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diff --git a/old/60228-0.txt b/old/60228-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 9a07bcd..0000000 --- a/old/60228-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13040 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Studies in Life from Jewish Proverbs, by -W. A. L. (William Alexander Leslie) Elmslie - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Studies in Life from Jewish Proverbs - -Author: W. A. L. (William Alexander Leslie) Elmslie - -Release Date: September 3, 2019 [EBook #60228] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN LIFE FROM JEWISH *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif, MFR and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - STUDIES IN LIFE - FROM JEWISH PROVERBS - - - - - STUDIES IN LIFE - - FROM - - JEWISH PROVERBS - - BY - - W. A. L. ELMSLIE, M.A., - - Fellow of Christ’s College, Cambridge - - LONDON - - JAMES CLARKE & CO., 13 & 14 FLEET STREET, E.C. - - - - - To - - MY WIFE - - “Forsan et hæc olim meminisse juvabit” - - - - -PREFACE - - -A writer of many books once said to me that he regretted every preface -he had written. Seeing that I have the highest respect for his talents, -I am constrained to take to heart the moral, which (particularly in a -book on proverbs) would seem to be “least said, soonest mended.” But -whatever else he may choose to leave unsaid, an author is expected to -give away his secret in the preface, making known his intentions as -discreetly as he can but still explicitly. That duty accomplished, he is -at liberty to give thanks, and so conclude. - -The greater part of this volume (Chapters V. to XII.) is occupied with a -study of the teaching of “Wisdom” among the Jews in Palestine during the -Hellenistic Age, so far as the subject is represented in the two great -collections of Jewish sayings, the _Book of Proverbs_ and -_Ecclesiasticus_. It would be too much to claim that in these chapters -the book breaks new ground, for the importance of the Hellenistic period -is recognised by students of history, and there have been many -commentaries on the _Book of Proverbs_, nor has _Ecclesiasticus_ been -without its expositors. But the historian devotes himself to the -relation of events, and the commentator is busy with the thoughts of the -several proverbs or with the textual difficulties they present, rather -than with their precise historical setting. Here an endeavour has been -made to bring the proverbs into close connection with the history, and -it is hoped that not only do the proverbs thereby acquire fresh -interest, but also that there emerges a picture of the men who made them -and used them in the furtherance of morality and faith. Even to -professed students of Jewish history the makers of the “Wisdom” proverbs -are apt to remain distant and shadowy figures; but we cannot afford to -neglect any of the makers of the Bible, and I venture to think that the -method followed in this volume makes it possible to appreciate the -outlook of these men, to realise their difficulties, and if not to -sympathise wholly with their views, at least to feel that they were very -human. Whether this brief sketch is successful in attaining its object -or not, it is certain that the subject deserves more attention than it -has hitherto received. - -Besides the numerous maxims in _Proverbs_ and _Ecclesiasticus_, there -are some interesting popular proverbs in the historical and prophetical -books of the Old Testament. To these a part of Chapter IV. will be -devoted. Occasional references will also be made, especially in the -second half of the book, to proverbial sayings taken from the Rabbinical -literature of the Jews. The titles of Chapters XIII. to XX. sufficiently -indicate the nature of their contents, and require no further comment -here. - -In translating the proverbs the Revised Version has been used as a -basis, but liberty has been exercised in making any alterations that -seemed desirable on textual or literary grounds. Most of the changes -thus introduced will readily explain themselves to those who are -acquainted with the original texts or may care to consult modern -commentaries, such as that of Professor Toy on _Proverbs_ -(International Critical Commentary) and of Dr. Oesterley on -_Ecclesiasticus_ (Cambridge Bible Series). - -Any volume, such as this, that touches a wide range of subjects must -have correspondingly many obligations. I welcome this opportunity of -recording my gratitude to the authors whose writings are referred to in -the following pages, and in particular I desire to acknowledge my -indebtedness to the Right Rev. E. L. Bevan’s illuminating work on the -Hellenistic period, to the writings of Professor Toy and Dr. Oesterley -mentioned above, and to Professor C. F. Kent’s short study and analysis -of _Proverbs_ in his book _The Wise Men of Ancient Israel_. - - W. A. L. E. - -Christ’s College, Cambridge. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - - - -CHAPTER PAGE - -I THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PROVERBS 13 - -II THE PROVERBS OF THE JEWS 28 - -III FORGOTTEN YEARS 43 - -IV THE DAY OF SMALL THINGS 60 - -V IRON SHARPENETH IRON 75 - -VI A SOWER WENT FORTH TO SOW 100 - -VII MEN AND MANNERS 108 - -VIII THE IDEAL 136 - -IX THE EXALTATION OF WISDOM 166 - -X THE HILL “DIFFICULTY” 178 - -XI HARVEST 194 - -XII VALUES 214 - -XIII NATURE IN THE PROVERBS 229 - -XIV HUMOUR IN THE PROVERBS 237 - -XV FROM WISDOM’S TREASURY 245 - -XVI THE BODY POLITIC 248 - -XVII A CHAPTER OF GOOD ADVICE 261 - -XVIII CONDUCT 265 - -XIX FAITH 273 - -XX THE GIFT OF GOD 280 - - - - -CHAPTER I - -The Characteristics of Proverbs - - -Most writers on proverbs have thought it necessary to attempt a -definition of their subject, but the task is difficult, and the phrase -that will silence criticism has yet to be produced. Lord Russell’s -epigram describing a proverb as “The wisdom of many and the wit of one” -is as good as any, but it leaves so much unsaid that as a definition it -is certainly inadequate. On the other hand, it is a true remark, and the -facts it emphasises may conveniently be taken as the point from which to -begin this study. - -No saying is a proverb until it has commended itself to a number of men; -the wisdom of one is not a proverb, but the wisdom of many. Countless -fine expressions well suited to become proverbial have perished in the -speaking, or lie forgotten in our books. To win wide acceptance and then -to keep pace with the jealous years and remain a living word on the lips -of the people is an achievement few human thoughts have compassed; for -thousands that pass unheeded only one here or there, helped by some -happy quality, or perhaps some freak of fortune, is caught from mouth to -mouth, approved, repeated and transmitted. Every accepted proverb has -therefore survived a searching test, all the more severe because -judgment is not always passed upon the merits of the case. Popular -favour is at the best capricious, and often an admirable saying has died -out of use and a worse become famous. But of one thing we can be -certain: general recognition is never won except by that which expresses -the beliefs, or appeals to the conscience, or touches the affections of -average men. However many the defects of any given proverb may happen to -be, it is sure to possess some quality of human interest. - -In the second place, it is generally true that, although proverbs have a -sovereign right to utter commonplace, there is no such thing as a dull -proverb. No matter how pedestrian may be its doctrine, somewhere in its -expression will be manifest the “wit of one”--a flash of insight or -imagination, a note of pathos or power. Of course, many sayings through -age and the changes of fashion have lost their savour for us, but--the -point is important--even these are not inevitably dull. _All_ were once -piquant. If we could but recapture the attitude of the men who made the -phrase proverbial, its interest would be felt again. But although it -thus appears that proverbs are essentially human and generally witty, -the study of them is attended by certain difficulties. It is wise, -therefore, to acknowledge at the outset the obstacles that will beset -our path; to be forewarned is to be forearmed. - -Many proverbs have achieved popularity, not on account of what they say, -but of the way they say it; the secret of their success has been some -spice of originality or of humour in their composition. Originality, -however, is a tender plant, and nothing fades more quickly than humour. -A graphic or unexpected metaphor will delight the imagination for a -little while, but how swiftly and inexorably “familiarity breeds -contempt”; a phrase which is itself a case in point. Whenever therefore, -in studying the Jewish proverbs, we come upon famous and familiar words, -we must endeavour to let the saying for a moment renew its youth, by -deliberately quickening our sympathy and attention, by counting it -certain that words which have not failed through so many centuries to -touch the hearts and minds of men deserve from us more than a passing -glance of recognition. - -Many proverbs speak truth, but a true word can be spoken too often. -Every preacher in Christendom knows how little, through much iteration, -the words “Hope” and “Love” may convey to his hearers, although most men -are conscious that of the realities of Hope and Love they cannot possess -too much. So also with the truths expressed in proverbs. For example, -many excellent men have lacked only promptitude to win success, and we -have need to be warned thereby; but when the fact is put before us in -the words “Procrastination is the thief of time,” what copybook boredom -rises in our indignant soul! We will not learn the lesson from so stale -a teacher. Every effort to indicate the genius of proverbs is attended -by this disadvantage of verbal familiarity; and, of course, it is the -finest sayings that suffer most. But just here the tragedy of the great -European War lends unwelcome aid. The intensity of human experience has -been raised to a degree not known for centuries; and, as a recent writer -in the _Spectator_ admirably puts it, “In all times of distress dead -truisms come to life. They confront the mind at every turn. We are -amazed at the vividness of our thoughts, and confounded at the banality -of their expression. We imagined that only fools helped themselves out -with the musty wisdom of copybooks, but now it seems that even a fool -may speak to the purpose. There is nothing so new as trouble, nothing so -threadbare as its expression. ‘All is fair in love and war’.... How -vividly that falsehood has been impressed upon us by our enemies. Yet -how dull and indisputable it seemed such a little while ago. Even those -of us who have least personal stake in the war grow terribly impatient -at its slow movement. Almost every man who buys an afternoon paper -thinks of the ‘watched pot.’ How many people have lately known the -heart-sickness of ‘hope deferred’? ‘Dying is as natural as living’: that -is a dull enough expression of fact, when death is far off: but, when it -is near, it cuts like a two-edged sword.”[1] Life for the present -generation has verily been transformed; it is both more terrible and -more inspiring, more poignant in its sorrows, more thrilling in its -achievements and its joys: all things are become new. Once we could say -glibly, “The heart knoweth its own bitterness,” using the phrase to -point a trivial trouble, but not now; and perhaps never again in our -life-time. Thank God, it is not only the sorrowful sayings which rise in -our heart with new meaning, but also those which speak of courage and -strength, of loyalty and faith. - -There is a third danger against which we require to be on guard. -Proverbs cannot be absorbed in quantity. Like pictures in a gallery, -they stand on their rights, each demanding a measure of individual -attention and a due period for reflection. Many chapters in the _Book of -Proverbs_ are unpalatable reading, not because they are prosy, but -because they are composed of independent maxims connected by no link of -logical sequence or even of kindred meaning. To read consecutively -through a series of these self-contained units is to impose an -intolerable strain on the mind. The imagination becomes jaded, the -memory dazed by the march of too swiftly changing images. The -disconnected thoughts efface one another, leaving behind them only a -blurred confusion. This will appear the more inevitable the more clearly -we realise what a proverb is. For consider: not one nor two but -countless observations of men and things have gone to the making of a -single proverb; it is the conclusion to which a thousand premisses -pointed the way; it is compressed experience. And further, a proverb -usually gives not just the bare inference from experience, but the -inference made memorable by some touch of fancy in the phrasing. Hence -the meaning of a proverb is not always obvious, that it may seem the -sharper when perceived. Some curious comparison, some pleasing -illustration, is put forward to catch and hold attention until, from the -train of thought thus raised, a truth leaps out upon us or a fact of -life confronts us, familiar perhaps but now invested with fresh dignity. -A proverb is not, as it were, a single sentence out of the book of human -life, but is rather the epitome of a page or chapter; or, if you please, -call it a summary, now of some drama of life, now of an epic or lyric -poem, now again of a moral treatise. From a literary point of view -proverbs are rich, over-rich feeding. They cloy. There is in the _Book -of Proverbs_ a remark that adroitly puts the point: - - _Hast thou found honey? - Eat so much as is convenient for thee_ (Pr. 25^{16}). - -It follows that frequent quotation of proverbs will be apt to fatigue -the reader, yet the danger is one which cannot wholly be avoided in this -volume. Something, however, can be done by setting limitations on the -scope of our subject, and in the following pages no attempt will be made -to present any systematic survey of the whole immense field of Jewish -proverbs, ancient, mediæval, and modern. Attention will be given chiefly -to two pre-Christian collections--the _Book of Proverbs_ and -_Ecclesiasticus_--and, even so, many good sayings in those books will be -left unnoticed. Moreover, proverbs are not quite chaotic, for all their -natural independence. They are like a forest through which many paths -conduct; by following now one, now another topic it is possible to -penetrate in various directions, as inclination prompts. But, even so, -the peril of wearying the reader by over-many proverbs will only be -lessened not removed; wherefore again--’tis a word of high -wisdom--_Hast thou found honey? Eat so much as is convenient for thee._ - -Enough of difficulties and dangers! Woe to him who goes “supping sorrows -with a long spoon”! A happier task, however, does remain, before we set -sail upon our quest: we have still to count our blessings. What are the -virtues of proverbs? What the interests we may hope to find in our -subject? - -The proverb does for human life something that science does for the -world of Nature: it rouses the unseeing eye and the unheeding ear to the -marvel of what seems ordinary. As for Nature, most of us who are not -scientists are still deplorably blind to her perfections, but popular -text-books have so far succeeded that we confess our ignorance with -shame, and some are even penitent enough to desire that they might grow -wiser. We are at least aware that there is nothing in the world not -wonderful. We used to pass the spider’s web in our gardens with never a -thought, but now--is not Le Fabre whispering to us of “rays equidistant -and forming a beautifully regular orb,” of “polygonal lines drawn in a -curve as geometry understands it.” “Which of us,” says he, pricking our -human vanity, “would undertake, off-hand, without much preliminary -experiment and without measuring instruments to divide a circle into a -given quantity of sectors of equal width. The spider, though weighted -with a wallet and tottering on threads shaken by the wind, effects the -delicate division without stopping to think.”[2] The astronomer does not -guard his secrets like the jealous astrologer of old; so that now-a-days -many a man who possesses neither the higher mathematics nor a telescope -knows more than his eyes can show him of the marvels of the stars and -the mystery of space. Professor J. A. Thompson writes of _The Wonder of -Life_, and behold! even he that hath no skill in biology may learn that -the barren seashore is a teeming world, more strange than fairyland. -Science does not make Nature marvellous; she lifts the veil of ignorance -from our mind. Proverbs perform the same service for the life of man. -Taking the common incidents of experience, they point out their meaning. -Perceiving the principles in the recurrent facts of life, they discover -and declare that the commonplace is more than merely common. That is a -task greater and more difficult than at first sight may appear: as has -been well said, “There is no literary function higher than that of -giving point to what is ordinary and rescuing a truth from the obscurity -of obviousness.”[3] Most men are slow, desperately slow, to perceive the -significance of the experiences they encounter daily; yet from the iron -discipline of these things none of us can escape. They are our life-long -schoolmaster, and woe betide the man who from that stern teacher learns -nothing or learns amiss. Nor is it sufficient that the facts should be -brought before us. As a rule, the truth requires to be pushed home. Ask -us not to observe that the reasoning faculties of the human being are -seriously and sometimes disastrously perturbed by the impulses of -affection; but tell us “Love is blind,” and--perhaps--we shall not -forget. - -Proverbs are superlatively human. Suffer the point to have a curious -introduction. In certain ancient colleges it is the custom on one Sunday -in each year to hold in the chapel a service of Commemoration, when the -names of all those who were benefactors of the college are read aloud. -Few ceremonies can convey more impressively the continuity of the -generations, the actual unity between the shadowy past and the vivid -present which seems to us the only _real_ world. The roll may begin far -back in the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries, commencing with the -names of the Founder and a few mediæval Benefactors (some of them famous -men), but steadily and swiftly the years move onwards as the roll is -read, until, listening, we realise that in another moment what is called -the past will merge into the present. Somehow the magical change takes -place; the past is finished, and the record is telling now “the things -whereof we too were part,” ending perhaps with the name of one whom we -called “friend,” who sat beside us in the chapel--was it only a year ago -to-day? On these occasions the lesson is usually taken from a chapter in -_Ecclesiasticus_ known as _The Praise of Famous Men_:--_Let us now -praise famous men and our fathers that begat us. The Lord manifested in -them great glory, even his mighty power from the beginning. Such as did -bear rule in their kingdoms and were men renowned for their power, -giving counsel by their understanding; such as have brought tidings in -prophecies; leaders of the people by their counsels, and by their -understanding men of learning for the people--wise were their words in -their instruction; such as sought out musical tunes, and set forth -verses in writing; rich men furnished with ability, living peaceably in -their habitations: all these were honoured in their generations, and -were a glory in their days. There be of them that have left a name -behind them, to declare their praises. And some there be which have no -memorial; who are perished as though they had not been and are become as -though they had not been born._ What! even of those who were _famous_ -men?... _perished as though they had not been and become as though they -had not been born_. The verdict is too hard. Granting that they missed -genius, did they not live nobly, speak wisely, make many beautiful -things, do generous deeds, giving of themselves the best they had to -give? But ... _as though they had not been_. Surely they merited some -kinder fate than that? And what of the multitudes of the unrenowned? If -the famous are nothing, then the rest of men are less than nothing and -vanity, and, dying, they certainly can leave no trace behind them, no -word to carry the tale of how once they laboured, loved, hoped, endured. -All their exquisite human longings, all their pleasant thinking, must be -for ever lost? No! for proverbs are the memorial of ordinary men; their -very accents; record of their intimate thoughts and judgments, their -jests and sorrowings, their aspirations, their philosophy. And this even -from distant ages! There are proverbs old as the Iliad. Men of genius -have not a monopoly of immortal words. Perhaps at the start one man of -keen wit was needed to invent the happy phrase or the smart saying, but -before it became a proverb countless ordinary folk had to give it their -approval. We know that every popular proverb has seemed good to a -multitude of men. Essentially therefore it has become their utterance, -and is filled with their personality. And, of course, proverbs are not -only a memorial of the unknown dead; they are equally a language of the -unknown and unlearned living. The humblest of men experience deep -emotions which, however, they cannot articulate for themselves. -Proverbs, we repeat, come to the rescue of the unlettered, supplying -words to fit their thoughts, unstopping the tongue of the dumb. Just -what effects this simple treasury of speech has had in history who can -calculate, but that it has not been slight is dexterously suggested by -these words of anger and chagrin which Shakespeare makes Coriolanus -speak: - - “Hang ’em, - They said they were an hungry, sighed forth proverbs; - That _hunger broke stone walls_, that _dogs must eat_, - That _meat was made for mouths_, that _the gods sent not - Corn for the rich men only_; with these shreds - They vented their complainings.” - -Poor wretches! with their “meat was made for mouths.” Doubtless they -should have prepared for the most noble Coriolanus a treatise setting -forth their preposterous economics, and humbly praying that in due -course their petition might be brought before the Senate. But--“dogs -must eat.” Faugh! “No gentleman,” said Lord Chesterfield, “ever uses a -proverb.” Perhaps not, in an age of false gentility. But men of genius -in many a century have taken note of their rich humanism and their value -as a real, though undeveloped, science of life. Aristotle, Bacon, -Shakespeare, Montaigne, Cervantes, Hazlitt, Goethe, thought fit to use -them. Despite my Lord Chesterfield, let us continue the subject. - -In the third place, proverbs are like a mirror in which the facts and -ideals of society may be discerned. This is so obvious a truth that its -importance may be under-estimated until it is realised how clear and -detailed the reflection is. Proverbs prefer the concrete to the -abstract. They contain many allusions[4] that are like windows opening -on to the land of their birth and offering glimpses of its life and -scenery--the rain and the sunshine ripening its fields and vineyards; -the valleys and mountains, the open country, the villages, and towns. -The activities and interests of the inhabitants are still more clearly -disclosed. Manners and morals are laid bare, all the more faithfully -because the witness is often unintentional. “Proverbs,” said Bacon, -“reveal the genius, wit, and character of a nation.” In them Humanity, -all reticence forgotten, seems to have cried its thoughts from the -housetops and proclaimed its hidden motives in the market-place. Suppose -that almost all other evidence for the history of Italy or Spain were -blotted out but the national sayings were left us, there would still be -rich material for reconstructing an outline of the characteristics and -not a little of the fortunes of those peoples. In respect of national -disposition how terribly would the lust for vengeance appear as the -besetting sin of Italy: _Revenge is a morsel fit for God_--_Revenge -being an hundred years old has still its sucking teeth_. From the -copious store of Spanish proverbs could be substantiated such facts as -the Moorish occupation of Spain, the power and pride of her mediæval -chivalry, and the immense influence for good and evil which the Church -of Rome has wielded in the length and breadth of the country. - -Archbishop Trench lays stress upon this quality of proverbs. Speaking of -Burchardt’s _Arabic Proverbs of the Modern Egyptians_, he remarks,[5] -“In other books others describe the modern Egyptians, but here they -unconsciously describe themselves. The selfishness, the utter extinction -of all public spirit, the servility, which no longer as with an inward -shame creeps into men’s lives but utters itself as the avowed law of -their lives, the sense of the oppression of the strong, of the -insecurity of the weak, and generally the whole character of life, alike -outward and inward, as poor, mean, sordid, and ignoble ... all this, as -we study these documents, rises up before us in truest, though in -painfullest, outline. Thus, only in a land where rulers, being evil -themselves, feel all goodness to be their instinctive foe, where they -punish but never reward, could a proverb like the following, _Do no good -and thou shalt find no evil_, ever have come to the birth”: altogether a -black picture of Mohammedan society. It is a healthier, happier scene -that the Jewish proverbs will unfold to us. - -The last general characteristic of proverbs, to which we need pay -attention, is their inexhaustible variety. The world is their province. -Religion and ethics, politics, commerce, agriculture, handicrafts, -riches and poverty, diligence and idleness, hope and contentment, unrest -and despair, laughter and tears, pride and humility, love and hatred: -what is there you can name that we cannot set you a proverb to match it? -Proverbs enter the palace unsummoned, take stock of his Majesty, and -then inform the world what they think of his doings. They sit with my -Lord Justice on the bench, and he shall hear further of the matter if he -judge with respect of persons. But lo and behold! they also keep company -with highwaymen and thieves, and the tricks of most trades are to them -no secret. Proverbs are at home with men of every degree: they dine at -the rich man’s table, they beg with Lazarus by the gate; and shrewdly do -they analyse the world from both points of view. Chiefly, however, they -have dwelt in a myriad normal homes, where neither riches nor poverty is -given, but where a hard day’s work, a sufficient meal, and a warm fire -in the evening have loosened tongues and opened hearts. Whereupon these -unconscionable guests proceed to criticise the family. They interfere -between husband and wife, parents and children, and teach all of them -manners with an unsparing frankness. They play with the children, -counsel their parents, and dream dreams with the old. Again, proverbs -are both country-dwellers and town-dwellers. Have they not observed the -ways of wind and water, sunshine and silvery starlight, seen the trees -grow green and the seeds spring into life, the flowers bloom and the -harvest ingathered? Yet also they have spent the whole year in the city, -walking its streets early and late, strolling through the markets and -bargaining in the shops. Ubiquitous proverbs! There is nothing beyond -their reach, nothing hid from their eyes. - -The advantages of this abundant variety are clear. Almost any topic of -human interest will find sufficient illustration in proverbs. Frequently -a saying will be found useful from more than one standpoint: vary the -topic and the same material may appear in new and unexpected guise. On -the other hand, whatever subject be chosen, a serious difficulty will be -encountered. As soon as the proverbs bearing upon it have been gathered -together, an extreme confusion of opinion will be apparent. The trumpet -gives a most uncertain sound! Thus, let ethics be our starting-point. -Many, no doubt, will be the maxims that breathe an easy, practical -morality, and these, being careful not to be righteous overmuch, may -seem tolerably compatible one with another; but then in violent contrast -will be some that soar to the very heavens, and some also that surely -emanate from hell. These will suffice from the devil’s forge: _Dead men -tell no tales_--_Every man has his price_--or this Italian proverb, -_Wait time and place for thy revenge, for swift revenge is poor -revenge_. For the heavenly, here are two from ancient Greece, _The best -is always arduous_[6]--_Friends have their all in common_[7]; or this -tender English one, _The way to heaven is by Weeping-Cross_, or this -strong Scottish phrase, _The grace of God is gear enough_[8]. Verily, -proverbs do battle one against another. Trench quotes the following: -_The noblest vengeance is to forgive_ compared with the infamous _He who -cannot avenge himself is weak, he who will not is vile_. _Penny wise -pound foolish_ is cried in our one ear; _Take care of the pence, and the -pounds will take care of themselves_ in the other. Could anything be -more disconcerting to our hope of investigating the ethical system of -proverbs? But in like manner their social teaching at first sight seems -a wilderness of contradiction, their theology a babel of conflicting -tongues. The natural perplexity thus occasioned can, however, be -resolved very simply. Two points must be kept in mind. First, that when -with rough and ready justice men are classified as pious or wicked, -clever or stupid, generous or miserly, hopeful or despondent, rich or -poor, young or old, wise or ignorant, and so forth, these terms do -represent real distinctions between persons, although perhaps no one -category suffices fully to describe any given individual; and second, -that a proverb necessarily expresses a sentiment shared by a number of -people. It follows that what we ought to seek in proverbs is not one -point of view but many. We shall find the attitude of various classes -and types of men. We shall see life as it appears now in the eyes of the -just and the merciful, now of the evil and the cunning. Here in one -group of sayings will be the way the world looks to a lazy man, here -again are the convictions of the unscrupulously shrewd. Here is some -complacent merchant’s view of social questions, here the exhortations of -an idealistic soul. When once this fact about proverbs is recognised, -the difficulty of their contradictoriness instantly is removed. Instead -of feeling that they speak in hesitating accents, we discover that they -are answering our questions, not with _one_, but with many voices, far -from uncertain in their tone. The confusion vanishes. We find ourselves -listening to the speech of men who, differing sometimes profoundly one -from another, have sharply defined ideas, and can utter their thoughts -with brevity, force, and wit. - -It will be seen that our object is wide and deep, and that there are -many avenues of approach to it. One road, however, would seem to be -impossible--proverbs as literature. That an occasional popular saying -would have some touch of literary value, is, of course, to be expected. -But a winged word now and then, a lovely image flitting once in a while -across the plains, will not justify the topic, “Proverbs as literature.” -The individual proverb failing, what hope is there that a collection of -them will come nearer the mark? Suppose the very best of our English -proverbs were gathered together, there might be much to interest, amuse, -or edify our minds, but literature such an assemblage would assuredly -not be. The vital element of unity would be lacking. As well string the -interjections and conjunctions of our language into verse, and call the -result a poem! And yet the incredible has happened. Once a collection of -proverbs was so made as to be literature--but where and when must be -left for the next chapter to relate. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -The Proverbs of the Jews - - -Of the facts we have been considering one is specially relevant to the -subject, not only of this volume but of the series in which it forms a -part--namely, the intimately human quality of proverbs. Mr. Morley has -called them “The guiding oracles which man has found out for himself in -that great business of ours, of learning how to be, to do, to do without -and to depart.[9]” The Humanism of the Bible ought therefore to be -visible nowhere more clearly than in Israel’s proverbs, _if_ these are -to be found within its pages. But stay! What right have we to expect -their presence? Surely little or none, if the Bible is what many persons -conceive it to be--only a book of religious teachings. For consider the -reasonable expectation, and contrast the extraordinary facts. In such a -book we might reasonably expect to find a few proverbs: that a king -should quote a saying to suit his purpose, a counsellor press home his -wisdom with some well-known maxim, or a prophet edge his appeal by the -use of a popular phrase--that would be quite natural, and indeed occurs. -But actually (and here is the astonishing matter) there are proverbs by -tens and by hundreds, gathered together in one Book of the Bible, -following verse by verse, chapter by chapter, till they choke one -another through sheer profusion, like flowers in an unkept garden. Thus -in five chapters of the _Book of Proverbs_ (13-17) there are 154 -separate adages. So strange a phenomenon challenges attention. It might -be supposed that the Hebrew language had been ransacked for proverbs, -but that suggestion will not stand scrutiny. On investigation, the Book -proves to be no deliberate, systematic, attempt to collect the Hebrew -proverbs. Thus, when we look for the few, but famous, popular sayings -that occur in the historical and prophetic writings of the Old -Testament, we find that _not one_ of them is included. As for system, a -casual glance will demonstrate its absence. In most chapters of -_Proverbs_ not even an effort is made to classify the material. The Book -cannot be explained as an anthology of Hebrew sayings--the most witty or -worldly-wise, the most moral or religious. Whatever the explanation, -here assuredly is something less artificial than an anthology. Good, -bad, and indifferent proverbs alike are present. Many of the sayings -unmistakably reflect a conception of morality more practical than -exalted, and some appear grossly utilitarian. Time and again the -consequences of sin are naïvely presented as the reasons for avoiding -it, whilst the rewards of virtue are emphasised unduly. Later on we -shall find reasons for holding that the utilitarian attitude is not -fundamental, and therefore not so destructive of the ethical value of -these proverbs as it might seem. But until both the circumstances which -gave rise to the proverbs and the ends they were meant to serve are -understood, until (as it were) we have seen the men who spoke the maxims -and the people who repeated them, that more generous judgment is -scarcely possible; and meantime, be it freely admitted, there are many -things in the Book not agreeable to modern ethical taste. Religiously, -too, the _Book of Proverbs_ is on the surface disappointing. Neither the -fire of the Prophets’ faith is visible, nor the deep passion of the -Psalmists’ longing after God. Who amongst us, seeking spiritual help, -would choose a chapter in _Proverbs_ when the Gospels or the Letters of -St. Paul are open to him? So then on literary, ethical, and religious -grounds there are plain reasons why this Book has lost something of its -former favour. Contrast the estimation in which it was held only two -generations ago. Ruskin records that four chapters of _Proverbs_, the -third, fourth, eighth and twelfth, were amongst those portions of the -Bible which his mother made him learn by heart and “so established my -soul in life”; they were, he declares, “the most precious and on the -whole essential part of all my education.” Not so long ago, _Proverbs_ -was a text-book in many schools; probably it is nowhere so used -to-day.[10] - -Even if neglect of this part of the Scripture is partly chargeable to -heightened standards of ethics or theology, the loss incurred is great. -As a matter of fact, depreciation of its ethical temper is often based -on inaccurate notions, often is exaggerated. In comparison with our -fathers, who without commentaries read through their Bibles from cover -to cover, we have not gained as we should; for, whilst we pride -ourselves (with what measure of justice is uncertain) on being more -sensitive to religious values, they were far better acquainted with the -religious facts. They at least knew the contents of Scripture; we, who -have at our disposal abundance of interpretative help whereby to learn -the nature of the Bible and with instructed minds consider its spiritual -worth, too often are ignorant both of text and commentary. Doubtless the -fault is due to certain characteristics of our time. This is a feverish -impatient age; if our mental fare is not served us like our daily -information, put up into easy paragraphs, so that he who runs may read, -we will not stay to seek it; and the Old Testament is not an easy book, -though it answers patience with astonishing rewards. Candidly, how does -it stand with knowledge of the Bible at the present time? In charity let -the question be addressed only to those who have a genuine interest in -the Christian religion, desiring to rule their lives by its ideals and -cherishing its promises. Even to such persons what is the Bible? A few -there are who have found or made opportunity for serious consideration -of its Books, and these have certainly felt the fascination of the vast -and varied interests that have won and retained for biblical study the -life-long service of many brilliant scholars. But to the others, and -obviously they are thousands of thousands, the Bible is essentially the -book of religion. As such, the New Testament means the Gospel -narratives, some immortal chapters from St. Paul, a few verses in -_Hebrews_, and St. John’s vision of that City where _death shall be no -more_. And what--religiously--in similar fashion is the Old Testament, -except a few, comforting, beautiful Psalms; some childhood memories of -Abraham, Joseph, Moses, generous David and brave Daniel; a tale or two -of Elijah; a procession of Kings, and an uncharted sea of grand but most -perplexing Prophets? Asked for a more general account, some would -describe the Old Testament as a record of the laws, history, and -religious ideas of the Hebrew people; others would answer that it is -“part of the Word of God,” but they might all be at a loss to say what -is the religious value of _Leviticus_, what the spiritual relation -between _Genesis_ and the _Gospel_, between _Kings_ and _Chronicles_, -between _Job_ and _Revelation_. Probably the great majority of men at -the present time would be quite willing to confess that their knowledge -of the Bible is vague and insufficient, but few, we believe, would -suspect that there is anything wrong with the basis from which their -thinking proceeds: so firmly is it fixed in men’s minds that the Bible -is merely the book of religion. The Bible is that, but more also, more -and yet again more. And how easily we might have realised the fact! -Ought not the presence of these surprisingly heterogeneous proverbs -alone to have stirred our curiosity, and so compelled the enlargement of -our thoughts about the Old Testament? Without needing to be urged, men -should, of their own accord, have perceived the astonishing range of -interest and the wealth of literature the Bible contains, and should -have seen in this variety a clue that would lead them by pleasant paths -to treasures artistic and intellectual as well as religious. Thereby no -loss could ensue religiously, but on the contrary gain. The greater our -recognition of the artistic qualities of the sacred literature, the more -exact and full our understanding of the history of the Jews and of their -beliefs and interpretation of life, so much the more wonderful will the -actual development of religion in Israel be seen to be. This is the -point to which the above remarks are meant to lead. If the Biblical -proverbs compel as a first conclusion the recognition of how much more -the Old Testament is than a text-book for theology, that is a minimum -and an initial discovery; our appreciation of its meaning will assuredly -not end there. The growth, in Israel, of the knowledge of God into a -high and holy faith is an indisputable fact. Increase your comprehension -of the circumstances attending this development, and your faith in the -reality of a self-revealing God should increase also. - -So much for the presence of these proverbs in the Bible. Now consider -the affirmation with which the first chapter concluded: that proverbs -have once been literature. That claim may be advanced on behalf of the -sayings of the _Book of Proverbs_ and _Ecclesiasticus_. It is of course -obvious that the difficulty which has to be overcome is the essential -independence of proverbial sayings: each is so relentlessly complete in -itself. How can they be so related to each other as to acquire the -higher unity indispensable for literature? The lack of system in the -_Book of Proverbs_ has already been admitted frankly; but the point must -again be emphasised. So far from the five chapters with the 154 maxims, -referred to above, being exceptional they are typical of the greater -portion of the Book. Continually we encounter the same astonishing -disregard for consecutive, or even cognate, thought in the grouping of -the proverbs. And yet, despite this fact, the attentive reader will -become conscious of a subtle unity pervading the Book. The impression -will grow that the confusion is not absolute; somehow it is being held -within bounds, whilst here and there chaos has evidently yielded to the -command of a directing purpose. Obstinate independents as proverbs are, -one discovers that here their masses, unruly though they still may be, -have nevertheless become an army, a host sufficiently disciplined to -serve a common end. As with a complicated piece of music through the -intricacies of the notes runs ever an underlying theme, so here through -the medley of disparate sayings can be heard the preaching of one great -thought--“Wisdom.” Behind the proverbs, behind the Book, we discover -men, preachers and teachers of an Idea, enthusiasts for a -Cause--“Wisdom.” Just what that phrase implied, just what manner of men -those advocates of Wisdom were, we shall see in due course. The point -for the moment is that these Jewish proverbs were not gathered -haphazard, nor simply as _a_ collection of Jewish proverbs; but for the -express purpose of illustrating, developing, and enforcing the -conception of Wisdom. Thus, through the influence of this specific -intention, they received in sufficient measure the unity of literature. -This fact is of the utmost importance for our subject, for it means that -these proverbs may be considered not merely one by one but in their -totality; that is, in their combination as text-books inculcating -Wisdom. So regarded, they afford a glimpse of a remarkable class of men -in the intensely interesting century or two when the intellectual -foundations of Western civilisation were being laid down. No doubt each -proverb bears the impress of reality and has its individual interest, is -(as it were) a coin struck out of active experience; but the same may be -said of the collected proverbs _as a whole_, and because the whole has -its own significance, the parts acquire a meaning and value they would -not otherwise possess. The Jews are an astonishing people. St. Paul -perceived that they had a genius for religion, but they have had genius -for many other things besides, as their strange fortunes testify. Their -hand prospers, whithersoever it is turned. Who but the Jews can claim to -have had a Golden Age in proverbs? In utilising their popular sayings -for a definite purpose, and in thus making them literature, the Jews -succeeded in a feat that other nations have scarcely emulated, far less -equalled. Moreover in the process the Jews made their proverbs -superlatively good. Some think that for wit and acuteness the ancient -sayings of the Chinese are unsurpassed; for multitude and variety those -of the Arabs and the Spaniards. But the Jewish proverbs of this “Wisdom” -period excel all others in the supreme quality of being possession of -all men for all time. They are marvellously free from provincial and -temporary elements; and this is the more remarkable in that the Jews -were intensely nationalistic, and their literature, as a rule, is -steeped in racial sentiment. Of these proverbs, however, very few must -be considered Hebraic in an exclusive sense, or indeed Oriental. The -mass of them have been at home in many lands and many centuries, because -they speak to the elemental needs of men. Again and again they touch the -very heart of Humanity. They are universal. But that is the -characteristic of genius. If therefore proverbs be our study, we could -ask no better subject than these proverbs of the Jews. - -Even so our theme is far from easy. Life, when visible before us, can -with difficulty be portrayed. Harder by far is it to recall life from -literature, translating the symbols of letters into the sound of speech -and looking through words into the colour and movement of the scenes -that by the magic of human language are there preserved, accurately -enough, yet only like pale shadows of the reality. Hardest of all is it, -when the documents to be studied are records of a far-past age and the -life that of an alien people. But how well worth every effort is the -task! “Many of us,” writes Mark Rutherford, “have felt that we would -give all our books if we could but see with our own eyes how a single -day was passed by a single ancient Jewish, Greek, or Roman family; how -the house was opened in the morning; how the meals were prepared; what -was said; how the husband, wife, and children went about their work; -what clothes they wore, and what were their amusements.”[11] Information -so detailed as Mark Rutherford desired will not be afforded by the -Jewish proverbs. Nevertheless they are full of frank, intimate, comment -on the ways of men and women, and of reflection on the experiences we -all suffer or enjoy, and certainly should learn how best to encounter. -If they yield less than might be wished for, still what they show is -shown in the naïve and homely fashion that is so illuminating. Such -being the difficulty of our task, and such the encouragement to pursue -it, the reader will perhaps permit at the outset a short statement -mentioning the writings where Jewish proverbs are to be found, and -giving somewhat fuller information regarding the dates and composition -of the two works from which the material of the following chapters will -chiefly be derived. - - -THE SOURCES OF JEWISH PROVERBS - -I. OCCASIONAL PROVERBS. In the historical and prophetical Books of the -Old Testament there are to be found some popular sayings current in -early Israel. Though few in number, they possess considerable interest, -and will therefore be discussed in Chapter IV. - -II. THE BOOK OF PROVERBS. This Book is the principal “source” of the -proverbs considered in this volume. Unlike modern writings, which are -usually the work of one author and will rarely require a longer period -than five or ten years for their composition, many of the Books of the -Bible have reached their _present form_ as the outcome of a protracted -process of compilation and revision perhaps extending over many -generations and involving the work of numerous writers. The words of -earlier authors were utilised again and again in later times by others -who, having somewhat similar ideas and purposes in view, exercised -complete liberty in reproducing, or modifying, or adding to the material -they found to hand.[12] Such a book is _Proverbs_. The consequence is -that the question of date and authorship cannot be answered in a -sentence. The problem of the _structure_ of the Book rises as a -preliminary subject.[13] - -(a) _Structure._ The _Book of Proverbs_ in its present form represents -the combination of five originally independent collections of the single -proverbs which are of course the ultimate material of the Book. There is -some evidence that these five collections were themselves built out of -still smaller groups of proverbs, but such subdivisions cannot be traced -with certainty, and for our purpose may be neglected. The five main -sections are as follows:--(_a_) In chs. 1-9, a number of epigrams, -sonnets, and discourses in praise of wisdom. (_b_) In chs. -10^{1}-22^{16}, a collection of two-line (“unit”) proverbs. (_c_) In -chs. 22^{17}-24^{22} and 24^{23-34}, two very similar collections of -four-line (“quatrain”) proverbs. (_d_) In chs. 25-29, a collection of -two-line proverbs. (_e_) In chs. 30, 31, epigrams, sonnets, and an -acrostic poem. - -(b) _Date and Authorship._ Both in its component parts and as a -composite whole the _Book of Proverbs_ is an anonymous work. It is true -that titles, such as “The proverbs of Solomon, the son of David, king of -Israel” (Pr. 1^{1}), are prefixed to several portions of the Book[14], -but they do not imply authorship, although to those unacquainted with -the nature of ancient books that may seem the necessary meaning. Their -significance will be considered later, on p. 71. - -The date of origin and the authorship of single proverbs are seldom -discoverable: a tantalising circumstance for those who would write about -them. And yet, perhaps, their reticence is wise. It may be that some of -the noblest sayings have sprung from the lips of a poor man in a peasant -home; and there are fools who would thenceforth despise them for their -birth. Of the individual sayings in the _Book of Proverbs_ a few, in -matter if not in exact phrase, may go back to ancient days; some may be -due to Solomon himself or date from his period; but the vast -majority[15], for cogent reasons of style, language, tone, ethical and -social customs and so forth, are post-exilic--that is, not earlier than -about 450 B.C.; nor on the other hand are they later than about 200 -B.C., by which time the several sections had been combined to form -substantially the present Book.[16] - -Something may be said concerning the relative priority of the five -sections of the Book. Internal evidence points to sections _b_ and _d_ -as the oldest portions, then section _c_; sections _a_ and _e_ (_i.e._, -chs. 1-9, 30, 31) being probably the latest groups. But of the precise -date when these collections were severally formed and combined, and of -the names of the men by whom the work was done, we are unaware. -Fortunately our ignorance of detail is but a negligible trifle compared -with our firm knowledge of the general fact that _in their present form -these proverbs belong to the period_ 350-200 B.C., _and their authors -and compilers were men who styled themselves “The Wise,” and were known -in the Jewish community by that term_. A hundred and fifty years may -seem a wide margin, but it is a mistake to wish it less; if anything, it -ought to be increased. For the point to be grasped is that _Proverbs_ -represents the thoughts and ideals of the Wise throughout that whole -period (350-200 B.C.) and even longer. The exact dates of the -combination and final revision of the component collections of sayings -are therefore questions of minor importance. The Book is not to be -treated as a fixed literary product of any one particular year, but as -representative of the teachings of the Wise during very many years. - -To the same class of men we owe, besides _Proverbs_, other famous -writings, of which two, _Job_ and _Ecclesiastes_, were also included in -the Old Testament Canon, and two are to be found in the Apocrypha, -namely, _Ecclesiasticus_ (or, as it is often called, _The Wisdom of Ben -Sirach_) and the _Wisdom of Solomon_. Of these four writings the two -first, _Job_ and _Ecclesiastes_, are considered in other volumes of this -series,[17] and therefore, except for one or two quotations, will not be -utilised here, although they both contain a number of proverbial -sayings. The _Wisdom of Solomon_ also will seldom be noticed in this -book: it is much later in date than _Proverbs_, and is not a collection -of proverbs, but a set of discourses in praise of Wisdom. - -III. Ecclesiasticus. On the other hand, the book of _Ecclesiasticus_ or -_The Wisdom of Ben Sirach_, is--next to _Proverbs_--the source from -which we shall derive most material. Like _Proverbs_ it is a storehouse -of sayings about Wisdom, but fortunately, unlike _Proverbs_, it is not -anonymous, and can be dated with some exactitude. The author or compiler -of the book was one, Jesus ben (_i.e._, Son of) Sirach, who lived in -Jerusalem about 250-180 B.C., his volume being finished about 190 B.C. -Some fifty years later his grandson, then living in Egypt, translated it -into Greek, and until recently the book was known to us only in its -Greek form. Now, however, a large part of the original Hebrew text has -been recovered, with the happy result that the Greek version can -frequently be checked and obscurities be removed by means of the Hebrew. - -Besides the single, “unit,” proverbs, there are in _Ecclesiasticus_, and -in _Proverbs_ also though to a less extent, a number of short sonnets -and essays. These longer passages will be freely referred to, but -perhaps a word in justification will here be in place. It has been said -with truth, that “often a parable is an elaborate proverb, and a proverb -is a parable in germ.” That comment excellently indicates the nature of -the passages in question; most of them are expansions of some brief -gnomic phrase[18]. When, for example, in E. 20^{14^{f}} we read, “=The -gift of a fool shall not profit thee, for his eyes are many instead of -one=; _he will give little and upbraid much and he will open his mouth -like a crier; to-day he will lend and to-morrow he will ask it again: -such an one is a hateful man_....” it is obvious that the verse is only -an elaboration and explanation of the enigmatic proverb printed in heavy -type. - -IV. THE NEW TESTAMENT. Scattered through the pages of the New Testament -are more allusions to popular sayings than one would readily expect. -Almost all offer interesting comment on the life and manner of the -times; but, unfortunately, they will fall outside the scope of this -book, except for occasional references. - -V. Finally, a great number of Jewish proverbs are mentioned in the -post-Biblical RABBINICAL writings--the tractates of the _Mishna_, the -_Midrashim_, and _Talmuds_. Embedded in a vast and difficult literature -(how difficult only those know who have attempted seriously to study -it), these later Jewish sayings have been somewhat inaccessible to -Gentile students. They are interesting in many ways, but the development -of our subject in this volume will give opportunity for the mention only -of a few. Should any reader desire to know more of these Rabbinic -sayings, he can now be referred to a small but trustworthy collection -recently made by A. Cohen and published under the title _Ancient Jewish -Proverbs_. - -The question is, What can the Jewish proverbs tell us about human life? -The conclusion of the first chapter left us perplexed by indicating too -many paths that might be followed. This chapter solves the difficulty by -suggesting that these proverbs will have a great deal to say to us, if -we choose to treat them in their historical aspect. To do so is to -follow the king’s highway; but when the plain road promises an -interesting journey, it is folly to search for bypaths. The human story -seems naturally to divide into past and present; and, because the -present immediately concerns us, we are all tempted to ignore the past -and count it negligible. To the uneducated man the past is dead; and he -fails to perceive that, if the facts of history are unknown, the -present, though it may fascinate, will prove bewildering. The truth is -that history is one and continuous, the present is organically related -to the past, and the division between them in our thought is artificial -and perilously misleading. Nothing is of greater practical value than to -learn and ponder the narrative of the past, provided heart and mind are -kept alert to discern the guidance it continually offers to ourselves. -To neglect its lessons is to starve the power of judgment in the -present. Much that by our own unaided trials can only be learnt slowly, -painfully, and at great hazard, may be discovered swiftly and securely -by observation of the experience of other men. In this spirit let our -studies of the Jewish proverbs be first of the _past_: what glimpses of -former days are discernible in their homely words? - -Let us commence as if we had some leisure at our disposal, and let us -use it by following up occasional traces of very ancient times. Then we -shall proceed to the more strenuous and more rewarding task of -recovering a picture of the stirring years when Wisdom was moulding the -Jewish proverbs to her urgent needs. Always, however, as the records -yield up these tales of byegone days we are to keep in mind ourselves -and our own generation, striving so to interpret the fortunes of men of -old that we in our turn may learn from them how to avoid folly, endure -trials, use success, and discover the secret of content. Finally we -shall gather such of the proverbs as may please our fancy, and briefly -consider them in themselves for their perennial, as opposed to their -original or historical, interest. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -Forgotten Years - - -The past of human life offers an unimaginably long vista for our -contemplation. Vastly many more are the years that have been forgotten -than those that are remembered. Mr. Stephen Graham is therefore quite -right when, in his book _The Way of Martha and the Way of Mary_, he -insists that Christianity after nineteen hundred years is still a young -religion, its doctrines imperfectly understood, its possibilities not -yet unfolded. But for that matter history itself is young, since history -knows at the most some six or seven thousand years of human history, and -Man has been on earth hundreds of thousands of years. Glimpses of human -life in those dim and distant ages are occasionally possible (as we are -about to observe in the Jewish proverbs) and have a certain fascination; -but their interest is apt to be overwhelmed by the disquieting ideas -which the thought of so vast a stretch of time naturally raises in our -mind. In comparison, our personal hopes seemed dwarfed into utter -insignificance, and it is no comfort when a Psalmist (more than twenty -centuries ago) suggests that to the Deity time may be a very little -thing: _Thou turnest man to destruction, and sayest, Return, ye children -of men. For a thousand years in Thy sight are but as yesterday when it -is past, and as a watch in the night_. God may expend so many myriad -years as seemeth good to Him in the making of sun, moon, and stars, -earth and sea--what matter? But when the living bodies of men are racked -with pain, when tyranny endures and love and liberty are delayed, then -what is the millenial patience of God but terrifying? _We_ cannot wait -for its slow maturing. Does He not know that we who would see the -salvation of the Lord in the land of the living are ready to faint? - -Perhaps, however, our distress arises from the adoption of a mistaken -standpoint. For, first, let the question be considered not from the -point of view of God’s patience but of His greatness, and the infinitely -long development will seem less dreadful. The immensity of time may then -be regarded, not as a token of God’s indifference to man, but as a -measure of His eternal majesty, and as evidence of an intention sublime -beyond our present power to apprehend, yet not antagonistic to the value -of the individual being--as indeed the author of _Isaiah_ 40 perceived: -_Why sayest thou, O Jacob, and speakest, O Israel, My way is hid from my -God and my glory is forgotten by my God? Hast thou not known? hast thou -not heard? the everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the -earth, fainteth not, neither is weary; there is no searching of His -understanding._ And, secondly, there is something to be said regarding -the brevity of our bodily existence, to which an analogy will furnish -the best introduction. Suppose that men were able to perceive the world -of Nature only in its immensities, seeing the oceans but not the -tumbling waves, seeing the plains but not each green or golden field, -would they not fail to perceive an incalculably great portion of earth’s -beauty? How unutterably more wonderful are all natural objects when the -microscope reveals the marvel of every particle. The tree is loveliest -to him who has an eye to see the perfection of each leaf or knows the -miracle of its growth from a single seed or shoot. Is it not possible -that something similar is true of the human spirit in its apprehension -of reality? Suppose that our personality was unable to taste life except -on the grand scale, so that for man a thousand years were only a -passing moment, experienced only “as a watch in the night,” would not -the half of life’s glory then be hidden from those who were ignorant of -what _one_ year can be? May not participation in reality on a small -scale--time felt as a day, an hour, a minute--be indispensable if the -human spirit is to grasp the amazing fulness of conscious life? -Apparently circumscribed by the limit of our three score years and ten, -are we here to learn that consciousness, even when measured in days and -minutes, is of eternal worth and pure delight? For we do learn that -lesson. We do discover that an instant of perfect and unselfish -tenderness may be of immeasurable value. Perchance Man can never love -God till he has loved his brother, never know with the Divine knowledge, -until in faith, hope, and charity he has desired to win the knowledge -which is in part. The cup of cold water must first be given lovingly -unto the least of His brethren, or we shall never comprehend to give it -into the hand of Christ Himself. “He that is faithful over a few -things,” said Jesus, “shall be set over many.” Perhaps only to those who -have sought to find Heaven in life _sub specie temporis_ can life _sub -specie eternitatis_ be imparted; for to know life fully must be to know -not only its infinite extension and its Divine splendour, but also the -exquisite perfection of its fleeting moments. - - -I - -Proverbs are one of the most ancient inventions of Man, far older than -history. Four centuries before the birth of Christ, Aristotle, gazing as -far into the past as his glance could reach, saw proverbs still -beckoning him back. He spoke of them as “fragments of an older wisdom -which on account of their brevity or aptness had been preserved from the -general wreck and ruin.” Even the _Book of Proverbs_, late as it is in -date, has features which, if we follow out their significance, will -lead us back to the life of men in long forgotten years. The signs, of -course, are slight, but they are none the less real; and even a faint -trace may be a sure thread of guidance. Only some grooves upon the -surface of the rock, but the lines were indubitably made by the movement -of ice in the glacial age. Only a piece of jagged flint, but the edge we -finger was chipped by human hands for an object conceived in a human -brain. See how the conical marks where each stroke of the hammer fell -are still as clear and purposeful as on the day when they were made. -Flaking a flint is skilled work: the blows must be cunningly aimed and -exactly struck, or the stone will be shattered instead of sharpened. -This one, being well wrought, is doubtless a Neolithic weapon. But here -is a specimen more rude and primitive. It is probably a thousand years -older than the one we have just examined. Nevertheless, we know that it -also was worked by man, and that human eyes chose it and human hands -held it, and fashioned it, in days when man shared Europe with the -mammoth. - -What faint but real traces of a far antiquity can be seen in the Jewish -proverbs? - -(1) The first trace is to be found in the Numerical Sayings, a curious -type of aphorism, half proverb and half riddle. Four of these occur in -_Proverbs_ 30. - -FOUR THINGS UNSATISFIED. - - _Three things there be unsatisfied, - Yea! four that say not “Enough”-- - The land of death; the barren womb; - Earth unsated with water; - And fire that says not “Enough”_ (Pr. 30^{15b, 16}). - -FOUR SMALL WISE THINGS. - - _There be four things upon the earth small but exceeding wise_: - - _The_ ANTS--_a people little of strength, but in summer - they store up food_: - - _The_ CONIES--_these be a feeble folk, but they make their - homes in the rock_: - - _The_ LOCUSTS--_are they that have no king, but they march - in an ordered host_: - - _The_ LIZARDS--_on which thou canst lay thine hand, though - they dwell in his majesty’s court_ (Pr. 30^{24-28}). - -FOUR THINGS UNBEARABLE. - - _Beneath three things the earth doth tremble, - Yea beneath four it cannot bear up-- - Beneath a slave become a monarch; - Beneath a fool that is filled with meat; - Beneath an old-maid that hath found a husband; - Beneath a handmaid heir to her mistress_ (Pr. 30^{21-23}). - -FOUR STATELY THINGS. - - _There be three things of stately step, - Yea, four of stately gait-- - The_ LION, _that is the strongest beast, - And flees before no foe; - The ...; the_ HE-GOAT _too; - And the_ KING, _when_ ...[19](Pr. 30^{29-31}). - -Simple as these riddles may be, they imply or make definite allusion to -many things; a settled community, a king, an army trained and -disciplined, economic foresight, dramatic changes in social rank, laws -of natural inheritance, acute reflections on the fate of man and on -human character--surely a picture too elaborate for pre-historic years? -Certainly, and for these particular proverbs, no such claim is advanced: -the lingering trace of a forgotten world is in their form, _numerical_ -proverbs. Those just quoted are, as it were, links in a long chain, -which we may follow backwards or forwards. The former process will lead -to the result we seek; but first, for convenience and in further -illustration, let us notice some, still later, examples of these -proverbs. Two more are included in the Book of Proverbs, one of which -will be quoted below (p. 51): here is the other. - -SEVEN HATEFUL THINGS. - - _There be six things Jehovah hates, - Yea, seven which he abominates-- - Haughty eyes, a lying tongue, - And hands that innocent blood have shed, - A mind devising wicked plans, - Feet that be swift to do a wrong, - A witness false declaring lies, - And he who stirs up friends to strife_ (Pr. 6^{16-19}). - -Though cast in the same mould, this saying with its insistence on -justice, truth, honesty of purpose and humility of spirit, certainly -reflects a later and more complex stage of thought than the naïve -conundrums quoted above from Pr. 30. Indeed, it may be no earlier than -the third century, the golden age of proverb-making, to which period -belongs also the following sentence from Ben Sirach’s book: _There be -nine things that I have thought of and in my heart counted happy, and -the tenth I will utter with my tongue_--_A man whose children give him -joy: a man that liveth to see his enemies fall: happy is he whose wife -hath understanding, and he that hath not slipped with his tongue, and he -that hath not had to serve an inferior man: happy is he that hath found -prudence: and he that discourseth in the ears of them that listen. How -great is he that hath found wisdom! And above him that feareth the Lord -is there none. The fear of the Lord surpasses all things; and he that -holdeth it, to whom shall he be likened?_ (E. 25^{7-11}).[20] - -Turn next to the _Sayings of the Fathers_, a treatise of Jewish ethical -reflections, compiled in the first and second centuries A.D., and in the -fifth chapter will be found a series of “numerical” observations. It -must suffice to quote but one: _There are four types of moral character. -He that saith “Mine is mine and thine is thine” is a character neither -good nor bad, but some say ’tis a character wholly bad.[21] He that -saith “Mine is thine and thine is mine” is a commercially minded -man.[22] He that saith “Mine and thine are thine” is pious: “Mine and -thine are mine,” the same is wicked._ For a last and latest example a -modern saying current among the Jews and Arabs of Syria, can be cited: -_There are three Voices in the World--that of running water, of the -Jewish Law, and of money_. - -So much for the later links in the chain, but what of its beginning? Why -give thoughts in stated number? Is it a writer’s trick to catch our -fancy? _That_ it may be in the later, but certainly not in the early -instances. There is only unconscious art in such an unsophisticated, -child-like verse as the FOUR STATELY THINGS. “Child-like,” that is the -word we require to describe these riddles. True; but when were the Jews -and their Semitic ancestors children? Before Abraham was called, when -almost the world itself was young. - -For a moment permit your thoughts to be drawn back a very great way, and -consider the rude and inefficient life of early man. Unaided by the -numberless resources, mental and material, that enrich our civilised -life, dwelling in forests, caverns and rude huts of stone or earth, -well-nigh defenceless against the larger animals, haunted and harried by -a thousand perils real and imaginary, so man once lived and worked and -thought, and by his thinking accomplished marvels. “From the moment,” -writes A. R. Wallace, “when the first skin was used as a covering, when -the first rude spear was formed to assist in the chase, when fire was -first used to cook his food, when the first seed was sown or shoot -planted, a grand revolution was effected in Nature, a revolution which -in all the previous ages of the earth’s history had had no parallel; for -a being had arisen who was no longer necessarily subject to change with -the changing universe--a being who was in some degree superior to -Nature, inasmuch as he knew how to control and regulate her action, and -could keep himself in harmony with her, not by a change in body, but by -an advance in mind.”[23] But it was not enough that the individual -should think. The secret of human success has lain in the ability to -communicate ideas. Yet, to this day, with what effort we find words to -body forth our thoughts and feelings! Try to conceive how difficult was -the formulation and transmission of ideas in those forgotten centuries. -Imagine the tribesmen gathered home for the day and seated around their -fire. Here is one who has had a thought when out hunting, which would -amuse or interest the rest, if only it could be made articulate. But -none can read, and none can write, and language is in its infancy. How -then can he find a way to tell it, and they perceive his meaning, and -all _remember_? By means of proverbs; not the neat epigram of later -ages, but yet sayings which for all their simplicity were embryonic -proverbs. Earliest and easiest type of all was the bare -comparison--_this is like that_--a type which, it is interesting to -note, may be illustrated by one of the oldest phrases in the Bible: -_Like Nimrod a mighty hunter before the Lord_ (Gen. 10^{9}). And the -method of comparison never ceased to be a favourite mould for the -formation of proverbs, as some polished examples from _Proverbs_ will -serve to show: _As the swallow ever flitting and flying, so the curse -that is groundless alighteth not_ (Pr. 26^{2}). _The way of the wicked -is like the darkness: they know not whereon they stumble_ (Pr. 4^{19}). -Another device for communicating thought and storing wisdom was the -riddle, and this also, under slight disguise, has its lineal descendants -in the Biblical proverbs. Thus Pr. 16^{14}, _Pleasant words are as an -honeycomb, sweetness to the soul and health to the body_, was once most -probably a reply to the question, _What is sweet as honey?_ Another -example is Pr. 22^{1}: someone would ask, _What is worth more than -gold?_ and when the listeners had guessed in vain give his answer, _A -good repute_. But better than any one comparison, more memorable than -the single question, was the _numerical_ riddle; for instance -this--_What four things are beyond our power to calculate?_ - - _There be three things too wonderful for me, - Yea, four which I do not comprehend-- - The way of an eagle in the air; - The way of a serpent upon a rock; - The way of a ship in the midst of the sea; - And the way of a man with a maid._--(Pr. 30^{18, 19}). - -By sayings such as these were thought and experience acquired and -transmitted in forgotten years. When complex thinking was impossible, -when minds were dull and expression feeble, these primitive proverbs by -the barb of their wit or fancy, fixed themselves deep in the memories of -men. - -(2). The last quotation has in early Indian literature a close parallel -beginning thus: - - _The paths of ships across the sea, - The soaring eagle’s flight, Varuna knows_.... - -and another of the numerical sayings from the same chapter of _Proverbs_ -has an even closer parallel: - - _There be three things unsatisfied, - Yea, four that say not “Enough”: - Death, and the barren womb, - Earth, never sated with water, - And fire that says not “Enough.”_ (Pr. 30^{15, 16}), - -compared with: - - _Fire is never sated with fuel; - Nor Ocean with streams; - Nor the God of death with all creatures; - Nor the bright-eyed one (i.e., woman) with man._ (Hitopadeça 2, 113). - -These resemblances of thought and phrase between India and Palestine -provide another hint of far-past days by raising the question of the -wandering of proverbs. Variations of the same tales and sayings occur -among so many different peoples throughout Europe and Asia, that the -possible rise of similar ideas, finding somewhat similar expression, in -the various races, seems insufficient to account for the phenomena; -rather we must suppose that tales and phrases circulated from tribe to -tribe over an amazing stretch of territory and in very early times. -What, for example, may be inferred from the correspondence between these -Jewish and Indian sayings? Does it preserve a glimpse of some one man, -interested in the reflections and questionings of his people, who once -ages ago travelled out of India, following the immemorial trade-routes -westwards across Arabia till he reached Palestine, and in the mind of -some kindred soul left a memory of his wise words? Either that, or -perhaps many minds were needed to transmit the thought from East to West -or West to East; so that almost one might think of the words as having -had wings on which they flew from camp to camp along the routes, -alighting wherever men gathered for trade and found time for friendly -intercourse. The subject might be developed at some length; but, try as -we may, the details of these migrations hide themselves in the mists of -a too distant past, and we catch but a glimpse of scenes we can never -more make clear. It is better to give more time to certain general -characteristics of the Jewish proverbs. - - -II - -The abnormal aptitude of the Jews for proverb-making and their love of -concrete expression are ultimately due to the conditions of early -centuries. Of these two features it will be convenient to consider the -second first. - -The land of Palestine, home of the Jews from about 1200 B.C., lies -between an ocean of water and an ocean of sand: on the west its coasts -are washed, but not threatened, by the Mediterranean Sea; on the east -and on the south it has to wage incessant warfare against the indrifting -sands. The country is an oasis snatched from the great deserts and kept -from their insidious grasp only by the toil and ingenuity of man. Behind -Palestine looms Arabia, and beneath the Jew is the Arab. Throughout the -last five thousand years the population of Palestine (excepting the -Philistines on the coast) has been formed by layer after layer of -Arabian immigrants, who have invaded the fertile lands, sometimes by the -rush of sudden conquest, but also by steady, peaceful infiltration. -Despite much intermarriage with the earlier Canaanites there was always -a passionate strain of the desert in Jewish blood, and throughout its -whole history in Palestine Israel had to live in uneasy proximity to its -kinsfolk, the wild nomads who roamed the deserts to the east and south. -Consequently the ultimate back-ground of the Old Testament writings is -not Palestine but Arabia, a land which sets a deep and lasting impress -on its children. A life wild yet monotonous in the extreme, rigid in -its limitations but unbridled in its licence within those limitations: -such is the rule imposed by the vast wilderness on the men who have to -wander its blazing solitudes. Arabia produces four paradoxes in the -intellect and characters of its nomadic tribes.[24] First, “the -combination of strong sensual grossness with equally strong tempers of -reverence and worship.” Second, “a marvellous capacity for endurance and -resignation broken by fits of ferocity: the ragged patience bred by -famine. We see it survive in the long-suffering, mingled with outbursts -of implacable wrath, which characterises so many Psalms. These are due -to long periods of moral famine, the famine of justice.” Third, -ingenuity of mind and swift perception, but without that power or -inclination for abstruse or sustained argument which the Western world -has inherited from the Greeks. Fourth, a subjective attitude to the -phenomena of nature and history, combined with an admirable realism in -describing these phenomena. - -For thousands of years before Israel entered Canaan and became a nation -its ancestors were nomads of Arabia. It would be strange indeed if the -great desert which so subtly and irresistibly sets its spell upon the -human spirit had left no trace on Jewish proverbs. Yet the trace is not -evident in points of detail. Most of the sayings we shall study in this -volume represent the thoughts of certain post-exilic Jews. Where then -does the mark of the desert linger? First in the peculiar _concreteness_ -of the proverbs. All proverbs tend to concrete expression, but in this -respect the Jewish ones are only equalled by those of the Arabs -themselves; and this quality is shown not only in the early but also in -the later sayings. Let us illustrate the point before suggesting its -ultimate cause. The Jew said, “Two dogs killed a lion,”[25] where we -say, “Union is strength.” We say, “Familiarity breeds contempt”; they -said, “The pauper hungers without noticing it.”[26] Our tendency is to -consider riches and poverty, but they talked of the rich man and the -poor. The most remarkable example of this tendency is the conception -that gives unity to the _Book of Proverbs_, namely the idea of Wisdom. -Here, if anywhere, one would expect the abstract to be maintained. But -the individualising instinct has conquered, and in the loftiest passages -of _Proverbs_ we shall find Wisdom praised, not as an idea, but as a -person, represented as a woman of transcendent beauty and nobility. Such -abnormally concrete thinking may have its disadvantages, but at least it -will have one satisfactory quality--_humanism_. Men who thought not in -generalisations but in particular instances, who saw not classes but -individuals, could not help being great humanists. If now we ask whence -the Jewish mind received this tendency, our thoughts will have to travel -back till we discern a group of black hair-cloth tents out in the -Arabian Wilderness. In the tents are men who have learnt to pass safely -across the deserts and are at home in them as a seaman on the seas; wild -men and strong and confident, yet never careless, knowing that they can -relax vigilance only at the risk of life. For these wastes are not empty -but treacherous; apparently harmless, in reality full of peril. Security -in the desert depends on acute and untiring observation. No amount of -abstruse reasoning, no ability in speculative thought, will save life -and property there, if the first sign of a lurking foe is passed -unnoticed in the trying and deceitful light. Every faculty must be -trained to the swift perception of concrete facts, faint signs of -movement, the behaviour of men and beasts. The great sun in heaven may -be trusted to rise and set: why speculate on the mystery? While we are -lost in thought the sons of Ishmael may fall upon us. “The leisure of -the desert is vast, but it is the leisure of the sentinel.... To the -nomad on his bare, war-swept soil few things happen, but everything that -happens is ominous.” - -Keen observation, then, more than any other quality, is required by -Arabia from its children. But observation is the quintessence of the art -of proverb-making, provided it be combined with practice in the -expression of one’s thoughts. As for practice in talk, one might readily -suppose that the solitudes would have made their peoples tongue-tied. In -point of fact the contrary is true, and the skill of the Jews in the -devising of proverbs, no less than their love of concrete expression, -goes back to habits engendered by this desert existence. Arabian life -provided not only long leisure for reflection but also opportunity for -social intercourse in the small tribal groups; so that the nomads came -to have a passion for story-telling and for all manner of sententious -talk, witness the customs of the Bedouin to this day and the immense -collections of Arabian proverbs. Hour after hour, with Eastern -tirelessness, the tribesmen, gathered at the tent of their sheikh, would -listen approvingly to the eloquence bred of large experience and shrewd -judgment. Here is the scene painted in the words of Doughty’s _Arabia -Deserta_: “These Orientals study little else [than the art of -conversation and narrative], as they sit all day idle in their male -societies; they learn in this school of infinite human observation to -speak to the heart of one another. His tales [referring to a Moorish -rogue, Mohammed Aly], _seasoned with saws which are the wisdom of the -unlearned_, we heard for more than two months; they were never-ending. -He told them so lively to the eye that they could not be bettered, and -part were of his own motley experience.” The Israelites carried this -habit with them from Arabia into their settled homes in Canaan. Here is -a similar scene in the hall of a modern Palestinian village-sheikh: “We -were seated on mats, spread with little squares of rich carpet round -three sides of a hollow place in the floor, where a fire of charcoal -burned, surrounded by parrot-beaked coffee pots. This was the hearth of -hospitality, whose fire is never suffered to go out; near it stood the -great stone mortar in which a black slave was crushing coffee-beans. The -coffee, deliciously flavoured with some cunning herb or other, was -passed round. But the conversation which followed was the memorable part -of that entertainment. In the shadow at the back the young men who had -been admitted sat in silence. The old men, elders of the village -community, sat in a row on stone benches right and left of the door. The -sheikh made many apologies for not having called on us at the tents--he -had thought we were merchantmen going to buy silk at Damascus. Then -followed endless over-valuation of each other, and flattery concerning -our respective parents and relations.... The elders sat silently leaning -upon their staves, except now and then, when one of them would slowly -rise and expatiate upon something the sheikh had said--perhaps about -camels or the grain crop--beginning his interruption almost literally in -the words of Job’s friends: “Hearken unto me, I also will show mine -opinion. I will answer also for my part, I also will show mine opinion. -For I am full of matter, the spirit within me constraineth me.”[27] So -has it been in Palestine time out of mind, and it is in settings of this -description that we must imagine the art of proverb-making developing in -Israel. - -Such, then, is the significance of these features which we have been -considering--the numerical proverbs, parallels with sayings of other -nations, the love of the Jews for proverbs with their consequent skill -in making them, and their remarkable _penchant_ for concrete expression. -Otherwise, antiquity has left few traces in the Jewish proverbs. That, -however, is but natural, since proverb-making was a living art among the -people. New maxims kept coming into use, and they crowded out of memory -the favourites of byegone generations. Doubtless a few of the sayings in -the _Book of Proverbs_ are ancient, though just how old we cannot tell. -For example, P. 27^{20}, _Sheol and Abaddon are never filled, and the -eyes of man are never sated_ may be co-æval with the fear of death and -the passion of greed. Cheyne discovers a relic of “that old nomadic love -of craft and subtlety” in the saying (Pr. 22^{3}), _A shrewd man sees -misfortune coming and conceals himself, whereas simpletons pass on and -suffer for it_; but his interpretation of the verse seems somewhat -forced. The following, however, in matter and perhaps in form also may -be nearly as ancient as the settled occupation of the land: - - _Remove not the ancient landmark which thy fathers set up._ (Pr. 22^{28}). - -Nothing could well be easier than the removal of those -landmarks--insignificant heaps of stone, set at the end of a wide -furrow. But from earliest times the East has counted them adequate -guardians of the fields, and from generation to generation, by consent -of all decent-minded men, they have stood inviolate. Other nations, as -well as Israel, called them sacred. Greece, and Rome too, gave them a -god for their protection, Hermes of the Boundary, beside whose shrine of -heaped-up stones travellers would stay to rest, and, rested, lay an -offering of flowers or fruit before the kindly deity: - - “_I, who inherit the tossing mountain-forests of steep Cyllene - stand here guarding the pleasant playing-fields, Hermes, to whom - boys often offer marjoram and hyacinths and fresh garlands of - violet._”[28] - -Even the thief and murderer, we are told, would hesitate before the -wickedness of moving these simple, immemorial heaps of stone: such was -their sanctity. What unutterable contempt for the laws of God and man is -therefore revealed in the multiple witness of the Old Testament[29] -against the rich and powerful in Israel, that _they_ scrupled not to -remove the landmarks of their poorer brethren? Thieves and murderers -would have kept their hands clean from such pollution: - - _Remove not the landmark of the widow, - Into the field of the orphan enter not; - For mighty is their Avenger, - He will plead their cause against thee_ (Pr. 23^{10, 11}). - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -The Day of Small Things - - -Popular as the custom of making and of hearing “wise words” may have -been in ancient Israel, it is not surprising that only five or six -proverbial sayings are recorded in the early writings of the Old -Testament. For proverbs are not likely to receive mention in literature. -They are too plain for the poet, too vague for the historian, too -complaisant for the law-maker. And even these five or six, it appears, -have been preserved not for any merit they possess as proverbs: one is -of local interest only, two are picturesque, but obscure, two are the -merest truisms. The right question, therefore, is not “Why are there so -few?”, but “Why have _these_ sayings been rescued from oblivion?”; and, -being preserved, “Why should they receive our attention?” - -Suppose that in Britain fifty or a hundred years hence men should quote -“It’s a long, long way to Tipperary,” when they seek an expression for -the pathos and heroism that mark the acceptance of a difficult and -perilous task--if those words live, why will they live? Obviously for no -intrinsic merit, but for the undying memory of men who counted not their -lives dear unto themselves. So with these early proverbs in the Bible. -Each of them came into quickening contact with a great personality, or -played a part in one of those fateful moments when the fortunes of a -people or the trend of human thinking has been determined this way or -that. They have lived because each has been touched by the passion of -humanity. Therefore we have to study them not in isolation from the -context, but in close connection with the scene or circumstance that -gave them unexpected immortality. - - * * * * * - -(1) In days when Jerusalem was not yet Jerusalem, City of David, but -only _Jebus_, a stronghold of the Canaanites, there had been built in -the limestone uplands of Judæa an Israelitish village, _Gibeah_, -situated (as the name implies), on a hill-top, doubtless for such -security as the rising ground afforded. - -At the time we are concerned with, Israel stood in sore need of every -protection her settlements could find. Baffled by the great Canaanite -fortresses, the invading Hebrews had never become absolute masters of -the land, and of recent years their fortunes had altogether failed under -the counter-pressure of new invaders, the Philistines, who had seized -the coast of Canaan and whose restless armies came sweeping up the -valleys that lead to the highlands from the plain along the sea. The -raiders harried the Judæan villages, slaying the men and carrying the -women, children and cattle captive to the lowlands. The villages were an -easy prey, and the spirit of the Israelites was broken by the miseries -of these repeated ravages. Wandering bands of religious devotees, -preaching remembrance of the power of Jehovah, kept the embers of -corporate feeling from flickering out; but, at the best, their wordy -warfare must have seemed a feeble answer to the mail-clad giants of the -Philistine hosts. - -Imagine that we are standing on the hill of Gibeah, looking down the -steep pathway which leads up to the village. A few days ago a young man, -accompanied by a servant, went out to search the countryside for some -strayed animals. All in Gibeah know him well, Saul, the son of Kish, a -proper man, tall and powerful, one who in happier days might have been -a leader in Israel. Saul and his servant are returning and have almost -reached the foot of the ascent to the village. Last night they were with -Samuel at Ramah, and at day-break secretly the seer had anointed the -youth to be king over Israel; but of these events we are ignorant as -yet; we do not know that the Saul who went out will return no more. Idly -watching from the hill-top, we observe a company of devotees, who have -spent the night in Gibeah, descending the slope towards Saul. As they -approach, Saul stops and, to our faint surprise, is seen to be in speech -with them. Question and answer pass. Suddenly our listless attention -changes to astonishment. Below, excitement is rising, and on none has it -fallen more than on Saul! He begins to talk and gesticulate like a man -inspired. We raise a shout and the folk come running, and, as they see -beneath them Saul now in an ecstasy, the incredulous cry breaks forth -_Is Saul also among the prophets?_ - -What is the interest of this famous scene? That a proverb was born that -day in Israel? That it marked the commencement of a new stage in the -national life of Israel? More than that. The real interest is in the -transformation effected by the recognition of a personal duty. Young men -like the Saul who went out to seek the lost animals are useful members -of a State, but, had Saul remained unaltered, what waste of his latent, -unsuspected power! Saul had met devotees many times before, but their -words had roused no energies in him. One touch of the faith of Samuel, -one illuminating moment of consciousness that _to him_ God had spoken, -and--Saul was a king, and Israel again a people; despair became hope, -and hope achievement. It has always been so, whenever men have listened -to the summons of personal religion. We go upon our ordinary path a -hundred times and return as we went, uncomprehending; but if once God -meets us on the way, whether He speak by the mouth of a prophet, or, as -now, by the shock of war, the miracle is effected: we are changed into -another man. - -(2) The scene of the second of these early proverbs is the steep and -rugged country that mounts from the floor of the Dead Sea valley near -Engedi. But the setting of the incident matters little; its point is all -in the play of character between two great personalities--Saul, now -nearing the dark finish of his reign and haunted by the thought that at -his death the throne will pass from his house; and David, with youth and -a good conscience to support him but fleeing for his life from the -jealous king and hard pressed by the royal soldiery. Saul has entered a -cave, unaware that David is hiding in its recesses. David suffers him to -go out unharmed and still ignorant of his peril; but quietly he follows -Saul to the sunlight at the cave’s mouth, and standing there, as the -King moves off, he calls, “O my lord the King!” At the clear, musical, -voice of the man he half-loves, half-hates, and cannot kill, Saul in -astonishment turns to hear these words: “_Wherefore hearkenest thou to -men’s words saying ‘Behold David seeketh thy hurt’? Behold this day the -Lord had delivered thee into mine hand in the cave: and some bade me -kill thee; but mine eye spared thee and I said ‘I will not put forth -mine hand against my lord, for he is the Lord’s anointed.’ Moreover, my -father, see, yea, see the skirt of thy robe in my hand: for in that I -cut the skirt of thy robe and killed thee not, know thou and see that -there is neither evil nor transgression in my hand, and I have not -sinned against thee, though thou huntest after my soul to take it. The -Lord judge between me and thee, and avenge me of thee: but mine hand -shall not be upon thee. As saith the proverb of the ancients_, Out of -the wicked cometh forth wickedness: _but mine hand shall not be upon -thee_.” We can see how David meant it, that proverb of the ancients. It -leapt to his lips in eager protestation. How could Saul deem him -capable of a deed of foulest treachery? Why could he not see that only -out of the basest of men could such dire wickedness proceed? But into -the mind of Saul the saying sank with double edge. What had _he_ done -towards the making of this scene--that red mist of passion when he flung -the javelin; those cold and cunning plots to lure David into adventure -that would be his death; the unrelaxing hunt to catch and kill? Saul for -an instant saw his soul laid bare by the ancient proverb: he at least -was a man from whom great wickedness had come, and “A good tree cannot -bring forth corrupt fruit, neither can a corrupt tree bring forth good -fruit.” _And Saul lifted up his voice and wept. And he said to David, -“Thou art more righteous than I, for thou hast rendered unto me good, -whereas I have rendered unto thee evil.”_ A few years later the King lay -dead and vanquished on Mount Gilboa. From that day to this men have not -ceased to find in him a text for moralising, with some justice but with -strangely little sympathy, seeing that he sinned in one thing and paid a -heavy penalty. Which was the real Saul? The King crazy with murderous -hatred, or the man who answered David’s generosity in those noble words, -who once “was among the prophets,” who had made Israel again a people -and so long time had held the Philistines at bay? It does not greatly -matter if men reply “the mad Saul, who died believing himself forsaken -of God”; and so push their moralisings home. But on which Saul does the -Divine judgment pass? One man, more than all others, had reason to -condemn, and he did more than pardon. He sang of Saul slain on Gilboa, -_How are the mighty fallen?... Saul and Jonathan were lovely and -pleasant in their lives, and in their deaths they were not divided._ - -(3) In the books of Jeremiah and Ezekiel two popular sayings are -mentioned, which may be considered together, for their burden is one. - -(_a_) _Behold, everyone that useth proverbs shall use this proverb -against thee saying_, =As is the mother, so is the daughter= (_Ezekiel_ -16^{44}). - -(_b_) _But it shall come to pass that like as I have watched over them -to pluck up and to break down and to overthrow and to destroy and to -afflict; so will I watch over them to build and to plant, saith the -Lord. In those days they shall say no more_, =The fathers have eaten sour -grapes, and the children’s teeth are set on edge=. _But every one shall -die for his own iniquity: every man that eateth the sour grapes his -teeth shall be set on edge_ (_Jeremiah_ 31^{28-30}); and to the same -effect, this from Ezekiel, _The word of the Lord came unto me saying, -What mean ye that ye use this proverb concerning the land of Israel, -saying_, =The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children’s teeth -are set on edge=? _As I live, saith the Lord God, ye shall not have cause -any more to use this proverb in Israel. Behold, all souls are Mine: as -the soul of the father so also the soul of the son is Mine: the soul -that sinneth, it shall die. But if a man be just, and do that which is -lawful and right ... hath spoiled none by violence, hath given his bread -to the hungry, and hath covered the naked with a garment ... he is just, -he shall surely live, saith the Lord God_ (_Ezekiel_ 18^{1^{ff}}). - -Heredity, the question at issue in these passages, presents a more -complex and stringent problem to the modern mind than to the ancient. -But it would be a great error to suppose that the Jewish thinkers were -less concerned about it, or that its consequences seemed to them less -bitter. Indeed for the Hebrews the problem had a sinister back-ground -which for us has sunk far out of sight. The solidarity of the tribe or -family was a fearsome reality in days when for the sin of one member -vengeance would fall upon the whole community or household. Recollect -the story of Achan, who stole from the sacred spoil a Babylonish mantle, -silver, and a wedge of gold: _Wherefore Joshua and all Israel with him -took Achan_ AND _his sons and his daughters and his oxen and his asses -and his sheep and his tent and all that he had, and burned them with -fire and stoned them with stones_.[30] There was a grim wisdom in the -ancient procedure. Man has had a stern fight for existence. How far can -he tolerate “handicaps” in the contest? What can be expected from -children of corrupt and vicious parents? Good citizens? “Men do not -gather grapes of thorns.” Yet who could fail to see that the children -were so far innocent; and therefore, whilst Achan died unpitied and -forgotten, perhaps their young voices and terror-stricken looks remained -an uneasy memory in the minds of those who stood consenting unto their -death? Was it necessary that the child should be irretrievably ruined -through his father’s guilt? - -By the time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, as the quotations show, the problem -had deepened and become general. In the perils, hardships, and disasters -which marked the decline and fall of the Judæan kingdom men felt that -the whole nation was suffering the consequences of their fathers’ -iniquities, and bitterly they quoted the saying _The fathers have eaten -sour grapes, and the children’s teeth are set on edge_. That way lay -despair: Let us too eat of the grapes and drink of their wine and be -merry, since to-morrow we die! Even the prophets experienced the -temptation to hopelessness; as when Ezekiel, wrestling with Judah sunk -in the old sins, thinks that in future days men will still have to cast -at her the charge of idolatries handed down from the ancient Canaanites: -_as is the mother so is the daughter_. But Jeremiah and Ezekiel both -fought their way through to a new conception of life, and this it is -which is proclaimed in the two chief passages quoted above. Deliverance -from the entail of evil is, they declare, possible; man is not -immovably fastened in chains which his ancestors have forged. - -So stands religion to-day, claiming power in the building of human -character. Fuller recognition and much deeper comprehension of the works -of heredity (as also of environment) are desirable and are not inimical -to a religious interpretation of human nature. Religion lays stress on -these two points. First, the fact that if there is an entail of evil -there is also an entail of good, together with the judgement that the -inheritance of good is the greater and ought to be made supreme: that as -St. Paul insisted _Where sin did abound, grace doth much more -abound_[31]. And, secondly, religion insists on the reality of that -power of self-determination which would seem to be characteristic of -every living being and in Man to be of primary importance. All that we -may become does not follow inexorably from what we now are. What we have -become was not wholly involved in what we were. Crude determinism is -either an Eastern idleness or a pedant’s nightmare, and freedom, though -it slips through the meshes of our clumsy analysis is a reality. To each -in measure it is given, though one may misuse it into the atrophy of -evil habit, whilst another may use it unto the liberty of the children -of God. We inherit, but, inheriting, we also originate. We are created, -but are also creators. We are pressed by our environment, but our -environment may become Christ, whose service is perfect freedom. - -(4) One other embedded proverb occurs in a passage of _Ezekiel_ (12^{21, -22}): _And the word of the Lord came unto me saying, “Son of man, what -is this proverb that ye have in the land of Israel saying_, =The days are -prolonged, and every= =vision faileth=?” Other lands besides Israel have -echoed those despairing words. It is hard not to feel in a -city-settlement that “the days are prolonged”; hard in a half-filled -church not to wonder if “every vision faileth.” But a true man will -still hold to the instinct that somehow his hopes are certainties, and -will make answer with Israel’s prophet thus: _Tell them therefore, “Thus -saith the Lord God: I will make this proverb to cease, and they shall no -more use it as a proverb in Israel; but say unto them, ‘The days are at -hand, and the fulfilment of every vision.’”_ - -A man who finds himself without confidence in God or man might save -himself from pessimism by a study of the intellectual, moral and -spiritual achievements of the Hebrew prophets.[32] Looking back on -Jewish history it is manifest that the spiritual longings of these great -personalities were realised to a wonderful extent and in ways impossible -for themselves or their contemporaries to perceive or anticipate. Things -did work together for good to those Jews who sought to discover the will -of God and, despite perplexity and hardship, refused to abandon their -imperfect but advancing faith. Thus even the Exile, apparently the -dissolution of Israel’s life, proved to be the very means of its -preservation and subsequent extension to a position of world-wide -influence. No one who has realised on the one hand the overwhelming -difficulties against which the prophets had to contend, the frankness -with which they faced the naked facts, their own agonising struggle of -soul against doubt and despair, and on the other side the ultimate -vindication of their faith; no one with that knowledge clear before him -will find it easy wholly to despair of men, or to cast from him for ever -the hope of God. - - * * * * * - -Besides these few incidental proverbs, the pre-exilic literature of the -Old Testament fortunately has preserved occasional glimpses of the -_makers of proverbs_ in Israel, and to these we now turn. We shall then -be prepared to study the special development of Jewish proverbs which -furnishes the chief interest of our subject. It will be convenient first -to set down the evidential passages consecutively, and afterwards to -consider their significance. - -(_a_) The narrative in _2 Samuel_ 14^{1^{ff}} relating the stratagem by -which Joab succeeded in reconciling King David to his son Absalom begins -thus: _Now Joab the son of Zeruiah perceived that the king’s heart was -towards Absalom. And Joab sent to Tekoa and fetched thence_ =a wise -woman=. - -(_b_) The second passage is in _2 Samuel_ 20^{16-22}--Joab, as David’s -general, having pursued the rebel Sheba into the North of Israel, has -compelled him to take refuge in the town of Abel, and is on the point of -breaching the wall and capturing the city, when _there cried unto him_ =a -wise woman= _out of the city ... and she said unto him “There is a -saying_, =To finish your business ask counsel at Abel=.”[33] _Thou seekest -to destroy a city and a mother in Israel. And Joab answered and said, -“Far be it from me that I should swallow and destroy. But ... Sheba the -son of Bichri ... deliver him only, and I will depart from the city.” -And the woman said unto Joab, “Behold, his head shall be thrown to thee -over the wall.”_ =Then the woman went unto all the people in her wisdom.= -... - -(_c_) The famous passage in which the wisdom of King Solomon is -extolled, _1 Kings_ 4^{29-34}: _And God gave Solomon wisdom and -understanding exceeding much and largeness of heart, even as the sand -that is on the sea shore_. =And Solomon’s wisdom excelled the wisdom of -all the children of the East= (_i.e._ Arabia) =and all the wisdom of -Egypt=. _For he was wiser than all men: than Ethan the Ezrahite, and -Heman, and Calcol, and Darda, the sons of Mahol: and his fame was in -all the nations round about._ =And he spake three thousand proverbs=: _and -his songs were a thousand and five. And he spake of trees, from the -cedar that is in Lebanon unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall; -he spake also of beasts and of fowl and of creeping things and of -fishes._ - -(_d_) _Isaiah_ 29^{13, 14}: _And the Lord said, Forasmuch as this people -draw nigh with their mouth, and with their lips do honour me, but have -removed their heart far from me and their fear of me is a commandment of -men which hath been taught them; therefore behold I will again do a -marvellous work among this people ... and_ =the wisdom of their wise men= -_shall perish, and the understanding of their prudent men shall be hid_. - -(_e_) _Jeremiah_ 18^{18} (cp. 8^{8} and 9^{23}): _Then said they, Come -and let us devise devices against Jeremiah; for the law shall not perish -from the priest, nor_ =counsel from the wise=, _nor the word from the -prophet_. - -Of these passages the first two show that there was a “Wisdom” in Israel -before Solomon, that it was concerned with prudential counsel as to the -conduct of life, and was associated with the use of maxims, some of -which had passed into well-known proverbs; and further that certain -persons (often, perhaps generally, women) were recognised as of -pre-eminent skill in this giving of advice; and that townships -(doubtless with a shrewd eye to the increase of their commerce) vied one -with another in vaunting their respective sages. Slight as this evidence -may be, it is sufficient, because it is in accord with the facts of -later periods and with that liking for sententious talk which we have -noted as characteristic of the Semites from very early ages. Observe -also how in the third passage the wisdom of Solomon is not regarded as a -quality peculiar to himself. True, he possessed wisdom in a rare or -superlative degree, but it was _comparable_ with the “Wisdom of the -East” (Arabia) and the “Wisdom of Egypt.” Nor was Solomon alone in his -wisdom. To him the first place; but he had great rivals whose names -posterity thought worth preserving. One suspects that the King’s -reputation for sagacity may have been enhanced by his royal estate, and -that in the passage quoted from the _Book of Kings_ we see him through -the haze of grandeur with which later generations encircled his reign. -Even so, the tradition of his wisdom stands, and like all firm -traditions has a basis in fact. What inferences should we draw? Not that -the three thousand proverbs with which tradition credited Solomon are -those preserved in the _Book of Proverbs_, despite the fact that the -main sections of the Book are prefaced by titles ascribing them to -him.[34] A few of the proverbs may have been spoken by Solomon himself -or at his court by persons renowned for sagacity, but nothing more than -that is probable.[35] Two positive conclusions seem tenable. First, -that King Solomon made a profound impression on his contemporaries by -reason of his subtle judgment, and his ability to express his thoughts -in just such moralistic maxims, comparisons, parables, and fables, as -the Wise were wont to use. In fact, the King was a Wise-man and a -Wise-man was King.[36] No wonder that his renown grew until he became, -so to speak, the patron saint of Wisdom in Israel, with whose authority -any “Wise” words might fittingly be associated. But further in view of -the aptitude shown by the King for the art of the Wise, it is reasonable -to believe that their prestige at this period must have been greatly -enhanced in the estimation of all classes. The man of Wisdom was -_persona grata_ at Court. And what more is needed to secure a -reputation? - -Hence it is not unexpected, though very interesting, to find two or -three centuries later that when Isaiah and Jeremiah speak of the Wise -they refer to them as an influence in the land ranking with the prophets -and the ceremonial religion. To the true prophets it appeared to be an -influence not always for good, or even inimical to their moral idealism. -Thus Isaiah declares that in the glorious day when Jehovah reveals His -truth _the Wisdom of the wise men shall perish_ (_Isaiah_ 29^{14}); and -Jeremiah gives as the reason why his enemies consider that his death or -imprisonment would be small loss to the nation their belief that “_the -law shall not perish from the priest, nor counsel from the wise, nor the -word from the prophet_” (_Jer._ 18^{18}). - -This evidence might be augmented by passages in the _Book of Job_, -where, for instance, the wisdom of Israel is described as an ancient, -though living, tradition: it is _that which wise men have told from -their fathers_ (_Job_ 15^{18}.) But enough has been said. To sum up, it -appears that the Hebrews, like their near kinsmen the Arabs, loved to -listen to the conversation of those, who, having ripe experience, shrewd -wits, and a sharp tongue, were able to cast their reflections on life -into parables and maxims which the hearer could readily remember. -Persons with an aptitude for such discourse were acknowledged among -their fellows as “wise.” Anyone with the necessary intelligence and -dignity might acquire this reputation. The Wise were never sharply -differentiated from the rest of the community; they did not become a -strict order or a caste like the priests, but remained a type or class; -a class, however, of such importance that it could be spoken of in the -same breath with the prophets and the priests. Egyptian analogies -suggest that the Wise may have taken on themselves duties in the -instruction of the young: but just what these early sages said and -thought we cannot ascertain. Nor is it likely we have lost much in -consequence. Some of their favourite sayings may eventually have been -incorporated in the _Book of Proverbs_, but the antagonism of the great -prophets shows that they were not enthusiasts for reform, and doubtless -the bulk of their maxims were prudential counsels suitable to the -standards of the age. In short, their teaching must have been desultory, -lacking the inspiration of a definite purpose and a clearly conceived -ideal. Thus far we find nothing that matters to the modern world, -nothing to awaken more than a flicker of our interest. No reason has yet -appeared to prompt the hope that Israel would make more of her Wisdom -than Edom or Egypt of theirs, and that was little enough. In all this we -find only “the Day of Small Things,” and need dwell no longer on its -trifles. But equally we ought to avoid the folly of despising it. The -Hebrews, after all, were not precisely as their neighbours of Philistia, -Edom, or Egypt. Behind them they had, as a people, an astonishing -history, and in their midst a succession of amazing men, the prophets -who had prophesied to them words which it was not possible should die, -seeds of the ultimate Wisdom. In Judah there was growing up a capacity -for faith, a spiritual interpretation of life and an enlightenment of -moral conscience unique in the ancient world. Hence Israel’s Wise-men -were not as other Wise-men; they had great potentialities. At length, -after the exile, circumstances came to pass which favoured the -development of latent genius in these men. All that had been needed was -an immediate stimulus, a liberating idea, a flash to kindle the flame. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -Iron Sharpeneth Iron - - -Life is very jealous of its secrets, and it is only by irrepressible -questioning that man has read what he has read of the truth. The -insurgent “Why?” of our early years is perhaps the one childish -thing weought to cherish to our dying day. All sorts of -evil things--surface-familiarity, routine, but above all -self-satisfaction--combine to stifle and to end our curiosity; at length -we acquiesce in and forget our ignorance, and thereafter stand with our -prejudices cumbering the ground for those who would go further. -Questioning is health to the soul, and perhaps success is to be measured -not by the fulness of the answers we receive but by our eagerness in -asking. - -Almost everyone knows that there is in the Bible a _Book of Proverbs_. A -few of its sayings are in daily use. Most men have read a chapter or -two. But at that point knowledge is apt to flag. What lack of -enterprise! It is like giving up an excursion at the first mile-stone. -Why should there be a _Book of Proverbs_? Why did men think it worth -transmitting, and why did they finally count it sacred literature? Why -has it just the form it has? How comes it, for instance, that single -sayings have sometimes blossomed into little essays, and brief -comparisons grown into finished pictures? What is the note of clear -intention which pervades the chapters and gives them a certain unity and -individuality? Zeal and energy characterise the Book. Zeal for what? The -previous chapter indicates that the answer to that last question may be -stated concisely in the one word “Wisdom,” the meaning of which -subsequent pages will unfold. The aim of the present chapter is to -discover an adequate reason for the _zeal_. - -Not seldom it happens that enthusiasm for a cause is first provoked by -opposition. For example, belief that international relationships ought -to be governed by ethical principles was generally and genuinely held by -the vast majority of English-speaking people in 1914; but the belief -lacked energising force. It seemed enough to entertain it. Of the -existence of a fundamentally different conception--that Might is the -ultimate right in national affairs--we were of course aware, but the -knowledge did not disturb us greatly. We fondly imagined that after some -more debate, and a little more reflection, so unenlightened and -unneighbourly a notion must disappear. When, however, Germany suddenly -put false theory into infamous practice, mark how our amiable opinion -became not only an urgent and indispensable ideal, but a definite policy -which must at all costs be upheld and made effective, if humanity was to -be saved from the yoke of an utterly immoral tyranny. In a moment we -realised the awful immediacy of the issue that had been at stake. The -debate was not as we supposed, on paper. Here was no wordy strife. Nay! -the battle at our gates was not confined even to the quick bodies of -men; it penetrated to the very mind and spirit, so that almost St. -Paul’s words seemed again in place: “Ours is not a conflict with mere -flesh and blood, but with ... the spiritual hosts of evil arrayed -against us in the heavenly places.”[37] - -Similarly it was an insistent menace that roused the fervour of the -Wise-men of Israel. Subtle but deadly opposition compelled them either -to champion their cause or see it fall. Wisdom in consequence acquired a -firmer outline. Because another Creed was in the air, it also became a -definite “Way of life.” The issues were clarified, the trend of things -revealed. It was felt there were but two paths for a man to choose, now -sharply defined and seen to lead in opposite directions: - - _Hear, O my son, and receive my sayings, - And the years of thy life shall be many. - I have taught thee in the way of Wisdom, - I have led thee in paths of uprightness. - When thou goest thy steps shall not be straightened, - And if thou runnest thou shalt not stumble. - Take fast hold of instruction; let her not go: - Keep her, for she is thy life. - Enter not into the paths of the wicked, - And walk not in the way of evil men. - Avoid it, pass not by it; - Turn from it, and pass on. - For they sleep not except they have done mischief; - And their sleep is taken away unless they cause some to fall. - For they eat the bread of wickedness - And drink the wine of violence. - But the path of the righteous is as the shining light, - That shineth more and more unto the perfect day. - The way of the wicked is as darkness - They know not at what they stumble._ (Pr. 4^{10-19})[38]. - -What then, was Wisdom’s opponent? Not Folly in the perennial sense, else -where was the novelty of the situation? The foe was Folly masquerading -as Wisdom, a specious spurious Wisdom which, said the Jewish moralists, -despite appearances was No-Wisdom. But if it was not the reality, it was -very like it; for the false Wisdom was beautiful, brilliant, and -exceedingly effective, had all the rights of sovereignty save one, all -the qualities of permanence save one--a firm basis in morality. It -lacked only the “fear of the Lord,” which the Jew defined as “to depart -from evil,” and which he held to be the one possible foundation for the -truly wise life. Not having that, it was but the devil robed as an angel -of light, Folly of Follies, a Temple of Wisdom founded upon the sand. - -In order to do justice to the efforts made by the Jews of the third and -second centuries B.C. to maintain an intellectual, moral and spiritual -independence in face of the new learning, or rather the new manner of -life we are about to describe, it is necessary to appreciate not only -the force of the attack but also the limited resources of the defence. -Let us begin therefore by striving to realise the position of the -Palestinian Jews in the ancient world.[39] The overwhelming religious -importance of the Jews has so distorted the proportions of that world -that even the professed student of antiquity finds it difficult to -recover the true perspective and realise their geographical and -historical insignificance. Without pausing to reflect, answer this -question, “Which were the chief nations of antiquity?” “The Jews, the -Greeks, the Romans,” is perhaps the reply that would rise most readily -to your lips. But as well might one classify the inhabitants of the -modern Western world into Manxmen, Europeans, and Americans! “Which were -the famous countries of the pre-Christian era?” “Palestine, Egypt, -Assyria, and Babylonia,” might be our response. But the Egyptians and -Babylonians did not hang with breathless interest on the fortunes of -Palestine, as we are naturally prone to imagine. They cared no more for -the fate of Jerusalem than modern Europe does for the fortunes of -Monaco. Now and again a king of Egypt marching north along the -Philistine plain, or a grand monarch of Babylon, sweeping south to the -borders of Nile, might turn aside a fraction of his host to ravage and -overcome the Judæan highlands. But, as a rule, Jerusalem, not being on -the main track of conquest, was not vitally affected by the coming and -going of the huge armies that issued periodically from the northern and -southern Empires. - -And next consider how unimportant even in Palestine were the Jews of -post-exilic days. The history of that country is familiar to us only -from the records of the Jewish Scriptures. If with the same fulness we -could hear the story from the standpoint of Israel’s neighbours the -proportions of things might seem immensely changed. How hard it is to -remember that Solomon in all his glory had no authority in Philistine -towns thirty miles away; and that Hiram of Tyre doubtless considered -himself every whit as great a lord as the ruler of Jerusalem, and -perhaps more highly civilised, certainly his superior in the matter of -arts and crafts. In 722 B.C., with the capture of Samaria, the northern -kingdom of Israel passed out of history, and with the influx of alien -settlers into its desolated territory the district became semi-heathen. -In 586 B.C. a like fate befell the little kingdom of Judah, the Temple -of Jerusalem being burnt, the city walls destroyed and the upper classes -carried off to Babylonia. Thereafter for a period of a century and a -half Jerusalem existed only as an enfeebled, unfortified township. The -return of exiles from Babylon in the reign of Cyrus (537 B.C.), though -the fame of it bulked large in Jewish tradition, was no great increase -of strength, perhaps little more than the accession of a few influential -families. Not until a century later in the time of Nehemiah, about 432 -B.C., did the Jews feel that their political history had recommenced; -and, even so, the work of Nehemiah was not the creation of a kingdom for -his people but the circumvallation of their one city. With its walls -restored Jerusalem might again be said to exist, a defenced city, no -longer dependent on the mercy of petty and jealous neighbours. But the -territories of the Jews remained much as before; namely the fields and -little villages to a distance of some ten or fifteen miles around -Jerusalem. Nor was there any considerable extension of purely Jewish -land until the successes of the Maccabees were gained in 166 B.C. To sum -up. Even after the work of Nehemiah had been accomplished, the Jewish -State in Palestine was still no more than an insignificant upland -community, a drop in the ocean of pagan races enclosing it; a tract some -fifteen miles in length and breadth with Jerusalem as its only city. -Doubtless the Jews were encouraged by the prosperity of their kinsfolk -in the great cities of Babylonia, Syria and Egypt. But that was a source -only of moral or financial help, not of physical protection: and to the -east were the wild nomadic tribes, and south of Jerusalem the -treacherous Edomites, and to the north the worse than alien Samaritans, -whose Temple on Mount Gerizim challenged Jerusalem’s last glory, its -spiritual pre-eminence. Galilee was heathen land; on the west were the -splendid heathen cities of the coast; and far to the distant south -beyond mysterious Nile and away to the most distant north ranged the -vast territories of heathen monarchs before whose military power and -worldly splendour Jerusalem was altogether less than nothing and vanity. - -In 332 B.C. a thunderbolt smote all the countries of the near East. In -that year a European army, led by the young king of Macedonia, Alexander -the Great, invaded Asia Minor--with such astonishing effects that the -event marks the commencement of a distinct epoch in history, the Greek -or Hellenic age. Military conquests prove sometimes to be of small -consequence in the great movement of human affairs, and famous battles -often have decided no more than that so many thousand men should die -untimely deaths and that this royal house instead of that should hold -the throne: an almost meaningless result. Only those wars are decisive -which, like the present one, involve the dominance of one or other of -two divergent conceptions or ideals of human life. Now the conquests of -Alexander were of this latter character; and, that being so, their -significance has to be measured not only from the standpoint of events -but also from the history of ideas. At this point then--the coming of -the Greeks to the East--let our narrative be checked for a moment that -we may reach the same event by following up a different line of thought, -namely the history of the development of human society. What is the -significance of Alexander from that point of view? Our aim in examining -the question will have to be threefold; to present (of course, in -simplest outline) _first_, the ruling principles of the Eastern or -Oriental manner of life; _secondly_, the Western--that is, the Greek or -Hellenic--ideals; and _thirdly_, the attempt of Alexander and his -successors to impose this Hellenic culture upon the Easterns and, in -particular, upon the Jews in Palestine. - -1. First, of ancient Oriental life. In a previous chapter it was said -that behind Palestine looms Arabia and beneath the Jew is the Arab. From -before the dawn of history the immense grass-lands of Arabia have been -peopled by small nomadic tribes who derived a sufficient livelihood from -the flocks they possessed and followed. All the organised life of the -Semitic races, with whom alone we are here concerned, has its instincts -rooted in this nomadic existence, about which much might profitably be -said; but only one point is essential, and to that our remarks will be -confined. It is that these pastoral communities have solved the problem -of life under existing circumstances. The rigid limitations of their -physical surroundings dictates a narrow circle of ambitions beyond which -they do not pass, so long as the conditions remain unchanged. For not -only have they discovered how to live, but they have found out the best -way of living, within their simple, monotonous world. Therefore they -continue, but they do not change. Progress was practically unthought of, -certainly undesired; and in fact the life of the modern Bedouin of -Arabia is still in its essentials the same as that depicted in the _Book -of Genesis_. But about 3000 B.C., for the first time though not the last -time in history, Arabia became overcrowded, in the sense that its -pasturage was insufficient to sustain the population, and multitudes of -nomads, hunger-driven, poured forth into the fertile territories -bordering the deserts. There the arts of agriculture and of building -were learnt, settled communities formed, tribal organisation yielded to -larger groups, kingdoms arose, and eventually great empires. But the -civilised life of the Semites proved to be as lacking in the instinct -for progress, whether material, moral or intellectual, as in its simpler -way the original pastoral existence has been. Life in Semitic towns -became richer and more complex up to a certain point, but there ambition -faded, and the ingrained habit of acquiescence in existing circumstances -prevailed, hindering and preventing further growth. Thus, politically, -this eastern civilisation was characterised by the mass of the people -seeking no share in their own government. They were content to be ruled -by authorities whom they seldom created and never effectively -controlled. It has been truly said that the kings of the East fought -over the heads of their subjects. The affairs of a baker in Jerusalem, a -merchant in Gaza, a craftsman in Tyre (provided the victorious army left -him alive) were unaltered by the rise and fall of his rulers. To the -bulk of the inhabitants of the Palestinian towns it mattered little -whether they were temporarily independent or were under the heel now of -Babylon, now of Egypt, now of Persia. Men hoped for no more than that -trade should be possible, food obtainable, and that the injustice in -the realm should be--not abolished (no one was so mad as to entertain -the notion) but--kept within tolerable bounds. For the rest, what more -could a man desire than to live as had his father before him? Ancestral -custom held the whole of life in its paralysing grasp, and choked -initiative. The potter sought no new patterns; what was wrong with the -old? Why devise a new method of ploughing, when the old way grew the -crops? Innovation was an altogether hateful thing. Hence, however -populous Eastern towns might grow, however active and prosperous their -commerce, life in them was essentially stationary, its ambitions -limited, its possibilities achieved. In all Palestine there was but one -spark of unexhausted thought; namely, the conception of God which the -great prophets of Israel had discovered and transmitted to their people. -Evidently a nation which remembered such words as these: _I hate, I -despise your feasts, and I will take no delight in your solemn -assemblies. Yea, though ye offer me your burnt offerings and meal -offerings I will not accept them: neither will I regard the peace -offerings of your fat beasts. Take thou away from me the noise of thy -songs; for I will not hear the melody of thy viols. But let justice roll -down like waters, and righteousness as a mighty stream_[40]--that nation -is not finished; it has living seed within its soil. Yes, but against -this confident assertion recall how shrunken and enfeebled the Jewish -community had become. Further, remember that in all things except their -religion and their morality these Jews were part and parcel of the -general Oriental civilisation. In their civil occupations, their -commercial and agricultural methods, they also were just as much slaves -of tradition and as content with their bondage, as were their -neighbours. “Slaves of tradition,” how much the words cover! If even -dimly we could realise the misery, disease and squalor of the poor, the -degradation of womanhood, in those tradition-ridden Eastern towns; if we -could taste like gall and bitterness in our own experience one -thousandth part of the injustice and cruelties of those “contented” -despotisms; “A stationary civilisation, having reached the limit of its -ambitions”--how easily the phrase is framed!--if we could feel how much -that meagre consummation left to be desired, the words would seem to be -written in blood and blotted with tears! - -2. Meanwhile in Europe, across the blue seas of the Eastern -Mediterranean, a new thing had come to pass: an organisation of human -life different in form and in intention because different in mind and -spirit. By its means the intellectual powers and artistic achievements -of man were swiftly to be raised to an unimagined splendour, and, even -so, _to remain unexhausted_: we say “unexhausted” because the inspiring -and energising ideas which Greek genius was the first to realise and -accept have never ceased to operate, being in fact the intellectual -principles upon which Western civilisation has been constructed, and -providing the ideal towards which the development of society is still -directed. Doubtless there is terribly much to deplore in modern life; we -are far from wisdom, peace and true prosperity; it may be doubted -whether the conditions of the poor under modern industrialism are not, -in places, worse than anything even the East can show. And yet there is -one incalculable difference revolutionising the whole prospect. Unlike -the East, we do not acquiesce in existing evils. We are not exhausted, -not apathetically willing to accept things as they are. We spurn as -nonsense and cowardice any suggestions that the limit of human -development has been attained. Vehemently and hopefully we insist on the -achievement of better things. Not all the errors of the past and the -resultant evils of the present daunt us. We are rebels against our -failures, and our discontent is the measure of our vitality. This -instinct for improvement, which is the characteristic of Western life, -we owe--an infinite debt--to the people whose coming into history we -have now, briefly, to relate. - -As early as before 2000 B.C., the islands of the Eastern Mediterranean, -together with certain parts of the mainland of Greece, were the home of -a vigorous sea-faring people, possessing remarkable artistic talent. -Their civilisation is now known by the name Minoan. Somewhere between -1200 and 1100 B.C. catastrophic disaster befel this race. Out of the -immense grass-lands which stretch from the plains of Hungary in Europe -eastward right across central Asia there issued a multitude of men, -moving southward with their wives and families. The invaders swept down -into Thessaly and Greece, filling the mainland and pressing onwards -across the sea to the Ægean Isles, massacring or enslaving the Minoan -inhabitants. But if the newcomers at first brought ruin to a more highly -developed race, they had their own virtues. They carried with them a -fresh vigour, like a breeze from the north. Hardy and simple, they were -not rude savages; they had learnt the use of wheeled vehicles, they had -tamed the horse, and above all they possessed, as individuals, a certain -sturdy independence and an uncommon open-mindedness. Fortunately, the -older population was not extinguished; large numbers survived as slaves, -and from these in time the “horse-tamers”--as the conquerors loved to -style themselves--learnt for themselves the secrets of the Minoan arts -and crafts. With astonishing rapidity they were to improve upon their -teachers. - -Owing to the mountainous character of Greece and the indentations of its -coast, the invaders were split into many separate communities, each -easily controlling the small plains and valleys in the immediate -neighbourhood, but finding it difficult, if not unnatural, to extend its -rule beyond the mountain passes. For defensive purposes the members of -these small groups naturally tended to inhabit a single fortified town, -which became the all-absorbing centre of the tiny state; the town being, -as it were, a stronghold and its territories a garden round it. Thus -there came into existence what is known as “the Greek City-State.” Like -the Arabian tribes who also had passed from nomadism to settled life, -each of these new communities fell for a time under some form of -despotic government, now the rule of one man, a King or “Tyrant,” now of -a clique of rich and powerful persons, an Aristocracy. But there was -something in the character of the Greeks which proved intolerant of such -organisation, and, unlike the Arabians, they passed beyond that -experience and developed a novel and, as events were to prove, an -invaluable social system to which they gave the name “Democracy.” The -foundation principle of the democratic state lay in the conviction that -every adult free-born citizen, being an integral part of the state, -contributing to its prosperity and security, was entitled to a share in -its government. Slaves were outside the franchise, but all others -whether base-born or noble, rich or poor, clever or stupid, were -citizens--each with a vote and a voice in the direction of public -policy, internal and external. To this citizen-body belonged the power -of electing from among themselves officers, both civil magistrates and -military commanders, to whom administration was _temporarily_ entrusted, -and who were ultimately responsible for their actions to the -citizen-body. Under happy fortune this system was adopted as the -constitution of society in the leading Greek cities. Mark the mental and -moral qualities thereby engendered. In the first place men became -exhilaratingly conscious that they possessed individual freedom combined -with corporate strength. Each citizen felt himself to be of political -importance, an organic part of the state, entitled on the one hand to a -share in its glory and its privileges, and on the other responsible -himself for the general welfare. How can the epoch-making importance of -this fact adequately be emphasised? In primitive patriarchal society the -individual had been free but only within the narrow limits imposed by -the rigidity of custom and the bare simplicity of rudimentary life. And -civilised town-life of the Eastern type, as we have seen, was complex -and magnificent in many ways, but nevertheless had missed the secret of -advancing freedom. Intellectually it hated novelties. Politically it -made men either kings or the slaves of kings, giving them either too -great importance or none at all. Hence the larger the Eastern town, the -more powerful and extensive the State, the less was the mass of the -people personally concerned in their civil or military affairs. -“Freedom” in an Eastern city meant anarchy. The Greeks succeeded in -bringing freedom and civilisation into organic union. So far from -choking liberty, the connection of each Greek citizen with his city was -perceived to be the very cause of the freedom he enjoyed, the means by -which his privileges were multiplied and secured. Hence the greater the -organisation of society the greater the opportunities each citizen -acquired for the development of personal talent and inclination. It is -assuredly no exaggeration to describe such an achievement as -“epoch-making.” - -Along with political freedom went mental freedom. Interchange of opinion -took place easily and continually between all grades of the free -community. The general obligation to promote the social, commercial, and -military well-being of the state stimulated discussion and gave to -debate the piquancy and solemnity of serious issues. A Greek might be -poor, but he could hold up his head with the richest as a member of the -citizen army and the citizen electorate; and in the citizen assembly he -need not be a gray-beard to be reckoned wise. Mental ability became the -test of worth, and the benumbing tyranny of tradition was overthrown; at -least its unquestioned rule was at an end. Custom must henceforth submit -to criticism and seek to justify itself. Enterprise, enquiry, innovation -became the order of the day. It was the emancipation of the human -intelligence. - -Moreover, since the rough work of society was performed by the slave -population, Greek citizens found much leisure at their disposal. Herein -was obviously a danger, but also an opportunity; and fortunately the -genius of the people was not found wanting, so that, in the early days -the Greeks turned their leisure to good purpose, physical and -intellectual. Part of their leisure was devoted to physical exercises, -running, wrestling, boxing, throwing the _discus_, chariot-racing; and -in the healthful competition of these games in stadium and hippodrome -they found continual pleasure. But their ardour for mental exercise was -even keener. They began to think with restless energy and with brilliant -results; men of genius, poets, historians, philosophers, and artists, by -their matchless achievements raised the intellectual interests of their -contemporaries to an extraordinary extent. In general, the Greeks -acquired a wonderful feeling for proportion and natural rhythmic beauty. -“Nothing in excess” became their motto, but what was meant thereby was -no timid mediocrity, but an avoidance of extreme, wherever the extreme -was grotesque or foolish. Men sought an equipoise of perfection, and -felt infinite delight in the increasing measure of their success. Within -a few hundred years the Greeks had produced masterpieces of art and -literature which few nations have been able even to rival, none to -surpass. - -In short, three characteristics distinguished Greek or Hellenic -civilisation: First, _Emulation_. Men vied one with another, vied with -their own past efforts. They sought to excel and achieved excellence. -Second, _Intellectualism_. The critical faculties of the mind were -increasingly released from the trammels of tradition. Reason became the -touchstone of life in all its aspects; and thus, just as in our own age, -the immense destructive and constructive energies of the free -intelligence were ceaselessly set to work. Third, _Patriotism_. This -third quality calls for fuller comment, for it was the main source of -Greek morality. Greek religion contributed something to the growth of -moral principles, but less than one might imagine. Its ethical interest -for the most part was limited to inculcating the fear lest Divine -vengeance should follow _gross_ outrage of the normal decencies of life. -Doubtless also the artistic sense fostered love of the good, since, as a -rule, what is wicked appears to men to be ugly; yet the fruits from this -source also were not much to boast of. But from the intense patriotism -fostered by the City-States came great moral consequences. The interests -of the State claimed men’s allegiance, and the claim was nobly answered. -Not only great-hearted leaders but also masses of ordinary men were -willing to set the public weal above their individual prosperity or -security. In striving to be noble citizens men became noble men. -Thousands and thousands were conscious that they could not live unto -themselves--without shame. Altruism was a searching reality in their -lives, and its burdens were loyally, even gladly, accepted. Men were -very zealous for their city, longing for its honour and renown, ready to -toil for it, to face hardship and peril on its behalf, and for its -safety to die unflinchingly. And no less measure of sacrifice was all -too frequently required from the citizens of these ambitious and -war-like little States. Let their own words tell how they met the -supreme call: “Through these men’s valour, the smoke of the burning of -wide-floored Tegea went not up to heaven, who chose to leave the city -glad and free to their children, and themselves to die in the forefront -of the battle.”[41] Or, best of all, take Simonides’ epitaph on the -Athenians fallen at Plataea:-- - - “If to die nobly is the chief part of excellence, - To us of all men Fortune gave this lot; - For hastening to set a crown of freedom on all Hellas, - We lie possessed of praise that grows not old.” - -Surely no one can fail to hear in those words and in the spirit of this -Greek life the music of familiar things, things which we have taken to -our heart. That is because the thoughts of Hellas are the source from -which our own intellectual and social ideas have been derived. - -But Hellenic life was not sunshine without shadow. For all its power and -brilliance Greek society was exposed to many perils and was guilty of -serious mistakes. These, however, we have here no need to discuss in -full. It is enough to note that, when-and-where-soever the necessity for -ardent patriotism was absent or unfelt the Greek conception of life -lacked adequate moral incentive, and sinister conditions which were a -very black shadow in a fair world could and did arise. Much might also -be said regarding the jealousies of the petty cities, whence came -warfare constant, embittered, and suicidal. Nevertheless it remains -absolutely true, that compared with the stagnation of Eastern -civilisation, Hellenism was life and health. Judge from one token, the -epitaphs just quoted. Men could not write like that in Palestine or -Babylon, because they never died for such a cause. - -In the years between 359 and 338 B.C. the independent Greek cities were -all forced to admit the suzerainty, first of Philip II., king of -Macedon, and, after his assassination in 336, of his son Alexander, who -was to be remembered throughout history as Alexander the Great. The -humiliation was not in any way a crushing blow to the spirit of Greece. -To the yoke of Philip and Alexander the city-states could submit with a -good grace, for the Macedonians were of the same ancestry as the Greeks, -and for years had been to all intents and purposes a part of the Greek -world; and Alexander was wholly Hellenic in his upbringing and his -ideas. Had he not been educated by the great philosopher, Aristotle? In -334 B.C., the young king organised an army of Macedonians and Greeks and -set forth to make a grand assault upon the nations of the East: a -stupendous task, but the enterprise appealed to the Greeks as a poetic -requital of the awful peril one hundred and fifty years before when -Xerxes of Persia at the head of a horde of Orientals had crossed to -Greece and almost blotted out its rising life. If the task was colossal -and the force to achieve it tiny, the results staggered the imagination -of the world. The huge Persian Empire crumbled at the touch of Greek -military prowess, directed by the genius of Alexander. In three years -the young Macedonian had become absolute master of Western Asia Minor, -of Egypt, Syria, Babylonia, and Persia. In 326 B.C. he pushed his -conquests to the Punjab, and in 325 he died; but _Hellenism did not die -with him_. The East had seen many conquerors rise and sweep through its -lands in triumph, and had continued to dream its long dreams. But the -military achievements of Alexander were only the beginning of his work. -What stirred the East to its depths was the fascination of the ideas -that had accompanied him and that he deliberately sought to establish -among the conquered peoples; with what measure of success it now remains -to consider. - -3. A stormy period followed Alexander’s death. Eventually his Eastern -dominions were divided between two of his generals; Ptolemy, who took -possession of Egypt, and Seleucus, who became ruler of Syria and the -Mesopotamian territories. Happily it is not necessary to follow -the confused struggles that ensued between them and their -successors--struggles in which Palestine, situated between the rival -kingdoms, was continually involved. The point to be observed is that -both Ptolemy and Seleucus were Hellenes, as also were most of their -leading men, and both they and their successors prosecuted, with all -possible energy, Alexander’s policy, the Hellenising of the East. -Consider the forces directed to the attainment of that object. - -The powerful influences of the royal courts in Egypt and Syria saw to it -that throughout the length and breadth of their kingdoms places of -honour were reserved for Greeks and such Orientals as might show -themselves capable of appreciating and adopting Hellenic culture. To be -a Greek, if not by race, then by imitation, became the only avenue to -wealth or fame or royal favour. - -Alexander, however, had seen that if Hellenism was permanently to subdue -and recreate the East it must touch not only the interests of such as -are clothed in soft raiment and in kings’ courts live delicately, it -must be made a reality daily affecting the life of common folk; and with -the foresight of genius he himself pointed the way to secure that end. -Realising the organic connection between the Greek ideals and the Greek -city, he established at strategic points of his Empire new cities -planned on the Hellenic model. The Ptolemaic and Seleucid kings -persevered in this scheme. New cities of the Grecian type were founded -in their realms, and the old towns were conformed to the new order of -things so far as might be. In all important centres the essential -accompaniments of Hellenic life were introduced: new political -organisation for the election of magistrates, and buildings to meet the -system; a hall for the Senate, shady pillared galleries where the free -citizens might gather to lounge and talk, baths and gymnasia, a stadium -and a hippodrome for the games, and for the drama a theatre. With such -interests and amusements the imagination of the common folk was stirred -and pleased. The youth of the cities became enthusiastic for the -gaieties and glories of the competitive games. Guilds of athletes were -formed and received the privilege of wearing a special dress, “a -broad-brimmed hat, a fluttering cloak broached about the shoulders, and -high laced boots.”[42] In great public processions these young men -marched as a special class, wearing crowns of gold, and bearing witness -to the wealth and pride of their respective cities by the colours and -rich embroideries of their attire. But staider folk than the young and -fashionable were also caught in the wide-spread nets of Hellenism. The -wealth of the Greek cities and the royal favour shown them attracted -commerce, and sleepy Eastern merchants discovered that if they wished to -do business they must conform to the prevailing tastes; so that Greek -became the language of the market-place as well as of the Court. -Finally, the learning and skill of the East confessed its conqueror. -Greek art and Greek literature, Greek science and philosophy made the -older Eastern styles seem worthless in comparison. Within two centuries -following the death of Alexander the near East had been transformed. -Hellenism had cast its spell over the whole of life. - -The period is one of profound interest for the study of humanity. On the -one hand it did much to secure the perpetuation of the intellectual -methods of the Greeks, which might have perished had they not been -extended beyond the frontiers of the small Greek States in Europe; and -on the other hand it showed that the East can change. Human nature is -not, as some would have us believe, divided for ever into irreconcilable -sections. There are no unbridgeable gulfs between the Eastern and the -Western mind. If the modern Westernising movements in China or India -should fully succeed, they will but demonstrate anew what was proved -long ago in Asia Minor during the three critical centuries before -Christ. The challenge these facts present to those who suppose that -Christianity cannot become a universal faith is obvious. We must not -attempt to give a detailed picture of Hellenism. But even these outlines -are enough to show how thoroughly and dramatically the immemorial -fashions of the East had been upset and new ambitions kindled, so that -men must have felt as if they had been emancipated from the dead past -and told to make trial of a new form of life, one that was already -brilliant and delightful, but was most of all thrilling in its unknown -possibilities. The peoples that walked in darkness thought they had seen -a great light. - -One fact, however, and that of prime importance, has been left out of -count in this description of the situation. Hellenism in the East had a -fatal deficiency; it lacked the keen patriotism that inspired the life -of the old Greek cities. In Athens men had known that only by the -maintenance of their best ideals could Athens lead the intellect of -Greece, only by discipline and self-sacrifice could the foe be driven -from Athenian fields, could Athens rule the seas, could Athens be free -and Athens glorious. But citizens of some Hellenised city of Syria -experienced no such sentiments. Their politics were urban not imperial, -academic not matter of life and death. To be a captain in the armies of -Ptolemy or Seleucus might be a convenient way of gaining a livelihood -and might lead to fame, fortune and favour; but after all, to fight in -those ranks was to fight for kings’ glories, not for hearth and home. -The ambitions of the petty states of Greece had had certain evil -aspects; strifes, jealousies, envyings were ever present among them, -bleeding the higher interests of their common civilisation. Nevertheless -the need for passionate devotion to one’s city had been the root of -Hellenic virtue, and _that_ not even Alexander’s genius could transplant -to Asiatic soil. - -Moreover, even such faint assistance as Greek religion gave to morality -failed the Hellenism of the East. By Alexander’s time the early -conceptions of the gods had been riddled by criticism, and as yet -neither philosophy nor mysticism had discovered for morality a basis -intelligible and acceptable to ordinary men. The earnest spirits of the -day were aware of the danger ahead. They foresaw that, if society -continued on its present course unchecked, its moral bankruptcy must -bring disaster. For not all the Greeks were eating, drinking, and making -money: some were asking questions about life to which a _demoralised_ -Hellenism could give no satisfying answer. And the problem was more than -merely intellectual. The perils and pains of actual life made the enigma -a personal agony for many men, who saw that “they were being carried -onward into a future of unknown possibilities, and whatever might lie on -the other side of death, the possibilities on the hither side were -disquieting enough. Even in our firmly ordered and peaceful society, -hideous accidents may befall the individual, but in those days when the -world showed only despotic monarchies and warring city-states, one must -remember that slavery and torture were contingencies which no one could -be sure that the future did not contain for him.” In the old days it had -been possible to appeal for succour to deities not wholly inhuman in -their ways and thoughts. “If now that hope faded into an empty dream, -man found himself left naked to fortune. With the mass of passionate -desires and loves he carried in his heart, the unknown chances of the -future meant ever-present fear.”[43] The situation called for remedy. -Hellenism itself evolved the Stoic philosophy as a possible solution for -its urgent problems.[44] Our contention is that in their own sphere and -in their own fashion the Jewish proverbs, as used at this period by the -Wise in Jerusalem, were, like Stoicism, an answer to the moral -instability which contemporary Hellenism had spread abroad. - -But even if Hellenism could have entered Syria in its purest form, it -would have needed all its nobility to overcome the vices ingrained in -the East. When it came to the task with faith in the high gods shaken -and falling, with the spur of patriotism left behind in Greece, no -wonder that the ugly elements hitherto held in check in the city-states -fed themselves fat amid the ancient evils of the Oriental world. -Particularly in Syria did the baser tendencies of Hellenism run riot. -Life there did indeed become richer, richer in iniquity. If facts have -any meaning, then the history of Syria and Egypt in the Hellenic age -cries aloud in witness of the futility of a civilisation, however -brilliant, that lacks a basis of moral idealism: “Other foundation can -no man lay than that which is laid.” The fine culture of the Hellenised -lands was dependent on the wrongs and miseries of countless slaves; the -cities were filled with glittering, venal women; and the general -population sank deeper and deeper in corruption, gluttony, and license. -Even the games in Syria were made to pander to the base side of human -nature; and, although ideally the cult of athletics might be an -excellent thing, “in its actual embodiment it could show all degrees of -degradation.” Life in the Syrian towns became for the most part a -studied gratification of the grosser senses. Here is the accusation of -an eye-witness, a Syrian Greek named Poseidonius, who lived about 100 -B.C.: “The people of these cities are relieved by the fertility of their -soil from a laborious struggle for existence. Life is a continual series -of social festivities. Their gymnasiums they use as baths, where they -anoint themselves with costly oils and myrrhs. In the public banqueting -halls they practically live, filling themselves there for the better -part of the day with rich foods and wines; much that they cannot eat -they carry away home. They feast to the prevailing music of strings. The -cities are filled from end to end with the noise of harp-playing.” - -And yet it was a great and wonderful age. Although the nobler qualities -of the Greek cities could not be made to grow in the new soil, the -genius of the Greek intellectual attitude to life was rescued from the -bickerings and fatal factions of the little states and was successfully -communicated to the larger world, to become in time the priceless -heritage of Western civilisation. Rightly conceiving that the spiritual -aspect of human life is the supreme thing, we are accustomed to divide -history into the period before and the period after the birth of Christ; -but were attention to be confined solely to the mental development of -mankind, the dividing line would be found in the coming of the Hellenic -methods of thought. - -The bearing of these facts upon our subject is not far to seek. In face -of the subtle influences that were transforming their environment how -fared it with the Palestinian Jews? Jerusalem was sheltered by its -outlying position from the full tide of Hellenism. Had it not been so, -its special characteristics could scarcely have been preserved; it would -have become as one of the cities of the coast. But if Jerusalem was not -swept away by the flood, that does not imply that the rain of new ideas -was not falling in its streets and markets. From 300 to 200 B.C. -Palestine was controlled by the Ptolemaic Kings of Egypt, from 198 B.C. -by the Syrian Seleucids. This change of authority imposed no check upon -the progress and vigour of the Hellenistic movement. Greek cities sprang -up throughout the land, and older towns were eager to adapt themselves -to the new models. Shortly after the death of Alexander, Samaria and -Ptolemais (Acco) had already become centres of Greek influence, and -there was a group of Greek cities beyond Jordan. Imagine too how quickly -and how effectively the ideas of the Jews in Jerusalem would be affected -by intercourse with the flourishing colonies of their brethren now -thoroughly at home in the great centres of Greek dominion in Egypt, -Syria and Babylon. It is not surprising therefore to find a Greek writer -about 250 B.C. observing that “many of the traditional ordinances of the -Jews are losing their hold.” And if any reader wishes further -confirmation, he need only turn to the works of _Josephus_, and note the -relish with which that writer tells the story of Joseph the son of -Tobiah, nephew of the High-Priest, who by his insolent wit won favour at -the Egyptian Court, and battened for a while on the extortionate taxes -he wrung from the towns of southern Syria: a repulsive character but -quite evidently a popular hero in the estimation of many of his Jewish -contemporaries. Picture the coming and going of Greek traders in the -bazaars of Jerusalem, and the journeying of Jewish merchants to and from -the markets of the Hellenic cities. Consider what it meant that the -immense mercantile centre of Alexandria, with its tempting opportunities -to the acute and enterprising Jew, lay only a few days’ journey to the -south. In short, Hellenism was swiftly becoming the very atmosphere men -breathed. Certainly its manifold allurements were only too visibly and -temptingly displayed before the eyes of the young and ambitious in -Jerusalem. And yet Hellenism had met its match in the strange city of -Zion. Greek met Jew, and in the struggle the Wise-men of Israel played -no insignificant part. For they marshalled and moulded their proverbs -till they represented the Wisdom of Israel set over against the -worldly-wisdom[45] of Greece. They counselled a way of life which was -_not_ the seductive Greek way. They sturdily opposed another doctrine to -the fashionable immorality of Hellenism with its overwhelming prestige -and ostensible success. For several generations the attack of the new -civilisation came by way of peaceful penetration, which was perhaps -harder to resist than open enmity, since nobody could deny the good in -Hellenism, its beauty, and its cleverness, if only it had been pure in -heart. Later, as we shall see, the campaign was to be conducted with all -the devices of reckless and inhuman violence. Hebraism against -Hellenism! All Egypt, Syria, and Persia had made scarcely an effort to -resist the spell of the new learning and the new ways. At first sight -then how unequal the contest! A stiff moralism preaching against the -pleasures of sin to hot-blooded, able, and ambitious men. A clique of -obscurantists arrayed not against a kingdom or an empire but against a -magnificent, world-conquering civilisation. The Jews maintain their -ground? Impossible! No, not wholly so; for this battle, like another -which touches us more closely, was ultimately spiritual; and because the -Jews held a conception of the nature and destiny of man deeper, truer, -than even the Greeks had found, Hebraism in the end proved stronger than -Hellenism with all its genius and all its works. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -A Sower went forth to Sow - - -Let us imagine two of the Wise-men meeting in the streets of Jerusalem -and conversing. That is easier proposed than effected: bold words, to be -followed by small performances. For the outlines of ancient Jerusalem -are none too clear, and again in what tongue shall our Wise-men -converse? In ancient Hebrew or in modern English? Modern English from -their lips will seem incongruous, and Hebrew is not so widely known as -it deserves. Before we can make so much as a beginning we are compelled -to compromise: let them talk in Hebraic English. But the difficulties -need not discourage us overmuch, for in this case even a half-done task -will be worth the doing, and there are some circumstances in our favour. -The topography of old Jerusalem may be uncertain, but our knowledge of -the influences, events and tendencies of the period in question is -considerable. Therefore although the conversation between the Wise-men -must be imaginary, it need not be fancy-free. We can make them say such -things as can be inferred from the historical situation, and the talk -can be so directed as to help our immediate purpose, discovering what -were the dominant fears and ambitions of the Wise. Moreover, however -imperfectly this aim be realised, the picture can hardly fail to help us -across the gulf which divides the abstract or general conception from -the concrete or particular embodiment, a matter of vital importance for -the comprehension of these Jewish proverbs. It is not sufficient to -imagine the Wise as a class. Doubtless most Wise-men conformed to a -type, and they were a class in the community in that they shared a -general attitude towards life; but this bond of union was loose enough -to leave room for great variety of interest, beliefs, and moral -qualities. And just this diversity within the unity is the point on -which stress should be laid; for it explains the individualism of the -Jewish proverbs, and is the secret of their broad humanity. - -It is the month of June in the year 203 B.C. Ptolemy Philopator, the -ruler of Egypt, has died the previous year, and is succeeded on the -throne by Ptolemy Epiphanes, a child of four years old. The situation -points to the renewal of warfare between the great Empires. Embarrassed -by the weakness of its young king, Egypt is in obvious danger from the -restless ambition both of Philip of Macedonia and of Antiochus III of -Syria. But although the East is uneasy, the storm has not yet broken. -Palestine is still controlled by the Egyptians, and a garrison of -Ptolemy’s soldiers lives at ease in the citadel of Jerusalem. Zion is at -peace; her harvests of barley and wheat have been gathered in; the -first-ripe figs have fallen and already are on sale in the markets, and -there is prospect of a plentiful later crop. Imagine that we are -watching the city, as the day is about to break. The last hour of the -night is ending. Low down in the Eastern sky a faint tinge of blue -appears, with shades of purple and pink above it, fading upwards into -the dark of the night sky overhead. Soon the horizon flushes into red, -changing swiftly to deep yellow as the first rays of the sun rise over -the hills.[46] - -The guard of the Levites on duty at the Temple stands watching for the -dawn, and as soon as the sunlight touches Hebron, just visible to the -south, they raise a shout, heralding the day and summoning the people to -hasten to the celebration of the morning sacrifice.[47] From the -citadel the trumpets of the soldiers take up the sound and call the -garrison from sleep. Soon the whole city is astir. Day has begun, and -its hours are precious before the sun grows hot beyond endurance. The -gates open, and first the cattle-dealers and money-changers begin to -pass along the narrow lanes, hurrying ahead of the people to the -Temple-court. Shopmen appear and busy themselves preparing their booths -in the bazaars. From his house in one of the narrow streets a dignified -man of rather more than middle age, Judah ben Zechariah, comes out and, -turning in the direction of the Temple mingles, with the stream of -worshippers who purpose to be present at the offering of the sacrifice. -Let us keep him in sight. When the ceremony at the temple is ended, he -makes his way without haste through the tangle of streets towards the -Northern wall and the Fish gate. There in the open space near the gate, -just inside the city, he stops, and stands watching the passers by. A -company of Tyrians, pagans all of them, files in through the gate, -bringing fish for Jerusalem from the Phoenician markets. They are -followed by a long caravan of forty or fifty mules laden with wheat from -the north, and their drivers, like the Tyrians, are also pagan. Judah is -Hebrew of the Hebrews, and the sight does not please him. After a while -as he stands there a friend approaches and gives him greeting--Joseph -ben Abijah, one who, like Judah, had reputation as a Wise-man. “Peace be -to thee, Judah.” “And may Jehovah bless thee, my brother,” answered -Judah, “and may He increase thee to a multitude; for truly there be few -this day in Israel such as thou, who keepest faith before God and before -men. Behold now this long time stand I here, Joseph, to see them that -pass by, and I swear unto thee that for one man of Israel there be nine -from the ends of the earth, worshippers of strange gods. Men call this -city Zion; but where are Zion’s children? From end to end the streets -are full of these Gentiles. Moreover, look yonder!” (a company of the -garrison came swinging down to change guard at the Gate)--“these -soldiers of Ptolemy! Mark well their heathen insolence, their pride and -their contempt for us. Are we not the bondservants of Egypt, even as our -fathers were? I tell thee, Joseph, it is not well with Israel.” - -“Nay! thou art over-anxious, Judah. The land is at peace. The harvests -are good, trade prospers and extends; we and our wives and our children -dwell in safety. None hinders us in our worship. Why then take so sore -to heart these Gentiles? _They_ are the slaves, who in their folly -worship dumb and senseless images. Is not Israel free in her God? -Moreover--a word in thine ear--how thinkest thou, Judah? Will Ptolemy -much longer lord it over us in Zion? Or are his times come near to an -end?” - -“Hush! see that none hear thee. I also think his day is at an end. But -for what then shall we look? For the dreams of the prophets? For the Day -of the Lord? Ah, would that the Lord might rend the heavens and come -down, but I, for one, do not look for these things to come to pass at -this time, Joseph. And except the Lord deliver us wherein shall we hope? -Nay, Zion, is still far from salvation. We shall change the bondage of -Egypt for the yoke of Syria, and her little finger will be thicker than -the loins of Egypt. Antiochus is ten times more Greek than Ptolemy. -Verily, the whole world becometh Greek. Traders and talkers, how they -throng in our streets and multiply in our midst! And whether they be -rich and noble or poor and the servant of servants, behold how they -despise us and make mock of us, the people of the one true God! And how -with their vainglory and their wicked wisdom--for, as the Lord liveth, -’tis not the wisdom of God--they do bewitch fools and entice them away. -Thou sayest, ‘Israel is free in its God’; but I say ‘How long shall God -find faith in Israel?’ If then Ptolemy be cast down and Antiochus be -lifted up over us, wherein is our advantage? How wilt thou save this -people from following wholly after the thoughts and customs of the -Greeks? Again, thou speakest of peace and good harvests, but how long -shall peace and prosperity be permitted us? If that whereof we speak -should come to pass, it shall not be without war and desolation. Who -knows but that Jerusalem shall soon be a besieged and captured city? As -for the Day of the Lord, the prophet hath said ‘The Lord will hasten it -in His time’ and his word is good; but alas! I fear that ours is better: -_Hope deferred maketh the heart sick_.” - -Said his friend, “I also--thou knowest it, Judah--am not of the -dreamers, and know well that they who in our days see visions are -prophets in name and not in truth. And the true prophets did not live -for ever. Nevertheless their word liveth; and have not we that are Wise -learnt from them that fear of Jehovah which is to turn from evil and do -good, so that in measure their mantle is fallen upon us and we are -become their successors, and according to their commandments so we -teach? Yea, I say that their word _hath_ overtaken this people, not for -evil but for good; since of all the Jews who is there that doth not from -the heart know that the Lord our God is one God, and that the gods of -the heathen are nought and their images wood and stone? Wherefore, -Judah, I fear not the Greeks so much as thou. For if a Jew from among us -go forth unto them and learn their skill and follow their fashions, yet -he will not reverence their gods. Moreover, remember, Judah, those that -fight for us in the strife. If God hath not raised up a prophet in -Israel these many years, are not the Priests and Levites become a strong -tower of defence? In all their interpretation of the Law of Moses, they -do well: for they seek to establish justice and mercy between a man and -his brethren, and to confirm the fear of Jehovah’s Name. It is written, -_The Law of the Lord is perfect, making clean the heart_; and these men -love its statutes wholly. Thou dost not think that _they_ will become -Greeks?” - -“Not all of them, Joseph; yet of the great priests many are evil. They -live for place and power, not for the pure service of their God, and if -the day come when it shall profit them these would surpass the Greeks in -the fashions of the Greeks. But concerning the Levites and the Scribes -thou sayest right; for they truly have set their hearts upon their work: -albeit zeal for the Law will not save Israel. If only the ritual be -observed and the services in the Temple maintained, if the feasts be -duly kept, they deem all things are well. They would have all men more -Levite than themselves. But what answer is that to the young who crave -for fortune, favour, and fulness of pleasures like the unbridled -heathen? Some it may satisfy, but thou knowest that more turn empty -away; and all of them understand that the Greeks will feed their desires -full. Come now: tell me, I pray thee: this very year how many are gone -hence to seek fortune in the markets of Ptolemais? How many to the court -of Antiochus, aye! from the noblest of our families? How many to be made -captains in his armies and in Ptolemy’s? Perchance it is well for thee, -Joseph, whose son is a scribe well spoken of and one day will be counted -a Wise-man and a fearer of God even as thou, his father, art: but my -son, my son, is in Alexandria, though I besought him with tears that he -would not go.” - -“Judah, I verily knew that it was for this cause thine heart was sad. -Nevertheless I would comfort thee, my friend. Hear now my words. They -are not all lost to Zion that are gone forth from Zion’s gates. Thou -knowest there is no evil in thy son. Take heart. Are not the families of -our people there in Egypt many and prosperous? Thy son will be a loyal -Jew in Egypt, not forsaking his father’s faith. I am persuaded he will -send his tribute to the Temple when the time comes round. Aye! and thine -eye shall see him again ere long returning to keep the feast at -Jerusalem and to make glad thine heart. My brother, hear thou the -thought which the Lord hath given me concerning this thing. It is -written that all flesh shall come to worship before the Lord in His holy -hill; but how shall this thing come to pass? They chant in the Temple of -His outstretched arm and His mighty acts. What if the stretching out of -His arm is in the going forth of these His children unto the ends of the -earth; seest thou not how that already praise is offered to His Name in -many lands, and His glory is exalted among the heathen? In the Temple -they sigh for the day when all peoples shall come crouching to Zion; but -what if thy son, and others even as he, have gone to prepare the way of -the Lord and to make straight His paths, and in Alexandria, Babylon, and -Antioch are beginning the victory of our God, a victory which shall be -(as saith Zechariah) ‘_not by might, nor by power, but by my Spirit,’ -saith the Lord_? So shall thy son’s going be turned to God’s glory, and -perchance it hath happened in accordance with His will. Saith not Isaiah -that _His ways are not our ways, nor His thoughts as our thoughts_? And -when thou sayest of the priests and scribes that all their care is for -the Law and the Temple, and that they know not how to speak unto the -heart of these young men, in truth thy reproach is just. But herein is -our work. _We_ have the answer for this need in Israel. Have we not -counsel for success in life _with_ allegiance to our God; so that our -words are from the Lord, though we praise not the Law daily neither make -mention of the prophet’s hopes? If then we be found faithful and our -task well done, none in Israel shall reckon that Wisdom is of the Greeks -only, but rather that their Wisdom is found folly in the latter end. -Honour, long life, and riches are in our words and they that hearken -unto us shall find them and yet shall not depart from justice nor hate -mercy. He that heareth our words and learneth our Wisdom shall even -dwell with the Greeks and be wiser than they, being delivered from the -snares of their iniquities and the vanity of their faiths. So shall it -be with thy son, my brother. He will not forget thy instruction. And -like him there shall be many who, though they go forth from Jerusalem, -will yet give diligent heed unto our precepts, and with them shall go -Wisdom to be a guide unto their feet that they shall not stumble. Yea, -even of those that in Zion seem to heed us not, some perchance shall -remember in a distant land, and so be saved from falling. But, come, -thou knowest this even as I, though sorrow for a moment had hidden it -from thine eyes. With the blessing of God we do not labour in vain.” - -“Friend, thou comfortest well; and in my soul I know that these thy -words are true, and that our work is of God, and that our children’s -children shall see the reward of all our labours. But as for this -generation many there be that scorn and few that hear.” - -“Be our zeal the greater then!” responded Joseph, “What saith the -prophet?--_Precept on precept, line upon line_; and for us therefore -‘Proverb on proverb,’” - -The older man smiled at him gently, pleased by the words and spirit of -his friend: “Thou art a true friend and wise counsellor, ben Abijah. And -now let us leave this place, and, if it seem good to thee, let us pass -through the streets and take note of them that buy and sell; for the -heat is not yet upon us and the markets are full this day. Comest thou -with me?” - -“I come gladly. Thou shalt see--we shall find one here, one there, that -hath need of our wisdom; and perhaps to-day we shall even catch the ear -of the multitude, and many will give heed both to hear and to receive -our teaching.” - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -Men and Manners - - -Students of the Old Testament do not require to be told that the -universalism of the _Book of Proverbs_ is a remarkable fact. But even -those whose knowledge of Jewish history is not exact, and who have not -made a comparative study of the post-exilic writings, need have no -difficulty in perceiving how strange it is, if they will give the -briefest consideration to the following points. Just how free are these -sayings from indications of the national aspirations or religious -peculiarities of the Jews? Never once in the whole _Book of Proverbs_ is -mention made of Israel or of any synonym for Israel! Not a word is said -of the nation’s past history or present fears and hopes; the word -“prophet” never once occurs, although the influence of prophetic -teaching is frequently manifest; Priests, Levites, Temple and even -Jerusalem are absolutely ignored; “sacrifice” is mentioned four times in -disparagement; _To do justice and judgement is more acceptable to the -Lord than sacrifice_ (Pr. 21^{3}; cp. 15^{8}; 17{1{(mg)}}; 21^{27}): and -“offerings” once incidentally: _I have peaceofferings with me_ (Pr. -7^{14}). Even the divinely appointed Law is passed silently by; it is -neither commended nor condemned. True, the word “law” is often found in -_Proverbs_, but the law which men are there bidden to observe is not the -precepts, ritual or moral, of the great Pentateuch, not the Law of -Moses, but the doctrine laid down by the Sage and his _confrêres_! Ben -Sirach differs from the Sages represented in _Proverbs_ to this extent -that once or twice he identifies the Law of Moses with the Divine -Wisdom, and asserts that Wisdom has chosen Zion for her -resting-place.[48] Otherwise his book has precisely the same broadly -humanistic and super-national character. - -Clearly one need not be an expert in Jewish history to see that all this -is startling; but it seems little less than astounding as soon as it is -brought into comparison with the passionate patriotism and religious -exclusiveness that characterise other books of the Old Testament, not -only those that set forth the Law, but also such prophecies as _Isaiah_ -40-66, or again the _Psalms_. For example, contrast the ecclesiastical -version of Israel’s history given in the Books of _Chronicles_, _Ezra_, -_Nehemiah_, which in its present form is the work of a Levite of -Jerusalem writing about 350-250 B.C., _i.e._, at the very period of this -Wisdom preaching. A glance will show that the narrative of the -Chronicler is consistently intended to set forth the praises and virtues -of the holy city, Jerusalem, and its inhabitants, the true “Israel.” -From first to last his work burns with national devotion, and the events -of history are by him so related as to make prominent the honours due to -the divine Law of Moses, wherein he sees the nation’s eternal hope and -sure defence. Greater contrast there could scarcely be. The seeming -indifference of _Proverbs_ and Ben Sirach would be explained if the -Sages had been irreligious or mere worldly-wise men, contemptuous of -altruistic, national sentiment. But their doctrine is in no way -anti-national: there is absolutely no whisper of polemic against Judaism -or even depreciation of its special tenets. Neither were they -irreligious; that is quite certain. Although on the surface there is no -warm glow of religious zeal, again and again “the fear of Jehovah,” said -they, “is the foundation of Wisdom.” The Sages, at least the majority -of them, were respectable, earnest, and God-fearing Jews. It seems to -the present writer psychologically incredible to suppose that such -persons in Jerusalem of 300-200 B.C. were, in their heart of hearts, -unmoved by the extraordinary distinctive sentiments of their race. Why -then the apparent apathy shown in their proverbs? - -It is true that a taste for aphoristic ethical teaching was manifesting -itself at this period in various countries besides Judæa, and that such -moralistic teaching always tends to be cosmopolitan, but we find therein -no adequate explanation of the astonishing facts just mentioned. It is -more to the point to follow up a hint suggested by the conversation of -the two Wise-men depicted in the preceding chapter. Hellenism seemed to -be in the ascendant, as no observant person in Jerusalem of the third -century could fail to perceive; equally, no sober-minded pietist of the -old school could be blind to its demoralising tendencies, and no patriot -fail to dread its disintegrating effect on Judaism. How to encounter the -insidious and attractive force that threatened the overthrow not only of -Jewish nationality but of Jewish virtue: that was the problem for every -loyal Jew. The Priests and Levites of the Law of Moses were fighting the -foe in one way. The Wise had chanced on another weapon for the fray. In -the old, common-sense maxims of their fathers, which being rooted in -Israel’s religious faith and enriched by the ethical idealism of the -great prophets presented a general moral standard, or at least a moral -ardour, clearly superior to the normal tone of the neighbouring Hellenic -cities, the Wise perceived they had an instrument for countering the -peril on its more mundane side. Their duty was to teach men that in -order to get on in life it was not necessary, even in the clamorous -confident Hellenic atmosphere, to fling morality overboard and laugh at -the fear of Jehovah. To suppose that all, or even the majority, of the -Wise-men consciously formulated this point of view is of course not -essential: many of them may have been actuated by an instinctive rather -than a reasoned antagonism to the spirit of the age. The point is that, -viewing the teaching of wisdom on the one part and the circumstances of -the period on the other, this is the _rôle_ the Wise in actual fact -fulfilled. Now it is evident that the nature of the work presented to -them was such as to make the advocacy of nationalism or even of the duty -of conformity to the Law somewhat irrelevant for them. It was for others -to enjoin these things. The Wise kept to their own path. Broad-minded -yet loyal Jews, they were engaged on a task that happened to be -naturally independent of the ritual injunctions of the Law and of any -immediate political concerns.[49] It was their business to urge -morality, and to be very practical in so doing; to tell men how to get -on and not be blackguards; to persuade men that the wages of sin is not -victory but death--a noble task, however matter-of-fact the means they -used for its achievement. - -We believe, then, that the universalism of these proverbs is to be -explained chiefly as the mark of the Wise-men’s ability to keep to the -point, not as evidence either of lack of patriotism or of indifference -to the national faith. They were speaking to the heart on the common -things of daily life that men of all races necessarily share with one -another. Consequently--perhaps without their knowing or intending -it--what they said transcended time and country. It was none the less -work for their people. As we hope to show later, there is good reason to -believe that the plain, common-sense morality of the Wise preserved for -Judaism the respect and affection of many ordinary men, whom the -Levites, with all their enthusiasm for the specific forms of the -national worship, would have lost. Religion has no right to despise or -overlook even the least of its advocates. There was One who said, “He -that is not against us is on our part.” - -Reviewing the argument of these pages and the suggestions of the last -chapter, we conclude that, whilst the ranks of the Wise were wide enough -to include men of diverse character and outlook, they must be credited -with having had a definite standpoint and a method of their own well -suited to the circumstances of their times. - -Let us now turn our attention from the Wise themselves to the men they -observed. Let us walk with Judah and Joseph through the busy streets, -and take our stand with them in the open spaces by the city-gates, and -overhear their comments on the scenes of human intercourse which met -their eyes. Let us, as it were, join some group that has gathered round -to enjoy their talk, to applaud their maxims and their morals, to laugh -as the characteristics of this man or of that are hit off in some shrewd -epigram, and perhaps--if need be--to take to heart the lesson. - - * * * * * - -In the popular talk there were doubtless many sayings concerning the -habits of the various craftsmen and traders--the potter, the -sandal-maker, and so forth--but (perhaps because the purpose of the Wise -was so broadly humanistic in its outlook) such specialistic sayings are -rare in the literature the Sages have left us. A few, however, do occur -in which men are pictured from the standpoint of their external -relationships, and with these we may conveniently begin. - -First, then, an observation so faithful to human nature that it has -never lost its spice and is appropriate in all countries, although it -must always have had peculiar pungency in the deceitful, haggling, -Eastern marts. Behold the bargain-hunter drawn to the life: - - _“It is nought, it is nought,” saith the buyer; - But when he is gone on his way then he boasteth_ (Pr. 20^{14}). - -Not a man in old Jerusalem but must have felt the dry humour and the -accusing truth. But here is the other side of the transaction: - - _A merchant shall hardly keep himself from doing wrong, - And a huckster shall not be acquitted of sin. - Many have transgressed for the sake of gain, - And the fortune-hunter requires a blind eye. - As a nail will stick fast between the joinings of stones, - So will sin thrust in between buying and selling_ (E. 26^{29}-27^{2}). - -Six of one and half a dozen of the other, but perhaps neither buyer nor -seller were such rogues as they are painted! Let us allow a discount for -the epigram. - -Of the man in debt, a problem for society in all periods, the Sages said -plainly but sufficiently: - - _The rich man lords it over the poor, - And the borrower is the lender’s slave_ (Pr. 22^{7}). - -Ben Sirach, however, was much more graphic; says he, - - _Many have treated a loan as a windfall, - And have been a plague to those that helped them. - Till the loan is lent, he will kiss a man’s hand, - And for his neighbour’s money will speak right humbly; - But when payment falls due, he prolongs the days, - And girds and grumbles and says, “Hard times”_ (E. 29^{4, 5}). - -Support for Ben Sirach’s description might still be obtained. - -The rendering of assistance to unfortunate members of the community has -always been a prominent and admirable feature of Jewish society, and -quotations to be given later on will bear witness to the esteem in -which the Sages held the practice of charity. But the alms-giving was -not wide enough, or else not deep enough or (it may be) not wise -enough--as our own is not yet--to succour the lowest _stratum_ of -society. Remember Lazarus at the rich man’s gate: apparently there were -such as he in Ben Sirach’s time, whether brought low by misfortune or by -fault: - - _My son, lead not a beggar’s life; - It is better to die than to beg. - A man that looketh unto the table of another, - His life is not to be counted life_ (E. 40^{28-29}). - -In E. 38, Ben Sirach discusses an ancient and unsettled -controversy--subject, the doctor. As he devotes half a chapter to the -matter, we may reasonably assign it a paragraph. - -It would seem that in those days the medical profession was under a -slight cloud. Some people (and for these we have no mercy: they were -doubtless prescribing for others, not for themselves) were of opinion -that all sorts of healing were an invention of iniquity and an attempt -to thwart God’s will. Ben Sirach enters a healthy-minded protest against -these fanatical obscurantists, insisting on the healing properties of -plants: _Was not water made sweet with wood to acquaint every man of -God’s power?_ (E. 38^{5}); an allusion to _Exod._ 15^{25}. More damaging -is the unspoken but obvious implication of the sober-minded Chronicler -when he records concerning King Asa that _in the thirty and ninth year -of his reign Asa was diseased in his feet; his disease was exceeding -great; yet in his disease he sought not to the Lord, but to the -physicians. And Asa ... died in the one and fortieth year of his reign_ -(_2 Chron._ 16^{12}). But to this the physician may make a weighty -answer. Until later times than Asa’s it seems possible that orthodox -medical practice was in the hands of the priestly classes, and therefore -it may be suspected that Asa is censured for having committed the -unpardonable wickedness of daring to call in one of the non-priestly -practitioners, dealers in herbs and incantations, outsiders, quacks, -charlatans, impostors all of them. But unfortunately, whatever the -rights and wrongs of Asa’s case, it must be admitted that the profession -did not wholly succeed in quelling the doubts about its merits. -_Physician, heal thyself_--so ran the proverb in our Lord’s time (_Luke_ -4^{23}), and is it not written of a certain poor woman that _she had -suffered many things of many physicians, and had spent all that she had, -and was nothing better, but rather worse_ (_Mark_ 5^{26})? Moreover, -reluctantly, we have to notice that the _Mishna_, still later, gives -utterance to the disconcerting opinion that _the best of physicians is -deserving of Gehenna_ (_Kidd_, 4^{14}). Well, well, it is a vexed -question. With relief let us turn, in conclusion, to Ben Sirach’s -altogether cheerier view. _The Lord_, says he, _created medicines out of -the earth, and a prudent man will not despise them. Wherefore, honour a -physician as thou needest him with the honours due; for verily the Lord -hath created him. For from the Most High cometh his healing, and from -the king he shall receive a gift.... My son, in thy sickness be not -negligent, but pray unto the Lord, and He shall heal thee. Put away -wrong-doing, and order thine hands aright, and cleanse thine heart from -all manner of sin. Offer a sweet offering and a memorial, set in order a -fat offering as best thou art able. Then give place to the physician, -and let him not go from thee, for thou hast need of him. There is a time -when in their hands is the issue for good: they also shall beseech the -Lord that He may prosper them to find out what is wrong and to save the -life_ (E. 38^{1-15})--then, as the conclusion of the passage, in the -Greek text come these words which read like a very doubtful compliment, - - _He that sinneth before his Maker-- - Let him fall into the hands of the physician_. - -But Ben Sirach must be acquitted of malice, for the Greek text turns out -to be a mistranslation of the original Hebrew which fortunately has here -been recovered; and all ends happily thus: - - _He that sinneth before his Maker - Will behave himself proudly before a physician_. - -Good doctrine! Sound therapeutics and sound theology are allies, not -enemies. - -Reference to the special trades may be few, but some of those few are -memorable. Thus the only allusion in _Proverbs_ to the unskilled -labourer is one of the poignant sayings of the Book: - - _The labourer’s appetite laboureth for him, - For his mouth constrains him to toil_ (Pr. 16^{26}): - -Hunger! that unwearying goad of men, so beneficial to the race, so -pitilessly cruel to the individual. - -Ben Sirach gives us a glimpse of many men in some graphic verses--the -ploughman, the cattle-driver, the engraver, the smith, the potter: - - _The wisdom of the scribe cometh by opportunity of leisure, - And he that hath little business shall become wise. - How shall he become wise that holdeth the plough, - That glorieth in the shaft of the goad, - That driveth oxen, and is busied in their labours, - And whose discourse is of the stock of bulls? - He will set his heart upon the turning of furrows, - And his wakefulness is to give his heifers their fodder. - So is every artificer and workmaster - That passeth his time by night as by day, - Cutting gravings of signets, - And his diligence is to make great variety: - He will set his heart to preserve likeness in his portraiture, - And will be wakeful to finish his work. - So is the smith sitting by the anvil - And considering the unwrought iron; - The vapour of the fire will waste his flesh, - And with the heat of the furnace will he contend; - The noise of the hammer will be ever in his ear - And his eyes upon the pattern of the vessel: - He will set his heart upon perfecting his works, - And he will be wakeful to adorn them perfectly. - So is the potter sitting at his work, - And turning the wheel about with his feet; - Who is alway anxiously set at his work, - And all his handicraft is by number; - He will fashion the clay with his arm, - And bend its strength in front of his feet; - He will apply his heart to finish the glazing, - And he will be wakeful to make clean the furnace._ - - _All these put their trust in their hands, - And each becometh wise in his own work. - Without these shall not a city be inhabited - And wherever they sojourn they will not hunger. - They shall not be sought for in the council of the people, - And in the assembly they shall not mount up on high; - They shall not sit on the seat of the judge, - Nor understand the covenant of judgement, - Neither shall they declare instruction and judgement, - And among them that speak proverbs they shall not be found. - But they will maintain the fabric of the world, - And in the handiwork of their craft is their prayer_ (E. 38^{24-34}). - -The passage is so interesting an illustration of the attitude of the -educated Jews towards manual labour that a digression is irresistible. -Among the Greeks all humbler forms of labour were heartily despised. In -ancient society so much of the rough work was performed by slaves that -the fortunate classes could and, as a rule, did find occupation in -military, political, commercial, and literary or artistic affairs. Even -the farmer was reckoned of small account, because, despite the honest -worth of his occupation, his busy life and practical interests denied -him the intellectual leisure of the town population. The Romans had -certain incidents in their historical traditions that gave to -agriculture a measure of honour, at least in theory. Otherwise their -standpoint was much the same as that of the Greeks. But the Jews -maintained a more generous and a very sensible attitude, as is -exemplified by this quotation from Ben Sirach. They recognised the -limitations imposed by hard toil, but at the same time they saw that it -had an essential part to play in the economy of the whole, and therefore -they freely acknowledged its merits: - - _Hate not laborious work, - For toil hath been appointed of God_ (E. 7^{15}). - -Nevertheless Ben Sirach is well pleased that God had not made him a -farmer or a smith. It is evident that he did not deem the art of the -craftsman compatible with learning; and, since he loved his scribe’s -life, his satisfaction at having full leisure to prosecute the search -for Wisdom is very human and pardonable. All the same, some may feel -there is a touch of intellectual snobbery in his tone. If so, his -successors, the Rabbis of later Judaism, did not follow him in the -fault. They took the view that the degrading tendencies of certain -occupations must be frankly recognised, but that there were many trades -requiring manual toil which ought to be highly esteemed.[50] In that -most interesting work of the first and second century A.D., _The -Sayings of the_ [Jewish] _Fathers_, we read that Shemaiah said, _Love -work_. Rabbi Meir, however, said cautiously, _Have little business, and -be busy in the Law_. It is said in the Talmud (_Kidd_, 99a) that -_Whosoever doth not teach his son work, teacheth him to rob_. These -remarks scarcely carry the question beyond Ben Sirach’s view. But many -of the Rabbis went much further and urged that religious and -intellectual studies were not profitably undertaken unless accompanied -by some acquaintance with manual labour. Thus, said Rabbi Gamaliel -(about 90 A.D.), _An excellent thing is study of the Law combined with -some worldly trade ... but all study of the Law apart from manual toil -must fail at last and be the cause of sin_. Another, and a powerful, -saying is this: _Flay a carcase in the street and earn a living, and say -not, “I am a famous man, and the work is beneath my dignity.”_ St. Paul -will doubtless occur to many as an instance of a great scholar who was -proud to know and to exercise the trade of tent-making. Recall how -earnestly he protested to the Christians of Corinth his independence of -their monetary help (cp. _Acts_ 18^{1-3}; _1 Cor._ 4^{12}, _2 Cor._ -11^{9}). This admirable association of labour and learning persisted -among the Jews, and their history contains many examples of splendid men -who combined the virtues of great scholarship with the pursuit of some -humble means of livelihood. Some of the best-known Rabbis of the Middle -Ages supported themselves by labouring as carpenters, shoemakers, -builders, bakers, and so forth. - -Of the numerous sayings concerning wealth and poverty we may mention -some that bring before us the concrete picture of men rich and poor. -Here is one that is eloquent of the bitterness of the contrast: - - _The rich man’s wealth is his strong city; - The poor man’s poverty is his undoing_ (Pr. 10^{15}). - -Even to-day, in a land where Justice is designed to be even-handed, but -must needs be approached through the lawyer, who imagines that the rich -and the poor stand on level terms? Even among the well-to-do the -majority of men would think twice before engaging in legal warfare with -a millionaire or a railway company. - -Of the friendlessness of the poor there are these pathetic proverbs: - - _Wealth addeth many friends, - But the poor is separated even from the friend he hath_ (Pr. 19^{4}). - - _The poor is hated even of his own neighbour, - But the rich hath many friends_ (Pr. 14^{20}).[51] - -And this from Ben Sirach: - - _My son, deprive not the poor of his living, - And make not the needy eyes to wait long_ (E. 4^{1}). - -Do not those eyes stare hungrily from the proverb, and seem to gaze -after us as we hurry on? - -A sterner note is heard in this almost ironical observation: - - _A rich man toileth in gathering money, and when he resteth - he is filled with his good things: - A poor man toileth in lack of substance, and when he - resteth he cometh to want_ (E. 31^{3}). - -Two beautiful passages in the _Book of Proverbs_ recognise that the -problem of success goes deeper than riches: - - _Better a dinner of herbs where love is, - Than a fatted ox and hatred therewith_ (Pr. 15^{17}). - - _Remove far from me vanity and lies: - Give me neither poverty nor riches; - Feed me with the food that is needful for me:[52] - Lest I be full, and deny Thee, and say, “Who is the Lord?” - Or lest I be poor, and steal, - And use profanely the name of my God_ (Pr. 30^{8, 9}). - -Both grand sayings. The last is a really noble prayer for the Golden -Mean, and at the same time an effective accusation which we know to be -only too true of many self-confident rich men on the one hand, and many -embittered poor men on the other. - -Finally, let us ruminate on the fact that wealth and dyspepsia are old -acquaintances: _Better is a poor man, being sound and of good -constitution, than a rich man that is plagued in his body_, says Ben -Sirach (E. 30^{14}); and doubtless he had plenty of shocking examples to -confirm his opinion, if there be any truth in Poseidonius’ description -of the Hellenic cities whose citizens “practically lived in the -banqueting halls,” and were wont to pocket what they could not there -devour. - -In the next place we may turn to proverbs dealing with character. -Fastening upon one outstanding quality, for the moment they identify the -personality with it. And if that is never entirely fair to any human -being--because even the best of us is, for instance, never perfectly -brave, nor the worst of us wholly mean--nevertheless it is good to be -told bluntly whither the bias of our nature tends. To isolate the -Virtues and the Vices and to hold them up for praise or blame has ever -been a favourite and a successful method of moral education. - -The quotations that follow are, as it were, swift portraits, some of -them only lightning sketches, seizing in outline some obvious feature; -but others (for all their brevity) are so full of life and colour, and -often so tellingly correct, that no comment is needed to enforce the -justice or importance of what is said. They have been compared to -“Meissonier pictures: minute, graphic, realistic, unromantic; pictures -drawn not by Fancy but by Observation”[53]:-- - - -THE MEAN MAN - - _Riches are not comely for a niggard, - And what shall a covetous man do with money? - He that gathereth by miserliness gathereth for others, - And others shall revel in his goods_ (E. 14^{3, 4}). - _The miser hasteth after riches - And knoweth not that want shall come upon him_ (Pr. 28^{22}). - - -AND THE GENEROUS - - _There is that scattereth, and increaseth yet more; - And there is that withholdeth, and it tendeth only to want. - The liberal man shall prosper the more, - And he that nourisheth others shall himself be - nourished_ (Pr. 11^{24, 25})-- - -But appearances are sometimes deceptive: - - _There is that feigneth himself rich, yet hath nothing; - And there is that feigneth poverty, yet hath great wealth_ (Pr. 13^{7}). - -There are numerous sayings dealing with the tale-bearer and the -mischief-maker, for slander was a prominent evil of the crowded Oriental -cities: - - -THE SLANDERER - - _The liar disseminates strife: - The whisperer parteth friends_ (Pr. 16^{28}). - _For lack of wood the fire goes out, - And where there is no whisperer, contention ceaseth_ (Pr. 26^{20}). - - -THE MISCHIEF-MAKER - - _An evil man digs a pit of mischief - And on his lips is a fire that burns_[54] (Pr. 16^{27}). - _An evil man, a sinful man, deals always in crooked speech. - He winks his eyes and shuffles his feet, - And his fingers make secret signs: - His thoughts are all plots, - He plans ceaselessly mischief; - A spreader of discord. - Wherefore, his ruin shall come in an instant. - Like a flash he’ll be broken, and that beyond mending_ (Pr. 6^{12-15}). - - -THE BOASTER - - _As clouds and wind that yield no rain, - So is he who brags of gifts ungiven_ (Pr. 25^{14}). - - -THE SELF-CONFIDENT MAN. - - _The fool is quite certain his way is right, - But the wise man listens to counsel_ (Pr. 12^{15}). - _Seest thou a man wise in his own conceit? - There is more hope of a fool than of him_ (Pr. 26^{12}). - ---the last, a saying that increases in force when a little later we come -to note just what the Wise-men thought of a fool! With these proverbs on -the Proud we may conveniently group some sayings on the man whose tongue -runs away with his discretion: - - -THE GARRULOUS MAN - - _The tongue of the Wise distils knowledge, - But the mouth of fools poureth out folly_ (Pr. 15^{2}). - _A fool’s mouth is his destruction, - His lips are the snare of his soul_ (Pr. 18^{7}). - _A fool’s vexation is instantly known, - But a prudent man ignores an affront_ (Pr. 12^{16}). - -How true! Most normal persons have acquired the power to delay or -suppress the answer that rises to the lips in anger, but which of us -would not confess that it was hard to learn this wisdom and that it is -never easy to observe its teaching? The temptation to blurt out all our -thought in time of trouble or vexation is always with us. In the -hot-tempered East restraint was even more necessary than it is amongst -ourselves, and one is therefore not surprised to find the absence of -this virtue receiving the same fearsome condemnation as self-confidence: - - _Seest thou a man that is hasty of speech? - There is more hope of a fool than of him_ (Pr. 29^{20}). - -Next, a group of proverbs concerning certain persons who to their own -great surprise have missed success in society. The list may begin with a -character one scarcely expects to meet in Scripture: - - -THE PRACTICAL JOKER - - _As a madman that casteth firebrands, arrows and death, - So is he who deceives his neighbour and cries, - “I was only in jest”_ (Pr. 26^{18, 19}). - -Then some advice to - - -THE BOOR IN SOCIETY[55] - - _When thou sittest to eat with a ruler - Bear in mind his lordship’s presence; - And if thou be a hearty eater, - Put a knife to thy throat_ (Pr. 23^{1-3}). - -And, thirdly, in two proverbs, - - -THE INOPPORTUNE MAN - - _As one that taketh off a garment in cold weather, - And as vinegar upon a wound; - So is he that singeth songs to a heavy heart_ (Pr. 25^{20})[56]. - - _He that blesseth his friend with a loud voice, - rising early in the morning; - It shall be counted a curse unto him_ (Pr. 27^{14}). - -The last saying prompts the thought that Mr. E. V. Lucas is also among -the Sages, for has he not given it as his opinion that “early rising -leads to self-conceit, intolerance, and dulness after dinner”? “The old -poet,” says he, “was right-- - - ‘When the morning riseth red - Rise not thou but keep thy Bed; - When the Dawn is dull and gray - Sleep is still the better way: - Beasts are up betimes, but then - They are beasts and we are men.’” - -The last of the social failures is the Flatterer, oily and ingratiating, -but treacherous and in the end exposed: - - -THE FLATTERER - - _The words of a flatterer are like dainty morsels - Going down to the innermost parts of the body_ (Pr. 18^{8}). - - _A man that flattereth his neighbour - Spreadeth a net for his feet_ (Pr. 29^{5}; cp. 26^{28}). - - _He that rebuketh a man shall afterward find more favour - Than he that flattereth with the tongue_ (Pr. 28^{23}). - -Theophrastus, a Greek writer, has left us certain character-sketches of -Athenian society about 300 B.C., many of which might profitably be -studied in relation to these Hebrew epigrams. His essay on _The -Flatterer_ is a case in point. Here is the Greek conception:-- - -“Flattery may be considered as a mode of companionship, base but -profitable to him who flatters. The flatterer is a person who will say -as he walks with another, ‘Do you see how people are looking at you? -This happens to no man in Athens but you.’... With these and the like -words he will remove a morsel of wool from his patron’s coat; or, if a -speck of chaff has been laid on the other’s hair by the wind, he will -pick it off, adding with a laugh, ‘Do you see? Because I have not met -you for two days, you have had your beard full of white hairs--although -no one has darker hair for his years than you?’ Then he will request the -company to be silent while the great man is speaking, and will praise -him too in his hearing, and mark his approbation at a pause with ‘True’; -or he will laugh at a frigid joke and stuff his cloak in his mouth as if -he could not repress his amusement. He will request those who pass by to -‘stand still until His Honour has passed.’... When he assists at the -purchase of slippers, he will declare that the foot is more shapely than -the shoes. If his patron is approaching a friend, he will run forward -and say ‘He is coming to you’; and then, turning back, ‘I have announced -you.’... He is the first of the guests to praise the wine, and to say -as he reclines next the host, “How delicate is your fare,’ and (taking -up something from the table) ‘Now this--how excellent it is.’... He -will take the cushions from the slave in the theatre and spread them on -the seat with his own hands. He will say that his patron’s house is well -built, his land well planted, and that his portrait is excellent.”[57] -Even when full allowance is made for the unity of authorship and the -conscious and careful artistry of the Greek writing, it must be felt -that comparison between the Hebrew portrait and the Greek is scarcely -possible, the advantage is so entirely with the latter. The Wise were -perhaps unusually dull in their _dicta_ concerning the Flatterer, but at -their best they never come within sight of the brilliant detail that -makes the Greek portrait live before our eyes. It is all the more -significant therefore that the Hebrew has hit the one point that the -Greek ignores or overlooks: the moral issues of flattery. Theophrastus, -the artist, observes that flattery is a base employment; with its evil -and disastrous consequences he does not trouble himself. The Wise miss -almost everything except that: _A man that flattereth his neighbour_, -said they, _spreadeth a net for his feet_. They offer an unadorned -assertion; but, taken to heart, it would prove more useful to society -than all the subtlety of the Athenian delineation. Note then in passing -how the contrast is an epitome of the struggle between the two -world-ideas, Hellenic and Jewish; on the one hand the overwhelming charm -and skill of the Greek, and on the other the unfailing instinct of the -Hebrew for the one thing the Greek world lacked. - - -THE LAZY MAN - -In the lazy man the Wise found a subject that stirred not only their wit -but also their eloquence. In two instances proverb has expanded to -become a parable and a picture, both of which arrive at the same -conclusion. The parable is very famous-- - - _Go to the ant, thou sluggard, - Consider her ways and be wise, - Which, having no chief, overseer or ruler, - Provideth her meat in the summer - And gathereth her food in the harvest. - How long wilt thou sleep, O sluggard? - When wilt thou arise from thy slumber? - Yet a little sleep, a little slumber, - A little folding of the hands to sleep-- - So shall thy poverty come as a robber, - And thy want as an armed man_ (Pr. 6^{6-11}). - -But the picture deserves to be no less familiar: - - _I passed by the field of the slothful, - By the vineyard of the witless man: - And lo! it was all grown over with thorns, - Its surface was covered with nettles, - Its stonewall was broken down. - Yet a little sleep, a little slumber, - A little folding of the hands to sleep-- - So shall thy poverty come as a robber, - And thy want as an armed man_ (Pr. 24^{30-34}). - -Besides these longer sketches there are several brief and pithy words -about the lazy man. First, a delightful “hit” at him to whom any excuse -for idleness is better than none: - - _The sluggard saith, “There is a lion outside. I shall be slain in - the streets!”_ (Pr. 22^{13}). - -And here are two beautiful verses which breathe the very air of -indolence: - - _As the door turneth upon its hinges, - So doth the sluggard upon his bed. - The sluggard burieth his hand in the dish; - It wearyeth him to bring it to his mouth again_ (Pr. 26^{14, 15}). - -The verse immediately following (Pr. 26^{16}) will serve to conclude -this topic, for it shows the sluggard to be own cousin to the type of -man whom next we shall consider: - - _The sluggard is wiser in his own conceit - Than seven men that can render a reason._ - -As the Wise went through the streets of Jerusalem and stood to teach in -its open spaces, they observed certain men of various occupations, -differing one from another both in social rank and in mental ability, -whom nevertheless they classed under one category--THE SONS OF FOLLY. -There were, of course, distinctions in the nature of their folly. The -Authorised and Revised Versions are content to differentiate only three -types, namely--Simpletons[58] (whether from lack of brain or lack of -instruction, “Dullards”), Scorners[59], and Fools. The Hebrew text goes -further and classifies the last named, the Fools, into (1) _Ivvillim_, -those whose folly is due chiefly to the unrealised weakness of their -nature--ignorant, vain, confident, headstrong, infatuate persons: in a -word, “stupid fools”; and (2) _Kesilim_, whose is the folly of a gross -and sensual nature, men who are morally, rather than mentally, -unresponsive to the finer aspects of life--insensate, brutish persons, -“coarse fools”; and (3) the _Nabal_, the man who is deliberate in his -wrong-doing, the “Fool of Fools,” but whose folly is only folly, -provided the moral instinct of Humanity is sound and the law of the -Universe is ultimately against evil and Man was meant for God and -goodness. He it is of whom a Psalmist, getting to the very root of the -problem, says _The fool hath said in his heart: “There is no God.”_ -Having made the fundamental error, his whole judgment of life has become -perverted. Probably he is an astute person; but the greater his ability, -the greater and more pernicious will be his folly. Naturally, this fool -and the scorner were often one and the same person. The Wise speak -little of him, except in his capacity as a scorner; but they recognise -that he is terrible. One of the four things that cause the earth to -tremble, say they, is when a man of this sort is filled with meat (Pr. -30^{22}). Elsewhere (Pr. 17^{7}) they remark sarcastically that _Honest -words do not become a fool_--decency would be out of keeping with his -character. So much for “the Fool _par excellence_.” - -The rest of the sayings about “fools” are concerned with those of the -first and second types. If it were our intention to go into the teaching -fully, the nice distinctions of the Hebrew would have to be observed -with care.[60] But now that the _Nabal_ has been considered, it will be -sufficient to follow the classification of the English Bible--scorners, -simpletons, and fools--allowing the precise distinction between the -_weak_ and the _coarse_ fool to lapse. - -The _Simpleton_ is one type; his folly may, and should be, cured by -instruction. But he is disappointingly dull of hearing and “slow at the -uptake”: _How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity?_ cries -Wisdom to them (Pr. 1^{22}). Nevertheless, although the teacher may fail -to give them efficient brains, he can perhaps save them from evil and, -in a quiet, humble way they may learn that fear of the Lord which is a -sufficiency of true Wisdom. Wherefore on the whole the Wise spoke to -these men sympathetically and hopefully: so in the exordium which states -the purpose of the _Book of Proverbs_ we are told that it is meant _to -give prudence to the simple_ (Pr. 1^{4}). - -To the average fool the Wise were severe. Were they fair in being so? -Surely many of these fools were either weak-willed or coarse, as the -case might be, because they were just uninstructed “simpletons?” No! -These are they who have opportunity but refuse or neglect it. Therefore -their condition is culpable, and the Wise do well not to mince matters -concerning the folly of their conduct. Such persons require to be -kicked into sense, and the Wise were of opinion that in some instances -the kicking might with advantage begin by being physical. Hold! Of whom -are we speaking? Of the inhabitants of Jerusalem? Yes, but, suppose we -were analysing the population of our own times, would there not be more -than a few found guilty of just such folly--men and women -_undisciplined_ in mind and soul? Possessing plenty of wits and much -capacity for moral feeling, they fling their chances aside. It is a -perilous attitude towards the realities of life, for refusal to learn -grows ever easier as life goes on. What chance do thousands give -themselves of acquiring Christian faith, or even of maintaining or -improving their intellectual and moral qualities? Do they seek for the -good in the Christian Churches, or for the faults, and so miss the good? -How much study have they given to the knowledge of God in Christ? Many -have consulted their Bradshaw more often than their Bible. What efforts -do they make to apprehend the meaning and value of Christianity in face -of modern knowledge and in view of modern conditions? “Last Sunday you -managed to evade the message which God sent you: that makes it much -easier to evade the message He sends you to-day. Next Sunday you will be -almost totally indifferent. Soon you will get out of reach of His word -altogether, saying it does you no good. Then you will deny that it is -His word or His message.”[61] This reference to Church-going is of -course but one point out of many: the principle at issue is one which -vitally concerns the whole of a man’s attitude to life. The fool is -almost unteachable, and that of course is his supreme peril. He is so -self-confident, so unreasonable, so certain he is right and others -wrong. He does not dream of becoming wiser, because already he knows -himself to be as wise as Solomon. Therefore the Sages are justified in -their unsparing rebukes. What is wrong with the fool, is primarily his -moral condition; and accordingly for the moment we need not trouble to -distinguish between the weak fool and the coarse. What is censured in -them both is neither their present silliness nor their grossness, but -their unwillingness to learn. They have what amounts to an error of -moral vision, and they desperately need to realise the fact. Mr. -Chesterton has somewhere said, “The fool is one who has an impediment in -his thought. It is _not_, as the modern fellows say, put there by his -grandmother. I have wandered over the world (so to speak) trying to find -some faithful, simple soul who really believed in his own grandmother. -He does not exist. The first act of the fool, when he is articulate, is -to teach his grandmother how to suck eggs. Fools have no reverence. -Fools have no humility.” Doubtless a man must not be blamed for the -initial quality of his mind, and possibly the Wise were too caustic to -the congenitally stupid. But then the Wisdom they were teaching was not -intellectually difficult to acquire; it was not book-learning but that -Wisdom which is from on high and can be revealed to babes and sucklings. - -As for the third class, the Scorner or Chief Fool; he too suffers from -corruption of moral vision. But with him the distortion is desperate: he -calls white black and black white. For this alert, deliberate Fool, the -Wise had little hope or none at all; he has chosen the path of Folly -with his eyes open. All they can do is to meet his scorn with a greater -scorn, and make their appeal in his hearing. One does not wonder that -the Wise were baffled by this type of man. There is hope of such a -person, but the hope is in the fact of Christ. This Fool has wit enough -to rethink the situation, if he chose. He may some day have imperative -cause to reconsider his view of life, and so may discover first that -Christ is truth, and then learn that Christ can pardon. - -We turn now to the sayings themselves, or rather to a selection from -them, for the sons of Folly provoked very many proverbs. - -A number are humorous and spicy--the sort of phrases that might catch -the ear of a crowd, raise a laugh at the fool’s expense, and remain -fixed in the hearer’s memory by the barb of wit. Think, for instance, of -the feeble, vacillating eyes that so often accompany and reflect a weak -intellect or character: - - _Wisdom stands ever before the mind of a prudent man, - But the eyes of a fool are in the ends of the earth_ (Pr. 17^{24}). - -and for comment on the mind behind the eyes, this will do: - - _The mind of a fool is like a cartwheel, - And his thoughts like a rolling axle-tree_ (E. 33^{5}). - -The Wise laid their finger with much accuracy on the salient features of -the foolish character. Thus in the dullard they point to his credulity, -_The simpleton believeth every word, but the prudent looketh well to his -going_ (Pr. 14^{15}). The fool is apt to be greedy of reward, _The fool -will say “I have no friend and I have no thanks for my good deeds_ (E. -20^{16}); and grudging in his charity, _To-day he will lend but -to-morrow he will ask it again_ (E. 20^{15}), although himself a -spendthrift, _Precious treasure abides in the Wise man’s house, but a -foolish man swallows it up_ (Pr. 21^{20}, cp. Pr. 14^{1}). He is a -blusterer, _A Wise man is cautious and avoids misfortune, but the fool -rageth and is confident_ (Pr. 14^{16}); shallow and frivolous, _As the -crackling of thorns under a pot, so is the laughter of a fool_ -(_Ecclesiastes_ 7^{6}); garrulous, saying what he thinks before he -thinks what he says, _The heart of fools is in their mouth, but the -mouth of wise men is in their heart_. (E. 21^{26}); changeable and -unreliable, _The foolish man changeth as the moon_ (E. 27^{11}); _Take -not counsel with a fool, for he will not be able to conceal the matter_ -(E. 8^{17}). He is a bully often, but his courage is unstable, _Pales -set on a high place will not stand against the wind; so the cowardice in -a foolish heart will not bear up against any fear_ (E. 22^{18}). He -aspires to be witty, but seldom has wit enough, _The legs of the lame -hang loose: so does a parable in the mouth of fools_ (Pr. 26^{7}). - -Nevertheless the fool’s pride and self-confidence is complete, _The way -of the foolish is right in his own eyes_ (Pr. 12^{15}; cp. 14^{3}, -28^{26}); so that he loses sense of the awfulness of evil and even -enjoys it, _It is as sport to a fool to do wickedness_ (Pr. 10^{23}, cp. -13^{19}); sneering at those who fain would give him guidance, _A fool -despiseth his father’s correction ... a fool scorns his mother_ (Pr. -15^{5, 20}); and hating information, _A fool hath no delight in -understanding_ (Pr. 18^{2}). Thus it is almost useless to attempt to -instruct a fool--here is a counsel of despair, _Speak not in the hearing -of a fool, for he will despise the wisdom of thy words_ (Pr. -23^{9})--and here is the sigh of the weary teacher, _Wherefore is there -a price in the hands of the fool to buy wisdom, seeing that he hath no -wits?_ (Pr. 17^{16}). _The inward parts of a fool are like a broken -vessel, and he will hold no knowledge_ (E. 21^{14}). _He that teacheth a -fool is as one that glueth a potsherd together_ (E. 22^{7}). The fool, -in fact, is in uttermost peril of being incorrigible, _He that -discourseth to a fool is as one discoursing to a man that slumbereth; at -the end thereof he will say “What is it?”_ (E. 22^{8}). Altogether it is -hard to suffer fools gladly: - - _A stone is heavy and the sand weighty, - But a fool’s vexation is heavier than both_ (Pr. 27^{3}). - -Wherefore the Wise dealt them some shrewd blows, being well aware that -the skin of the dullard and the scornful was tough: - - _A whip for a horse, a bridle for an ass, - And a rod for the back of fools_ (Pr. 26^{3}). - - _As a dog returneth to his vomit, - So a fool repeateth his folly_ (Pr. 26^{11}). - - _A rebuke entereth deeper into a sensible man - Than a hundred stripes into a fool_ (Pr. 17^{10}). - - _Though thou shouldst bray a fool in a mortar, - Yet will his folly not depart from him_ (Pr. 27^{22}). - -It may be thought that some of these words are over-bitter and even -savage. If so, the plea can be advanced that there was probably much -provocation. The Scorner seems to have been a familiar figure, and he -was doubtless clever enough to upset with his mockery many an audience -to which the Wise-man was holding forth. _He that correcteth a scorner -getteth to himself insult, and he that reproveth a wicked man getteth -himself reviling_ (Pr. 9^{7})--_that_ sounds like the fruit of -experience, and there is much that is suggestive in this saying -also--_The proud and haughty man, scorner is his name, he worketh in the -arrogance of pride_ (Pr. 21^{24}). But if the Wise suffered at times, -one gathers that they found no small consolation for their hurt dignity -in such reflections as these: - - _Answer not a fool according to his folly - Lest thou be like unto him_ (Pr. 26^{4}). - - _Judgements are prepared for scorners, - And stripes for the back of fools_ (Pr. 19^{29}). - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -The Ideal - - -The Wise were not cynical persons intent on the faults and failings of -humanity. The sayings recorded in the preceding chapter give their -comments on the abnormal elements of society, and do not represent their -general outlook on life. The real centre of their interest was the -ordinary man. They were well aware that for one incorrigible fool or one -notorious flatterer there are a hundred, or a thousand, average persons -who, if they do not grow better, will assuredly grow worse; and to these -the bulk of their instruction was directed. The Wise therefore ought not -to suffer in our estimation, because we have arbitrarily chosen to set -their critical opinions in the foreground. And if it be insisted that, -in point of fact, criticism of others is a prominent feature of the -proverbs, the reply is first, that we are not endeavouring or expecting -to prove the Wise innocent of all censoriousness or occasional snobbery; -and secondly, that criticism is an almost indispensable weapon for -practical moralists. Human beings hate to be lectured directly on their -weaknesses; yet when the faults of others are being exhibited they will -listen merrily and attentively, notwithstanding the possibility that -some shrewd blow may come knocking at the gates of conscience. Every -teacher knows that the average man will be left only offended and -unbelieving if he is told bluntly how much his small failings leave to -be desired; but show him by a shocking example whither the way of pride -or folly tends and he will often take to heart the lesson. It might -therefore be claimed that in a sense all the proverbs were addressed to -the normal, teachable man, even those which rebuke an extreme fault in -an extreme manner being meant for the ears of others besides the -hardened sinner against whom they were ostensibly directed. - -Certainly the great majority of the proverbs are applicable to the -affairs of the rank and file of men. So keen were the Wise on the task -of admonishing and encouraging very ordinary men that they uttered many -a commonplace in a fashion too simple to be memorable or even -momentarily interesting to any person of alert intelligence. -Nevertheless such material cannot be neglected here, and ought not to be -despised. It must not be neglected, just because it is actually a large -section of our subject matter; it ought not to be despised, for it all -helps to show the humanism of the Wise, testifying that they were honest -and practical teachers rather than clever writers anxious only to -compile a book of skilful proverbs. _That_ teacher is to be condemned -who cannot, or will not, relate his thinking to the capacities of his -hearers. The Wise deserve praise because they said a great deal that -even the simpleton could not plead was beyond him. - -We have begun, it seems, by tasting some of the spices with which the -Wise seasoned their counsel. We come now to the solid matter of their -doctrine. By noting the qualities they praised or blamed, the deeds -which won their approval or their censure, we shall gain a general -conception of their aspirations. What were their ideals for men as -individuals, as members of a family, as citizens of a State? - - -I.--THE INDIVIDUAL - -The threefold division just suggested--man in his individual, domestic -and political relationships--seems simple and natural, but proves -difficult to maintain, because the first category in reality trespasses -on the other two. Strictly speaking, none of the virtues and the vices -concern the individual alone. If a man ruin his health by intemperate -indulgence of fleshly desires, doubtless he is himself the prime -sufferer, but obviously the State loses something thereby, and woe -betide his family! Still, such a quality as Temperance may reasonably -enough be classed as a personal virtue, being primarily an aspect of -Man’s duty to himself. But what shall be said of duties such as -Generosity, Forbearance, Deceitfulness, the exercise of which might be -reckoned almost as much Man’s duty to his neighbours in family or State -as to himself? In which division shall we reckon these? For convenience, -let these also be considered under the first heading as personal, rather -than social, qualities. Enough material will still remain for use in the -second and third sections of our topic. - - -(_a_) VIRTUES OF RESTRAINT. A convenient starting-point for our review -of the characteristics the Wise desired to see in the individual is -provided by certain negative virtues of restraint, which the proverbs -frequently enjoin. - -[Sidenote: I OF THE APPETITE] - -The duty of Moderation in eating and drinking is sufficiently, though -not urgently, commended: _He that loveth pleasure shall come to want, -and he that loveth wine and oil shall not be rich_ (Pr. 21^{17})--_A -companion of gluttonous men shameth his father_ (Pr. 28^{7}). Again, -_Wine is a mocker, strong drink a brawler, and whoso erreth therein no -wise man is he_ (Pr. 20^{1}; cp. 23^{29-35}). Not that the Wise were -advocates of an ascetic abstinence: they did no more than commend -moderation.[62] Thus Ben Sirach, who certainly enjoyed banqueting on -good food and good wine, contents himself with advising the -inexperienced “not to eat greedily lest he be hated”; _How sufficient_, -says he, _to a well-mannered man is a very little, and he doth not -breathe hard upon his bed. Healthy sleep cometh of moderate eating; he -riseth early and his wits are with him. The pain of wakefulness and -colic and griping, these go to the insatiable man_ (E. 31^{19-20}). - -[Sidenote: II OF ANGER] - -The duty of curbing anger is emphasised in several telling proverbs. -Doubtless the evil consequences of unbridled passion are more evident -among the quick-tempered peoples of southern and eastern lands; but the -northerner is apt to be sullen, and perhaps what he gains by initial -restraint he loses through the permanence of his indignation. Who dare -affirm that a warning against wrath is not sorely needed in all lands -and all centuries? What havoc has been wrought in human affairs by -passion, be it sullen or sudden! Not even poverty is chargeable with -causing more pain and misery. In delivering their admonitions the Wise -took up no specially exalted standpoint: they were content to note the -plain consequences of anger--its disastrous effect on society, _An angry -man stirreth up strife and a wrathful man abounds in transgression_ (Pr. -29^{22}, cp. 15^{18}); and how that the angry man (too weak to conceal -his emotions, _A fool uttereth all his anger but a wise man keepeth it -back and stilleth it_ [Pr. 29^{11}]), must himself suffer in the end, -_He that is soon angry will deal foolishly and a man of wicked desires -is hated_ (Pr. 14^{17}). And again to much the same effect they said in -a phrase that has become immortal, _He that is slow to anger is better -than the mighty, and he that controlleth his temper than he that taketh -a city_ (Pr. 16^{32}). How excellent that last proverb is! “So hot, -little man, so hot?” The British Government has discovered the uses of -advertisement for thrusting facts before the unobservant: one may -disapprove the practice but not on the ground that it is ineffective. -What if this proverb (and a few other valuable sayings that the Jewish -Sages could supply) were to appear one fine day on a million placards -throughout the Kingdom? Would the money go wasted, or would there be the -swiftest and most economical reform on record? - -[Sidenote: III OF SPEECH] - -Closely associated with restraint of passion is restraint of speech, a -duty which is considered in several forceful proverbs: _Death and life -are in the power of the tongue, and they that love it shall eat the -fruit thereof_ (Pr. 18^{21})--_He that guardeth his mouth keepeth his -life, but he that openeth wide his lips shall have destruction_ (Pr. -13^{3}). Of the specious dignity that silence for a time confers, they -said with truth and humour: _Even a fool when he holdeth his peace is -counted wise; when he shutteth his lips he is esteemed as prudent_ (Pr. -17^{28}). On the other hand, speaking the right word at the right time -won their keen approval. Was it not the very art in which they -themselves sought to excel? _A man hath joy in the answer of his lips, -and a word in due season how good it is_ (Pr. 15^{23}). - - * * * * * - -(_b_) THINGS TO AVOID. Much can be learnt regarding the ideals of the -Wise by observing what they counselled men to shun. Thus the sayings on -the Sluggard (p. 128) might be used to show how they hated Indolence: -_As vinegar to the teeth and as smoke to the eyes, so is the sluggard to -them that send him_ (Pr. 10^{26}). They censured Disdain and Pride: _He -that despiseth his neighbour is void of wisdom_ (Pr. 11^{12})--_Pride -goeth before destruction and a haughty spirit before a fall_ (Pr. -16^{18}). Ingratitude is dealt with in a restrained but memorable -saying, _Whoso rewardeth evil for good, evil shall not depart out of his -house_ (Pr. 17^{13}); and there are these two splendid proverbs against -Revenge, _Say not, “I will recompense evil”: wait on the Lord, and he -will save thee_ (Pr. 20^{22})--and _Rejoice not when thine enemy -falleth, and let not thine heart be glad when he is overthrown, lest the -Lord seeing it be displeased, and transfer his anger from him to thee_ -(Pr. 24^{17-18})[63]. Recall, by way of contrast, the terrible Italian -proverbs quoted in Chapter I. (p. 23); remember the innate ferocity, -derived from the ancient custom of the Desert vendettas, that has always -characterised the quarrels of the near East; and the wonder of such -generous and noble exhortations as these in the Jewish proverbs cannot -fail to be perceived. - -Here is a vice which the Wise counted worse even than anger: _Wrath is -cruel and anger is overwhelming but who can stand against Jealousy_ (Pr. -27^{4})? They repeatedly point out the evil of contentiousness: _As -coals to the hot embers and wood to fire, so is a quarrelsome man to -inflame strife_ (Pr. 26^{21})--_It is an honour for a man to keep aloof -from strife, but every fool sheweth his teeth_ (Pr. 20^{3}). One proverb -makes use of two curious similes to enforce the lesson, _Lay thine hand -upon thy mouth; for, as the churning of milk bringeth forth butter, and -as wringing of the nose bringeth forth blood, so the forcing of wrath -bringeth forth strife_ (Pr. 30^{33}) and another with a touch of dry -humour remarks, _He seizes a dog by the ears who meddles with a quarrel -not his own_ (Pr. 26^{17}), _i.e._, having once taken hold he cannot let -go! - -What the Wise thought of Slander and of Flattery has been indicated -sufficiently in the preceding chapter. - -Dissimulation and Treachery stirred them to a fine contempt: _Fervent -lips and a wicked heart are an earthen vessel plated with silver. He -that hateth dissembleth with his lips, but layeth up deceit within him: -when he speaketh fair, believe him not; for in his heart are seven -abominations. Though his hatred cloak itself with guile, his wickedness -shall be shown openly before the congregation_ (Pr. 26^{23-26})--brave -words and vigorous! One feels very sure that the Empire which betrayed -its mind in the Hymn of Hate would need to show more than the penitence -of fair words on fervent lips before it could hope for clemency from -this Sage. - -(_c_) THE VIRTUES. So much for the Vices. It is time to consider the -positive qualities that the Sages praised, and the foregoing picture of -guile raises thoughts of its opposite. Let us begin therefore with the -praises of True Friendship. Ben Sirach expands the subject into a little -essay: _If thou wouldest get thee a friend, get him by dint of trial, -and be not in haste to trust him. For there is a friend that is such for -his own occasion, and he will not continue in the day of thine -affliction. And there is a friend that turneth to an enemy, and he will -be openly at strife with thee to thy confusion. And there is a friend -that is a companion at the table_ (_i.e._, a “cupboard-lover”), _and he -will not remain in the hour of thy distress.... A faithful friend is a -strong defence, and he that hath found him hath found a treasure. There -is nothing can be exchanged for a faithful friend, and his excellency is -beyond all price. A faithful friend is a medicine of life, and they that -fear the Lord shall find him_ (E. 6^{7{ff}}). To match any single -proverb against such words is a hard test, yet there is one that not -only can bear the ordeal but is perhaps the finest of all epitomes of -friendship: _A friend is always friendly, born to be a brother in -adversity_ (Pr. 17^{17}, mg. R.V.). - -Seeing that the Wise saw in the fool’s pride and self-sufficiency his -worst and fatal error, it is only to be expected that they should lay -constant stress on the duties of preserving an open mind and continuing -amenable to instruction and reproof: _Take fast hold of instruction; let -her not go, for she is thy life_ (Pr. 4^{13})--_Whoso loveth correction -loveth knowledge, but he that hateth reproof is a boor_ (Pr. -12^{1})--_He that being often reproved hardeneth his neck shall suddenly -be broken, and that beyond mending_ (Pr. 29^{1}). - -No less prominent and much more remarkable (seeing how profoundly and -persistently falsehood in speech has beset the Oriental character) is -the demand for Truthfulness: _A righteous man hates deception_ (Pr. -13^{5}). We are told that only truth endures: _The lip of truth shall be -established for ever, whereas a lying tongue is but for a moment_ (Pr. -12^{19}). Sincerity of character is often extolled in plain speech and -in metaphor: _The righteousness of the perfect shall make straight his -way_ (Pr. 11^{5})--_The mouth of the righteous is a fountain of life_ -(Pr. 10^{11})--_The tongue of the righteous is like choice silver_ (Pr. -10^{20})--_The lips of the righteous feed many_ (Pr. 10^{21})--_The -thoughts of the righteous are just_ (Pr. 12^{5})--_The heart of the -righteous studieth what to answer, but the mouth of the wicked poureth -out evil things_ (Pr. 15^{28}).[64]--_The fruit of the righteous is a -tree of life_ (Pr. 11^{30}). Integrity of purpose is even more -beautifully commended in this memorable proverb: _He that loveth -pureness of heart, and on whose lips is grace, the king shall be his -friend_ (Pr. 22^{11}). - -Perhaps not a few of the Wise wore an air of superiority to their -neighbours; some may have given God thanks that they were not as other -men; but assuredly not all fell victims to what was for them a natural -temptation, and justice demands that full weight be assigned to the -numerous sayings in which they castigate Vanity or praise Humility. For -instance, _When pride cometh_, said they, _then cometh shame, but with -the lowly is Wisdom_ (Pr. 11^{2}). - -To be temperate in body and mind, energetic, peaceable, honest and -truthful, teachable, sincere, loyal and honourable--evidently the Wise -made no small demand on human nature. But above and beyond these -qualities, and very wonderful in the old Oriental world, are these -virtues, which the Wise expected good men to possess and -show--consideration for others, helpfulness, mercy, kindness of word and -deed, and even forgiving love. They declare that, _Whoso mocketh the -poor reproacheth his Maker, and he that is glad at calamity shall not go -unpunished_ (Pr. 17^{5}). The righteous ought to be a guide to his -neighbour (Pr. 12^{26}); and (as an arresting passage insists) the -obligation must not be shuffled off or wilfully ignored: _Deliver them -that are carried away unto death and them that are tottering to the -slaughter see that thou hold back. If thou sayest, “Behold we knew not -this,” doth not He that weigheth the hearts consider it? And he that -keepeth thy soul doth He not know it? And shall he not render to every -man according to his work_ (Pr. 24^{11, 12})? As regards the broad -social applications of this proverb, the deep guilt of all nations -leaves little to choose between them. But taking the command on its more -intimate and individual aspect, does it not utter a warning that the -average Briton has peculiar need to hear? For our national character is -such that we hate interfering with another man’s way of life; we are -even shy of rebuking the young. There is, of course, a virtue in our -natural tolerance, for men cannot be school-mastered into mending their -ways. But conscience will admit that much of our non-interference is -mere shirking of duty, a passing-by on the other side. If we were less -frightened to warn or to help others, less anxious how our words would -be received and whether we might be snubbed and made uncomfortable or -called a Pharisee, it may be that, whenever we did so warn or help, we -should do it with a better grace and therefore more effectually. Since -nine out of ten are wont to err on the side of silence, we reiterate the -injunction ... _them that are tottering to the slaughter see that thou -hold back_. There are times when diffidence may be a sin, and the fear -of contention cowardice. - -Concerning Mercy in deed or thought and Honesty in speech the Wise -said, _Let not mercy and truth forsake thee. Bind them upon thy neck, -write them on the tablet of thine heart; so shalt thou find favour and -good repute in the sight of God and man_ (Pr. 3^{3, 4}). There are -phrases concerning Kindness which live in the memory and touch the -heart: _The healing tongue is a tree of life_ (Pr. 15^{4})--_There is -that speaketh rashly like the piercings of a sword, but the tongue of -the Wise is health_ (Pr. 12^{18}), and a saying that for all its -gentleness holds the conscience in a vice-like grip: _A soft answer -turneth away wrath_ (Pr. 15^{1})--so hard to believe when occasion -presses, but proved true a thousand thousand times. And here, in -conclusion, are three, wonderful, winged proverbs, which haunt one with -the magic of their moral challenge: _Say not, “I will do so to him as he -hath done to me, I will render to the man according to his work”_ (Pr. -24^{29})--_If thine enemy be hungry give him bread to eat, if he thirst -give him water to drink; for thou shalt heap coals of fire on his head, -and the Lord shall reward thee_ (Pr. 25^{21}). - - _Hatred stirreth up strife, - But love covereth all transgressions_ (Pr. 10^{12}).[65] - -So much for Man, the individual. To finish the outline of the Wise-men’s -ideal we have still to consider the proverbs concerning family life and -the wider relationships of the State. - - -II.--FAMILY LIFE - -A slight acquaintance with Oriental life will suggest the probability -that in the family, as the Wise conceived it, fathers and sons were the -only important figures; and Jewish proverbs at first sight confirm the -conjecture: “Daughters,” says Kent[66], “are passed by with a silence -that is significant.” But, significant of what? Not that they were -ill-used or neglected or unloved in Hebrew homes, but that the Wise not -unnaturally acquiesced in the normal conditions of Oriental existence -which inevitably made a daughter of much less importance than a son. A -girl was debarred from the manifold interests of commercial, social, and -political affairs; she could not, like a son, perpetuate the family -name; nor could the parents hope to see in her the support and strength -of their old age. The Wise never attempted to ignore facts, and they -never aimed at nor imagined revolutions in the fundamental circumstances -of society as they found it. But we have to confess that Ben Sirach does -more than acquiesce in the recognised limitations of daughters. He was -reprehensibly querulous upon the subject, and we fear lest some who read -may find it difficult to forgive him for such a ridiculous exhibition of -masculine stupidity. Says Ben Sirach (and from the slow shake of his -head we infer this to be no hasty _dictum_, but the result of his mature -and cautious consideration), _A daughter is a secret cause of -wakefulness to a father, and anxiety for her putteth away sleep.... Keep -a strict watch over a headstrong daughter, lest she make thee a -laughing-stock to thine enemies, a byword in the city, and notorious -among the people_ (E. 42^{9-11}). - -Closer scrutiny of the Wise-men’s thoughts about family life reveals -something surprising and gratifying. It might have been expected that in -any Eastern society Woman would continue all her days to be held in -small esteem, carrying a heavy yoke for scant reward. But the Hebrew -proverbs testify on the contrary that when a Jewish woman grew up and -became wife or mother she stepped at once into a noble and influential -position, enjoying a real share in the honour or prosperity of her -husband, and entitled equally with him to the obedience and devotion of -her children. No less than the father she was reckoned by the Wise to be -the children’s guide and counsellor. She had reasonable opportunity for -social intercourse with other persons than the members of her own -household, and within her own house was trusted with responsibilities -that gave her a large share in the making or marring of its happiness -and fortunes. The Wise-men’s ideal of married life is presented in a -famous panegyric, which deserves to be given at length, for some writers -have declared--not unreasonably in view of the immemorial inferiority to -which the women of the East have been condemned--that it is the most -remarkable feature of the _Book of Proverbs_. - - -THE WISE AND LOYAL WIFE[67] - - _A virtuous woman who can find? - For her worth is far above rubies. - The heart of her husband trusteth in her, - And he shall have no lack of gain. - She doeth him good and not evil - All the days of her life. - She seeketh wool and flax, - And worketh it up as she pleaseth. - She is like the merchant-ships, - Bringing her food from afar. - She riseth also while it is yet night, - And giveth food to her household. - She examines a field and buyeth it; - With her earnings she planteth a vineyard. - She girdeth herself with strength, - And maketh strong her arms. - She perceives that her profit is good; - Her lamp goes not out by night. - She puts out her hand to the distaff, - And layeth hold on the spindle. - She extendeth her hand to the poor; - Yea, she reacheth forth her hands to the needy._ - She feareth not snow for her household, - For all her household are clothed with scarlet. - She maketh her cushions of tapestry; - Her clothing is fine linen and purple. - Her husband is distinguished in the gates, - When he sitteth among the elders of the land. - She maketh linen cloth and sells it, - And delivereth girdles to the merchants. - Strength and dignity are her clothing, - And she laughs at the time to come. - Her speech is full of wisdom, - And kindly instruction is on her tongue. - She looketh well to the ways of her household - And eateth not the bread of idleness. - -Industrious, skilful, wise, provident and kind, she is rewarded by the -praise and affection of husband and children-- - - _Her husband also, and he praiseth her saying:_ - - _“Many daughters have done excellently - But thou excellest them all.”_ - -Wherefore despite the despondent query, _A virtuous woman who can find?_ -which somewhat quaintly introduces this eulogy, we may believe that the -ideal thus pictured was a reality in many Jewish homes. To be critical, -the poem has a touch of the _Hausfrau_ conception which is none too -pleasing, but it does not set out to say everything about Woman, and one -might fairly read some romance between the lines; certainly the -enthusiasm of the last verse has a note of something deeper than “thanks -for value received.” To give further assurance, if that be required, we -may also quote this happy saying, _Whoso findeth a wife findeth a good -thing, and obtaineth favour from the Lord_ (Pr. 18^{22}). - -The treatment of children advocated by the Wise is accurately, although -too succinctly, summarised in the notorious “Spare the rod and spoil the -child” doctrine (cp. Pr. 13^{24}). Thus we are told, _The rod and -reproof give wisdom, but a child left to himself causeth shame to his -mother_ (Pr. 29^{15})--_Withhold not correction from a child, for if -thou beat him with the rod he shall not die. Thou shalt beat him with -the rod, and shalt deliver his soul from Sheol_ (Pr. 23^{13, 14}). All -this sounds merely harsh. But the splendid records of Jewish family life -make one suspect that the Wise were sterner in their words than in their -deeds, that at least their justice was often tempered with mercy and -their discipline with genuine affection. Ben Sirach, the most severe, is -also the most encouraging. Here is a truly forbidding passage: _Pamper -thy child, and he shall make thee afraid; play with him and he will -grieve thee. Laugh not with him, lest thou have sorrow with him and thou -shalt gnash thy teeth in the end. Give him no liberty in his youth, and -wink not at his follies. Bow down his neck in his youth, and beat him on -the sides while he is a child, lest he wax stubborn and be disobedient -unto thee, and there shall be sorrow unto thy soul_ (E. 30^{9-12}). But -against its ferocious energy set the kindly, peaceable atmosphere of -this exhortation in which Ben Sirach expands the fifth commandment on -the relations of children to parents: _He that giveth glory to his -father shall have length of days, and he that hearkeneth to the Lord -shall bring rest to his mother. In word and deed honour thy father that -a blessing may come upon thee from him: for the blessing of the father -stablisheth the children’s houses, but the curse of the mother rooteth -out the foundations.... My son, help thy father in his old age, and -grieve him not as long as he liveth. If he fail in understanding, have -patience with him, and dishonour him not all the days of his life. For -the relieving of thy father shall not be forgotten, and over against thy -sins it shall be set to thy credit. In the day of thine affliction it -shall be remembered to thine advantage, to put away thine iniquities as -the heat melteth hoar-frost_ (E. 3^{6-9, 12-15}). Further, the severity -of the Wise regarding children might seem less repellent if we -appreciated more keenly the circumstances of their age. Probably their -stern discipline has to be set against a background of disastrous -slackness. How were children brought up in the Græco-Syrian cities? Were -they sent forth untutored to join the mad dances of unbridled -inclination? Was there in but too many Jewish, as well as Hellenic, -homes appalling blindness to the need of control and moral training? -Great allowance must be made for the Wise, if they were under the -necessity of pointing a contrast. And who can deny the essential wisdom -of their attitude? Who dare say that kindness does not lie in an excess -of discipline rather than in an excess of indulgence? _Train up a child -in the way he should go, and even when he is old he will not depart from -it_ (Pr. 22^{6}). As to the value which the Wise attached to the virtue -of filial duty, if further evidence than the quotation just given from -Ben Sirach is needed, it lies to hand in proverbs that condemn the deeds -of unnatural children, who used violence to their parents (Pr. 19^{26}), -or mocked and robbed them (Pr. 30^{17}; 28^{24}). Listen to the -indignation in this utterance: _Whoso curseth his father and mother, his -lamp shall be put out in blackest darkness_ (Pr. 20^{20}). - -The servants of the household are less noticed in the proverbs than one -would expect. Usually they were slaves, and the _status_ to our mind -suggests hardships and injustice. But the remarkable provisions laid -down in the Hebrew Law regarding Hebrew slaves greatly alleviated their -lot, preventing or mitigating cruelties which frequently befell the -slaves of the Gentile nations. Few topics, in fact, more arrestingly -demonstrate the superiority of the moral feeling of the Jews as compared -with the Greeks or Romans than the treatment accorded to their -respective slaves. In ordinary circumstances the life of the Jewish -slave was not unhappy, and to gain freedom might be disaster rather than -benefit.[68] The trustworthy slave found satisfactory and sometimes -honourable position in many Jewish households: he was in reality, though -not in theory, a member of the home. On the other hand, among the Greeks -and Romans the slave was regarded strictly as property, not necessarily -to be treated as a human being. If a man chose to misuse or destroy his -“property,” so be it! It was solely his affair. If he chose to wreak his -anger at a certain cost to himself, no more need be said on the subject. -Doubtless theory and practice did not always agree, and some Roman -slaves were happy and well cared for, and some Jewish were miserable. -But, generally speaking, it is true that the Jews were more humane to -their servants than the Gentiles, although the evidence of the proverbs -would not lead one to think so. Here, for instance, is a sufficiently -sinister saying: _A servant will not be corrected by words, for though -he understand he will not answer_ (Pr. 29^{19}). Similarly when Ben -Sirach counsels a measure of restraint in dealing with a slave he does -so on the Græco-Roman ground that he is part of one’s possessions, and -therefore not to be spent foolishly (E. 33^{30, 31}); and he says -bluntly and indeed brutally, _Fodder, a stick, and burdens for an ass; -bread and discipline, and work for a servant. Set thy servant to work, -and thou shalt have rest: leave his hands idle, and he will seek -liberty. Yoke and thong will bow the neck, and for an evil servant there -are racks and tortures. Set him to work, as is fit for him; and if he -obey not, make his fetters heavy_ (E. 33{24-28}). On the other side, -however, may be set this proverb: _A servant that acteth wisely shall -have rule over a son that doeth shamefully, and shall inherit among the -brethren_ (Pr. 17^{2}), and Ben Sirach does something to redeem himself -in these gentler sentiments, _Entreat not evil a servant that worketh -truly nor a hireling that giveth thee his life. Let thy soul love a wise -servant; defraud him not of liberty_ (E. 7^{20, 21}). - - -III.--IDEALS OF SOCIETY - -The duties of men in general social relationships afforded a wide field -for the application of wisdom. In expressing their views on these -topics, the Sages said little that was original, much that was truly -wise. - -The perfect State will be one in which justice between man and man never -faileth, and its operation must range from the highest to the lowest in -the land. As for the great ones of the earth, the fateful consequences -of their conduct is emphasised as follows: _As a roaring lion and a -ranging bear, so is a wicked ruler over a poor people_ (Pr. -28^{15})--_By justice the king establisheth the land, but he that -exacteth gifts overthroweth it_ (Pr. 29^{4}); and that the latter type -of monarch or official was, alas! more than an evil dream is naïvely -vouched for by the existence of a most unideal, if frank, intimation -that _A gift in secret pacifieth anger, and a present in the purse -strong wrath_ (Pr. 21^{14}). Princes are exhorted to temperance, _“It is -not for kings, O Lemuel, it is not for kings to drink wine, nor for -princes to say ‘Where is strong drink?’ lest they drink and forget the -law, and pervert the judgement of the afflicted”_ (Pr. 31^{4, 5}); to -justice, and consideration of the lowly, _The king that faithfully -judgeth the poor, his throne shall be established for ever_ (Pr. -29^{14}); to kindness and truth, _Mercy and truth preserve the king, and -he upholdeth his throne by mercy_ (Pr. 20^{28}). Two other sayings are -worthy of mention; one a subtle proverb, _It is the glory of God to -conceal a thing, but the glory of kings to search out a matter_ (Pr. -25^{2}); the other ominous, _The heaven for height, and the earth for -depth, and the heart of kings is unsearchable_ (Pr. 25^{3}). - -But this demand for right-dealing is extended throughout the body -politic: honesty was required in the courts of law from the witness (Pr. -24^{28}) and from the judge (Pr. 17^{23}); from dealers in shop and -market (Pr. 20^{23}); and generally from all men, in a saying which is a -significant and ringing echo of the Prophets’ work in Israel: _To do -justice and judgement is more acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice_ -(Pr. 21^{3}). - -Turning next to the disorders of society we find that the Wise set their -face against the following offences. Land-grabbing, they declare, is a -sin God will assuredly punish (Pr. 23^{10, 11}), and so also oppression -of the poor, _Rob not the poor because he is poor, nor crush the -afflicted in the gate; for the Lord will plead their cause and despoil -of life those that despoil them_ (Pr. 22^{22, 23}). Warnings are given -against lawlessness: _Envy not thou the man of violence, and choose none -of his ways; for the perverse are an abomination unto the Lord, but His -friendship is with the upright_ (Pr. 3^{31, 32}); and in Pr. 1^{11ff}, -there is an amusing description of outlaws enticing a novice to join -them: “_Come with us, let us lay wait for blood.... We shall fill our -houses with spoil. Thou shalt cast thy lot amongst us; we will all have -one purse._” Against drunkenness there is this effective saying: _Who -hath woe? who hath sorrow? who hath quarrels? who hath complainings? who -hath wounds without cause? who hath dimness of eyes? They that tarry -long at the wine, that go to seek out mixed wine. Look not thou upon the -wine when it is red, when it sparkles in the cup, when it goeth down -smoothly. At the last it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an -adder_ (Pr. 23^{29-31}). Still greater stress was laid on the peril of -unchastity, and there are many earnest entreaties to shun the seductions -of wicked women (cp. Pr. 5^{1-14}; 6^{20-}7^{27}): _My son, attend to my -wisdom, incline thine ear to my understanding, that thou mayest preserve -discretion and thy lips keep knowledge. For the lips of a strange woman -drop honey, and her mouth is smoother than oil; but her latter end is -bitter as wormwood, sharp as a two-edged sword: her feet go down to -death, and her steps take hold on Sheol._ The spread of Hellenic -civilisation in Palestine had increased luxury and sensuality, and in -these matters the Wise doubtless were combating the most prominent vices -of the age. Another common fault of town life which merited and received -their vehement rebuke was malice against neighbours: to the portrait of -the Slanderer already given (see p. 122) two proverbs may here be added: -_Devise not evil against thy neighbour seeing he dwelleth securely -beside thee_ (Pr. 3^{29})--and this grand one, _Whoso diggeth a pit -shall fall therein, and he that rolleth a stone, it shall return upon -him_ (Pr. 26^{27}). - -Several interesting maxims of the Wise concerning Wealth and Poverty are -kept for consideration in a subsequent chapter, and some have already -been recorded, but the topic is one so intimately affecting the common -weal that here also it must receive mention. These Wisdom proverbs are -sometimes charged with exhibiting too mundane an attitude towards -riches, so frankly and unreservedly do certain of them recognise the -material advantages wealth confers. For the moment, however, we are not -concerned with a general judgment but with noting ideals. Isolating -therefore the nobler sayings, we find emphasis rightly laid on the broad -distinction between just and unjust gains. For the former riches, which -were the reward of diligence and shrewd but upright conduct, there is -cordial approbation. Our deeper modern perplexities as to the proper -distribution of wealth was of course beyond the Wise-men’s ken; it is -enough that we find them clear on the issue presented to their day and -generation: _The treasures of wickedness, said they, profit nothing_ -(Pr. 10^{2})--_Better is the poor that walketh in his integrity than he -that is perverse in his ways, though he be rich_ (Pr. 28^{6})--_Better -is a little with righteousness than great revenues with injustice_ (Pr. -16^{8}), and lastly the noble passage (Pr. 30^{7-9}, see p. 121) in -praise of the Golden Mean will perhaps be remembered. - -Further the Sages were stern in denunciation of greed and of -indifference to the needs of the poor and defenceless: for instance, _He -that augmenteth his substance by usury and interest gathereth for him -that hath pity on the poor_ (Pr. 28^{8})--_The Lord will root up the -house of the proud, but he will establish the property of the widow_ -(Pr. 15^{25}); and correspondingly, they exalted the virtues of -generosity and kindly help _He that giveth unto the poor shall not lack, -but he that hideth his eyes shall have many a curse_ (Pr. -28^{27})--_Withhold not good from them to whom it is due, when it is in -thy power to do it. Say not unto thy neighbour, “Go, and come again, and -to-morrow I will give,” when thou hast it by thee_ (Pr. 3^{27, 28}). - - * * * * * - -The ideals of the Sages, so far as they are immediately visible in the -proverbs, have now been given, at least in broad outline. It remains to -sum up and to consider the result. Of the vices condemned, deeds of -violence and sins of the flesh are prominent enough, but (and the fact -is remarkable) almost equal stress is laid on the iniquity of many of -the sins of the spirit. Thus, pride, jealousy, malice, revenge, -contentiousness, and all forms of dishonesty, guile, and treachery are -the way of the wicked; whereas humility, charity, peaceableness, purity -of heart, and honest purpose mark the upright man. To be indolent, -obstinate, and passionate in speech or action is characteristic of the -fool intellectual and the fool ethical; whereas the sensible man is -diligent, faithful to his friends, helpful to his neighbours, tactful -and teachable. On the last point the Wise were urgent, and they deserve -praise for their insight: that men have need to be apt to learn, not -merely when they are young and ignorant, but after they have attained -maturity and learnt much, is doctrine as important as it is unpopular. -The frigid discipline advised by the Sages for the upbringing of -children must be admitted to be harsh, but perhaps the conditions of the -age almost dictated it, and at least it reflects the value that the Wise -most rightly placed on learning young. Moreover, stern as their rule may -seem, they did not deem it incompatible with the growth of affection and -trust between fathers and sons. Of womanly virtue they held a high -ideal, and the esteem felt for the good wife and wise mother was, for -the ancient world, extraordinarily great. Ideal relations between master -and servant were conceived in terms of fidelity, care for the interests -of both parties, and possibly of friendship. In the perfect State there -would be an upright government, riches acquired by just means only, and -generous care to preserve the poor from suffering. There would be -commercial honesty, thrift and industry; no slander, no impurity, no -impiety, but only honourable and prudent conduct: in short, a peaceful, -prosperous, kindly and contented society, devoted primarily to the -pursuit neither of comfort nor of pleasure nor of riches, but of high -Wisdom. Finally, as the climax, we must remember those exalted proverbs -demanding the exercise of mercy, forgiveness, mutual help and love. - -The standard of character the Wise thus set before men is open to -adverse comment. It savours of salvation by merit. That therefore it -falls below the Christian ideal, and below the majestic and penetrating -conception of human possibilities that the great Hebrew Prophets urged, -is undeniable. But such radical criticism may for the moment be put -aside; later on we shall discuss what may be the relative values of the -Wise-men’s words and works. For the present all that is desirable is to -consider certain surprising features which the reader may have noted in -this outline of Good and Evil. - -First, then, there are curious deficiencies in the list of the Virtues. -Several qualities we admire are ignored or touched rarely and with -hesitation, as for example Courage. But, _with one exception_, these -gaps in the Ideal are not so serious as might appear. The proverbs do -not show all that was in their authors’ minds and hearts. Altogether -fallacious, as we shall see later, would be the notion that the prudence -of the Wise was really pusillanimous, that they had in reality no place -for courage in their conception of life, as they have little or no room -for its mention in their proverbs. The valid inference from these -absences is only that, as Toy says, “the Wise attached more importance -to other qualities as effective forces in the struggle of life.” But -what can possibly be said concerning the apparent absence of Religion, -the exception alluded to above? That which one looked to find in the -foreground of the picture--where is it? Yet even in this point the plea -just made might be repeated. The immediate object of the Wise was to -commend certain ethical conduct as being, despite appearances, the right -line to follow in order to command true success in the contingencies of -daily life; and in pursuance of that task they could say a great many -things without requiring to express their views on ritual worship or -theological belief. Still, when the point at issue is a man’s love for -religion, to plead simply that he more or less ignored it in his -teaching because other qualities seemed more effective in the struggle -of life, would verily be a thin apology. The real reply to this serious -charge is vastly stronger. It is the admission that our exposition of -the Wise-men’s thoughts has not been fair to them. One emphatic and -reiterated proverb of theirs, which is evidently a key-proverb and -interpretative of the general tenor of all their teaching, has not yet -been given, and _it_ is essentially religious: - - _THE FEAR OF THE LORD IS THE FOUNDATION OF WISDOM: - AND THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE HOLY ONE IS UNDERSTANDING_ (Pr. 9^{10}; 1^{7}). - -Consider the implication. The word “foundation” (usually rendered -“beginning”) in Hebrew unites the notions both of “beginning” and -“best”; and “fear,” of course, is to be interpreted religiously as -“reverence” not as “terror.” Such awe of God (say the Wise) is to be -reckoned the commencement of Wisdom and also Wisdom’s quintessence: it -is both the root and the fruit of perfect living. Now Wisdom was the -sublime source to which the Sages traced back even the simplest of their -counsels, and the most practical of their observations on men and -affairs; it was the creative sun, the derivative proverbs being, as it -were, the rays by which its light is distributed over the whole of life. -But now it appears that this sun and centre of all things itself was -conceived as rising out of religious faith, for when the Sages -considered this high Wisdom and asked what was _its_ sum and substance, -they answered, “The fear of the Lord,” and, when they wondered what -might be _its_ origin, again they answered, “God.” The fundamental -importance of this one saying would therefore be obvious even if it -stood alone as a solitary expression of faith. But other religious -proverbs occur as we shall note in due course; for example, Ben Sirach’s -opening words, _All wisdom cometh from the Lord, and is ever with him_ -(E. 1^{1}), or this--_Trust in the Lord with all thy heart, and lean not -on thine own understanding. In all thy ways acknowledge him, and he -shall make plain thy path_ (Pr. 3^{5, 6}). Such sayings may not be -numerous in comparison with the secular sayings, but there are enough of -them to show that the great proverb quoted above is not an isolated -sentiment of formal piety thrust into a mass of worldly-wisdom for -appearance’s sake. The soul of the Wise-men cannot accurately be gauged -by deducting the few religious from the many non-religious proverbs, and -drawing the inference that these men must have cared very little for God -and overwhelmingly much for worldly prosperity. Human nature guards its -secrets from such cynical or mechanical treatment. Rather will it be -true that when, as here, even one earnest plea is made for the love of -God as the ultimate inspiration of conduct, _that_ will give us the -heart of the whole matter to which all else is subsidiary and only to be -interpreted in and through the underlying religious faith. -Matter-of-fact, prudential, moralisms might be far more numerous than -they are in these Jewish proverbs, and still it would not follow that -the Wise-men were devoid of religious feeling or fervour. Some doubtless -were, but others assuredly were not, and _all_ (save an occasional -sceptic) would have stoutly maintained the view that their counsel was -derived from the ultimate, fundamental doctrine of “the fear of the -Lord.” - -The second obvious point of criticism is the indefiniteness apparent in -this so-called Ideal of the Wise. Their ethic may justly be called -redundant, or defective, or both; and in truth their Utopia, even in its -broad outline, does seem too confused and too fragmentary to provide any -coherent scheme. Contrast the relatively clear-cut work of the Hellenic -thinkers who, starting also from similar vague popular notions of -ethics, correlated, combined, and sifted the material until, as in the -Stoic and other philosophies, precisely formulated systems were -elaborated. Was not the Jewish lack of method fatal to effective -teaching? No. The Wise did not, indeed could not, construct a strict -unity out of their free-and-easy, uncorrelated aims. But they were not -candidates for a degree in Moral Sciences, nor are their doctrines here -exhibited as a satisfactory substitute for modern social philosophy. -Their thinking, as a matter of fact, was definite enough to serve their -day and generation. The position was not quite so serious as it may -appear from a theoretical point of view. In reality, the Sages knew very -well what they were aiming at, and had a reasonably clear idea of the -type of character they wished to see developed in themselves and other -men. Now it is fortunate that in the pages of _Ecclesiasticus_ we -possess not a little information about the thoughts, habits, and -fortunes of its author, Jesus ben Sirach; for this man, though doubtless -not a perfect embodiment of Wisdom, provides just what we most require -at this point of our study--a historical figure, and an admirable and -typical representative of his class. To envisage him will humanise our -notion of the Wise-men and may give to their ideals a coherence which in -the abstract they may seem to lack. - -Jesus ben Sirach was a Jew of Jerusalem who lived about 250 to 180 B.C.; -that is, well on in the period of Hellenic influence. By profession a -scribe, he seems all his days to have been a man of earnest mind, -naturally inclined to intellectual and literary pursuits. He was of good -family, and presumably possessed of considerable means, to judge by his -life-long leisure for study, the tone of his remarks on wealth, his easy -and regular participation in social entertainment, and his foreign -travels, which provided the one stirring episode in a placid career. -From some remarks in his book we gather that his travels were undertaken -whilst he was still a young man. Just when and where he journeyed is -uncertain, but since he says that he came into touch with a foreign -Court, in all probability he visited the great cities of Egypt and the -Court of Alexandria. The important point is that his tour was not -without excitement and real peril (E. 34^{12}, 51^{3{ff}}). Through some -lying and malicious gossip he had the misfortune to incur royal -displeasure, suffered imprisonment, and, in his own firm opinion, was -for a time in gravest danger of losing his life. Such an experience is -inevitably a severe test of any man’s mettle, and is doubly sure to -produce a deep impression on the mind of one so naturally unadventurous -as Ben Sirach. His comments on the matter are therefore a valuable clue -to his character. He took the view that his travels, notwithstanding the -danger, had been a great and lasting benefit, an experience in which -anyone who aspired to be counted wise would do well to imitate him. It -had proved worth all the hardship and anxiety--a fine broadening -influence: _He that hath no experience knoweth few things, but he that -hath travelled shall increase his skill. Many things_, he reflects, -_have I seen in my wanderings_ (E. 34^{10}). The other impression left -by his adventures was the paramount value of Israel’s Wisdom. In the -hour of his danger he would have perished but for the principles of -discreet and honest conduct in which Wisdom had instructed him. (E. -34^{12}). - -He returned from abroad to settle for the rest of his days in beloved -Jerusalem, where he became an honoured citizen, a man of considerable -weight socially as well as intellectually, and a notable exponent of -Wisdom, whose advice in the manifold affairs of daily life was sought -and respected. There are grounds for thinking that for some years he may -have conducted a regular school for instruction in the science of -Wisdom. He was a thorough townsman, loving the busy life of his city, -keenly observant of its varied occupations and appreciative of all -opportunities of human intercourse. So far from thinking of him as a -scholarly recluse, careless of all save his duties as a scribe or -teacher, we have to picture a man who enjoyed dining out with his -friends; no glutton, yet a frank connoisseur of food and wine. Feasting -he considered a subject not to be trifled with, as is shown by the rules -for polite behaviour, which he is careful in all seriousness to detail -in his book. As for his faults, one suspects that in public he was -inclined to be dictatorial and perhaps pompous, but he possessed a -saving grace of humour. In his home, if we are to trust his own -assertions, he must have been a strict disciplinarian. Many of his -sayings are too worldly-wise to be commendable. Now and then he is -cynical, and for the out-and-out fool he allows no hope: to essay -teaching such an one is as futile as glueing a broken potsherd together -(E. 22^{7}); and again, _Seven days are the days of mourning for the -dead, but for a fool all the days of his life_ (E. 22^{12})! Still, Ben -Sirach was no pessimist about humanity, and his judgments of men for the -most part are kindly and hopeful. - -The outstanding feature of his personality was his _breadth_ of -interest. “Whether it is upon the subject of behaviour at table, or -concerning a man’s treatment of a headstrong daughter, or about the need -of keeping a guard over one’s tongue, or concerning the folly of a fool, -or the delights of a banquet, or whether he is dealing with -self-control, borrowing, loose women, slander, diet, the miser, the -spendthrift, the hypocrite, the parasite, keeping secrets, giving alms, -standing surety, mourning for the dead, and a large variety of other -topics--he has always something to say, which for sound and robust -common-sense is of abiding value.”[69] - -Except that he puts the point in his own way, there is in matter or -opinion little in Ben Sirach’s book that could not be paralleled from -the _Book of Proverbs_. But in manner an interesting difference is -observable. _Ecclesiasticus_ is far and away superior in point of -literary charm. It has the merit of constant variety, and in places real -grace of expression, for to a much greater degree than in the _Book of -Proverbs_ Ben Sirach has developed the brief unit-proverb into epigrams -and sonnets, short essays, eulogies and longer odes; and although the -unit-proverb is still frequent, it is no longer the sum and substance of -the book. Thus by the skilful use of the more elaborate forms, the -almost unrelieved disjointedness that detracts so seriously from the -pleasure of reading _Proverbs_ is triumphantly overcome. - -In criticism of Ben Sirach’s ethical attainments, one is inclined to -call attention to the juxtaposition of great and little matters which he -perpetrates in his book: a feature also to be observed in _Proverbs_. -Questions of fundamental moral law and trivialities of etiquette are -astonishingly conjoined, apparently without his feeling the least sense -of the absurdity. Thus he bids his pupil be ashamed “of unjust dealing -before a partner and a friend, of theft in the place where he sojourns, -and of falsifying an oath and a covenant, and of _leaning on the table -with the elbow when at meat_” (E. 41^{17-19})! Manners and morals, one -is driven to suppose, had not been sufficiently differentiated in -general opinion. Then also, just when our respect for Ben Sirach is -quietly increasing, he is apt to dismay us by interjecting some most -unideal observation, as when immediately after delivering a stinging -censure on lying speech, he remarks (E. 20^{29}) that gifts which _blind -the eyes of the Wise, and are a muzzle on the mouth_, are an effective -way of appeasing influential persons. Nevertheless, as one reads his -book, the conviction deepens that Ben Sirach was sincere and earnest in -his profession of morality, and such falls from grace as the proverb -just quoted are probably due to his anxiety to give an honest -representation of the facts of life. It has been said in his favour that -he was no platitudinarian, by which, of course, is not meant that his -book contains no platitudes, but only that in face of the supreme -problems of human existence he did not cravenly blink the facts, but -faced them and sought to do justice to them; as for instance when, -writing of death, he owns that to a healthy and prosperous man it is -wholly a “bitter remembrance” (E. 41^{1}). - -From youth to his dying day this man loved and served Wisdom, and his -volume is a storehouse of many noble and valuable thoughts. It may be -charged against the authors of _Proverbs_ that they paid scant regard to -the peculiar national aspirations of their race. If so, Ben Sirach can -be acquitted on that score. He had a thoroughly patriotic outlook, for -he makes it quite clear that to his mind Judaism was the real home of -Wisdom and the truly wise man is a loyal Jew obedient to the Law. His -sense of the marvel of the world as a revelation of divine power, which -he expresses in two chapters of considerable ability, shows that he was -not without poetic feeling.[70] All his thinking rested on belief in a -great and holy God, Source of all Wisdom, in whom he exhorts men to put -their trust, from whom they must ever seek guidance. - -A worthy citizen! Of whom does he remind us? Surely of such a man as was -Horace, strolling on the Appian Way, pleased with himself and with his -fortunes, much interested in the pageant of life, keenly observant both -of the faults and the graces of his fellows, humorous, shrewd and -kindly? Or of Chaucer, part courtier, part business man of London town, -yet with a quick eye and swift sympathy for the deeper issues in the -human drama? Or (to come nearer our own days) of Pepys, with his -matter-of-fact ways, his sturdy, average morality, and his honest -enjoyment of the good things of life? Or of Dr. Johnson, with his -natural pomposity and his big, generous soul? Yes, of all these; but Ben -Sirach had one great quality that perhaps none of these possessed to the -same extent--a most earnest sense of duty in regard to his fellow men, a -whole-hearted desire to give them the advantage of the lessons life had -taught him. - -Perhaps the reader is disappointed still. When the utmost has been said -for these ideals, he may feel that there is no new insight into the -mystery of things, and no irresistible appeal to conscience. But -remember that even an imperfect Cause and an inadequate Ideal, provided -the fundamental aim be generous and sound, may be the source of real and -lasting benefits to men, for life is such that the goal we fain would -reach instantaneously must, as a matter of fact, be approached by small -advances, which therefore ought not be despised. The Wise, it is true, -were neither perfect Saints nor complete Philosophers, but our subject -is the Humanism of the Jewish proverbs, and if even this Ben Sirach, -model pupil of Wisdom, is not a wholly inspiring figure--is he not very -human? Moreover, the utmost has not yet been said on behalf of the -Sages. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -The Exaltation of Wisdom - - -Continuing the criticism of the ideal or ideals of the last chapter, it -may be said that the morality commended is not unusual nor markedly -superior to that of other peoples. Do not many of these proverbs state -the merest _a b c_ of ethical sentiment, for which any civilised nation -could produce a parallel in its proverbs? The charge is not only true in -a general way, it has special force in view of the circumstances of the -fourth to the second centuries B.C. For there is evidence of a -widespread tendency to sententious moralising in that period, and, had -we so desired, this Jewish movement might have been considered only as -part of a larger whole.[71] Among the Greeks, especially in Asia Minor, -this was the age when several gnomic poets, such as Menander and -Phocylides, won fame and popularity by their moral aphorisms, and indeed -the Jewish proverbs have many opinions in common with contemporary -Hellenic sayings. In Egypt also there was current a collection of -ethical observations, the Precepts of Ptah-hotep and the Maxims of Aniy, -so closely resembling the form and sentiment of the average Jewish -proverb that it has been suggested that the Sages of Palestine were -directly influenced by these Egyptian teachings. Certainly the -resemblances are striking. These Egyptian books “inculcate the study of -Wisdom, duty to parents and superiors, respect for property, the -advantages of charitableness, peaceableness and content, of liberality, -chastity, and sobriety, of truthfulness and justice; and they show the -wickedness and folly of disobedience, strife, arrogance and pride, of -slothfulness, interference, unchastity, and other vices. “What then? Is -the idealism of the Jews decreased in value because other nations also -had moral ambitions? Judging from the facts of history, the elements of -morality, and of commonsense, too, need constant iteration in all -languages and all periods, not excluding the present. To discover that -most of the Jewish proverbs are far from unique is no real loss, indeed -the danger lies rather in the other direction. If it could be shown that -these maxims were unlike those current elsewhere among men, the -accusation would be serious, for then this volume must needs be written, -not on the humanism, but on the unhumanism of a part of the Bible. The -charge that the Jewish maxims are not unusual is to be admitted -and--dismissed. - -More disquieting would be the contention, which the number of -self-regarding maxims readily suggests, that the general moral tone of -these proverbs is not merely normal but actually low. There is no -denying the unblushing utilitarianism that at times crops out. It is -said: _I (Wisdom) walk in the paths of righteousness, in the midst of -the paths of judgement, that I may cause those that love me to inherit -substance and that I may fill their treasuries_ (Pr. 8^{21})--_The -reward of humility and the fear of the Lord is riches and honour and -life_ (Pr. 22^{4}). This sounds even more reprehensible than the famous -definition of Christianity as “doing good for the sake of the kingdom of -heaven.” It seems suspiciously like doing good for the sake of the -kingdoms of this earth! But, hear the defence. First it has already been -urged that general judgments on the proverbs _as a whole_ require most -careful handling, if they are to be even moderately fair: let the -utilitarian sage bear his own sin; his brother who said, “Love covereth -all transgressions,” ought not to be implicated in his fall. Secondly, -there is the sensible, though not lofty, argument that since the Wise -were dealing with men tempted to throw off even ordinary moral restraint -in the burning desire to get all possible prosperity and enjoyment out -of life, if they had pitched their key much higher it is very probable -they would have received no hearing at all. Modern students of ethics -are well aware that pleasure, however often it may accompany good -conduct, cannot be made the motive for virtue. But the Wise were less -sophisticated than ourselves, and it was therefore easy for them to make -the mistake of expressing in too commercial a fashion their conviction -that “honesty is the best policy”[72]; and even if they did sometimes -over-emphasise the thought of external reward, we should remember that -perhaps it was the only way to catch the ear of certain men and draw -them back from the hot pursuit of Folly. The third point will be -surprising to those who are not aware how late in Jewish history was the -development of a worthy conception of immortality and the just judgment -of the soul after death. Compared with the Christian, who starts from -the belief that “God is not the God of the dead, but of the living”, and -that the consequences of good or evil conduct reach onwards beyond the -grave, the Wise-men of Israel were cruelly handicapped in their -consideration of the moral problem. Oesterley with justice pleads in -extenuation of Ben Sirach’s stress on the worldly advantages of Wisdom, -“This is natural in a writer whose whole attention is concentrated on -the present life, and who has nothing but the vaguest ideas about a life -hereafter.”[73] Fourthly, the Wise were not conscious of their -utilitarianism. Of course it is bad to be utilitarian at all, but it is -better to be so unintentionally than deliberately. The ancients did -not, could not, speak or write with that precise realisation of the -implications of words, which often does, and certainly should, -characterise a modern thinker. While therefore the Wise cannot be -exonerated from blame in this respect, there is not a little to be said -in mitigation of their offence. - -But the last plea we have to advance on their behalf is the best; and -indeed it is the main apology we wish to make for all their -shortcomings-- - -A man’s utterances are often an inadequate expression of his soul. Our -final estimate ought to be based, not on the proverbs themselves, singly -or collectively, but on what is behind them, the character of the -speakers. The question is, Were these sayings just verbal piety and -respectable commonplace, or were they, so to speak, waves borne on the -swell of an advancing tide, having beneath and behind them the deep -impulse of a live enthusiasm? What manner of men were the Sages at -heart--mere talkers, seeking the mental satisfaction of turning a neat -phrase and sunning themselves in popular esteem, or men genuinely -concerned for the moral welfare of their fellows? One we have already -considered and not found him altogether wanting. Much can be forgiven if -only the majority of the Wise were like Ben Sirach, in earnest about -their task. We ventured to describe him as a typical Wise-man, but what -ground is there for that assertion? - -Now this vital question is not an easy one to investigate and answer, -since concerning the individual Sages, except Ben Sirach, no personal -information has been transmitted, and we have therefore only their -sayings from which to draw a conclusion. Even so the material is perhaps -sufficient. Surely there is a valuable hint to be found in the “strict -attention to business” of _Proverbs_ as well as _Ecclesiasticus_; both -of these books preach at us incessantly from their text “Wisdom.” Why is -it that every word they contain is directed to the end of moral -improvement? Must there not have been a remarkable concentration on -moral interests to account for the comparative absence of what one might -describe as the neutral, non-moral observations on life, which are -common in the proverbs of every other nation?[74] Fortunately however, -there is one much stronger piece of evidence available. It has been -explained that the abstract conception “Wisdom” represented the teaching -of the Wise in epitome, and was the unification in thought of their -manifold opinions. It follows that what they said, or left unsaid, about -“Wisdom” furnishes an admirable test of their sincerity, revealing the -presence or absence of enthusiasm for their work. Wisdom was the Cause -they championed against Folly: it will be easy to tell whether they -truly loved it. If they had been only clever people, content to parade -their shrewdness, or comfortable upholders of law and order, proclaiming -the maxims of respectability with a business eye to the security of -their own possessions, then inevitably they would have betrayed -themselves by giving an exposition of Wisdom coldly intellectual. But -the opposite is what has happened, and the warmth and passion as well as -the reverence, of their words in honour of Wisdom bear eloquent, -unconscious testimony to the admiration and affection in which the Sages -held their calling. Hear then the Praises of Wisdom-- - -_Happy is the man that findeth Wisdom, and the man that getteth -understanding; for the merchandise of it is better than silver, and the -gain thereof than fine gold. She is more precious than rubies, and none -of the things that thou canst desire are comparable unto her...._ (Pr. -3^{13-15}): surely a disconcerting verse for upholders of the supposed -utilitarianism of the proverbs? Again, _How much better is it to get -Wisdom than gold! Yea to get understanding is to be chosen rather than -silver_ (Pr. 16^{16}, cp. 8^{10})--so much for the Sages’ notion of -comparative values. In chapter 9 of _Proverbs_, by a touch of fine -imagination, Wisdom is daringly pictured as a noble Lady, bidding guests -to her banquet. She is the counterpart of Madam Folly, who also gives a -banquet and who thus invites a passer-by: _Stolen waters are sweet, and -bread eaten in secret is pleasant_, (to which the Wise add in caustic -comment as they see the foolish one enter: _But he knoweth not that the -dead are there, that her guests are in the depth of Sheol_, Pr. 9^{17, -18}). But, in contrast, Wisdom--_Wisdom hath builded her house, she hath -hewn out her seven pillars: she hath killed her beasts, she hath made -ready her wine, and furnished her table. She hath sent forth her -maidens; on the highest parts of the city she crieth aloud, “Whoso is -ignorant, let him turn in hither”; and to him that is void of -understanding she speaketh, “Come, eat ye of my bread, and drink of the -wine which I have made ready”_ (Pr. 9^{1-5}). Ben Sirach knew that -Wisdom was high, and he does not disguise that only by long, unwearying -efforts can her favour be attained. But the reward, says he, outweighs -the toil, and he bids men seek her: _At the first she will bring fear -and dread upon a man and torment him with her discipline, until she can -trust his soul and has tested him by her judgements_ (E. 4^{17}; cp. E. -6^{19-25}). Nevertheless, he says, _Come unto her with all thy soul, and -keep her ways with thy whole power. Search and seek, and she shall be -made known unto thee, and when thou hast hold of her, let her not go. -For in the end thou shalt find her to be rest, and she shall be changed -for thee into gladness. Her fetters shall be to thee a covering of -strength, and her chains a robe of glory_ (E. 6^{26-29}). - -Wisdom is the source of all right and noble conduct, the principle that -in all things ought to regulate men’s lives. Casting behind him the grim -facts of Hellenistic courts, and perhaps of high society in Jerusalem -also, one wise man, seeing in vision the world as it should be, put -these glowing, optimistic words into the mouth of Wisdom: _By me kings -reign, and princes decree justice. By me princes rule, and nobles, even -all the judges of the earth_ (Pr. 8^{15, 16}). - -But all these praises are slight compared with the thoughts inspired by -the supreme conviction that Wisdom itself is derived from God and dwells -in His Presence: “The Wisdom that illumines the lives of the good is a -reflection of the full-orbed wisdom of God.”[75] It is the ineffable -counsel of the Almighty, the power by which He created heaven and earth -(Pr. 3^{19f}), the principle through which the universe is still -sustained. In face of this belief praise rose into exultation, and -Wisdom was reverently but enthusiastically conceived as that which had -been ordained of God from eternity to be His counsellor in the work of -Creation and His daily delight: - - _Jehovah formed me first of His creation, - Before all his works of old. - In the earliest ages was I fashioned, - Even from the beginning, before the earth. - When there were no depths was I brought forth, - When there were no fountains brimming with water. - Before the mountains were sunk in their bases, - Before the hills was I brought forth; - Or ever He had made the earth and the fields, - Or the first clods of the world. - When He established the heavens I was there, - When he drew the circle over the abyss; - When He made firm the skies above, - And set fast the fountains of the deep; - When He gave the sea its bounds, - And fixed the foundations of the earth, - Then was I with Him as a foster-child, - And daily was I His delight, - As I played continually before His eyes, - Played o’er all the habitable world. - So now, my children, hearken unto me, - Receive my instruction and be wise; - For happy is the man that heareth me, - Happy are those that keep my ways, - Watching daily at my gates, - And waiting at my gate-posts. - For he that findeth me findeth life, - And winneth favour from Jehovah; - But he that misseth me wrongeth himself: - All that hate me love death._ (Pr. 8^{22-36}).[76] - -In similar language Ben Sirach imagines Wisdom proclaiming her glory in -the very presence of God Himself: - - _I came forth from the mouth of the Most High, - And like a cloud I covered the earth; - I had my dwelling in the high places, - And my throne was in the pillar of cloud; - I alone compassed the circuit of heaven - And walked in the depth of the abysses, - In the waves of the sea and through all the earth; - And in every people I got me a possession. - With all these I sought for a resting-place-- - “In whose lot shall I find a lodging?” - Then the Creator of all commanded me, - Even he that formed me, pitched my tent - And said, “In Jacob be thy dwelling, - And in Israel thine inheritance.” - In the beginning, before the world, He fashioned me, - And to all eternity shall I fail not. - In the holy tabernacle I ministered before Him, - And thus was I established in Zion; - Yea, in the beloved city He gave me resting-place, - And in Jerusalem was my dominion_ (E. 24^{3-11})[77]. - -Such words would have set the Greeks, as they set us, asking questions: -“Is it implied that Wisdom is an entity distinct from God?”; “How far is -it fair to see Greek influence in this apparent ascription of -personality to Wisdom?” Both questions may be considered together. Too -much stress cannot be laid on the firm hold which Monotheism had -obtained in post-exilic Judaism; to the Jews of the Hellenic age the -unity of God was a fundamental tenet. But the Jewish mind was as yet -unphilosophical, not from lack of intelligence but from lack of -inclination or initial suggestion. Hebrew thought started from the -existence of God as an axiom, and was content to use the fact of -conscience as the key to the interpretation of life, whereas Greek -thought had naturally inclined towards making intellectual speculation -the basis of its endeavour to attain through truth, morality, and beauty -to the secret of life and the knowledge of God. Consequently many -utterances that inevitably raise metaphysical questions in our minds, -and would have philosophical meaning if spoken by a Greek, were put -forward by the Jews most simply, without consideration of inherent -intellectual problems. Of this character are the praises of Wisdom: -although language is used that would fittingly be applied to a personal -being, there was no intention to personify Wisdom as some kind of -sub-divine Being other than God. The Wise intended only to declare -their fervent belief that the Wisdom they studied, loved, and trusted, -was transcendently great, was _God’s_ Wisdom, was “from above.” Wisdom -in these proverbs was not consciously deemed to be more than an -attribute of God, and phrases that seem to us to overstep the bounds and -confer personality are to be regarded as an enthusiasm of the heart not -implying metaphysical conclusions as to the ultimate nature of Deity.[1a] -This is the language not of philosophy but of affection and reverent -esteem. From an early age there was a strong tendency in Hebrew thought -towards clothing abstract and collective terms in the warm language of -personal life, and the books of _Proverbs_ and _Ecclesiasticus_ may -fairly be considered a natural development of pure Hebrew tradition.[2a] -And yet there are “signs of the times” about them. The description of -Wisdom we are discussing would read strangely in pre-exilic Hebrew -books; and so the question of Greek influence may still be pressed. In -the opinion of the present writer the influence, if any, is confined to -a slight unintentional colouring. Seeing that the Wise stood out against -the pressure and menace of unscrupulous, secular Hellenism, and that -they lived at a period when Greek intellectual prowess had not yet -brought its full weight to bear on Palestinian, or at least on Judæan, -thought, it is a reasonable conjecture that any trace of new philosophy -in the proverbs has been introduced unwittingly and unwillingly. The -general soundness of this opinion becomes vividly apparent, if the two -passages quoted above are compared with the eulogy given in a Jewish -work of considerably later date, the _Wisdom of Solomon_. There Wisdom, -Artificer of all things, is described as - - _A spirit, quick of understanding, holy, - Only-begotten, manifold, subtle, mobile, - Pure, undefiled, clean, - Inviolable, loving the good.... - For Wisdom is more mobile than any motion, - Yea, she pervadeth and penetrateth all things - By reason of her pureness; - For she is a breath of the power of God, - And a pure effulgence of the Almighty._ - - (_Wisdom of Solomon_, 7^{22ff}). - -and in one verse (W.S. 9^{4}) Wisdom is actually called _She that -sitteth beside Thee on Thy throne_, astonishing words from a Jew. The -atmosphere of Hellenic philosophy being here unmistakable, the contrast -between the language of this passage and the restrained phraseology of -_Proverbs_ and _Ecclesiasticus_ is accordingly significant. - -As the _Book of Job_ is treated in another volume of this series, the -reference to it must here be brief, but a chapter on the Exaltation of -Wisdom must not close without some mention of the wonderful poem in that -Book, where also confession is made of the sublimity of Wisdom, but it -is insisted that Wisdom dwells far beyond the reach of mortals, unknown -and unknowable, save to the inscrutable Deity who wills not to reveal -its secrets unto suffering man. Each section of this great passage -begins with the haunting question, _But Wisdom--whence cometh it, and -where is the place of understanding?_ We quote the last stanza only. - - _But Wisdom--whence cometh it, - And where is the place of understanding? - It is hid from the eyes of all creatures, - And concealed from the fowls of the air. - Abaddon and Death acknowledge: - “But a rumour thereof have we heard.” - God alone hath perceived the way to it, - He knoweth the place thereof-- - Even He that made weights for the wind - And meted the waters by measure, - When He made a law for the rain, - And a way for the flash of the thunders. - Then did He see it and mark it: - He established and searched it out_ (Job 28^{20-27}).[78] - -“The Humanism of the Bible”--who would ask finer acknowledgment of one -aspect of life, its profound mystery; who could fail to hear in those -grand but desolate words the pathos of our mortal ignorance voicing its -immortal longing? Happier than this poet, and more in accord with -ordinary human experience, were the Wise-men of _Proverbs_; for theirs -was the faith that, though Wisdom might dwell in the innermost light of -God’s presence, the boon of its guidance was not wholly denied to men. -They praised its exceeding great glory, acknowledging its transcendence, -yet quietly rejoicing in the measure of knowledge they were conscious of -receiving: - - _Wisdom is the principal thing, - Therefore get Wisdom: - Yea! with all that thou hast gotten - Get understanding_ (Pr. 4^{7}). - - - - -CHAPTER X - -The Hill “Difficulty” - - -The Wise had not found the last secrets of Wisdom. There were ranges of -human nature beyond their imagining, there were paths to salvation not -visible from the highroad of respectability. Perhaps they suspected as -much in moments when the sublimity of Wisdom towered over them. But -usually no doubt they felt convinced that, given an unquestioning -acceptance of their precepts, this world would be made perfect. Better -it would have been, but that is all. Perfection is higher than climbing -humanity believes, and short cuts to the summit prove delusive. -Mechanical obedience to rules and regulations for our conduct will -certainly not suffice, for character fails to ripen in that dry soil. So -to reverence the past as to accept its thoughts as finished standards, -requiring from us only the repetition of the lips and not the -re-affirmation or re-statement of heart and intellect, is to exclude the -possibility of progress; and that, racially, is the unpardonable sin. -Tradition, an invaluable servant, is a fatal master. God means us to own -no ultimate authority save His eternal and ever-present Spirit. There -was room in the world for many a Ben Sirach, but there was even more -room for men like St. Peter and St. Paul, who could break free from -conventional standards of morality, and penetrate further into the -exceeding great and precious promises of God. - -Moreover it would have been disastrous for the Wise themselves, had the -world accepted their way of life as indisputable truth. Think what -would have happened to their characters, already inclined to -superiority, if with one accord men had bowed down to their every word -and received their maxims as beyond the breath of criticism. The point -of course, is not one that the Sages would have appreciated. Few men can -resist the impression (and those few must be cold-blooded, -unenthusiastic souls) that all would be well, provided their lightest -word was law. What a truly delightful world, where one’s judgments met -only with reverent and grateful admiration! Yet were God to give us the -desire of our hearts, we might construct a universe excellent according -to our standard, and be left ourselves the only insufferable persons in -it. “Sweet are the uses of adversity.” - -There was, however, little danger of the Wise being spoilt by -approbation. They may have had a sufficiently good conceit of -themselves, but they cannot possibly have been ignorant that many of -their neighbours held them in very different esteem; and whenever a -Wise-man in old Jerusalem put his heart into the effort to guide his -brethren into the path of understanding he can have been under few, if -any, delusions regarding the obstacles in the way. In the last two -chapters we have been picturing life as the Wise desired it to be, not -as they actually found it. Our next duty is to descend from these -heights to the plain where opposition waited to test what stuff the -Wise-men’s dreams were made of. Not without courage, not without -patience, were they able to keep these ideals in their hearts. - -The discouragements they suffered are written large across the face of -the literature. Consider first the reception accorded to their teaching. -All the Jews were not lovers of Understanding, nor was Jerusalem a State -wherein the dictates of celestial Wisdom ruled with unquestioned sway. -No doubt the note of confidence which pervades _Proverbs_ and -_Ecclesiasticus_ implies that many people respected the Wise-men’s -dignity and paid deference to their speeches. But the presence of -outspoken hostility is not a whit less clear. They did not preach -unchallenged at the entry of the Gates. On the contrary the number and -severity of the proverbs denouncing “scorners” show that the irreverent -were a vigorous section of the population. We have to bear in mind that -the Gateway was open to all-comers, and _Psalm_ 1^{1} (_Blessed is the -man that sitteth not in the assembly of the scornful_) supplies a hint -that the scoffer (and his friends) may have had an inconvenient habit of -claiming his own corner of the ground, and that not infrequently it -pleased him to be merry at the Wise-man’s expense, now pretending he -could not, or would not, hear the sermon (_A scorner heareth not -rebuke_, Pr. 13^{1}), now deriding the doctrine (_I have called and ye -have refused, I have stretched out my hand and no man regarded: Ye have -set at nought all my counsel and would have none of my reproof_, Pr. -1^{24^{f}}); now encouraging others to make vexatious interruptions -(_Cast out the scorner, and contention shall go out_, Pr. 22^{10}). -Sage-baiting seems to have been a joke that waxed not stale with -repetition: “_How long_,” asks one Wise man pathetically, “_how long -will scorners delight in their scorning_” (Pr. 1^{22})? _He that -reproveth a scorner getteth himself insult_ (Pr. 9^{7})--behold a sage -by the street-corner, wise in words but by no means so sharp in -repartee, shaking a puzzled head and wondering what the laughter had -been about and why his audience had so speedily melted away. - -Besides these cynical persons--the scorners or intentional fools--there -were fools-by-birth, whether dull-witted or coarse-natured or both, -“Simpletons”, to whom the Wise were perhaps less charitable than is -meet. But then “suffering fools gladly” belongs to the apostolic ethic; -and it vexed the Wise to think how much breath they had wasted in -seeking to teach these folk. Glorious Wisdom stirred no enthusiasm in -their obtuse souls, and the shafts of morality seldom discovered a -joint in the armour of their self-content. Wherefore, concerning these -also went up the cry, “_How long, ye simpletons, will ye love -simplicity_” (Pr. 1^{22})? And when we read that _the sluggard is wiser -in his own conceit then seven men that can render a reason_ (Pr. -26^{16}), who can fail to see a baffled Sage turning wearily and -disgustedly away? Towards the dull-witted is due mercy and patience; but -oh! those self-satisfied, petty persons, ignorant of their ignorance, -into whose mental darkness no new illuminating thought can penetrate. -These were the prime objects of the Wise-men’s indignation--and -legitimately; for in all ages they have been the curse of society, the -mainstay of old abuses, rocks which have to be blasted from the path of -progress. Of your charity, then, bear in mind that the Wise did not -lecture picked pupils only, but faced the contradictions and stupidities -of the highway, and endured the disappointment of seeing men hostile or -indifferent to their teaching. - -But the point will bear further consideration. Two types of opponents -may be distinguished. First, the actively hostile, whose manner of life -was in violent contradiction to the Wise-men’s principles, men who must -often have hated them for their moralising efforts. In the mirror of the -sayings we observe the immoral, the cruel, the violent, plotters of -mischief against their neighbours, whose deeds were evil, whose words -scorched like a fire (Pr. 16^{27}); dishonest dealers and pitiless -usurers, who robbed the poor and crushed the defenceless (Pr. 22^{22}); -men who lured others into wickedness; bloodthirsty men, thieves, -cut-throats, and reckless outlaws (Pr. 1^{11^{ff}}). Against these -Wisdom, for all its exaltation, must often have seemed powerless. -Secondly, there was the mass of the indifferent, who, being neither very -good nor very bad, did not think Wisdom mattered very much or that it -was any special concern of theirs: a type with abundant representatives -to-day. Why will they not comprehend that it is to them, almost more -than to any others, that Wisdom is crying aloud; and that their -co-operation is desperately needed for the advancement of mankind? Why -do they saunter so carelessly down the streets of life, sometimes to -fall into sore disaster from which a little Wisdom, had they sought it, -would have saved them? Why do they always pass “the preacher for next -Sunday” without a second thought? Ah! these are they that require a full -church and good music and a first-rate sermon. But if _they_ attended, -the churches would be full and the choirs strong; and sermons have a way -of winning home when men are out not for oratory, but to seek the truth -of God. - -Certainly the Wise were not ignorant of the problem of the inattentive. -Something of disappointment and perplexity lies behind the reiterated -appeals of the _Book of Proverbs_: _Hear, O my son, and receive my -sayings._ ... _My son, let them not depart from thine eyes._ ... _Hear, -my son, the instruction of a father, and attend to know, for I give you -good doctrine._ Granted that the exhortation tended to become a set -phrase, and that “my son” was often spoken to an eager pupil or an -attentive class in the Wise-man’s house, it was also used in the market -place, and for one man that stopped and responded how many passed by -unheeding? _Doth not Wisdom cry and Understanding put forth her voice? -In the streets she takes her stand; beside the gates, at the portal of -the city, at the entrance of the gates she cries aloud_ (Pr. -8^{1-3})--frequently, we may suspect, with small result. See, yonder is -Alexander ben Simeon, young, confident and well-to-do, proud to think -that his parents have called him by the name of the great Greek -conqueror. He comes strolling through the bazaar to the gate of the -city. There two voices accost him. One, that of his friend Aristobulus: -“Greeting, Alexander! Hast heard news of the boxing? ’Tis said that -Aristonicus is beaten in the Olympic _pankcration_. ‘By whom?’ By -Cleitomachus of Thebes.[79] But I swear it cannot have been by fair -means. How sayest thou?” The other voice was that of Judah the Wise, -who, perceiving the two young men in talk, approached them hopefully and -earnestly, though of course with all necessary dignity. “A wise son,” -said he, “maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is a heaviness to his -mother. Now, therefore, my sons, hearken unto me, for blessed are they -that keep my ways. Treasures of wickedness profit nothing, but -righteousness....” Unfortunately the last words were not heard by -Alexander and Aristobulus. They were already some distance off, hunting -for the man who had spread the rumour of the downfall of Egyptian -athletics. - -But others besides the young could be deaf to good counsel. Jerusalem -had many confident citizens of middle life, into whose soul the cares of -the world and the deceitfulness of riches and the lusts of other things -had entered, choking the Word: _the rich man’s wealth is his strong -city, and as an high wall in his imagination_ (Pr. 18^{11}), said the -Wise with a sigh. There is one proverb that suggests where the most -grievous personal disappointment of the Wise lay: namely, in those, -whether boy or man, who said “I go, Sir; but went not”: _Cease, my son, -to hear instruction, only to err from the words of knowledge_ (Pr. -19^{27}). Surely there was sorrow in the heart of him who uttered those -words of warning? - -In the next place consider the hindrances that the general conditions of -the age placed in the path of morality. These also are not difficult to -perceive. The moral corruption of the luxurious Hellenic cities may have -been perfectly obvious and the danger unmistakably clear, but dazzling -opportunities, political, social, and commercial, also lay waiting -there for the young and ambitious Jew. Is it to be wondered if many a -lad was ready to make a bid for fortune, and let his morality take its -chance? Important families of Jerusalem, with a handsome son who might -perhaps win favour at the foreign courts or shekels in their markets, -will have had little love for old-fashioned, moralistic Wiseacres, who -forsooth were stupid enough to oppose “the onward march of progress.” - -One passage (Pr. 1^{10-19}), addressed to “my son,” urges him not to -take up highway robbery as a career: _If they say, “Let us lay wait for -blood, let us lurk privily for the innocent without cause” ... consent -not thou_, but there cannot have been much outlet for promising youths -in that direction; it is perhaps a formal rather than a serious warning. -Much more prominent were the sensual temptations to which prosperous -persons were exposed, temptation to indulgence in gluttonous feasting -and drunken revelry. Such vices were alluring to an extent unknown to us -who live in an age when society is no longer slave-ridden, when the -wealthy can have as many duties to occupy their energies as the poor, -and when it is no longer gentlemanly to be drunk. You cannot make a -drunken man wise until you have sobered him. But the evils of -intoxication, though real enough, were less serious in old Jerusalem -than in modern cities, and in wine the Wise saw an enemy only where -pronounced abuse was present. Complete abstinence is unmooted, and even -temperance is demanded in very temperate terms. Ben Sirach bestows an -encomium on wine taken in moderation. _Wine_, says he, _is as good as -life to men, if thou drink it in its measure. What life is there to a -man that is without wine? And it hath been created to make men glad. -Wine drunk in season and to satisfy is joy of heart and gladness of -soul_ (E. 31^{27^{f}}). He observes its quarrelsome tendencies, but -thinks it necessary only to counsel tact! _Rebuke not thy neighbour at a -banquet of wine, neither set him at nought in his mirth. Speak not unto -him a word of reproach, and press him not then for repayment of a debt_ -(E. 31^{31}). In like manner _Proverbs_ 31^{6, 7} is not suitable as a -text for a Temperance address, even if (which is doubtful) it be partly -metaphorical: _Give strong drink unto him that is ready to perish, and -wine unto the bitter in soul: let him drink and forget his poverty and -remember his misery no more_. Here’s a stick to beat the teetotallers -withal! How one can imagine some foolish persons discovering that even a -text is worth picking up (if it will serve to throw at an opponent), and -pouncing gleefully upon these sayings. “Foolish persons”? Yes, -“foolish”; for the effects of alcohol in the development of modern -society have been, and are, calamitous to the material as well as the -spiritual progress of the race. Moreover, even the Wise were insistent -in denunciation of _excessive_ drinking. Said Ben Sirach, _Wine drunk -largely is bitterness of soul with provocation and wrath.[80] -Drunkenness increaseth the rage of a fool unto his hurt; it diminisheth -strength and addeth wounds_ (E. 31^{29, 30}; cp. Pr. 20^{1}, -23^{29^{ff}}, quoted pp. 138, 232). There is no possible doubt what -their attitude would have been towards the facts of the modern Drink -Question. Had they seen one thousandth part of the moral and material -losses consequent upon drunkenness and heavy drinking in the great -European or American cities, the book of their proverbs would have been -replete with commands and entreaties for reform. - -In respect of the relations of the sexes, the _morale_ of the -post-exilic Jewish state was high. Monogamy was the custom, and the -virtuous wife received a degree of honour unequalled in the old Oriental -world. There are, however, in the proverbs frequent warnings against -adultery; but, as the Hebrews were more outspoken than ourselves on -such matters, it may be that the prominence of the subject points not -so much to the prevalence of the offence as to the indignation with -which it was regarded. Yet it must be borne in mind that the crowded -city life of the period increased temptations to that sin. More serious -socially was the evil of venal women. Schechter[81] is of opinion that -the repeated denunciations of “strange women” exaggerate the low state -of morality in Jerusalem, but, with all reasonable allowance for -rhetoric, it is certain that the peril was never absent from the streets -of Jerusalem, and in the brilliant cities of Egypt and Syria, so close -at hand, licence walked unrestrained and unrebuked. The Wise knew only -too well how powerful and deadly a foe this evil could prove to their -hopes for men.[82] - -The arch-enemy, not only of Idealism, but of the mildest proposals for -reform has ever been the selfish individual. Turn to the proverbs, many -of which have already been quoted, about rich men, about money-lenders, -false-witnesses, slanderers, oppressive rulers and unjust judges; and it -becomes easy to realise how strong was the opposition confronting the -preachers of Wisdom.[83] - -Finally, recollect the gulf between a reform in words and its -translation into fact. With all our political machinery designed to -yield better legislation, how difficult it is to give effect to the will -of the wiser and nobler members of the community. Ancient society found -it incalculably harder to redress its wrongs. Grievances were not always -stifled; they might be aired in moderation and provided the charge was -vague. But, short of revolution, how was it possible to bring adequate -pressure to bear on the guilty, strongly entrenched in their high -offices by birth and wealth and autocratic might? These and similar -considerations will suggest the external difficulties of the life in -which the Wise were placed. - -To the “fightings without,” however, must next be added a tale of “fears -within.” The Old Testament writers were not unconscious of the -intellectual problems of religion. It is true that they do not debate, -or often doubt, the _existence_ of God. But the question of the Being of -God is, in a sense, academic; the question of His character and relation -to men is vital; and this problem the Jews felt as acutely and faced as -honestly as any modern men can do. Many of them had encountered -realities of experience sterner than most modernists have known--at -least until 1914. Some of the Sages, no doubt, were unspeculative -persons, content with traditional beliefs. But others there were not -blind to any of the poignant elements of life. All may have assumed God -as a fact, but some realised that only if God be just and holy and -merciful, was the ground of morality solid beneath their feet. Men who -maintained that in the fear of the Lord and honourable conduct is found -the key to a successful career, could not ignore the fact that in -reality the wicked were frequently prosperous and the good subject to -misfortune, injustice, pain, and bitter hardships. How could such things -be in the world of a righteous God? Not until the post-exilic period was -it vividly realised by a number of Jewish thinkers how obdurate these -facts are to an optimistic interpretation of life, and how they menace -not only belief in a gracious God, but also the whole structure of -morality. In many of the later Psalms, and in portions of the Wisdom -literature, to which the _Book of Proverbs_ belongs, the stringency of -the problem is clearly recognised, and the struggle for faith grows -correspondingly severe. Men cried to God to sustain their trust despite -the awful enigmas of suffering and wrong. They wrestled agonisingly with -the facts, turning now to one, now to another, explanation, if in any -wise hope in God might be preserved. - -Our consideration of the great subject must here be confined to -considering the proverbs of the period. From these it appears that the -rank and file of the Wise-men either did not feel the problem in its -acutest form or failed to reach those heights of spiritual insight that -some of the Jews attained. In the proverbs a variety of sensible but -unsatisfactory arguments are put forward. One method of defence was to -challenge or deny the reality of the facts alleged: _There shall no -mischief happen to the righteous, but the wicked shall be filled with -evil_ (Pr. 12^{21})--_Say not thou, “I will recompense evil.” Wait on -the Lord, and he shall save thee_ (Pr. 20^{22})--_The Lord is far from -the wicked but he heareth the prayer of the righteous_ (Pr. -15^{29})--_The Lord will_ =not= _suffer the soul of the righteous to -famish, and he thrusteth away the desire of the wicked_ (Pr. 10^{3}). No -one capable of sympathy with human perplexity will dismiss such -assertions as merely stupid. Pathetically insufficient they may be, but -these are the words of men convinced that somehow their instinct for God -and the moral life is sound; and there is grandeur in the unyielding -defiance. Another favourite reply was to insist on the solid rewards of -virtue or to maintain that in the end it is honesty that pays best: _The -wicked earneth deceitful wages, but he that soweth righteousness hath a -sure reward_ (Pr. 11^{18})--_He that soweth iniquity shall reap -calamity_ (Pr. 22^{8}). The Wise liked also to dwell on the fear of -retribution which is likely to haunt the evil-doer: _His own iniquities -shall take the wicked, and he shall be holden in the cords of his sin_ -(Pr. 5^{22}), a retort to the power of which many a villain, dogged by -the thought of exposure, could bear witness. After all, there generally -is _human_ justice to be considered, although the _divine_ seem far -away. Sometimes The Wise had recourse to the suggestion that _the fear -of the Lord prolongeth life, but the years of the wicked shall be -shortened_ (Pr. 10^{27}). Some, more daringly, declared that the agony -of a single day or hour might redress the balance; thus Ben Sirach: _It -is an easy thing in the sight of the Lord to reward a man in the day of -his death according to his ways. The affliction of an hour causeth -forgetfulness of delight, and in the last end of a man is the revelation -of his deeds. Call no man blessed before his death_[84]; _and_ (yet -another suggestion) _a man shall be known in his children_ (E. -11^{26-28}). This further possibility that Justice, if nowhere manifest -in a man’s own life, will certainly appear in the fortunes of his -descendants, is emphasised also in several Psalms and in passages of the -_Book of Job_ (_e.g._, _Job_ 5^{4}), and apparently was more satisfying -to the Jews than it would be to ourselves. A new argument, too vague to -be consoling, is hinted in Pr. 16^{4}, where it is declared that _God -hath made everything for its own end, even the wicked for the day of -trouble_. - -These answers, of course, do not cut deep enough, and their inadequacy -reflects adversely on the value of the Wise-men’s judgments of life. But -three important points must be noted in extenuation. First, the best -that Israel’s Wisdom had to say on the sore problem was not said in the -proverbs to which we are here limiting attention. If anyone desires to -know how unflinchingly certain Wise-men and other Jews could face the -facts and uphold their faith, he must turn to the _Book of Job_, to the -_Psalms_, to _Daniel_ and the daring aspirations of Apocalyptic writers. -Secondly, there was as yet among the Jews no active belief in the -continuance of personal consciousness after physical death, and thus the -moral problem raised by the suffering of good men was immensely harder -for them than it is for ourselves. The Hebrews from earliest times had -believed vaguely that a phantom-like continuation of individuality -awaited good and bad alike in the underworld of _Sheol_; but that -existence was not reckoned to be “life” in any real sense; certainly it -was not thought that a man could receive the reward of his merits in -_Sheol_, the land of shades. _Sheol_ offered no solution, or even -alleviation, of the moral enigma confronting the Wise. If there was to -be a Divine vindication of morality, in their opinion it must needs be -shown on earth, either in the life-time of the sufferer himself or in -that of his children. In the period we are considering, reason and -intuition were already pointing the Jewish thinkers to a higher doctrine -of human immortality; but no traces of the great liberating conception -have made their appearance in the proverbs.[85] The attitude of the Wise -towards death may be grasped from Ben Sirach’s words: _When a man is -dead he shall inherit creeping things and beasts and worms_ (E. -10^{11})--_Thanksgiving perisheth from the dead, as from one that is -not; he that is in life shall praise the Lord_ (E. 17^{28}). Death to -Ben Sirach is a great silencing fact, not a mystery provoking thought. -Sometimes he speaks of it very quietly: _All things that are of the -earth turn to the earth again, and all things that are of the waters -return to the sea_ (E. 40^{11}), and he bids men fear it not, seeing -that death comes to us all: _Fear not the sentence of death. Remember -them that have been before thee and that come after. This is the -sentence from the Lord over all flesh, and why doest thou refuse when it -is the good pleasure of the Most High? Whether thou livest ten or a -hundred or a thousand years, there is no inquisition of life in the -grave_ (E. 41^{3, 4}). The same unquestioning acquiescence appears in -the helpless commonplace of the following: _O death, how bitter is the -remembrance of thee to a man that is at peace in his possessions, unto -the man that is at ease and hath prosperity in all things, and that -still hath strength to enjoy luxury. O death, acceptable is thy sentence -to a man that is needy and that faileth in strength, that is in extreme -old age and is distracted about all things, and is perverse and hath -lost patience_ (E. 41^{1, 2}); and still more grimly in his -unconsciously brutal counsel to beware of long sorrow for the dead: _My -son, let thy tears fall over the dead, and as one that suffereth -grievously begin lamentation, and wind up his body according to his due, -and neglect not his burial. Make bitter weeping and passionate wailing, -and let thy mourning be according to his desert, for one day or two, -lest thou be evil spoken of; and so be comforted for thy sorrow. For of -sorrow cometh death, and sorrow of heart will bow down the strength. Set -not thy heart upon him, forget him, remembering thine own last end. -Remember him not, for there is no returning again: him thou shalt not -profit, and thou wilt hurt thyself_ (E. 38^{16ff}). - -This great difference of outlook would of itself incline one to a -lenient judgment on the imperfections of the proverbs. But thirdly, and -chiefly, remember that the Wise-men lived in a world that knew not -Jesus, a world in which the supreme moral fact had not yet appeared. -Therefore they lacked what we possess--the assurance that nothing, -tribulation or anguish or persecution, or famine, nakedness, peril or -sword, can sunder the spirit of Man from the love of Him whom to know is -life eternal. To them it was not possible, as it is for us, to confront -the reality of evil with the greater reality of good, to answer the -mystery of present suffering with the deeper mystery of the peace of -Christ. - -Lastly, the noblest of the proverbs has been kept in reserve till now. -Said one of the Sages, perceiving that suffering (be it justly or -unjustly incurred) is at least an efficient teacher: _My son, despise -not the chastening of the Lord, neither be weary at his reproof. For -whom the Lord loveth he reproveth, and paineth the son in whom he -delighteth_ (Pr. 3^{11, 12}). The author of _Hebrews_ 12, writing to men -enduring great distress but with the fact of Christ before them, thought -fit to quote those words; and we also will do well to ponder them. It is -reasonable to believe that hardships (which judged from certain aspects -often are unjust), even such terrible hardships as men sometimes endure, -are inevitable in a world where moral personality is in the making: not -otherwise could God Himself make man “in His own image”; not otherwise -could even He create beings who should learn to seek the Truth, and to -will the Good, in freedom. It is easy to see that courage, to take one -instance, cannot be disciplined in sham fight, but only in the hazard of -real risks. So also, it may be, all other fruits of the Spirit will grow -for men nowhere save on the rugged slopes of the hill called -“Difficulty.” The Wise, therefore, despite their perplexities, were not -pessimistic. But, though they resolutely drove out despair, they knew -depression: _Even in laughter the heart may be sorrowful, and the end of -mirth be heaviness_ (Pr. 14^{13}), and _A faithful man who can find?_ -(Pr. 20^{6})? To at least one of the Sages God seemed far distant, -silent and inscrutable. Thus Pr. 30^{1-4}--_The Words of Agur, ... I -have wearied myself, O God, I have wearied myself, and am consumed, I -surely am more foolish than other men, and no wisdom have I acquired to -give me knowledge of the Holy One. Who hath ascended up into heaven and -descended?... What is his name and his son’s name, if thou knowest?_ The -sturdy rebuke that immediately follows, (Pr. 30^{5-6})--_Every word of -God is tried. He is a shield to them that trust in Him. Add not thou -unto His words, lest He reprove thee, and thou be found a liar_, is the -sentiment of another and a happier man than Agur. - -Such was the world in which the Wise had to labour and to think. How -like our own! How sobering in the discipline it imposes on the idealist! -To one who reads without consideration of the back-ground the -sententiousness of these Jewish proverbs may soon prove irksome. But the -fault becomes bearable, and the Wise grow very human, when we recognise -that for all their bold words, they were not always confident of their -creed, and that to many an earnest man among them the preaching of -morality must at times have seemed a weary and a fruitless task. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -Harvest - - -We have seen the Wise at work, breaking up the hard ground, ploughing -the field and scattering the seed. Came ever their toil to harvest? And -since the world is the field, to what place in the wide world, what -point of time in the world’s long story, ought our search to be -directed? “They that sow in tears,” said a brave man long ago, “shall -reap in joy; though he goeth on his way weeping bearing forth the seed, -he shall come again rejoicing bringing his sheaves with him,”--and his -words encourage us to search for effects of the Wise-men’s teaching in -the immediate history of their times. No matter how often the Psalmist’s -expectation has gone unfulfilled, something in us cries assent to his -daring, and we shall therefore follow his guidance; nor shall we look in -vain. But one knows that the proverb Jesus quoted to His disciples, _One -soweth and another reapeth_, is more often true to the facts of life; -and therefore, following its warning, we must be prepared also to seek -traces of the Wise-men’s influence in times and places unforeseen by -them. - -So wide a range of human history thus opens for consideration that the -task we are attempting in this chapter is necessarily difficult. It is -still further complicated by the problem of analysis. For example, to -say bluntly that in the modern determination to remedy existing evils in -our social organisation the Christian Church may see the harvest of its -labours is ultimately true, but it is not the whole truth, and because -there is so much more to be said on the matter the statement might be -challenged as actually untrue by those whose thoughts leap at once to -the chequered official record of the Church in the last few centuries. -But the opposition with which such cut-and-dry assertions are received -often requires only a more careful analysis for its removal. Quite -certainly, despite the antagonism of certain professed Christians, the -penetrative influence of the regular preaching and teaching of -Christianity, especially during the last generation or so, has done more -towards rousing and enlightening the national conscience regarding -social conditions than can easily be measured; but the social movement -of to-day also owes much to the rise of ambitions that naturally -accompany the increase of wealth, to scientific invention, to popular -education, and to other factors that might be mentioned. The progress of -mankind is the product of many influences that have worked together for -good, and the ethical and intellectual condition of a people at any -given period is like a garment woven from many threads but without seam. -Analysis of history is desirable; but to attempt an analysis so subtle -that we can say, “Just so much is due to this influence from the past, -so much to that,” is always difficult, if not impossible. In part of -what follows we must be content to describe certain events and -circumstances concerning which we make no greater (but also no less) a -claim than that the Wise were a _contributory_ cause, their words and -their example having co-operated with the work of others in producing -the result described. - -Where then, may it be said, that the seed they sowed took root and -ripened? One general answer may be given instantly--Wherever the Bible -has been known and read: a result immeasurably exceeding the utmost -expectations of the Wise. Who among them ever hoped that their proverbs -would receive a place in a Book destined to exercise pre-eminent moral -and spiritual force throughout the world, and that through all these -centuries the best part of their wisdom, wit, and idealism would be -known and esteemed in a myriad Gentile homes? - -For closer consideration three themes may profitably be singled out; the -first being that of immediate Jewish history in Palestine, by which is -meant the critical centuries 350 to 150 B.C. This topic will first be -discussed generally, and then attention will be concentrated on certain -events during the years 200 to 150 B.C., when the struggle between -Judaism and Hellenism came to a climax and was decided. - - -I - -(_a_) Less than justice is done to the Wise in the picture of -post-exilic Judaism usually presented to students. They are not wholly -ignored, but their value as a formative influence in the community of -Jerusalem and Judæa, we venture to think, has been insufficiently -appreciated. For this misjudgment there are several plain reasons which -will prove to be well worth examining. - -In the first place, the absence of theological fervour in the proverbs, -their matter-of-fact standpoint, and the doubtful propriety of certain -sayings have been disappointing and even disconcerting to many readers -of the Bible. Judged too hastily by the superficial features of their -writings, the Wise have been dismissed either as altogether wanting or, -at best, as of small moral and religious importance. But how serious an -error that method of rough-and-ready judgment may induce, can readily be -imagined. It is much as if some future historian, attempting to estimate -the value of Christianity to this generation, had to derive his opinion -from a survey of the volumes of sermons published, many of which he -might be inclined to criticise on the ground that they were concerned -with the inculcation of commonplace moral duties. There is far more -behind such a book as _Proverbs_ than can appear in it. The Wise have -been considered too much from the literary point of view, too little -from the human. - -But, secondly, it is not surprising that the attractive, “human” aspect -has been overlooked or underestimated. We miss the warmth of personal -history in the proverbs. One’s interest is stirred so much more deeply -by persons than by things or even ideas; and the proverbs are so coldly -impersonal that only close scrutiny, such as we have here attempted, -reveals the Wise as men. They _may_ often have been pompous, -self-satisfied folk, but it cannot be denied that in their writings they -were anything but self-advertising, saying many things about Wisdom and -next to nothing about themselves. - -Even more serious for their repute than this praiseworthy self-reticence -is, thirdly, the fact that the Wise soon vanish from the surface of -Jewish affairs, apparently as completely as the prophets. But again -appearance is misleading, and the explanation that can be found for this -fact deserves to be set forth at some length, because it is likely to -help us further in the understanding of our subject. Commencing perhaps -as early as the latter part of the fifth century, B.C., there developed -in the loyal Jewish community, alongside of the elaborate worship of the -Temple, a custom of meeting together for purposes of religious -exhortation and prayer, and, above all, for study of the great Law which -was increasingly felt to be the strength and heart of Judaism. At these -meetings, or _Synagogues_, the delivery of a moral discourse would be -appropriate, perhaps was formally arranged, and the speaker selected for -this purpose must often have been one of those known as the Wise. But -commendation and exposition of the Law was even more in place on these -occasions, and this duty would naturally be entrusted to one of those -who were making the exact interpretation of the Law a life-long interest -and indeed a profession; that is, to one of those who are familiar to -us by the title “Scribe.” Now it is easy to see that the functions of -the Wise and of the Scribes were not far sundered, and these “synagogue” -meetings must have done much to promote and hasten the approximation of -the two classes.[86] Indeed the process of fusion can be watched in the -pages of Ben Sirach’s book. From it we learn that Ben Sirach, prominent -as a Wise-man, was himself professionally a Scribe, and he praises that -occupation as the best of all careers, the one most suitable for a -disciple of Wisdom (E. _Prologue_ and 39^{1-3}). What more was needed -than that the Sages should recognise in the Law of Moses the mysterious -Wisdom which they served? And we find this very identification expressly -made by Ben Sirach, who declares (in reference to certain wonders of -Wisdom he has set forth in previous verses) that _All these things are -the book of the covenant of the most high God, even the Law which Moses -commanded us_ (E. 24^{23}; cp. 15^{1}, 19^{20}, etc.). What happened is -clear. From about the beginning of the second century B.C. the functions -of moral exhortation--the special sphere of the Wise, at least in -public--were discharged by persons who were Scribes; henceforth, to put -it briefly, the Wise were mostly Scribes, and the Scribes were mostly -Wise. The disappearance of the Wise-men is thus explained; seated in -Moses’ seat, they have passed out of our sight and so out of mind; or, -if dimly recognised by us in their new character, they have been -involved in the Scribes’ not wholly merited disfavour.[87] - -In the fourth place, the Wise have also suffered unduly from the -overwhelming prestige customarily assigned to the Law in post-exilic -times. Many scholars have so sat in its shadow that they seem to lose -sight of all other elements in the situation, nay! even to have -forgotten the sunny side of the Law itself. Jerusalem is sometimes -pictured as a city of ecclesiastical lawyers, and the Jews as a -congregation clustered round a book of rules; an exaggeration and -misconception that might never have gained favour, had the mass of -spiritual exposition and reflection embodied in early Rabbinical -literature been more accessible to Christian students. It is a question -of proportion. Without denying that the Law had become the -rallying-point of distinctive Judaism and was destined to obtain a -paramount place in Jewish life and thought, we have to insist that it -held no monopoly of influence in the period before 150 B.C., when the -Wise were still distinctively the Wise. Jewish legalism may already have -become an important fact in the national consciousness, but plenty of -room remained for Jewish humanism. We would insist that whilst the Law -had one great rival--the spirit of indifference to all its teaching -which the growth of Hellenic fashions favoured--it had also coadjutors. -There were other spiritual influences at work, moulding the standards -and ideals of the Jews; one of these was the study and appreciation of -the writings of the great Prophets of Israel, whence before long came -the high aspirations of the Apocalyptic school of thinkers; and another -was the example and teaching of the Wise. Consider the point in view of -the normal qualities of human nature. What impresses ordinary folk? How -do they learn new knowledge? Men are impressed by worth and dignity in -their teachers, the Easterns in particular paying even undue deference -to age and prosperity. And most men learn by small degrees: as Isaiah -put it, they need to be taught precept upon _precept, line upon line, -here a little, and there a little_. Is not that exactly what the Wise -were best fitted to give them--precept upon precept? Here were some of -the most honourable and prosperous citizens of the day, not keeping -their Wisdom jealously to themselves, but counting it their serious duty -to impart the secrets of success; now teaching chosen pupils; now -mingling in the open with all sorts and types of men (Did not Wisdom cry -aloud and utter her voice in the broad places, and cry her message in -the chief place of concourse, even at the entering in of the gates, cp. -Pr. 1^{20}, 8^{1-3}?); everywhere upholding reverence towards God and a -standard of morality, if not perfect, at least far superior to average -attainments. Day in, day out, the social and personal idealism, and the -wholesome vigorous commonsense of these proverbs were being instilled -into the ears of the people by teachers whose prosperous respectability -alone was enough to gain them popular attention. Must it not be that all -this had effect, and great effect, on the Jewish community? The Law no -doubt enlisted the prime devotion of the pious, the prophets appealed -most to the enthusiast, but the Wise must have had the ear of the -ordinary folk--that is, of the majority of men. - -(_b_) Detailed proof of the conclusion thus drawn from general -considerations is of course not available. There is, however, one -direction in which immediate evidence of the Wise-men’s influence may be -sought, namely in the issue of the struggle between Judaism and -Hellenism. To this end let us briefly pass in review certain events of -the years 200 to 150 B.C. It will already be clear to the reader how -slight was the chance of the older Jewish habits persisting in face of -the full tide of new life and thought, which was steadily smoothing them -away as waves will melt sandcastles on the shore. By the end of the -third century the infection of Hellenism was rife, not only in the upper -classes, but in all grades of Jewish society; “even in the very -strongholds of Judaism it modified the organisation of the State, the -laws, public affairs, art, science and industry, affecting even the -ordinary things of life and the common associations of the people.”[88] -Black as was the outlook for Judaism at this date, it was soon to grow -much worse. Early in the second century the leading families of -Jerusalem had become thoroughly Hellenic in their point of view, and, -worst of all, in 174 B.C. the office of the High Priesthood fell by -intrigue into the grasp of an unscrupulous man, Joshua or (to use the -Greek name which he adopted and preferred) Jason. This Jason, to curry -favour with the Syrian king, set to work to complete the transformation -of Jerusalem into a Grecian city. Accordingly a gymnasium was now built, -and so popular was the High Priest’s policy, so forgotten the -old-fashioned sentiment, that even the Priests were found willing to -participate actively in the competitions of the public athletic games. -The unholy zeal of the more ardent Hellenists, however, crystallised -into definite shape such opposition as still existed. A body of men, -convinced upholders of strict Judaism, now drew together and became -known as _Hasidim_, _i.e._, “The Conscientious” or “The Faithful”; but -their ranks were recruited largely from the poorer classes, they lacked -intellectual prestige, and no doubt their opposition to Hellenism in -some respects had the weakness of mere unreasoning conservatism. The -party did not seem fitted either to grow in numbers or to continue -through many years, and with its passing the old Jewish piety bade fair -to perish finally. - -But at this stage occurred one of the most astonishing _dénouements_ in -history. In 175 B.C. Antiochus IV Epiphanes began to reign over the -Syrian dominions: a remarkable but dangerous man, eccentric to the verge -of insanity; inordinately vain, yet endowed with great ability, energy, -and ambition. Soon after his accession certain tumults took place in -Jerusalem. The rioting was directed against Syrian authority, but did -not amount to anything which could fairly be construed as rebellion, -being in fact mere faction-fighting. None the less Antiochus, whose -exchequer happened to be in sore straits for money, made the occurrence -a pretext, first, for plundering the Temple of its treasures and, two -years later, for inflicting on the Jews a cruel punishment. Entering the -city in 168 B.C. he razed its walls, and desecrated the Temple in an -abominable fashion, sacrificing swine on the altar and converting it -into a sanctuary for Hellenic worship. Still more important, however, -was his resolve once and for all to stamp out any obscurantists among -the Jews who might presume any longer to follow their ancestral customs -and oppose the Greek culture. Then began throughout the Jewish province -a fierce persecution. In all towns and villages men and women were -sought out and slain--whosoever was found guilty of practising Jewish -observances, or possessed a copy of the Jewish Law, or refused to offer -worship at a heathen shrine. The position of the loyal Jews soon became -desperate. The threat of torture and death was stamping out relentlessly -the last flicker of resistance. Many of the _Hasidim_, refusing to make -the great surrender, died for their faith, and the small companies who -escaped to the deserts for refuge, though steadfast in determination to -resist, were in despair, feeling that Jehovah had forsaken His people -utterly. A famous passage in 1 Maccabees (2^{29-38}) relates how one -thousand of them, men, women and children, pursued into the wilderness -by the Syrian troops, were overtaken on a Sabbath day, and how (rather -than violate the laws of the Sabbath by fighting) they sought neither -to escape their enemies by flight nor yet to defend themselves, but -stood and met death in heroic silence. - -Such was the condition of affairs when suddenly a change came over the -character of the Jewish resistance. A certain Mattathias, a priest of -the village _Modein_, with his five sons (one of whom was the famous -_Judas_, afterwards surnamed _Maccabeus_), indignant at what was taking -place, and convinced of the futility of such passive martyrdom as had -led to the massacre just mentioned, struck a blow for freedom, and began -to organise active opposition. The _Hasidim_ fell in with the new -policy, and men rallied to the support of Mattathias and his sons. It -was as if the latent patriotism of the Jews had waited only for a spark -to kindle it, had required only action on lines of sufficient common -sense to offer a faint chance of success in combating Antiochus. The new -army that sprang dramatically into being was fortunate in its commander. -Under the brilliant leadership of Judas Maccabeus surprising victories -were gained, and after vicissitudes of fortune which it is not in point -here to record, there emerged a Jewish State, free from the tyranny of -Syria, and eager to preserve the essence of that moral monotheistic -faith which had been Israel’s one unique glory. - -But whence this astonishing revival? The _Hasidim_ were none too -numerous, and if, as is entirely probable, a large proportion of their -men were advanced in years, they can hardly have been the most efficient -portion of the Maccabean armies from a military point of view. Victories -in war are won by young, vigorous men, and the swift triumph of the -Maccabees implies the adhesion to their cause of numbers of young Jews -from within and without Jerusalem; and that again is explicable only by -the presence in the nation of a strong undercurrent of respect for the -older, distinctive Judaism. Things were not quite so desperate as they -had seemed. Hellenism had progressed far; but it had not eaten out the -heart of the people. Obviously if all the young Jews had been convinced -Hellenists, content to follow the lead of the high-priestly party to any -lengths and wholly contemptuous of Israel’s former piety, they would -have looked on with indifference, or even approval, while the last -remnants of the puritanical _Hasidim_ and the villagers of Modein were -being blotted out. But from that attitude they had evidently been saved, -and it is fair to acknowledge that the Wise must have done much to -achieve that consummation. Their broadminded outlook, their sensible but -genuine piety, their solid worth of character, their shrewd yet earnest -and at times enthusiastic teaching, all had helped effectively to -maintain regard for the old-fashioned interpretation of life that rested -on “the fear of the Lord.” With the example of the Wise-men before them, -there must have been many who, though they felt that Hellenism was -wonderful, yet knew in their soul that Judaism also was great and wise. -So soon therefore as the vileness of a bloody and remorseless -persecution clarified the moral issue and compelled a choice, men were -found who could make the right resolve to fight for their liberty and -their fathers’ God. The result of the Maccabean conflict was a real -decision; the tide had turned, and the losing battle was not lost. -Hellenic thought and method would in days to come mould and modify the -Jewish people in many ways, but its strangle-hold on the vital point of -Jewish religion was loosened, never to be renewed. The spiritual genius -of Judaism could breathe again. Henceforth, to quote a memorable saying -of Wellhausen, “in a period when all nationalities and all bonds of -religion and national customs were being broken up in the seeming cosmos -and real chaos of the Græco-Roman Empire, the Jews stood out like a rock -in the midst of the ocean. When the natural conditions of independent -nationality all failed them, they nevertheless artificially maintained -it with an energy truly marvellous, and thereby preserved for -themselves, and for the whole world, an eternal good.” - - -II - -The second field in which one may reasonably look for signs of the -Wise-men’s labours is of course subsequent Jewish history, the question -being, “Did the teaching of the Wise slip out of sight and memory when -the crisis we have described was ended, and when the professors of -Wisdom became the Scribes and were more and more absorbed in purely -scribal interests, or did it escape oblivion and continue a living -influence in the life of the Jews?” The ground that must furnish an -answer to our question is chiefly the presence or absence of references -to these proverbs, or of imitations and echoes of them, in the later -Jewish literature. To begin with, however, there is one clear, -independent proof of the esteem in which at any rate the _Book of -Proverbs_ came to be held, and that is its inclusion in the Hebrew -Bible. This fact alone is irrefutable and sufficient testimony that the -thoughts of the Wise never ceased to influence the minds and characters -of loyal Jews. So much for _Proverbs_, but what of _Ecclesiasticus_? It -also was far from being forgotten. Though it failed to secure a place in -the Hebrew Canon, it was included in the Septuagint[89], the Bible of -the Greek-speaking Jews of Egypt. The Talmud in one ultra-orthodox -passage forbids quotations to be made from Ben Sirach’s book, but -actually there are quotations from it in the Talmud itself! In fact, a -vast number of references might be adduced from the whole range of -Jewish literature testifying both to the popularity of these two great -treasuries of the Sages’ sayings, and to the steady appreciation of -proverbs old and new, which the Jews displayed. - -To set forth proof of this assertion even in barest outline would -involve technicalities that might be wearisome. We give therefore but -two or three points in illustration. Perhaps the most interesting, and -for Gentile readers the most accessible, source of evidence is a work of -the first and second century A.D., a compendium of the ethical ideas and -ideals of certain famous Jewish teachers, bearing the title _Pirke -Aboth_, that is _The Sayings of the Fathers_.[90] Throughout this -treatise the influence of the Wisdom writings is clearly indicated by -the sententious style that characterises the several _Sayings_, as well -as by the numerous direct references to _Proverbs_. A few quotations -will bring this out, and at the same time illustrate the high ideals, -curiously but often very attractively expressed, of which the book is -full:-- - -_Ben Zoma said, “Who is mighty? He who subdues his nature, for it is -written ‘He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty’_ (Pr. -16^{32})._”_[91] - -_Antigonous of Soko used to say, “Be not like servants who work for -their Lord with a view to receiving recompense, but be as slaves that -minister without seeking for reward, and let the fear of heaven be upon -you.”_[92] - -_Rabbi Chananiah said_--something that might have averted the European -war, and made Germany a blessing instead of a curse, had her rulers and -thinkers accepted his deep counsel!--_“Whenever in any man his fear of -sin comes before his wisdom his wisdom endures, but whensoever a man’s -wisdom comes before his fear of sin his wisdom doth not endure._”[93] - -_Rabbi Judah ben Thema said, “Be bold as a leopard, and swift as an -eagle, and fleet as a hart, and strong as a lion to do the will of thy -Father which is in heaven.”_[94] - -And there was Rabbi Samuel the Little, who chose for his life’s motto -just one verse of _Proverbs_ (24^{17}), and added thereto no word in -comment: “_Rejoice not when thine enemy falleth, and let not thine heart -be glad when he stumbleth_.”[95] - -So the topic might be pursued, and from _Midrash_ and _Talmud_ might be -drawn examples in plenty, both references to the ancient proverbs and -quotations of new ones--words of wit and humour, of prudence and fine -idealism--applied to all manner of human intercourse, and witnessing -abundantly that in Israel Wisdom was still known of her children. Space -must be found for just these three observations on married life: - - _Whose wife dies in his lifetime, the world becomes dark for him_ - (C. 55)[96]. - - _He who loves his wife as himself and honours her more than - himself_ ... it is _of him the Scripture saith “Thou shalt know - that thy tent is in peace”_ (C. 55). - -And, lastly, this gentle and subtle saying:-- - - _If thy wife be short, bend down and whisper to her_ (C. 55). - -If Wisdom is an influence at all, it is always an intimate influence -working in homes and individual consciences as well as in street and -market-place, so that besides noting the frequent mention of proverbs in -the literature, consideration should also be paid to the vigour of -Jewish morality in the Christian era. Perhaps the simplest and most -human point at which to test the matter briefly will be the ethic of the -Jewish home. Dispossessed of their native land and scattered to a -thousand different cities, the Jews were compelled to work out their own -salvation under great and increasing difficulties.[97] _God_, says a -significant Talmudic comment, _dwells in a pure and loving home_; and no -one, aware of the evils that were rampant in the decaying paganism of -the Græco-Roman Empire and persisted, still powerful though not -unrebuked, in the slowly developing society of nominally Christian -Europe, would deny that the isolated and often harassed communities of -the Jews did their utmost to make that noble saying a reality, -maintaining with amazing courage and pertinacity a splendid ideal of -family and communal existence. A discussion of the topic in the _Jewish -Encyclopædia_ concludes with the following affirmation: “Throughout -these centuries of persecution and migration the moral atmosphere of the -Jewish home was rarely contaminated, and it became a bulwark of moral -and social strength, impregnable by reason of the religious spirit which -permeated it.” And in elucidation of what was involved in the -persecution referred to let this one grim statement speak: From the -sixteenth century, and earlier, regulations were enforced compelling the -Jews of numerous large cities to reside in certain confined areas, -“ghettos.” Nevertheless the dreadful overcrowding to which this led -resulted in no serious moral evils: “The purity of the Jewish home-life -was a constant antidote to the poisonous suggestions of life in slums, -and it was even able to resist the terrible squalor and unhealthiness -which prevailed in the miserable and infamous Roman ghetto, where at one -time as many as 10,000 inhabitants were herded into a space less than a -square kilometre. In the poorer streets of this ghetto several families -occupied one and the same room. The sufferings of the Jews in that hell -upon earth were not diminished by the yearly overflowing of the Tiber -which made the Roman ghetto a dismal and a plague-stricken swamp.”[98] - -Of course many things worked together to sustain the morality of the -Jewish people--the long-suffering of the Psalmists, the golden promises -of the mighty Prophets, and the strength of the ancient Law. But surely -also that store of homely, yet stirring and challenging, proverbs which -the Wise-men had created, may claim a real share in the magnificent -result? And if, quite rightly, it be insisted that the Law, with its -fascination of hallowed customs and manifold spiritual suggestions, -played the all-important part, then in reply we may still enter the plea -that, as Ben Sirach had felt and said, for the Jew the Law was Wisdom -and Wisdom had become the Law. - - -III - -In the third place, the words of the Wise were given an honoured place -in the mind of the Lord Jesus Christ. To some that may be an unexpected -statement. It is well-known that Jesus was intimately familiar with the -doctrine of the Prophets, and many have perceived how conscious He was -of all that is admirable in the Law, the spiritual essence of which He -fulfilled. But, though His interest in the Wise is seldom noted, it is -no less true that He had considered deeply and sympathetically the idea -of the Divine Wisdom, and was familiar with the famous proverbs that -sought to apply its guidance alike to the greatest and the least of our -affairs. Just how often a memory of Wisdom is traceable in the recorded -words of Jesus cannot be determined with certainty. _Verbatim_ allusions -are rare, perhaps because the ideas of the Wise and their more memorable -sayings had become so familiar in our Lord’s time as to be common ground -between hearer and teacher, so that often it was only the point made by -the Wise that was hinted at, or caught up and given some new turn and -emphasis. But echoes from the thoughts and images of the proverbs are so -frequent in the Gospels that together they furnish ample evidence of His -having known and valued the ancient treasury of Wisdom. The evidence is, -of course, cumulative, and its strength must not be judged by the -following few illustrations.[99] - -No fewer than seven of the eight Beatitudes (_Matt._ 5^{3ff}) recall -proverbs of the Wise; what had been, as it were, a seed of thought in -the proverb finding ripe expression in the Beatitude. For instance, -_Blessed are the poor_ (_i.e._, humble) _in spirit, for theirs is the -kingdom of heaven_, said Jesus--_Better_, said the Wise, _is it to be of -a lowly spirit with the poor, than to divide the spoil with the proud_ -(Pr. 16^{19}). With Jesus’ condemnation of mischievous talk, _Every idle -word that men shall speak they shall give account thereof in the day of -judgement; for by thy words shalt thou be justified, and by thy words -thou shalt be condemned_ (_Matt._ 12^{36, 37}), compare Pr. 18^{20, 21} -_Death and life are in the power of the tongue; and they that love it -shall eat the fruit thereof_ (also Pr. 13^{2}, 15^{4}, 21^{23}, etc.). -With the teaching, _Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon the earth -... but in heaven_, compare Pr. 11^{4, 28}, 15^{16}, 16^{8}, etc. _Give -us this day our daily bread_ seems to echo Pr. 30^{8}: _Give me neither -poverty nor riches; feed me with the bread that is needful for me_. In -the command for generous dealing, _Give to him that asketh thee, and -from him that would borrow of thee turn not away_ (_Matt._ 5^{42}), -there is perhaps a precise reminiscence of Pr. 3^{28}: _Say not unto thy -neighbour, “Go and come again” when thou hast it with thee_ (cp. also -Pr. 19^{17} with _Matt._ 25^{40}); and again when Jesus encouraged His -disciples saying _Be not anxious how or what ye shall speak.... For it -is not ye that speak but the spirit of your Father which speaketh in -you_ (Matt. 10^{19, 20}), perhaps the very words of Pr. 16^{1} were in -His memory: _The plans of the heart belong to man, but the answer of the -tongue is from the Lord_? - -Some of the immortal images in our Lord’s parables may have been painted -from the thought suggested by a proverb. In the parable of _Luke_ -14^{7-11}, the command not to seek the highest seats at the banquet may -originate in the saying of Pr. 25^{6} as much as in the concrete -examples of the failing which contemporary life no doubt afforded. So -also the famous parable of the two houses, one built on rock, the other -on sand, perhaps goes back to the seed-thought in Pr. 12^{7}: _The -wicked are overthrown and are not, but the house of the righteous shall -stand_; and the proverb _Boast not thyself of to-morrow, for thou -knowest not what a day will bring forth_, Pr. 27^{1}, might be text for -Christ’s parable of the rich man and his barns (_Luke_ 12^{16-21}). -Again when Jesus, speaking of the kingdom of heaven, likens it to a -marriage feast (_Matt._ 22^{1-14}; etc.) and elsewhere compares it in -its infinite value to a hidden precious pearl, there are details in the -language used which suggest that the picture of Wisdom’s banquet (Pr. -9^{1-5}), and the proverbs on the incomparable worth of Wisdom were not -far distant from His mind. - -More important than even the certain or possible verbal reminiscences of -the proverbs is the resemblance between the manner of Jesus’ teaching -and the manner of the Wise. Like them, He also taught in the streets, -seeking the people where they were most easily to be found; and though -His words were infinite in depth of insight and spiritual grandeur, He -was wont to clothe them in simple language--now quoting a telling -proverb, _Physician, heal thyself_, now kindling imagination by a -familiar but graphic metaphor or comparison that went home to the heart, -and challenged the conscience, and was comprehensible to learned and -unlearned equally. Like the Wise, He spoke constantly on those simple -but supreme issues which concern every man that cometh into the world; -and His highest doctrine was often cast, like the lessons of ancient -Wisdom, in brief sentences that refused to be forgotten: _Blessed are -the pure in heart, for they shall see God--He that findeth his life -shall lose it, and he that loseth his life for My sake shall find it_. -Many readers will realise that the deepest thing concerning the relation -between Jesus Christ and Wisdom has not yet been referred to, but that -we deliberately reserve. Enough has been said for the present purpose. - -Who in face of all these facts would dare to maintain that the Wise-men -toiled to no purpose. Their love’s labour was not lost. In the issue of -the struggle with Hellenism and the revival of the Jewish national -consciousness with its unique moral and religious features, some of them -witnessed a result such as their teaching, whether they were fully -conscious of the fact or not, had tended to achieve. - -But also there came gradually in later generations, and in lands of -which they had not so much as heard, a rich reward of which the end is -not yet in sight. Could they but have foreseen even a small corner of -this ultimate harvest field, how completely depression would have -vanished, and all mistrust of God’s dealings with faithful men been -lifted from their minds! Their proverbs were laid on the foundation of a -religious and ethical idealism, and if some have proved to be only wood, -hay and stubble, others were gold, silver and costly stones, and these -have obtained a place in the temple of eternal Truth. Doubtless the -imperfections of the Wise were great and their failures and -disappointments many, but all the time they were building far better -than they knew. Is it not always so with every courageous effort after -righteousness, every honest search for the kingdom of the living God? - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -Values - - -Our fathers required no volumes on the Humanism of the Bible. They felt -themselves close-linked with its heroes; Patriarchs, Judges, Warriors, -Kings, and Prophets were their kith and kin, not in blood, but in the -nearer relationship of human experience. Saul, in his pride, his -jealousy and desolate death, stood in warning beside them; David, -pattern of faith and fortitude in adversity, was at their right hand, so -that in their distresses men would take courage, remembering that David -also had cried unto the Lord and been delivered. But the perspective of -the years has ceased to be foreshortened, and between our generation and -the old world of the Bible a great gulf now seems fixed. Nevertheless -our fathers were right, and we are wrong. Saul and David and the men of -the Bible are not separated from us by 3,000 years, nor yet by one year, -for difference of race and custom are trivialities compared with the -fundamental conditions of life and the unalterable principles of -character. Our predecessors may have made too light of the differences, -but that is a small fault compared with the modern tendency to ignore -the resemblances: not to ask “What do these men and these events say to -us concerning the eternal things we share with them?” is to miss the one -thing needful. - -To illustrate the argument, recollect that skeleton of dates, _William -the Conqueror_ 1066 ... which not so long ago did duty in our schools -for the record of the glory of England. What could have been more -ineffective for revealing the soul of history? Now-a-days, the tale is -better told but, even so, be the events narrated never so graphically, -unless they are conceived in relation to ourselves we are little -benefited. To use the famous simile of the prophet, bone may come to its -bone, and sinews be upon them, and flesh come up and skin cover them -above, until the very semblance of men rises before our eyes; but there -will be no breath in them. Only when it is realised how out of the -living past has grown the living present, only then enters the breath of -God into the men of old and they live and stand up upon their feet, an -exceeding great army--to our aid in the shaping of what is to be. -History is profitable in so far as its significance for the present is -understood.[100] Thus, with fine insight, the Jews perceived that even -their majestic Law would be of no avail if it were heard only as the -recital of words delivered long ago at Sinai, and accordingly the -exhortation ascribed to Moses in the _Book of Deuteronomy_ comes to its -climax in this deep saying: _The commandment is not too hard for thee, -neither is it far off. It is not in heaven, that thou shouldest say “Who -shall go up for us to heaven, and bring it down unto us, and make us -hear it, that we may do it?”... But the Word is very nigh thee, in thy -mouth and in thy heart, that thou mayest do it._[101] - -And so also in like manner this account of the history behind the Jewish -proverbs has not been told in order to evoke for a brief moment -nerveless phantoms of the Wise in ancient Israel, but with the hope that -a voice would be heard saying even of this Word “It is very nigh thee, -in thy mouth, and in thy heart, that thou mayest do it.” What is the -significance _for us_ of these men and their experiences? - -Consider some of the features of this Movement, if so precise a term may -for convenience be applied to the easy, natural, teaching of Wisdom. In -the first place observe the thorough and effective contact established -by the teachers of Wisdom with the people they sought to reach. One of -the main problems confronting Christianity is the severance of the -potential influence of its Churches from the life of the people; verily -Mahomet sits waiting for the mountain. What then? Ought the Churches to -be abandoned, and men go a-worshipping in the market-place? -“Impractical--at the best it would soon lose its effect--the experiment -has been made, with sadly limited results”: a thousand valid objections! -But the problem must not be dismissed so lightly with a bare -consideration of its obvious difficulties, for the issues at stake are -too serious; the bulk of the population live perilously free from the -stimulus of any Ideal, whether self-sought or impressed from without by -the teaching of others. Seeing then that the Wise succeeded where we -have missed the mark, their ways must at least deserve a scrutiny; here -is a method by which the poor were preached to, and religion stood daily -in the streets and morals in the market-place; here is idealism put in -language the unlearned could both comprehend and recollect. Indeed the -proverb was wonderfully suited to their needs, for even its riddles were -easily solved, not darkening counsel but devised only to awaken -curiosity and so assist the slow and simple mind. Of course a slavish -imitation of the Wise-men’s procedure is out of the question in modern -circumstances, but slavish imitation is not suggested. Said Sir Joshua -Reynolds when urging the students of the Royal Academy to the study of -the Old Masters, “The more extensive your acquaintance is with the works -of those who have excelled, the more extensive will be your powers of -_invention_.” There is a force of idealism latent in almost all men, but -it requires to be brought to the surface, examined, criticised and -judiciously directed to the attainment of practical objects; otherwise -the greater part of its potential energy will never be brought into -action; and in this easy-going land of ours there is more than normal -scope for increased discipline of the mind. We can afford to think much -harder than we have ever yet done without losing the virtue of humorous, -tolerant good-nature. As Mr. Clutton Brock has said recently, “The fact -that some thinking is bad is not a reason why we should not think at -all. The Germans have been encouraged by their bad thinking to exercise -certain virtues perversely and to bad ends, but still to exercise them -in a manner which has astonished the world; while we have been little -encouraged by thinking, good or bad, to exercise any virtues.”[102] -There is ample room for more _outspoken_ interest in the ends and -principles of human life, more earnest and stringent consideration of -the problems of social organisation--provided our discussions be -undertaken, not in the spirit of silly contention, mere bolstering up of -unconsidered prejudice, but in a sincerity that will be both more -critical and yet more humbly eager, for truth’s sake, to learn one from -another. For it is not division of opinion, or even real conflict of -interest that prevents and retards reform, so much as the dead weight of -ignorance, of indifference and of paltry pride in argument--the very -sins which in the past were the prime cause of the evils that call for -remedy. - -No less than the ancient Hebrews we moderns stand in need of the -exhortation to let Wisdom _enter into our hearts and knowledge be -pleasant unto our souls_ (cp. Pr. 2^{10}). Neither with all our heart, -nor even with all our mind, far less with all our soul, have we yet -sought her whose _ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are -peace_ (Pr. 3^{17}); nor have we understood sufficiently that _she is a -tree of life to all that lay hold on her, and happy is every one that -retaineth her_ (Pr. 3^{18}). Says a later Jewish proverb, _Lackest thou -Wisdom, what hast thou acquired? Hast acquired Wisdom, what lackest -thou?_ (C. 93.) - -Secondly, the constant intimate contact that the Wise maintained with -the actualities of men’s ordinary experience was beneficial not only to -the taught but to the teachers. It kept the Wise in touch with -work-a-day problems (the most difficult of tasks for the idealistic -thinker), and so helped to make their toil productive. It taught them -how to bring Heavenly Wisdom down from the right hand of God that she -might dwell with men, and make their homes pure and loving, and their -business just, and their pleasures clean. And herein is a thought of no -little encouragement for preachers and teachers in these days of not -overcrowded Churches. Somehow it seems that personal contact is -invaluable in the moral and spiritual education of man. That is why the -leading article, with its scores of thousands of readers, may sometimes -have less effect than a good sermon heard by a few hundred. The Press -addresses us from an Olympian but distant Fleet Street, thundering at -us--but in cold print; whereas the parson and the teacher, if he is a -true man, somewhere and to some few is a neighbour and a friend. However -excellent the Manual of Ethics, it will not serve to influence the lives -of many. The Son of Man, it seems, must come eating and drinking and -teaching in our streets. - -In the next place, this Movement is an interesting and important example -of independent as opposed to systematic instruction, illustrating both -the weaknesses as well as the strength of pronounced individualism, and -supporting the opinion that, if only one safeguard be present, the -advantages of individualism outweigh its dangers. Teachers less -restricted than the Wise it is difficult to imagine. Each was free to -develop his own opinions on the nature of life and the principles of -success and failure, even to the point of open agnosticism. What -prevents such licence from becoming chaos? The reply indicated by the -Wisdom Movement is that freedom, even extreme freedom, of judgment in -matters of conduct and faith will not result in chaos provided there is -an underlying unity of aim. All the Wise were lovers of Wisdom. They -conceived their theme in different fashions, but they had all the same -intention--to teach and to practise Wisdom and not Folly; hence, despite -the diversity in their proverbs, the shifting standpoints, the variety -of ethical standards, even the contradictions of advice, their teaching -was ultimately effective. If we had had space to consider their work in -relation to other movements in the intellectual life of that period, -both in Palestine and also in the wider world, it would have been easy -to show that the immaturities in the Wise-men’s thoughts, the -uncertainties of their faith and ethic (the very points on which the -cynical would pounce as evidence of failure) on a wider and wiser survey -of the facts were in reality co-operating influences, clearing the way -for a deeper, fuller, faith. Truth is eternal, but men’s apprehension of -it is progressive; and it should be insisted that, given the presence of -one fundamental purpose so that an ultimate unity of spirit must -necessarily exist, divergence of opinion, even on matters of high -importance, does not indicate weakness or indecision or decay, but -rather is a sign of vitality and hope. The reason for this is obvious. -Final statements can be made only with regard to the conceptions of the -abstract sciences, such as mathematics, or to the judgments we can -sometimes pass on lost causes; and on the other hand power to perceive -the imperfection of present attainment has ever been, and still is, the -prime condition of human progress: “God,” said John Robinson, minister -of the Pilgrim Fathers, “has yet more truth to break forth out of His -Word.” - -The bearing on modern Christianity is not far to seek. A doctor recently -remarked to the present writer that one had only to enter the several -Churches of a certain town to discover that Christians were now in -hopeless confusion, ignorant as to what they did or did not believe, and -that if the professed followers of the faith could not state their -doctrine coherently, others might well be excused from attempting the -task of ascertaining what Christianity now meant. The argument is not -unusual, but it is profoundly mistaken. It might have been retorted that -divergencies of medical opinion (and many patients will bear witness -that they are neither slight nor few) are no indication whatever of the -essential unsoundness of the science of medicine, but rather the -guarantee of its advance into more accurate knowledge. Moreover had the -critic been in actual touch with the feeling and activities of the -Churches in question, he would have recognised that the points of -disagreement, though important, were not upon the vital question of -faith in God and general attitude towards life; so that whilst he -personally might still have been unable to accept Christian belief, he -could not possibly have formulated such an indictment as appears above. -The real peril of Christian theology has not been vagueness, but the -Hellenic tendency to essay the definition of all things to the last -_iota_. But from the perils inherent in that attitude Christianity has -been delivered by the passionate instinct of mankind for truth, and by -the reforming energy of great individuals; and will be delivered, so -long as the Church has faith in the guiding Spirit of God. - -There is value in the Wise-men’s witness to the intimate relation -between faith and morality. The religion of Israel in its higher -development is magnificent in its clear recognition that the claim of -God upon man is absolute, complete and not partial--if there be one God, -Creator of heaven and earth, then certainly He besets us behind and -before and lays His hand upon us--and that the love of God and the love -of our fellow-men must be indissolubly related, faith being the -inspiration of morality, and moral action the necessary outcome of -faith. With these sublime beliefs, proclaimed by Prophets and Psalmists, -the Wise were in accord: they also in their more homely fashion -recognised the universality of the Divine claim, and its operation in -the realm of moral duty. Perhaps those thoughts may seem to some readers -only elementary and obvious ideas on spiritual things. But they ought to -be regarded not as elementary (and therefore of small account) but as -fundamental and vital conceptions. Every student of comparative religion -would testify how great and terrible a gulf in human life was crossed -when first a Hebrew Prophet conceived the thought that God desireth -mercy and not sacrifice, not ceremonial worship but _philanthropy_ (in -the true sense of the word), and how glorious a hope for the future of -religion then dawned upon our race. Moreover the fact remains that, even -if to many these thoughts of God and the nature of His service may be no -novelty, even if they have grasped the idea in its full significance and -are conscious of its exact bearing on manifold contemporary affairs, -there is still room for its reaffirmation. Said a soldier in France, -after a discussion about Christianity to which he had listened intently -and with some surprise, “But, as I understand it, religion is all talk -about heaven. What’s it got to do with morality?” Religion _has_ got to -do with morality, and morality, like the demand for truth and the -instinct for the beautiful, penetrates life through and through to its -least details. Christianity is not a bargain with the Deity entailing -magical immunity from hardship in this life and special privileges in -the next. It is such an attitude of the essential personality as should -wholly determine our activities in each and every aspect life can -present to us, both now and hereafter. The scope of religion is as wide -as our interests; and what could serve more happily to remind us of that -fact than these Jewish proverbs which, beginning with the fear of God, -range from kings to labourers, from merry men to broken hearts, from -dreams of perfect justice to cynical observations on the uses and -advantages of bribes? Wisdom is indeed ubiquitous: _Divers weights and -false balances are an abomination unto the Lord_, say the Wise in the -busy mart; and then in the hour of leisure and of plenty _It is not good -to eat much honey_--and all this in the name of transcendent Wisdom, -_whose fruit is better than gold, yea, than fine gold_; Wisdom that was -_set up from everlasting, from the beginning, or ever the earth was_. - -Incidentally we have also to note how thoroughly these proverbs, by -reason of the range of interest of which we have just been speaking, and -by the sensible attitude they endeavour to preserve, illustrate the -Humanism of the Bible; for surely the most ungenerous of critics would -not accuse them of being unpractical or absorbed in supra-mundane -matters. The point has already been emphasised, and therefore we will -not dwell upon it again, except to remark its importance as one instance -of a general principle: that Idealism to be effective must needs grow -out of the soil of commonsense. There is a degree beyond which existing -facts must not be disregarded. For example, men have not mastered the -art of flight by ignoring gravitation, but by having studied its laws -and conquered the difficulties they present. In the admirable words of a -friend of the writer, “Christian opinion is peculiarly liable to the -danger of running counter to the average common sense in the midst of -which it finds itself; that is a natural alternative to simply falling -into line with current common sense views.... Thought that has its head -in the clouds must have its feet planted firmly in sound common sense, -if its heart is to be in the right place.... No one can think of Jesus -as the devotee of a faddist cult. He entered whole-heartedly into the -common joys and sorrows and into the common interests of the people: -their wedding-feasts and their mourning for dead friends and their -longing for freedom from the Roman yoke.... _He entered by the open door -of common sense, and led out the spirit of man into a larger life than -it had ever conceived._”[103] Omitting the superlative “ever,” these -words in italics are wonderfully apposite in reference to the genius of -the Wisdom Movement in Israel. - -There is value for us in the confidence which the Wise-men showed in -their attitude towards life. They, like ourselves, lived in an age when -all things were being put to trial, and doubt and perplexity were rife. -They were aware that even their instinctive fundamental ideas were under -challenge, aware that the path they followed was unfinished; and yet, as -the general tone of the proverbs indicates, they lived with firmness and -decision, and therefore achieved much. They were wise indeed in that -they perceived the issue between good and evil to be clear enough for a -man to choose which of the twain he will pursue. Having chosen, these -men did not content themselves with expressing a timorous hope that the -moralistic view of life might ultimately be proved correct; they did -battle for righteousness, valiantly and practically. So with ourselves. -Stringent and systematic application of the test of reason is a most -necessary attitude to preserve, but it is not a whit less necessary, -despite our uncertainty regarding ultimate problems of existence, early -in life to form a definite idea whither we wish to direct our steps. To -do so is the only highway to an effective life. Nor is it unreasonable -to demand from men that much resolution, for Good and Evil do present -themselves quite distinctly as alternative routes. Of course, all the -coward in us and all the sluggard prompts a protest for delay: we see a -hundred reasons for postponing judgment, or for arranging a compromise -between the claimants; “our philosophy is unsettled; we have neither -proved God to our complete satisfaction, nor has He clearly justified -His ways to us: so that surely it is not reasonable to insist that we -make choice (and therefore, we take it, the subsidiary matter of our -unwillingness need not arise)--let us drift a little longer through -these puzzling mists.” Nothing but a bold decision for Wisdom or for -Folly ever clears those mists away. To shirk the challenge (as some do -all their lives) is easy and at first may seem the natural course to -adopt, but it entails a heavy penalty. It deprives us of any firm -criterion of judgment, and we must needs go fumbling with the golden -opportunities which come but return not. Take then the Wise for an -example. Uncertainty they felt, but uncertainty did not paralyse their -power, because they met perplexities in the open field of action. From -us, as from them, many secrets of creation are concealed; but some -things are certainly evil and some are pure and good. A blessing and a -curse are set before us, and the difference between them is in no way -obscure. We ought to choose the blessing; and then, in faith that the -Good is really and ultimately the True, act vigorously in support of our -belief. Wisdom we know and Folly we know; Christ we have seen and the -fruits of wickedness: in the name of sanity how much clearer need the -issue be? - -Passing from the methods and manner of the Movement, it is encouraging -to turn for a moment to the thought of its success. When we measure the -might of the forces making against Wisdom, the numbers and influence of -those bent on pleasure or on riches with scant regard, or none at all, -for nobler possibilities in life, it is wonderful that the ideals of the -Wise should have become known to vast numbers of men in alien lands, and -that, enshrined in the Bible, their influence should still remain -unexhausted. Had the memory of them continued in honour only for a -century or two and been restricted to the limits of the Jewish -communities, even that would have been a result exceeding what had once -seemed probable. For Hellenism was a monstrous flood apparently -capable of sweeping away far larger obstacles than all Judaism -combined--priests, prophets, and Wise-men--could raise against its -onset. But Wisdom and Law and Prophets survived the deluge, quite -unharmed and indeed strengthened by the trial they had undergone. Why -was it so? How comes it to pass that the Wise after all do not toil in -vain; that the Crucified conquers; that St. Paul, who in his lifetime -can establish no more than a few struggling Churches, eventually -commands the intellect of Greece and subdues the power of Rome? Surely -because, in the words of yet another great passage in the Hebrew -Scriptures, Elisha’s vision in beleaguered Dothan was no mirage in the -eyes of a famine-haunted man, but truth of truth, and the mountains of -Reality which compass the City of Human Faith are full of the chariots -of the Lord of Hosts. Christianity is not dying, nor is the Church -doomed, nor is the work of idealists in this generation of no avail. -Rather he is blind that imagines so, blind to the armies that in the -soul of Man do battle for the one eternal God. - -Such are some of the reflections prompted by the history of the Wisdom -Movement. We come now to what those unacquainted with the events we have -been describing may have imagined to be the only, as it is the most -obvious and perhaps the most important, gift the Jewish Sages have left -for our inheriting--the proverbs themselves, considered apart from their -origin or use in relation to any particular historical events. Not all -the sayings are of value in themselves, for some are trivial and some -are obsolete, some have been said better, and a few were better left -unsaid. But there remain many having permanent interest, and many that -speak deep and undying truth, truth which we, no less than our fathers, -have need to learn, and which those who come after us will have to learn -or suffer loss. Had we chosen to use such proverbs as texts whereon to -build discussion, illustration or enforcement of their thoughts and -counsels, they are enough to fill not one but many volumes of this size. -For stirring subjects would open up on every side. How shrewd, for -example, are these Jewish maxims in their insistence that principle -should precede practice, that success in life is won not by experiment -unguided by fixed purpose but by the early adoption of certain great -principles which our experiences will continually test and interpret, -clarify and confirm! How sensible in their demand for the use of -unsparing criticism--both the discipline of self-imposed criticism, and -the humility that will receive, and, if necessary, assent to the reproof -of others! How true the instinct which taught them to feel that real -Wisdom is not merely an intellectual affair; so that they bid men seek -not learning but rather the power to use it for right purposes, not -knowledge of fact so much as the understanding mind. It is of profound -importance in life this distinction between intelligence and knowledge. -As the late Lord Cromer remarked to one of his friends soon after the -outbreak of the European war, “I believe that Germany will live in -history as the supreme example of the failure to distinguish Wisdom from -Learning.” It is Wisdom that the Jewish Sages preached. And how wise -they were in the emphasis they lay on the necessity of application in -the difficult task of awakening and cultivating the dormant powers of -the mind.[104] Above all, how more than wise, how humane, are they in -depicting Wisdom in lovely colours, not as cold and repellent, but as -warm and welcoming, an infinitely desirable, compassionate Friend of -Humanity! How much we have still to learn from them in that respect, we -who are not yet wholly delivered from an age that of set purpose hid the -fascinating light of knowledge under a bushel of dull and unimaginative -discipline, making education seem a thing to be endured;--till we grew -up--and depicting Morality as an All-seeing Eye, unblinkingly on the -watch for our misdemeanours, a sort of inescapable Super-Spy! And again, -treating the proverbs from this general point of view, what -inexhaustible variety of themes would be at our disposal--education, -commerce, responsibility, virtue and vice, hardships, luxury, marriage -and friendship, idleness and diligence; in fact we might talk “of shoes -and ships and sealing-wax, of cabbages and kings”; an _embarras de -richesses_. - -The remaining pages of this volume will be given to a review of certain -of the Jewish proverbs, grouped under several topics. The principle on -which these topics and the proverbs used in their illustration have been -selected is chiefly the avoidance of repetition, so far as has proved -reasonably convenient. Obviously, many most suitable subjects, such as -the personal virtues, and many sayings that might fittingly be quoted in -exposition of the themes actually chosen for the following pages, have -already been utilised in our account of the Wisdom Movement. These then, -with a few exceptions, will not be reproduced again, partly because -there is little need to draw upon them, the stock of Jewish proverbs -being far from exhausted, but mainly because it is to be hoped that -their wit and wisdom for ourselves and for all men did not pass -unnoticed and unconsidered in the historical setting. The sins of -omission of which the following pages are guilty are patent even to the -author. If they rouse the reader into making a better selection for -himself, good and again good. - -To preserve a thread of connection with what precedes, we may commence -by reviewing first _Nature_ and then _Humour_ in the Jewish sayings, -both of which subjects have not only a certain general interest, but -will help further to show how the proverbs can contribute to our -realisation of the Humanism of the Bible. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -Nature in the Proverbs - - -In comparison with the Greeks and those peoples who have inherited -something of the Grecian genius for form and colour in the world, it may -fairly be said that the Hebrews were inartistic. When, however, they are -charged with being “unresponsive to Nature,” or “lacking the artistic -sense,” it is time to protest. For the Hebrews were not unobservant of -Nature or unsympathetic, and the writers of the Old Testament make many -allusions to the scenes and processes of the visible world, and they -recognise its beauties and its marvels. The artist’s proper quarrel with -the Hebrews is that very seldom did they see Nature in and for itself, -but almost always through the medium of its relationship to the mental -or physical interests of Man--how far does Nature threaten or encourage -his faith and aspirations? What does it teach him? The Psalmist does not -tell you “what a glorious night it is” or that “the sunset is -magnificent”; he says that _the heavens declare the glory of God, and -the firmament sheweth His handiwork_. We are bidden to lift our eyes to -the hills, not to perceive the lights and shadows on their slopes, but -because thence we may look to see the advent of our hope. Let us set two -famous passages in contrast, the first from Greek literature, the second -from the New Testament. In one of Pindar’s jewelled Odes, the -poet--singing the praises of Iamos, a mortal born of the god Poseidon -and a human mother--first paints in rich and glowing words a picture of -the infant hero laid in a cradle among the rushes, “his soft body -bedewed with light from the yellow and purple colours of the pansies,” -and then goes on to show him, now grown to manhood and tasting the first -fresh glory of his youth, “going down to the midst of the Alphæus -stream, there to invoke the regard of his divine progenitor and to -beseech of him the favour of a hero’s task--νυκτὸς, ὑπαίθρις, _by night under the open sky_.”[105] No one who has ever -felt the magic of a star-filled night can miss the art that makes the -passage culminate in those two words. Now compare this from the New -Testament, of course in reference to the literary question only:-- ... -“So when he had dipped the sop, he taketh and giveth it to Judas, the -son of Simon Iscariot. And after the sop, then entered Satan into him. -Jesus therefore saith to him, That thou doest, do quickly. Now no man at -the table knew for what intent he spake this unto him. For some thought, -because Judas had the bag, that Jesus said unto him, Buy what things we -have need of for the feast, or that he should give something to the -poor. He then having received the sop went out straightway: _and it was -night_.”[106] Here also is art, the highest art--it needed the darkness -to cover Judas and make possible his sin--but the art is unconscious. -The words are given only as a detail of fact, an indication of time, -added without a thought of their effect on our emotions. The writer of -the Gospel is altogether absorbed in the agonising human interest of the -scene. - -No expectation therefore should be entertained that Nature in the Jewish -proverbs will be presented with unusual beauty or close observation. -Nothing very wonderful is remarked of the world outside the little world -of man, and the allusions almost always are made in relation to human -hopes and fears and habits. But Nature has not been expelled from the -proverbs; she crops out now and then, and, if we bear in mind this -warning against undue hopes, the subject seems worth a brief -examination. Well then, the following proverbs are assembled solely on -account of their references to natural phenomena. That is the one and -only pretext for their collocation. Some perchance may say that the -excuse is insufficient--but they forget that “a touch of Nature makes -the whole world kin.” - -Since tradition saith of Solomon that “he spake of trees from the cedar -that is in Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall; -he spake also of beasts and of fowl and of creeping things and of -fishes,” we can see where we ought to make a start. - -We begin with the _trees_. The _trees_ however will disappoint us. -Wisdom, we are baldly told, _is a tree of life to them that lay hold -upon her_ (Pr. 3^{18}), and it is said (Pr. 27^{18}) _Whoso keepeth the -fig tree shall eat the fruit thereof_. Even if we get so far as to spy a -little fruit upon a tree, and imagine that we have it safely gathered, -lo! and behold! it rolls out of our fingers. For the famous proverb, - - _Like apples of gold in baskets of silver, - So is a word spoken in season_ (Pr. 25^{11}), - -is pretty but elusive, the truth being that the vague phrasing of the -English Version is due to nobody knowing what the Hebrew really means! -The best passage is this from Ben Sirach, _As the flower of roses in the -time of new fruits, as lilies at the waterspring, as the shoot of -Lebanon in time of summer, ... as an olive tree budding forth fruit, and -as an oleaster with branches full of sap_ (E. 50^{8-10}). - -Here are the _birds_ in proverbs: - - _In vain is the net spread in the eyes of any bird_ (Pr. 1^{17}). - - _As a bird that wandereth from its nest - So is a man that wandereth from his home_ (Pr. 27^{8}). - - _Birds resort unto their like, - And truth will return to them that practise it_ (E. 27^{9}). - - _The eye that mocketh at a father, - And despiseth an aged mother, - The ravens of the brook shall pick it out, - And the young eagles shall eat it_ (Pr. 30^{17}). - -The _beasts_ may be divided into the wild creatures untamed by man, and -the domestic animals. Some of the latter are to be seen wandering most -naturally through this picture of the wise farmer: - - _Be thou diligent to know the state of thy flocks, - And look well to thy herds; - For riches endure not for ever, - Nor wealth to all generations. - When the hay is carried and the tender grass springeth, - When the grass of the mountains is gathered, - Then the lambs will supply thee with clothing - And the goats yield the price of a field, - And give milk enough for thy household, - Enough for the maintenance of thy maidens_ (Pr. 27^{23-27}). - -For the _horse_ see Pr. 26^{3}, E. 30^{8} and 33^{6}; of the _dog_, whom -we shall meet again in the next chapter, there is a famous saying in -_Eccles._ 9^{4}, _Better a living dog than a dead lion_. - -Among the _wild animals_, the lion (Pr. 30^{30}) and the bear enjoy the -most fearsome reputation according to the proverbs--_The king’s wrath is -as the roaring of the lion_ (Pr. 19^{12})--_As a roaring lion and a -ranging bear, so is a wicked ruler over a poor people_ (Pr. 28^{15}). -But there are worse things than either--_Let a bear robbed of her whelps -meet a man rather than a fool in his folly_ (Pr. 17^{12})--_I will -rather dwell with a lion and a dragon than keep house with a wicked -woman_ (E. 25^{16}). The references to _conies_, _locusts_, and -_lizards_ in Pr. 30^{26f} may be remembered (see p. 47). _Wine_, said -the Wise, _goeth down smoothly, but_ (was there gout, or worse, in those -days?) _at the last it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an -adder_ (Pr. 23^{32}), and the _serpent’s_ elusive track across the rock -is mentioned in Pr. 30^{19}. Perhaps these references to snakes should -have been placed at the head of a paragraph on _creeping things_. -However that may be, one of the creeping things, being “exceeding wise” -(Pr. 30^{24}), received an immortality in _Proverbs_: - - _Go to the ant, thou sluggard, - Consider her ways and be wise_ ... (Pr. 6^{6}). - -Cannot one see a Sage in some leisure hour, bending down to watch the -busy energetic little creature hurrying about its toil? And then--“Aha!” -said he, “behold a proper scourge for lazy bones”! - -The one reference to _fishes_ makes one wonder whether the days of yore, -like our own times, had their sea-serpent season. Says Ben Sirach, - - _They that sail on the sea tell of the danger thereof, - And when we hear it with our ears we marvel. - Therein be also those strange and wondrous works, - Variety of all that hath life, the race of sea-monsters_ (E. 43^{24, 25}). - -The proverbs may lack something as a text-book for young scientists; yet -here is the very essence of the fact of gravitation observed and duly -noted: _He that casteth a stone on high casteth it on his own head_ (E. -27^{25}). - -Two or three features in what one may call civilised Nature, are worth -recording here, although Man played the chief part in their appearing:-- - -A glimpse of a battlemented town: - - _A wise man scaleth the citadel of the mighty, - And bringeth down its strong confidence_ (Pr. 21^{22}). - -Of great ships on the sea: - - _She is like the merchant ships, - She bringeth her food from afar_ (Pr. 31^{14}). - -Of a prosperous dwelling-place: - - _Through Wisdom is an house builded - And by understanding it is established, - And by knowledge are the chambers furnished, - With all precious and pleasant riches_ (Pr. 24^{3, 4}). - -Curiously enough, no reference to sun, moon or stars occurs in -_Proverbs_[107], but there are several allusions in _Ecclesiasticus_, -especially in one remarkable chapter of really poetic appreciation, -which tells first of the wonder and the blazing intolerable heat of the -sun (E. 43^{1-5}), and then celebrates the glories of moon and stars and -rainbow--_the moon increasing wonderfully in her changing, a beacon for -the hosts on high, shineth forth in the firmament of heaven. The beauty -of heaven is the glory of the stars, an array giving light in the -highest heights of the Lord: at the word of the Holy One they stand in -due order and sleep not in their watches. Look upon the rainbow and -praise him that made it; exceeding beautiful in the brightness thereof. -It compasseth the heaven round about with a circle of glory; the hands -of the Most High have constructed it_ (E. 43^{8-12}). Again in a -panegyric on the virtues of Simon, the son of Onias, the high-priest -“great among his brethren, and the glory of his people,”[108] Ben Sirach -says that, when the people gathered round him as he came forth out of -the sanctuary, he was glorious - - _As the morning star from between the clouds; - As the moon at the full; - As the sun shining forth upon the Temple of the Most High; - And as the rainbow giving light in clouds of glory_ (E. 50^{6, 7}). - -The elements and seasons, in one way or another, are referred to not -infrequently. For instance, Pr. 25^{13}, _As the coolness of snow in -time of harvest, so is a faithful messenger to them that send him_[109]: -a proverb we might appreciate more fully if either we had to go -harvesting under an eastern sun or if His Majesty’s postal system were -suddenly abolished. - - _As clouds and wind without rain, - So is he that boasts of gifts ungiven_ (Pr. 25^{14}). - ---how tantalising to see the precious moisture far overhead and drifting -hopelessly out of reach, in a land where rain was desperately needed! - -One passage from the poetical chapter of _Ecclesiasticus_ mentioned -above has something of the Grecian charm, combining as it does grace of -expression with precise observation of Nature. Save in the spring-song -of _Canticles_, in one or two _Psalms_ and in some exquisite chapters -(_e.g._, chapters 28 and 38) of _Job_, it has few, if any, rivals in -ancient Jewish literature. Mark the skilful transition from the raging -of the tempest to the stillness of the snows:-- - - _By His mighty power Jehovah maketh strong the clouds, - And the hailstones are broken small: - At His appearing the mountains shake, - And at His will the south wind rages, - And the northern storm and the whirlwind; - The voice of His thunder maketh the earth to travail. - Like birds flying down He sprinkleth the snow, - And as the lighting of the locust is the falling down thereof: - The eye will marvel at its white loveliness, - The heart be astonished at the raining of it. - So also the hoar-frost He spreads on the earth as salt, - And maketh the shrubs to gleam like sapphires_ (E. 43^{15-19}).[110] - -Some of the simplest allusions to natural phenomena are among the most -memorable of these “Nature” proverbs perhaps because it happens that the -clear and simple image from the world without is linked to some equally -clear and simple, yet poignant, experience of human life:-- - - _As cold waters to a thirsty soul, - So is good news from a far country_ (Pr. 25^{25}). - - _As in water face answereth to face, - So answereth the heart of man to man_ (Pr. 27^{19}). - - _As the sparrow in her wandering, as the swallow in her flying, - So the curse that is causeless alighteth not_ (Pr. 26^{2}). - - _Dreams give wings to fools_ (E. 34^{1}). - - _The path of the righteous is like the light of dawn, - Shining more and more unto the perfect day_ (Pr. 4^{18}). - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -Humour in the Proverbs - - -Discretion counsels the suppression of this chapter. Justice insists -that it shall be written, for the Hebrews, on the evidence of the -Scriptures, have been accused of lacking humour; a much more serious -offence than being inartistic. Humour, divine gift, is no merely -ornamental or superfluous quality we can easily afford to do without, -but is the active antagonist of many deadly sins. From inordinate -ambitions and peacock vanity humour is a strong deliverer. If only -Germany could have laughed at herself now and then these past thirty -years! Of course the mere fact that the accusation has been levelled -against the Hebrews is nothing serious, for the same charge has actually -been made against the Scotch; but whilst the Scot is well able to take -care of his own reputation, few have been concerned to defend the Hebrew -on this score. - -The Bible is on the whole a solemn book, but remember the nature of its -subjects. British humour is plentiful enough; but you will seek it in -the pages of _Punch_ rather than in our volumes of jurisprudence or in -official histories or in impassioned orations urging the redress of -wrongs, or in _The Book of Common Prayer_, or in the hymnaries. It is -not fair to expect that Hebrew humour will show itself to full advantage -in the Scriptures. However, the least promising material has a way of -supplying against its will one form of humour--the unintentional; we can -all quote some examples from the hymn-book. Of this _unconscious_ -humour, the Bible has its share. Many no doubt will recall that -stricken Assyrian army of whom it is naïvely said in the Authorised -Version that “when they arose early in the morning, behold, they were -all dead corpses.” So in the proverbs there are numerous sayings which -to us are provocative of a laugh or a smile, or at least bring to memory -certain amusing incidents of life, but which probably were uttered by -their authors without a thought of anything comical in the words. Thus, -the following, _There is one that toileth and laboureth and maketh -haste, and is so much the more behind_ (E. 11^{11}), may be meant as a -solemn inculcation of the doctrine “More haste, less speed,” but _we_ -conjure up a vision of our fussy friend and see the fun in it. Again the -remark (Pr. 26^{17}), _He that passeth by and vexeth himself with strife -not belonging to him is like one that taketh a dog by the ears_ (and -then finds he dare not let go!), is to us amusing but to its author may -have seemed merely a shrewd or apt comparison; and yet in this instance -we may suspect the Sage also had a smile for the impulsive man’s -predicament. Is the humour of this unconscious: _Houses and riches are -an inheritance from fathers, but a prudent wife is from the Lord_ (Pr. -19^{14})? Far be it from a prudent man to say. - -The question of Hebrew humour, however, goes much deeper. Doubtless -there is a philosophy of laughter, and an ideal humour, possibly a -standard joke to which all other jokes imperfectly conform; but what the -definition of this perfect humour may be who dare yet say? At present -the nations have each their own opinion and the divergencies are great. -We must ask of the Hebrew no more than Hebraic humour, and it does not -necessarily follow that his notion of fun will coincide with ours or -even nearly resemble it. Was he humorous in an Eastern way?--nothing -more can reasonably be required. - -What then was the way of humour in the Semitic East? Fortunately life in -Palestine has altered so little that modern observation can help us to -an answer. “The first appearance of an Eastern”, writes Dr. Kelman[111], -“is grave and solemn, with an element of contempt in it rather trying to -the stranger. The Eastern does not understand chaff, his wildest -outbreak of humour reaching no further than those solemn and laboured -puns of which he has always been so fond.... Perhaps it is due to the -ever-present remembrance of danger that the Eastern--especially if he be -an Arab--so often assumes a show of superiority and bullying swagger, -which seem to the uninitiated quite impervious to any thought of fun. -_But the mask is easily laid aside_, and the gravest and most -contemptuous Syrian will suddenly collapse into harsh laughter or forget -himself in childish interest. Their notion of entertainment differs so -much from ours that Eastern “festivities” may appear to us only -wearisome or even ridiculous. On one occasion we arrived at our tents to -find a ‘poet’ or improvisator, waiting for us. The minstrel seated -himself on the ground, while we formed a wide circle round him, and the -camp-servants stood behind. From a cloth-bag he produced an instrument -which bore close resemblance to a domestic shovel, much the worse for -wear and perforated with little irregular holes as if it had been shot. -He began to play, and sang a selection which soon conquered any levity -that may have greeted his beginning. He had but a few tunes and they all -ended in the Minor _doh si lah_, the _lah_ being prolonged, diminuendo -and tremolo, in a long wail that had a sob in it. While the wail was -dying away his head was thrown forward and his face uplifted, the upper -lip quivering rapidly and the eyes rolling from side to side. Then just -as he seemed to have reached silence, came a quick spasmodic outburst, -very loud and clear, with vigorous accompaniment, which in its turn died -off in the same long wail. All this must be imagined with a wonderful -sunset of gold in a sky of indigo and grey, against which the figure of -the Arab sat in dark silhouette.” A pleasure so ludicrously sad would -certainly seem to imply a lack of humour in those who can enjoy it; -but--“the minstrel whom we have described was quite open for joking when -he had emerged from his ecstasy.... Often at night there is singing -among the servants of the camp and outbursts of hilarity can be -heard.... When a fantazia (to celebrate the gift of a fatted sheep) was -held there was no possibility of mistake as to the mirth.” Thus there is -good reason to mistrust appearances. And certainly it is inherently -improbable that the Hebrews should have been devoid of humour; for, as -Dr. Kelman goes on to insist, “the East is full of provocatives to -mirth. Take the one instance of the camel. Much has been written about -him from many points of view, but justice has never been done to the -camel as a humorous animal. Yet he is the most humorous of all the -inhabitants of the East. Beside him, with his sardonic pleasantry, the -monkey is a mountebank and the donkey but a solemn little ass. He has -been described as ‘the tall, simple, smiling camel’; but on closer -acquaintance he turns out to be hardly as simple as he might be taken -for, and if he smiles, he is generally smiling at you. The camels you -meet in Syria are carrying barley with the air of kings and regarding -their human companions with, at best, a contemptuous tolerance.” Dr. -Kelman in conclusion comments on, and cites examples of the camel’s -unsanctified capacity for conduct bearing a horrible resemblance to that -abomination of human invention--the practical joke. - -To sum up. Eastern humour is by no means non-existent, but being often -deliberately concealed or restrained in the presence of strangers and -being of a different temper from our own, it may easily fail to be -observed by Western eyes. Generally speaking, it is apt to be of the -most awkward Order of the Camel’s Hump, tending to other people’s -disadvantage, fond of personalities, often coarse because primitive, -and, it may be, cruel. This being so, it will now readily be understood -that the Bible held for its contemporaries much more wit than we are -wont to perceive in it. Thus to many a Hebrew the incidents of Jacob’s -clever, and none too scrupulous, dealings narrated in _Genesis_ would -seem not only edifying but also extremely amusing. From this point of -view such a saying as (Pr. 17^{12}) _Let a bear robbed of her whelps -meet a man rather than a fool in his folly_ is a merry jest; other -examples from the proverbs will be given below. - -But however plentiful this fierce and bitter kind of fun, the sting of -the original accusation is not drawn. After all, our conviction remains -deep-rooted that there is only one real humour--our humour; and no other -brand is genuine. What men miss, and complain of missing, is that fine -impartial sense of the ludicrous which is just as ready to see the -disproportionate in ourselves as in others. The humour we demand is that -kindly, tolerant, variety which can laugh at our own folly with profit -and enjoyment, and at our neighbour’s without malice. But is even this -best of all humour absent from the Bible? Rare it may be; absent -altogether it is not, and with a certain triumph we venture to claim its -presence in not a few of the Wise-men’s sayings, to which may be added -an occasional proverb from the Rabbinic literature. - -Beginning, however, with examples of the dry or caustic type of wit, -camel-humour, let us take some of the sayings on Woman to illustrate the -point. Doubtless the ladies had a great deal to say in reply, but with -the customary meanness of man their remarks have been suppressed by the -Sages: - - _As a jewel of gold in a swine’s snout, - So is a fair woman without discretion_ (Pr. 11^{22}). - - _It is better to dwell in the corner of the roof - Than in a wide house with a fractious woman_ (Pr. 25^{24}; cp. 21^{9}). - - _A continual dropping in a very rainy day and a contentious woman - are alike_ (Pr. 27^{15}). - -One saying there is on this topic, which comes nearer to our thought of -humour, its bitterness being forgotten in the quaintness of the simile -employed: - - _As the going up a sandy way is to the feet of the aged, - So is a wife full of words to a quiet man_ (E. 25^{20}). - -Some of the characters pictured in Chapter VII. lent themselves to -sarcasm, particularly the Sluggard, and the Fool; but, if certain of the -proverbs about them may seem too heavy-handed, touched with the camel -brand of humour, others surely come near to being “the real thing.” Of -the Sluggard the remark, _He that is slack in his work is brother of him -that is a destroyer_ (Pr. 18^{9}) is true, undeniably true, but a trifle -icy in its wit. More amusing and much more genial were these sayings, -which we may repeat from Chapter VII.: _The sluggard saith, “There is a -lion in the way; a lion is in the streets”_ (Pr. 26^{13})--_The sluggard -burieth his hand in the dish, it wearieth him to bring it again to his -mouth_ (Pr. 26^{15})--and, above all, the Sluggard’s Anthem, _Yet a -little sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of the hands to sleep_ -(Pr. 24^{33}). Of the Fool, some observations are almost savage, such as -Pr. 17^{12} (quoted above), and this--_Though thou bray a fool in a -mortar ... yet will his folly not depart from him_ (Pr. 27^{22}). The -following are more subtle and on the whole more kind: _The legs of the -lame hang loose, so doth a story in the mouth of fools_ (Pr. -26^{7})--_The eyes of a fool are in the ends of the earth_ (Pr. -17^{24})--_He that discourseth to a fool is as one discoursing to him -that slumbereth; at the end of it he will say, “What is it?”_ (E. -22^{8}). But the Fool and Mr. Lazybones were ever an easy target: it -needed a prettier wit to slay the Self-Advertiser with a word, but does -not this saying despatch him neatly, _It is not good to eat much honey; -so for men to search out their own glory is not glory_ (Pr. 25^{27})? - -Here is a pleasing pair of contrasts--to the disadvantage respectively -of a would-be “silent Solomon,” and of a Chatterbox: - - _There is that keepeth silence, for he hath no answer to make; - And there is that keepeth silence as knowing his time_ (E. 20^{6}). - _There is that keepeth silence and is found wise; - And there is that is hated for his much talk_ (E. 20^{5}). - -In conclusion we give some proverbs that seem to the present writer -still more clearly to come within the category of modern humour, whether -by reason of their sly shrewdness or some droll comparison, or even a -frank intention to rouse our sense of fun: - - _He that pleadeth his cause first seemeth just, but his neighbour - cometh and searcheth him out_ (Pr. 18^{17}). - - _Better is he that is lightly esteemed and hath a servant, than he - that makes a fine show and lacketh bread_ (Pr. 12^{9}). - - _There is that buyeth much for a little and payeth for it again - sevenfold_ (E. 20^{12}). - - _In the city my Name, out of the city my Dress_ (C. 265). - - _Sixty runners may run, but they will not overtake the man who has - breakfasted early_ (C. 86); - -_Thy friend hath a friend, and thy friend’s friend hath a friend_ (C. -258)--a canny hint on Gossip. - - _Confidence in an unfaithful man in time of trouble is like a - broken tooth or a foot out of joint_ (Pr. 25^{19}). - - _If one person tell thee thou hast ass’s ears, take no notice; - Should two tell thee so, procure a saddle for thyself_ (C. 191). - -_If our predecessors were angels, we are human; if they were human, we -are asses_ (C. 141)! - -As for this last observation, it may have been well enough once upon a -time, but of course one would not dream of asserting it now-a-days--as -regards the present generation it would be, yes, altogether -inappropriate. Well, let us not dispute the matter. Ancient and modern, -East and West, we can all unite to enjoy the honest fun and good counsel -of Ben Sirach’s advice (E. 19^{10}) to that distracted individual the -man with a secret: - -_Hast thou heard a word? Let it die with thee. Be of good courage, it -will not burst thee!_ - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -From Wisdom’s Treasury - - - _WISDOM EXALTETH HER SONS, AND TAKETH HOLD ON THEM THAT LOVE HER: - HE THAT LOVETH HER LOVETH LIFE. - AND THEY THAT SEEK HER EARLY SHALL BE FILLED WITH GLADNESS: - HE THAT HOLDETH HER FAST SHALL INHERIT GLORY_ (E. 4^{11, 12}). - -But Wisdom will brook nothing less than the full purport of those -words--a diligent search, a genuine love, and an unrelaxing grasp--in -exchange for her high rewards. And though it is better to find her late -than not at all, as a rule it is true that only the life she has entered -early is likely to know great happiness. Yet Wisdom makes no mystery of -her treasures, nor hides them willingly. - -Here are some of her most precious truths. - -How simply told! How hard to make our very own! - - _As iron sharpeneth iron, - So man sharpeneth man._[112] - - _Faithful are the wounds of a friend._[113] - -Who is ignorant of it? As Bacon says in his essay on Friendship, “There -is no such flatterer as is a man’s self; and there is no such remedy -against flattery as the liberty of a friend.” And yet how rarely, in -actual experience, have men the grace to appreciate, or tolerate, even -the kindliest of their critics. - - * * * * * - - _A soft answer turneth away wrath._[114] - -Have you tested the matter yet? - - _He whose spirit is without restraint is like a city that is broken - down and hath no wall._[115] - - * * * * * - - _Seest thou a man wise in his own conceit? - There is more hope of a fool than of him._[116] - - _Pride goeth before destruction, - And a haughty spirit before a fall._[117] - - * * * * * - - _The wicked flee when no man pursueth._[118] - - _If a righteous man fall seven times, he riseth up again; - But the wicked are overthrown by calamity._[119] - - * * * * * - - _He that despiseth small things shall fall by little and little._[120] - - _Be not wise in thine own eyes; - Fear the Lord and depart from evil._[121] - - * * * * * - - _Hope deferred maketh the heart sick; - But a wish fulfilled is a tree of life._[122] - - _Woe unto fearful hearts and to faint hands, - And to the sinner that goeth two ways! - Woe to the faint heart, for it believeth not; - Therefore shall it not be defended. - Woe unto you that have lost your patience! - What will ye do when the Lord shall visit you?_[123] - - * * * * * - - _There is no wisdom nor understanding, - Nor counsel against the Lord: - The horse is prepared for the day of battle, - But the victory is of the Lord._[124] - - _Truth stands: - Falsehood does not stand._[125] - - * * * * * - -This is a very long chapter; - -Think on these things. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -The Body Politic - - -The art of hurling texts dies out of fashion, is almost dead, perhaps -because it yielded the delight of victory so seldom, but for deeper -reasons also. It was ever a game at which two could play; the Scriptures -proving so rich a quarry that your skilled antagonist would quote you -text for text. Both Socialist and Individualist have found therein -ammunition in plenty for their long quarrel, by reason of the -disconcerting manner in which the Bible preaches both doctrines and -gives its sanction to neither. Thus it never so much as questions the -propriety of individual ownership, yet on the other hand continually and -with awe-inspiring vehemence it is found denouncing the wickedness of -individual owners and the wrongs arising from their sins and -negligences. So for the unreflecting text-hunter confusion was apt to -grow worse confounded. The existence of this _impasse_, which in reality -pointed only to an error in method, has helped to create the notion, -characteristic of the present time, that the Bible having failed to -settle the difficulty, we ought to consider our problems entirely -without its aid. So completely are we now supposed to be the sole -arbiters of our conduct that, even if the Bible had been found to enjoin -(or forbid) explicitly and beyond all possibility of doubt certain -socialistic measures, it would in no way follow that what may have been -right in Jerusalem long ago is right now, or what was wrong then wrong -now. Up to a point this attitude is sound: not to consider our duties -for ourselves, as if our ancestors or any external authority could -rightly determine them for us without our active consent, is to fall -into a sin that, however innocently committed, sooner or later benumbs -the conscience and, if historical experience has any lesson whatsoever -to teach, paralyses social progress. - -But the legitimate distrust which the modernist feels for mere -text-hunting can be, and often is, pushed too far. To construe it as a -mandate contemptuously to ignore the thinking and ideals of the past is -to be guilty of as foolish a blunder as ever was involved in the old -method of determining an issue by proof-texts; for the relation between -even the Old Testament and the social affairs of any modern community is -far too valuable to be disregarded with impunity; and on these three -grounds at least. _First_, the experiences of the Israelitish people -constitute incomparably the most amazing national career the world has -witnessed; and the story of their fortunes testifies for all time that -one nation, situated in no secluded and sheltered corner of the globe, -but occupying a little land encircled by vast and jealous Empires and -covered time and again by the surge of successive civilisations, -prolonged its life and in all essential respects maintained its -identity, not by bread alone, but by words that proceeded out of the -mouth of God. For, undeniably, Israel has preserved its continuity not -merely through the stormy fourteen hundred years of which the Biblical -records tell, but subsequently throughout the Christian era, in virtue -of distinctive moral and religious qualities; and whatever view a man -may hold regarding the truth of religion and the validity of morals, no -serious student of human affairs can afford to overlook their practical -effect in the history of the Jews. _Secondly_, in the course of that -history (limiting our attention to the Old Testament literature) there -appeared certain great personalities, in particular the true prophets, -whose insight into the problems of society, whose enthusiasm for the -welfare of men, and whose burning invective against all forms of -injustice and oppression, ought to be familiar to every man who feels -within him the sense of social obligation. The example of the Prophets -of Israel and also, though less brilliantly, of her Psalmists, her -Law-makers and her Wise-men, is a magnificent incentive to duty, -quickening the conscience, stimulating one’s resolution under -difficulties, and encouraging to good hope. _In the third place_, the -record of these men’s thoughts frequently deserves our _intellectual_ -consideration. Modern industrialism has created unsolved problems of -organisation and production, upon which it would be idle to contend that -the conditions of life in the Judæan highlands offer valuable comment; -but since modern commerce, for all its marvellous development of wealth -and resources, has signally failed to remove the vast inequalities -between man and man, indeed has only accentuated them and made the -contrast still more bitter for the unskilled, the weakly, and the -unfortunate, it follows that from the standpoint of human happiness the -social problem is in its essence unchanged: the poor, in fact, are still -with us, with their great virtues and also their shortcomings, their -pathetic lack of opportunity, and often their failure to profit when -they might, and above all, with their capacity for joy and sorrow and -aspiration, which things they share with the richest in the land. No -wonder that he who reads the Old Testament with intelligence and -sympathy will constantly feel its words on the social needs of men not -merely pricking his conscience but holding and challenging the -intellect--how wealth is made, how rightly used, how kept, how lost; -what it feels like to be poor; of the duties of him that hath to him -that hath not; by what things a city is preserved, and of the power we -each possess to make or unmake one another’s joy in life. - -On these and kindred subjects the Jewish proverbs have a vast deal to -say that is worthy of attention, but an outline of their comments and -pleadings has been given in the description of the Wise-men’s ideals -(Chap. VIII.). It may be hoped that the foregoing remarks will help to -make more clear the bearing on present social duty of the teaching there -related in reference to a distant past. Here then follow only a few -considerations which will suggest how the subject might be developed, -and will at the same time give opportunity for the quotation of some -fine proverbs not mentioned in Chapter VIII. - -I. In dealing with the perplexities of organised society, we moderns -possess the advantage of high and increasing skill in the use of -classification, so that we are able to envisage our problems in abstract -terms, analysing the population into reasonably exact groups, and -considering the inter-relations of “classes” and the reconciliation of -class interests one with another. This attempt, crude though it still -may be, to employ scientific method in the treatment of humanity is all -to the good; but if one thing more is forgotten, our best-laid schemes -somehow refuse to work or are apt to work amiss. For--“the ‘masses’ and -‘the poor’ whom it is ‘our’ duty to keep are neither sycophants nor -toadies nor sponges nor are all of them at the last gasp. They resent -the control of their destinies by classes or persons who profess to know -what is good for them. They will never become the passive instruments of -anybody’s social theory. They will trust themselves only to those who -love them. Individualists and socialists take note! Experts and -doctrinaires, be warned in time!”[126] Now the Jewish proverbs, not of -set purpose but by sound instinct, subtly and insistently remind us how -personal all social questions ultimately prove to be. They think and -speak with the individual in the foreground of the mind. They prefer -the concrete to the abstract, with how great advantage! Contrast the -effect of these two passages; the occasional, abstract type, _Water will -quench a flaming fire, and almsgiving will make atonement for sin_ (E. -3^{30}), with the much more frequent personal presentation: _Incline -thine ear to a poor man and answer him with peaceable words gently. -Deliver him that is wronged from the hand of him that wronged him_ (E. -4^{8, 9}). We discuss “Capital and Labour”; but the Jewish proverb says -(Pr. 22^{2}; cp. 29^{13}) - - _The rich and the poor dwell together, - The Lord God made them both_; - -and how deep the proverb goes, how swiftly it strikes home and excites -the imagination. _Rich and poor together_, yes, in a sense--united -within one city’s bounds; and yet how far apart they dwell from one -another. How tragically far apart! But are they so greatly sundered as -at first thought one imagines? In the things that matter -ultimately--their manhood, womanhood; their tears and laughter; their -loves; their sinning and repenting; their strength and health; their -death and immortality? Perhaps there is just one meeting-place where -rich and poor unite and stand absolutely equal; but it is there where -earth and heaven fade away--the great white throne of God. - -Mark how the sense of the individual man, with whom eventually all our -plans to remedy the mischiefs in the body politic must come to terms, -permeates the following proverbs:-- - - _A good man leaveth an inheritance to his children’s children; - But the wealth of the sinner is laid up for the righteous_ (Pr. 13^{22}). - -(No pious platitude this, but a keen-sighted observation of fact. It is -seldom indeed that wealth is handed down through many generations, -except in a morally “good” family; and on the other hand the sinner’s -undisciplined children can usually be depended on to make ducks and -drakes of their inheritance). - - _Whoso stoppeth his ears at the cry of the poor, - He also shall cry, and shall not be heard_ (Pr. 21^{13}). - - _There is that scattereth and increaseth yet more; - And there is that withholdeth that which is meet, - and it tendeth only to want_ (Pr. 11^{24}). - - _Hast given the poor to eat and drink, accompany them on their way_ - (C. 208). - -In the recognition of personal faults as the bane of society: - - _He that covereth a transgression seeketh love, - But he that harpeth on a matter separateth chief friends._ (Pr. 17^{9}). - - _For the drunkard and the glutton shall come to poverty, - And drowsiness shall clothe a man with rags_ (Pr. 23^{21}). - -These few maxims might be multiplied with ease, but they are sufficient -for our purpose. Is it not clear how profoundly humanistic are these -Jewish proverbs in their outlook on social affairs? Except our science -be tempered by the same redeeming grace, we shall succeed on paper but -fail in fact. - -2. The Jewish proverbs throw out a challenge to the present age in the -demand they make for commercial honesty and consideration of the general -welfare of the community. This claim is put forward in a variety of -ways, and there is no mistaking its earnestness; as in the famous -saying, _A false balance is an abomination unto the Lord, and a just -weight is His delight_ (Pr. 11^{1}), a maxim reiterated in similar -language in Pr. 20^{10, 23}. Again it is said, _The getting of treasures -by a lying tongue is a vapour driven to and fro: they that seek them -seek death_ (Pr. 21^{6})--_Better is the poor that walketh in his -integrity than he that is crooked in his ways though he be rich_ (Pr. -28^{6}); and memorably--_Better is a little with righteousness than -great revenues with injustice_ (Pr. 16^{8}); to which add this -startlingly modern protest against the food-profiteer, _He that -withholdeth corn, the people shall curse him; but blessing shall be upon -the head of him that selleth it_ (Pr. 11^{26}). “Ah! but the times have -changed, and the complications and stringency of modern business often -render the employment of perfectly honest methods impractical. In those -byegone days a man of industry and ability had perhaps little temptation -to double-dealing, or at least was not compelled to follow the tricks of -the trade in order to squeeze out a livelihood.” But no! that shortcut -out of the difficulty is barred. Ben Sirach puts the matter bluntly: _A -merchant_, says he, _shall hardly keep himself from wrong-doing, and a -huckster shall not be acquitted of sin_ (E. 26^{29}). “Well, then, have -the proverbs any remedy to suggest? It is easy for the purist to _talk_. -No one wishes to deny the courage of him who maintains a life-long -protest against sharp practice, and we grant you the desirability of the -protest; we can even admit the success of one here and there who has -undertaken it. But it may seem doubtful if such unbending rectitude -could be carried out generally; and at any rate, as matters stand, there -must be thousands of well-meaning men who to keep themselves and their -families from want and hunger must bow themselves slightly in the modern -house of Rimmon”--so may a plea for a reasonable latitude be advanced. - -What solution do the proverbs offer for the stern facts of present-day -commerce? None; but that is no reason why we, following the spirit of -their teaching, should not strive to find a remedy for our more complex -problems, especially since the line along which progress can be made is -surely not difficult to discover. The root of the matter is in the fact -that whilst commercial dishonesty may benefit (in a material sense -only) certain persons, it can only do so at the expense of the many, so -that its elimination would necessarily conduce to the general welfare of -organised society. Meantime it is hard for the individual to kick -against the pricks of a system far greater than he, but it does not -follow that the _community_ of individuals is unable to fight the giant -and slay him. Though the present situation is such that the guilt of the -individual is lessened (it is of course still real), the guilt of the -community in tolerating such a condition of affairs is the more -increased. For union is immense strength. It is the imperative duty of -modern man by collective action (which may require eventually to become -world-wide) to check, diminish and abolish those evil and improvident -conditions which now impose such pressure upon the integrity of -individuals. A herculean task! What then? The resources of civilised man -are already vast, and they increase with marvellous rapidity, We stand -at the beginnings of organised achievement; yet already magnificent -opportunities for the betterment of human life lie within our reach, and -wait only the consent of mind and conscience for their realisation. -False weights have continued, despite the Jewish proverb, these twenty -centuries and more; it does not follow that they need continue to the -twenty-first. - -3. Much of the injustice and degradation still prevalent in our -civilised society would be brought to an end by the force of public -opinion, were it not for wide-spread ignorance of the facts. Sometimes -the ignorance is wilful blindness and no true ignorance; men refuse to -look or listen; but as a rule it is due to mere lack of interest and -unimaginative carelessness. No decent man or woman could desire the -appalling facts of child-labour in the mines and factories of this -country during the first half of the last century, or, for the matter of -that, the facts of sweated industries at the present day; but many -respectable people wished not to know and vastly many more troubled not -themselves to know, and so the horrible and disastrous iniquities went -on year by year. Time and again the frank uncompromising proverbs of the -Jews set us an example by their bold recognition of evil. They proclaim -it for what it is, not mincing words but denouncing wickedness -outspokenly and vehemently. A hundred illustrations could be taken from -the maxims already quoted. Here, from sayings not yet mentioned, are -three vigorous assaults on the hypocrite, the oppressor, and the morally -perverted. - - _There is a generation that are pure in their own eyes, and yet are - not washed from their filthiness.... There is a generation whose - teeth are swords and their mouths armed with knives, to devour the - poor from off the earth, and the needy from among men_ (Pr. 30^{12, - 14}). - - _As one that killeth a son before his father’s eyes, - So is he that bringeth a sacrifice from the goods of the poor. - The bread of the needy is the life of the poor; - He that depriveth him thereof is a man of blood. - As one that slayeth his neighbour is he that taketh away his living; - And as a shedder of blood is he that depriveth a hireling - of his hire_ (E. 34^{20-22}). - - _He that saith unto the wicked “Thou art righteous,” peoples shall - curse him and nations shall abhor him_ (Pr. 24^{24}). - -4. OF RICHES AND THE DECEITFULNESS THEREOF - - _Weary not thyself to be rich.... For riches certainly make - themselves wings, like an eagle that flieth toward heaven_ (Pr. - 23^{4, 5}). - -“Believe not much them that seem to despise riches; for they despise -them that despair of them.... Be not penny-wise; riches have wings, and -sometimes they fly away of themselves, sometimes they must be set -flying to bring in more.”[127] - -_A good name is to be chosen rather than great riches_ (Pr. 22^{1}). - -“I cannot call riches better than the baggage of virtue. The Roman word -is better, _impedimenta_. For as the baggage is to an army so is riches -to virtue. It cannot be spared nor left behind, but it hindereth the -march; yea and the care of it sometimes loseth or disturbeth the -victory. Of great riches there is no real use except it be in the -distribution; the rest is but conceit.” - -_His riches are the ransom of a man’s life, but the poor heareth no -threatenings_ (Pr. 13^{8}). - -“But then you will say, they may be of use to buy men out of dangers or -troubles. As Solomon saith, ‘Riches are as a stronghold, in the -imagination of the rich man.’[128] But this is excellently expressed, -that it is in imagination, and not always in fact. For certainly great -riches have sold more men than they have bought out.” - -_Wealth gotten in haste shall be diminished, but he that gathereth -slowly shall have increase_ (Pr. 13^{11}). - -“Seek not proud riches, but such as thou mayest get justly, use soberly, -distribute cheerfully, and leave contentedly.” - -_Health and a good constitution are better than all gold, and a good -spirit than wealth without measure_ (E. 30^{15}). - -_Riches profit not in the day of wrath, but righteousness delivereth -from death_ (Pr. 11^{4})-- - -whereat the shallow-minded may smile if it please them. - -5. “Most gracious God, we humbly beseech Thee, as for this Kingdom in -general, so especially for the High Court of Parliament: that Thou -wouldest be pleased to direct and prosper all their consultations to the -advancement of Thy glory, the good of Thy Church, the safety, honour, -and welfare of our Sovereign and his Dominions; that all things may be -so ordered and settled by their endeavours, upon the best and surest -foundations, that peace and happiness, truth and justice, religion and -piety, may be established among us for all generations.” - -How the Jewish proverbs would endeavour to give effect to the prayer for -good government has been told already (p. 152), and it may be remembered -that their teaching was described as a demand for a reign of justice -extending from the highest to the lowest in the land. But that was an -inadequate description. Examine more carefully what they say, and it -will appear that the Jewish proverbs ask for more than bare justice; -they enjoin mercy, they plead for honour, kindness, generosity, and -affection between man and man; in a word they plead for _humanity_ as -the supreme solvent of human need. And are they not profoundly and -rebukingly right therein? Justice may be the stones of the great -building, but Love is the cement without which the fabric will not -cohere. The stability of society depends on the good-will of -well-intentioned men--_By the blessing of the upright the city is -exalted, and it is overthrown by the mouth of the wicked_ (Pr. 11^{11}). - -6. One other arresting feature concerning the relations of rich and -poor. The poorer classes of Jerusalem must have had many faults, but the -Wise were very gentle towards them; scarcely ever do they reproach the -poor _directly_ for their shortcomings. On the other hand they have no -mercy for the sins of those in high places, their instinct seeming to be -that the root of evil in the State is in the neglect of opportunity on -the part of those who possess the means for well-doing: and this is the -more significant and conscience-searching in that the speakers of these -proverbs were themselves, as a rule, members of the “fortunate” classes. -“The poor, forsooth, are thieves!” Are they? Then, why? _If a ruler -hearkeneth to falsehood, all his servants are wicked_ (Pr. 29^{12}). -“The poor are disloyal and jealous of their betters!” Are they? _The -king that faithfully judgeth the poor, his throne shall be established -for ever_ (Pr. 29^{14}). - -7. In conclusion, a few memorable proverbs that will repay -consideration. Here is an ambiguous maxim--from one point of view a -platitude, from another a deep saying: - - _Sovereignty is transferred from nation to nation Because of - iniquity, violence and greed of gold_ (E. 10^{8}). - -Does it mean that greed and evil ambitions incite nations to war, to -conquest, and so to the acquisition of new territories? If so, we are -none the better for the information. Yes, but sometimes the -“transference” takes place the other way, and not as the covetous folk -desire it should. There have been peoples whose blind lust for power -overreached itself, to meet with disaster and condign punishment. -Concerning them too might it be said, though with a different accent to -our words, “Sovereignty is transferred from nation to nation, because of -iniquities, violence and greed of gold.” - -There is no ambiguity, and no indecision, in these fine sentiments, -which are none the less admirable, because they do not tell us how to -reach the Golden Age: - - _When the righteous prosper the city rejoices; - And when the wicked perish there are shouts of joy_ (Pr. 11^{10}). - - _Righteousness exalteth a nation, - Whereas sin is a shame to any people_ (Pr. 14^{34}). - -But of all that the Jewish proverbs have to say on the duties of our -interrelated lives, this is the best in that it _does_ show the gateway -to the Golden Age, and allows no man to pass by unchallenged, - - _If thou wilt lift the load I will lift it too; - But if thou wilt not lift it, I will not_ (C. 257). - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -A Chapter of Good Advice - - -Suppose A LECTURE (subject, GOOD ADVICE) to be given in THE LARGE -LECTURE HALL, to-night, by the Venerable Rabbi Wiseman. We go, but with -mixed feelings, assuring ourselves we do not care a straw for his -advice, but we have nothing much better to do, the man has a reputation, -and we wonder whether the hall will really be full to hear him. Somewhat -to our surprise, the hall does fill rapidly, is full! Extraordinary how -a well-known name will draw: doubtless the man has got a “following” in -every town, prepared to drink in every word he says. But that will not -altogether account for it; there must also be a big number here to-night -who have come, like ourselves, out of mere curiosity. We wait the great -man’s arrival with impatience, uncomfortably conscious that we are meant -to be edified, expectant that we shall be merely bored. (A lecture of -“Good advice,” forsooth. As if we haven’t a right to our own opinions, -and are not competent to advise ourselves: it will take him all his time -to impress us!) The Rabbi arrives, to the usual clap-clapping of his -admirers in the hall.... We are a little surprised at his appearance--a -strong face, but his best friends would not call him handsome. At the -same time, to give him his due, one could not call him _pompous_.... Why -doesn’t the Chairman stop talking? Who wants to listen to him? Seeing -that we are “in for it,” let’s hear what the speaker has to say, and so -get it over-- - -At last the Rabbi rises, and proves wiser than we have expected; wise -enough to be also wily. He begins with a touch of humour; we smile, are -caught off our guard, and for a few moments (it was all he needed) he -has captured our attention. - -Here is the thread of his remarks: - - _Commend not a man for his beauty, - And abhor not a man for an ugly appearance._[129] - - _Be willing to listen to every godly discourse, - And let not the proverbs of understanding escape thee. - If thou seest a man of Wisdom get thee betimes unto him, - And let thy foot wear out the steps of his doors._[130] - - But, _Let thy foot be seldom in thy neighbour’s house, - Lest he be weary of thee and hate thee_.[131] - - _Answer not a fool according to his folly, - Lest thou be like unto him._[132] - - _He that giveth answer before he heareth, - It is folly and shame unto him._[133] - - _Learn before thou speak; and have a care of thy health, - Or ever thou be sick._[134] - - _Prepare thy work without and make it ready for thee in the field; - and afterwards build thine house._[135] - - _Hast spoiled thy work? Take a needle and sew._[136] - - _Boast not thyself of to-morrow; - For thou knowest not what a day may bring forth._[137] - - _Change not a friend for the sake of profit, - Neither a true brother for the gold of Ophir._[138] - - _Laugh not a man to scorn when he is in the bitterness of his soul; - for there is one who humbleth and exalteth._[139] - - _Reproach not a man when he turneth from sin; - Remember we are all worthy of punishment. - Dishonour not a man in his old age; - For some of us also are waxing old. - Rejoice not over one that is dead; - Remember that we die all._[140] - - _Do no evil, so shall no evil overtake thee; - Depart from wrong, and it shall turn aside from thee. - My son, sow not the furrows of unrighteousness, - And thou shalt not reap it sevenfold._[141] - - _Be not thou envious of evil men, neither desire to be with them, - for their heart studieth oppression and their lips talk of - mischief._[142] - - _Let not thine heart envy sinners, but be thou in the fear of the - Lord all the day long; for surely there is a reward and thy hope - shall not be cut off._[143] - - _Say not thou, “It is through the Lord that I fell away: for that - which He hateth He made not.” Say not thou, “It is He that caused - me to err, for He hath no need of a sinful man.”_[144] - - _Say not, He will look upon the multitude of my gifts, and when I - offer to the Most High God He will accept it._[145] - - _Keep thy heart with all vigilance, - For that is the way to life._[146] - - _Be not faint-hearted in thy prayer, - And neglect not to give alms._[147] - - _Commit thy ways unto the Lord, - And thy purposes shall be established._[148] - -A brief lecture, but none the worse for that. Much Wisdom in small -compass. Depart, as you must, whether touched or ostensibly indifferent. -However that may be, whatever your feelings now, you cannot forget all -his words; some of them are fastened in the memory. One day you may act -upon them and discover that they were wise indeed, and then you will -want yourself to move a vote of thanks to the lecturer. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -Conduct - - -This chapter will prove less ambitious than its title suggests. As the -remarks made a few pages back, on _The Body Politic_ were meant to be -taken in conjunction with what was said in Chapter VIII. regarding -social and family conduct, so here also only a few reflections will be -given in summary or in supplement of the Wise-men’s ideal of personal -character. It is perhaps as well that it seems superfluous to -recapitulate the various attributes that the proverbs say are to be -chosen or eschewed by the perfect man; for when the Vices have been -assembled they form a dismal and depressing crowd, and when the Virtues -are lined up over against them, they are a celestial host but they -glitter on high beyond a modest man’s attainment. Moreover the art of -noble living is best practised not by those who go spelling out the -details, as if the Virtues were meant to be acquired singly or the Vices -attacked and conquered one by one, but by those who from sound instinct -or a wisely-trained intelligence have mastered a few great thoughts and -assented to follow their guidance in the maze of life. It is the purpose -of these pages to touch only on certain of these controlling facts, -principles, or ideals of conduct. The task before us is therefore -neither intricate nor long. It is simple, yet (for all its simplicity) -serious. - -There is one quality that is not so much a part of character as the very -soil out of which it grows--_Honesty of purpose_; if absent or only -fitfully present, moral growth is either stunted or cut off; if -present, then a multitude of imperfections are found pardonable. Wise -therefore is the Jewish proverb that says of _Deceitfulness_, using a -realistic metaphor more eloquent than many words, _Bread of falsehood is -sweet to a man, but afterwards his mouth shall be filled with gravel_ -(Pr. 20^{17}). Over against it set this strong simple plea for -_Sincerity: Strive for the truth, unto death, and the Lord God shall -fight for thee_ (E. 4^{28}); and then consider the implication in the -contrast of those maxims--that Evil is first sweet then bitter, and Good -first painful then joyous. Sometimes those propositions are visibly, -demonstrably, true in their entirety; sometimes the second part of them -to be credited requires faith in the spiritual nature of man. But of the -first part there can be no question; ’tis a matter of universal -experience--moral victories at the first are difficult, moral defeats -easy, _The way of sinners is smooth without stones, but at the end -thereof is the pit of Hades_ (E. 21^{10}), a glissade to the precipice -and over; _facilis descensus Averno_. - -Setting aside for the moment the influence of religious belief on -conduct (the next chapter will have something to say upon the point), it -would seem that there is one outstanding quality to which the Jewish -proverbs recur again and again, as if to tell us that here is the -supreme secret. That quality may be called _Receptivity_, but it has -many aspects for which other titles might more fittingly be used: it is -the willing mind, the open eye and the hearing ear; in youth it is zeal -to learn, in manhood more often the grace to profit by mistake. So from -teachableness it is wont to pass into penitence, the recognition of -error and imperfection--not passive penitence, however, but the active -desire to improve--and then from this virile penitence it should rise -into that disposition of Charity or Love towards others, which is the -highest virtue, without which a man may have many talents and yet profit -nothing. Let us trace the sequence in the proverbs, commencing with the -desire for knowledge: - - _The fear of the Lord is the chief part of knowledge, - But the foolish despise wisdom and instruction. - My son, hear the instruction of thy father, - And forsake not the teaching of thy mother; - For they shall be a chaplet of grace unto thy head - And ornaments round thy neck_ (Pr. 1^{7-9}). - - _Yea, if thou cry after discernment, - And lift up thy voice for understanding; - If thou seek her as silver - And search for her as hid treasures ... - Then shalt thou understand righteousness and judgement, - And equity, yea, every good path_ (Pr. 2^{3, 4, 9}). - -To him that is willing to learn, the proverbs promise rich and wonderful -reward, and the New Testament repeats the promise: - - _God scorneth the scorners, - But He giveth grace to the lowly_ (Pr. 3^{34}).[149] - - _If thou desire wisdom, keep the commandments, - And the Lord shall give it unto thee freely_ (E. 1^{26}).[150] - -Thus far the subject is familiar. Twice already reference has been made -to this virtue of Learning-Ever. Impenitently we bring it up again, -seeing that the Jewish proverbs are most urgent on the matter and also -that men to-day stand in no small need of the counsel. For all its -vaunted liberty of thought, our age is by no means patient of personal -criticism, doubtless because owing to the swift and amazing increase in -control of material resources it has been peculiarly successful in -certain directions (not, however, the most important); and the success -has made us vain. To know a little about the universe (and we know no -more) is a very dangerous thing. - -But observe how from the initial grace of an eager, receptive attitude -towards life, other virtues naturally appear. Frankly and patiently to -recognise one’s errors is to increase in wisdom, to learn before it is -too late, to see the pitfalls one has narrowly escaped, and so to be -humbled, to feel the sense of a great forgiveness vouchsafed to the -simple-hearted, and accordingly to be grateful and to be happy: - - _He that covereth his transgressions shall not prosper: - But whoso confesseth and forsaketh them shall obtain mercy. - Happy is the man that feareth alway: - But he that hardeneth his heart shall fall into calamity_ - (Pr. 28^{13, 14}). - -This experience, if at all intense, has a profound effect on character; -he that knows he has been forgiven much will love much, and his -gratitude towards the Giver of all mercy will spontaneously show itself -in mercy towards other men. Others will wrong him and disappoint him -often, but, remembering his own imperfections, he will want to judge -them gently and never to despair of helping them; to him it seems as if -“they know not what they do.” But this is the very disposition required -of us in the prayer “Forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that -trespass against us,” and the question must surely be rising in the -reader’s mind, What relation can possibly be discovered between these -high thoughts and the Jewish proverbs? This surprisingly intimate -relation--that whilst the manifestation of perfect forgiveness in -Christ’s own Person made His Prayer a new power in the world, the -thought in this petition was not new; it goes back to these words of Ben -Sirach, _He that taketh vengeance on his neighbour will meet vengeance -from the Lord, and his sins will surely be confirmed. Forgive thy -neighbour the hurt that he hath done thee, and then shall thy sins be -pardoned when thou prayest_ (E. 28^{1, 2})! Who dares withhold his -approval from the condition in the abstract? If we are Christians at -all, our conscience must welcome its eternal justice, recognising that -we can ask no greater mercy to be extended us by God. And so we are wont -to repeat the Prayer willingly without reservations or misgivings ... -just until the day come when “our neighbour” has gotten him a name and -we lie dazed and bleeding from the hurt that he hath dealt us. _That_ is -the moment for which these words were spoken--_Let not mercy and truth -forsake thee, bind them upon thy neck_ (Pr. 3^{3}). Know that--_By mercy -and truth iniquity is purged away, and by the fear of the Lord men -depart from evil_ (Pr. 16^{6}). By the time a man has schooled himself -to put those exhortations into practice, he will be in no danger of -treating forgiveness lightly: true forgiveness is conditioned by the -Moral Law, is no futile shutting-of-the-eyes to uneradicated sin, and -may therefore call for faithfulness unto death and necessitate the -greatest sacrifice earth knows, even the Cross of Christ. - -And with the thought let us return to that saying of Ben Sirach, _Strive -for the truth unto death_. “The Truth” is here to be interpreted in the -fullest sense of the term; it means Righteousness or Justice; it denotes -sincerity in things great and small, in thought word and deed. The -proverb then may serve as a reminder of the uncompromisingly stern and -perilous element in human experience. Until three years ago many men had -no lively sense of that aspect of things. The sinister possibilities -were not absent, but often they were fallaciously concealed. When a man -catches the same train to town day after day and his outward -circumstances are uneventful and regular as some slow-moving stream, he -may easily be deluded into thinking that his inner, spiritual self is -likewise pursuing the even tenor of its way; whereas in reality it may -be waging a desperate battle against increasing pride, prejudice, -hardness of heart, and a whole battalion of the Fiend’s picked -legionaries. The Prosperous, consulting his bankbook, may easily be -betrayed into saying “I shall not want,” whilst the soul within him is -choking. If our essential life is spiritual and consists in our love of -the True, the Good, the Beautiful, riches are likely to prove a thin -armour against the enemy. But three long and terrible years of war have -transformed the situation, and there are few to-day who do not know that -there is “a striving for the truth unto death.” Little need now to -emphasise the dark side of life; myriads are but too well acquainted -with its tragedies. - -The Jewish proverbs offer no philosophy of Suffering; for that one must -go to the Christian religion, which has faced the worst of the problem -and is unique in having found a reassuring answer. When, however, we -turn to the immediate question, how best to meet and deal with hardship, -physical or mental, behold! Christianity is content to appropriate the -language of a Jewish proverb and reiterate its counsel, though with a -glorious new confidence: _Therefore let us also, seeing we are compassed -about with so great a cloud of witnesses, lay aside every weight, and -the sin that doth so easily beset us, and let us run with patience the -race that is set before us, looking unto Jesus, the author and perfecter -of our faith.... For consider Him who endured such gainsaying of sinners -against himself that ye wax not weary, fainting in your souls. Ye have -not yet resisted unto blood, striving against sin, and ye have forgotten -the exhortation which reasoneth with you as with sons,_ - - _My son, regard not lightly the discipline of the Lord - Nor faint when thou art reproved of him; - For whom the Lord loveth He disciplines, - And chasteneth[151] every son whom He receiveth_ (Pr. 3^{11, 12}). - -_It is for discipline that ye endure; God dealeth with you as with sons; -for what son is there whom his father doth not discipline?_ (_Hebrews_ -12^{1-7}). To use or to refuse this idea of the educative opportunity in -suffering makes an amazing difference to life. Says a commentator of the -older school writing upon this passage in _Proverbs_: “First, _Despise -not_ the discipline.... Do not meet sorrow by a mere hardihood of -nature. Let your heart flow down under trouble, for this is human: let -it rise up also to God, for this is divine. And secondly, _Faint -not_.... This is the opposite extreme. Do not be dissolved, as it -were--taken down and taken to pieces by the stroke. You should retain -presence of mind and exercise your faculties. If the bold would see God -in his afflictions, he would not despise; if the timid would see God in -them, he would not faint.... The same stroke may fall on two men and be -in the one case judgement, in the other love. You may prune branches -lying withered on the ground, and also branches living in the vine. In -the two cases the operation and instrument are precisely alike; but the -operation on this branch has no result, and the operation on that branch -produces fruitfulness.”[152] - - _My son, if thou comest to serve the Lord, - Prepare thy soul for trial. - Set thy heart aright and with constancy endure, - And be not terrified in time of calamity.... - For gold is tried in the fire, - And acceptable men in the furnace of humiliation, - Put thy trust in God and He will help thee; - Order thy ways aright and set thy hope on Him_ (E. 2^{1-6}). - -Never in living memory has there been greater need for wise and -persuasive advice how to conduct oneself in time of anxiety and -affliction. In the gales of life many a ship is flung on the rocks for -lack of a little good seamanship on board. But ships need care even when -they are sailing summer seas; and so, because one hopes that brighter -days are coming to the world and coming soon, there is room for one more -counsel in conclusion. Religion, and particularly Christianity, has been -robbed of half of its power over men’s souls, by reason of the absurd -and tragical notion that it bears chiefly on the woes of man and very -little on his joys. On this score also the Jewish proverbs preach a -useful and pleasant sermon, with their natural honest desire for the -good things of life and their strong and salutary conviction that in -Wisdom--being that fear of the Lord which is to depart from evil--will -be found a never-failing source of refreshing happiness: - - _The fear of the Lord is glory and exultation - And gladness and a crown of rejoicing. - The fear of the Lord shall delight the heart, - And shall give gladness and joy and length of days_ - (E. I^{11, 12}; cp. Pr. 2^{10}, 3^{16}). - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -Faith - - -Ben Sirach has a wise passage in recognition of the transcendent majesty -of God. He has been seeking to describe the marvels of the universe, and -words have failed him; how much more then if he should strive to declare -the glory of the Creator! Wonderful as the visible world may be, _Many -things are hidden greater than these, and we have seen but a few of His -works.... The Lord is terrible and exceeding great, and marvellous is -His power. When ye glorify the Lord praise him as much as ye can, for -even then will He surpass. When ye exalt him, put forth your full -strength; be not weary; for ye will never attain_ (E. 43^{29-32}). These -words give the reason why expressions of belief in God so often appear -to the unbelieving mere platitudes. Before the thought of the living -God, men of intense and sensitive faith are either silent, or at the -most will speak in simple language, being conscious that _we may say -many things, yet shall we not attain; and the sum of our words is “He is -all”_ (E. 49^{27}). - -The Jewish proverbs recognise that God makes one fundamental demand from -men, namely Honesty of purpose--the very quality or attitude of soul -which, as we have just seen, is so essential to the growth of moral -character: - - _All the ways of a man are right in his own eyes, - But God weigheth the heart_ (Pr. 21^{2}). - -_He that sacrificeth of a thing wrongfully gotten, his offering is made -in mockery; and the mockeries of wicked men are not well-pleasing_ (E. -34^{18}). - -Ben Sirach says of a sinner, confident in his wrong-doing because no man -seeth him--_But he knoweth not that the eyes of the Lord are ten -thousand times brighter than the sun, beholding all the ways of men, and -looking into secret places_ (E. 23^{19}). - -And again he writes of the hypocritically pious: - -_The Most High hath no pleasure in the offerings of the ungodly, neither -is He pacified for sins by the multitude of sacrifices_ (E. 34^{19}; cp. -Pr. 21^{27}). - -It does not seem probable that the Almighty will be any the better -impressed, should the wicked offer up hymns instead of sacrifices. -Motive is still the criterion of worship: take heed how ye praise or -pray, lest your words be no more than the sound of a voice; take heed -how ye hear, lest, judging a sermon, you fail to hear God’s judgment of -you; and above all remember that the chief act of worship, without which -all else is in vain, must be rendered at home and in the city’s streets, -for--said a Wise-man on whom the spirit of the prophets had -descended--_to do justice and equity is more acceptable to the Lord than -sacrifice_ (Pr. 21^{3}). A plain commandment, but there is none greater: -“Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.” - -And to them that are fain to keep the commandment God giveth gifts. -“But” says one, “how know you that they are _God’s_ gifts? Is there a -God to give? Faith is very difficult to attain.” Certainly faith is -difficult to the sophisticated in this and every age; but to the Wise it -has always seemed natural, and never impossible. Said a young Russian -modernist, “I find it difficult not to believe in God.” So much in -passing; we shall return to the question a little later. Meantime, -however, let us turn to what cannot be denied, the reality of the gifts -and the axiomatic truth of the assertion that they are from God in the -sense that they are the consequence of believing God is and is good. - -To believe in the true God, the high and holy and merciful God of -Israel’s noblest thinkers, the God and Father of the Lord Jesus Christ, -certainly gives men confidence and courage, not because the dangers and -difficulties of life are removed, but because our strength being -increased, it becomes possible to overcome them: _The name of the Lord -is a strong tower; the righteous runneth into it and is safe_ (Pr. -18^{10}). Through the new spirit that is ours, life is lifted to a -higher plane where we feel that, when sorrow and pain and sin have had -their say, still the Lord reigneth; God is greater than His foes: _Whoso -feareth the Lord shall not be afraid and shall not play the coward; for -God is his hope_ (E. 34^{14}). - -To them that seek Him God gives illumination. _Evil men understand not -justice, but they that seek the Lord understand it altogether_ (Pr. -28^{5})--which does not mean that the pious are omniscient, but does -mean that to follow after truth and goodness enlightens, whereas to seek -evil and pursue it makes men blind. Accordingly it is said, _There is no -wisdom nor understanding nor counsel against the Lord_ (Pr. 21^{30}), -and the truth of that great saying has been repeatedly displayed in the -rise and fall of mighty nations and empires, as well as in the lives of -individuals. Selfishness is always short-sighted, snatching greedily at -shadows and missing the best there is in life. Again, _The curse of the -Lord is in the house of the wicked, but He blesseth the habitation of -the righteous_ (Pr. 3^{33}); and that is true because it is seldom that -such things as passion, hatred, cruelty and haunting moral fears are -absent from the former, and, whatever the good man’s house may lack, it -will generally have love, joy, peace and all the fruits of the Spirit. - -One remarkable proverb claims that _When a man’s ways please the Lord, -he maketh even his enemies to be at peace with him_ (Pr. 16^{7}); and -the value of the saying is perhaps increased in that, regarded -pedantically, the claim breaks down, whereas on a wider consideration it -seems to be subtly and profoundly true. Thus, our truthfulness may not -prevent some particular individual (our enemy) from deceiving us by a -lie, but it helps many, who might become false and some day deceive us, -to persevere in truthfulness; and if all men really were liars, heaven -help our race! Our honesty may not prevent a thief from breaking through -and stealing, but it does make it easier for other men to be honest and -so helps to reduce dishonesty in the world; and if all men were -deceivers, peaceful trade would cease. Mercy begets mercy; the kindness -of all true men who love God and follow Christ is making the world more -kind. In a word, the effect of righteous example is magnificently great. -What matter then if the truth be superlatively phrased? Let us affirm it -boldly: “When a man’s ways please the Lord, he maketh even his enemies -to be at peace with him.” - -Here is a verse that sums up the whole topic:-- - - _The eyes of the Lord are upon them that love Him, - A mighty protection and strong stay, - A cover from the hot blast and a shelter from the noonday, - A guard from stumbling, and a succour from falling. - He raiseth up the soul, and enlighteneth the eyes; - He giveth healing, life, and blessing_ (E. 34^{16, 17}). - -The gifts are good. But is there a Giver, a God who cares? Why not so -believe? It is neither impossible nor incredible. In the last chapter we -shall touch further upon the great question. For the moment our concern -is only with the answer to it that we find in the Jewish proverbs. That -answer is boldly affirmative. Let us begin, however, with a rather -hesitant saying; _A man’s goings are of the Lord, how then can he -understand his ways?_ (Pr. 20^{24}). Possibly the author intended not to -assert God’s guidance but only to complain of the baffling character of -our fortunes. If so, we will have none of it. If there be no God at all, -at least let us struggle to determine our path with such intelligence as -we can muster. In the following, however, there is no dubiety about the -affirmation of faith: _A man’s heart deviseth his way, but the Lord -directeth his steps_ (Pr. 16^{9}). Hard doctrine! theoretically possible -perhaps, but is it probable? Certainly it is hard to believe, almost -incredible, so long as it is considered merely from the critic’s chair. -But the sublime hope that God careth for men displays an astonishing -vitality; and the altogether amazing and significant fact is this, that -just where it ought most surely to die down and be extinguished, there -it always rises up and burns again--as now in the trenches. - -Here is the witness of an educated man, who had long ceased to be a -Christian in the conventional usage of the term. He is writing freely to -one who had been more than a friend for Christ’s sake, and it is fair to -give his words, because death is no longer a mystery to him. -“Half-unconsciously I hummed the tune rather than the words of the -famous hymn [_When I survey the wondrous Cross_]; As I did so there -appeared before me, not a vision of Christ’s person, but of the meaning -of the glorious crown of thorns He wore. The King of Heaven, the Prince -of Peace, is a man--He took not upon Him the nature of angels. That -would have been easy but futile. It would not have linked Him with us -closely enough. So my vision told me. He must needs suffer for us.... -And if suffering, and forgiveness, and love of our fellows, and general -self-forgetfulness be what is required of every one of us, how greatly -we all stand in need of His atonement. That was the lasting impression -of my vision: but, subsidiary, there was another. I felt, for a moment, -a sense of divine spectatorship, as if there was but God in the world -besides me; and God, all-seeing, all-understanding, with whom no words -were necessary[153].” - -But also those whose training in the school of life has brought them no -such command of words as had the writer of the above, have their own way -of voicing the instinct, saying that “if a fellow’s name is written on a -bullet he’ll get it, and if it isn’t, he won’t.” Press the naïve -metaphor. Who writes the name on the bullet? Not Krupps; they are too -busy for that. Then is the writing the writing of God, graven upon the -bullet? Probably the man himself would say, Fate is the writer. “Fate” -on the lips of men who have nineteen centuries of Christian tradition -behind them is only another name, and imperfect, for God the Father. -There is fatalism and fatalism. The fatalism of men who, being conscious -(however dimly) that duty has drawn them into a war which is at bottom -an immense conflict of ideas and ideals regarding the use and abuse of -national power, feel somehow that they will not die except they were -appointed to lay down their life for others; _that_ fatalism is -separated by a hair’s breadth from explicit trust in the overshadowing -love of God. Belief in God’s providence may seem difficult to the -student at his ease, but it is high human doctrine. It was the doctrine -of Jesus; and keen and earnest thinkers, and simple men and women -innumerable, facing the sternest facts of life, have found it possible -to place their trust in it, and, trusting, have found themselves at -peace. - - _Be not afraid of sudden fear, nor of the desolation - of the wicked when it cometh; - For the Lord shall be thy confidence, and shall keep - thy foot from being taken_ (Pr. 3^{25f}). - -In conclusion, here is a proverb which needs a few words of -introduction. The graces and benefits of religion are frequently -associated in the Bible with “meekness” or “humility.” Now those English -words carry unfortunate associations which are absent from the Hebrew -they represent. The “humility” commended by the Prophets and Psalmists -is a certain frank simplicity of soul--a quality from which not a few of -the most effective and virile personalities in the world’s history have -derived their power. It has little or nothing to do with softness or -timidity of character; indeed courage is its hall-mark. Those who first -rallied round the Maccabean leaders in the struggle against an unclean -Hellenism were of “the meek ones of the earth.” The Russian peasant has -this Biblical “humility,” but the proudest military empire in the modern -world has tasted the fortitude of his soul. Wherefore we may claim that -this exquisite saying is not merely beautiful, but is also profound: - - _The prayer of the humble pierceth the clouds_ (E. 35^{17}). - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -The Gift of God - - -The sayings we have been quoting in this volume for the most part belong -to the life of ordered and peaceful society. There is no tramp of -armies, no sense of imminent death, no outrage of gigantic suffering and -injustice, in the pages of _Proverbs_ or _Ecclesiasticus_. To-day, -however, the ordinary problems and interests of peace-time seem -altogether irrelevant. Twenty million fighting men in Europe, asked what -a maxim is, would talk to you of machine-guns; the maxims otherwise -called proverbs belong to a different and forgotten world. For trifling -moralisms we have to-day neither taste nor time. - -But the Jewish proverbs range wide enough to have a word for everyone, -for the grave or the gay, for pious or profane, for those in haste just -as much as for those at leisure; and many of their comments on life are -very far removed from being trifling. In our enquiry we have met not a -few winged words worth capturing and holding fast even in war-time; -great thoughts such as this assertion, _He that followeth after -righteousness shall attain unto life, but he that pursueth evil doeth it -to his own death_ (Pr. 11^{19}), or this reassuring hint of the -fundamental goodness of human nature, _When the righteous triumph there -is great glorying, but when the wicked come to power men hide -themselves_ (Pr. 28^{12}; cp. 11^{10}), or this grand medicine for a -tempted people, _Righteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a disgrace -to any folk_ (Pr. 14^{34}). - -Moreover it ought to be recognised that, properly regarded, morality is -never unimportant; moralisms being trifling only so long as they remain -mere words, not when they are translated into deeds. Act upon the good -that is found in these proverbs, and immense results would follow. But -just there is the crux: “It is a small matter to get right principles -recognised, the whole difficulty lies in getting them practised. We need -a power which can successfully, contend against the storm of our passion -and self-will.”[154] - -Now there is one deeply significant fact which we have seen in our study -of the Jewish proverbs, but on which we have not yet laid sufficient -stress--the fact that they seemed to their authors to point beyond -themselves to a Divine Source. They were not fortuitous atoms gathered -no man knew whence or why, but part of a marvellous system inspired and -originated by God, sustained by His inexhaustible power, and governed by -His holy purposes. Whatever may be thought regarding particular -proverbs, no sensible person can imagine that Wisdom itself is idle or -unimportant talk. Wisdom remains wise even in such a war as this, though -the nations rage and the kingdoms are moved. - -But is there a Divine Wisdom? Or is the aspiring faith of men only an -unsubstantial dream? From first to last the Jews believed that Wisdom is -a reality, and, far from weakening as the years went on, their -confidence even increased, and their thoughts of the wonder and glory of -the Heavenly Wisdom became, if possible, more sublime and yet no less -intimate. And high as they exalted Wisdom, her chiefest glory remained -this, that she was willing to dwell with men. Let us take as a last -quotation some beautiful and loving words from that late work, the -_Wisdom of Solomon_, to which reference was made in Chapter IX: - - _Wisdom is an effulgence from everlasting light, - A stainless mirror of God’s working, and an image of His goodness. - And it, being one, hath power to do all things; - And remaining in itself, reneweth all things: - And from generation to generation passing into holy souls - It maketh men friends of God and prophets.... - Wisdom is fairer than the sun, and above all the - constellations of the stars. - Being compared with light, it is found to be before it; - For to the light of day succeedeth night, - But against Wisdom evil doth not prevail_ (W.S. 7^{26-30}). - -Is there this Heavenly Wisdom? Century by century, Life is accumulating -its patient answer to the question, building up its vast evidence that -the word of God endures, generation by generation confirming the -intuition that the visible is for man the least real and that it is the -unseen things that are eternal. But out of the midst of history there -has also come one finished and marvellous reply--the personality of -Jesus Christ. - -_Wisdom, whence cometh it? And where is the place of understanding?_ -cried one who had despaired to find an answer. But the day came when -certain of the Jews declared that Wisdom was _found_, that the infinite -Divine Wisdom in its full glory had dwelt amongst us. All, and more than -all, that had been said or thought or hoped of the Heavenly Wisdom, they -had discovered in Christ Jesus. For one who had been man among men to be -thus _by Jews_ identified as the Perfect Wisdom, which was but an aspect -of God Himself, is clearly wonderful; but just how utterly amazing it -is, perhaps only those can realise who are conscious of the innate and -magnificent monotheism of the Jews, and who have listened with sympathy -and understanding to these reverent and rapturous praises of Wisdom. -That a human being could possibly be felt to be the incarnation of -Wisdom’s Self is a miracle. But the miracle is precisely that which has -happened, and it is explicable only by a cause as great as the effect; -that is, by the miracle of what Jesus was and is. - -Recognition of Christ as the Divine Wisdom, and of Wisdom as incarnate -in Christ, permeates the tradition and theology of the New Testament. It -is visible in almost every passage where His disciples have sought to -express the mystery and majesty of Him whose human love they had known -on earth, whose divine power they now felt from heaven. The idea of -Wisdom is the basis of St. Paul’s great utterances regarding Christ in -the _Epistle to the Colossians_; of the affirmations in _Hebrews_ that -by Christ were the worlds made and that He is the Radiance of the Divine -Glory and the Reflection of the Divine Being; and behind the wonderful -opening chapter of _St. John’s Gospel_ there is a hymn to the Eternal -Wisdom, which was in the beginning, and was with God, and was God.[155] - -_Who hath ascended into heaven and descended?_--asked a sceptical -questioner in the _Book of Proverbs_ (Pr. 30^{4}). _No man ascended into -heaven, but He that descended out of heaven, even the Son of Man_, rings -out the answer of the Gospel (_John_ 3^{13}). - -_If any man lack Wisdom let him ask of God, who giveth to all liberally, -and upbraideth not; and it shall be given him_, writes St. James. Surely -God’s gift is Christ? There are now nineteen centuries to show that -nothing that has set itself against His wisdom has endured and been -accepted as the truth. - -“We need a power which can successfully contend against the storm of our -passion and self-will.”--St. Paul affirms that the need has been met -and answered in Christ crucified, _the Power of God and the Wisdom of -God_, and the Gospel holds out the same promise: _as many as received -Him to them gave He power to become the children of God_. - -But are they many who throughout these centuries have sought to find -Wisdom in Christ, and in His redeeming compassion, His perfect knowledge -of human weakness and human need, His calm unfailing strength, His -infinite holiness, His glorious ideal, His faith, His sacrifice, have -declared that they have found that which they sought? They are very -many. Already they are a multitude which no man can number--out of every -nation and of all tribes and peoples--of whom some have sealed the -confession with their life-blood, and some have given equal testimony in -the unfaltering purity and patience of a quiet and unselfish life. Some -of them have been learned and some unlearned in this world’s knowledge, -but it is abundantly evident that all who have been faithful to His word -have possessed in its fulness the deeper Wisdom which is from above. - -The sum of it all is this. Christ has come. There are those who do not -trouble to seek for Wisdom with their whole heart, but that is a foolish -attitude which should be shunned. The miracle has happened, and we ought -to face its challenge. What think ye of Christ? Whose son is He? - - - - -Index - -A BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -Articles on _Proverbs_, _Ecclesiasticus_, _Wisdom Literature_, -_Hellenism_, etc., in the Encyclopædia Brittanica (11th edition), -Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible and the Encyclopædia Biblica. - -C. H. TOY, _Proverbs_ (International Critical Commentary). -G. CURRIE MARTIN, _Proverbs_, etc. (The Century Bible). -C. F. KENT, _Wise Men of Ancient Israel_. -W. O. E. OESTERLEY, _Ecclesiasticus_ (Cambridge Bible - for Schools and Colleges). -S. R. DRIVER, _Literature of the Old Testament_ s.v., Proverbs, etc. -G. A. SMITH, _Modern Criticism and the Preaching of - the Old Testament_, ch viii. -A. R. GORDON, _The Poets of the Old Testament_ chs. XV.-XVIII. -C. TAYLOR, _Sayings of the Fathers_ (_Pirke Aboth_). -A. COHEN, _Ancient Jewish Proverbs_ (Wisdom of the East Series). -E. L. BEVAN, _The House of Seleucus_ (2 vols.) -E. L. BEVAN, _Jerusalem under the High Priests_. -H. P. SMITH, _Old Testament History_ chs. XVIII., XIX. - - -I.--INDEX OF REFERENCES - -PROVERBS. - -ver. CHAPTER I. page - -4 130 -7-9 157, 267 -10ff 153, 181, 184, 200 -17 231 -22 130, 180, 181 -24 180 - - CHAPTER II. - -3, 4, 9 267 -10 217, 272 -16-19 186 - - CHAPTER III. - -3, 4 145, 269 -5, 6 158 -7 246 -11, 12 192, 271 -13-15 170 -16 272 -17, 18 217, 231 -19f 172 -25f 278 -27, 28 155, 211 -29 154 -31, 32 153 -33 275 -34 267 - - CHAPTER IV. - -7 177 -10-19 77 -13 142 -18 236 -19 51 -23 264 - - CHAPTER V. - -1-14 153 -22 188 - - CHAPTER VI. - -6-11 128, 233 -12-15 123 -16-19 48 -20-vii. 27 153 - - CHAPTER VII. - -1-27 153 -14 108 -20 234 - - CHAPTER VIII. - -1-3 182, 200 -10 171 -15, 16 172 -19 222 -21 167 -22-36 173 -23 222 - - CHAPTER IX. - -1-5 171, 212 -7 135, 180 -10 157 -17, 18 171 - - CHAPTER X. - -2 154 -3 188 -11 143 -12 145 -15 119 -20, 21 143 -22 25 -23 134 -26 140 -27 189 - - CHAPTER XI. - -1 253 -2 143 -4 211, 257 -5 143 -10 259, 280 -11 258 -12 140 -18 188 -19 280 -22 241 -24, 25 122, 253 -26 254 -28 211 -30 143 - - CHAPTER XII. - -1 142 -5 143 -7 211 -9 243 -15 123, 134 -16 123 -18 145 -19 143 -21 188 -26 144 - - CHAPTER XIII. - -1 180 -2 211 -3 140 -5 143 -7 122 -8 257 -11 257 -12 246 -19 134 -22 252 -24 149 - - CHAPTER XIV. - -1 133 -3 134 -13 192 -15, 16 133 -17 139 -20 120 -32 190 -34 259, 280 - - CHAPTER XV. - -1 145, 246 -2 123 -4 145, 211 -5 134 -8 108 -16 211 -17 120 -18 139 -20 134 -23 140 -24 190 -25 155 -28 143 -29 188 - - CHAPTER XVI. - -1 211 -3 264 -4 189 -6 269 -7 276 -8 154, 211, 254 -9 277 -16 171 -18 140, 246 -19 210 -24 51 -26 116 -27 123, 181 -28 122 -32 139, 206, 246 - - CHAPTER XVII. - -1 108 -2 151 -5 144 -7 129 -9 253 -10 135 -12 232, 241, 242 -13 140 -16 134 -17 142 -21 130 -23 153 -24 133, 242 -28 140 - - CHAPTER XVIII. - -2 134 -7 123 -8 125 -9 242 -10 275 -11 183, 257 -13 262 -17 243 -20, 21 140, 211 -22 148 - - CHAPTER XIX. - -4 120 -12 232 -14 238 -17 211 -26 150 -27 183 -29 135 - - CHAPTER XX. - -1 138, 185 -3 141 -6 192 -10 222, 253 -14 113 -17 266 -20 150 -22 140, 188 -23 153, 253 -24 277 -28 152 - - CHAPTER XXI. - -2 273 -3 108, 153, 274 -6 253 -9 242 -13 253 -14 152 -17 138 -20 133 -22 233 -23 211 -24 135 -27 108, 274 -30, 31 247, 275 - - CHAPTER XXII. - -1 51, 257 -2 252 -3 58 -4 167 -6 150 -7 113 -8 188 -10 180 -11 143 -13 128; cp. 242 -22, 23 153, 181 -27 113 -28 58 - - CHAPTER XXIII. - -1-3 124 -4, 5 256 -9 134 -10, 11 59, 53 -13, 14 149 -17, 18 190, 263 -21 253 -29-31 153, 185 -29-35 138, 233 - - CHAPTER XXIV. - -1 263 -3, 4 234 -11, 12 144 -16 246 -17, 18 141, 207 -24 256 -27 262 -28 153 -29 145 -30-34 128, 242 - - CHAPTER XXV. - -2, 3 152 -6 211 -11 231 -13 234 -14 123, 235 -16 17 -17 30, 262 -19 243 -20 125 -21 145 -24 242 -25 236 -27 222, 243 -28 246 - - CHAPTER XXVI. - -2 51, 236 -3 134, 232 -4 135, 262 -7 134, 242 -11 135 -12 123, 246 -13 242, cp.128 -14, 15 128, 242 -16 128, 181 -17 141, 238 -18, 19 124 -20 122 -21 141 -23-26 141 -27 154 -28 125 - - CHAPTER XXVII. - -1 211, 262 -3 134 -4 141 -6 245 -8 231 -14 125 -15 242 -17 245 -18 231 -19 236 -20 58 -22 135, 242 -23-27 232 - - CHAPTER XXVIII. - -1 246 -5 275 -6 154, 245, 254 -7 138 -8 155 -12 280 -13, 14 268 -15 152, 232 -17 245 -22 122 -23 125 -24 150 -26 134 -27 155 - - CHAPTER XXIX. - -1 142 -4 152 -5 125 -11 139 -12 259 -13 252 -14 152, 259 -15 149 -19 151 -20 124 -22 139 - - CHAPTER XXX. - -1-6 192 -4 283 -7-9 155 -8, 9 121, 211 -12, 14 256 -15, 16 46, 52 -17 150, 232 -18, 19 51, 233 -21-23 47, 129 -24-28 47, 233 -26f 232 -29-31 47, 232 -33 141 - - CHAPTER XXXI. - -4, 5 152 -6, 7 185 -10-29 147f -14 233 - - -ECCLESIASTICUS. - -Prologue 198 - - CHAPTER I. - -1 158 -11, 12 272 -26 267 - - CHAPTER II. - -1-6 271f -12-14 246 - - CHAPTER III. - -6-9 150 -12-15 150 -36 252 - - CHAPTER IV. - -1 120 -8, 9 252 -11, 12 245 -17 171 -28 266, 269 - - CHAPTER VI. - -7ff 142 -19-25 171 -26-29 171 -35, 36 262 - - CHAPTER VII. - -1-3 263 -9, 11 263 -10 264 -15 118 -18 263 -20, 21 152 - - CHAPTER VIII. - -5-7 263 -17 133 - - CHAPTER IX. - -3-9 186 - - CHAPTER X. - -8 259 -11 190 - - CHAPTER XI. - -2 262 -11 238 -26-28 189 - - CHAPTER XIV. - -3, 4 122 - - CHAPTER XV. - -1 198 -11, 12 263 - - CHAPTER XVII. - -28 190 - - CHAPTER XVIII. - -19 262 - - CHAPTER XIX. - -1 246 -2 186 -10 244 -20 198 - - CHAPTER XX. - -5, 6 243 -12 243 -14f 40 -15, 16 133 -29 163 - - CHAPTER XXI. - -6 272 -10 266 -14 134 -26 133 - - CHAPTER XXII. - -7 134, 162 -8 134, 242 -12 162 -18 134 -19 274 - - CHAPTER XXIV. - -3-11 174 -23 198 - - CHAPTER XXV. - -1, 2 48 -7-11 48 -16 232 -20 242 - - CHAPTER XXVI. - -5 48 -29ff 113, 254 - - CHAPTER XXVII. - -1, 2 113 -9 231 -11 133 -25 233 - - CHAPTER XXVIII. - -1, 2 269 - - CHAPTER XXIX. - -4, 5 113 - - CHAPTER XXX. - -8 232 -9-12 149 -14 121 -15 257 - - CHAPTER XXXI. - -3 120 -12ff 124 -19, 20 139 -27f 184 -29, 30, 31 185 - - CHAPTER XXXII. - -5 133 -6 232 -24-28 151 -30, 31 151 - - CHAPTER XXXIV. - -1 236 -10 161 -12 160, 161 -14 275 -16, 17 276 -18, 19 274 -20-22 256 - - CHAPTER XXXV. - -17 279 - - CHAPTER XXXVIII. - -1-15 115 -5 114 -16ff 191 -24-34 117 - - CHAPTER XXXIX. - -1-3 198 - - CHAPTER XL. - -11 190 -28f 114 - - CHAPTER XLI. - -1 163 -1-4 191 -17-19 163 -20 186 - - CHAPTER XLII. - -9-11 146 - - CHAPTER XLIII. - -1-5 234 -8-12 234 -15-19 235 -24-25 233 -27-32 273 - - CHAPTER XLIV. - -1ff 20 - - CHAPTER L. - -6, 7 234 -8-10 231 - -CHAPTER LI. -3ff 160 - -Genesis =10= 9 (50); =28= 10-19 (49). -Exodus =15= 25 (114); =20= 5 (67). -Numbers =21= 27 (69). -Deuteronomy =27= 17 (59); =80= 11-14 (215). -Joshua =7= 24, 25 (66). -Ruth =2= 7-14 (235). -1 Samuel =10= 11 (62); =24= 9-13 (63); =24= 16 (64). -2 Samuel =1= 23 (64); =14= 1ff (68); =20= 16-22 (68). -1 Kings =4= 29-34 (69, 231). -2 Kings =4= 18, 19 (235). -2 Chronicles =16= 12 (144) -Job =5= 4 (189); =15= 18 (73); =24= 2 (59); =28= 20-27(175); =28, 38= (235). -Psalms =1= (77); =1= 1 (180); =19= 1 (229); =90= 3 (43). -Ecclesiastes =7= 6 (133); =9= 4 (232). -Canticles =2= 11ff (235). -Isaiah =5= 8 (59); =28= 10 (109, 200); =29= 13, 14 (70 ); - =40= 27 (44); =55= 8 (106). -Jeremiah =18= 18 (70); =81= 28-30 (65f). -Ezekiel =12= 21, 22 (67); =16= 44 (65); =18= 1f (65). -Hosea =5= 10 (59). -Amos =5= 21f (83). -Zechariah =4= 6 (106). -St. Matthew =2= 12 (283); =5= 3f (210); =5= 42, =10= 14, - =12= 36, =22= 1-14, =25= 40 (211). -St. Mark =5= 26 (115). -St. Luke =4= 23 (115); =12= 16-21 (211); =14= 7-11 (211). -St. John =1= 12 (284); =3= 13 (283); =7= 17 (267); =18= 26ff (230). -Acts =18= 1-3 (119). -Romans =5= 20 (67); =12= 20 (145). -1 Corinthians =1= 24 (284). -2 Corinthians =11= 9 (119). -Ephesians =6= 12 (76). -Hebrews =12= 1-7 (270f). -James =1= 5 (283); =4= 6-(267). -1 Peter =5= 5 (267). -1 Maccabees =2= 29-38 (202). -Wisdom of Solomon =7= 22ff (176, 282); =9= 4 (176). -Sayings of the Fathers =49=, 206f. - - - - -II.--INDEX OF SUBJECTS - - -Abbreviations, 40, 205, 207. - -Agnosticism, 176, 192, 218. - -Almsgiving, 113f - -Anger, 139f. - -Antiochus Epiphanes, 201 - -Aristotle, 45. - -Athletics, 88, 93, 96, 183, 201. - - -Bacon, Francis, 22, 245, 256. - -Beggar, 114. - -Ben Sirach, 39, 160ff. - -Bribery, 152, 163, 257. - - -Children, 145ff, 271. - -Chronicler, 109, 114. - -Church, 182, 195, 199n, 216, 220, 225. - -Commerce, 113, 254. - -Craftsmen, 116f. - -Cromer, Lord, 226. - - -Death, 163, 168, 190f. - -Democracy, 86ff. - -Desert, Arabian, 54f, 141. - -Discipline, Self-, 139, 171, 191f. - -Doctor, 114f. - - -Ecclesiasticus, 39f, 162, 205. - -Education, 149. - -Epitaphs, Greek, 89f. - - -Farmer, 232. - -Fatalism, 278. - -Flattery, 125f. - -Fools, 129ff, 242. - -Forgiveness, 144, 268. - -Friendship, 142. - - -Germany, 206, 217, 237. - -Ghetto, 209. - -Greek, City-State, 86ff. - ----- philosophy, 95n, 159, 175f. - - -_Hasidim_, 201. - -Hellenism, 84ff, 110, 196, 201f, 225. - -Heredity 65f. - -History, 21f, 43, 81, 194f, 214f. - -Honesty, 141, 143f, 153, 253f, 265, 273. - - -Idealism, 213, 222. - -Individualism, 218f, 252. - - -Jealousy, 141. - -Josephus, 98. - -Justice, 152, 258, 269. - - -King, 152, 258. - - -Labour, 116ff. - -Law of Moses, 38n, 104, 108, 110f, 198, 209. - - -Mercy, 144f, 276. - -Miserliness, 122. - -Morality, 90, 94f, 153, 181, 183ff. - - -Nationalism, 89, 94, 164, 174n. - - -Oesterley, 151, 162, 168, 267 - -Old Testament, 249. - - -Pindar, 229. - -Poseidonius, 96, 121. - -Pride, 123, 140, 143. - -Proverbs: - Arabic, 23f; - Chinese, 34; - Egyptian, 166; - English, 14-25, 179, 246; - Greek, 25, 166; - humanism of, 19f, 22, 162, 227, 280; - Indian 51f; - Italian and Spanish, 23f, 141; - New Testament, 194, 212; - numerical, 46ff; - Scotch, 25; - Rabbinic, 41, 49, 55, 206f, 218, 243, 247, 253, 259, 262; - wandering of, 51f. - -Providence, 276ff. - -Ptolemy, 91, 97, 101, 103. - - -Rabbis, 119. - -Receptivity, 142, 171, 266. - -Religion, 157f, 220f, 272. - -Ruskin, 30. - -Rutherford, Mark, 35. - - -Scribe(s), 116f, 160, 198n. - -Seleucus, 91, 97. - -Sheol (see Death). - -Slander, 122f, 154. - -Slaves, 86, 150f. - -Sluggard, 127ff, 140, 242. - -Solomon, 37, 71f, 231, 243. - -Solon, 99, 189. - -Suffering, 187ff, 270, 275. - -Synagogues, 197f. - - -Temperance (see Wine). - -Theophrastus, 126. - - -Universalism, 108f, 111. - -Utilitarianism, 29, 167ff. - - -Wealth, 119f, 154, 256f. - -Wine, 138, 153, 161, 184. - -Wisdom, Greek, 99, 106. - ----- personified, 174f, 282. - -Wisdom of Solomon, 39, 175, 281. - -Woman, 146, 154, 186, 241f. - - -Headley Brothers, 18, Devonshire Street, Bishopsgate, E.C.2.; 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ISAAC HARTILL, F.R.G.S., -F.R.Hist.S. 64 pages, with frontispiece. 6d. net. - -=C. Silvester Horne.= In Memoriam. April 15th, 1865-May 2nd, 1914. 64 -pages, with portrait, 6d. net. - -=The Birthday of Hope.= By J. D. JONES, M.A., D.D. Illustrated. Printed on -art paper, with fancy cover and ribbon, 6d. net. Padded white cloth, -lettering in gold, boxed, 1s. 6d. net. - -=The Ship’s Engines. A Parable.= By the late T. CAMPBELL FINLAYSON, D.D. -In vellum cover, 6d. net. - -Rev. J. H. JOWETT says:--“I am so glad you are issuing the article in -the shape of the little booklet. I am sure it will be very helpful to -many people, and will bring light and leading to many bewildered souls.” - -=England’s Danger.= By R. F. HORTON, M.A., D.D. Price 6d. net. Contents: -ROMANISM AND NATIONAL DECAY; ST. PETER AND THE ROCK; TRUTH; -PROTESTANTISM; HOLY SCRIPTURE; PURGATORY. - -“Good fighting discourses. 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Compiled by E. H. -MAYO GUNN. Cloth limp, 3d.; cloth boards, 6d.; music, 3s. - - -=2d.= net - -=The Sunday Afternoon Song Book.= Containing 137 Hymns. For use at -“Pleasant Sunday Afternoons,” and Other Gatherings. Compiled by H. A. -KENNEDY, of the Men’s Sunday Union, Stepney Meeting House. Twentieth -Thousand, 2d; music, 1s. - -“Contains 137 hymns, the catholic character of which, in the best sense -of the term, may be gathered from the names of the authors, which -include Tennyson, Ebenezer Elliott, Whittier, G. Herbert, C. Wesley, -Thomas Hughes, J. H. Newman, Longfellow, Bonar, and others. While the -purely dogmatic element is largely absent, the Christian life, in its -forms of aspiration, struggle against sin and love for the true and the -good, is well illustrated.”--_Literary World._ - - - - -INDEX OF TITLES - - -PAGE - -Abbey Mill, The, 22 - -Advent Sermons, 8 - -America in the East, 5 - -Animal Fancy-land, 30 - -Animal Gambols, 30 - -Animal Happyland, 30 - -Animal Playtime, 30 - -Animal Picture-Land, 30 - -Animals in Fun-Land, 30 - -Apocalyptical Writers, The Messages of the, 13 - -Apostles, The Messages of the, 13 - -Appeal of Jesus, The 15 - -Around the Guns, 26 - -Aspects of the Spiritual, 14 - -Asquith, The Right Hon. H. H., M.P., 10 - -Astronomy Simplified, 16 - -Atonement and Progress, 20 - -Atonement in Modern Thought, The, 11 - -Augustinian Revolution in Theology, 18 - -Aunt Agatha Ann, 29 - -Authority and the Light Within, 20 - - -Beads of Tasmer, The 15, 22 - -Beatitudes and the Contrasts, The 18 - -Between Two Loves, 22 - -Birthday of Hope, The, 30 - -Black Familiars, The, 21 - -Border Shepherdess, A, 15 - -Bow of Orange Ribbon, The, 31 - -Britain’s Hope, 25 - -Brudenelle of Brude, The 22 - -Burning Questions, 25 - - -Canonbury Holt, 22 - -Challenge, The, 19 - -Chats with Women on Everyday Subjects, 24 - -Children’s Paul, The, 21 - -Chosen Twelve, The, 15 - -Christ and War 23, 26 - -Christ in Everyday Life, 18 - -Christ of the Children, The, 21 - -Christ or Chaos?, 9 - -Christ that is To Be, The 12 - -Christ, The Private Relationships of, 6 - -Christ’s Pathway to the Cross, 23 - -Christ’s Vision of the Kingdom of Heaven, 4 - -Christian Certitude, 10 - -Christian of To-day, The, 10 - -Christian Union in Social Service, 16 - -Christian World Album of Sacred Songs, The, 25 - -Christian World Album of Sacred and Standard Compositions - for the Pianoforte, 25 - -Christian World Pulpit, The, 7 - -Christianity in Common Speech, 29 - -Chronicle of the Archbishops of Canterbury, A, 4 - -Chrystabel, 22 - -Church and Modern Life, The, 11 - -Church and the Kingdom, The, 25 - -Church and the Next Generation, The, 20 - -Common Life, The, 14 - -Concerning Conscience, 9 - -Conquered World, The, 25, 28, 30 - -Conquering Prayer, 18 - -Constructive Christianity, 17 - -Constructive Natural Theology, 8 - -Crucible of Experience, The 28 - - -Dante for the People, 7 - -Darwin, Charles, and other English Thinkers, 6 - -Daughter of Fife, A, 31 - -Days of Old, 9 - -Debt of the Damerals, The, 22 - -Divine Satisfaction, The, 28 - -Dutch in the Medway, The, 12 - - -Earlier Prophets, The Messages of the, 13 - -Ecce Vir, 27 - -Effectual Words, 8 - -Emilia’s Inheritance, 22 - -England’s Danger, 30 - -Esther Wynne, 22 - -Eternal Religion, The, 14 - -Eucken and Bergson, 17 - -Evangelical Heterodoxy, 10 - -Everychild, 27 - -Evolution, Life and Religion, 6 - -Evolution of Old Testamen Religion, The, 11 - -Exposition, The Art of, 9 - -Ezekiel, The Book of, 3 - - -Facets of Faith, 23 - -Faith and Form, 24 - -Faith and Verification, 6 - -Faith of a Wayfarer, The, 24 - -Faith’s Certainties, 14 - -Family Prayers for Morning Use, 12 - -Father Fabian, 22 - -Fifty Years’ Reminiscences of a Free Church Musician, 17 - -Fighters and Martyrs for the Freedom of Faith, 9 - -First Christians, The, 11 - -First Things of Jesus, 11 - -Flowers from the Master’s Garden, 27 - -For Childhood and Youth, 23 - -Fortune’s Favourite, 22 - -Fortunes of Cyril Denham, The, 22 - -“Freedom of Faith” Series, The, 23 - -Friend Olivia, 5 - -Gamble with Life, A, 15 - -Garrisoned Soul, The, 27 - -Getting Together, 6 - -Glorious Company of the Apostles, The, 21 - -God, Humanity and the War, 26 - -Good New Times, The, 20 - -Gospel of Grace, The, 10 - -Great Embassy, The, 26 - -Great Unfolding, The, 7 - -Grey and Gold, 22 - -Grey House at Endlestone, The 22 - -Growing Revelation, The, 7 - - -Hampstead, Its historic houses; its literary and artistic associations, 4 - -Happy Warrior, 26 - -Health and Home Nursing, 28 - -Health in the Home Life, 19 - -Heaven and the Sea, 9 - -Heavenly Visions, 9 - -Heirs of Errington, The, 22 - -Helga Lloyd, 5 - -Helps to Health and Beauty, 29 - -His Next of Kin, 22 - -History of France, 1180-1314, 20 - -History of the United States, A, 4 - -Holidays in Animal Land, 30 - -Holy Christian Empire, 31 - -Homes and Careers in Canada, 16 - -Horne, C. Silvester, 30 - -House of Bondage, The, 22 - -House of the Secret, The, 5 - -How to Cook, 27 - -How to Read the Bible, 28 - -“Humanism of the Bible” Series, 12 - -Husbands and Wives, 22 - - -Ideals for Girls, 21 - -Ideals in Sunday School Teaching, 24 - -Illustrations from Art for Pulpit and Platform, 8 - -Immanence of Christ in Modern Life, The, 19 - -Imperishable Word, The, 17 - -Impregnable Faith, An, 17 - -Individuality of S. Paul, The. 12 - -Inspiration in Common Life. 23 - -Interludes in a Time of Change, 10 - -In the Father’s House, 7 - -Invisible Companion, The, 24 - -Israel’s Law Givers, The Messages of, 13 - - -Jan Vedder’s Wife, 31 - -“J.B.” J. Brierley, his Life and Work, 7 - -Jesus and His Teaching, 11 - -Jesus and Human Life, 13 - -Jesus or Christ?, 25 - -Jesus: Seven Questions, 11 - -Jesus, The Messages of, According to the Gospel of John, 13 - -Jesus, The Messages of, According to the Synoptists, 13 - -Joan Carisbrooke, 22 - -Joshua, The Book of, 4 - -Jowett, J. H., M.A., D.D., 24 - -Joy Bringer, The, 26 - -Judges of Jesus, The, 20 - -Judges, The Book of, 4 - - -Kaiser or Christ, 26 - -Kingdom of th., 21 - -King George and Queen Mary, 18 - -Kit Kennedy: Country Boy 5, 21 - - -Lady Clarissa, 22 - -Last of the MacAllisters, The 15 - -Later Prophets, The Messages of the, 13 - -Leaves for Quiet Hours, 19 - -Led by a Child, 16 - -Letters of Christ, The, 23 - -Letters to a Ministerial Son, 18 - -Liberty and Religion, 19 - -Life and Teaching of Jesus, Notes on the, 24 - -Life and the Ideal, 14 - -Life in His Name, 10 - -Life of the Soul, 14 - -Life’s Beginnings, 18, 24 - -Life’s Little Lessons, 23 - -Lifted Veil, A, 17 - -Looking Inwards, 17 - -Lynch, Rev. T. T.: A Memoir, 5 - -Lyrics of the Soul, 18 - - -Making of a Minister, The, 15 - -Making of Heaven and Hell, The, 24 - -Man on The Road, The, 23 - -Margaret Torrington, 22 - -Marprelate Tracts, The 3 - -Meaning and Value of Mysticism, 5 - -Merry Animal Picture Book, The, 30 - -Merry Times in Animal Land, 30 - -Messages of Hope, 17 - -Messages of the Bible, The, 13 - -Millicent Kendrick, 22 - -Miss Devereux, Spinster, 22 - -Model Prayer, The, 21 - -Modern Minor Prophets, 17 - -Modern Theories of Sin, 10 - -More Tasty Dishes, 29 - -Morning Mist, A, 22 - -Morning, Noon, and Night, 29 - -Mr. Montmorency’s Money, 22 - -My Belief, 11 - -My Daily Meditation for the Circling Year, 8 - - -Nature and Message of the Bible, The, 15 - -New Evangel, The, 20 - -New Mrs. Lascelles, The, 22 - -New Testament in Modern Speech, The, 19, 22 - -Nobly Born, 22 - -Old Testament Stories in Modern Light, 24 - -Oliver Cromwell, 28 - -Oliver Westwood, 22 - -Our City of God, 14 - -Our Life Beyond, 27 - -Our Protestant Faith, 16 - -Ourselves and the Universe, 14, 31 - -Outline Text Lessons for Junior Classes, 28 - -Overdale, 22 - - -Passion for Souls, The, 23 - -Paton, J. B., M.A., D.D, 7 - -Paul, The Messages of, 13 - -Person of Christ in Modern Thought, The, 5 - -Personality of Jesus, The, 15 - -Pessimism and Love in Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs, 12 - -Peter in the Firelight, 17 - -Phyllistrata and Other Poems, 16 - -Pilot, The, 19 - -Poems. By Mme. Guyon, 15 - -Poets, The Messages of the, 13 - -Polychrome Bible, The, 3, 4 - -Popular History of the Free Churches, The, 23 - -Portrait Preaching, 7 - -Prayer, 23 - -Preaching to the Times, 12 - -Price of Priestcraft, The, 27 - -Pride of the Family, The, 22 - -Problem of Paris, The, 13 - -Problems and Perplexities, 17 - -Problems of Immanence, 17 - -Problems of Living, 14 - -Prophetical and Priestly Historians, The Messages of, 13 - -Psalms, The, In Modern Speech and Rhythmical Form, 7 - -Psalmists, The Messages of the 13 - -Pulpit Manual, A, 16 - -Purpose of the Cross, The, 20 - - -Quaint Rhymes for the Battlefield, 26 - -Quickening of Caliban, The, 12 - - -Reasonable View of Life, A, 23 - -Reasonableness of Jesus, The, 24 - -Reasons Why for Congregationalists, 25 - -Reasons Why for Free Churchmen, 27 - -Recollections of Newton House, 30 - -Reconstruction, A Help to Doubters, 7 - -Reform in Sunday School Teaching, 25 - -Religion and Experience, 14 - -Religion and Miracle, 10 - -Religion in Song, 13 - -Religion and To-day, 14 - -Religion: The Quest of the Ideal, 18 - -Religion that will Wear, A, 28 - -Resultant Greek Testament, The, 20 - -Robert Wreford’s Daughter, 22 - -Romance of Preaching, 6 - -Rome from the Inside, 28 - -Rosebud Annual, The, 7, 15 - - -School Hymns, 15, 31 - -Scourge of God, The, 22 - -Sculptors of Life, 17 - -Secret of Living, The, 14 - -Seed of the Kingdom, The, 26 - -Selections from Brierley, 7 - -Self-Realisation, 16 - -Seriousness of Life, The, 16 - -Sermon Illustration, The Art of, 10 - -Sermons on God, Christ and Man, 8 - -Sharing His Sufferings, 24 - -She Loved a Sailor, 22 - -Shepherd, Ambrose, D.D., 15 - -Ship’s Engines, The, 30 - -Short Talks to Boys and Girls, 28 - -Sidelights on Religion, 14 - -Simon Peter’s Ordination Day, 15 - -Simple Cookery, 21 - -Simple Things of the Christian Life, The, 23 - -Singlehurst Manor, 22 - -Sir Galahad, 26 - -Sissie, 22 - -Small Books on Great Subjects 25, 30 - -Smith, John, the Se-Baptist, Thomas Helwys, and the - First Baptist Church in England, 6 - -Social Salvation, 7 - -Song of the Well, The, 8 - -Spoken Words of Prayer and Praise, 9 - -Squire of Sandal Side, The, 15, 22 - -St. Beetha’s, 22 - -St. Paul and His Cities, 8 - -St. Paul’s Fight for Galatia, 8 - -Storehouse for Preachers and Teachers, 25 - -Stories of Old, 21 - -Story of Clarice, The, 5 - -Story of Congregationalism in Surrey, The, 11 - -Story of Joseph the Dreamer, The, 20 - -Story of Penelope, The, 22 - -Story of the English Baptists, The, 11 - -Story of the Twelve, 16 - -Studies in Christian Mysticism, 16 - -Studies in Life from Jewish Proverbs, 13 - -Studies of the Soul, 14, 31 - -Sunday Afternoon Song Book 27, 31 - -Sunny Memories of Australasia, 25 - -Sweet Peas and Antirrhinums, 26 - - -Tale of a Telephone, A, 29 - -Talks to Little Folks, 29 - -Tasty Dishes, 29 - -Theology and Truth, 6 - -They that Wait, 30 - -Things Most Surely Believed, 18 - -Things that Matter Most, 8 - -Thornycroft Hall, 22 - -Thoughts for Life’s Journey, 18 - -Through a Padre’s Spectacles, 15 - -Through Eyes of Youth, 16 - -Through many Windows, 23 - -Through Science to Faith, 5 - -Town Romance, A, 22 - -Transfigured Church, The, 9 - -Translation of Faith, The, 16 - -True Christ, The, 18 - - -Unfettered Word, The, 9 - -Ungilded Gold, 19, 25 - -Universal Over-Presence, The, 18 - -Until the Day Dawn, 8 - -Unveiled Glory, The; or, Sidelights on the Higher Evolution, 17 - -Uplifting of Life, The, 16 - - -Value of the Apocrypha, The, 23 - -Value of the Old Testament, 20 - -Violet Vaughan, 22 - -Voice from China, 11 - -Voices of To-day: Studies of Representative Modern Preachers, 9 - - -Waiting Life, The; By the Riverof Waters, 16 - -War and Immortality, 15 - -Warleigh’s Trust, 22 - -Way and the Work, The, 23 - -Wayfarer at the Cross Roads, The, 24 - -Way of Prayer, The, 24 - -Way of Remembrance, The, 26 - -Wayside Angels, 28 - -Week with the Fleet, A, 26 - -Well by Bethlehem’s Gate, The, 23 - -Westminster Sermons, 10 - -What is the Bible?, 9 - -Who was Jesus, 16 - -Who Wrote the Bible?, 25 - -Why We Believe, 19 - -Winning of Immortality, The, 10 - -Wisdom of God and the Word of God, The, 9 - -Woman’s Patience, A, 22 - -Women and their Saviour, 27 - -Women and Their Work, 25 - -Words by the Wayside, 25 - -Working Woman’s Life, A, 10 - -Woven of Love and Glory, 15 - - -Young Man’s Ideal, A, 17 - -Young Man’s Religion, A, 20 - - - - -INDEX OF AUTHORS - -PAGE - -Abbott, Lyman, 11 - -Adeney. W. F., 11, 28 - -Allin, T., 18 - -Angus, A. H., 24 - -Antram, C. E. P., 27 - - -Barr, Amelia E., 5, 15, 22, 31 - -Barrows, C. H., 15 - -Begbie, H., 27 - -Bennett, Rev. W. H., 4 - -Betts, C. H., 16, 18, 23 - -Birch, E. A., 23 - -Black, J., 26 - -Blake, J. M., 23, 24 - -Blomfield, Elsie, 30 - -Blue, A. W., 23 - -Bosworth, E. I., 18 - -Bradford, Amory H., 6 - -Brierley, J., 7, 14, 31 - -Brown, C., 9, 23 - -Bulcock, H., 16 - -Burford, W. K., 16 - -Burgess, W. H., 6 - -Burns, David, 8 - -Burns, Rev. J., 8, 16, 26 - -Burns, J. Golder, 15 - - -Cadman, S. P., 6, 26 - -Cairncross, T., S. 15 - -Campbell, R. J., 11 - -Carlile, J. C., 11, 16, 28, 29 - -Cave, Dr., 11 - -Caws, Rev. L. W., 17 - -Chaplin, Gauntlett, 6 - -Cleal, E. E., 11 - -Clifford, John, 26 - -Collins, B. G., 20 - -Compton-Rickett, Sir J., 12, 29 - -Cowper, W., 15 - -Crockett, S. R. 5, 21 - -Cuff, W., 25 - -Cuthbertson, W., 26 - - -Davidson, Gladys, 28 - -Dodd, A. F., 20 - -Dods, Marcus, 11 - -Dyson, W. H., 16 - - -Elias, F., 9, 10 - -Ellis, J., 25 - -Elmslie, W. A. L., 13 - -Evans, H., 27 - - -Farningham, Marianne, 10, 18, 25, 27 - -Farrar, Dean 11 - -Finlayson, T. Campbell, 30 - -Fiske, J., 4 - -Forsyth, P. T., 11, 31 - -Foston, H., 16, 18 - -Fremantle, Dean, 11 - -Furness, H. H., 3 - - -Gibberd, Vernon, 23 - -Gibbon, J. Morgan, 10 - -Giberne, Agnes, 22 - -Gladden, Washington, 7, 11, 25 - -Godet, Professor, 11 - -Gordon, George A., 10 - -Griffis, W. E., 5 - -Griffith-Jones, E. 6, 26 - -Grubb, E., 20, 24 - -Gunn, E. H. M., 15, 31 - -Guyon, Madame, 15 - - -Hall, T. C., 13 - -Hampden-Cook, E., 19 - -Harnack, Professor, 11 - -Harris, Rendel 23, 26 - -Hartill, I., 30 - -Harvey-Jellie, W. 9 - -Haupt, P., 3 - -Haweis, H. R., 21 - -Heddle, Ethel F., 22 - -Henderson, Alex. C., 16 - -Henson, Dean H. Hensley, 10, 12 - -Hermann, E. 5, 17 - -Hill, F. A. 4 - -Hocking, S. K. 15 - -Hodgson, J. M. 18 - -Holborn, Alfred 16 - -Horne, C. Silvester 6, 11, 23 - -Horton, R. F. 7, 11, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31 - -Humphrey, F. 23 - -Hunter, John 11 - -Hutton, J. A. 26 - - -“J. B.” of _The Christian World_, 28 - -J. M. G., 12 - -Jeffs, H., 7, 9, 10, 16, 17, 20 - -John, Griffith, 11 - -Jones, J. D., 9, 10, 18, 21, 23, 25, 27, 30 - -Jones, J. P., 8 - -Jordan, W. G., 13 - -Jowett, J. H., 8, 9, 23, 24, 30 - -Jude, J. H., 25 - - -Kennedy, H. A., 27, 31 - -Kent, C. F., 13 - -Kenyon, Edith C., 24 - -Kirk, E. B., 6 - -Knight, W. A., 17, 23 - - -La Touche, E. D. 5, 10 - -Lee, E., 5 - -Leggatt, F. Y., 24 - -Lewis, E. W., 24 - -London, Bishop of, 26 - - -McEvoy, Cuthbert, 26 - -Macfadyen, D., 15 - -McFadyen, J. E., 7, 12, 13, 24 - -McFayden, J. F., 13 - -Macfarlane, Charles, 12 - -M‘Intyre, D. M., 10 - -McKilliam, A. E., 4 - -Maconachie, D. H., 16 - -Manners, Mary E., 29 - -Man of the World, A, 18 - -Marchant, Bessie, 22 - -Marchant, J., 6 - -Mark, Thistelton, 23 - -Marshall, J. S., 27 - -Marshall, N. H., 6, 20 - -Mason, E. A., 29 - -Mather, Lessels, 28 - -Matheson, George, 17, 18, 19, 25 - -Maxwell, A., 4 - -Meade, L. T., 22 - -Metcalfe, R. D., 27 - -Michael, C. D., 21 - -Minshall, E., 17 - -Moore, G. F., 4 - -Morgan, G. Campbell, 23, 26 - -Morison, F., 24 - -Morrow, H. W., 15 - -Morten, Honnor, 19 - -Munger, T. T., 11 - - -Neilson, H. B., 30 - - -Orchard, W. E., 8, 10, 11, 17 - - -Palmer, Frederic, 10 - -Peake, A. S., 25 - -Pharmaceutical Chemist, A., 29 - -Pierce, W., 3 - -Piggott, W. C., 17 - -Porter, F. C., 13 - -Pounder, R. W., 8 - -Pringle, A., 24 - - -Reid, Rev. J., 8, 11, 16 - -Ridgway, Emily, 26 - -Riggs, J. S., 13 - -Roberts, E. Cecil, 16, 26 - -Roberts, R., 20 - -Roose, Rev. J. S., 16 - -Russell, F. A., 23 - -Rutherford, J. S., 16 - - -Sabatier, A., 11 - -Sanders, F. K., 13 - -Schmidt, N., 13 - -Schrenck, E. von, 11 - -Scott, D. R., 14 - -Scottish Presbyterian, A, 28 - -Selbie, W. B., 15 - -Shepherd, E., 15 - -Shepherd, J. A., 30 - -Shillito, Edward, 17 - -Sinclair, H., 9 - -Smyth, Newman, 5, 8 - -Snell, Bernard J., 11, 20, 23 - -Someren, J. Van, 7 - -Souper, W., 17 - -Stevens, G. B., 13 - -Stevenson, J. G., 17, 19, 20, 21 - -Stewart, D. M., 17, 27 - -Stirling, James, 4 - -Storrow, A. H., 16 - -Strachan, R. H., 12 - -Street, J., 27 - -Studd, C. D., 26 - -Sutter, Julie, 25 - -Swan, F. R., 19 - -Swetenham, L., 18 - - -Tarbolton, A. C., 20 - -Tipple, S. A., 9 - -Toy, Rev. C. H., 3 - -Tymms, T. V., 6 - -Tynan, Katharine, 5 - -Tytler, S., 22 - - -Varley, H., 24 - -Veitch, R., 10, 11 - - -Wain, Louis, 29, 30 - -Walford, L. B., 21 - -Walker, W. L., 18 - -Walmsley, L. S., 9 - -Warschauer, J., 9, 11, 17, 20, 25 - -Warwick, H., 18 - -Waters, N. McG., 20 - -Watkins, C. H., 8, 26 - -Watkinson, W. L., 23 - -Watson, E. S.. 9 - -Watson, W. 17, 23 - -Weymouth, R. F., 19, 20, 22 - -White, W., 5 - -Whiton, J. M., 6, 10, 12, 28 - -Williams, T. R., 24 - -Wilson, P. W., 19 - -Wilson, W. E., 23, 26 - -Wimms, J. W., 23 - -Winter, A. E., 27 - -Wood, T., 26 - -Worboise, Emma J., 22 - - -Yates, T., 17 - - -Headley Brothers, Printers, Ashford, Kent; and Bishopsgate, E.C. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] _The Spectator_, Sept. 11, 1915. - -[1a] See the discussion in Abelson, _The Immanence of God in Rabbinical -Literature_, pp. 199ff. - -[2] Le Fabre, _Life of the Spider_, Ch. ix. (Eng. trans. by Teixeira de -Mattos, 1912). - -[2a] Cp. G. A. Smith, _Modern Criticism and the Preaching of the Old -Testament_, p. 288. - -[3] R. J. Moulton, _Modern Reader’s Bible_, p. 1456. - -[4] Cf. such sayings as “Coals to Newcastle”--a proverb that has a -parallel in many countries, for example, the Greek phrase, “Owls to -Athens.” - -[5] Trench, _Proverbs and their Lessons_, first published in 1857: a -learned and brilliant little volume to which the present chapter is -indebted for several suggestions. - -[6] χαλεπὰ τὰ καλὰ. - -[7] κοινὰ τὰ τῶν φίλων. - -[8] A version, doubtless, of _Proverbs_ 10^{22}. - -[9] John Morley, _Aphorisms: An Address to the Edinburgh Philosophical -Institution_ (1887) p. 7. - -[10] As a text-book it was at least memorable. A distinguished man of -letters tells me that one of its injunctions, taught him in his first -school, he might claim never to have forgotten: _Let thy foot be seldom -in thy neighbour’s house, lest he be weary of thee and hate thee_ (Pr. -25^{17}). His friends bear regretful and emphatic witness that the -facts completely justify his claim. - -[11] Mark Rutherford, _The Revolution in Tanner’s Lane_, p. 238. - -[12] In the final form of the Book thus gradually evolved it is -sometimes very easy, sometimes difficult or impossible, to distinguish -with exactitude the earlier from the later ‘sources’ out of which -it has been composed; but the main stages of the compilation can -generally be determined with a high degree of accuracy, just as in -an old cathedral through the varying modes of architecture employed -the general history of the building is clearly visible to the trained -perception. - -[13] Evidence for the statements here given is omitted, partly because -they are matters of general agreement among modern students of the -Bible, but still more because the full evidence has been repeatedly set -forth in works accessible to any who may have inclination to consider -the subject in detail. Reference may conveniently be made to C. H. -Toy, _Proverbs_, or to the same writer’s article _Book of Proverbs_, -in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ (11th edition); or to G. F. Moore, -_Literature of the Old Testament_, ch. xxii. (Home University Library). - -[14] Cp. also 10^{1} _The proverbs of Solomon_; 22^{17} _Words of the -Wise_; 24^{23}, _These are also words of the Wise_; 25^{1} _These are -also proverbs of Solomon which the men of Hezekiah, king of Judah, -copied out_; 30^{1}, _Sayings of Agur, son of Jakeh_; 31^{1}, _Sayings -of Lemuel, king of Massa_. The last two of these titles rest on an -uncertain Hebrew text. For the allusion to Solomon see pp. 71, 72. - -[15] Perhaps almost all, in their present polished form. Thus Toy -(_Proverbs_, p. xi.) declares that “none of the aphorisms are popular -proverbs or folk-sayings. They are all reflective and academic in tone, -and must be regarded as the productions of schools of moralists in a -period of high moral culture.” This observation is generally true, and -of great importance; but it is not to be understood as meaning that -the Book, or even the several sections, sprang out of nothing. In and -behind the finished product there may well be a great deal of earlier -material. - -[16] _i.e._, any subsequent changes were of a minor character, -introduced occasionally by some scribe or copyist. The year 200 -B.C. may reasonably be taken as the lower limit of -date, partly because _Proverbs_ has features (notably its attitude -to the Mosaic Law) which suggest that it was finished earlier -than _Ecclesiasticus_, a work composed about 190 B.C. This -argument, though strong, is not conclusive; but in any case the -peaceful, comfortable, tone which pervades _Proverbs_ indicates that -it is not later than the years of persecution preceding the Maccabean -revolt in 167 B.C. - -[17] See for _Ecclesiastes_ the volume _Pessimism and Love_ by D. -Russell Scott; and for _Job_, _The Problem of Pain_, by J. E. McFadyen. - -[18] _N.B._ =Hereafter the abbreviation “E,” will constantly be used -for Ecclesiasticus, and “Pr.” for Proverbs.= - -[19] The dots indicate words missing from the Hebrew text or of unknown -meaning. - -[20] Cp. also E. 25^{1, 2}; 26^{5}. - -[21] lit. “the character of Sodom.” - -[22] _i.e._, He thinks the world requires nothing more than the -interchange of commodities. As to the way of putting it, be it -remembered that in the Orient business transactions are, politely, -“gifts”; cp. Gen. 23^{10-16}. - -[23] A. R. Wallace, _Natural Selection_. - -[24] G. A. Smith, _Early Poetry of Israel_, p. 33; and cp. Kinglake, -_Eothen_, ch. 17. - -[25] Cohen, _Ancient Jewish Proverbs_, 88. - -[26] _op. cit._ 13. - -[27] Fulleylove and Kelman, _The Holy Land_, pp. 103, 104. Note the -“Scriptural” language. Such talk, when we find it in the Bible, is -neither pedantic nor is it a “religious” dialect. To a Western it seems -affected, but let us remember that to an Eastern our manner of speech, -with its tortuous sentences, might savour of an unholy cunning. - -[28] Appius Planius, 188 (McKail’s translation). - -[29] e.g., _Hosea_ 5^{10}, _Isaiah_ 5^{8}, _Deut._ 27^{17}, _Job_ -24^{2}. - -[30] Cp. _Joshua_ 7^{24, 25}. The earliest form of the narrative -clearly implies that all, and not Achan alone, were destroyed by -burning or stoning. - -[31] Not but what the belief is at least as old as the Hebrew Law, -_I the Lord thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquities of the -fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them -that hate Me, and shewing mercy unto the_ thousandth _generation of -them that love Me and keep My commandments_. - -[32] A _study_, not a half-hearted perusal of the text in the English -Bible. - -[33] Cp. _Numbers_ 21^{27}, _Wherefore they that speak in proverbs say_ -“_Come ye to Heshbon_,”... - -[34] For these titles see Chapter II., p. 37. That such a phrase as -_The proverbs of Solomon, the son of David, king of Israel_ (Pr. I^{1}) -at the head of a section does not necessarily imply or even claim -authorship, may seem astonishing to those unacquainted with ancient -literature, but it is easily understood by those who have made so -much as a moderate study of the subject. The ancient title in modern -parlance would be represented by some such heading as the following, -“A collection of sayings representative of Hebrew wisdom dedicated to -the memory and example of that royal lover of Wisdom, King Solomon.” To -suppose that the propriety of the ancient procedure ought to be judged -by modern canons of literary right and wrong would be both unjust and -foolish. Similarly from the heading prefixed to Pr. 25-29, _These also -are proverbs of Solomon which the men of Hezekiah, king of Judah, -copied out_; it does not follow that the proverbs in those chapters -were old in Hezekiah’s time. Probably Hezekiah, like Solomon, showed -special interest in literary work, and it may be that a collection of -proverbs formed in his reign is the nucleus of the present chapters -25-29 (So Volz, _Weisheit_, p. 95). On the other hand it is possible -that nothing more should be inferred than that, there being a tradition -of literary activity in Hezekiah’s reign, the compilers of the Book of -Proverbs made use of the tradition in order to indicate (by this title) -that in their opinion the proverbs of chaps. 25-29 were later than or -secondary to the “Solomonic” proverbs which precede in chs. 1-24 (So -Toy, _Proverbs_, § vi., and p. 457); and see also Driver, _Literature -of the Old Testament_, p. 405. - -[35] Detailed proof is impossible, and the question must be argued -on general evidence, which any modern commentary on the Book of -Proverbs will supply. Toy, _Proverbs_, § vi. is emphatic in his view -that no authority whatever attaches to titles ascribing proverbs to -Solomon. Volz (p. 95) is non-committal: “Whether small fragments of -Solomon’s work have been transmitted to us cannot be determined.” -Driver, _Literature of the Old Testament_, p. 406f, is of much the same -opinion; but, remarking that the “proverbs in 10^{1{ff}} exhibit great -uniformity of type,” he remarks that “perhaps this type was set by -Solomon.” - -[36] Compare the way in which the Greeks tended to associate all fables -with the name of Æsop. - -[37] _Ephesians_ 6^{12} (Weymouth’s translation). - -[38] Cp. the similar but more poetic description in _Psalm_ 1. - -[39] What follows is without reference to the ancient civilisation -of the far East, India or China. The “world” we are here considering -means the civilisation of the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea. A -few pages later, the terms “Eastern” and “Western” will be used with -similar latitude: “Eastern” or (“Oriental”) denoting the peoples of -Egypt, Arabia, Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia; and “Western” the peoples -of Greece, Macedonia, and the old Greek colonies of the Ægean islands -and the coast of Asia Minor. - -[40] _Amos_ 5^{21f}. - -[41] Simonides (MacKail’s translation, _Greek Anthology_, pp. 149, 151.) - -[42] Bevan, _Jerusalem under the High Priests_, p. 35. - -[43] Bevan, _Stoics and Sceptics_, pp. 25, 26. - -[44] Stoicism, whilst it offered the thinker immunity from the fears of -life, was also adapted to the needs of the generality of men whom it -sought to provide with principles for the stable and successful conduct -of ordinary life. Bevan (op. cit.) points out that the system shows -signs of hasty construction, reflecting the urgency of the problems -it sought to meet. Its strongly practical character is seen in the -tendency to find expression in brief, pointed, _formulæ_, catch-words, -and maxims, evidently designed to make its doctrines easy for the -average man to comprehend. The resemblance to Hebrew Wisdom-teaching is -interesting and obvious. - -[45] We have to use the term “worldly-wisdom” and not “wisdom,” because -the Greeks also had their seekers after true wisdom at this period, as -may be seen in the gnomic verses of Solon, Phocylides and Theognis, -many of whose maxims, as well as the sayings of Stoic philosophers, -might be quoted to show that Hellenism was not without the protest from -within itself of noble souls. The contrast suggested above is therefore -not one between Greek and Hebrew Wisdom-teaching, but between the -Hebrew Wisdom and the _general_ “unwisdom” of ordinary Hellenic life. - -[46] See G. A. Smith, _Jerusalem_, vol. i., ch. i., where a beautiful -description of night and dawn in Jerusalem may be found. - -[47] Mishna, _Yoma_, 3.^{1} - -[48] See p. 174 and 198. Of the _Book of Proverbs_ Toy remarks that “if -for the name Jehovah we substitute ‘God,’ there is not a paragraph or -a sentence which would not be as suitable for any other people as for -Israel” (_Proverbs_, p. xxi.) - -[49] The Jews seem to have had an unusual aptitude for confining -themselves to particular points of view. Mark to what an extent the -Prophets ignore the Priests, and the Priests the Prophets. This makes -it less surprising to find that the Proverbialists should ignore both. - -[50] Further reference may be made to Delitzsch, _Jewish Artisan Life -in the time of Christ_, and also Büchler, _Der galilaische ‘Am-ha-’ -Arets des zweiten Jahrhunderts_. Some of the trades then reckoned -ignoble seem by no means so to us; for example, tanners, weavers, and -hairdressers were particularly despised. One Rabbi quaintly remarks: -“Ass-drivers are mostly wicked, camel-drivers mostly honest, sailors -mostly pious, the best of physicians is destined for Gehenna, and the -most honourable of butchers is a partner of Amalek.” - -[51] It is good to feel that, whatever the Christian centuries have -not yet achieved for the regeneration of society, the “poor man’s -neighbour” has redeemed his reputation from this terrible charge. - -[52] Cp. Matt. 6^{11}, _Give us this day our daily bread_. - -[53] Lyman Abbott, _Life and Literature of the Ancient Hebrews_, p. 278. - -[54] _i.e._, his slanders, which scorch his victims. - -[55] Compare the unintentionally funny passage in E. 31^{12ff}. _If -thou sittest at a great man’s table, be not greedy at it, nor say, -“What a lot of things are on it!”... Stretch not your hand wheresoe’er -your glance wanders, nor thrust yourself forward into the dish. Eat -like a man_ [_i.e_., do not gnaw or gobble as an animal would do] _what -is set before thee, and do not bolt your food, lest you be loathed. Be -first to leave off for the sake of good manners, and be not insatiate -lest you offend._ Cp. E. 8 which also treats of “How to behave.” - -[56] The Hebrew text of the first two lines is uncertain. - -[57] Theophrastus, _Characters_ (Jebb’s translation), pp. 82, 83. - -[58] In Hebrew, _Pethāīm_. - -[59] Hebrew, _Lētsīm_. - -[60] Sometimes the whole point of a saying lies in the use of different -terms. Thus Pr. 17^{21} seems merely redundant in the R.V., “He that -begetteth a fool doeth it to his sorrow; and the father of a fool hath -no joy.” But the “fool” of the first clause is in the Hebrew _Kesīl_, a -coarse fool, and the “fool” of the second is _Nabal_; _i.e._, to have -the first as a son will involve some regrets, but the second robs his -father of all joy. - -[61] Horton, _Proverbs_ (Expositor’s Bible), p. 347. - -[62] See below, ch. X., p. 184f. - -[63] Toy justly remarks, “The motive here assigned--fear of Jehovah’s -displeasure--belongs to the ethical system of _Proverbs_. But this -motive does not impair the dignity of the moral standard presented. -Jehovah’s displeasure is the expression of the moral ideal: it is one’s -duty, says the proverb, not to rejoice at the misfortunes of enemies. -This duty is enforced by a reference to compensation, but it remains a -duty.” - -[64] “The antithesis is ethical, not merely intellectual. The -meaning is not that the righteous speaks cautiously, the wicked -inconsiderately; but that the good man takes care to speak what is true -and kind, whilst the bad man, feeling no concern on this point, follows -the bent of his mind and so speaks evil.” (Toy _ad. loc._). - -[65] cp. _Romans_ 12^{10}, and also p. 268. - -[66] _Wise Men of Israel_, p. 158. - -[67] (Pr. 31^{10-29}). The poem is in the Hebrew an alphabetical -acrostic, which accounts for certain repetitions and roughnesses in the -movement of the thought. - -[68] Cp. _Luke_ 16^{3} (see Oesterley in _The Expositor_ for April, -1903). - -[69] Oesterley, _Ecclesiasticus_, p. xviii. - -[70] E. 42, 43. - -[71] See Skinner in the _Jewish Quarterly Review_, Jan., 1905, p. 258. - -[72] A proverb which does _not_ come from the Bible, though many people -have supposed it does. - -[73] See further pp. 191f. - -[74] _i.e._, such proverbs as “A burnt child dreads the fire,” or “He -that is down need fear no fall.” - -[75] Gordon, _Poets of the Old Testament_, p. 296. - -[76] Gordon’s translation, _op. cit._, p. 296. - -[77] Gordon, _op. cit._, p. 298. Observe the touch of national -sentiment which is characteristic of Ben Sirach. His view is that God -intended good to every nation (not an easy doctrine to reach in face of -the enormities of which some of the heathen nations surrounding Israel -were capable), but, although God had offered wisdom to all, only Israel -had responded to the offer and so received the divine gift. - -[78] Gordon’s translation, _op. cit._, p. 304. - -[79] At Olympia in the year 212 B.C. Aristonicus was the -_protegé_ of King Ptolemy, and champion of the Egyptian gymnasia. - -[80] The Hebrew text seems to have read, “Headache, shame and disgrace -are the effect of wine drunk in provocation and wrath.” - -[81] _Judaism_ (second series), p. 57. - -[82] Cp. Pr. 2^{16-19}; E. 9^{3-9}, 19^{2}, 41^{20}; and refs. on p. -153. - -[83] See especially chaps. vii., viii., and xviii. - -[84] This maxim was familiar among the Greeks, and is quoted by -Æeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and other writers. Tradition ascribed -its origin to Solon, the statesman of early Athens, who was reckoned -one of the seven Sages of Greece. Its occurrence in _Ecclesiasticus_ is -an interesting illustration of the cosmopolitan aspect of the Wisdom -movement. - -[85] Pr. 14^{32}, _The righteous hath hope in his death_ ... comes -nearest to the idea of immortality; but the accuracy of the Hebrew -text is doubtful. Pr. 15^{24} and 23^{17, 18} are to be understood as -referring to the character of the good man’s life on earth (see Toy’s -notes on these passages). - -[86] “The influence of the synagogue as a religious factor, even in -the times of Ben Sirach, was felt more deeply than the scarcity of -references to it in the contemporary literature would lead us to -believe”, Schechter, _Judaism_ [Second Series], p. 65; cp. J. Abrahams, -_Studies in Pharisaism and the Gospels_, pp. 1ff. - -[87] The reader familiar with the Gospels should guard against the -notion that the Scribes were always guilty of the worst qualities that -legalism is apt to foster. A class ought not to be equated with its -less worthy representatives, unless we are willing, for example, to -condemn the first Christians for the sins of certain orders in the -Mediæval Church, or to saddle the eager pioneers of the Reformation -with the shortcomings of their followers in the eighteenth century. - -[88] See the article _Hasideans and Hellenism_ (_Jewish Encyclopædia_, -Vol. VI.). - -[89] Commonly referred to by the abbreviation LXX. - -[90] See Dr. Taylor’s edition (Cambridge, 1877). - -[91] _Aboth_, iv. 2. - -[92] _Aboth_, i. 3. - -[93] _Aboth_ ii. 13. - -[94] _Aboth_ v. 30. - -[95] _Aboth_ iv. 26. - -[96] N.B.--C.55=Cohen, _Ancient Jewish Proverbs_, No. 55. Quotations of -these later Rabbinical Jewish proverbs will be given in this manner, -as a reference to Mr. Cohen’s handbook is likely to be of more use to -readers than a citation of original Rabbinic sources. - -[97] Jew and Christian, too often ignorant of the virtues each -possesses, are painfully conscious of one another’s defects. Better -knowledge of history would do much to relieve or lessen mutual -prejudices. How seldom do Christians realise that some of the less -amiable qualities found in certain classes of modern Jews (Are there -no objectionable Gentiles?) are the logical result of regulations -decreed by our mediæval Christian forefathers. For example, the Jews -were once as catholic as any other nation in the arts and industries -they followed for a livelihood, until legal restrictions were -multiplied against them. “Even in Spain,” writes Mr. Abrahams, “Jews -were forbidden to act as physicians, as bakers or millers; they were -prohibited from selling brass, wine, flour, oil or butter in the -markets; no Jew might be a smith, carpenter, tailor, shoemaker, currier -or clothier for Christians ... he might neither employ nor be employed -by Christians in any profession or trade whatsoever.... In other parts -of England these restrictions were far more rigidly enforced than in -Spain. In England money-lending was absolutely the only profession -open to the Jews. On the Continent Jews were taxed when they entered -a market and taxed when they left it; they were only permitted to -enter the market place at inconvenient hours, _and the Church ended by -leaving the Jews nothing to trade in but money and second-hand goods, -allowing them as a choice of commodities in which to deal new gold or -old iron_.” (_Jewish Life in the Middle Ages_, p. 241). - -[98] Abrahams, _Jewish Life in the Middle Ages_, p. 68. - -[99] The argument is worked out at greater length by C. F. Kent, (_Wise -Men of Israel_, pp. 176ff), in an essay to which this brief review of -the theme is much indebted. See also p. 268. - -[100] Cp. Marvin, _The Living Past_, pp. 2, 3. - -[101] Deut. 30^{11-14}. - -[102] _The Ultimate Belief_, p. 2. - -[103] Professor D. K. Picken, in the _Australasian Intercollegian -Magazine_, _Dec._, 1916. - -[104] “I know no teachers who lay more stress upon the cultivation of -the mental power of attention.” G. A. Smith, in _Modern Criticism and -the Preaching of the Old Testament_, ch. VIII. - -[105] Pindar, _Olympian_ VI., 54^{ff}. - -[106] St. John, 13^{26ff}. - -[107] The _moon_ once (Pr. 7^{20}) but merely in indication of time. - -[108] He was gratefully remembered for his work in strengthening the -defences of Jerusalem and executing repairs to the Temple about 190 -B.C. - -[109] For allusions to the heat and thirst of the reapers, cp. _Ruth_ -2^{7-9}, ^{14}, and 2 Kings 4^{18, 19}. - -[110] The Greek text is no less effective--_And when the frost is -congealed it is as points of thorns_, but it is only a misreading of -the Hebrew. - -[111] “The Holy Land,” pp. 209ff. - -[112] Pr. 27^{17} - -[113] Pr. 27^{6}. - -[114] Pr. 15^{1}; cp. 16^{32}. - -[115] Pr. 25^{28}. - -[116] Pr. 26^{12}. - -[117] Pr. 16^{18} - -[118] Pr. 28^{1}, cp. Shakespeare’s “Conscience does make cowards of us -all.” - -[119] Pr. 24^{16}. - -[120] E. 19^{1}. - -[121] Pr. 3^{7}. - -[122] Pr. 13^{12}. - -[123] E. 2^{12-14}. - -[124] Pr. 21^{30, 31}. - -[125] C. 78. - -[126] L. P. Jacks, _From the Human End_, p. 16. - -[127] Bacon, _Essay on Riches_. - -[128] Bacon is referring to Pr. 18^{11}. - -[129] E. 11^{2}. - -[130] E. 6^{35, 36}. - -[131] Pr. 25^{17}. - -[132] Pr. 26^{4}. - -[133] Pr. 18^{13}. - -[134] E. 18^{19}; cp. _First learn, then form opinions_ (C. 217). - -[135] Pr. 24^{27}. - -[136] C. 181. - -[137] Pr. 27^{1}. - -[138] E. 7^{18}. - -[139] E. 7^{11}. - -[140] E. 8^{5-7}. - -[141] E. 7^{1-3}. - -[142] Pr. 24^{1}. - -[143] Pr. 23^{17}. - -[144] E. 15^{11, 12}. - -[145] E. 7^{9}. - -[146] Pr. 4^{23}. - -[147] E. 7^{10}. - -[148] Pr. 16^{3}. - -[149] Cp. _James_ 4^{6}; _1 Peter_ 5^{5}. - -[150] A verse which, as Oesterley observes, affords an interesting -combination of the doctrines of Grace and Free-will; cp. _John_ 7^{17}. - -[151] The quotation in _Hebrews_ is taken from the Greek (LXX) text of -_Proverbs_: the Hebrew text of _Proverbs_ now reads “Even as a father -the son in whom he delighteth,” but the original text probably had “and -paineth” instead of the words “Even as a father”--the difference in -Hebrew is very slight (cp. p. 192). - -[152] Arnot, _Laws from Heaven_, p. 130f. - -[153] From a letter quoted in Holmes, _Walter Greenway, Spy; and -Others, Sometime Criminal_. - -[154] Horton, _Proverbs_ (_Expositor’s Bible_), p. 318. - -[155] See the articles by Dr. Rendel Harris on _The Origin of the -Prologue to St. John’s Gospel_ in the _Expositor_, Aug. 1916-Jan. 1917. -Note also the acknowledgment of Christ as Wisdom, implied in the story -of the homage of the Wise Men at His birth, _Matt._ 2^{12}. - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Studies in Life from Jewish Proverbs, by -W. 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