhetorica</i>, i. 6, vol. v. -p. 230, ed. Reiske; Pollux, i. 234; -Poryphry, <i>De abstinentia</i>, ii. 5.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1137'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1137'>1137</a>. </span>Hesiod, <i>Works and Days</i>, 232 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1138'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1138'>1138</a>. </span>Herodotus, i. 66.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1139'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1139'>1139</a>. </span>Pausanias, viii. 1, 6. According -to Pausanias it was only the acorns of -the <i>phegos</i> oak which the Arcadians ate.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1140'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1140'>1140</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xvi. 15.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1141'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1141'>1141</a>. </span>Strabo, iii. 3. 7, p. 155.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1142'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1142'>1142</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>l.c.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1143'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1143'>1143</a>. </span>C. Neumann und J. Partsch, <i>Physikalische -Geographie von Griechenland</i>, -p. 379.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1144'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1144'>1144</a>. </span>C. Neumann and J. Partsch, <i>op. -cit.</i>, p. 382, note.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1145'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1145'>1145</a>. </span>Cervantes, <i>Don Quixote</i>, part ii. -ch. 50, vol. iv. p. 133 of H. E. -Watts’s translation, with the translator’s -note (new edition, London, -1895); Neumann und Partsch, <i>op. cit.</i> -p. 380; P. Wagler, <i>Die Eiche in alter -und neuer Zeit</i>, i. (Wurzen, 1891) p. 35. -The passage in <i>Don Quixote</i> was -pointed out to me by my friend Mr. W. -Wyse.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1146'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1146'>1146</a>. </span><i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, 9th. Ed., xvii. -692.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1147'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1147'>1147</a>. </span>H. E. Watts, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1148'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1148'>1148</a>. </span><i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, <i>l.c.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1149'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1149'>1149</a>. </span>To avoid misapprehension, I desire -to point out that I am not here concerned -with the evolution of Aryan -religion in general, but only with that -of a small, though important part of it, -to wit, the worship of a particular -kind of tree. To write a general -history of Aryan religion in all its -many aspects as a worship of nature, -of the dead, and so forth, would be a -task equally beyond my powers and -my ambition. Still less should I -dream of writing a universal history of -religion. The “general work” referred -to in the preface to the first edition of -<i>The Golden Bough</i> is a book of far -humbler scope.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1150'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1150'>1150</a>. </span>For examples of such ceremonies, see above, pp. <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>-20, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>-38.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1151'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1151'>1151</a>. </span>For evidence of these aspects of -Zeus and Jupiter, see L. Preller, <i>Griechische -Mythologie</i>, i. 4th ed., 115 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>id.</i>, -<i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd Ed., i. 184 <i>sqq.</i> In -former editions of this book I was disposed -to set aside much too summarily -what may be called the meteorological -side of Zeus and Jupiter.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1152'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1152'>1152</a>. </span>See my note on Pausanias, ii. 17. -5; P. Wagler, <i>Die Eiche in alter und -neuer Zeit</i>, ii. (Berlin, 1891), pp. 2 <i>sqq.</i>; -A. B. Cook, “Zeus, Jupiter, and the -Oak,” <i>Classical Review</i>, xvii. (1903) -pp. 178 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1153'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1153'>1153</a>. </span>Aug. Mommsen, <i>Delphika</i> (Leipsic, -1878), pp. 4 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1154'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1154'>1154</a>. </span>Strabo, Frag. vii. 3; Stephanus -Byzantius, <i>s.v.</i> Δωδώνη; Suidas, <i>s.vv.</i> -Δωδωναῖον χαλκεῖον and Δωδώνη; -Apostolius, <i>Cent.</i> vi. 43; Zenobius, -<i>Cent.</i> vi. 5; Nonnus Abbas, <i>Ad S. -Gregorii orat. ii. contra Julianum</i>, 19 -(Migne’s <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, xxxvi. -1045). The evidence on this subject -has been collected and discussed by -Mr. A. B. Cook (“The Gong at -Dodona,” <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, -xxii. (1902) pp. 5-28). The theory -in the text is obviously consistent, both -with the statement that the sound of -the gongs was consulted as oracular, -and with the view, advocated by Mr. -Cook, that it was supposed to avert -evil influences from the sanctuary. If -I am right, the bronze statuette which, -according to some accounts, produced -the sound by striking the gong with a -clapper would represent Zeus himself -making his thunder.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1155'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1155'>1155</a>. </span>On the natural surroundings of -Dodona, see C. Carapanos, <i>Dodone et -ses ruines</i> (Paris, 1878), pp. 7-10.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1156'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1156'>1156</a>. </span>Above, pp. <a href='#Page_140'>140</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1157'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1157'>1157</a>. </span>Above, vol. i. p. 309. On the oak -as the tree of Zeus, see Dionysius -Halicarn. <i>Ars rhetorica</i>, i. 6, vol. v. -p. 230 ed. Reiske; Schol. on Aristophanes, -<i>Birds</i>, 480. On this subject -much evidence, both literary and monumental, -has been collected by Mr. -A. B. Cook in his articles “Zeus, -Jupiter, and the Oak,” <i>Classical Review</i>, -xvii. (1903) pp. 174 <i>sqq.</i>, 268 -<i>sqq.</i>, 403 <i>sqq.</i>, xviii. (1904) pp. 75 -<i>sqq.</i>, 327 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1158'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1158'>1158</a>. </span>Pausanias, i. 24. 3.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1159'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1159'>1159</a>. </span>Marcus Antoninus, v. 7.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1160'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1160'>1160</a>. </span>Theophrastus, <i>De signis tempestatum</i>, -i. 24.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1161'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1161'>1161</a>. </span>Pausanias, i. 30. 4.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1162'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1162'>1162</a>. </span>Pausanias, ii. 29. 7 <i>sq.</i>; Isocrates, -<i>Evagoras</i>, 14; Apollodorus, iii. 12. 6. -Aeacus was said to be the son of Zeus -by Aegina, daughter of Asopus (Apollodorus, <i>l.c.</i>). Isocrates says that his -relationship to the god marked Aeacus -out as the man to procure rain.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1163'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1163'>1163</a>. </span>Theophrastus, <i>De signis tempestatum</i>, -i. 20, compare 24.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1164'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1164'>1164</a>. </span>Theophrastus, <i>op. cit.</i> iii. 43.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1165'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1165'>1165</a>. </span>Pausanias, i. 32. 2.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1166'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1166'>1166</a>. </span>Theophrastus, <i>op. cit.</i> iii. 43 and -47. Compare Aristophanes, <i>Clouds</i>, -324 <i>sq.</i>; Photius, <i>Lexicon</i>, <i>s.v.</i> Πάρνης.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1167'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1167'>1167</a>. </span>Pausanias, i. 32. 2.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1168'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1168'>1168</a>. </span>Pausanias, ii. 25. 10. As to the -climate and scenery of these barren -mountains, see A. Philippson, <i>Der -Peloponnes</i> (Berlin, 1891), pp. 43 <i>sq.</i>, -65.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1169'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1169'>1169</a>. </span>Joannes Lydus, <i>De mensibus</i>, iv. -48.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1170'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1170'>1170</a>. </span>Paton and Hicks, <i>The Inscriptions -of Cos</i> (Oxford, 1891), No. 382; -Dittenberger, <i>Sylloge Inscriptionum -Graecarum</i>, 2nd Ed., No. 735. There were -altars of Rainy Zeus also at Argos and -Lebadea. See Pausanias, ii. 19. 8, -ix. 39. 4.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1171'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1171'>1171</a>. </span>Ἐπικάρπιος μὲν ἀπὸ τῶν καρπῶν, -Aristotle, <i>De mundo</i>, 7, p. 401 a, ed. -Bekker; Plutarch, <i>De Stoicorum repugnantiis</i>, -xxx. 8.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1172'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1172'>1172</a>. </span><i>Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum</i>, -iii. No. 77; E. S. Roberts, <i>Introduction -to Greek Epigraphy</i>, ii. No. 142, -p. 387; Ch. Michel, <i>Recueil d’inscriptions -grecques</i>, No. 692; L. R. -Farnell, <i>Cults of the Greek States</i>, i. -66 and 172.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1173'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1173'>1173</a>. </span>Hesiod, <i>Theogony</i>, 71 <i>sq.</i>; L. -Preller, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i>, 4th ed., i. 119.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1174'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1174'>1174</a>. </span>Pausanias, v. 14. 7; H. Roehl, -<i>Inscriptiones Graecae antiquissimae</i> -(Berlin, 1882), No. 101; Fränkel, -<i>Inschriften von Pergamon</i>, i. No. 232; -Joannes Malalas, <i>Chronographia</i>, viii. -p. 199, ed. L. Dindorf.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1175'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1175'>1175</a>. </span>Strabo, ix. 2. 11, p. 404.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1176'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1176'>1176</a>. </span>Pollux, ix. 41; Hesychius, <i>s.v.</i> -ἠλύσιον; <i>Etymologicum Magnum</i>, p. -341. 8 <i>sqq.</i>; Artemidorus, <i>Onirocrit.</i> -11. 9; Pausanias, v. 14. 10; Dittenberger, -<i>Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum</i>, 2nd Ed., -No. 577, with Dittenberger’s -note.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1177'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1177'>1177</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1178'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1178'>1178</a>. </span>See above, vol. i. p. 310.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1179'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1179'>1179</a>. </span>See above, vol. i. p. 366.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1180'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1180'>1180</a>. </span>For more evidence that the old -Greek kings regularly personified Zeus, -see Mr. A. B. Cook, “The European -Sky-god,” <i>Folk-lore</i>, xv. (1904) pp. 299 -<i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1181'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1181'>1181</a>. </span>Virgil. <i>Georg.</i> iii. 332, with Servius’s -note; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xii. 3.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1182'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1182'>1182</a>. </span>As to the oak of Jupiter on the -Capitol and the god’s oak crown, see -above, p. <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>. With regard to the -Capitoline worship of Thundering -Jupiter, see Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> ii. 21, -xxxiv. 10 and 79, xxxvi. 50. He was -worshipped in many places besides -Rome as the god of thunder and lightning. -See Festus, p. 229, ed. C. O. -Müller; Apuleius, <i>De mundo</i>, xxxvii. -371; H. Dessau, <i>Inscriptones Latinae -selectae</i>, Nos. 3044-3053.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1183'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1183'>1183</a>. </span>Petronius, <i>Sat.</i> 44. That the -slope mentioned by Petronius was the -Capitoline one is made highly probable -by a passage of Tertullian (<i>Apologeticus</i> -40: “<i>Aquilicia Jovi immolatis, nudipedalia -populo denuntiatis, coelum apud -Capitolium quaeritis, nubila de laquearibus -exspectatis</i>”). The church father’s -scorn for the ceremony contrasts with -the respect, perhaps the mock respect, -testified for it by the man in Petronius. -The epithets Rainy and Showery are -occasionally applied to Jupiter. See -Tibullus, i. 7. 26; Apuleius, <i>De mundo</i>, -xxxvii. 371; H. Dessau, <i>Inscriptiones -Latinae selectae</i>, No. 3043.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1184'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1184'>1184</a>. </span>H. Dessau, <i>op. cit.</i> No. 3042; -Apuleius, <i>l.c.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1185'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1185'>1185</a>. </span>Apuleius, <i>l.c.</i>, “<i>Plures eum Frugiferum -vocant</i>”; H. Dessau, <i>op. cit.</i> -No. 3017.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1186'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1186'>1186</a>. </span>On this subject see H. Munro -Chadwick, “The Oak and the Thunder-god,” -<i>Journal of the Anthropological -Institute</i>, xxx. (1900) pp. 22-42.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1187'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1187'>1187</a>. </span>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xvi. 249.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1188'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1188'>1188</a>. </span>Maximus Tyrius, <i>Dissert.</i> viii. -8. H. D’Arbois de Jubainville supposed -that by Celts the writer here -meant Germans (<i>Cours de la littérature -celtique</i>, i. 121 <i>sqq.</i>). This was not -the view of J. Grimm, to whose -authority D’Arbois de Jubainville -appealed. Grimm says that what Maximus -Tyrius affirms of the Celts might -be applied to the Germans (<i>Deutsche -Mythologie</i>, 4th ed., i. 55), which is quite a -different thing.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1189'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1189'>1189</a>. </span>Strabo, xii. 5. 1, p. 567. As to -the meaning of the name see (Sir) J. -Rhys, <i>Celtic Heathendom</i>, p. 221; H. F. -Tozer, <i>Selections from Strabo</i>, p. 284. -On the Galatian language see above, -p. <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, note 2.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1190'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1190'>1190</a>. </span>G. Curtius, <i>Griech. Etymologie</i>, 5th Ed., -pp. 238 <i>sq.</i>; J. Rhys, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 221 -<i>sq.</i>; P. Kretschmer, <i>Einleitung in die -Geschichte der griech. Sprache</i>, p. 81. -Compare A. Vanicek, <i>Griechisch-lateinisch. -etymologisches Wörterbuch</i>, -pp. 368-370. Oak in old Irish is -<i>daur</i>, in modern Irish <i>dair</i>, <i>darach</i>, in -Gaelic <i>darach</i>. See G. Curtius, <i>l.c.</i>; -A. Macbain, <i>Etymological Dictionary -of the Gaelic Language</i> (Inverness, -1896), <i>s.v.</i> “Darach.” On this view -Pliny was substantially right (<i>Nat. -Hist.</i> xvi. 249) in connecting Druid -with the Greek <i>drus</i>, “oak,” though -the name was not derived from the -Greek. However, this derivation of -Druid has been doubted or rejected by -some scholars. See H. D’Arbois de -Jubainville, <i>Cours de la littérature -celtique</i>, i. (Paris, 1883), pp. 117 <i>sqq.</i>; -O. Schrader, <i>Reallexikon der indogermanischen -Altertumskunde</i>, pp. 638 -<i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1191'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1191'>1191</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1192'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1192'>1192</a>. </span>The Gael’s “faith in druidism -was never suddenly undermined; for -in the saints he only saw more powerful -druids than those he had previously -known, and Christ took the position -in his eyes of the druid κατ’ ἐξοχήν. -Irish druidism absorbed a certain -amount of Christianity; and it would -be a problem of considerable difficulty -to fix on the point where it ceased to -be druidism, and from which onwards -it could be said to be Christianity in -any restricted sense of that term” (J. -Rhys, <i>Celtic Heathendom</i>, p. 224).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1193'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1193'>1193</a>. </span>P. W. Joyce, <i>Social History of -Ancient Ireland</i>, i. 236.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1194'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1194'>1194</a>. </span>J. Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, 4th ed., -i. 55 <i>sq.</i> Tacitus often mentions the -sacred groves of the Germans, but never -specifies the kinds of trees of which -they were composed. See <i>Annals</i>, ii. -12, iv. 73; <i>Histor.</i> iv. 14; <i>Germania</i>, -7, 9, 39, 40, 43.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1195'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1195'>1195</a>. </span>J. Grimm, <i>op. cit.</i> ii. 542.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1196'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1196'>1196</a>. </span>Willibald’s <i>Life of S. Boniface</i>, in -Pertz’s <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>, -ii. 343 <i>sq.</i>; J. Grimm, <i>op. cit.</i> -i. pp. 58, 142.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1197'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1197'>1197</a>. </span>J. Grimm, <i>op. cit.</i> i. 157. Prof. E. -Maass supposes that the identification -of Donar or Thunar with Jupiter was -first made in Upper Germany between -the Vosges mountains and the Black -Forest. See his work <i>Die Tagesgötter</i> -(Berlin, 1902), p. 280.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1198'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1198'>1198</a>. </span>Adam of Bremen, <i>Descriptio insularum -Aquilonis</i>, 26 (Migne’s <i>Patrologia -Latina</i>, cxlvi. col. 643).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1199'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1199'>1199</a>. </span>Adam of Bremen, <i>l.c.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1200'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1200'>1200</a>. </span>E. H. Meyer, <i>Mythologie des -Germanen</i> (Strasburg, 1903), p. 290.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1201'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1201'>1201</a>. </span>Adam of Bremen, <i>op. cit.</i> 26, 27, -with the Scholia (Migne’s <i>Patrologia -Latina</i>, cxlvi. coll. 642-644).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1202'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1202'>1202</a>. </span>J. Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, 4th ed., -i. 142 <i>sq.</i>; L. Leger, <i>La Mythologie -slave</i> (Paris, 1901), pp. 54-76.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1203'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1203'>1203</a>. </span>L. Leger, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 57 <i>sq.</i>, translating -Guagnini’s <i>Sarmatiae Europaeae -descriptio</i> (1578). The passage is quoted -in the original by Chr. Hartknoch -(<i>Alt- und neues Preussen</i>, Frankfort -and Leipsic, 1684, p. 132), who -rightly assigns the work to Strykowski, -not Guagnini. See W. Mannhardt, in -<i>Magazin herausgegeben von der Lettisch-Literarischen -Gesellschaft</i>, xiv. (1868) -pp. 105 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1204'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1204'>1204</a>. </span>Procopius, <i>De bello Gothico</i>, iii. 14 -(vol. ii. p. 357, ed. J. Haury).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1205'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1205'>1205</a>. </span>Matthias Michov, “De Sarmatia -Asiana atque Europea,” in Simon -Grynaeus’s <i>Novus Orbis regionum ac -insularum veteribus incognitarum</i> -(Paris, 1532), p. 457; <i>id.</i>, in J. Pistorius’s -<i>Polonicae historiae corpus</i> -(Bâle, 1582), i. 144; Martin Cromer, -<i>De origine et rebus gestis Polonorum</i> -(Bâle, 1568), p. 241; J. Maeletius -(Menecius, Ian Malecki), “De sacrificiis -et idolatria veterum Borussorum, -Livonum, aliarumque vicinarum -gentium,” <i>Scriptores rerum Livonicarum</i>, -ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) -p. 390; <i>id.</i>, in <i>Mitteilungen der Litterarischen -Gesellschaft Masovia</i>, Heft 8 -(Lötzen, 1902), p. 187; Chr. Hartknoch, -<i>Alt- und neues Preussen</i> (Frankfort and -Leipsic, 1684), pp. 131 <i>sqq.</i>; S. Rostowski, -quoted by A. Brückner, <i>Archiv -für slavische Philologie</i>, ix. (1886) -pp. 32, 35; M. Töppen, <i>Geschichte der -preussischen Historiographie</i> (Berlin, -1853), p. 190 (“<i>Perkunos ist in allen -andern Ueberlieferungen so gross und -hehr, wie nur immer der griechische -und römische Donnergott, und kein -anderer der Götter darf sich ihm gleich -stellen. Er ist der Hauptgott, wie -nach andern Berichten in Preussen, so -auch in Litthauen und Livland</i>”); -Schleicher, “Lituanica,” <i>Sitzungsberichte -der philosoph.-histor. Classe d. -kais. Akademie d. Wissen.</i> (Vienna), -xi. (1853 pub. 1854) p. 96; H. -Usener, <i>Götternamen</i> (Bonn, 1896), -p. 97.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1206'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1206'>1206</a>. </span>M. Praetorius, <i>Deliciae Prussicae</i> -(Berlin, 1871), pp. 19 <i>sq.</i>; S. Rostowski, -<i>op. cit.</i> pp. 34, 35. On the -sacred oaks of the Lithuanians see -Chr. Hartknoch, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 117 <i>sqq.</i>; -Tettau und Temme, <i>Volkssagen Ostpreussens, -Litthauens und Westpreussens</i>, -pp. 19-22, 35-38.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1207'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1207'>1207</a>. </span>M. Praetorius, <i>l.c.</i>; S. Grunau, -<i>Preussische Chronik</i>, ed. M. Perlbach, -i. (Leipsic, 1876) p. 78 (ii. tract. -cap. v. § 2). The chronicler, Simon -Grunau, lived as an itinerant Dominican -friar at the beginning of the sixteenth -century in the part of Prussia which -had been ceded to Poland. He brought -his history, composed in somewhat -rustic German, down to 1529. His -familiar intercourse with the lowest -classes of the people enabled him to -learn much as to their old heathen -customs and superstitions; but his good -faith has been doubted or denied. In -particular, his description of the images -of the three gods in the great oak at -Romove has been regarded with suspicion -or denounced as a figment. See -Chr. Hartknoch, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 127 <i>sqq.</i>; -M. Toeppen, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 122 <i>sqq.</i>, 190 -<i>sqq.</i>; M. Perlbach’s preface to his -edition of Grunau; H. Usener, <i>Götternamen</i>, -p. 83. But his account of the -sanctity of the oak, and of the perpetual -sacred fire of oak-wood, may be -accepted, since it is confirmed by other -authorities. Thus, according to Malecki, -a perpetual fire was kept up by a priest -in honour of Perkunas (Pargnus) on -the top of a mountain, which stood -beside the river Neuuassa (Niewiaza, a -tributary of the Niemen). See Malecki -(Maeletius, Menecius), <i>op. cit.</i>, <i>Scriptores -rerum Livonicarum</i>, ii. 391; <i>id.</i>, -<i>Mitteilungen der Litterarischen Gesellschaft -Masovia</i>, Heft 8 (Lötzen, 1902), -p. 187. Again, the Jesuit S. Rostowski -says that the Lithuanians maintained -a perpetual sacred fire in honour -of Perkunas in the woods (quoted by -A. Brückner, <i>Archiv für slavische -Philologie</i>, ix. (1886) p. 33). Malecki -and Rostowski do not mention that the -fire was kindled with oak-wood, but -this is expressly stated by M. Praetorius, -and is, besides, intrinsically probable, -since the oak was sacred to -Perkunas. Moreover, the early historian, -Peter of Dusburg, who dedicated -his chronicle of Prussia to the Grand -Master of the Teutonic Knights in -1326, informs us that the high-priest -of the nation, whom the Prussians -revered as a pope, kept up a perpetual -fire at Romow, which is doubtless the -same with the Romowo or Romewo of -Grunau (<i>Preussische Chronik</i>, pp. 80, -81, compare p. 62, ed. M. Perlbach). -See P. de Dusburg, <i>Chronicon Prussiae</i>, -ed. Chr. Hartknoch (Frankfort -and Leipsic, 1679), p. 79. Martin -Cromer says that the Lithuanians -“worshipped fire as a god, and kept it -perpetually burning in the more frequented -places and towns” (<i>De origine -et rebus gestis Polonorum</i>, Bâle, 1568, -p. 241). Romow or Romowo is more -commonly known as Romove. Its site -is very uncertain. See Chr. Hartknoch, -<i>Alt- und neues Preussen</i>, pp. -122 <i>sqq.</i> Grunau’s account of Romove -and its sacred oak, with the images of -the three gods in it and the fire of oak-wood -burning before it, is substantially -repeated by Alex. Guagnini. See J. -Pistorius, <i>Polonicae historiae corpus</i> -(Bâle, 1582), i. 52; <i>Respublica sive -status regni Poloniae, Lituaniae, -Prussiae, Livoniae</i>, etc. (Leyden, 1627), -pp. 321 <i>sq.</i> I do not know whether -the chronicler, Simon Grunau, is the -same with Simon Grynaeus, editor of -the <i>Novus Orbis regionum ac insularum -veteribus incognitarum</i>, which was -published at Paris in 1532.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1208'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1208'>1208</a>. </span>S. Rostowski, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 35.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1209'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1209'>1209</a>. </span>D. Fabricius, “De cultu, religione -et moribus incolarum Livoniae,” <i>Scriptores -rerum Livonicarum</i>, ii. 441. -Malecki (Maeletius) also says that -Perkunas was prayed to for rain. See -<i>Mitteilungen der Litterarischen Gesellschaft -Masovia</i>, Heft 8 (Lötzen, 1902), -p. 201.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1210'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1210'>1210</a>. </span>According to Prof. H. Hirt, -the name Perkunas means “the oak-god,” -being derived from the same root -<i>querq</i>, which appears in the Latin -<i>quercus</i> “oak,” the <i>Hercynian</i> forest, -the Norse god and goddess <i>Fjörygn</i>, -and the Indian <i>Parjanya</i>, the Vedic -god of thunder and rain. See H. -Hirt, “Die Urheimat der Indogermanen,” -<i>Indogermanische Forschungen</i>, -i. (1892) pp. 479 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>id.</i>, -<i>Die Indogermanen</i> (Strasburg, 1905-1907), -ii. 507; P. Kretschmer, -<i>Einleitung in die Geschichte der -griechischen Sprache</i>, pp. 81 <i>sq.</i> The -identity of the names Perkunas and -Parjanya had been maintained long -before by G. Bühler, though he did -not connect the words with <i>quercus</i>. -See his article, “On the Hindu god -Parjanya,” <i>Transactions of the (London) -Philological Society</i>, 1859, pp. -154-168. As to Parjanya, see below, -pp. <a href='#Page_368'>368</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1211'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1211'>1211</a>. </span>Fr. Kreutzwald und H. Neus, -<i>Mythische und magische Lieder der -Ehsten</i> (St. Petersburg, 1854), pp. 16, -26, 27, 56, 57, 104; F. J. Wiedemann, -<i>Aus dem inneren und äusseren -Leben der Ehsten</i>, pp. 427, 438. -Sometimes, however, a special thunder-god -Kou, Koo, Piker or Pikne is distinguished -from Taara (Tar). See F. J. -Wiedemann, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 427; Kreutzwald -und Neus, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 12 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1212'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1212'>1212</a>. </span>Boecler-Kreutzwald, <i>Der Ehsten -abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und -Gewohnheiten</i> (St. Petersburg, 1854), -p. 2.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1213'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1213'>1213</a>. </span>J. Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, 4th ed., -i. 146.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1214'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1214'>1214</a>. </span>F. J. Wiedemann, <i>op. cit.</i> p. -427.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1215'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1215'>1215</a>. </span>See above, p. <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>, note 3.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1216'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1216'>1216</a>. </span><i>Rigveda</i>, Book v. Hymn 83, R. T. -H. Griffith’s translation (Benares, 1889-1892), -vol. ii. pp. 299 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1217'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1217'>1217</a>. </span><i>Rigveda</i>, Book vii. Hymn 101, -Griffith’s translation (vol. iii. pp. 123 -<i>sq.</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1218'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1218'>1218</a>. </span><i>Rigveda</i>, Book vii. Hymn 102, -Griffith’s translation (vol. iii. p. 124). -On Parjanya see further G. Bühler, -“On the Hindu god <i>Parjanya</i>,” -<i>Transactions of the (London) Philological -Society</i>, 1859, pp. 154-168; <i>id.</i> -in <i>Orient und Occident</i>, i. (1862) pp. -214-229; J. Muir, <i>Original Sanscrit -Texts</i>, v. 140-142; H. Oldenberg, -<i>Die Religion des Veda</i>, p. 226; A. -Macdonnell, <i>Vedic Mythology</i>, pp. -83-85.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1219'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1219'>1219</a>. </span>G. Bühler, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 161.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1220'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1220'>1220</a>. </span>L. H. Morgan, <i>League of the -Iroquois</i> (Rochester, 1851), pp. 157 -<i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1221'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1221'>1221</a>. </span>J. Spieth, <i>Die Ewe-Stämme</i> (Berlin, -1906), pp. 424-427.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1222'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1222'>1222</a>. </span>E. J. Payne, <i>History of the New -World called America</i>, i. (Oxford, -1892) pp. 407 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1223'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1223'>1223</a>. </span>N. Seidlitz, “Die Abchasen,” -<i>Globus</i>, lxvi. (1894) p. 73.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1224'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1224'>1224</a>. </span>P. Wagler, <i>Die Eiche in alter -und neuer Zeit</i>, ii. (Berlin, 1891) p. 37.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1225'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1225'>1225</a>. </span>J. Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, 4th ed., -i. 59.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1226'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1226'>1226</a>. </span>P. Wagler, <i>Die Eiche in alter und -neuer Zeit</i>, i. (Wurzen, 1891) pp. 21-23. -For many more survivals of oak-worship -in Germany see P. Wagler, -<i>op. cit.</i> ii. 40 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1227'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1227'>1227</a>. </span>M. Praetorius, <i>Deliciae Prussicae</i> -(Berlin, 1871), p. 16.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1228'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1228'>1228</a>. </span>J. G. Kohl, <i>Die deutsch-russischen -Ostseeprovinzen</i> (Dresden and Leipsic, -1841), ii. 31; compare 33.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1229'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1229'>1229</a>. </span>Schleicher, “Lituanica,” <i>Sitzungsberichte -der philos.-histor. Classe der -kais. Akademie der Wissenschaften</i>, xi. -(1853, pub. 1854) p. 100.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1230'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1230'>1230</a>. </span>James Piggul, steward of the estate -of Panikovitz, in a report to Baron -de Bogouschefsky, <i>Journal of the Anthropological -Institute</i>, iii. (1874) pp. -274 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1231'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1231'>1231</a>. </span>The evidence will be given later -on, when we come to deal with the -fire-festivals of Europe. Meantime I -may refer the reader to <i>The Golden -Bough</i>, Second Edition, iii. 347 <i>sqq.</i>, -where, however, the statement as to -the universal use of oak-wood in kindling -the need-fire is too absolute, -exceptions having since come to my -knowledge. These will be noticed in -the third edition of that part of <i>The -Golden Bough</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1232'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1232'>1232</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1233'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1233'>1233</a>. </span>The only positive evidence, so far -as I know, that the Celtic oak-god was -also a deity of thunder and rain is his -identification with Zeus (see above, -p. <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>). But the analogy of the -Greeks, Italians, Teutons, Slavs, and -Lithuanians may be allowed to supply -the lack of more definite testimony.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1234'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1234'>1234</a>. </span>It is said to have been observed -that lightning strikes an oak twenty -times for once that it strikes a beech -(J. Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, 4th ed., iii. -64). But even if this observation were -correct, we could not estimate its -worth unless we knew the comparative -frequency of oaks and beeches -in the country where it was made. -The Greeks observed that a certain -species of oak, which they called -<i>haliphloios</i>, or sea-bark, was often -struck by lightning though it did not -grow to a great height; but far from -regarding it as thereby marked out for -the service of the god they abstained -from using its wood in the sacrificial -rites. See Theophrastus, <i>Histor. -plant.</i> iii. 8. 5; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> -xvi. 24.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1235'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1235'>1235</a>. </span> M. Abeghian, <i>Der armenische -Volksglaube</i>, p. 90.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1236'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1236'>1236</a>. </span>E. B. Tylor, <i>Early History of -Mankind</i>, 3rd Ed., pp. 223-227. For more -evidence of this wide-spread belief -see M. Baudrouin et L. Bonnemère, -“Les Haches polies dans l’histoire -jusqu’au XIXe siècle,” <i>Bulletins et -Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie -de Paris</i>, Ve Série, v. (1904) pp. -496-548; Lieut. Boyd Alexander, -“From the Niger, by Lake Chad, to -the Nile,” <i>The Geographical Journal</i>, -xxx. (1907) pp. 144 <i>sq.</i>; A. B. Ellis, -<i>Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave -Coast</i>, pp. 37 <i>sq.</i>; H. Seidel, “Der -Yew’e Dienst im Togolande,” <i>Zeitschrift -für afrikanische und oceanischen -Sprachen</i>, iii. (1897) p. 161; -H. Klose, <i>Togo unter deutscher -Flagge</i>, pp. 197 <i>sq.</i>; L. Conradt, -“Die Ngumbu in Südkamerun,” -<i>Globus</i>, lxxxi. (1902) p. 353; Guerlach, -“Mœurs et superstitions des -sauvages Ba-hnars,” <i>Missions Catholiques</i>, -xix. (1887) pp. 442, 454; J. -A. Jacobsen, <i>Reisen in die Inselwelt -des Banda-Meeres</i> (Berlin, 1896), pp. -49 <i>sq.</i>, 232; C. Ribbe, “Die Aru-Inseln,” -<i>Festschrift des Vereins für -Erdkunde zu Dresden</i> (Dresden, 1888), -p. 165; E. Thurston, <i>Ethnographic -Notes in Southern India</i>, p. 351; Rev. -P. O. Bodding, “Ancient Stone Implements -in the Santal Parganas,” -<i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of -Bengal</i>, lxx. Part iii. (1901) pp. 17-20; -E. M. Gordon, <i>Indian Folk-tales</i> -(London, 1908), p. 75; <i>County -Folk-lore, III. Orkney and Shetland -Islands</i>, collected by G. F. Black -(London, 1903), p. 153; P. Hermann, -<i>Nordische Mythologie</i>, pp. 339 <i>sq.</i>, -352; M. Toeppen, <i>Aberglauben aus -Masuren</i> 2nd Ed., (Danzig, 1867), pp. 42 <i>sq.</i> -Dr. E. B. Tylor has pointed out how -natural to the primitive mind is the -association of spark-producing stones -with lightning (<i>Primitive Culture</i>, 2nd Ed., ii. -262).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1237'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1237'>1237</a>. </span>L. Preller, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i>, 4th ed., -i. 116 <i>sq.</i>; <i>id.</i>, <i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd Ed., -i. 184 <i>sqq.</i> As to Jupiter see in -particular Augustine, <i>De civitate Dei</i>, -vii. 19, “<i>Coelum enim esse Jovem -innumerabiliter et diligenter affirmant</i>”; -and Ennius, quoted by -Cicero, <i>De natura deorum</i>, ii. 25, -65, “<i>Aspice hoc sublimen candens, quem -invocant omnes Jovem</i>.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1238'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1238'>1238</a>. </span>Above, vol. i. pp. 6 <i>sq.</i>, 12; -vol. ii. pp. <a href='#Page_124'>124</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a> <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1239'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1239'>1239</a>. </span>Above, vol. i. pp. 19 <i>sqq.</i>, 40 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1240'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1240'>1240</a>. </span>Above, vol. i. pp. 12 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1241'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1241'>1241</a>. </span>Above, pp. <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1242'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1242'>1242</a>. </span>Above, p. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1243'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1243'>1243</a>. </span>Above, vol. i. pp. 13 <i>sq.</i>, vol. ii. -pp. <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1244'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1244'>1244</a>. </span>Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> vi. 205 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1245'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1245'>1245</a>. </span>See above, pp. <a href='#Page_178'>178</a> <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1246'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1246'>1246</a>. </span>This suggestion is due to Mr. A. B. -Cook. See his articles, “Zeus, Jupiter, -and the Oak,” <i>Classical Review</i>, xviii. -(1904) pp. 363 <i>sq.</i>; and “The European -Sky-God,” <i>Folk-lore</i>, xvi. (1905) -pp. 277 <i>sq.</i> On the other hand see -above, pp. <a href='#Page_1'>1</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1247'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1247'>1247</a>. </span>Virbius may perhaps be etymologically -connected with <i>viridis</i>, “green,” -and <i>verbena</i>, “a sacred bough.” If -this were so, Virbius would be “the -Green One.” We are reminded of -those popular personifications of the -spring, Green George and Jack in the -Green. See above, pp. <a href='#Page_75'>75</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a> <i>sq.</i> -As to the proposed derivation from a -root meaning “green” Professor R. S. -Conway writes to me (10th January -1903): “From this meaning of the -root a derivative in <i>-bus</i> would not -strike me as so strange; <i>vir-bho</i> might -conceivably mean ‘growing green.’” -In my <i>Lectures on the Early History -of the Kingship</i> (pp. 282 <i>sq.</i>) I followed -Mr. A. B. Cook in interpreting a -passage of Plautus (<i>Casina</i>, ii. 5. 23-29) -as a reference to the priests of -Nemi in the character of mortal -Jupiters. But a simpler and more -probable explanation of the passage -has been given by Dr. L. R. Farnell. -See A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-god,” -<i>Folk-lore</i>, xvi. (1905) pp. 322 -<i>sqq.</i>; L. R. Farnell, in <i>The Hibbert -Journal</i>, iv. (1906) p. 932.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1248'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1248'>1248</a>. </span>See above, vol. i. p. 13, vol. ii. -pp. <a href='#Page_378'>378</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1249'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1249'>1249</a>. </span>Above, pp. <a href='#Page_171'>171</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1250'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1250'>1250</a>. </span>Horace, <i>Odes</i>, i. 21. 5 <i>sq.</i>, iii. 23. -9 <i>sq.</i>, iv. 4. 5 <i>sq.</i>, <i>Carmen Saeculare</i>, -69; Livy, iii. 25. 6-8; E. H. Bunbury, -in Smith’s <i>Dictionary of Greek -and Roman Geography</i>, <i>s.v.</i> “Algidus.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1251'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1251'>1251</a>. </span>Festus, <i>s.v.</i> “Tifata,” p. 366, ed. -C. O. Müller; Velleius Paterculus, ii. -25. 4; E. H. Bunbury, <i>op. cit.</i> <i>s.v.</i> -“Tifata.” For more evidence of the -association of Diana with the oak, see -Mr. A. B. Cook, “Zeus, Jupiter, and -the Oak,” <i>Classical Review</i>, xviii. -(1904) pp. 369 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1252'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1252'>1252</a>. </span>Above, vol. i. pp. 17 <i>sq.</i>, vol. ii -pp. <a href='#Page_172'>172</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1253'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1253'>1253</a>. </span>The original root appears plainly -in <i>Diovis</i> and <i>Diespiter</i>, the older -forms of <i>Jupiter</i> (Varro, <i>De lingua -Latina</i>, v. 66; Aulus Gellius, v. 12). -The form Dianus is attested by an -inscription found at Aquileia (<i>Corpus -Inscriptionum Latinarum</i>, v. 783), -and the form Jana by Varro (<i>Rerum -rusticarum</i>, i. 37. 3) and Macrobius -(<i>Saturn.</i> i. 9. 8). In <i>Zeus</i>, <i>Dione</i>, -<i>Jupiter</i>, and <i>Juno</i> the old root <i>DI</i> -appears in the expanded form <i>DIV</i>. -As to the etymology of these names, -see Ch. Ploix, “Les Dieux qui proviennent -de la racine <i>DIV</i>,” <i>Mémoires -de la Société de Linguistique de Paris</i>, -i. (1868) pp. 213-222; G. Curtius, -<i>Grundzüge der griechischen Etymologie</i>, 5th Ed., -pp. 236 <i>sq.</i>, 616 <i>sq.</i>; A. -Vanicek, <i>Griechisch-lateinisches etymologisches -Wörterbuch</i>, i. 353 <i>sqq.</i>; -W. H. Roscher, <i>Lexikon der griech. -u. röm. Mythologie</i>, ii. 45 <i>sq.</i>, 578 -<i>sq.</i>, 619; S. Linde, <i>De Jano summo -Romanorumdeo</i> (Lund, 1891), pp. 7 <i>sq.</i>; -J. S. Speijer, “Le Dieu romain Janus,” -<i>Revue de l’Histoire des Religions</i>, xxvi. -(1892) pp. 37-41; H. Usener, <i>Götternamen</i>, -pp. 16, 35 <i>sq.</i>, 326; P. -Kretschmer, <i>Einleitung in die Geschichte -der griechischen Sprache</i>, pp. 78 -<i>sqq.</i>, 91, 161 <i>sq.</i> Messrs. Speijer and -Kretschmer reject the derivation of -Janus from the root <i>DI</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1254'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1254'>1254</a>. </span>As to Juno in these aspects, see L. -Preller, <i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd Ed., i. 271 -<i>sqq.</i>; G. Wissowa, <i>Religion und Kultus -der Römer</i>, pp. 117 <i>sqq.</i>; W. H. -Roscher, <i>Lexikon der griech. u. röm. -Mythologie</i>, ii. 578 <i>sqq.</i> As to Diana, -see above, vol. i. p. 12, vol. ii. pp. -<a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a> <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1255'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1255'>1255</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, i. 89 <i>sqq.</i>; Macrobius, -<i>Sat.</i> i. 9; Servius, on Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> -vii. 610; Joannes Lydus, <i>De mensibus</i>, -iv. 1 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1256'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1256'>1256</a>. </span>Varro, quoted by Augustine, <i>De -civitate Dei</i>, vii. 28; Joannes Lydus, -<i>De mensibus</i>, iv. 2. Compare Macrobius, -<i>Sat.</i> i. 9. 11. See R. Agahd, -<i>M. Terentii Varronis rerum divinarum -libri I. XIV. XV. XVI.</i> (Leipsic, -1898) pp. 117 <i>sqq.</i>, 203 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1257'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1257'>1257</a>. </span>Macrobius, <i>Sat.</i> i. 9. 15, i. 15. -19; Servius, on Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> vii. 610; -Joannes Lydus, <i>De mensibus</i>, iv. 1. -Prof. G. Wissowa thinks that sacrifices -were offered to Janus as well as to Juno -on the first of every month (<i>Religion -und Kultus der Römer</i>, pp. 91 <i>sq.</i>); -but this view does not seem to me to -be supported by the evidence of Macrobius -(<i>Sat.</i> i. 9. 16, i. 15. 18 <i>sq.</i>), to -which he refers. Macrobius does not -say that the first of every month was -sacred to Janus.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1258'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1258'>1258</a>. </span>Arnobius, <i>Adversus nationes</i>, iii. 29.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1259'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1259'>1259</a>. </span>Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> xii. 138 <i>sqq.</i>; Ovid, -<i>Fasti</i>, ii. 585 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1260'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1260'>1260</a>. </span>Cato, <i>De agri cultura</i>, 134; Virgil, -<i>Aen.</i> viii. 357; Horace, <i>Epist.</i> i. 16. -59, compare <i>Sat.</i> ii. 6. 20; Pliny, -<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxvi. 28; Juvenal, vi. -394; Martial, x. 28. 6 <i>sq.</i>; Aulus -Gellius, v. 12. 5; Arnobius, <i>Adversus -nationes</i>, iii. 29; H. Dessau, <i>Inscriptiones -Latinae selectae</i>, Nos. 3320, -3322, 3323, 3324, 3325, 5047; G. -Henzen, <i>Acta fratrum Arvalium</i>, p. -144; Athenaeus, xv. 46, p. 692 <span class='fss'>D</span>, <span class='fss'>E</span>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1261'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1261'>1261</a>. </span>Augustine, <i>De civitate Dei</i>, vii. 9 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1262'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1262'>1262</a>. </span><i>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</i>, -v. No. 783.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1263'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1263'>1263</a>. </span>Macrobius, <i>Sat.</i> i. 7. 19; Servius, -on Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> viii. 319 and 357; -Arnobius, <i>Adversus nationes</i>, iii. 29; -Athenaeus, xv. 46, p. 692 <span class='fss'>D</span>. As to -the oak-woods of the Janiculum, see -above, p. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1264'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1264'>1264</a>. </span>As dialectal differences in the -ancient Italian languages seem to have -created a multiplicity of deities, so -in the Malay language they appear to -have created a multiplicity of fabulous -animals. See R. J. Wilkinson, <i>Malay -Beliefs</i> (London and Leyden, 1906), -p. 56: “The wealth of Malay nomenclature -in the province of natural history -is in itself a fruitful source of -error. The identity of different dialectic -names for the same animal is -not always recognized: the local name -is taken to represent the real animal, the -foreign name is assumed to represent a -rare or fabulous variety of the same -genus.” In these cases mythology might -fairly enough be described as a disease of -language. But such cases cover only -a small part of the vast mythical field.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1265'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1265'>1265</a>. </span>Mr. A. B. Cook, who accepts in -substance my theory of the original -identity of Jupiter and Janus, Juno -and Diana, has suggested that Janus -and Diana were the deities of the -aborigines of Rome, Jupiter and Juno -the deities of their conquerors. See his -article, “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” -<i>Classical Review</i>, xviii. (1904) pp. 367 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1266'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1266'>1266</a>. </span>This is the opinion of Dr. W. H. -Roscher (<i>Lexikon der griech. u. röm. -Mythologie</i>, ii. 47), Mr. W. Warde -Fowler (<i>Roman Festivals of the Period -of the Republic</i>, pp. 282 <i>sqq.</i>), and Prof. -G. Wissowa (<i>Religion und Kultus der -Römer</i>, p. 96). It is rejected for the -reasons given in the text by Ph. Buttmann -(<i>Mythologus</i>, ii. pp. 72, 79) and -S. Linde (<i>De Jano summo Romanorum -deo</i>, pp. 50 <i>sqq.</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1267'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1267'>1267</a>. </span>He was so saluted in the ancient -hymns of the Salii. See Macrobius, -<i>Sat.</i> i. 9. 14; compare Varro, <i>De -lingua Latina</i>, vii. 26 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1268'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1268'>1268</a>. </span>G. Curtius, <i>Grundzüge der griechischen -Etymologie</i>, 5th Ed.,, p. 258; O. Schrader, -<i>Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde</i>, -p. 866.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1269'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1269'>1269</a>. </span>This theory of the derivation -of <i>janua</i> from <i>Janus</i> was suggested, -though not accepted, by Ph. Butmann -(<i>Mythologus</i>, ii. 79 <i>sqq.</i>). It occurred -to me independently. Mr. A. B. Cook -also derives <i>janua</i> from <i>Janus</i>, but he -would explain the derivation in a -different way by supposing that the -lintel and two side-posts of a door -represented a triple Janus. See his -article “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” -<i>Classical Review</i>, xviii. (1904) p. 369.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1270'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1270'>1270</a>. </span>K. Martin, “Bericht über eine -Reise ins Gebiet des Oberen-Surinam,” -<i>Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde -van Nederlandsch-Indië</i>, xxxv. -(1886) pp. 28 <i>sq.</i> I am indebted to -Mr. A. van Gennep for pointing out -this confirmation of my theory as to -the meaning of the double-headed Janus. -See his article “Janus Bifrons,” <i>Revue -des traditions populaires</i>, xxii. (1907) -pp. 97 <i>sq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1271'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1271'>1271</a>. </span>Macrobius, <i>Saturn.</i> i. 9. 7, “<i>Sed -apud nos Janum omnibus praeesse januis -nomen ostendit, quod est simile</i> θυραίῳ. -<i>Nam et cum clavi ac virga figuratur, -quasi omnium et portarum custos et -rector viarum</i>”; Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, i. 95, -99, “<i>Sacer ancipiti mirandus imagine -Janus ... tenens dextra baculum -clavemque sinistra</i>.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1272'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1272'>1272</a>. </span>Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, i. 89 <i>sqq.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f1273'> -<p class='c004'><span class='label'><a href='#r1273'>1273</a>. </span>C. Hose and W. McDougall, “The -Relations between Men and Animals -in Sarawak,” <i>Journal of the Anthropological -Institute</i>, xxxi. (1901) p. -175.</p> -</div> -<div class='tnotes'> - - <ul class='ul_1 c015'> - <li>Transcriber’s Notes: - <ul class='ul_2'> - <li>Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected. - </li> - <li>Typographical errors were silently corrected. - </li> - <li>Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant - form was found in this book. - </li> - <li>Footnotes have been collected at the end of the text, and are linked for ease of - reference. - </li> - </ul> - </li> - </ul> - -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and -Religion (Third Edition, Vol. 02 of 12, by James George Frazer - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOLDEN BOUGH: VOL 2 OF 12 *** - -***** This file should be named 60250-h.htm or 60250-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/2/5/60250/ - -Produced by Susan Skinner, Suzanne Shell, David King, and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net. 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