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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-27 09:25:00 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-27 09:25:00 -0800 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f1149b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #60170 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60170) diff --git a/old/60170-0.txt b/old/60170-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6ffa58e..0000000 --- a/old/60170-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13613 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Travels Amongst American Indians, by Lindesay Brine - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: Travels Amongst American Indians - Their Ancient Earthworks and Temples - -Author: Lindesay Brine - -Release Date: August 25, 2019 [EBook #60170] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRAVELS AMONGST AMERICAN INDIANS *** - - - - -Produced by MFR, Robert Tonsing, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - -[Illustration: ALTAR-PIECE, TEMPLE OF THE CROSS, PALENQUE.] - - - - - TRAVELS AMONGST - AMERICAN INDIANS - THEIR ANCIENT EARTHWORKS - AND TEMPLES; - - INCLUDING A JOURNEY IN - GUATEMALA, MEXICO AND YUCATAN, - AND A VISIT TO - THE RUINS OF PATINAMIT, UTATLAN, PALENQUE - AND UXMAL. - - BY - VICE-ADMIRAL LINDESAY BRINE, - - (_Member of Council of the Royal Geographical and Hakluyt Societies._) - _Author of “The Taeping Rebellion in China; a Narrative of its Rise - and Progress.”_ - - - LONDON - SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON & COMPANY, - _LIMITED_, - St. Dunstan’s House, - FETTER LANE, FLEET STREET, E.C. - 1894. - - - - - LONDON: - FARMER & SONS, PRINTERS, 295, EDGWARE ROAD, W.; - AND AT KENSINGTON. - - - - - PREFACE. - - -The attention of archæologists and students of the ancient Mexican -hieroglyphs has latterly been directed to the mysterious subject of the -origin of the astronomical and architectural knowledge that existed -in Mexico, Guatemala, and Yucatan before the discovery of America. -In the United States researches have also been made for the purpose -of establishing, upon a scientific basis, conclusions respecting the -tribes who made the extraordinary ramparts and geometrically planned -inclosures in Ohio. - -It is a remarkable fact that although, since the period when Mexico was -conquered by Cortes, an almost uninterrupted series of investigations -have taken place into the peculiar conditions of civilization of the -Mexican and Central American Indians, nothing satisfactory has yet been -ascertained which explains the manner in which that civilization could -have arisen amongst those exceptionally instructed races. - -Las Casas who, in the sixteenth century, lived for many years amongst -the Indians in his diocese of Chiapas and Yucatan and saw several of -the temples in that region, declared that the land contained a secret. -That secret may possibly be discovered if the hieroglyphs and symbolic -characters of the Toltecs and Aztecs can be interpreted. But until -trustworthy methods of decipherment are determined, all conclusions, in -default of other evidence, must necessarily be conjectural. - -It was with the vague expectation that I should observe, either amongst -the earthworks in the North or in the constructions at Palenque and -Uxmal, analogies with the works of other races in Asia or Polynesia, -that the travels described in this volume were undertaken. After my -arrival in England a brief paper upon the subject of those travels, -so far as they related to Guatemala and Mexico, was read before the -British Association in Edinburgh and was afterwards published in 1872 -under the title of “The Ruined Cities of Central America.” - -More than twenty years then elapsed before the approaching termination -of my naval career gave me sufficient leisure to examine my journals -with that exclusive attention which the complicated and perplexing -nature of the subject required. This interval of time has enabled -me to obtain a more vivid perception of the relative proportions -of the problem, and to bring together in a more defined focus the -impressions and observations which had been written during the journey. -The theories then adopted have been modified or strengthened by the -knowledge that has been subsequently acquired in other quarters of the -world. - -It will be observed, upon an examination of the illustrations of the -ruins of Uxmal, that the Indians in Yucatan must have possessed great -architectural capacities. Pyramids, Temples, Monasteries and other -religious structures were built under most difficult circumstances, in -a manner which commands admiration. - -But it is not only the later civilization of the Mexican Indians that -has to be taken into consideration in any attempts that may be made -to solve the difficult and complex problem of this Indian advance -towards higher conditions of life. Underlying the whole question -are the native proclivities based upon the strange and significant -practices of earlier forms of Pagan superstitions and sacrifices. Some -of the profoundly interesting characteristics of these developments of -the aboriginal Indian belief in supernatural influences have formed -the subject of that chapter which relates to the ancient religious -observances of the North American Indians. - - ATHENÆUM CLUB, _May_ 15, 1894. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - PAGE. - New York. — Mr. Grinnell. — Search for Sir John Franklin. — - Southern States. — The Negroes and their prospects. — Naval - Academy at Annapolis. — Military Academy at West Point. — - Shakers. — Boston. — Professor Agassiz. — Prairies and - Glacial Action. — Coral Reefs in Florida. — Mr. Ticknor. — - Shell Mounds in Florida. — Schools. — Dr. Howe’s Institution - for the Blind. — Laura Bridgman 1 - - CHAPTER II. - - Professor Wyman. — Indian Antiquities. — Concord. — Mr. Ralph - Waldo Emerson. — Margaret Fuller. — Note upon a visit to Mr. - Longfellow. — Saturday Club. — Dinner at Harvard - University. — Shell Mounds at Concord and Damariscotta. — - Note upon the Ancient Inscription upon the Dighton Rock 19 - - CHAPTER III. - - Indian Reservations. — Lake Superior. — Beavers and their - works. — The Forest. — Houghton. — Ancient Indian mining pits - and trenches. — An Indian battle ground. — The Glacial - Drift. — Note regarding the Dauphin 34 - - CHAPTER IV. - - ANCIENT INDIAN MOUNDS AND EARTHWORKS IN OHIO. — Earthworks of the - Mound Builders and their geographical position. — Miamisburgh - Mound. — Grave Creek Mound. — Ages and contents of burial - mounds. — Rectangular, circular and octagonal Inclosures near - Newark. — Marietta Earthworks. — Discoveries made in a burial - mound. — Fortifications near Portsmouth. — Encampments in the - valley of the Scioto 55 - - CHAPTER V. - - MOUNDS AND EARTHWORKS IN OHIO. — Ancient Fortified Inclosures at - Circleville. — Discoveries in a Burial Mound. — Alligator - Totem near Newark. — Fort Ancient. — Age of Trees growing - upon the Ramparts at Fort Hill. — Traditions. — Geometrical - Ground Plans of Indian Inclosures. — Conclusions 79 - - CHAPTER VI. - - The burning of the Steamer Stonewall. — Indian Mounds and - Earthworks at Cahokia. — Confluence of the Mississippi and - Missouri. — Sacs and Foxes. — Education of Indians. — - Nauvoo. — Winona. — Sioux Encampment. — Ancient Mounds near - St. Paul’s. — The Sioux War in Minnesota. — Note upon the - Ogallalas 104 - - CHAPTER VII. - - Prairies in Minnesota and Iowa. — Boulders. — Glacial Drift. — - Wild Rice. — Snow Storm. — Nebraska. — The Pawnees. — Human - Sacrifices. — Note on Indian Customs in War and - Cannibalism. — Prairie Fires. — Prairie-Dog Villages. — - Rattlesnakes. — Variations in the succession of growths of - Trees. — Causes of absence of Trees upon Prairies. — Shoshone - Indians on the Western Deserts. — Note upon Ute Indians and - Fuegians 124 - - CHAPTER VIII. - - North American Indians. — Diversity of Languages. — The - Iroquois. — Dialects. — Descent of Iroquois chiefs through - the female line. — Pagan Indians. — Belief in a Great - Spirit. — Ceremonies. — Dakotas. — Superstitions. — Dreams. — - Fasts. — Sun worship. — Medicine men. — Customs of mourning - by widows. — Supernatural influences. — Lightning. — - Transmigration. — Worship of Spirit rocks. — Serpent - worship. — Human sacrifices. — Burial customs. — Method of - curing sickness by steam. — Note upon analogies between the - customs of the Indians, Maoris, and the natives of the - Sandwich Islands 149 - - CHAPTER IX. - - The Golden City. — Coast of California — Cape San Lucas. — - Manzanillo. — Alligators and Sharks. — Acapulco. — San José - de Guatemala. — Escuintla. — City of Guatemala. — Indian - pilgrims from Esquipulas. — Ancient mounds on the plains of - Mixco. — Insurrection of Indians. — Decapitation of their - leader. — Preparations for the journey across the Continent - to Palenque and Yucatan 176 - - CHAPTER X. - - Mixco. — La Antigua Guatemala. — Volcanoes of Fire and Water. — - Comolapa. — Ancient Indian Ruins of Patinamit. — Kachiquel - Indians. — A Dominican Priest. — Barrancas. — Las Godinas. — - Panajachel. — Human Sacrifices to the Lakes and Volcanoes. — - Lake Atitlan. — Sololá. — Orchids. — San Tomas. — Quiché - Indians 194 - - CHAPTER XI. - - Barrancas. — Santa Cruz del Quiché. — Padre Andres Guicola. — - Ruins of Utatlan. — Report of Don Garcia de Palacio upon - human sacrifices to the gods in Central America, Statement - of Bernal Diaz, about the sacrifices in Mexico. — Burning of - the Quiché Caciques at Utatlan. — Worship of idols by the - Quichés. — Sierras. — Gueguetenango 216 - - CHAPTER XII. - - The Sierra Madre. — Todos Santos. — Evening Prayer (La - Oracion). — Indian domestic habits. — Religious devotion. — - Goitre. — Jacaltenango. — Indian Festival. — A Temblor. — - Indian Idolatry. — Custom of ancient inhabitants to serve the - parents whose daughters they wished to marry. — Doubtful - fidelity of my guide. — Condition of Mule. — Mexican - Frontier. — Comitan. — Note on President Juarez, and the - Execution of the Emperor Maximilian 238 - - CHAPTER XIII. - - Camping on the plains. — A night amongst the hills in Chiapas. — - Lopez. — Indian Sun worship. — Ocosingo. — An ancient idol. — - Proposed expedition through the unknown region occupied by - the Lacandones to British Honduras. — Bachajon. — Tzendal - Indians. — Chilon. — Indian Carnival. — Yajalon. — Carnival - amongst the Tzendales. — Drunkenness. — Dances. — Horse - races. — Ruined Churches and Convents. — Influence of the - Priests over the Indian Tribes. — Las Casas. — Forced - labour. — The Presbitero Fernando Macal 259 - - CHAPTER XIV. - - An Indian steam bath. — Tumbalá. — Sierras and Forests. — San - Pedro. — Desertion of guide. — Alguazils. — Construction of - Indian huts. — Habits of Indians. — Cargadores. — Crossing a - River. — Forests beyond San Pedro. — Powers of endurance of - Indians. — Arrival at San Domingo del Palenque 278 - - CHAPTER XV. - - Palenque. — The Forest. — The Palace or Monastery. — Night at - Palenque. — Brilliancy of the light of the fireflies. — - Pyramidal Mounds and Temples. — Tablet of the Cross. — - Hieroglyphs. — An Indian Statue. — Antiquity of the - Buildings. — The Tower. — Stucco Ornamentation. — Action of - the tropical climate upon the Ruins. — Note upon the - decipherment of the hieroglyphic characters 297 - - CHAPTER XVI. - - Mounds in the valley of the - Usamacinta. — Lacandones. — Catasaja. — Canoe voyage. — - Rivers and Lagoons. — Alligators. — Jonuta. — Cortes’s March - to Honduras. — Cannibalism. — The Mexican Emperor - Guatimozin. — Palisada. — Laguna de Terminos. — Island of - Carmen. — Campeachy. — Yucatan. — Pyramidal Altar. — Human - sacrifices. — Tzibalché. — Maya Indians. — Arrival at Uxmal 318 - - CHAPTER XVII. - - Uxmal. — Extent of ground occupied by the Ruins. — Teocallis. — - Burial places at the foot of the Pyramid of the Dwarf. — - Evening Service at the chapel of the hacienda. — Casa del - Gobernador. — Sacrificial customs. — Preservation of the - wooden lintels. — The Nunnery or Casa de las Monjas. — - Religious customs of the Indians. — Emblem of the Serpent. — - Sculptures. — Conjectures respecting the possibility of - Moorish, Spanish, or Oriental influence upon architectural - design. — Methods of construction. — Note upon a fall of rain - supposed to be caused by the fires of the Indians 339 - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - Departure from Uxmal. — Indian officials at Abalá. — Indian - Ceremonies. — Worship of demons. — Baptismal customs. — Laws - of the Emperor Charles V. for the government of the natives - in Yucatan. — Superstitions. — An Indian Well. — Halt at - night. — Merida. — Convent of the Conceptionistas. — Sisal. — - The Basque brig Aguinaga. — Departure for Cuba and Florida. — - Tampa. — Cedar Keys. — Buccaneers. — Shell Mounds. — Ancient - Burial Mounds. — Florida Indians 360 - - CHAPTER XIX. - - Mounds and Earthworks in North and Central America. — Migrations - of the Toltecs and Aztecs. — The Quichés. — Aboriginal - races. — Palenque. — Hieroglyphs. — Temples. — Desertion of - the Temples and stone buildings in Yucatan. — Conquest of - Yucatan by the Aztecs. — Antiquity of Palenque and Uxmal. — - Aztec custom of imprisoning captives in cages and sacrificing - them to the gods. — Civilisation of the Toltecs. — Note upon - the symbol or Totem of the Serpent 378 - - CHAPTER XX. - - Conjectures respecting the descendants of the tribes who built - the Temples. — Knowledge and education of the Caciques and - Priests. — Traditions of the arrival of white strangers from - the East. — Las Casas. — Quetzal-Coatl. — Crosses found in - Yucatan. — Gomara. — Legend of the flight of Spaniards by sea - towards the West after the conquest of Spain by the - Saracens. — Fabulous island of Antilia. — Columbus on his - outward voyage steers for Antilia. — Trade-winds. — - Considerations upon the probabilities of vessels being driven - across the Atlantic or Pacific Oceans towards America 400 - - INDEX 423 - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - PLATES. - - PAGE. - - ALTAR-PIECE, TEMPLE OF THE CROSS, PALENQUE _Frontispiece_. - - BEAVER DAM, LODGE AND POND, NEAR ISHPEMING 36 - - CHIPPEWA CHIEF (West of Lake Superior) 50 - - INDIAN MOUNDS, CAHOKIA 108 - - CHIPPEWA ENCAMPMENT 116 - - SIOUX ENCAMPMENT 116 - - SPIRIT ROCK 118 - - PAWNEE, (SHA-TO-KO) Blue-Hawk 132 - - PAWNEE WOMAN 136 - - PRAIRIE AND BOULDERS, NORTH IOWA 142 - - PRAIRIE DOGS, NEBRASKA 142 - - INDIAN, SALT LAKE VALLEY, UTAH 146 - - CHIEFS OF THE OGALLALAS (Dakotas) 174 - - ANCIENT INDIAN MOUNDS NEAR GUATEMALA 190 - - CATHEDRAL AND SQUARE, LA ANTIGUA GUATEMALA 196 - - QUICHÉ INDIAN HOLDING THE OFFICE OF ALGUAZIL 216 - - BARRANCA, CENTRAL AMERICA 238 - - INDIAN HUTS 238 - - INDIAN WOMAN GRINDING CHOCOLATE, (Central America) 288 - - PALACE OR MONASTERY, PALENQUE (EAST FRONT) 297 - - †UXMAL 339 - - †PYRAMID AND TEMPLE OF THE DWARF 340 - - †AN ANGLE OF THE CASA DE LAS MONJAS 342 - - †CASA DEL GOBERNADOR 342 - - †AN ANGLE OF THE CASA DE LAS MONJAS 344 - - †CASA DE LAS MONJAS 344 - - SERPENT EMBLEM, CASA DE LAS MONJAS 350 - - †INTERIOR OF THE CASA DE LAS MONJAS AND ITS ADJOINING PYRAMID - AND TEMPLE, UXMAL 352 - - †QUADRANGLE, CASA DE LAS MONJAS 356 - - PART OF THE ALTAR-PIECE IN A TEMPLE AT PALENQUE 390 - - MEXICAN CACIQUE MAKING AN OFFERING 398 - - MEXICAN CALENDAR STONE 408 - - - MAPS AND PLANS. - - LAKE SUPERIOR 35 - - REGION OF THE MOUND BUILDERS 54 - - INCLOSURES NEAR NEWARK 66 - - INCLOSURES AT MARIETTA 71 - - INCLOSURES AT CIRCLEVILLE 81 - - FORT ANCIENT 88 - - OCTAGONAL AND CIRCULAR INCLOSURES, NEWARK 97 - - ANTILIA (from Ruysch’s Map of the World, 1508) 418 - - CENTRAL AMERICA AND YUCATAN - - UNITED STATES AND MEXICO - - - ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT. - - THE GOLDEN CITY PASSING THE SEAL ROCKS 177 - - VOLCAN DE AGUA AND VOLCAN DE FUEGO 200 - - APPROACH TO UTATLAN 227 - - INDIAN STATUE, OCOSINGO 264 - - INDIAN STATUE, PALENQUE 311 - - ENTRANCE TO THE CASA DE LAS MONJAS 348 - - - NOTE.—The illustration of the Serpent Emblem in the Casa de las - Monjas is reproduced from a large photograph taken at Uxmal by - William D. James, Esq. It will be observed that the details of - the sculpture of the rattlesnake are very clearly defined. - - The illustrations marked † are from a series of valuable - photographs, also taken at Uxmal, by Captain Herbert Dowding, - Royal Navy, who placed at my disposal such of them as I - considered to be required for the purposes of this work. - - I wish to call particular attention to the representation of - that part of the Casa de las Monjas where the adjacent Temple - of the Dwarf is seen. In comparing the structures with the - pyramid, it has to be remembered that the Casa de las Monjas is - placed upon a raised platform not less than seventeen feet in - height. The Pyramid of the Dwarf is completely detached. - - Upon an examination of the frontispiece it will be noticed that - the centre stone which, when I saw it lying on the ground at - Palenque, was uninjured, is there shown in two portions which - are kept in position by iron clamps. - - It was accidentally broken when being removed from Palenque to - the museum in the City of Mexico. - - The left slab, upon which is graven the smaller figure, is from - a photograph of a moulding made by M. Desiré Charnay. The right - slab is from a photograph of the original stone now placed in - the museum at Washington, and which was represented in the - Memoir upon the Palenque Tablet written by Professor Rau, and - published by the Smithsonian Institution. The photographs of - the right and left slabs have been reduced to the size of that - of the centre, and thus an exact reproduction of the whole of - the Tablet of the Cross has been obtained. The representation - in the frontispiece is, approximately, upon the scale of one - inch to the foot and is therefore a twelfth of the size of the - original tablet when it was in its position within the temple. - - The illustrations of Indians are from photographs collected by - me during my travels and were selected as being typical of the - respective tribes. My small sketch of the entrance to the Casa - de las Monjas at Uxmal is drawn to scale, and the character of - the Indian horizontal arch is delineated in its architectural - proportions. - - - - - TRAVELS AMONGST AMERICAN INDIANS: - THEIR - ANCIENT EARTHWORKS AND TEMPLES. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - - New York. — Mr. Grinnell. — Search for Sir John Franklin. — - Southern States. — The Negroes and their prospects. — Naval - Academy at Annapolis. — Military Academy at West Point. — - Shakers. — Boston. — Professor Agassiz. — Prairies and Glacial - Action. — Coral Reefs in Florida. — Mr. Ticknor. — Shell Mounds - in Florida. — Schools. — Dr. Howe’s Institution for the Blind.— - Laura Bridgman. - - -Upon my return to England, after having completed several years of -foreign service, I obtained permission from the Admiralty to proceed -upon a journey into North and Central America. - -There were certain subjects that I particularly wished to examine, -especially those that were connected with the mounds or earthworks in -the valley of the Ohio, and the ruined temples of the southern regions -of Mexico and Guatemala. In the lands inhabited, at the time of the -Spanish Conquest, by Indian tribes who had reached a singular form -of civilisation, the origin of which has not yet been traced, it is -probable that some discovery will be made which will throw light upon -the manner in which their knowledge was obtained. - -The problems which have yet to be solved with respect to the ruins -at Palenque, and in Yucatan, have a fascination for those who are -interested in the endeavour to seek an explanation of the strange -events that must have happened amongst the Indians who inhabited that -part of the world. It is possible that evidences may be found which -will lead to the conclusion that at some period, not very remote, there -has been an introduction amongst the aboriginal races of influences -derived from Europe or Asia, and it is not unreasonable to expect that -when the hieroglyphs within the altars of Palenque are interpreted, -much that is now unintelligible will be made clear. The investigations -of Mr. Stephens, in 1840, together with the earlier reports of Del -Rio and Dupaix, directed attention to the extraordinary character of -the pyramids and stone structures that were found deserted and ruined -within the tropical lands and forests. - -In the North the field of research has been carefully examined by -competent explorers, but, even in that region, there is much that is -open to theory or conjecture with regard to the purposes for which the -great earthworks in the interior of the Continent were raised. There is -also an almost complete absence of definite knowledge respecting the -race and subsequent migrations of the tribes that dwelt within those -embankments. The extensive shell heaps or kitchen middens found near -the seacoasts, have been partly excavated, and, judging from the -implements of bone and the weapons which they contain, it has been made -evident that the Indians must have had customs singularly corresponding -with those of the tribes who formed the shell mounds in Europe. - -I had no theories to establish, but I expected to find that the tribes -in the West and North-West resembled the Manchu race I had seen in the -North of China, and that the Indians in Central America would show -traces of kindred with the Malays. I also thought that, in the ruined -temples, there would be seen architectural affinities with the Buddhist -monasteries in Upper Burmah and Cambodia. These were however only -surmises, and I was prepared to recognise that it would be necessary to -adopt other conclusions. - -It was difficult to arrange for any decided plan of travel, but I -intended, in the first instance, to visit the Navy Yards and observe -what progress was being made with respect to ships and their armaments; -and then to proceed to those parts of America where the principal works -of the aboriginal tribes still remain. Finally, I hoped to be able to -cross the Continent and go down the Mexican and Guatemalan coasts, and -from one of the ports on the Western seaboard, cross Central America -from the Pacific to the Atlantic towards Yucatan. Such was the outline -of the direction that I proposed to follow, but which would be varied -or changed as circumstances might require. - -We left Liverpool in the Samaria on the 15th of March, 1869, and -reached New York late in the evening of the 28th, after having -experienced a continuation of head winds and stormy weather, which -made our passage across the Atlantic long and tedious. My first care, -upon arrival, was to call upon Mr. Henry Grinnell,[1] whose exertions -and services in prosecuting, at his own expense, the search for Sir -John Franklin and the ships beset in the Arctic ice, are so well known. - -In the year 1850 Lady Franklin sent her appeal to the President of the -United States, in which she urged the Americans, as a kindred people, -to help in the enterprise of rescuing our sailors from perishing from -cold and starvation in those Northern latitudes. The appeal was not -unanswered, but in consequence of the unavoidable delays incidental to -obtaining the sanction of Congress for the necessary expenditure, there -was much risk of the season becoming too advanced for reaching the -channels in time, and that, consequently, a whole year’s work would be -lost. It was then that Mr. Grinnell, a leading merchant and shipowner, -prepared and fitted out for Arctic service two of his own vessels. -These ships, respectively called the “Advance” and the “Rescue,” were -officered and manned by the Naval Department and reached the ice in -time to do useful work. The fate, however, of Sir John Franklin and his -crew was not ascertained, although traces of his winter quarters were -discovered. - -At Washington, I found that Congress was sitting. Political affairs -were in an unusually excited condition in consequence of the state of -things resulting from the Civil War and the admission of negroes to -the franchise. Soon after my arrival I attended the Levée of President -Grant, and in the evening dined with our Minister, Mr. Thornton, at the -Legation. Several members of the Diplomatic body were present, some of -whom I had previously met in Europe. - -The question of the capacity of the negroes with respect to their -taking an equal share with the white citizens in the management of the -government policy occupied the attention of politicians. It was thought -impossible to foresee what would be the effect of the emancipation of -over three millions of slaves. It seemed certain that the Americans -would have eventually a complicated problem to deal with, presenting -grave difficulties. - -From Washington I went into the Southern States. In the districts -where large numbers of slaves had been employed, the subject of their -education was being seriously considered, and schools were established -for the purpose of advancing the intelligence of the black children. -The ignorant and hopeful parents were speculating upon the brilliant -future that seemed to be opening before them. They had vague dreams -that some new and prosperous destiny was going to be granted to their -race. They thought that, as a result of freedom and education, their -children would become active and useful citizens, equal, if they had -fair opportunities, to those who had been their masters. - -Such was the universal belief amongst the elders, and great will be the -disappointment amongst the children upon growing up into manhood to -discover, that, in obedience to an unexplained law, there seems to be a -limit to their power of reaching the standard of proficiency to which -they aspired. - -I had seen the emancipated negroes in the islands of the West Indies, -and the extraordinary condition of Hayti when under the rule of the -black emperor Soulouque. It was therefore not possible to think that -there was any probability of these school children rising to an -equality with the white races around them. There was something almost -painful in listening to the faith of the fathers in the prospects of -their sons, and the earnest manner in which they spoke of their future -career, if they worked hard and did their best to deserve success. - -After passing through the low-lying lands near the coast, which had -in previous years been cultivated by this race, I proceeded up the -Chesapeake Bay, and stopped at Annapolis for the purpose of looking -at the Naval Academy. The system of training officers for sea service -is, in many respects, radically different from that which is followed -in England. With regard to the comparative results it is difficult to -form an opinion. It is presumable that the English system is the best -for developing the naval capacity of English lads, and the regulations -carried out at Annapolis may be more suitable for the Americans. Both -schools succeed in producing efficient young officers. - -The principle underlying the policy of the training system in England -is youth. It is thought that in order to make a good sailor, officer -or man, the future seaman must be entered when young, and thus begin -his sea life while he is still capable of being naturally accustomed to -the performance of his duties. In America and also with the maritime -powers on the European continent different conclusions are held. At -Annapolis the age for entry is between fourteen and sixteen, and as the -entries usually take place at the latest period, the age upon passing -out into sea service is about twenty. The preliminary training is -thoroughly carried out, and the Academy is exceptionally fortunate in -being situated on the shores of a large and well-sheltered bay where -there is room for practising the necessary gunnery exercises. - -The Military Academy at West Point is placed in a very beautiful -situation. Nothing can be finer than the scenery at that part of -the Hudson river. The site has been well selected with regard to -the various requirements for training officers for general service, -with reference to drills, cavalry exercises, and topographical and -engineering studies. Professor Bartlett, to whom I had a letter of -introduction from Professor Henry, of the Smithsonian Institute, did -everything that was in his power to make my stay agreeable. I was also -much indebted to General Pitcher, the officer in command, who made me -acquainted with all the details of the system in operation. - -The Cadets are chosen in the same manner as at Annapolis. Ten are -appointed annually by the President, and the remainder are usually -nominated by members of Congress from their respective states. Private -allowances are discouraged, and the Government make a grant of 500 -dollars a year for each pupil, or the same allowance that is given to -the midshipmen at Annapolis. General Pitcher told me that about one -half of the candidates usually failed at the preliminary examination, -and that, upon the average, one-third of the remainder were rejected at -the succeeding examinations, a proportion of failures which corresponds -with that at the Naval Academy. They rise at five, clean their rooms, -place everything in order, attend early drills, and are constantly -at work throughout the day. The series of drills and studies is very -continuous, and there is only just sufficient time allowed for meals, -and very little time for recreation. The average age of the lads -is over twenty-one; the term is for four years. Many distinguished -officers have graduated here and habits of self-reliance are strictly -enforced. The principle which governs the system which is maintained -during the earlier part of the training is that of accustoming each -cadet to be independent of help. - -In proceeding from West Point, I visited the Shakers at their -settlements, near the village of Lebanon. I was received by their chief -Elder, a man named Evans, who, by his energy and firmness of will, had -obtained much personal influence over the community. The Shakers had -been successful in securing for themselves a considerable degree of -financial prosperity which was the result of their economy and industry. - -Evans was acquainted with the scheme of life contemplated by Mr. -Harris, near Brocton. The community established there had been joined -by Mr. Laurence Oliphant,[2] and I was interested in hearing the -opinions of the Shakers about them. Evans thought that they could not -long keep together, because marriage was permitted amongst its members. -Marriage, he said, meant personal property and where that existed a -communistic society could not succeed. - -A few days after arriving at Boston, I dined with Mr. Charles Francis -Adams, who had for many years been the United States Minister in -England. I had met him frequently at the house of Sir Charles Lyell in -London. The conversation turned chiefly upon the conduct of the troops -in the Civil War,[3] all the details of which were eagerly discussed. - -An officer present, who had commanded a brigade with distinction -throughout the campaign, gave us some information with regard to the -behaviour of the troops of the Northern army under fire, from the point -of view of their respective nationalities. Of the negroes he spoke -highly from personal knowledge, for during a part of his service, a -regiment of those troops was placed under his command. He said that -they were not intelligent, but were easily disciplined and controlled. -They were found to be useful in covering an assault as they did not -appear to be shaken in their courage or firmness by any great slaughter -in their ranks. - -The Germans were expected to be cool and phlegmatic, but it was found -that they were excitable and easily startled and unsettled. The Irish -were always ready to fight, but they were soon depressed by any -reverses. The Americans were excellent as cavalry, as infantry they -were steady and deliberate. - -I mentioned that, at West Point, I had met General Vogdes, who had -commanded a negro regiment, and that he considered his men to have -proved that they were reliable and obedient, and capable upon occasions -of showing that they were not wanting in daring. In the operations -around Nashville, a great proportion of the losses in the army fell -upon the coloured troops in consequence, as the general commanding -reported, of the brilliant manner in which they charged the enemy’s -earthworks. This kind of dashing courage on the part of negroes, who -had been bred in slavery, was surprising. I was deeply interested in -hearing the details of the war, particularly such of them as related to -the conduct of the black troops when under fire. - -I had seen in the South, the emotional side of the character of the -American born negroes, as shown in their political meetings and their -religious services, but I had not been previously aware that these -apparently lethargic people had by nature, the capacity for becoming -brave and impulsive soldiers. It is obvious that they felt they were -fighting for freedom, and for the emancipation of their wives and -children, the most powerful incentives that could stimulate their -actions. They were ready and willing to face the risk of death in order -to obtain that freedom which, to those that have it not, must be the -most coveted prize that this world can give. - -One afternoon I went to Cambridge for the purpose of meeting Mr. -Bartlett, a partner in the publishing firm of Messrs. Little and Brown. -I was indebted to him for many kind acts in assisting me in visiting -the museums, and we had arranged to go to the Harvard University -together, in order to have an interview with Professor Agassiz, who -had returned from Florida, where he had been engaged in the examination -of the coral reefs. - -After looking at the extensive collection of corals and shells which -had been placed in the Museum, we walked across the college grounds -to the Professor’s house. I delivered my letter of introduction, and -was received with great courtesy. Agassiz for some time talked about -his varied experiences in many parts of the world and his recent -researches, but upon hearing that I was going to visit the prairies in -the North-west, he showed much interest in the details of the journey -that I proposed to take. - -He said that he had been in many parts of those prairies, and had made -several careful investigations with the object of establishing certain -facts with regard to their formation, and had come to the conclusion -that they were caused by glacial action. He thought that the theory -that they were once sea beaches was erroneous, for he was convinced -that the sea had never been in those regions. He also spoke about the -consequences of the habits of the numerous herds of buffaloes that had -roamed, in remote times, over those lands and had made their wallows -there. These shallow depressions collected large quantities of water, -and influenced the manner in which many of the streams originated. - -After having drawn my attention to the chief objects of geological -interest that might possibly come within my notice in the region to the -south of Lake Superior, Agassiz mentioned his work in Florida. He had -given much consideration to the outlying banks fringing the southern -coasts of that promontory. The facts he had established were not in -accordance with the views of Darwin and Lyell. “If,” he said, “the -Pacific formations were as described by Darwin and others, those on -the coast of Florida were entirely different. In no way could Darwin’s -theory explain the Florida formations.” He had ascertained that the -corals grew up from great depths, for he had dredged to a depth of -eight hundred fathoms and had brought up live corallines; thus proving -that they existed and worked in very deep waters. It was his opinion -that Darwin’s coral theories had not had a sufficient study of evidence -given to them. - -In the evening, at Mr. Ticknor’s house, there were present at dinner -Commodore Rogers, Superintendent of the Navy Yard; Mr. Francis -Parkman, author of several historical works relating to the early -European settlements in North America; Mr. Hillard, also an author of -considerable reputation, and Mr. Frank Parker. Mr. Ticknor[4] told us -anecdotes of his travels in Europe soon after the restoration of Louis -XVIII. He had known many of the celebrities of that time, and spoke of -Sir Walter Scott, Sir Humphrey Davy, Mrs. Siddons, Lord and Lady Byron, -Talleyrand, Madame de Stael and Madame Récamier. - -There was a long discussion upon the uncertain future of the republic. -It seemed to be considered that as America became more populated, it -was much to be feared that universal suffrage, freedom and equality -of race, would lead to disorder. Mr. Ticknor mentioned that Prince -Metternich, when speaking to him about this subject, remarked that -there was a great difference between old Austria and America. In -Austria he had always to look out for mischief and prepare to meet -it or contrive a remedy. In America, he said, a mischief, if it -exists, takes time and grows until it gradually forces itself upon the -attention of the people. Finally, if it becomes alarming, the mass -deals with it and arrests its progress as it best can, and then things -go on as before. - -Professor Jeffries Wyman,[5] who had discovered several extensive -shell banks on the eastern coasts of Florida, gave me, at his house at -Cambridge, an interesting account of his investigations. He thought -that the mounds were entirely formed by the refuse of the food eaten by -the tribes dwelling near the sea; but, whether by a large settlement -of tribes in a comparatively short time, or by a small tribe in a -long time, it was difficult to determine. Some of the banks were from -fourteen to twenty-five feet high. They varied in length from one -hundred to five hundred yards. On the tops of several of them he had -seen large trees, whose age he estimated to be not less than eight -hundred years. It did not appear that the mounds followed the outlines -of any particular plan of encampment, except in an instance where one -of the longest of them had the shape of an amphitheatre. - -He also examined some fresh water shell heaps. These, he thought, were -made in the same manner as the sea shell mounds, by the Indians eating -the fish and piling up the shells. In all of them he had discovered -fragments of pottery and other marks of human life. The Professor -proposed that I should make an appointment with him in order to have a -thorough examination of his collection, not only from the shell heaps, -but also from the tumuli of the mound builders and other Indian tribes. -A day for this purpose was accordingly fixed. In the meanwhile my time -was occupied in visiting the public schools: Mr. Frank Parker, who was -interested in educational work, usually went with me. - -From a national point of view it was considered of great importance -that the children of the emigrants should receive a sound education -so as to enable them to become useful and self-respecting citizens. -The majority of the parents upon their arrival at New York or Boston, -do not attempt to seek their fortunes away in the West, but settle in -those quarters of these cities where they find that others of their -race are already established. The elder members of the emigrating -families are quite aware that their age or other circumstances -practically debar them from all hope of success in any attempts to -gain a livelihood by their own work. Thus their attention is directed -to the training of their children, so that these may have a fair start -in life. For this purpose, the free and thoroughly practical system of -education carried out in the schools seems to be excellent. - -It is needless to dwell upon the methods adopted in American cities -for raising the standard of knowledge among the boys and girls of the -poorer classes, for they are well known. Nothing can be more pleasing -than to observe the development of the minds of these young wanderers -from other lands, where their fate was adverse and their lives were -without hope. They appear to seize with eagerness the chances that are -given them to attain, by their own intelligence, higher and more secure -positions, and thus break away from the discouraging conditions into -which they were born. The construction and size of the school buildings -were well adapted for their purpose. The health and attention of the -students are, therefore, not affected by close confinement or the -insufficiency of pure air. - -There was an institution in Boston, devoted to the work of teaching -the blind, which had an especial interest of its own, and I was -therefore glad to accept Dr. Howe’s invitation to dine with him and -then see Laura Bridgman,[6] the blind girl, whose education had been so -successfully managed, and whose history had, for many years, attracted -observation. - -After dinner Laura came into the room. I noticed that she was of -average height and looked thin, pale and delicate. She had a shy and -peculiar manner. Mrs. Howe placed herself in communication with her, -and Laura immediately became more assured. When I was introduced she -expressed, by the movements of her fingers, that she was much pleased -to have my companionship. I asked if she wished to inquire about any -English friends? She replied, “Yes. Do you know Dickens, how is he?” -Then suddenly, before I had made any answer, she felt Mrs. Howe’s -sleeve and said, “You have a new dress,” and named the material—a -sort of French silk. Mrs. Howe said that the guess was correct. She -then became more animated and bright, but showed a singularly quick -impatience when wanting Mrs. Howe to listen to her. When not occupied -in maintaining a conversation she became quiet and looked sad. - -Mrs. Howe asked in what way she amused herself and what was her -greatest pleasure. She replied, “reading.” “What reading do you like -best?” To this question Laura replied, “Bible, hymns and psalms.” Mrs. -Howe turned round to me and said this answer was very curious as Dr. -Howe had brought her up without any religious training, because he did -not wish to give her mind any especial bent in that matter; but owing, -it was supposed, to the influence and teaching of some friend, she had -been made acquainted with the Bible and had become intensely attached -to it. - -It was said that Laura was able to articulate two words—“Doctor” and -“Grandmother”—and I asked her to say them. “Doctor,” was pronounced in -a distinct manner giving the sound “Dok-tá.” The word “Grandmother” -was not so clearly spoken and she gave the sound very rapidly. It -was however sufficiently expressed to be understood. I was told that -these words had in some manner been learnt by feeling the throats of -other people who pronounced them, and finding that certain expansions -of the muscles occurred when the sounds were made. She conversed by -holding out one hand and moving the fingers. Mrs. Howe held her wrist -and communicated her remarks by touch upon it. In this manner an -intelligent conversation was carried on. Laura evidently enjoyed the -excitement caused by this interchange of ideas, for when thus engaged -she looked very happy. - -She was blind, deaf and dumb. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - - Professor Wyman. — Indian Antiquities. — Concord. — Mr. Ralph - Waldo Emerson. — Margaret Fuller. — Note upon a visit to Mr. - Longfellow. — Saturday Club. — Dinner at Harvard University.— - Shell Mounds at Concord and Damariscotta. — Note upon the - Ancient Inscription upon the Dighton Rock. - - -Upon the day arranged for my visit to Cambridge, I found Professor -Wyman prepared to employ several hours in examining the Indian -collections. He proposed that we should begin by looking carefully over -the contents of a case within which was placed everything that had been -discovered in a burial mound in Illinois. The mound had contained the -bones of nine adults, several fragments of rude stone implements, and -some arrowheads. The skulls had been flattened and shaped by pressure. - -We then examined the collections of human skulls that had been received -from all parts of the continent. Amongst these, were several of an -important character, obtained by Mr. Squier in Central America. They -were long and flattened upon the top, and were supposed to have -belonged to the race that built the stone temples in Yucatan. Other -groups were then compared. It was observable that some tribes had the -custom of pressing in the back of the head to such an extent as to make -it nearly perpendicular. Others pressed the skulls so as to give them -great length. In a few instances, they were given a tall, oval form. -The Californian Indians appear to have given their children a high, -receding forehead. This method of shaping the head is still followed by -the Flathead Indians in the West. It is done by the pressure of boards -tied together in such a manner that the infant gets its skull shaped -when it is in the cradle. - -A question arose as to the effect of the artificial shapes of the -head upon the character of the tribes; and particularly, whether, in -accordance with certain theories, there was any known difference in -disposition between the tribes who flattened the forehead and those who -flattened the skull at the back. The Professor said that the matter -had been the subject of inquiry. It was considered, as far as could -be ascertained, that the alterations in shape made no difference in -the character, and that the Indians, whether with long, high, or flat -heads, were similar in their savage nature. - -Amongst the Mexican antiquities were a number of terra-cotta figures -which were thought to be emblematic of the worship of serpents, -lizards, and other reptiles. There were also idols carved out of -hard, volcanic stone. After having seen these, and also quantities of -rudely shaped stones, which were probably used by the Indians on the -north-east coast for sinking their nets, the Professor began to examine -the various things that had been taken from the American shell mounds. - -First, in order, were the collections that had been brought from Maine -and Massachusetts. There were oyster shells, the bones of wolves, deer -and birds, fragments of coarse pottery, layers of charcoal, and bone -awls. In the shell heaps at Concord there had been discovered various -stone weapons and flint arrowheads. In the Florida mounds there were -found the remains of crocodiles, implements made of stone, the bones of -deer, and numbers of small sharp needles, made from bird bones, which -had been used by hand. - -It appears from the evidence obtained by the investigation of the -shell banks, that tribes of similar habits dwelt on the cold coasts -of New England and the almost tropical shores of Florida. It is also -clear, that in many of their customs and methods of obtaining food they -resembled the races that formed the kitchen middens in Denmark. Their -stone and flint implements and their bone awls and needles were of the -same shapes as those used by the prehistoric people who lived upon the -shores of the Swiss lakes. - -Many of the stone axes and arrowheads that have been found in -the burial mounds, or in the neighbourhood of the ancient Indian -encampments in North America are of the same type, and show the same -system of workmanship as those that were made by the aboriginal tribes -in Western Europe. The similarities in form, size and methods of -adaptation for use are remarkable, for, although it may be expected -that men, in an uncivilised condition would, in all parts of the -world, have the same wants or necessities, yet it must be considered -surprising that in the construction of the implements for war and for -domestic purposes, the methods of design should be so singularly alike -amongst the savages of the old and new continents. - -Upon a subsequent occasion, when the doubtful question of the influence -of the formation of the skull upon the mind was discussed, Mr. Ticknor -mentioned the singular fact that the head of Daniel Webster[7] grew -larger after he had passed middle age. His attention had been drawn -to this circumstance by observing a change in the likeness of that -statesman, and, as he knew Webster intimately, he asked him about -the matter, and Webster said, “Yes, I find that I have constantly to -increase the size of my hats.” - -Towards the latter part of my stay in Boston, I received a letter from -Mr. Ralph Waldo Emerson, asking me to dine with him at Concord, and -mentioning that he had also invited Mrs. Julia Ward Howe. Upon the day -he had fixed for the purpose, we travelled down to the station, and -were met by Miss Emerson, who drove us home in her quaint old-fashioned -carriage. The pony, she told us, was a friend who had been in the -family for twenty years. We were received by Mr. and Mrs. Emerson. A -few other guests came from Cambridge, and then we went in to dinner. -Mr. Emerson talked much of De Quincey, whom he had known at Lasswade, -near Edinburgh, and then referring to our English poets, mentioned -with admiration, Tennyson’s poem, “Tithonus.” One of his daughters -spoke with enthusiasm about Professor Agassiz’s deep sea dredgings, the -lectures upon which she had been attending. - -Finally, the (always) absorbing topic of American politics was dwelt -upon, especially with respect to the effect of democratic institutions -upon the character of the people. Mr. Emerson alluded with much sadness -to those evil influences of political corruption and office-seeking -which appeared to be inevitable blots upon all systems of democracy, -but he said that he thought things would come right in the end. Upon -the various occasions that I met and conversed with leading politicians -(amongst whom was Chief Justice Chase), I observed that they usually -spoke of the future of their country with the same anxiety. - -There was much doubt and uncertainty as to what was going to happen -in the Southern States, which had so recently been made desolate. -Men’s minds were still agitated by the memory of the serious events -that had happened during the Civil War. That great national convulsion -had engaged the thoughts and actions of all American citizens to the -fullest extent, and had necessarily diverted the conduct of affairs -from the ordinary channels. There was consequently a feeling of -disquietude amongst those who loved their country, their freedom and -their laws. But this temporary form of misgiving was always accompanied -by the firm conviction that in some manner, not then quite clear, the -nation would ultimately triumph over all difficulties. - -After dinner, Mr. Emerson took me into the library, and began to look -over his books and point out his favourites. He said that what he most -delighted in were the translations from Persian and other Eastern -works. Finding that I was interested in his Oriental studies, he did -not care to quit his books, and so we remained in the library until it -was time to leave. In the meanwhile, he had taken down from the shelves -many volumes. He also showed me photographs of his friends, and drew my -attention to a likeness of Margaret Fuller, whom he had known for many -years, and for whom he had felt great regard and esteem. - -Margaret Fuller, who must have been a woman of extraordinary -genius, was one of the leaders of the school of thought called -Transcendentalism. Her end was as strange as her life. She crossed -the Atlantic, travelled in Italy, married the Marchese d’Ossoli and -was in Europe when the Revolution of 1848 broke out. Her sympathies -being entirely with the cause of Italian freedom, she took a prominent -part, under the direction of Mazzini, Garibaldi and other patriots, in -the defence of Rome, doing much good service in the hospitals. After -the adverse events of 1849, she embarked with her husband on board a -sailing vessel bound for her own land, on the shores of which she was -wrecked in a storm and all perished. - -Before we went away, Mr. Emerson suggested that I should look at the -exterior of the house, in which he seemed to take great interest. He -told me that he had lived in it thirty-five years and had only made one -change—the addition of the drawing room. It was an unpretending plank -building of two stories, standing in its own small grounds, and was -chiefly noticeable in consequence of having some fine chestnut trees in -front between the door and the road. - -Upon our return to the city, the President of the University asked me -to be the guest of the Alumni of Harvard. His letter ran thus:— - - “_June_ 23.” - - “MY DEAR SIR,” - - “On behalf of the Alumni of Harvard College, I invite you to be - present at the Commencement Dinner in Harvard Hall, Cambridge, - on Tuesday, the 29th inst. The Alumni and their guests will - assemble in Gore Hall, the Library, at 2 p.m. on that day. I - hope to receive your acceptance, and to have the pleasure of - meeting you on the occasion.” - - “Very respectfully yours, - WM. GRAY, - _Pres. of Alumni Assoc._” - -At one of the customary afternoon meetings of the members of the -Saturday Club, I dined with them as the guest of Dr. Howe. Among -those present were Mr. Sumner, Professor Wyman, Mr. Lowell, Judge -Hoar, Mr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, and Professor Gurney, the editor -of the North American Review. Mr. Emerson was the chairman. The -possibility of spontaneous generation, was the topic that happened to -be chiefly discussed. Professor Wyman had been carrying out a series of -experiments at Cambridge, and he told us what had been the results of -his experience. He said that he had ascertained that the theory that -boiling water killed life was, to a certain extent, erroneous. A first -boiling killed some of the living creatures, a second boiling killed -more, living organisms being reduced gradually in quantity. After a -fourth severe boiling he failed to trace any life whatever. Finally -after having carried out with great care, tests of all natures, he -doubted the possibility of creating life where no life had previously -existed. - - In the following year I accepted the invitation of Mr. Ticknor - to stay a few days with him before leaving America, and I was - fortunate in meeting at his house, Mr. Longfellow, who, at - the time of my previous visit to Boston, was away from home, - travelling in England, chiefly, as he afterwards told me, - amongst the English lakes and in Devonshire. He proposed that - I should go and see him at Cambridge, and this was arranged, - and I went down there upon the first available day. I found - him in his study, a small room looking out upon the lawn, and - commanding a view of the country towards the bridge. - - Before dinner, he showed me a bill of fare which had been - given to him at a public banquet in London, which was framed - and placed on the mantel piece of the dining-room. It was - a coloured drawing of a scene described in his poem of - “Hiawatha.” The sun was shining on the still waters of a - lake, or inland sea, and a group of Indians were gazing at - it. I think it was meant to represent the final departure of - Hiawatha, westwards towards the sunset. - - Mr. Longfellow said that he was much pleased with this mark of - attention, not only on account of the merit of the picture, but - because he appreciated the feeling that prompted the gift, as - “Hiawatha” was the poem by which he most cared to be remembered. - - He expressed strong sympathies with the poetical legends and - traditions of the Iroquois and Dakota Indians. His conversation - was, however, chiefly directed to the question of the future - social and political condition of the negroes in the Southern - States. - -Later in the day, I witnessed a most important triumph of mechanics, -as applied to the removal of a heavy building. The house that was -being moved was large and strongly constructed of stone. It stood at -the corner of a street which was about to be widened, and therefore it -was necessary, either to pull it down or place it in another position, -and it had been decided to execute the latter operation. The building -had a frontage of seventy feet and a depth of one hundred feet. It was -composed of a basement, five principal stories and a Mansard roof. -The engineer in charge of the works told me that his calculations -were based upon having to move a weight of fifty thousand tons. At -the time I saw the house, it was full of residents, many of whom were -looking out of the windows and watching the proceedings. The contractor -permitted me to go underneath and observe the process of moving. The -weight was taken by a vast number of screw jacks, and the building was -lifted off the foundations. It was progressing towards its new site at -the rate of fourteen inches in one hour. - -On Commencement Day I went down to Cambridge early in the afternoon, -and after being received by the President, fell into my place in the -ranks of the procession formed in the college grounds. We then marched -into dinner and I took my seat at the table. My immediate neighbours -were Mr. Lowell, Mr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Judge Hoar and Judge Grey. -About six hundred were present in the hall and three hundred dined in -another room. The gradations of age corresponded with the positions of -the tables. The seats towards the left were occupied by comparatively -young men, but on the right, were successive rows of heads, showing -advancing years, until upon the extreme right were the white haired -seniors. - -At the conclusion of the dinner, in accordance with an ancient custom, -all stood up and sang a Psalm to the tune known by the name of St. -Martin. The President then gave his annual address and the usual -speeches followed. Mr. Adams made a good speech and referred to his -late absence as the United States Minister to Great Britain. The -President then rose and told the Alumni that a “representative of Great -Britain” was present and called upon me to respond. This I did as -briefly as possible, and upon resuming my seat I was astonished at the -enthusiastic manner with which the said representative was received. -After much cheering, the band played “God save the Queen,” which was -again the occasion for a strong outburst of cordial good feeling -towards England. As I looked down the hall I saw the slight, tall form -of Mr. Emerson bending forward as he joined in our National Anthem. Mr. -Holmes then recited a poem and Mr. Lowell gave a speech in which he -alluded to the question of the Alabama which was causing such bitter -feeling in America, and after speaking of the volcanic ground into -which he had wandered, said - - “O matre pulchra filia pulchrior, - Pout if you will, but sulk not into war. - Had Adams stayed, this danger had not been, - This less than kindness of two more than kin.” - -The singing of “Auld Lang Syne” was the fitting conclusion to an -interesting day. - -Professor Wyman told me that, before leaving the States, I ought to -visit the shell mounds at Damariscotta in Maine and also those near -Concord. The latter were considered to be remarkable on account of -their being composed of fresh-water shells. Mr. Emerson had offered to -help me in my examination of them, but not wishing to occupy his time -in this unusual manner, I went down to Concord and tried to find them -by myself. In this attempt I failed, and, finally, I decided to obtain -his help. Fortunately, he was at home and at once put the harness on -his pony and drove me down to the place. We crossed some fields and -found the shell heaps near a sharp bend of the river. They were about a -hundred and fifty yards long, twenty yards wide and twelve feet high, -and were chiefly composed of mussel shells. For more than an hour we -worked zealously and made slight excavations at different parts of the -banks, and found some fragments of bones which had been shaped by hand, -but we were not successful in seeing any stone celts. We then went to -an adjoining hillock upon which the Indians were accustomed to encamp -and there we picked up three rudely-made arrow heads which had been -formed out of hard porphyritic stone. - -After finishing the inspection of the middens, we went back to the -house, and remained for an hour or two in the library where we had tea. -Mr. Emerson told me that in order to pass through, with comparative -comfort, the long winter, he and others had formed a society of -twenty-five members and arrangements were made for meeting at their -respective houses. Each member gave a reception in turn upon Tuesdays. -When the time was at hand for going to the train he went to the stable, -and again harnessed the pony, and drove me to the station. When saying -“Good-bye,” he expressed many kind wishes with regard to my projected -journey. - -Americans must naturally feel interested in whatever relates to the -past history of the native races who were the original inhabitants of -their country, and who possessed, in combination with their savage -nature and cruel practices, certain qualities of honour and fortitude -which seem to point to the existence of latent conditions of mind -placing them upon a different footing from other ordinary savage races. -Theories which relate to the migrations of the tribes who entered -Mexico from the North have also much attraction. As years roll onwards, -and the events, that then occurred, are more distant or obscure, the -causes of those movements and the origin of the influences that created -the subsequent advance in civilisation amongst those Indians are -becoming almost incomprehensible. - -On the way from Concord towards Canada I stopped at Portsmouth for -the purpose of seeing the Navy Yard,[8] which was the last naval -establishment that I had to visit on the eastern coast, and then -proceeded to the remotely situated village of Damariscotta. - -The shell mounds near the adjacent river far exceeded in magnitude -what I had expected to find. They were placed about twelve miles from -the sea within the limits of the ebb and the flow of the tides, and -formed the banks of a small promontory round which the river made a -sharp bend. Within these banks was a flat space of land which had been -used by the Indians for their camping ground, and which is known to -have been visited by small bands of them as late as the end of the last -century. The heaps extend along the shores of the river and round the -promontory for a length of about six hundred yards, and vary in height -from fifteen to thirty-five feet. It was difficult to estimate their -average width, but in many places it was not less than twenty-two yards. - -The mound that I chiefly examined rose directly from the beach close to -the line of the present high water mark. It was thirty-three feet high, -sixty feet wide and one hundred and fifty feet long. Looking from the -river, it presented the appearance of a steep cliff formed of compact -layers of large oyster shells. In consequence of the face of this cliff -being exposed, it was possible to trace all the horizontal strata. -Beginning from the top of the bank there was, in the first place, a -deposit of shells closely packed about eighteen inches thick. Then -there was a well-defined layer of earth or mould, averaging a thickness -of half-an-inch throughout the whole length of the bank without any -break or change in its width. The next layer was not so deep as that on -the top, and was one foot thick. Then came another deposit of mould, -half-an-inch in thickness, resting upon another layer of shells. In -this manner, the alternating deposits of earth and shells succeeded -each other down to the base. - -There were not any signs of kitchen midden refuse amongst the shells, -but in the intermediate layers of earth I saw fragments of broken -pottery, charred wood, several rounded stones, small quantities of -bones of animals, and one bone awl which had evidently been much used. -A portion of the cliff which had been undermined by the action of the -river had slipped down upon the beach, consequently the interior of the -mound was exposed. I made an excavation into this new face and found a -stone knife, or scraper, and a small stone chisel. In another part of -the bank I discovered a plank lying flat upon the third layer of mould -below the surface. It was made of fir, and was four feet six inches -long, six inches wide and half-an-inch thick. - -These shell heaps, the relics of the feasts and food of the Indians, -although interesting as evidences of the habits of life of the savage -races that once occupied this part of America, prove but little more -than the fact that those races have existed and passed away. The -successive layers of earth in the heaps would enable an estimate to be -made of their age, if the length of the intervals of time that elapsed -between the encampments could be known. The saw-cut plank, resting upon -the third layer is an evidence that the two upper deposits of shells -were made since the arrival of the English colonists. The Indians then -dwelling on these lands were called the Abenakis. These oyster heaps -may have been raised by them when they visited the coast of Maine after -leaving their hunting grounds.[9] - - - - - CHAPTER III. - - Indian Reservations. — Lake Superior. — Beavers and their - works. — The Forest. — Houghton. — Ancient Indian mining pits - and trenches. — An Indian battle ground. — The Glacial Drift. — - Note regarding the Dauphin. - - -From Damariscotta I went up the valley of the St. Lawrence, and visited -the reservation lands of the Algonquins, Hurons, and other tribes -that had originally held possession of that part of the country. The -most important assemblage of Indians was placed upon a large tract -of land near the banks of the Grand river in Upper Canada. There I -saw, dwelling in their separate villages, the descendants of the once -powerful confederacy of the Iroquois, who had been our faithful allies -in our wars. - -Nearly three thousand Indians were gathered together belonging to -the tribes of the Senecas, Onondagas, Mohawks, Cayugas, Oneidas and -Tuscaroras. Some of them had been converted, but many still maintained -their ancient faiths and performed their customary Pagan ceremonies. - -It was extraordinary to observe how unavailing had been the influence -of European civilisation in advancing the intellectual capacities of -the tribes. The French missionaries at Lorette, Oka, and St. Régis, -many of whom were well acquainted with the language of the converts -put under their care, told me that all their efforts were useless, and -that the labours of nearly three centuries were absolutely without any -practical result. - -After having passed a few weeks in the vicinity of the lakes, for the -purpose of seeing the condition of various remnants of certain North -American Indian tribes placed upon reservations, I reached the shores -of the Georgian bay, and then proceeded to the port of Marquette in -Michigan. - -[Illustration: Plan of the Lake Superior Iron and Copper region.] - -My chief object in landing upon the southern shores of Lake Superior, -was to visit the places where ancient Indian mining operations had -been discovered, in order that I might be, in some degree conversant -with matters relating to the origin of the copper ornaments that had -been found in some of the burial mounds in Ohio. I also wished to make -some excursions into the forests where, amongst the numerous lakes and -rivers, the beavers were still constructing their dams and building -their lodges. I desired to see something of beaver life and work before -the advance of civilisation had removed these forests and beavers away -for ever. - -I obtained convenient quarters in the mining village of Ishpeming, -placed in a clearing that had been made in the forest, on the summit of -the hills ten miles from the coast. In the interior, within a few miles -from the settlement were two rivers called the Carp and the Esconauba. -Upon these streams and their connected ponds, the works of the beavers -were numerous. They consisted of lodges, dams, canals, excavations, and -the open spaces in the forests called beaver meadows. - -There happened to be an unusually large work constructed across one of -the principal bends of the Carp, which by its action in confining the -waters had created a small lake. As the size and formation of that dam -give a good knowledge of the capacity of the beavers, and their powers -of executing works of considerable magnitude, it will be interesting to -describe it with some detail. - -It was two hundred and sixty-two feet in length and nearly six feet -high in the centre, where the water was deep. This height diminished -gradually towards the banks. The average width upon the top was two -feet. The slope outwards was in the direction of the angle which -happened to give the utmost resisting power. The base was about -fourteen feet wide. The dam was not made in a direct line across the -stream, but had curves which were convex towards the current, and were -placed at the points of the greatest pressure. The slopes were formed -in such a manner that the upper side acted as a barrier against the -water, and the opposite side acted as a supporting buttress. - -[Illustration: BEAVER DAM, LODGE, AND POND, NEAR ISHPEMING, MICHIGAN.] - -The entire construction was evidently made with a correct knowledge -of the strength that was necessary to resist the outward pushing -force that was exerted against it. When an engineering work of this -nature, so great in proportion to the power and intelligence of -its constructors, is examined, and its fitness for the object for -which it has been made and for the duty it has to perform, has been -ascertained, it occurs to the mind to consider whether such operations -are the results of instinct or of some exceptional degree of reasoning -faculties. - -Within the pond was the lodge. It was placed near to the bank which by -its curve gave the most shelter. It was shaped like a rounded beehive -and measured nearly eight feet in diameter, and twenty-two feet over -the outer circumference. The exterior was composed of small sticks cut -in nearly equal lengths, and so intertwined, crossed and plastered with -mud as to give great cohesion. - -There were three entrances, two of them leading in the direction of the -bank, and one towards the middle of the pond. The former are said to be -used as the approaches to the inner room, and the latter for escape. -All these entrances were below the surface of the water, and ran -upwards into the dwelling room which was a dry comfortable apartment, -the floor being well above the highest water level. - -The beavers, when cutting the branches of the trees into the requisite -lengths, seem to have an accurate perception of what is necessary for -the special works that are then in progress. Thus in their lodges, -which are chiefly made for shelter and warmth, the sticks composing -them are small, and when well plastered together with mud make a -good compact residence. The dams which have a different purpose are -differently built, and in these the sticks are often of considerable -size, being sometimes fully six feet long. Some of the cuttings, -however, are small and many of them are like short poles, having a -diameter about the size of a man’s arm. - -The methods of forming the foundations of their dams are most -practical, and the manner in which earth, stones, mud, twigs, fibres -and brushwood are combined, not only show marvellous ingenuity, but -prove that beavers work perseveringly together with incessant labour -for long periods of time. - -The superstructures are differently made. They are composed of a -framework of sticks placed at various angles inclined upwards. This -open form of disposition appears to be intended to allow the surface -waters to escape to the extent that is necessary to keep the level of -the pond at the uniform height that is desirable. - -Although it is usually considered that the intelligence of the beaver -communities is chiefly shown by their ability in raising works of -construction, I was informed by men who were intimately acquainted with -the habits of these animals, that a greater sagacity was displayed -in the methods adopted by them, under especial circumstances, for -maintaining communications between their dwelling places and the woods -from which they obtained their food and building materials. - -These rare and singular works of excavation are called beaver canals. -One of these, which was the largest that was known to occur in this -part of Michigan, I examined with the utmost attention. It was an open -trench or channel, about half a mile long, two to three feet wide, -and from one to two feet deep. The bottom was of the same width as -the surface, the sides being perpendicular. It connected a large pond -with the adjacent forest. The canal was sufficiently large to give -room for a beaver to swim in it and push in front of him the cutting -of birchwood that was to be conveyed to the lodge and there stored for -the winter supply of food. The depth was enough for the purpose of -concealment. - -I also examined some other canals connecting the ponds with trees, -which were of a different character and much smaller. The Indians were -of opinion that these must have been made exclusively for escape when -the beavers, whilst at work, were suddenly alarmed. - -But the most important results of the actions of the beavers are the -alterations made by them in the aspect of the country, in consequence -of their raising the levels of the water and causing large spaces of -land to be subject to overflow. Thus, when the dams are in order and -efficiently maintained, much of the adjoining land, when it lies low, -becomes a swamp and the trees decay and fall. Then if the works are -neglected and the waters follow their usual direction, the lands become -dry and are changed into fertile grass meadows. Some of these meadows -are of considerable extent. Around Ishpeming they supply the fodder -required for the cattle employed at the mines. One of them, which -occupies a large acreage, yields over fifty tons of hay annually. - -An explorer who happened to pass through a region of this nature after -it had been deserted by the beavers, would be surprised, when following -the trail through the forest, to find himself entering into one of -these open spaces, which have the appearance of small savannahs, and he -would be unable to understand how such sharply defined inclosures could -have been formed. - -Near the borders of the meadows and ponds, several birches were -undergoing the process of being felled. The operations were extremely -curious, and it was evident that the beavers are both careful and -ingenious in the execution of the work. - -The trees selected for their purposes are generally about three or -four feet in circumference at the part that is within reach. The trunk -of each tree is, in the first place, gnawed evenly round, until only -a portion of the centre, about two inches in diameter, is left to -maintain it in an upright position. It is then carefully gnawed from -the direction towards which the tree is intended to fall, which is -often a matter of some importance. When it is lying upon the ground, -the bark is stripped and stored for food, the branches are cut into -the requisite lengths and used also partly for winter provision, but -chiefly with regard to what may be wanted for the construction and -repair of the dams and lodges. - -Upon returning one afternoon from the River Carp, I found that, by some -inattention, I had left the track and had wandered into the forest. Men -who are accustomed to explore this region had stated that the safest -course to adopt when such an event occurred was to observe the position -of the marks of the weather upon the trunks of the trees. In Michigan, -it held been noticed that these evidences of exposure, consisting of -moss or lichen, were upon the Northern sides, and it was considered -that by watching these indications, a line of direction could be -followed. - -It is possible that in places where the trees are much exposed this -system may be useful, but in this case I did not find it so. - -The indications of weather were often very faint and difficult to -trace. Where they did clearly exist, they varied so greatly in -their position, that it was impossible to follow a straight line. I -consequently soon gave up the attempt to find the trail by this method. -Night was approaching, and the outlook was becoming grave. In all -directions but one, there was nothing but many miles of dense forest, -which it would be hopeless to attempt to pass through. - -The direction which was available had a broad base, being the road -from Ishpeming to Marquette. This I knew must lie between south and -south-west. Consequently if I could follow a line between these points, -it was probable that the road would soon be reached, as its distance -was less than three miles. I had my watch with me, and fortunately, -the sun could be seen occasionally, so it was possible to make that my -guide. - -Upon a rough calculation of the true bearing of the approaching -sunset, I found that by keeping the glimmer of the light on the right -hand, and walking steadily forward, the road ought to be reached before -dark. It was, however, anxious work and it was getting late when I -unexpectedly emerged into an open clearing, where a squatter had -temporarily settled. It was with no slight pleasure that I heard the -sounds of life, the lowing of cattle, and the welcome movements of a -busy farmyard.[10] - -After concluding my expeditions to the lands and ponds of the beavers, -I went to that part of Michigan where the ancient mining pits and -trenches have been discovered. The earliest knowledge of them was -obtained by an American explorer who, in the year 1847, when seeking -for indications of metal ore, noticed several depressions in the -ground, and saw lying in a heap, near what seemed to be an ancient -excavation, a number of rude stone hammers that he thought had probably -been used by hand. - -In the following year another excavation was discovered, and after -clearing this out to a depth of eighteen feet, there was found a -detached mass of copper weighing over six tons which rested upon oak -sleepers, and beneath it there was a vein of copper five feet thick. -There were also several stone hammers, grooved for the purpose of -having handles attached to them, and a copper chisel with a socket for -a wooden handle, a fragment of which although much decayed, was still -in its place. In an adjoining pit at a depth of ten feet, there was -a wooden bowl and some charcoal.[11] In some workings, subsequently -discovered upon Isle Royale and near the end of the Kee-wai-wona -promontory, a number of wooden wedges were seen, together with traces -of extensive trenches. - -In consequence of these discoveries further investigations were -made, and a large number of ancient pits were found in the forests, -especially in the districts where are now placed the towns of Ontonagon -and Houghton. It was within a few miles from the latter town, that the -explorers observed the heap of stone hammers, and their attention was -directed to the fact that they had been preceded in the search for -copper by men of some unknown race, who possessed capacities for mining -operations greater than could be attributed to the Chippewas who then -occupied the land. - -In order to examine this heap I engaged a man—who knew the mining and -forest region—to guide me to the spot where the hammers still remained. -After crossing the Portage Lake and passing over some low neighbouring -hills, we came to a depression in the ground which looked like an old -ditch or trench. At the side of this ditch, I saw several hundreds of -rounded water-worn stones of various sizes. These had evidently been -chosen on account of the convenience of their shape, for the purpose of -being used for crushing the rocks that contained metal. - -A few of the stones appeared to have been partly shaped by hand, -but the majority of them were in their natural form. Several were -perforated by small round holes, caused probably by the action of -water. Some men who happened to be employed at one of the mines in the -neighbourhood, told me that in their opinion they had been made for -thumb holes. They were, however, much too small for such a purpose. - -Upon my return to Houghton I met Mr. I. H. Forster, who was the agent -for mines and a Senator for the State. He proposed to accompany me to -the sites of those ancient workings that he had personally inspected. -After passing through a forest of birch and pine trees, we reached an -open space where we saw the evidences of the nature of the operations -that had been executed. - -The direction of the trenches could be easily traced, although they -were filled with earth and leaves. Several of the pits had been cleared -out by the men employed at one of the new mines, and it was therefore -possible to go down to the bottom of them and observe the methods of -excavation. The first that I examined was twelve feet deep; from the -base there ran two nearly horizontal galleries or adits, following the -direction of the lode which ran N.W. and S.E. These adits were five -feet wide and extended laterally about six feet. Upon the surface, near -the edge of the pit, was the stump of a basswood tree, six feet in -circumference, and at the opposite edge was the stump of a pine, four -feet in circumference. - -The second pit was twenty yards from the first, and had evidently been -sunk in the direction required in order to reach the same lode. It was -ten feet deep. From the base there was one adit following the direction -of the deposit of copper. Close to the edge of this pit was the stump -of a small birch tree. Beyond this were seven other pits, from twenty -to fifty yards apart, and in connection with these, there were several -short trenches from two to four feet wide. - -The pits were discovered in 1865. Some animals were being driven along -a track in the forest, when one of them straying from the path, plunged -his feet deep into the ground; this was noticed, and an explorer for -copper examined the place and pushed his stick down it. This led to a -further search, and the hole was found to be an ancient pit. Shafts -were sunk, and the result has been, that, one of the most important -mines in the district was established near the spot. - -Upon another occasion I went with Mr. Forster to look at the trenches -and pits that had been found in a more distant part of the forest. -These pits were smaller than those that I had previously seen, but the -trenches were frequently of considerable depth. I measured several that -exceeded six feet deep. These trenches were usually in short lengths, -but one of them was nearly two hundred feet long. Upon making inquiries -amongst the leading men of the various copper mines that have been -placed in the neighbourhood of the earlier workings, I was told that -the practical miners were of opinion that these excavations were of -considerable antiquity. It has, however, been proved by the condition -of the things that were found in the pits that these conjectures are -not well founded. - -Near Ontonagon, to the south-west of Portage Lake, a line of trenches -was observed in 1863, and a shaft was sunk in a depression which was -considered to be an old pit. At a depth of nine feet, one of the -workmen drew out upon the point of his pickaxe, a small untanned -leather bag in a good state of preservation. It was noticed that the -mouth of the bag was traversed by a leather string, which was in its -place and could be used for drawing the opening together. The bag was -seven inches wide and eleven inches deep. - -Two years afterwards, some men exploring the same part of the forest, -observed a small mound about six feet high. After digging through -it down to the ground, they reached the surface of a pit, which was -carefully excavated by them. At the top there was a deposit of sand; -below that, were many closely pressed layers of decayed leaves. At -the bottom of the pit they saw a birch bark basket, in all respects, -similar to those that are made and used by the modern Chippewas. Near -the basket they also found a bit of beaver or otter skin with the fur -upon it, portions of the jaw of a bear, several pieces of charcoal, a -beating block—fourteen inches square and three inches thick—made out -of a lump of copper conglomerate, some lengths of knotted strips of -buckskin, and a rough bit of wood about three feet long, which the -miners call a digging stick. A collection of these things had been -placed in an office at Houghton, where I saw them. I noticed that the -digging stick was worn and frayed at the end where it had been used, -and that the fur on the beaver skin was still in good condition. - -In the same forest country as that where the pits were dug, several -copper spear heads have been picked up. Those examined by me were -unquestionably made by persons skilled in the working of metal. -Several of the members attached to the mission at Sault Ste. Marie,[12] -in the early part of the eighteenth century, made crosses and ornaments -from copper that was brought to them by Indians, who had found small -lumps of the metal on the surface of the ground. The spear heads may -have been made at the mission house. - -After the cession of the Canadas to Great Britain in 1763, an English -Company was formed for the purpose of searching for metal in this -region. The operations were conducted by Mr. Alexander Henry, and it -has been ascertained that for several years he worked near Ontonagon, -and at other places upon the Kee-wai-wona promontory. Judging from the -method in which, at the ancient workings, the lodes of copper have -been traced through dense forests, it is evident that fixed plans of -operations must have been pursued, and I came to the conclusion that -the surveyor who directed them, must have had a competent knowledge of -the use of the compass. It is therefore not unreasonable to assume, -that all the pits and trenches were excavated under the superintendence -of Europeans, at some period later than the sixteenth century. - -Several miles to the south of these works I was shown the spot -where the last and decisive battle was fought between the Chippewas -and Iroquois. This battle field, which was on a point of land near -Kee-wai-wona bay, was remarkable because it affords an instance of -the great distances that were sometimes traversed by Indians when -conducting their wars of extermination. The Iroquois whose territories -and villages were upon the southern shores of Lakes Ontario and Erie, -crossed into the Chippewa lands by the way of the channels leading to -Sault Ste. Marie. Therefore, supposing that they followed the most -direct line to the place where the battle was fought, they must have -passed over a distance of not less than six hundred miles. - -One of the burial mounds which had been opened, contained a large -skull, a pipe made of dark slate and a stone hatchet. Upon the -top of the mound was a pine tree which measured thirty inches in -circumference. The scattered descendants of the Chippewa tribes dwell -in the districts to the west of Lake Superior, but they occasionally -wander into their original country. I met some of them near the shores -of that great inland sea. - -During the time that I was travelling in these iron and copper regions, -I took the opportunity of accompanying the superintendent of one of the -mines to look at the evidences of the action of the glacial drift upon -the surfaces of the hills that had been cleared for the purpose of -executing some preliminary mining operations. Some of these hills were -composed of solid hematite iron and jasper, and yet these hard rocks -were deeply grooved by the pressure that had been exerted against them. - -Near Ishpeming there was a low range of hills or knobs, whose formation -was a compact greenstone with wide veins of iron, which had been -subjected to a severe grinding, and was furrowed with grooves two feet -wide and five and a half inches deep. The general direction of this -range was from E.N.E. to W.S.W. and the action of pressure was greatest -where the sides of the hills faced towards the north. The grooves were -about nine hundred feet above the level of Lake Superior. Large erratic -boulders covered the surface of the land. I measured one of them which -was lying exposed in a depression between two conical hills, eight -hundred and fifty feet above the lake. It must have weighed over twenty -tons. The boulders were usually masses of basalt, black or red granite, -porphyry and jasper. Rounded boulders of pure copper are sometimes -found. One of these, of exceptional size, was in the forest, in the -direction of Ontonagon, and was estimated to weigh about eighteen tons. - -Near Houghton, Mr. Forster showed me the surface of a hill, four -hundred feet above the lake, which had been made perfectly smooth by -the action of the drift passing over it. At another part where the rock -was exposed we counted fifty-seven grooves over a space of sixty-seven -feet of surface. Judging from the direction of the groovings on the -Kee-wai-wona promontory and the iron hills of Michigan, the boulders -appear to have been carried from Labrador. - -[Illustration: CHIPPEWA CHIEF. - - (WEST OF LAKE SUPERIOR.)] - -The waters and floating icebergs must have swept over this country with -much force for in many places the pressure exerted seems to have been -enormous. - -On my way south from this land, which contained so much that attracted -attention, I visited the reservation of the Oneidas, at the spot where -the council fire of that tribe was originally established, near Lake -Ontario. I was received by the hereditary chief of that tribe, who -was named Beech-tree. As he could not speak a word of English, our -conversation was carried on with the assistance of his grandson, who -acted as interpreter. Beech-tree was a large, broad shouldered man, -with a remarkably massive head. If I had met him in the north of China, -I should have taken him for a Manchu Tartar. His hair was very long and -black, and tinged with grey. - -He told his grandson to say that he was proud of his unmixed descent -from the ancient chiefs of his nation, which had once been powerful, -and that the land upon which we stood belonged by right to the Oneidas, -and was the place where they held their great councils and decided -upon questions of war or peace. After having made, with assumed -dignity, this brief oration, Beech-tree retired into the interior of -his hut, and I returned to my country cart, which had conveyed me to -his territory, and finally reached the shores of Lake Erie. After -traversing Lakes Huron and Michigan, I proceeded to the banks of the -Ohio river, with the purpose of making expeditions to the works of the -Mound Builders. - -Before quitting the Oneida reservation, I made inquiries about a man -named Williams, concerning whom I had heard, when at Boston, a strange -and romantic story. It appears that Williams, whose parentage was -uncertain or unknown, was sent early in the present century from the -Indian village of St. Régis, to act as a missionary among the Oneidas. -Some years later, rumours were spread to the effect that he was the -true Dauphin, the son of Louis XVI. These rumours were stated to be -based upon grounds which warranted a fair degree of belief. - -The story as told to me at Oneida was that Williams was supposed to -have been born at St. Régis (a picturesque village reservation on the -South bank of the St. Lawrence, and which, at the time that I saw it, -contained a population of fifteen hundred Iroquois, the majority of -whom were half-breeds). - -In early manhood he was sent to a college, trained for missionary work, -and ultimately appointed to preach among the Oneidas. I was informed, -by those who had previously known him, that he was an honest, zealous -missionary, who was quite incapable of attempting any form of imposture. - -It however happened (such is the story,) that the Prince de Joinville, -when travelling in America, came to Oneida and saw Williams. It is also -stated that he visited him on a second occasion. After this second -meeting, it was thought by the residents in the neighbourhood, that -Williams was possibly the Dauphin. - -A picture of Simon, the gaoler who treated the young prisoner in -the Temple with such incredible brutality, was shown to him, and he -instantly started back with horror, as if recalling some painful -memory. Williams had no recollection of anything about his youth before -the age of fourteen. - -In consequence of these apparent corroborations of the local surmises, -it was conjectured that after the execution of Louis XVI., the young -Dauphin was removed from the prison, sent to America and placed in an -Indian family at St. Régis. Williams lived for many years with the -Oneidas, and died at an advanced age. He was described as having been -a man of portly physique, with large features and big hands and feet. -His complexion was rather dark. I think it is probable that he was -descended from half-breed Indian parents. - -It will be observed, that, the whole value of the evidence supporting -the theory of his being the Dauphin, depends upon the accuracy of the -story that he received two visits from the Prince de Joinville. This -statement, if correct, appears however to establish the presumption -that the Royal Family of France, may have had some doubts with regard -to the truth of the report of the death of Louis XVII. in the Temple. -It is certain that a boy, said to have been that young prince, was -buried by the orders of the Commune in an obscure churchyard in the -Faubourg St. Antoine, in the year 1795; but the evidence is scarcely -conclusive upon the subject. - -[Illustration: _Plan of the region within which are the Earthworks of - the Mound builders._] - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - - ANCIENT INDIAN MOUNDS AND EARTHWORKS IN OHIO. - - Earthworks of the Mound Builders and their geographical - position. — Miamisburgh Mound. — Grave Creek Mound. — Ages - and contents of burial mounds. — Rectangular, circular and - octagonal Inclosures near Newark. — Marietta Earthworks. — - Discoveries made in a burial mound. — Fortifications near - Portsmouth. — Encampments in the valley of the Scioto. - - -The great earthworks in Ohio are the subject of much antiquarian -interest and conjecture. Several surveys of them have been made for the -purpose of ascertaining their purpose and the probable period of their -construction, but nothing definite has yet been determined. - -In considering the various theories respecting the migrations of -the aboriginal tribes, it is strange that traces of the same kind -of encampments have not been found either in the North-West towards -Asia, or in the southern parts of the valley of the Mississippi. It -is difficult to understand how it happens that these works only occur -within a comparatively confined region. Their actual geographical -limits are contained within an area bounded approximately, towards the -South, by the left bank of the river Ohio, from the neighbourhood of -Cincinnati towards the West, to Wheeling towards the East, and not -extending northwards beyond a line drawn from East to West through the -centre of Ohio. - -Consequently it will be seen, upon making a reference to the map, that -the works of the people called the Mound Builders, are situated within -the southern division of the State including both banks of the Ohio -river. These were their extreme limits, but the part of the country -chiefly occupied by them has a much lesser area. - -It is evident from the positions of the earthworks, that the tribes -which raised them thought it necessary to maintain their communications -by water with the valley of the Ohio, and on the banks of that river -they had several important fortifications or encampments. It is, -however, upon the banks of the tributaries that fall into the Ohio from -the North, that their settlements were most numerous, especially upon -the Scioto, the Muskinghum and the streams entering those rivers near -Newark and Chillicothe. - -The first earthwork that I visited was the great mound of Miamisburgh, -which is situated upon the summit of high ground overlooking the -valley of the Little Miami river. It was opened and examined in 1869, -a few months before I saw it. In appearance and shape it resembled the -largest of the Tumuli that were raised upon the plains of Troy, but the -dimensions of this American mound are much greater. It is sixty-eight -feet high, and has a circumference at the base of about eight hundred -and thirty feet. - -A perpendicular shaft was sunk from the centre of the summit to the -centre of the base, and two horizontal shafts were made, one at -eighteen feet, and another at thirty-six feet respectively. At a -depth of four feet from the top, there was a layer of wood ashes. At -eight feet there was discovered a skeleton and some decayed wood. At -fifteen feet there was a layer of charcoal and lime. At the depth of -twenty-four feet a singular construction was found. It consisted of an -upright stone, standing upon two flat stones, together with a number of -rounded water-worn stones. With these there was some closely pressed -material, looking like a kind of cloth made from wood fibre. Upon -reaching the depth of thirty feet, there was discovered a quantity of -charcoal and ashes. Six feet below this was a hollow space and, from -the character of the contents within, it was supposed that there must -have been a vault there, which had been surrounded and covered with -logs of wood. At the base of the mound there was a large quantity of -charcoal. - -Before the tumulus was opened, it had been conjectured that it was -raised by the Indians for the purposes of observation. It is situated -at the extreme western limit of the territories of the Mound Builders, -and at a considerable distance from any of their other earthworks. -The other great burial mound was placed in a similar manner beyond -the eastern boundary at the confluence of a small stream called the -Grave Creek with the Ohio, near Wheeling. On my way there by the -river, I passed the mouths of the Scioto and Muskinghum, and the towns -of Portsmouth and Marietta,[13] where are the remains of extensive -encampments. - -The Grave Creek Mound is similar to that at Miamisburgh, but it is, in -all its measurements, rather larger and rises to a height of seventy -feet. In the early part of the present century, some slight excavations -were made upon the slopes, and it was then ascertained that numerous -skeletons were buried there. - -In the year 1838, a more thorough system of examination was adopted. -A shaft was carried through horizontally from the surface of the -ground at the base to the centre. Then a perpendicular shaft was sunk -from the centre of the summit to the base, connecting these with the -passage already opened. At three feet from the summit there was found -a skeleton in a complete state of decay. Thirty-two feet lower down, -there was a small vault or structure of logs of wood, within which was -another skeleton also decayed. At the base there was a larger vault, -containing two skeletons which were in a sufficiently well preserved -condition to enable them, subsequently, to be exhibited. These -skeletons were found to be partly enveloped in a fibrous material, and -they were placed within a structure, formed by a number of upright logs -of wood, covered by other similar logs placed horizontally. Upon the -top of this roof there had been piled a small heap of stones. - -The excavation of the horizontal shaft, near the surface, disclosed a -very singular system of burial. - -Dr. Clemens,[14] in his account of this operation, states that at a -distance of twelve or fifteen feet were found masses of a substance -composed of charcoal and burnt bones, and also that when enlarging the -lower vault, in which were the two skeletons, ten more skeletons were -discovered, all of them in a sitting posture, but in a state so fragile -as to defy all attempts to preserve them. In this lower vault there -were six hundred and fifty beads made of shell and perforated in the -centre. In the smaller vault above, in which was the single skeleton, -there were seventeen hundred shell beads, about one hundred and fifty -small plates of mica perforated at their sides and corners, five -hundred marine shells and five copper bands or bracelets which were -placed on the bones of the arms. - -There was a tree growing upon the top of the mound which interfered -with the operations. Dr. Clemens stated that it was two-and-a-half -feet in diameter, and had three hundred growths from centre to -circumference. Some years earlier another oak which had become decayed -was cut down by the proprietor, who said that he had counted upon it -nearly five hundred annual rings. The number of rings in the trunk of -a tree, growing upon any part of the mound, gives clear evidence upon -the question of its least age, and therefore it may be assumed that the -date of the completion of the burial mound cannot be later than the -fourteenth century. It is, however, possible that there may have been -several successive growths of trees on the slopes, and in that case it -may have been raised at some earlier period. The Miamisburgh mound, at -the time when I saw it, was covered with trees, none of which appeared -to be of great age. They must have been preceded by other growths. - -The nature of the ornaments buried with the skeletons in the Grave -Creek mound, seems to prove that there must have been communications -between these Ohio races, and the tribes dwelling to the South of -the Mississippi valley,[15] for the small sea shells were considered -to be of the same kind as those seen on the beaches in Florida. The -glittering flat slabs of mica, which hung over the breast, either as -ornaments or marks of distinction, were similar to those discovered in -burial mounds in the Iroquois country, near Lake Ontario. The copper -bracelets were of rude workmanship, and were probably hammered into -their shape from lumps of native copper. Similar bracelets have been -found in some smaller burial mounds in other parts of Ohio. Those -examined by me were made in the most rough and simple manner. The -copper seems to have been beaten out into the required lengths, and -then bent over to form the bracelets. The shapes resembled the bangles -made in Hindostan and Persia. - -There are circumstances with respect to the manner of burial by the -Mound Builders which require to be noticed. It seems from the evidence -of the various excavations that have been made, that it was frequently -the custom to construct in the centre of the spot intended to be a -burial place, a vault surrounded by upright logs of wood. In this was -put the earliest burial, which was probably that of a chief. This vault -was then covered with a roof of logs, and over it was piled a heap of -stones. Other mounds were added in the course of time, and were placed -on the surface of the ground in a circle surrounding the vault. This -system of placing mounds was then continued in circles, one outside -the other, until the space or area intended to be occupied was filled -up. The later interments were probably made successively one above the -other, until the tumulus was completed. The time that would elapse -before a tribe had raised such a high mound as that at the Grave Creek, -would necessarily be very long. - -In the town of Newark, situated in a part of the country which appears -to have been much occupied by the races that built the ancient -earthworks, a very interesting collection of local antiquities had been -brought together. Amongst the various relics discovered in the mounds -were, stone axes and chisels, quantities of rude coarse pottery, many -shell beads, and some copper bracelets. - -Dr. Wilson, who was a resident in the neighbourhood, and took much -personal interest in antiquarian investigations, told me he had -observed that the larger burial places seemed to have been raised -gradually, and at intervals. He had formed the opinion that the -Indians usually traced upon the surface of the ground the outer base -of the tumulus. Within the inclosed space a number of skeletons were -then laid and covered over with layers of earth or small mounds. Over -these, after a certain time had elapsed, more skeletons were placed -and similarly covered. This system of burial was continued until the -mound was completed. There were evidences of a great burning having -taken place upon the top of every successive series of burials. The -nature of the contents of such of the smaller mounds as had been opened -varied in many respects. In some instances nothing was found except -ashes and broken pottery. In others were skeletons together with stone -pipes, chisels made of hard greenstone, flint arrow heads, bone awls -and numerous beads. There were also occasionally found a few rudely -made copper rings. In a mound which was supposed to be a child’s grave, -a necklace of beads, strung upon a kind of fibre, was placed round the -neck of the skeleton. - -There was a large cairn, above forty feet in height, placed a few -miles south of the town, which was destroyed about the middle of the -present century in order to obtain materials for constructing a portion -of the banks of a canal. When the stones were removed, fifteen small -mounds composed of earth were discovered ranged in a circle at some -distance from the centre, and near the outer part of the base. There -was also a central mound which contained a quantity of human bones. In -one of the outer mounds the explorers saw a hollow wooden trough, in -which was a skeleton and several rings made of copper. I examined some -fragments of this trough that were preserved in the Museum. The wood -was black and very hard. It was considered that the mounds beneath the -cairn contained earth that must have been brought from a distance. This -singular fact is in accordance with what has been observed in other -Indian works, and probably has a special significance. - -Judging from the character of the relics that have been discovered -in the Ohio mounds,[16] it does not appear that there is any reason -to justify the conclusion that the Mound Builders differed in -their condition of civilisation from the other Indian tribes. The -consideration of this subject has been made perplexing in consequence -of the existence of the numerous burial places of the tribes who were -settled in this region after the arrival of the Europeans. In several -mounds were found gunbarrels, silver crosses and other objects which -are undoubtedly of foreign workmanship. The crosses were usually placed -upon the breasts of the skeletons, and from this circumstance it is -probable that they belonged to Indians who had been converted by the -French missionaries. - -After I had seen the principal burial places of the Mound Builders, I -proceeded to look at the largest and most important group of that class -of earthworks, which were considered by Messrs. Squier and Davis, who -surveyed them in 1845, to have been raised for the purpose of religious -ceremonial, and who accordingly called them sacred inclosures. It has -also been conjectured that they may have been fortified camps. - -They are situated a few miles from Newark, upon a slightly elevated -plain, about forty feet above a river now called the Licking Creek. -Upon two sides of them there are smaller streams, respectively named, -South Fork and Racoon Creek: thus the camps are surrounded on three -sides by water. The site chosen by the Indians was well adapted for -the purpose of defence, when the habits or requirements of the tribes -were such as to make it desirable for them to establish their dwelling -places as near as possible to a river. The inclosures are designed -with skill, and their construction must have involved arduous and long -continued labour, which was probably executed in consequence of the -apprehension of serious danger from the attacks of enemies. Upon an -examination of their formation, it becomes evident that the men who -traced the lines of the embankments, followed clear and well-defined -rules. - -As these earthworks are, with respect to their principles of -construction, the most remarkable of their kind in North America, it -is expedient to investigate their plans with careful attention. The -inclosure, which is marked A on the annexed ground plan, consists -of a large octagonal work connected with a smaller circular work. -The octagon contains an area of about forty acres, surrounded by an -embankment whose existing average height slightly exceeds five feet. -There are eight entrances or gateways placed at equal distances from -each other. They are guarded by mounds, made sufficiently wide to -extend a little beyond the width of the openings and thus cover the -approach. These mounds are of the same height as the ramparts, and are -placed within them. They were made flat upon the top, and possibly the -platform thus made was useful for defensive operations. - -At one end of the inclosure the ramparts leave the octagon, and form -two parallel banks leading into the circle B. This approach -is nearly one hundred yards long and about fifteen yards wide. At its -termination the banks turn to the right and left, and form a circular -work containing an area of twenty acres. At the outer edge of the -circle and opposite to the entrance, is placed a large flat-topped -mound, attached to, but outside the general line of the banks. This -mound, according to my measurements, was twelve feet in perpendicular -height, and had a platform on its summit which was about one hundred -and eighty feet long by thirty feet wide. In consequence of being -several feet higher than the embankments and outside their line, it -commands the approaches to that part of the inclosure. There is no -exterior or interior ditch to either of these works. - -[Illustration: _Plan of Indian Inclosures and Parallel Embankments near - Newark, Ohio_] - -From the central, or eastern opening of the octagon a long low line -of parallel embankments connect it with another group of earthworks -which, in the plan, is marked C. The inclosure has been, in -many parts, destroyed or levelled, but it is possible to trace its -original form. It appears to have been an exact square, containing -an area of twenty acres. This square is connected with the circular -work D by parallel banks in the same manner as the octagon -is joined to the circle B, but they are of greater length -and magnitude. At the entrance, where the banks diverge outwards and -begin to form the curve of the circle, they rise to a height exceeding -fifteen feet. - -The appearance of these great avenues of approach, and the inclosing -banks, covered with forest trees, is very impressive, and it can be -well understood why it has been thought probable that the circular -work was raised for the purpose of performing religious or sacrificial -ceremonies. With respect to that opinion it should be observed that, in -this particular instance, the theory that the lofty banks were intended -as a fortification is to some extent doubtful, because it happens that -the ditch is placed within the ramparts. This method of defence is -unquestionably opposed to all the rules of European fortification. -Possibly in the systems of Indian warfare where stockades were -generally used, and sometimes placed on the sides of sloping banks, an -inner ditch may have been considered more capable of defence than one -placed externally. - -The inclosure, like that at B, is in the shape of a circle. -It contains an area of about twenty-six acres. The ramparts have an -average height of nearly twelve feet, and the depth of the ditch is -over nine feet. At that part of the work which is near the entrance, -the dimensions are, however, of still greater importance, and the -perpendicular height measured from the bottom of the ditch exceeds -twenty-eight feet. The length of the inner slope may be estimated as -being about forty-two feet. In the centre of the inclosure, there is a -low heap of earth and stones which, in consequence of its shape, has -received the name of the eagle mound. It is not improbable that this -was the spot where, after the Indians returned from their wars, their -prisoners were tied to a stake, then tortured, and burnt in accordance -with the usual customs, and war dances with other savage ceremonies, -were performed in the presence of the women and children assembled -around. - -When taking into consideration the various circumstances which are -apparent in the[17]Newark inclosures, particular attention should be -given to the fact that their ground plans are geometrical figures. -Thus the circle B is accurately traced. D has some small difference -in the lengths of its diameters, but is very nearly a true circle. -The square has its four sides equal, and all its angles are right -angles. The octagon is carefully laid down, and its angles are almost -mathematically correct. - -The plans and measurements are evidences of the existence of mental -capacities which were far in advance of those of the present Indian -races, who are remarkable for their extreme indifference to all ideas -of regularity of form, and who have not, and never could have had, the -slightest acquaintance with the rules of geometry. - -The Licking river, after passing these inclosures, finally enters the -Muskinghum, and the Muskinghum falls into the Ohio. The confluence -takes place near the town of Marietta, where there are groups of -earthworks which, in many respects, resemble those at Newark, and -some of the areas were equal. The positions for the inclosures -were evidently chosen upon similar principles. They were upon a -comparatively elevated plateau, and had direct communication with the -river. - -In the early part of the present century some discoveries were made, -which were considered to be of the utmost importance. It was thought -that they had a direct bearing upon the question of the civilisation -and antiquity of the Mound Builders, and a letter, written by Dr. -Hildreth, has been acknowledged to be a very important contribution to -the evidence upon these subjects.[18] - -The letter ran as follows:- - - “Marietta, July 19th, 1819. - - “In removing the earth which composed an ancient mound in one - of the streets of Marietta, on the margin of the plain, near - the fortifications, several curious articles were discovered - the latter part of June last. They appear to have been buried - with the body of the person to whose memory this mound was - erected. - -[Illustration: INCLOSURES AT MARIETTA. 1837.] - - “Lying immediately over, or on the forehead of the body, were - found three large circular bosses, or ornaments for a sword - belt, or a buckler; they are composed of copper, overlaid - with a thick plate of silver. The fronts of them are slightly - convex, with a depression, like a cup, in the centre, and - measure two inches and a quarter across the face of each. On - the back side, opposite the depressed portion, is a copper - rivet or nail, around which are two separate plates, by which - they were fastened to the leather. Two small pieces of the - leather were found lying between the plates of one of the - bosses; they resemble the skin of an old mummy, and seem to - have been preserved by the salts of the copper. The plates of - copper are nearly reduced to an oxyde, or rust. The silver - looks quite black, but is not much corroded, and on rubbing, - it becomes quite brilliant. Two of these are yet entire; the - third one is so much wasted, that it dropped in pieces on - removing it from the earth. Around the rivet of one of them - is a small quantity of flax or hemp, in a tolerable state of - preservation. Near the side of the body was found a plate of - silver which appears to have been the upper part of a sword - scabbard; it is six inches in length and two inches in breadth, - and weighs one ounce; it has no ornaments or figures, but has - three longitudinal ridges, which probably corresponded with - edges, or ridges of the sword; it seems to have been fastened - to the scabbard by three or four rivets, the holes of which - yet remain in the silver. - - “Two or three broken pieces of a copper tube, were also found, - filled with iron rust. These pieces, from their appearance, - composed the lower end of the scabbard, near the point of the - sword. No sign of the sword itself was discovered, except the - appearance of rust above mentioned. - - “Near the feet, was found a piece of copper, weighing three - ounces. From its shape it appears to have been used as a plumb, - or for an ornament, as near one of the ends is a circular - crease, or groove, for tying a thread; it is round, two inches - and a half in length, one inch in diameter at the centre, and - half-an-inch at each end. It is composed of small pieces of - native copper, pounded together; and in the cracks between the - pieces, are stuck several pieces of silver; one nearly the size - of a four-penny piece, or half a dime. This copper ornament - was covered with a coat of green rust, and is considerably - corroded. A piece of red ochre, or paint, and a piece of - iron ore, which has the appearance of having been partially - vitrified, or melted, were also found. The ore is about the - specific gravity of pure iron. - - “The body of the person here buried, was laid on the surface of - the earth, with his face upwards, and his feet pointing to the - north-east, and head to the south-west. From the appearance of - several pieces of charcoal, and bits of partially burnt fossil - coal, and the black colour of the earth, it would appear that - the funeral obsequies had been celebrated by fire; and while - the ashes were yet hot and smoking, a circle of flat stones - had been laid around and over the body. The circular covering - is about eight feet in diameter, and the stones yet look - black, as if stained by fire and smoke. This circle of stones - seems to have been the nucleus on which the mound was formed, - as immediately over them is heaped the common earth of the - adjacent plain, composed of a clayey sand and coarse gravel. - This mound must originally have been about ten feet high, and - thirty feet in diameter at its base. At the time of opening - it, the height was six feet, and diameter between thirty and - forty. It has every appearance of being as old as any in the - neighbourhood, and was, at the first settlement of Marietta, - covered with large trees, the remains of whose roots were yet - apparent in digging away the earth. It also seems to have been - made for this single personage, as the remains of one skeleton - only were discovered. The bones were much decayed, and many of - them crumbled to dust on exposure to the air. From the length - of some of them, it is supposed the person was about six feet - in height. - - “Nothing unusual was discovered in their form, except that - those of the skull were uncommonly thick. The situation of - the mound on high ground, near the margin of the plain, and - the porous quality of the earth, are admirably calculated - to preserve any perishable substance from the certain - decay which would attend it in many other situations. To - these circumstances, is attributed the tolerable state of - preservation in which several of the articles above described - were found, after lying in the earth for several centuries. We - say _centuries_, from the fact that trees were found growing - on those ancient works, whose ages were ascertained to amount - to between four and five hundred years each, by counting the - concentric circles in the stumps after the trees were cut down; - and on the ground, besides them, were other trees in a state of - decay, that appeared to have fallen from old age.” - -It should be observed with reference to the statements made in the -above letter, that the age of the trees, said to have been estimated by -the early settlers at Marietta, has generally been accepted as being -correct, and based upon direct and accurate evidence. Consequently it -would be necessary to admit that the earthworks were raised at some -period before the fifteenth century. - -Passing from the question of this date, as calculated by the annular -rings counted upon the trees, to the subject of the contents of the -burial mound which was excavated in the presence of Dr. Hildreth; the -problem that has chiefly to be solved is the age of the silver-plated -ornaments. It is difficult to fix the time when these were made, but -judging from the sketches of them, as published in the account of these -discoveries, the ornaments appear to have been such as would have been -placed upon the sword belt and scabbard of a European officer of rank. - -When the inclosures and their ramparts were for the first time surveyed -and described in the year 1805, it was observed that there were -parallel passages or protected ways leading from the larger of the -forts down to the river. These appear to correspond with the parallels -that can still be traced at Newark, and which also lead to the river. -Those at Marietta were however more remarkable, because, in order to -obtain the gradual approach which was required, it was necessary, -apparently, to excavate the river bank in such a manner as to make a -sunken road. A conveniently sloped communication with the water was -thus constructed. It is probable that at the river side where the -protecting embankments terminated, a fleet of canoes was kept ready for -use or escape. - -The next confluence of rivers below Marietta, occurs at the point -where the Scioto falls into the Ohio. Near the spot where the town of -Portsmouth is now situated, are traces of an extensive series of low -embankments which seem to have been made for temporary entrenchments. -On the opposite or south bank of the river, there was an inclosure -constructed in the shape of a square, each of the sides being eight -hundred feet long; the area inclosed was nearly fifteen acres. The -embankments were over twelve feet high: and there was no ditch. - -This fort was brought into especial notice in consequence of a strange -discovery. A large number of iron pickaxes, shovels and gunbarrels were -found buried in the ramparts. It has been conjectured that they were -hidden there by the French soldiers when they retreated down the Ohio -after the capture of Fort Du Quesne[19] by the British forces in the -year 1758. The Indian fortifications on the banks of that river were -placed upon the direct line of the communication with the other French -forts in the valley of the Mississippi and Louisiana. In the ordinary -course of events they would probably have been used by the French and -their Indian allies, when they happened to be in their neighbourhood. - -The valley of the river Scioto above Portsmouth, towards Chillicothe, -was evidently much frequented by the Indians, who dwelt in inclosures -resembling in their formation the square and circular works at -Newark, although the embankments were of smaller dimensions. A brief -description of one of them as it existed when first surveyed, is -sufficient to give a knowledge of the usual plans of these encampments. -It was situated on the left bank of a tributary of the Scioto, called -Paint Creek. - -There was a square inclosure, each of whose sides was one thousand and -eighty feet in length. Attached to this square, which contained an area -of twenty-seven acres, was a large circular inclosure having a diameter -of about seventeen hundred feet. This circle had another smaller work -connected with it which was also circular, and had a diameter of eight -hundred feet. The embankments of all these inclosures were low, and did -not anywhere exceed five feet in height. The position of the gateways -and the mounds protecting them was the same as in the octagonal work -at Newark. The large circle had an opening into it leading out of the -square, and the small circle had also one opening which connected it -with the other. - -This part of Ohio was, in the eighteenth century, occupied by -settlements of the Shawnee tribes. In several of the burial mounds, -which are supposed to have belonged to them, there have been found -copper kettles, silver crosses and iron gunbarrels—all of which must -have been unquestionably made by workmen of European descent. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - - MOUNDS AND EARTHWORKS IN OHIO. - - Ancient Fortified Inclosures at Circleville. — Discoveries in - a Burial Mound. — Alligator Totem near Newark. — Fort Ancient. — - Age of Trees growing upon the Ramparts at Fort Hill. — - Traditions. — Geometrical Ground Plans of Indian Inclosures. — - Conclusions. - - -Before quitting the subject of those ancient earthworks, which were -planned upon geometrical figures, it is necessary to take into -consideration certain inclosures that were situated in the higher parts -of the Scioto Valley, in a position which is at the present time, -occupied by the town of Circleville. - -The embankments or ramparts have been razed to the ground, and no -traces remain of what appears to have been one of the most perfect -examples of the mathematical accuracy of that type of construction. It -is fortunate that during the demolition of the works, there happened -to be present an antiquarian of such an acknowledged reputation as -Mr. Atwater, for he has written a full account of their form and -dimensions,[20] together with a report upon the strange discoveries -made when excavating a burial mound, inside the circular inclosure near -its centre. Mr. Atwater, who evidently took careful measurements,[21] -wrote a statement which includes the following extracts:- - - “There are two forts, one being an exact circle, the other an - exact square. The former is surrounded by two walls, with a - deep ditch between them. The latter is encompassed by one wall, - without any ditch. The former was sixty-nine rods in diameter, - measuring from outside to outside of the circular outer wall; - the latter is exactly fifty-five rods square measuring the - same way. The walls of the circular fort were at least twenty - feet in height, measuring from the bottom of the ditch, before - the town of Circleville was built. The inner wall was of clay, - taken up probably in the northern part of the fort, where was a - low place, and is still considerably lower than any other part - of the work. The outside wall was taken from the ditch which - is between these walls, and is alluvial, consisting of pebbles - worn smooth in water, and sand, to a very considerable depth, - more than fifty feet at least. The outside of the walls is - about five or six feet in height now; on the inside, the ditch - is, at present, generally not more than fifteen feet. They are - disappearing before us daily, and will soon be gone. The walls - of the square fort are at this time, where left standing, about - ten feet in height. There were eight gateways or openings - leading into the square fort, and only one into the circular - fort. Before each of these openings was a mound of earth, - perhaps four feet high, forty feet perhaps in diameter at the - base, and twenty or upwards at the summit. These mounds, for - two rods or more, are exactly in front of the gateways, and - were intended for the defence of these openings.” ... - -[Illustration: INCLOSURES AT CIRCLEVILLE. - - Reduced from the survey of Mr. Atwater.] - - “The extreme care of the authors of these works to protect and - defend every part of the circle, is nowhere visible about this - square fort. The former is defended by two high walls, the - latter by one. The former has a deep ditch encircling it, this - has none. The former could be entered at one place only; this - at eight, and those about twenty feet broad.” ... “The round - fort was picketed in, if we are to judge from the appearance of - the ground on and about the walls. Half-way up the outside of - the inner wall, is a place distinctly to be seen, where a row - of _pickets_ once stood, and where it was placed when this work - of defence was originally erected.” ... - - “What surprised me on measuring these forts, was the exact - manner in which they had laid down their circle and square; - so that after every effort, by the most careful survey, to - detect some error in their measurement, we found that it was - impossible, and that the measurement was much more correct - than it would have been, in all probability, had the present - inhabitants undertaken to construct such a work.” - -The mound that had been raised within the circle was ten feet high. -Its summit had been levelled in order to obtain a platform which had a -diameter of nearly thirty feet, and had probably been used as a site -for the dwelling of the chief of the tribe. Mr. Atwater watched the -proceedings when this mound was destroyed. He states that it contained:— - - (1).—“Two human skeletons lying on what had been the original - surface of the earth. - - (2).—“A great quantity of arrow heads, some of which were so - large as to induce a belief that they were used for spear heads. - - (3).—“The handle either of a small sword or a large knife, - made of an elk’s horn; around the end where the blade had been - inserted, was a ferule of silver which, though black, was not - much injured by time. Though the handle showed the hole where - the blade had been inserted, yet no iron was found, but an - oxyde remained of similar shape and size. - - (4).—“Charcoal and wood ashes on which these articles lay, - which were surrounded by several bricks very well burnt. The - skeleton appeared to have been burned in a large and very hot - fire, which had almost consumed the bones of the deceased. - This skeleton was deposited a little to the south of the - centre of the tumulus, and, about twenty feet to the north of - it was another, with which were— - - (5).—“A large mirror, about three feet in length, and one foot - and a half in breadth, and one inch and a half in thickness. - This mirror was of isinglass (mica membranacea) and on it— - - (6).—“A plate of iron which had become an oxyde; but before it - was disturbed by the spade, resembled a plate of cast iron. - The mirror answered the purpose very well for which it was - intended. This skeleton had also been burned like the former, - and lay on charcoal and a considerable quantity of wood ashes. - A part of the mirror is in my possession as well as a piece of - brick, taken from the spot at the time.” - -About two hundred yards from this tumulus, and outside the circular -inclosure was a large mound, supposed to have been the common Indian -cemetery. It contained an immense number of human skeletons of all -sizes and ages. The skeletons are laid horizontally, with their heads -generally towards the centre, and the feet towards the outside of the -tumulus. A considerable part of this work still stands uninjured, -except by time. In it have been found, besides these skeletons, stone -axes and knives, and several ornaments with holes through them, by -means of which, with a cord passing through these perforations, they -could be worn by their owners. - -The vestiges of occupation that have been left by those ancient tribes -who raised the earthworks in this region are not of a character that -render it possible to form any absolute conclusions about them. - -There are, however, in Ohio two large and important mounds built in the -shape of animals which may, possibly, have been made for the purpose -of indicating the emblems which were adopted by the Indians as their -totems. One of these is placed on the summit of a hill overlooking the -valley of one of the tributaries of the Licking river, and about three -miles from the octagonal inclosure near Newark. - -In consequence of its shape, it is called the Alligator. There have -been various theories with regard to this strange earthwork, and it has -been supposed that sacrificial ceremonies were performed there. I had -expected to find this figure to a certain extent excavated upon the -surface of the earth, but I observed, upon examining it, that it was a -regularly built up mound of considerable size. - -The other large totem, which represents a huge serpent, is upon the -brow of a hill about one hundred miles to the South-west of the -Alligator, above a small river called the Brush Creek. According to the -measurements of the earliest surveyors, its length, if extended, is -about one thousand feet. It was five feet high in the centre, and had, -at that part, a base of thirty feet, which diminished towards the head -and tail.[22] - -Upon the slopes of the hills near the Alligator, there are numerous -remains of ancient earthworks. One of the most extensive of them was in -every respect different from those at Newark, and other geometrically -designed works, and seems to have been raised for other purposes, or -possibly by a different tribe. Its embankments, which are irregular in -their form, are in no part higher than six feet, and are thrown up in -such a manner as to inclose the top of a small hill, which is situated -a short distance from the Alligator. The area contained within them is -about eighteen acres. In the centre there is a small circular earthwork -nearly one hundred yards in circumference, and in another part of the -inclosure there are two mounds which have been opened. They contained -large quantities of ashes and some broken pottery. - -There are also other camping grounds near the river. The largest of -them inclosed a space exceeding twenty acres, and was surrounded -by a low bank evidently thrown up for the purposes of inclosing a -temporary encampment. Near the Alligator totem I noticed a singular -earthwork made in the shape of a half-moon. The farmers living in the -neighbourhood told me that they had opened and destroyed many of the -small mounds that had been upon their lands. In all cases they had -contained nothing but fragments of rough pottery, together with small -heaps of ashes.[23] - -Finally, there remains to be taken into consideration those great -earthworks on the hills which have been specially classified as having -been undoubtedly raised for the purposes of defence, and which -entirely differ from such works as those that were placed upon the -plains. The largest of these camps has been called Fort Ancient, and -it must be acknowledged to be one of the most important fortified -entrenchments that has ever been constructed in any part of the world. - -It is placed upon the summit of a hill overlooking the Little Miami -river about thirty miles above its junction with the Ohio. The site -that was chosen by the Indians is remarkable for its natural strength -and is, upon three sides of it, almost impregnable. The hill which is -about two hundred and thirty feet above the valley, is in the form of -a narrow promontory having almost precipitous sides except where it is -joined to the plateau. The Little Miami winds round one part of the -base, and some small tributary streams join it from the other side. - -The shape and length of the embankments are shown in the accompanying -plan, which is a reduction that I have drawn from one that was made -in 1843 by Professor Locke of Cincinnati.[24] It will be observed -that the ramparts follow closely the curves of the ridge of the hill -and that the camp is practically divided into two parts, the outer -division being near the plain, and the inner one being at the head of -the promontory, where the sides of the hill are the most steep and -inaccessible. The latter was probably intended as a final stronghold in -the event of the outer work being captured. - -The magnitude of the inclosing embankments of the outer camp is -astonishing. It is here that the position is most open to direct -attack, and no efforts or labour have been spared in carrying out -what was thought necessary to prevent capture. No Roman or British -encampment that I have seen surpasses this great Indian work. I walked -round the entire circuit of the ramparts. They are not less than four -miles in length. They follow every curve of the hill and the heads of -all the numerous ravines. - -[Illustration: _Fort Ancient_] - -The ground of the inclosure is level. At the time of my visit it was -covered with forest trees, amongst which were many poplars. Upon the -slopes of the embankments there was a luxuriant growth of large beeches -and oaks. The quantity of earth that must have been conveyed and thrown -up when forming these banks must have been enormous. The ramparts -vary in height between ten and twenty feet according to the character -of the natural defence afforded by the slopes of the hill. At the -approach from the plain they are fifteen feet high and have a base of -sixty-three feet. The platform at the top averages five feet wide. - -There is no ditch. Nothing could more clearly mark the difference -between this fortification and one that would have been made by a white -race. An outer ditch is usually considered as not only of essential -importance in works of defence, but its excavation supplies the earth -required for the ramparts. It seems evident that either these Indians -in their method of defensive warfare did not always consider a ditch to -be useful, or it is possible that, in consequence of not having shovels -or pickaxes, they preferred obtaining earth in some other manner which -they found more convenient. - -Upon inquiring among the farmers who were occupying the adjacent land, -I found that there was a prevalent opinion amongst them that the earth -composing these embankments had been brought from a distance and that -it had been carried by hand. It was also believed by them that the fort -could not have been made by Indians and that it was built at a very -remote period by some other race. - -When walking upon the top of the broad ramparts I observed that there -were no evidences of the excavations that supplied the earth for the -formation of the enormous banks. In some parts of the interior there -were some shallow depressions, and also several holes which had been -made for some unknown purpose, but they could not have provided the -quantities required. It is possible, and, I think probable, that the -earth was taken from the surface of the land within the inclosure. A -shallow excavation made to a depth not exceeding six inches over the -whole area of one hundred and forty acres would have given a sufficient -supply. The methods of digging the ground, and of conveying the earth -must necessarily have been very primitive, and it is surprising that, -with all the difficulties that had to be overcome, works of such -magnitude should have been raised. - -At a gap in an angle over-looking the river the remains of a road, -which led down to the water, can still be traced. At the part where -this road entered the fort it is evident that it had been paved -with flat water-worn stones. The ramparts here reach their greatest -dimensions, being fully twenty feet high. The appearance of Fort -Ancient from this position was very remarkable, and the effect was -heightened by the beautiful foliage of the forest trees that crowned -the summits of these lofty earthworks. - -The inner part of the camp was strongly fortified. High banks were -raised across the narrow part of the enclosure at the centre, and -two mounds guarded the approach. The road to the outer camp from the -plain was also protected by two mounds, and from these there ran low -parallels for a distance of nearly fourteen hundred yards. They then -terminated by closing round another mound which was probably used for -the purpose of a look-out. Some labourers at a farm near this position -told me that there once existed other parallel banks connected with the -fort, which could be traced for several miles, but that these had been -destroyed. - -There are certain features in the construction of this fortification -which have attracted attention, but their purpose has not been, and -probably cannot be, explained. There are not less than seventy gaps -or openings leading out of the embankments. It has been supposed that -these were intended to allow the escape of water from the interior. -There is another theory which has been suggested, according to which -it is thought possible that they were openings made with the object -of enabling the Indians to rush out at several points to repel their -enemies, and that they were fenced by stockades. - -It, however, happens that these gaps are sometimes in positions where -the slopes of the hill are so steep as to be practically inaccessible, -and at other places they are on the level ground from which no surplus -waters could drain away. They seem to have formed part of the system -of fortification, for they occur in the same inexplicable manner at -another hill work of defence, built under similar conditions, on the -summit of a promontory with precipitous slopes, about forty miles to -the south-east of this position, which was evidently built by the same -race. - -This large earthwork is called Fort Hill, and it is singular in the -respect of having afforded to its surveyor the means of forming a -judgment upon the question of its antiquity. Consequently it has become -possible to establish well-founded conclusions with respect to the -dates of the construction of earthworks of a similar character. - -Professor Locke, in his report on the geology of that part of Ohio, -stated that on the top of the wall of Fort Hill stood a chestnut tree -six feet in diameter. “Counting and measuring,” he observes, “the -annual layers of wood where an axeman had cut into the trunk, I found -them at nearly 200 to the foot, which would give to this tree the age -of 600 years. A poplar tree, seven feet in diameter, standing in the -ditch, allowing the thickness to the layers which I have found in -like poplars, 170 to the foot, would give nearly the same result, 607 -years.”[25] - -Accepting the deductions of Professor Locke as being correct, it -follows that the period when this hill fort was constructed was not -later than the thirteenth century. Admitting that the thirteenth -century, is therefore the latest age that can be ascribed to works -of this type, they may be much older, for the forest trees within the -inclosures may have succeeded earlier growths. - -It is not possible to form an estimate of the age of earthworks from -their appearance,[26] and it is only by counting the annual rings -of trees that happen to have been growing upon them, that any safe -theories respecting their antiquity can be adopted. - -Looking at the geographical position of Fort Ancient, with reference -to the other hill works of defence that are supposed to have been -made by the Mound Builders, there are good reasons for assuming that -this was their last stronghold, built with the intention of creating -a permanent barrier against the attacks of their enemies. In time -of war it was a secure encampment, large enough to contain the men, -women and children of a numerous tribe. In time of peace it was well -situated for the usual requirements of Indians. It was in the midst -of a country abounding with game, and was immediately connected with -a good navigable river which enabled their canoes to maintain direct -communications with the Ohio and Mississippi. - -Although, as far as I was able to judge, there was nothing in the -principles of construction of the hill defensive works which appeared -to be beyond the capacities of a purely Indian race, I invariably -found that the men who were settled as farmers near the principal -entrenchments held the opinion that they must have been raised by a -people possessing a superior condition of civilisation to the tribes -who occupied the land at the close of the eighteenth century, and who -were personally known by many of the early settlers. - -It is, perhaps, desirable that these local opinions should not be -altogether disregarded, especially when it is remembered that they are -supported to some extent by Indian traditions and by the fact that no -embankments of a similar formation exist in any other part of North -America. It is therefore necessary that the statements of the Indians, -respecting the previous occupation of parts of Ohio and Kentucky by men -of a white race, should be given a passing consideration. - -The Shawnees, who were found to be in possession of this region, -informed the European colonists that the ancient forts had been made -by white people, who after long wars against the Indians had been -exterminated. Their traditions upon this subject were said to have been -clear and decided. - -On the other hand the statements of the Delawares, who were settled in -the Northern parts of the State point to other conclusions. They said -that the men who had raised the forts and entrenchments were called -the Tallegewi, and that great wars took place between them and the -Iroquois. After many years the Tallegewi were defeated and left the -country. The Delawares made no allusion with respect to any differences -of race or colour between the Tallegewi and the other Indian tribes. - -It is much to be regretted that the evidence upon this interesting -subject is so vague and obscure. If men of foreign origin had been -settled in Ohio before the fourteenth century it would be reasonable -to expect that traces of them would have been left there or some -remaining indications of their religion. In the reports and letters of -the French missionaries, many of whom spoke and understood the language -of the tribes amongst whom they lived, there is no mention made of any -rumours or traditions of white people having dwelt in this part of -America. There were however at a later period, about the middle of the -eighteenth century, certain statements made by officers and men who had -been made prisoners by the Indians, which, at that time, received much -attention. A cavalry officer, named Stuart, said that in the country -west of Mississippi he had seen a tribe of Indians who were remarkably -white in colour and had reddish hair. He was informed by them that -their forefathers came from a foreign land and had settled in Florida, -but that when the Spaniards invaded that country they moved to their -present dwelling places. A fellow-captive, who was a Welshman, declared -that he understood the language of the tribe, as it differed very -little from what was spoken in Wales. - -Other reports of a similar character were made by men who had lived -with tribes occupying lands near the southern parts of the Mississippi -valley. It has also been noticed that Indians having fair hair and -blue eyes, were living with the Mandans in their settlements near the -Missouri. With respect to the statements about Welsh speaking Indians, -it is possible that the captives may have been influenced by the -belief in the truth of the tradition that ships, under the direction -of Prince Madoc, left the Welsh coasts in the twelfth century and -landed their crews and emigrants on the eastern shores of the Florida -peninsula.[27] - -It is not, however, necessary to account for the existence of large -but irregular embankments, such as those at Fort Ancient, by the -supposition that the actions of a numerous tribe of Indians were under -the influence or direction of men belonging to another race. But it is -otherwise with reference to the geometrical inclosures on the plains, -for these must have been unquestionally planned by men who possessed a -competent knowledge of the methods of tracing mathematical designs. - -Take for example the plans of the works at Newark and Circleville. -It may be thought that simple figures, such as the squares, would be -within the comprehension of uneducated Indians. It would nevertheless -be found difficult to lay down upon open fields a square, with all the -sides equal and its angles true right angles, containing so large an -area as twenty acres.[28] - -[Illustration: OCTAGONAL AND CIRCULAR INCLOSURES NEAR NEWARK.] - -The execution of the outlines of correct circles inclosing spaces of -nearly thirty acres, presents still greater difficulties. It would -have required a specially trained mind to form the conception of a -circumference having an imaginary point within, from which all lines -drawn to it would be equal. - -But the figure which would have been absolutely impracticable to -construct without proper surveying appliances for making accurate -measurements, and fixing the true angles, is that of the octagon. Even -under the most favourable circumstances, with the help of suitable -instruments, it would have required much skill and calculation to -trace a true octagon whose embankments contained within them an area -exceeding forty acres. It is difficult to suppose that an accurately -designed work of this shape and magnitude could have been planned by -Indians, or that the construction of a figure so essentially scientific -and unusual, could have been originated by them. It is therefore -possible to conclude, that, the geometrical earthworks in Ohio may have -been raised by native tribes, acting under the direction of European -surveyors, or of men who had received a mathematical education. - -Considerations upon the subject of the race and capacity of the -builders, have been to some extent complicated by the reports that were -made concerning the ages of the trees that grew upon and within the -ancient ramparts at Marietta. In the letter of Dr. Hildreth, quoted -in the previous chapter, it is clearly stated that trees were growing -there which were from four to five hundred years old. - -As this evidence is very important it is desirable to examine it with -attention. This statement was made when he was attempting to fix an -approximate date for the age of a burial mound which was placed near -the fortifications. It was at the bottom of this mound that were -discovered the ornaments of a sword belt and scabbard. These ornaments -were made of copper and plated with silver, and must therefore have -been of European manufacture. - -The calculation of the age of the trees is probably based upon the -results of an examination that took place shortly after the settlement -of Marietta during the latter part of the eighteenth century. It was -at that time decided by several of the inhabitants to fell some of -the largest and oldest trees then growing within the earthworks, and -ascertain their ages by counting the number of annual rings contained -in them. The operations were executed in the presence of Governor St. -Clair and the Rev. Dr. Cutler. Several of the trees were found to have -between three hundred and four hundred circles. One tree was carefully -examined and Dr. Cutler stated that it contained at least four hundred -and sixty-three circles.[29] - -As nothing can be more conclusive as a proof of age than the number -of rings found in any tree growing beyond the tropics, this evidence -establishes an antiquity for these embankments earlier than the middle -of the fourteenth century. - -The ages of the trees growing upon the Marietta inclosures do not -however enable a date to be estimated for the construction of such -works as those at Newark, for the shapes at Marietta are irregular -and, according to the survey, do not appear to have been laid down -with geometrical accuracy. It is therefore probable that the Newark -inclosures were made at some later period. - -The fact of a ferule of silver and a plate of iron having been placed -with the skeletons in the burial mound at Circleville leads to the -conclusion that the tumulus like the one at Marietta was raised since -the time of the arrival of the Europeans. On account of its having been -placed within the inclosure it was originally conjectured that it -belonged to the same people that formed the surrounding embankment, but -the evidence is not sufficient to establish the correctness of a theory -of such importance. - -It is difficult to understand what could have been the object of the -Indians in constructing large earthworks in the shapes of squares and -circles. Various theories have been advanced upon the subject, but -nothing that can be considered satisfactory has yet been ascertained. -Upon an examination of the plans it naturally occurs to the mind -to endeavour to form an opinion as to the reasons which led to the -adoption of these particular forms. - -It is probable that these types of inclosures would be convenient for -the habits and purposes of an Indian tribe during peace, and that -they afforded protection in war. The square inclosures may have been -intended to contain the village, the dwellings of the chiefs, and the -council house. The circles, with their single opening for approach, -which could be strongly guarded, would in that case be the strongholds -in which, during hostilities, would be placed the women and children. -A circular fort, such as that at Newark, would, under the usual -conditions of Indian warfare, be practically impregnable. In the event -of the outer square being captured it would have a sufficient area to -give the space that would be wanted for the defending tribe. - -The antiquity of these works is a problem that does not possess all -the elements that are required for its solution. But in consequence -of the exceptional system of construction certain inferences can be -determined. It may be assumed that the geometrically shaped inclosures -could not have been planned by Indians, and that therefore the -square, circular and octagonal works, were constructed at some period -subsequent to the landing of the Spaniards in Florida, in the beginning -of the sixteenth century.[30] - -If these embankments were raised before that period, it would be -almost necessary to admit, that white men possessing a knowledge of -mathematics were living amongst the Indians before the discovery of -America by Columbus in 1492. - -The difficult and interesting questions relating to the origin, -civilisation and fate of the Mound Builders, have been the subjects of -frequent investigations and of numerous theories. They appear to have -inhabited Ohio for many centuries. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - - The burning of the Steamer Stonewall. — Indian Mounds and - Earthworks at Cahokia. — Confluence of the Mississippi and - Missouri. — Sacs and Foxes. — Education of Indians. — Nauvoo. — - Winona. — Sioux Encampment. — Ancient Mounds near St. Paul’s. — - The Sioux War in Minnesota. — Note upon the Ogallalas. - - -Upon the conclusion of a navigation of the waters of the Ohio, which -had extended over a distance exceeding nine hundred miles, we arrived -at the mouth of that river, and proceeded on our course up the -Mississippi. Evening was approaching when we saw a large steamer called -the Stonewall, passing us on her way to New Orleans, crowded with -passengers happily unaware of the terrible nature of their impending -fate, and of the event about to happen before nightfall. - -At sunset, all those who were on board of our vessel, were assembled -upon the upper deck, watching the unusual brilliancy of the reflections -upon the water, and the vivid colouring of the clouds gathering round -the setting sun. We then supposed these effects to be caused by the -haze sometimes observed in the atmosphere during that beautiful season -towards the close of the year, which has been given the name of the -Indian summer. We were ignorant of the conflagration that was taking -place lower down the river, or we might have surmised that the glowing -tints were possibly caused by the smoke and flames rising from the -burning of the steamer we had seen earlier in the afternoon. - -We were afterwards informed that news had been received, that a -disastrous fire had occurred on board the Stonewall shortly after we -passed her, and the flames spread with such rapidity, that, although -she was close to the river banks, only thirty-five out of two hundred -and forty passengers were saved. The accident was caused by the -carelessness of a man, who, when lighting his pipe, accidentally set -fire to a quantity of hay that was carried between the upper decks as -cargo. It was usual to protect the hay when embarked in this manner, -by covering it with a tarpaulin, but through some inattention this -precaution had been neglected. The Stonewall was burnt to the water’s -edge. - -As we drew near to St. Louis, we passed the wide low plains upon which -is situated the great Cahokia Mound. As it was my purpose to make an -expedition to that part of Illinois before proceeding to the upper part -of the Mississippi Valley, I went there a few days after we had landed -from the steamer. - -The mound when seen from the plains, stands out from them in a manner -so isolated and prominent, that it seems at the first glance, to be -unquestionable that it must have been raised by human labour; but upon -a closer investigation there are good reasons for believing it to be -a natural formation of the land, shaped originally like a rounded -hillock, and subsequently terraced and altered in such a manner as to -make it appear to be altogether artificial. It is ninety feet high, and -the base, if the whole of the irregular and spreading area is included, -covers a space of about nine acres. The summit is level, and contains -nearly two acres. Upon this was established a substantial farmhouse, -which I found to be tenanted by a kind and hospitable family, who were -evidently in a prosperous condition, and able to cultivate their land -advantageously. - -The hillock has been given locally the name of Monks Mound, in -consequence of its having been for several years the site of a small -monastery, belonging to some of the brethren of La Trappe, who, towards -the close of the last century, emigrated to this remote spot when the -monastic orders were suppressed during the French Revolution. The -monks used the lower slopes as a garden, and there still remain the -indications of the terraced ground which was used by them for their -solitary walks. The Trappists are supposed to have left Cahokia at the -time of the restoration of the Bourbons. Probably they returned to -France when the Monastery of La Trappe was re-established, in the reign -of Louis XVIII. - -Before the mound was used as a farm there was on its summit an Indian -tumulus. The farmer taking a practical view of this burial heap, -destroyed it and spread the contents over his land. - - The accompanying sketch of the mounds was taken from the slope - of the Cahokia Mound, at a height of about forty feet above - the plain. It represents what now remains of these singular - earthworks; they must originally have been much more numerous. - -On the plain below, there exists a remarkable group of circular and -platform mounds, which, in consequence of their unusual position and -ground plan, demand careful attention. They differ from the earthworks -in Ohio, and appear to have been raised by a tribe having exceptional -customs and habits of life. The mounds are not surrounded by any -embankments, and were entirely unprotected. They were probably raised -to make high platforms for the dwellings of the chiefs. One of them was -used, at the time of my visit to Cahokia, as the site of the village -schoolhouse. - -I endeavoured to trace the plan of the ancient inclosure, which -contained a group of the greatest archæological importance, but so -many of the mounds had been levelled, that it was difficult to form -definite conclusions with regard to its shape or extent. It seems to -have been an irregular parallelogram, about fifteen hundred yards in -length, having at each end a large earthwork or mound, with a wide -and well levelled platform on the top. In the centre, there were two -conical mounds, which must have been raised in that position for some -important purpose. They were each about forty feet high, and appeared -to have been so placed as to dominate the mounds forming the sides of -the inclosure. The men farming the adjacent plains, stated that there -had been a large number of small burial mounds on their lands, most of -which had been destroyed. They had found in them quantities of bones -and skulls, but no ornaments or stone weapons. - -When ploughing the ground, they had seen below the surface, fragments -of rude pottery and many flint arrow heads. A large and highly polished -stone spear head was discovered near the settlement and given by the -finder to the young American lady who was then acting as teacher at the -school house on the mound. It was a hard kind of flinty chert, and was -a singularly fine specimen of Indian workmanship.[31] - -When I had completed the measurement of the spaces inclosed by the -mounds on the plain, I returned to the great mound in order to examine -it, and my previous conjecture that it was a natural formation remained -unchanged. It was, however, impossible to form a decided opinion -upon the subject, for it required a properly executed scientific -investigation to be made, before the problem of the construction could -be determined. If it should be proved to be artificial, its position -and shape as a high platform earthwork, would support a theory, that it -was raised by the same race that built the greater temple platform of -Cholula, in Mexico. - -After quitting the Cahokia mounds and traversing several miles of the -plains, where for centuries many generations of Indians had encamped, -I returned to St. Louis and embarked on board the Muscatine, a steamer -about to proceed to the highest part of the navigable waters of the -Mississippi. Sixteen miles above St. Louis we passed the mouth of the -Missouri, and observed how its waters, thickly charged with earth, -entirely changed the character of the river into which it flowed. Above -the confluence, the Mississippi is a clear, tranquil stream, but after -receiving the Missouri it becomes muddy, rushing, and turbulent.[32] - -[Illustration: INDIAN MOUNDS, CAHOKIA.] - -It had been my intention to have gone up the Missouri to Nebraska, and -the ancient hunting grounds of the Pawnees, but there were certain -difficulties which made that plan impracticable, so I decided to -proceed northwards, and then to cross the prairies of Minnesota, and -Iowa towards the valley of the river Platte. I was fortunate in having -as a companion on board the steamer, an American judge, who, before -being appointed to the post he then held, had been for many years -acting as Indian agent to the Sacs and Foxes, and was well acquainted -with the habits of the tribes, who were at that time dwelling upon the -territories bordering on the banks of the river. - -Judge Williams had great sympathy for the condition of the tribes with -whom he lived, and he endeavoured to ascertain if it were possible -to establish a higher state of civilisation amongst them. He thought -that the younger members of the Sacs and Foxes might be educated in -such a manner, that with due attention to the nature of the Indian -temperament, they could be made capable of taking a sensible part -in the conduct of affairs, and become fitted to fulfil the duties or -occupations of useful and peaceful citizens. The authorities with -whom he consulted, agreed with him as to the utility of the scheme -suggested. Suitable school buildings were placed upon the reservation, -and good teachers were selected. For a time the work progressed -favourably; the boys were in the first place well grounded in the -English language, and then their attention was directed to mathematics. - -After several years of study, the senior class of boys had become so -far advanced, as to be able to draw geometrical figures and understand -elementary algebra. The teachers were hopeful, and it was thought -probable, that some of the pupils might ultimately make such progress -as to enable them to be prepared for Yale University. All the zeal and -energies of the masters, were however proved to have been useless. -One morning the whole of the senior class appeared at school, dressed -and painted for war. They had thrown off their ordinary clothes, had -put on mocassins and leggings, twisted their hair in accordance with -savage customs and had stuck feathers in it. The principal asked them -what was meant by this extraordinary conduct. “We have come to say,” -they replied, “that we now leave you; we are no longer boys: we are -Indians.” They then, without saying another word, abruptly left the -school and never returned to it. - -The experiences of Judge Williams, with respect to the subject of the -higher education of those tribes of North American Indians, whose -territories were in the upper part of the valley of the Mississippi, -corresponded with what I was told by the French Missionaries placed in -charge of the Indian convents in the valley of the St. Lawrence. More -than two centuries had elapsed since the work of converting, educating -and civilising the Iroquois, Chippewa and Algonquin tribes was -undertaken. During that long time there had been no good result. The -earnest labours and devotion of their lives to these duties had been -unavailing, and the attempts to overcome the wild instincts of Indians -were thoroughly unsuccessful. The Judge was of opinion, that, with all -Indians, the desire for a free and savage life, became irrepressible -upon reaching manhood. - -On the plains near the river, there were numerous vestiges of native -encampments. At Nauvoo, I was told by a farmer that he opened a great -number of low mounds which were on his land, and had found in them -nothing but broken pottery and charcoal, but in ploughing his fields -he had discovered quantities of arrow heads, and several grooved stone -hammers.[33] Higher up the Mississippi we entered the country once -occupied by the Dakotas, who in the seventeenth century were considered -to be a most brave and powerful tribe, having superstitious customs -and tribal regulations of an unusual nature. - -One of their minor methods of warfare was noticed by the early -explorers on the prairies through which we were passing. It was the -custom with wandering bands of this race, if surprised by a larger body -of enemies and thus unable to make an open resistance, to dig wide, -shallow pits, in which they placed the women and children, and obtained -a certain amount of protection for themselves. These excavations were -scooped out with great rapidity, the men and their families using -for this purpose knives, tomahawks and wooden ladles. This method of -digging the ground, may probably have been similar to that adopted by -the Mound Builders in raising their ramparts. War pits were also made -by the Hurons when retreating from the Iroquois. When coasting the -north shore of Lake Superior, I was shown on the map the positions -where several of these places of refuge and defence had been observed. - -We saw at night upon the bluffs, the fires of Indian camps; it was -thought probable that these Indians, whose villages were situated far -towards the West, had come to this part of their ancient territory, for -the purpose of performing certain forms of worship before one of the -large detached granite boulders, situated on the plateau near to their -tents. On the following evening, as we steamed slowly through Lake -Pepin, we looked with much interest at the high steep promontory, upon -whose summit the love-distracted maiden Winona[34] sang her death song, -and then leapt from the edge of the cliff and was dashed to pieces on -the rocks below, within sight of her tribe who were assembled near -their tents on the shore. - -The Muscatine terminated her long upward voyage against the swift -stream, at the city of St. Paul’s, nineteen hundred and forty-four -miles above the mouth of the river, a few miles below the great falls -of St. Anthony, and near the confluence of the Minnesota. All this -region was at one time, the principal gathering place of the branch of -the Dakotas, called Sioux, and near at hand was the cave where their -annual council meetings took place. To this place were also brought for -burial, the bones and skulls of their dead, whose bodies had previously -been placed upon scaffolds, and exposed to the influences of the winds -and weather. - -Upon a bluff overlooking the Mississippi, there are still to be seen a -strange group of large mounds, whose purpose has not been ascertained. -The examination of them has failed to afford the slightest clue by -which any theory or conjecture can be safely established. Soon after my -arrival I went there to examine them with particular attention, for I -had observed certain peculiarities in their shape and position, which -resembled portions of the defensive hill works of the Mound Builders. -Mr. Hill, a member of the Historical Society of St. Paul’s, accompanied -me, and pointed out those mounds which had been opened, and carefully -inspected by competent observers. It has been supposed that they were -the burial places of the Sioux during long periods of time, and it was -hoped that some discoveries would be made of antiquarian importance. - -The largest of the mounds was first examined, but nothing was found -in it. There were no signs of burials near the slopes, and at the -base, contrary to expectation, there was not found any indication of a -fire having been made, and there was no charcoal. In another conical -mound, although no bones were seen, there was in the centre a hollow -space which contained several pieces of charred wood. A comparatively -low platform mound was then opened. Two skeletons were found buried -near the surface, but from their position and state of preservation, -they were considered to be late interments; nothing else was found -within. Finally a large mound, situated upon the extreme edge of the -bluff, was thoroughly excavated, and in this there was found, as in -the previously opened conical earthwork, a small hollow space in the -centre. In consequence of these negative results, it was not possible -to form any conclusions as to the object of Indians in raising these -exceptional works. I thought it not improbable that it might have been -their intention to use them, either for raised dwelling places, or for -defensive inclosures which had not been completed. - -Their position is almost impregnable; the mounds are not placed -separately but are closely joined together, so that they form a kind -of embankment. The outer slopes are so close to the edge of the cliff, -that they are practically a prolongation of the steep slopes, and thus -present a singular parallel with portions of those embankments of Fort -Ancient which overlook the valley of the Little Miami. The similarity -in the methods of placing the mounds, is made additionally obvious from -the fact, that there are numerous springs issuing from the upper parts -of the bluff, which flow down as rivulets into the river below. There -are altogether fifteen mounds on the top of the promontory; the largest -of them is about twenty feet high. - -Upon our return to St. Paul’s, we heard that a band of Sioux had -come into the neighbourhood, and were encamped amongst the woods on -the opposite side of the river. As I wished to see these Indians, I -crossed over to the settlement of Mendota, and after a walk of a few -miles, saw their tents pitched close to the borders of a small lake. I -was greeted with a loud noise of barking from their dogs, who were as -numerous outside the camp of the Sioux as they usually are around the -dwellings of the Kurds in Asia Minor. After overcoming some preliminary -hostile difficulties with these yelping curs, I received a silent and -not pressing welcome from the Indians, who were mostly squaws and -children, the men having gone away temporarily upon some expedition. - -It was getting dark, and the women were making preparations for supper. -Good fires were burning brightly in the centre of the wigwams, the -kettles were hung over them, the water was boiling, and the interiors -were cheerful scenes of enjoyment. The life within and without, was -similar to what may be seen in an English gipsy encampment in the New -Forest in Hampshire. There was something singularly attractive in the -habits of life amongst these wandering nomads, and the warmth and -comfort inside the tents, was in pleasing contrast to the cold and -wintry aspect without. This simple and natural state of existence, has -unquestionably a great charm for those whose natures are essentially -Bohemian. It is not surprising that Indian lads, accustomed to this -kind of life, should feel wearied and cramped by the trammels of -civilization. It is natural that they should long to get away from the -confinement and irksome training of school, and return to the freedom -and independence of their savage hunting and wandering instincts. - -There lived at the adjacent town of Mendota, a half-bred Indian, -of French and Sioux parentage named Faribault, with whom I became -acquainted. In his youth, he had dwelt with his mother in the -villages of the Sioux, and spoke their language. In manhood, he had -acted as an agent and trader for the tribes, and passed much of his -life in constant communication with them, and possessed an intimate -acquaintance with their superstitions and religious ceremonies. This -kind of direct personal knowledge, can only be obtained by a man whom -the Indians consider as being one of themselves, in consequence of -his having had an Indian mother belonging to their tribe. It was the -custom of the Sioux, when they encamped in this part of the country, to -meet at his house, and several of them happened to be there when I was -present. - -[Illustration: CHIPPEWA ENCAMPMENT.] - -[Illustration: SIOUX ENCAMPMENT.] - -Faribault, like all Indians, was usually very reticent, but when he -noticed that I took much interest in matters relating to the habits -of his tribe, especially such as were connected with their religious -beliefs and customs, he became frank and outspoken. He told me of his -own various strange personal experiences, and was particularly earnest -when he mentioned some of the most remarkable of the rules relating to -their fasts and sacrifices. The Indians, who were usually standing near -us listening to what he said, would occasionally, from time to time, -signify their assent to his statements by harsh grunts of approval. - -Amongst the superstitions mentioned by him, none caused more attention -than those connected with the worship of their Spirit rocks. One of -these, which has always been considered to be an important Manito, -happened to be on the plateau above Mendota, and the Indians directed -me to the spot where it was placed. I found it to be a huge granite -boulder, which had probably been deposited there by the moving waters -or icebergs, during that remote period when they were travelling -southwards from the sub-arctic latitudes. As it had no geological -relation whatever with the sandstone ground upon which it rested, the -Sioux might have conjectured, that it had been dropped from the clouds. -To ignorant savages, unversed in the mysteries and conclusions of -scientific geology, no other explanation could have been satisfactory. -It lies upon a level space of land, upon the top of a bluff, commanding -magnificent views over the valleys of the Mississippi and Minnesota. -The confluence of these great rivers can be seen, and the steep -water-worn cliffs below the falls of St. Anthony. - -Whilst standing upon the promontory, and looking at this wide prospect, -I was joined by a priest, who had been fulfilling his duties at a -neighbouring settlement. We remained near the Spirit rock,[35] looking -at the solitary mass of granite, glittering in the sunshine, and -thought that it was not surprising that the Indians believed this -strange rock to be the manifestation of a great unknown power, and -should have invested with supernatural attributes what must have seemed -to them to be marvellous. - -The boulder is polygonal in form, and stands about seven feet high -above the ground. In the other dimensions, it averages a thickness from -nine to twelve feet. It is composed chiefly of grey granite, and its -weight must exceed seventy tons. Faribault said that, when he was a -young man, wandering bands of Sioux occasionally came to this Spirit -rock and encamped near it. They usually stopped about a week, but -sometimes during a whole moon. It was their custom during this period -to continually offer sacrifices, dance round the stone, and paint it -with various colours, red, blue or white. Finally, before taking down -their tents, they covered it with their best furs or skins, and left -them there as propitiatory offerings. - -[Illustration: SPIRIT ROCK. - - CONFLUENCE OF THE MISSISSIPPI AND MINNESOTA.] - -The falls of the Mississippi were also worshipped by the Indians, -through whose territories that great river flowed in its upper course, -and the manner in which adoration was made to the Power, which was -manifested in the movements of these cataracts, is well described -by Captain Carver, who visited them with one of the chiefs of the -Winnebagoes in 1767. The chief in the first place, addressed a brief -invocation to the Manito, and then he made his offerings. In this -instance he gave everything he possessed, that was valuable, including -all his ornaments, together with his pipe and roll of tobacco. He -concluded his acts of devotion[36] by asking the Great Spirit to give -them his protection, a bright sun, a blue sky, and untroubled waters. -I visited the spot near which the chief must have stood upon that -occasion. Much had been changed in the succeeding century, but the wild -and tumultuous character of the falls, and the noise and foam caused by -the rushing waters, are still very impressive. - -From Mendota I proceeded towards the north-west, in the direction of -the Minnesota as far as Mankato, with the intention of crossing the -prairies southwards towards Nebraska. It was also my purpose to visit -the Winnebagoes at their reservation. This tribe had been removed -from their lands near Lake Michigan, and settled a few miles from -Mankato; but upon my arrival at that town, I was informed that they -had been again removed to a reservation further west, to give room -for the occupation of the land by the numerous emigrants from Europe, -especially those thrifty, hard-working agriculturists, who came from -Sweden and Norway. The new settlements in this part of Minnesota were -still in an alarmed condition, in consequence of the memory of the -massacres that had taken place a few years previously, when the Sioux -rose in rebellion, and committed a grave series of atrocities upon the -white inhabitants. - -At the conclusion of the war, thirty-eight of the chief perpetrators -of cruelties upon the unoffending white people, were condemned to -death and were hanged. The events that took place upon that occasion -were described to me by an eye-witness, as having been exceedingly -repulsive, in consequence of the defiant shouts and gestures of the -prisoners. Hanging is a form of execution particularly disliked by -Indians, because they consider that it is ignominious. The war was -caused by a belief, spread among the tribes, that they had been treated -with great injustice. They declared that they were not allowed to -remain in possession of their lands, and that the treaties which had -been made with them, had not been fairly carried out. The savage desire -for revenge was aroused, and barbarous acts were committed by the -Sioux, whilst they were in a state of passionate excitement. - -On a terrace overlooking the waters of the Minnesota, close to the -spot where the Sioux had been executed, I met a half-breed Indian, who -was known to have seen some of the unmerciful deeds that had taken -place. I asked him to give me an explanation of the reasons that had -caused the Sioux, most of whom had led peaceful lives, to suddenly -avenge themselves in this brutal manner. He said, that whatever may -have seemed to be their character, all these Dakotas had an inveterate -hatred for the pale faces, who had deprived them of their lands, -their hunting grounds, their freedom, and all that made their lives -tolerable. After a pause, he observed in a harsh angry tone, that the -women and children were killed, because, in cases such as these, it was -a rule with Indians, to not only kill all the men, but also all who -could become men or give birth to men, and that it was their object to -secure the total extermination of their enemies. - -I afterwards met, near the lands which had been occupied by the -Winnebagoes, one of those waifs of civilization, who prefer the -adventurous freedom of the Indians to the ordinary forms of existence -among the whites. He was a Virginian by birth, and had left his home at -an early age to join the Apaches, whose hunting grounds were near the -borders of New Mexico. He lived with them for several years, and then, -desiring a change, he had joined a band of Chippewas. He was given by -them the name of Ara-po-gai-sik or Day-Catcher, because he was first -observed when approaching their camp at daybreak. I found him to be a -man of considerable intelligence, and conversant with the habits of the -tribes with whom he had dwelt. - -It is unusual to find men of English descent electing, by their own -wish, to entirely live with Indians. It seems to be different as -regards the French or French Canadians, who appear to have certain -instincts in their nature, which enable them to conform readily with -the domestic customs of Indian life. - - The subject of the claims of the Indians to the possession of - their ancient hunting grounds, was brought to the notice of the - United States Government during the time I was at Washington, - after my return from Yucatan in the summer of 1870. - - A large deputation from the Ogallalas, a warlike tribe of - Sioux, who dwelt on the prairies to the west of the Missouri, - came to the city for the purpose of making a statement of their - grievances, with regard to their lands. They declared that the - treaties concerning them had not been faithfully carried out. - - The deputation consisted of the principal chief, an Indian - named Red Cloud, who held a great reputation as a brave and - daring warrior, and with him were Brave Bear, Rocky Bear, Red - Dog, and other chiefs, who were also well known for their - courage and fearlessness, which they had shown upon several - occasions in fights upon the plains. Several men of the tribe - accompanied them. - - I happened to see those Ogallalas frequently, under various - circumstances; they had that power, which is characteristic - with thoroughbred Indians, of assuming when thought necessary, - a reserved and dignified manner. Red Cloud, especially, - maintained the deportment consistent with his position as the - hereditary chief of his nation. - - The speeches delivered by them in the presence of the - Commissioner of Indian affairs were remarkable as proving - that they possessed great natural oratorical abilities. The - description of the events occurring in their territories, and - the unfair treatment which they considered they had received, - were expressed with much force and poetical imagination. - - Their appeals were, however, unavailing. It was made clear - to them, that it was not possible, that small numbers of - Indians could be permitted to retain possession of extensive - grounds, to the exclusion of the necessities of an advancing - civilization, and that they must accept the fate which was - inevitable, and accustom themselves to be confined within - reservations of a limited and definite area. - - The Secretary of the Interior, told the Sioux that the existing - things were changing, and that they might as well try and keep - back the winds with their hands, as to prevent these changes. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - - Prairies in Minnesota and Iowa. — Boulders. — Glacial Drift. — - Wild Rice. — Snow Storm. — Nebraska. — The Pawnees. — Human - Sacrifices. — Note on Indian Customs in War and Cannibalism. — - Prairie Fires. — Prairie-Dog Villages. — Rattlesnakes. — - Variations in the succession of growths of Trees. — Causes - of absence of Trees upon Prairies. — Shoshone Indians on the - Western Deserts. — Note upon Ute Indians and Fuegians. - - -It was getting late in the year, when I commenced to cross the prairies -of Minnesota and Iowa. The higher plateaux were in many places already -covered with snow, upon which we saw numerous tracks of wolves. The -long icicles upon the graceful little waterfall of the Minne-ha-ha, -indicated the approach of a severe winter, and flocks of wild geese -were flying towards the upper lakes. - -For many miles the surface of the land looked black, in consequence -of the prairie fires that had burnt the grass, during the latter part -of the autumn. On the eastern borders, near the rivers, we passed -some scattered villages, chiefly occupied by emigrants of Welsh or -Scandinavian origin; but towards the interior the land was too wet -and exposed for the purposes of cultivation. Here and there, on the -plains, we saw the lonely huts of adventurous squatters, who obtained -a precarious living by supplying the wants of those who passed near -them, on their way towards the South. At one of these dwellings -situated upon the open plain, twenty miles from the nearest village, -we halted after a long journey over a dreary country, forming the -watershed of the streams that flowed east or west into the valleys of -the Missouri and Mississippi. - -The hut was occupied by a man, who, with his wife and family, had -been settled in this remote region for several years. As there was no -timber to be obtained in the neighbourhood, he had built the walls of -his house with wide, thick slabs of turf, which made a good protection -against the storms of winter. He possessed one hundred and fifty acres -of land, of which he only cultivated the small portion he had been -able to preserve from the ravages of prairie fires. The difficulty of -guarding the homestead against this danger, had caused him to feel much -anxiety, but he said that he had, at last, discovered an effectual -method of preventing any damage being caused, as far as his crops and -buildings were concerned. - -He saw upon one occasion, that the grass was burning on the verge of -the southern horizon, and the flames appeared to be advancing rapidly -in the direction of his farm. It occurred to him to try the plan of -running two plough furrows in parallel lines between the edge of his -land and the approaching fire. He made them about twenty yards apart, -and then burnt the grass, thus leaving a bare space of blackened earth. -The flames advanced upon their onward course, destroying everything -before them until they reached the outer furrow, when they were -stopped by there not being any grass for fuel, and as they could not -leap over the intervening space, the fire passed to the right and left, -leaving the farm in the centre untouched. The prairie around this -squatter’s home, was wild and dreary. - -The track led us over a region which had been shaped into hollows and -undulations, caused by the action of numberless streams and rivulets -which had cut their way in all directions. There were also many small -depressions which contained pools of water. We observed in all these -ponds numerous erratic boulders of various sizes. The majority of them -were small, but others were of considerable magnitude, and must have -weighed from fifteen to twenty tons. They were usually composed of -red, green, and dark grey granites, similar to those I had seen on the -surface of the country to the south-west of Lake Superior. - -The boulders were usually standing detached on the ground near the edge -of the water, but sometimes they were heaped together in a pile in the -middle of the pond. Upon an examination of the positions of the strange -aggregations of stones which had been moved from their original place -in the north to this plateau, the impression was conveyed to the mind -that these smaller boulders may have been dropped during the period -when icebergs were floating over the land. It seemed to be probable -that some of the icebergs were stranded, and had left on these spots -the cargo they had carried away from higher latitudes. - -Upon other parts of the level prairie where the land was dry, there -were many isolated masses standing up in their places upon the -surface, in the same manner as the Spirit rock near Mendota. It was -remarkable that these boulders, which were often very large, were not -embedded in the soil, but appeared to have remained in the positions -in which they had been deposited. Some of the larger ponds contain -quantities of wild aquatic plants, which yield a kind of rice—the same -which was frequently mentioned by the French exploring missionaries in -the seventeenth century—by the name of La Folle Avoine. This wild rice -was gathered by the Dakotas and Chippewas, and stored by them for food -in time of scarcity. - -As we approached the boundaries of North Iowa, we found that the -winter had set in earlier than usual, and the prairies were covered -with several inches of snow. The aspect of the country, upon which the -only marks of life were the footprints of animals, was exceedingly -desolate. The horizon was sharply defined by the white edges of the -land against the sky, and the curvature of the earth was thereby made -distinct. The land seemed to fall away from the eye at a distance which -looked very near. On plains of this perfectly level character in these -latitudes, the actual true distance of the horizon—as seen by a person -of average height standing upon the ground—would be about three miles; -but in consequence of the conditions of light upon the surface of the -snow, it appeared to be less, and the borders of the round line of -horizon seemed to confine us within a small circle. This effect was -particularly noticeable when the sun rose and touched the eastern parts -of the curvature, the sky at that time in the morning being clear and -cloudless. - -The weather became daily more severe, and at last we had to encounter -a hard gale of wind from the north-west. Suddenly one afternoon, a -sweeping snow storm overtook us, and in a few hours all vestiges of -the track were lost. Our position became perilous, as nothing could be -seen which would help us in the slightest degree as a guide, and enable -us to steer a straight course. The sky was gloomy and dark with snow -clouds, and the prairie was as bare as the open sea. - -The night was approaching, and matters were beginning to be serious, -when the coach was stopped by striking against some concealed obstacle, -and the horses swerved round. After gazing upon the fresh snow for -a few seconds, the driver said that it was practically useless to -attempt to follow the track, as it was impossible to make out its -direction. It was evident that there was not the slightest reason for -making any endeavours to follow one way more than any other, and we -had the dangerous prospect before us of having to pass the night under -circumstances of great hardship. - -Fortunately it was suggested, that we might try the experiment of -maintaining a line of progress by attending to the point from which -the wind came. It had been observed that, when we were going along the -straight track, the wind was upon the right hand, nearly abeam, and it -was considered possible that if we could manage to keep it upon that -bearing, we ought finally to arrive at our destination. The driver -thought that this plan did not offer much prospect of success, on -account of the scattered boulders and the rough nature of the country. -He however decided to do what was proposed, and started forward. An -unforeseen difficulty soon arose. The horses having no track before -them to follow, kept constantly swerving to the left to avoid the wind, -and it required much skill and energy to keep their heads pointed in -the right direction. - -The obstructions we had to encounter, caused us much anxiety, for -we were exposed to a bitterly cold gale, and the storm blew against -us with a severity that was unendurable. It was with no slight -pleasure that, just before the night, we saw upon the verge of the -horizon ahead, the lights of the town where we intended to stop. -When we arrived there, it was found that the roads had become almost -impassable, in consequence of the great depth of the snow that had -fallen in a few hours. - -As the prairies of Western Iowa had thus become a vast white -table land, whose ground was hidden from view, I crossed the Missouri -as soon as possible and proceeded to the interior of Nebraska where -the storm had not taken place and the surface of the land was still in -its autumnal condition. I stopped at various places in the valley of -the river Platte and, at one of the newly formed settlements, obtained -convenient quarters in the house of a man who had passed the greatest -part of his life with the Pawnees, a tribe of Indians who have always -been considered to hold an exceptional position with respect to their -religious observances and language. - -He had lived in the tents and was well acquainted with their habits -of life, and like all other men whom I had met who had been much -in contact with the Indians, occupying the country west of the -Mississippi, he had been impressed by the reality of their personal -faith in supernatural manifestations of power for good or evil. - -I was much interested in ascertaining the existence of certain facts -which seemed to show analogies between these Pawnees and the race who -under the name of Toltecs or Aztecs had migrated from some unknown -country into Mexico. It has not hitherto been explained how it -happened that this tribe who, as far as is known, have always lived -in this region, placed in the centre of the continent, should possess -a language which is absolutely different from that of any other race -of North American Indians, and that they should have been, for a long -period of time, surrounded by powerful tribes with whom they could -never have held any spoken communications. Mr. Albert Gallatin, a -learned American ethnologist, draws attention to their singularly -isolated position. He states that “they speak a language altogether -different from that of the Sioux tribes or of any other Indians known -to us.”[37] - -They do not appear to have been a numerous race, for, when their -territories were first explored, it was estimated that, including men, -women and children, their numbers were under seven thousand. At the -time that I passed through the ancient hunting grounds in Nebraska, -their descendants (of whom there were said to be about three thousand) -were gathered together in a reservation north of the Platte. I saw a -few of them near the banks of that river, and some others who had -committed a series of ferocious acts on the plains and had carried -off several scalps. They were captured, imprisoned and condemned to -death. These men were wild-looking savages who stalked restlessly round -the cells in which they were confined like intractable and untameable -animals. Those I saw wandering near the Platte had, for some unknown -reason, dressed themselves in war paint. Their eyes were encircled by -broad bands of red ochre. Their faces were covered with blue stripes -which in their outlines resembled the tattoed lines of the Maoris in -New Zealand. - -The natural colour of the Pawnees I met was rather darker than the -skins of the Sioux and Chippewas. The men were of more than the -ordinary stature and were powerfully built. Their heads were broad and -massive and all of them had remarkably high cheek bones. - -The early explorers, sent by the Government towards the West, did -not learn much about the superstitions of the native tribes, but it -is mentioned in the Report of the Expedition to the Rocky Mountains -in 1819–20 that the Pawnees, then living near the forks of the river -Loup in the valley of the Platte, had originally a custom, which was -believed to be annual but was no longer followed, of offering a human -sacrifice to the Great Star. - -The victim was always a prisoner that had been captured in war. - -Mr. James, one of the members of the exploring party, stated that the -star to which the sacrifice was made, was the planet Venus. It is -probable therefore that this ceremony had some connection with the -worship of the sun, as the Indians, who were accurate observers of all -natural events, would have noticed that Venus, both as a morning and -evening star, appeared to govern the movements of the greater light, -and either announced its approach at dawn or followed its departure at -sunset. - -The Pawnees and the Dakotas are the only North American tribes known -to have had the custom of killing human beings, for the purpose of -presenting them to their gods as propitiations in time of distress, or -as thanksgiving offerings after successful wars. The sacrifices made to -their gods of war by the Aztecs were probably introduced into Mexico -by that fierce race. The last human sacrifice offered by the Pawnees -occurred in the year 1837, and in this case it is believed that the -offering was made to the spirit who caused the land to produce fertile -crops. - -A young girl of fourteen years of age had been captured during a war -with the Sioux, and it was decided that she was to be killed and -sacrificed to this particular Manito. The strange character of the -method of immolation arrests attention. The girl was carefully secured -upon a framework made of light poles, raised a few feet above the -ground. When she was in the right position for the sacrifice, a fire -was kindled beneath, but before the flames had actually begun to -touch her, and precisely at the moment when it was perceived that the -fire was sufficiently strong to begin to burn her, she was suddenly -killed by a flight of arrows.[38] She was then taken down from the -scaffolding and the flesh was cut into small portions and taken away -into the fields, where the blood was sprinkled over certain parts of -the land which had been planted. - -[Illustration: SHA-TO-KO (BLUE HAWK). A PAWNEE.] - -The fact of a sacrifice so important as that of a girl on the verge of -womanhood being made to the god believed to have power over all matters -relating to the growth of corn and other vegetable produce, proves that -the Pawnees cultivated the earth to a greater extent than other tribes. -Their neighbours, the Dakotas, were more exclusively a hunting race, -and their human sacrifices, as far as has been ascertained by events -that have happened within the past century, were usually made for the -purpose of propitiation in the more solemn forms of Sun worship, or of -appeasing the anger of evil spirits or demons when manifested by storms -of lightning and thunder. - -My host told me that during the time he had lived amongst the Pawnees -he had not seen anything in their observances which led him to suppose -that they had any kind of belief in a future state beyond this world, -or in any absolutely over-ruling Power. The few ceremonies performed by -them were apparently propitiations of the various supernatural Manitos -who, they considered, had influence over them either individually or -as a tribe. One of their most frequent practices consisted of offering -incense to them in the form of tobacco smoke, and they invariably -presented it in the same manner by throwing the first whiff upwards -towards the sky, the next downwards to the ground and then to the right -and left. He had also observed that when this act was finished, each -Indian seemed to mutter some brief ejaculation or prayer. - -With respect to their superstitions he thought that they were -practically spiritualists, and believed in the presence of unknown and -unseen influences below, above or around them, having each in their own -separate degree powers of good or evil. He mentioned an event which had -happened within his personal observation. - -A Pawnee during a violent storm was injured by a flash of lightning. -The tribe were convinced that this misfortune had been inflicted upon -him as a direct punishment for some wrong deed he had committed, or -that he had in some way, by his own conduct incurred the displeasure of -the god of Lightning. As a consequence of this belief, he was avoided, -and compelled to live apart, as a man placed under a curse or malignant -influence. - -These Pawnees had the reputation of being cruel to their prisoners, -and in that respect had the same usages as the Iroquois who tortured -the captives and then burnt them at the stake.[39] All North American -tribes appear to have similar habits when their savage natures are -aroused by bloodshed and war, but it is also acknowledged by those who -have had an intimate knowledge of them, that under other and milder -conditions, they possess qualities of an affectionate nature, which -are shown in their domestic lives. An event occurred not far from the -settlement which exemplified their attachment to their children. - -The only child of a Pawnee and his wife died and was buried in a grave -dug in the open prairie near a spot where a small band of Indians -had temporarily erected their tents. In the grave with the child -were placed all the things which had belonged to her, including her -mocassin shoes, her plate and cup and her trinkets. Her father had in -his possession a good set of sleigh bells, said to be worth seventeen -dollars which he had intended to sell to one of the white men in the -neighbourhood, but after the death of his daughter he said that he was -happy because no one had yet bought his bells, for he was consequently -able to give them to her, and they were put by the child’s side and -buried. The father and mother then built round the grave a wooden fence -to keep the wolves away, as the Pawnees were going to move their tents -to a distant part of the country. This fence was shortly afterwards -destroyed by a prairie fire, and the place of the grave is not now -known. - -These fires are becoming less frequent and, when they occur, are -attributable to carelessness. I happened to see one of them sweeping -over the plains near the river Missouri, my position at the time being -at right angles to the line of its direction. A high wind was blowing -from the South-west and the tall grass was bent over in such a manner -that the flames instead of going with the wind towards the North-east, -caught the tops of the grass and consequently travelled steadily to -windward in the teeth of the gale. The smoke rolled away to leeward -in dense clouds and the flames leapt upwards on tongues of fire to -heights of twenty or thirty feet. The movement forward was like that of -the rapidly advancing crest of a breaking wave. I estimated the length -of the front of the fire to be nearly two miles. - -[Illustration: PAWNEE WOMAN.] - -When wandering over the wide Iowa and Nebraska plains, many problems -present themselves to the mind with regard to their formation and -existing condition. Of these, none are so perplexing to the farmers -as those which relate to the absence of trees. Several theories have -been mooted and many conclusions have been adopted, and thought to be -rational, but as a rule they cannot be accepted as being altogether -satisfactory. One of the most general opinions, is that the treeless -state of the land has been caused by the destructive effects of fire. -Another opinion is that which attributes the greatest counteracting -influence to the nature of the soil. - -One of the most careful investigators into this subject was the -accomplished geologist Mr. J. W. Foster, whom I met at Chicago, and -who was at that time President of the American Association for the -Advancement of Science. He told me what had been the results of his -work, and accompanied me to parts of the outlying Illinois prairies, -to examine the character of the earth near the surface. He had, a -short time previously, carried out a series of experiments relating to -the physical geography of the Mississippi valley, and had given his -attention to the composition of the upper formation of the prairies on -both sides of the river. - -He had arrived at the conclusion that the absence of trees upon them -was not caused by fires or by the character of the ground, but was the -consequence of the conditions of rainfall, temperature, climate, and -exposure, all acting in a direction opposed to that natural order of -things in which trees would be inclined to flourish. - -On the way south from Mankato, I observed that the banks of the Des -Moines river were thickly timbered, and that on the borders of the -various rivulets which had cut their way through the ground to a -considerable depth, there was usually a flourishing growth of trees, -chiefly consisting of oak, black walnut, basswood, and maple varieties. -In all these instances the trees were sheltered, but on the exposed -prairie immediately adjacent the ground was bare, and without a vestige -of any signs of trees or shrubs. In that particular region it seems -therefore probable, that the exposure to gales of wind sweeping over -the plateau, may be the principal cause of trees not being able to take -root and live. - -There are, however, other prairies equally bare of timber which are -not so exposed. Upon those situated near the water shed or dividing -ridge of the tributaries of the Missouri and Mississippi, it may be -the quantities of water lying permanently within a few feet below the -surface which prevent any growth taking place. No single theory seems -to explain the facts, but from my own observation, I am inclined to -think that the chief deterring influence is the nature of the soil.[40] - - -There is an unexplained problem respecting the growth of trees -in certain parts of North America, which has received much local -notice. My attention was directed to the subject when I was in the -neighbourhood of Lake Simcoe in Upper Canada. An Englishman, who had -established a homestead there and made clearings in the forests, told -me he had observed that after the old trees had been felled, new shrubs -and timber of an entirely different character grew up in their place. -There was nothing in the nature of the surrounding woods which, to his -mind, could account for the change, as there were no trees of the class -that had taken root existing in that part of the country. - -A similar alteration in the order of succession of forest growths was -reported by the geologists employed by the Government in conducting -the early surveys of Michigan. They stated that large tracts of land, -originally covered with pines, had been succeeded by a second growth -consisting of white birch, aspen, pine and hazel. In this case the -primeval forest had been destroyed by high winds and afterwards burnt. -It was supposed that where clearings had been made by fire, changes -of the above nature occurred, but no suggestions were given as to the -manner in which these new and strange growths established themselves. - -Near Ishpeming, I saw that in all cases where forest openings had been -made by the action of fire, luxuriant masses of dense raspberry bushes -occupied the land; and it was said that where the woods were cut down -by the axe bushes of another class, bearing different berries, sprang -up and flourished. - -In other parts of the North-west, variations in the succession of -forest trees have been seen to occur; and usually there seems to be -some connection between the type of the new plants and the methods by -which the clearings have been made. As a general rule there are very -few birds to carry seeds or pips from distant regions and therefore -it is possible that in places where the ground has never for many -centuries been previously disturbed and where the thick forest has -been for the first time removed, and sunlight and fresh atmospheric -conditions are admitted upon the land, new circumstances arise which -are favourable to the development of dormant life.[41] - -Before leaving the valley of the Platte I made several excursions on -the plains for the purpose of examining two of the most extensive of -those singular groups of mounds which have been called prairie-dog -villages. The largest of them was situated about two hundred miles west -of the Missouri and three miles north of the Platte. It occupied a -space exceeding fifty acres, which was covered by the rounded heaps of -earth and pebbles thrown up by the little marmots when excavating their -burrows. These creatures, when they are sitting on the tops of their -mounds in a watchful attitude keeping a sharp look out around them and -holding their paws before them, resemble a colony of ground squirrels. -When I was at a certain distance from them they maintained continuous -and defiant sounds like the shrill yelps of puppies, but upon a nearer -approach they suddenly disappeared down their holes. - -The existence of these isolated groups of burrowing animals, dwelling -together in communities, was made the subject of observation by -the expeditions sent by the United States Government to explore -these regions, and it was reported that it was not unusual to find -rattlesnakes living in the same holes as the prairie dogs. Captain -Stansfield, the leader of one of these exploring parties, stated that -the holes were generally guarded by a rattlesnake, and that when the -hand was about to be thrust into the hole to draw out the prairie dog -which had been shot at, but had got into its burrow, the ominous rattle -of the reptile was heard within. - -Twenty years had elapsed since that time, and many changes had taken -place in the conditions of animal life upon these plains. I thrust -my stick down various holes but there were no rattlesnakes in them. -I afterwards heard that in these districts the reptiles, which had -been so numerous, had disappeared. Another group of these village -communities which I examined was placed to the south of the Platte. -Although it covered a comparatively small area it was more fully -tenanted and the dwellings were closer together, each mound almost -touching its neighbour. One of the young occupiers of this village -had been captured and tamed by a squatter living near the settlement -in which I was then stopping. As it rarely happens that the habits of -these marmots can be regularly observed, this creature’s actions were -noticed with great curiosity. - -It was the daily habit of this prairie dog to sit for hours upon -its haunches, with its fore-paws held steadily in front of him, -continuously maintaining a careful watch upon everything that was -happening. I observed that although the method of sitting was that -of the squirrel tribe, the shape and appearance of the body was of -a different type, and like that of a large guinea-pig. The most -attractive point about the little animal was its keen manner of keeping -guard like a sentinel. Nothing seemed to escape its vigilance. - -[Illustration: PRAIRIE AND BOULDERS, NORTH IOWA.] - -[Illustration: PRAIRIE DOGS, NEBRASKA. - - (THE MOUNDS ARE ABOUT EIGHTEEN INCHES HIGH.)] - -When the fact of rattlesnakes living in the same holes as the prairie -dogs was originally made known, there were several theories advanced -upon the subject; but, in the absence of any direct evidence as to -the nature of the apparent alliance or friendship, nothing could be -positively proved. It was however subsequently discovered that young -marmots were occasionally found inside the bodies of rattlesnakes which -had been killed near the mounds. It is therefore probable that the -reptiles used the burrows for their winter residences, after having -expelled the previous inhabitants. - -Nothing is more surprising than the effect of the movement of -civilisation westwards upon the number of the animals who were -accustomed to exist upon the prairies. The explorers who passed through -these waste lands in the beginning of the nineteenth century, reported -that the surface of the country, especially near the river Platte, was -often blackened by immense herds of bisons. Fifty years later when I -went over the same ground no buffaloes were to be seen there, and they -no longer frequented that part of Nebraska. The rattlesnakes have also -almost disappeared in consequence of the introduction of animals that -were hostile to them.[42] - -The manner by which this destruction of the snake tribe has been -carried out, was brought to my notice when I was crossing Lake Erie. -Near the west shores of the lake there were several islands which had -been infested with reptiles to such an extent as to make it dangerous -for men to land upon them. A resident who had lived for many years upon -the adjacent shore, and who happened to be on board the steamer when we -passed near one of the largest of the islands, told me that in order -to clear the ground a large number of hogs were landed upon it, and -within a short time the island was made perfectly safe. It was observed -that they rushed immediately forward and when close to the snakes they -dropped upon their knees and commenced to devour them with the greatest -avidity. The darting of the fangs upon them did not seem to have the -slightest injurious effect. It is therefore probable that this strange -invulnerability of the hog is due to the thickness of its hide, and the -close stiff bristles which prevent the penetration of the poison. - -On the prairies, the explorers mention their having seen, besides -buffaloes, deer, hares, wolves, eagles, buzzards and ravens. I saw -several herds of antelopes and a few wolves: one of them belonging to -the coyote species was observed in the evening to be prowling round -the huts of settlers at the forks of the Platte. It was caught and -forthwith dispatched. It was a good sized wolf with a thick coat of -shaggy iron-grey hair and looked fierce and savage. On the banks of -the southern branch of the river near this spot I joined an American -companion in an expedition to look for prairie grouse. We found them -amongst the brushwood in considerable numbers, but the birds were wild -and it was difficult to get within range of them. The Platte at this -part was nearly three thousand feet above the sea. - -On the desert, at a height of seven thousand feet, I saw antelopes -grazing upon the prairie grass which was growing abundantly and -afforded ample supplies of food for them. Wolves were also on these -plains skulking in the vicinity doubtless hoping to appease their -hunger before many hours had elapsed. These wide and lofty table lands -were the ancient hunting grounds of the Dakotas and Cheyennes. - -It was getting late upon a fine winter’s evening when our coach crossed -the brow of a hill and we caught sight of the calm blue waters of the -Great Salt Lake surrounded by snow-covered mountains. It was a quiet -scene of singular beauty. The skies were brilliant with the glowing -effects caused by the rays of the declining sun. It was nearly dark -when we arrived at the City of the Mormons and our horses were pulled -up at the door of an attractive little inn which Brigham Young had -provided for the accommodation of strangers. - -After quitting the prosperous lands of Utah on my way to California -I stopped in the centre of that part of the American desert situated -near the borders of Oregon and bounded on the west by the ranges of the -Sierra Nevada. It was my object to visit a tribe of Shoshones who were -then encamped in the neighbourhood. I found them dwelling on a dreary -and exposed plateau in the midst of a region covered with small black -volcanic stones and fragments (or flakes) of obsidian, with which an -old arrow head maker was busily engaged fashioning the rude weapons -required by the tribe. It was the middle of December. The winter was -cold, and the country around looked bleak and desolate. - -The Indians were in wigwams made of saplings or withies, bent over -in such a manner as to form the shape of a semi-circle or a low -rounded beehive. They resembled, in their construction and size, the -temporary huts used by wandering bands of Chippewas upon the shores of -Lake Superior. The interiors of these rude and miserable lodges were -not inviting. Squalor, dirt and gloom were present to the eye, and -influenced the mind. - -[Illustration: INDIAN, SALT LAKE VALLEY, UTAH.] - -The men differed to some extent from all other Indians that I had seen, -and were in appearance like the Asiatics in the southern Provinces -of China, and had not the massive heads and aquiline features of the -Dakotas or Pawnees; they were also of a more debased type. This, -however, may have been the result of many centuries of struggles -against starvation and exposure to the severe weather that must be -experienced in the deserts upon which they wander. Outside the main -part of the encampment there was a small group of wigwams, which I -found to be occupied by Utes, a tribe even more degraded and wretched -than the Shoshones. - -The Utes, or Digger Indians, have always been considered to be the -lowest in civilization of all the American tribes. It has been thought -that they may be the descendants of outcasts, but this opinion does not -seem to be based upon sufficient evidence. There are good reasons for -believing that they are allied in race and language with the Shoshones, -and they are apparently treated by them on terms of friendship and -equality. - -The Diggers have been given that name in consequence of it being -their custom to live chiefly upon roots, or whatever other food they -can obtain by digging. They also find a scanty support from grass, -seeds and locusts. They have been occasionally met wandering in Utah -in a naked and half-starved condition. It is not possible to imagine -human beings to be in a lower or more harsh state of existence. Misery -and want do not however appear to influence the natural buoyancy and -cheerfulness of these nomads. Possibly their freedom, the constant -occupation of searching the hills and deserts for subsistence, and -their unconstrained life, give them compensation for the hardships that -they are forced to endure. - - There is only one other race that I have seen living under - similar conditions of continuous want and wretchedness, with - whom the struggles for bare existence are equally severe. - - That unfortunate people are the Fuegians, who wander in search - of food upon the rugged coasts of Tierra del Fuego. - - When passing through the Straits of Magellan in H.M.S. Pearl - in January, 1877, we saw several families of the natives in - Churruca Bay occupying wretched wigwams, placed close to the - water’s edge. - - Some of them embarked in their canoes and came alongside to ask - for food and tobacco. They appeared to be in a half-starved - and emaciated state, and were sustaining life upon mussel and - edible roots. The medical officers of the ship measured the - men, as I wished to ascertain their size and weight as compared - with the Patagonians dwelling upon the opposite shores of the - Straits. It was found that the height of these Fuegians was - between four feet nine inches and five feet two inches. The - average stature was under five feet. The measurements round - the chest were comparatively large, being thirty-four to - thirty-five inches. - - We afterwards anchored in Gregory Bay, Patagonia. As soon as we - were observed, a numerous tribe of Patagonians rode down to the - beach, and pitched their tents opposite the ship. Several of - the chiefs came on board and subsequently allowed themselves to - be weighed and measured. - - It was ascertained that their average height was five feet - eleven inches, and their chest measurements averaged forty-four - inches. Their weights averaged two hundred and thirty-two - pounds. - - The contrast in the physical condition between the Patagonians - and Fuegians is extraordinary when it is considered that only a - narrow channel of water, easily traversed by canoes, separates - them. It is probable that the Utes, Shoshones and Fuegians - may have been forced by adverse circumstances to retreat to - the inhospitable regions in which they live. No race would - willingly accept or undergo such unchangeable hardships. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - North American Indians. — Diversity of Languages. — The - Iroquois. — Dialects. — Descent of Iroquois chiefs through the - female line. — Pagan Indians. — Belief in a Great Spirit. — - Ceremonies. — Dakotas. — Superstitions. — Dreams. — Fasts. — - Sun worship. — Medicine men. — Customs of mourning by widows. — - Supernatural influences. — Lightning. — Transmigration. — - Worship of Spirit rocks. — Serpent worship. — Human sacrifices. — - Burial customs. — Method of curing sickness by steam. — Note - upon analogies between the customs of the Indians, Maoris, and - the natives of the Sandwich Islands. - - -It is expedient with respect to the condition of the North American -Indians, to take into consideration some of the circumstances relating -to their languages, customs, and superstitions; particularly such of -them as may appear to have remote analogies with the observances of -other races, or with the more advanced state of civilisation that -existed in the fifteenth century, among the tribes who had conquered -the aboriginal inhabitants of Mexico, Central America, and Yucatan. -It is also especially necessary that a brief investigation should -be directed to certain exceptional forms of the Indian faith in the -influence and power of the unknown gods by whom the Dakotas believed -themselves to be surrounded and who were propitiated by acts of severe -personal suffering and penance. - -In the Northern continent there are two principal facts which attract -the attention of those who are thrown into contact with the Iroquois, -Chippewas and Dakotas. The first of these which comes under notice -is the extraordinary number and diversity of their languages, and -afterwards, upon a more extended acquaintance with the customs of these -Indians, the strange and most grave nature of the higher character of -their ancient religion. With regard to the differences of the languages -my attention was first called to this circumstance by M. Cuoq, who, -when I visited the Missionary establishment upon the shores of the “Lac -des deux Montagnes” in Canada, was in charge of the converts. M. Cuoq -was a learned philologist and had published a volume of studies upon -the Indian languages.[43] - -The assemblage of Roman Catholic converts brought together at the -Mission was composed of two tribes, who spoke different languages -which were so absolutely distinct that they were unable to converse -with each other. One of these groups were Algonquins, whose ancestors -originally dwelt to the north of the St. Lawrence, the other was formed -from the Iroquois who came from territories bordering upon the southern -banks of that river. M. Cuoq, when conducting the religious services, -preached to them in their own languages alternately. It is not -surprising that these scattered remnants of the two great tribes whose -languages were radically dissimilar should still (although they have -lived as neighbours for several generations) be unable to understand -each other. It is, however, a different matter when the conditions -are considered under which the original Iroquois language has become -changed into the six languages spoken by the Senecas, Oneidas, -Cayugas, Onondagas, Mohawks and Tuscaroras. The extraordinary manner -in which the Iroquois language has thus become separated is especially -noticeable at the Canadian reservation of those tribes situated near -the banks of the Grand River. - -According to the traditions of the Iroquois it appears that the nations -were composed originally of one large tribe, all of whom spoke one -language, and that they dwelt on the southern shores of Lake Ontario. -It is stated that they became too numerous for the land which they -occupied, and a great council was held to consider what steps should -be taken to establish themselves in such a manner as to have hunting -grounds sufficiently extensive to enable them to obtain supplies -of food. After long discussion it was decided to disperse and to -divide into communities. But, in order to prevent disaster from the -possibility of being conquered by their enemies when thus separated, -it was arranged that they should dwell near each other and thus be -able to unite for the purpose of war. It happened, in consequence of -this dispersion, that the language gradually became so greatly changed -that the tribes were unable to understand each other, and in a period -comparatively brief, six distinct dialects were formed which in the -course of time became practically new languages. - -When these Iroquois, who had been our allies in war, were gathered -together and placed upon lands within the Canadian frontier, it was -found expedient by them to make one of the dialects a language, which -might be so far understood by the six nations, as to be employed upon -all occasions when they had to perform their ceremonies, or carry out -any purposes which they had in common. - -Upon the occasion of my visit to their reservation, I was accompanied -by two Indians respectively of the Seneca and Cayuga tribes, both -of whom spoke English intelligibly. I asked the Seneca what was the -dialect they had chosen to be their language when the Iroquois were -assembled together. He replied, that it was the Cayuga, because -they believed it was the original language which had been spoken by -all of them, and the six nations at the Grand River had learnt it -sufficiently to enable them to understand what was said when they met -at the Council house, but, for all ordinary purposes, and amongst -themselves, each nation spoke its own dialect. With reference to this -subject of variations in language, it is evident that amongst the -North American Indians, who are scattered over such a large extent of -country, the differences in the spoken tongues of the tribes must, -in many instances, be caused by the fact of there being no written -language, and of their being divided into races, kept apart by wars. -It is therefore to be expected that great changes would occur within -comparatively short intervals of time. With tribes originally belonging -to one nation, these would rapidly become formed into dialects -according to the manner in which the tribes moved into other hunting -grounds, and became settled into distinct tribal groups. But after -making all due allowances for these conditions, it still remains -difficult to understand how so great a number of languages have become -established amongst a comparatively small population. At no time, since -the discovery of America, have the total numbers of Indians within the -regions now forming the United States, exceeded five hundred thousand -men, women and children. In 1829, it was estimated that the Indian -population slightly exceeded three hundred and thirteen thousand. In -1850, according to the census, the total numbers were four hundred -thousand.[44] - -The most remarkable fact with regard to the Iroquois tribes is that, -after having had one original language, they should have become -unintelligible to each other, although they lived in close proximity. -Their territories were within the limits now occupied by the State -of New York. With the Dakotas and Chippewas, whose territories are -adjacent, the conditions are different, for these languages have no -relation with each other, and the most careful researches have failed -to trace any connection between them. The Chippewa dialect belongs to -the group of languages classified as Algonquin. Dialects belonging to -that original stock are spoken by the Chippewas, Ottawas, Illinois, -Shawnees, and all the New England tribes. The Dakota language is at -present known to be spoken in thirteen principal dialects, and several -sub-divisions. The Iroquois is exclusively confined to the six dialects -spoken by the six nations assembled in their reservations. - -The history of the dispersion of this race seems to establish the fact -that Indian languages can, within a comparatively short period, be so -greatly altered as to become practically distinct. This has happened -with a nation whose separated tribes have always remained at peace with -each other and have united for common defence, or for the prosecution -of a war against powerful enemies. With savage nations whose original -languages are essentially dissimilar, the constant wars which take -place between them possibly introduce elements of change which would -influence very considerably the spoken dialects of the opposing tribes. -It was a frequent custom after the conclusion of hostilities for the -conquerors to incorporate in their tribe the women and children of -those whom they had vanquished. Thus a new dialect would be introduced -amongst them, and the two languages would necessarily become blended. A -succession of wars would cause a continuance of variations of language, -and thus it would gradually come to pass that dialects would be formed -not only greatly differing from each other, but most difficult to trace -to any positive origin. - -The Iroquois were not only exceptional in having a fixed system of -confederation which enabled them to combine their forces in a manner -which increased their fighting strength, but they also had special -customs with regard to their chiefs. It was established amongst them -as an unalterable regulation that their hereditary descent should be -in the female line. This unusual system has attracted much attention. -When I was at their reservation I asked my Indian companions for an -explanation of the manner in which this was carried into effect in -ordinary practice, for it seemed to involve difficulties with regard to -intermarriage between the respective nations, and I wished to hear some -direct evidence upon that subject. - -The Seneca said: “Our children always take the rank of their mothers -and join their tribe; thus I, a Seneca, not a chief, married a Cayuga -woman the daughter of a chief and my son is therefore a Cayuga and -will be a chief of the Cayugas.” Another Indian said: “I live with the -Cayugas and my father was a Cayuga, but I am an Onondaga because my -mother was an Onondaga woman.” - -Whilst I was talking with these men, and passing through the villages -of the Oneidas, Senecas and Tuscaroras, I observed that there was no -church or any building set apart for religious purposes and I asked -the Seneca how this happened, as in the other Iroquois reservations -that I had seen, the church usually was in a prominent position near -the centre of the settlement. He said that I was amongst men who were -called Pagan Indians, and that the Grand River Iroquois were divided -into two classes, Christians and Pagans. The former were settled upon a -part of the lands a few miles distant. He also told me that they always -kept themselves distinct from the converts, and were careful to follow -their ancient belief and maintain, as far as possible, the ceremonies -and religious customs of their ancestors. - -I asked a Cayuga, who had joined us, and who was one of the leading men -of his tribe, if he would tell me to what extent, and in what form, -their Pagan worship was practised. I also mentioned, that I wished for -information with regard to the Iroquois belief in a Supreme Being. -It was ascertained by the Jesuit missionaries, that a belief in one -over-ruling Power was found to exist among them, and in this respect -they differed from all other American Indians, with whom it seemed -to be conclusively ascertained, that their worship only consisted of -propitiations of the various powers that they believed had influence -for good or evil in connection with matters around them. It was found -by the priests, that the chief obstacle in enabling the savages to -comprehend the meaning of their teaching, was the want of capacity -in the minds of the Indians to understand the nature of a Power who -controlled all movements of the heavens and earth. It was consequently -interesting to meet an Indian who could intelligently explain this -unusual peculiarity of the Iroquois belief. - -This Cayuga, in reply to my questions, said, “We all believe in the -Great Spirit whom we call How-wan-ni-yu, and we have four feasts in -every year made to him. Those at the New Year and at the Harvest time -are the greatest. We meet at the Long House[45] dressed, as was the -custom in former times, with skins and feathers, and have our faces -painted. In the middle of the room we place our offerings of wheat, -fruit, tobacco, and flesh, according to what we can give, and the -season of the year. Round this pile of offerings we have a dance. After -this is over, our principal chief makes a speech and tells us about the -goodness and nature of How-wan-ni-yu. Then we have another dance, after -which another chief makes a speech, and so on, until all the speeches -are finished. Then all the offerings are divided amongst us and the -meeting ends.” - -I asked the Indians if they had any other kind of worship or prayer. -They said they had nothing more, and that the dance to How-wan-ni-yu -was not considered by them to be a prayer, but was meant as an -acknowledgment of the goodness of the harvest. I found a difficulty -in obtaining from these Iroquois any definite opinion with regard to -their ideas of the nature of How-wan-ni-yu, but at last the Cayuga -said abruptly: “We consider him to be the maker of all things upon -the earth, and we know nothing more about the matter.” There were, -originally, various ceremonies performed by the tribes in connection -with the appearance of the first new moon of the year, and there -were also tribal dances after any success in hunting or in war, but -these are no longer performed. One of the new moon ceremonies was the -sacrifice of a dog by fire, and the ashes were scattered over the -ground as an offering. - -Upon leaving the reservation, it was not possible to feel otherwise -than regret that it had become the fate of the descendants of a -powerful nation of warriors to be penned within these restricted -limits. Men, women and children, were leading aimless and useless -lives. They were pensioners upon Governments which would gladly escape -from the duties and expenses which the existence of these Indians -demand, and who are, in many cases, victims to the temptations offered -to them by the habits of modern civilisation.[46] - -The Dakotas and the Iroquois have always been considered as the most -powerful and warlike of the aboriginal races of North America. Both of -these tribes also possessed, certain religious customs relating to the -mental and physical training of their youthful warriors, which were -intended to strengthen their characters, and to give them the power to -endure privations and suffering with fortitude. The Dakotas carried -into effect their observances to an extent far beyond that of any other -race. Their superstitions and religious ceremonies, with reference -to this system of preparing the foundations for the establishment of -the qualities required to enable a Dakota to fulfil his duties as a -courageous and honourable member of his tribe, are most characteristic, -and appear to be invaluable elements in the formation of the qualities -required by a race dwelling in wild and desolate lands, surrounded -by enemies. It was an invariable rule with all the Dakotas, that the -youths upon reaching manhood, should pass through a probationary -period of fasting. This was done for the purpose of enabling each -young Dakota to obtain a knowledge of the spiritual world by which he -was surrounded, and to learn, by the revelations that would be made -to him in dreams, the nature of the Manito which would influence his -thoughts and actions during his life. The fasts were always performed -in solitude, far away from the tribe, and frequently continued for a -considerable time. It was supposed that towards the latter part of this -probation, his dreams would give him an insight into the mysterious -conditions of life and nature that appeared to be supernatural, and -that he would discover the god, animal or other object to which he was -especially linked and which he was to propitiate by sacrifices. - -It was an essential part of this early endurance of trial and -abstinence, that it not only should be performed in secret, but that -for the remainder of his life the Indian should hold his faith in -silence, and never communicate to others what his dreams had revealed -to him. Thus far this early initiation into the mysteries of the -unknown world had practically the effect of establishing the mental -character, and was a form of training which impressed upon each Indian -a separate individuality. Upon the conclusion of the probation of -fasting and solitude, the youths had each to pass through trials of -their physical endurance, and had to suffer various tortures to prove -themselves to be capable of becoming warriors, and to show their -manhood by their power of bearing pain with unflinching fortitude. - -When I was in that part of the continent which for long periods of -time had been occupied by the branch of the Dakota race called Sioux, -I endeavoured to ascertain the nature and practice of these customs as -far as they were known by the existing Indians. In prosecuting these -researches into a subject so interesting and exclusive, I was fortunate -in meeting with a man so well informed upon all matters connected -with these Indians as the half-breed Faribault. He had lived with the -Sioux for many years at the time when they had possession of lands -bordering upon the banks of the Mississippi, and had been present, on -several occasions, when their most serious superstitious ceremonies -were performed. Amongst these were the propitiations made to the sun, a -form of worship which was more rigidly and earnestly practised by the -Dakotas than by any other nation in North America. - -Sun worship existed amongst all the Indian tribes dwelling in the -Mississippi valley, particularly with the Natchez in Louisiana, but -the manner and the ceremonies differed, and with none of them were the -painful personal sufferings and penances, undergone by the worshippers, -so great as they were with the Dakotas. An instance of the severity -of this penance occurred in the year 1849, when Faribault was living -with a Sioux tribe encamped on the western shores of the Mississippi, -near Prairie la Crosse. “An Indian,” he said, “dreamt that he had -incurred the displeasure of the Great Spirit, and that it was necessary -to appease him by sacrificing to him everything that he valued, and -also to perform penance by undergoing the utmost pain that he was -able to endure. A scaffolding was raised near the camp, consisting of -two upright poles—of sufficient length—which were firmly fixed in the -ground. These were connected near the top by a cross pole. When this -was completed the Indian stood up and, shortly before daybreak, a cut -was made within the fleshy parts of each arm near the shoulders through -which was passed a rope. Cuts or holes were then made in the breasts -and other ropes were pushed through them. The cords were then tied to -the stakes in such a manner that the arms were suspended by them. The -breast ropes were secured in a position such as to allow that a certain -portion of the man’s weight was held by them. His feet were allowed -just to touch the ground. His dog was killed and placed in front of -him together with his blanket, cut into strips, his feathers, his -ornaments, and all that he possessed. - -“When these preparations were made the Indian waited for the rising -of the sun, and directly it appeared above the eastern horizon he -threw his head back and fixing his gaze upon it commenced dancing. His -friends at the same time maintained an incessant beating of a small -drum. The dancing continued throughout the day, the Indian moving his -position as the sun moved and taking care always to keep the sun in his -front and to gaze steadfastly upon it without shrinking from its full -light. After sunset he remained watching the western sky throughout the -night. In the morning he turned round towards the dawn and when the sun -appeared, was immediately cut down from the scaffold and fell exhausted -upon the ground.” - -This act of sun worship is frequently performed, and the Sioux firmly -believe that if they do not obey the dream which points out to them -this duty, serious misfortunes will happen to them and their families. -Instances have been known of men being able to endure long periods of -torture, and young Indians, when passing through the early trials of -their strength, will frequently remain for hours entirely suspended -by ropes rove through their flesh. It is not possible to estimate the -actual personal suffering thus inflicted upon themselves by these -North American Indians, by the standard of what would be felt by more -sensitive and more highly organised races. I have seen Chinamen endure -with stolid indifference, tortures that would cause Europeans to feel -the utmost agony.[47] - -The Dakotas had another form of sun worship, which is still practised -by some of the tribes in the West, but which appears to be chiefly -intended as a tribal thanksgiving or rejoicing. A pole is raised in -the centre of the encampment and upon it are placed figures of birds, -beasts and reptiles. The Indians dance round this pole during the day -taking care to keep their faces towards the sun. Shortly before sunset -the figures are shot at until they have all fallen upon the ground. -After this there is another dance which ends when the sun sinks below -the horizon. The ceremony is then concluded. - -Sickness is, with the Dakotas as with the Pawnees, considered to have -been sent as a punishment for some wrong deed that has been committed -either by an individual or by the tribe. I was told by Faribault that -whenever a Sioux found that he was suffering from illness he sent for -the medicine man,[48] who, upon his arrival, would immediately proceed -to ascertain what evil act the patient had done, and would then take -the requisite measures to drive out the evil spirit representing the -nature of the offence. It is assumed that the offence committed by -the sick person has some reference to a man, woman or animal. The -medicine man, who pretends to have the power of second-sight, looks -steadily at the patient, until he declares that he can see the inner -demon that torments him. After certain incantations, he makes out -of clay an image of the creature which is causing the sickness, and -then shoots at it until it is shattered. It is expected that this act -will cause the devil to depart. If this method of cure fails, other -images are made, as it is then assumed that more than one evil deed -has been perpetrated. Finally, if all these remedies are unsuccessful -it is pronounced that the patient must perform a penance. This usually -consists of a long fast, and is considered to be a personal matter -strictly confined to the relations that exist between the Indian and -the Manito under whose guidance he believes himself to be, and which -has been ascertained during the period of the great fast performed in -his youth. - -It was the custom with the Sioux, whenever the head of the household -died, for the women to mourn for a year. One of their chiefs had died -a few years before I was at Mendota, and Faribault, who had known him -intimately, went to the settlement to see the widow. He found her -engaged in the occupation of cutting deep gashes in her arms and legs. -She had, in her hand a rounded scalping knife and with this weapon -she was striking herself and inflicting wounds from which blood was -flowing. All the furniture and mats had been removed from the tepee or -tent, and she was sitting upon the earth. At the conclusion of the time -of mourning it is usual for the women to go to their friends or join -some other household, and the old tepee is then thrown down and left in -a heap upon the ground. - -At the time that Faribault was speaking about these customs, there -were present several Sioux, who had come from their encampment, and -were listening to him. When he had finished his narrative, I took the -opportunity of asking these men some questions about the belief of -the Sioux, with respect to lightning and thunder, as I had heard that -the Dakotas held some especial opinions upon these manifestations of -supernatural power. One of the beliefs attributed to them was that -lightning was a stone, and it was difficult to understand what could be -their reason for holding such a strange belief. They said, in answer -to my question, that lightning was certainly a stone, and that they -knew it was so because they had seen it, and it was very hard and like -a rock. Possibly the Indians had seen the fall of some aerolites, or -they may have observed the effects of lightning after it had struck the -earth. They state, that sometimes a small hot stone is found near the -roots of a tree that has been injured by a flash of lightning. - -I asked Faribault, whether any of the tribes with whom he had -lived, appeared to have any belief in one supreme Great Spirit. He -replied, that, as far as he had been able to judge of this matter, -the Sioux held this belief vaguely, but, that it did not influence -their actions. The Dakotas have a Pagan custom of investing animals, -hills, mountains, and all remarkable natural manifestations of -unknown powers with especial spirits of good or evil influence, each -demanding different forms of worship and propitiation. They have -also—under certain conditions—a belief in the transmigration of souls -into animals. They consider that this takes place when an Indian has -been guilty of some act of cowardice or treachery. In such a case, -his spirit is supposed, after death, to go into some animal or to -take its form, and then it is sometimes believed that it haunts the -neighbourhood of the camp. The superstitious nature of the Sioux is -often strangely affected by traditions respecting these wandering -spirits, and when under this influence, it is said by the half-breeds -living amongst them, that they seem to possess the power of seeing -supernatural things. - -There was an instance of this mentioned as having occurred a few years -previously. A Sioux died: it was known that he had dreamed that, after -his death, he would enter the body of a bear, and would then wander -round the tents of the tribe. After his death, an Indian looked out -at daybreak, and declared that he saw upon an opposite hill a large -grey bear. Upon hearing this rumour the tribe assembled, and many of -the men imagined that they saw it. After this appearance there was a -universal dread of the bear. It was frequently seen, and the Indians -were careful to avoid meeting it. During the time that the tribe were -encamped in this part of the country, south of the Minnesota, the bear -was occasionally seen prowling over the hills. One of the chiefs was -asked by a white man, who was trading with this tribe, why it was not -killed, and he was told, that it was because it contained the spirit -of a dead brother. There was no doubt in the minds of the Indians -about the reality of the vision. They were positive in declaring that -they saw the bear, and would point it out to the half-breeds staying -in the camp, who could never see it. This power of seeing what is to -other men unseen, is stated to be possessed by many of the Dakotas, and -is probably, in a great measure, due to a highly sensitive condition -of mind, caused by their long periods of self-imposed abstinence. -Faribault said, that Sioux, when travelling the country, will -suddenly start and tremble, and point to something not visible to the -half-breeds, and declare that they see the form of the spirit that they -dread. - -The dreams and fasts of the Dakotas, and the time passed by them -in solitude, explain much that is strange and exceptional in their -nature. It is thus intelligible how it happens, that the young Indians -have such an earnest and vivid belief in the spiritual nature of the -unknown and mysterious world, and that they invest with supernatural -attributes the mysterious powers which surround them. It must seem -natural to them, that thunder and lightning, sun, moon, mountains, and -rivers, should be considered as manifestations of powerful spirits, -that require to receive worship and sacrifice. What, however, is not -so obvious, is the cause which impels them to worship large rocks and -stones, which cannot, by any stretch of the imagination, be supposed -to possess active powers of good or evil. Upon this subject I asked -the Indians for their explanation, saying, that I supposed they did not -directly worship a stone, such as that near Mendota, but the spirit who -had placed it there. Faribault said, that this worship also followed -upon dreams, and the Indians, who were present, concurred in his -statement. It sometimes happens that a Sioux, in his dream, instead of -seeing the image of the sun or some animal, will see nothing but one of -these large Spirit rocks. It is thus conveyed to his mind, that this is -his god, by which his actions and fate are to be governed during his -life, and to whom he must offer sacrifices. - -The whole tribe will occasionally take part in the worship of a -boulder.[49] A dreamer, usually in this case, a man who is supposed to -be gifted with prophetic power, dreams that it has become necessary to -propitiate some unknown spirit. Then if he afterwards dreams of one of -these boulders he acquaints the tribe with the nature of his dream, and -the camp is immediately moved to the neighbourhood of the particular -stone that is to receive sacrifices. This worship of Spirit rocks -continues to take place. There is a large rounded mass of granite on -the west bank of the Mississippi, lying upon the prairie a few miles -below Lake Pepin, which is still visited by wandering bands of Sioux. -It had been painted a bright red colour. When passing near the spot -where it was situated, I saw the fires of the encampment of Indians who -had come there to perform their ceremonies. - -Amongst the various superstitious customs of the Dakotas, none are -more singular than those which are related to serpent worship, and I -listened with attention to the opinions of the Sioux upon this subject. -They said that with serpents, as with other animals, the sacrifices -made to them were entirely a personal matter, depending upon the -nature of the dreams and upon the special kind of affinity that an -Indian might believe himself to possess with them. With regard to -rattlesnakes the methods of propitiation varied, for it happens that -some of the men of a tribe find that they have a power of fascination -over these reptiles. Others are aware of a feeling of dread of them, -and consequently act differently. Usually a snake worshipper, upon -meeting a rattlesnake, carefully clears and smooths the ground and -places upon it his offering. He then fills his pipe with tobacco, -lights it and turns the mouth-piece towards the snake, holding the bowl -in his hands. He then makes his request.[50] But, said the Sioux, these -things are done in secret and very little is known about them. Each -Indian, especially concerned, knows how and in what manner to offer his -sacrifice. - -There is necessarily a difficulty in comprehending the depth or extent -of the belief in the supernatural powers of the gods ruling over them, -as understood and acted upon by ignorant and savage natures, such as -the Dakotas, whose opinions have been formed after they have undergone -long periods of fasting and suffering. An event occurred in a tribe -then dwelling near the banks of the Minnesota, which proved that these -Indians believed that their gods took a direct part in the government -of the world beneath them, and manifested their anger by punishing -those men who had offended them, unless a sufficient sacrifice was made -as a propitiation. This event was reported in the year 1852, by Mr. -Prescott, who was residing amongst the Sioux. - -His letter ran as follows:— - - “St. Peters, _January_ 26, 1852. - - “SIR, - - “I mentioned an instance of human sacrifice amongst the Sioux, - but I did not know for what cause at the time, but since I have - found out the cause of the sacrifice. - - “There came up a terrible thunder-storm. The lightning was - flashing and falling in every direction about the Indian’s - lodge, and the Indian thought the lightning or thunder was - angry with him, and was about to kill him; so the Indian took - his gun and shot his own son, and offered him as a sacrifice to - the thunder, to save his own life.”[51] - -Amongst the Indian races occupying the Northern American continent, -the Dakotas and the Pawnees are the only tribes who are known to have -had the custom of sacrificing human beings to their gods. It is of -importance to remark that these two races dwelt in neighbouring lands, -and had customs which point to analogies with the Toltecs and Aztecs, -in Southern Mexico, and the Mound Builders in Ohio. With the Dakotas -human sacrifices were the greatest of the propitiations to their angry -gods. It was known that Faribault had dwelt with a tribe of the Sioux -upon an occasion when one of these sacrifices occurred, and I asked -him to give me a detailed account of the proceedings that then took -place, for cases of that serious nature rarely happen, although some -centuries earlier, when tribal wars were frequent and perilous, it may -be conjectured that they were numerous. - -Faribault said that, at the time when this human sacrifice occurred, -he was living with a band of Sioux belonging to the Sissiton tribe, -and they were encamped near the west shores of Lake Pepin. “They -had come to the conclusion that, for some reason which they did not -comprehend, a curse was upon them. Everything seemed to go wrong. Game -was scarce and hard to kill, and there was much distress and sickness. -Fastings and the usual sacrifices seemed to be of no avail, and nothing -removed the evil influences which surrounded them. Finally an Indian, -not a chief, but a man who was an orator and a prophet, had it made -known to him by a dream what propitiation was required. This man had -three daughters. The youngest of them was twelve years old; she was a -beautiful child and her father’s favourite. He dreamt that, to appease -the Great Spirit, it was necessary to sacrifice this child. In the -morning before sunrise, he awoke the girl and told her to go out of -the tent, wash herself and then put on her best dress and all her -ornaments. He then called the tribe together and told them his dream. -When they had heard what he declared they removed the tents to an -adjacent camping ground and remained there until he joined them. He was -then left alone with his daughter. He told her that in his dream he had -seen the Great Spirit who had commanded that she should be sacrificed. -His daughter accordingly stood up, and facing the sun, began to sing -her death song, which was a kind of hymn. At noon, when the sun had -risen to its highest point in the sky, he killed her.” - -The Sioux stated that after this sacrifice everything prospered, -sickness ceased, game became abundant and all went well with the -tribe.[52] - -The burial customs of the Dakotas were, in several respects, -distinctive. The dead were placed upon an open framework or -scaffolding, which, when the tribes were encamped upon the prairies, -was raised a sufficient height above the ground to be out of the reach -of wolves. Ultimately the bones were taken to the tribal burial places. -It is not improbable that the Mound Builders had similar usages.[53] - -The Sacs and Foxes who dwelt on the lands near the southern borders of -a part of the Dakota territories had different customs. Judge Williams -told me that, when he was residing amongst them, it was their practice, -when burying a man, to fix two upright posts. The body was placed in -a sitting position on the surface of the ground with the back resting -against one of the posts, and the feet touching the other. It was then -covered over with earth. - -The methods followed by the Dakotas and Chippewas in curing illness by -the use of steam appear to be of very ancient origin, and evidently are -the same as those that were described by Clavigero as being practised -by the Aztecs in the towns of Mexico. They are also adopted by the -Shoshones in the deserts of Utah. Amongst the Dakotas a low circular -wigwam is made about four feet high. The frame is usually covered -with buffalo skins in such a manner that no steam can escape. A small -opening is left through which the patient can crawl in. In the interior -of the wigwam some sand is put upon the ground. Stones which have been -heated by fire are then pushed in under the wigwam and placed upon this -sand, together with a jar of water. The patient then pours the water -upon the stones until the interior is filled with vapour or steam. - -When the Jesuit missionaries surveyed the shores of Lake Superior in -1669, they reported that the savages in preparing their meals, used -a pail made of birch bark, which contained water. Hot stones were -thrown into this until the water was raised to a temperature which was -sufficiently high to cook their food. This custom was similar to -that which was followed by the Maoris in New Zealand. - -[Illustration: - - BEAR SKIN. RED DOG. ROCKY BEAR. - - CHIEFS OF THE OGALLALAS. - - (DAKOTAS.)] - - It is hazardous to attempt to form any conclusions, based upon - analogies, respecting the habits and superstitions of savage - races, but with regard to the Maoris and the Dakotas, there are - circumstances which require that a passing notice should be - given to them. - - The New Zealanders, like the Dakotas, placed the bodies of the - dead upon platforms or high scaffoldings. After a certain time - the bones were scraped and gathered together, and taken to the - burying place. - - The Maoris also had much faith in dreams, and believed that it - was chiefly through them that they received communications from - their gods. It was also usual for widows to show their grief, - upon the death of their husbands, by cutting themselves with - sharp instruments. - - The Sandwich Islanders, who are believed to be of the same race - as the Maoris, used, in cases of sickness, a steam bath in the - same manner as the Dakotas. - - In 1878, I met a number of Maoris in the valley of the Waikato, - in the northern island of New Zealand. The men and women - differed from the Malay type, and resembled, in many respects, - the North American Indians. I am of opinion, that at a remote - period, there must have been a communication between the - aboriginal natives of the Sandwich Islands, and the Indians - dwelling upon the western coasts of North America. - - - - - CHAPTER IX. - - The Golden City. — Coast of California. — Cape San Lucas. — - Manzanillo. — Alligators and Sharks. — Acapulco. — San José de - Guatemala. — Escuintla. — City of Guatemala. — Indian pilgrims - from Esquipulas. — Ancient mounds on the plains of Mixco. — - Insurrection of Indians. — Decapitation of their leader. — - Preparations for the journey across the Continent to Palenque - and Yucatan. - - -In the forenoon of the third day of January, the “Golden City” -commanded by Captain Lapidge, left San Francisco for the Central and -South American Pacific ports. - -We had on board, as passengers, several members of the Austrian -mission, originally embarked in the frigate Danube under their chief -Rear-Admiral Baron Petz, with instructions to make commercial treaties -with China, Japan, Siam, Guatemala, Chili and other Spanish-American -States. This part of the mission had been detached to visit Guatemala -and it was arranged that upon the completion of their duties in Central -America, they should rejoin the frigate in the Southern Pacific. Dr. -Scherzer, the author of the narrative of the voyage of the Novara, and -who had also published the journal of his travels in Central America, -was placed in charge of this service. He was accompanied by Baron -Herbert and Baron Ransonnet, acting as secretaries. I had already met -these members of the staff and it was a mutual pleasure to find that we -were proceeding to the same regions. - -Soon after leaving the harbour we approached the rocks upon which great -numbers of seals were seen. They watched our movements with attention, -and in reply to the sound of the blows of our paddlewheels upon the -water, bellowed at us defiantly. - -[Illustration: The “Golden City” passing the Seal Rocks.] - -We at first steered a course near the shore, but finding that there -was a heavy ground swell, we kept about four miles out from the land, -a distance sufficiently close to enable us to have a good view of the -Californian hills. One night, large beacon fires were reported to be -observed on the heights of the southern extremity of Lower California. -The course was consequently altered towards a small bay within Cape San -Lucas, and a boat came alongside conveying passengers. It was very dark -and the signal fires threw a fitful glare upon the sea and our ship, -at intervals. As we followed the line of the coast, the scenery became -very grand as we approached the mountain ranges of Mexico. The weather -was fine, the sea, rightly called Pacific, was as smooth as glass, and -there was an effect of atmosphere which gave a marvellously beautiful -colouring to the slopes and valleys of the mountains. - -Several days after our departure from San Francisco we entered the -little land-locked harbour of Manzanillo. When rounding the point -we disturbed several flocks of pelicans. They gathered speed with -a few flaps of their great wings and then swept over the water -noiselessly without further effort, altering the direction of their -flight until they were sheltered from observation by some intervening -rocks.[54] Manzanillo is one of the seaports of the city of Mexico, -and communicates with the capital by a road leading to Colima and -Guadelajara. Near the village there is a shallow lake called La Laguna -de Cuyutlan, in which exist an extraordinary number of alligators. - -After our ship had anchored, some of the passengers went to look at -this quiet reptile-infested lagoon, which is separated from the sea by -a narrow strip of land. Captain Lapidge told us that a few years before -our arrival, there had been a long continuance of westerly winds, and -these together with an unusually high tide caused the sea to flow over -the isthmus into the lagoon. Numerous alligators then came out from it -and crossed over into the bay where they were immediately attacked by -sharks, which abound on this part of the coast. He said that a fearful -combat took place and for several days the bay was deluged with blood. - -It had become dark before we returned from the lagoon, and we passed -through the Indian village situated near its banks. The women were busy -grinding, on rounded granite slabs, grains of maize; or cooking various -herbs and vegetables in small earthern pans. The interior of their huts -contained one room. The ground was usually bare, but in some instances -a few mats were laid down. The exterior was formed of long upright -poles or sticks closely bound together. The roofs, which were high and -sloped steeply downwards, were made of brushwood and palm leaves. - -During the night we continued our voyage near the Mexican coast, and on -the morning of the 10th entered the harbour of Acapulco. In the crowded -market place we saw a strange medley of races, Indians, Negroes, -Ladinos, Mestizos, and Pintos who afforded ample occupation for the -artistic talents of Baron Ransonnet. The Indians were of moderate -stature and of a dark swarthy colour, their faces were broad, and -their hair was long, heavy and very black. All had peculiarly restless -eyes. We were interested in looking at the Pintos, a numerous race of -Indians inhabiting the hills of this part of Mexico, who are given that -name in consequence of the coloured spots on their skin. Some of them -were merely spotted, others had their feet or hands almost white and of -a disagreeable livid tint. In several, the dark red skin of the face -was completely covered with white round spots. These spots always begin -as blue marks and develop into sores, which afterwards heal into these -indelible white scars. The Indians say that this kind of leprosy is -inherited. In all other respects they were perfectly healthy. - -At midnight on the 13th, we arrived off San José de Guatemala. Captain -Lapidge lowered a boat and put us on board the nearest vessel, which -we afterwards found to be a North German barque called the Gelert. -Although the sea was smooth she was rolling heavily. The Golden City -also gave some deep lurches, and it was difficult to get in or out of -the boat. Baron Ransonnet left us with the intention of proceeding to -Panama. Finally Dr. Scherzer, Baron Herbert, and myself, made the best -of our position and slept—or endeavoured to sleep—for the rest of the -night upon the deck of the Gelert. - -The view from the barque when the sun rose above the horizon, was of -a character not to be forgotten. The great range of volcanoes which, -commencing in the North in Alaska, runs like a backbone near the -Pacific Coast through the entire length of the American continent to -the southern limits of Patagonia, is here very remarkable. The great -mountains of Agua and Fuego, rising respectively over twelve and -thirteen thousand feet above the sea, were immediately opposite to us. -The volcano of Pacaya was on the right, and, on the left, were the -distant volcanoes near the Lake of Atitlan. - -Our landing was accomplished without difficulty, and in the forenoon -we left San José for the capital in an open carriage, with three good -horses harnessed abreast. The road ran in a straight line through the -forest which covered the low tropical plain, extending for a distance -of forty miles from the sea to the base of the hills. Occasionally -we passed the huts occupied by the mixed race descended from African -negroes and Indians, who have been given the name of Zambos. - -It would be difficult to account for the existence of a race of African -descent, dwelling near the Western coasts of the Pacific, if we did not -possess the statements of the Spanish historians, and their explanation -of the circumstances which necessitated the introduction of negroes for -the purpose of working in the mines or plantations, and to take the -place of the Indians who died in great numbers in consequence of the -severity of their treatment by the conquerors. The features of these -Zambos, resembled those of the aboriginal race of Indians, but the hair -was like that of the negroes on the West coast of Africa. - -At the village of Masagua, we saw several Indians who had come down -from the hills. They were men of unusually diminutive stature, all -of them being under five feet in height, but they were well-formed, -muscular and active. The town of Escuintla was reached after sunset, -and towards midnight I went to the Plaza to see the numerous groups of -Indians, who were resting there for the night on their way to a church -festival that was going to be held several days’ journey eastwards. -The moonlight was extraordinarily brilliant, and the Indians evidently -considered that its influence was dangerous, for they carefully avoided -it, and sheltered themselves amongst the trees, or within the deep -shadows cast by the walls of the church. The platform in front of the -beautiful façade of that building, was surrounded by colonnades of palm -trees. Beyond, but seemingly close at hand, were the gigantic forms of -the twin volcanoes of Water and Fire. - -Before daybreak we arrived at the village of Amatitlan, situated on -the borders of the lake of that name near the base of the volcano of -Pacaya, and in the morning we saw before us the plateau upon which -stands the city of Guatemala, five thousand feet above the sea. -Gradually we found that we were accompanied by Indians belonging to the -various villages near the road, who were on their way to the market -place, carrying on their backs heavy loads of wood, crockery and -vegetables. - -As we approached the gates of the city, our horses increased their -pace, and the scene became very animated. Hundreds of Indians joined -us from all directions, and ran by the sides of our carriage. The -bells of the numerous churches were ringing for prayers. We passed the -castle, the market place crowded with Indian women selling their wares, -and the cathedral. Priests and sisters of mercy were hurrying along -the streets; groups of soldiers carrying old-fashioned muskets, were -lounging near their barracks. Our horses became excited and broke into -a gallop, and finally, with great noise and speed, we drove up to the -doors of the Hotel Aleman, and were soon installed in comfortable rooms -opening into the central court or patio, which forms such an agreeable -feature in all well-arranged Spanish inns. - -Soon after our arrival Colonel Miguel Garcia y Granados, one of the -Government officials, called upon Dr. Scherzer and gave us a vivid -report of the political condition of the Republic. The Indians of the -provinces between Guatemala and the Mexican frontier were in rebellion. -A large force of them under the leadership of an Indian, named -Serapio Cruz, were marching towards the city, and a battle between -them and the Government troops was imminent. He also mentioned some -interesting facts with respect to the late President Carrera. Carrera -was a remarkable instance of native capacity. He was an uneducated -Indian of obscure birth who, by sheer force of character, energy, and -courage, was, at an early age, placed at the head of large bodies of -Indians during the various revolutionary outbreaks which succeeded the -declaration of Independence from Spain. Finally he became President of -the Republic and governed the people with such obstinate determination -and firmness of will that, in a few years, he was able to place the -whole country under a steady system of control. In doing this he was -assisted by the fact of being an Indian and having, consequently, great -personal influence over the natives. He also received the support of -the priests for, like all Indians, he was extremely fanatical. - -Colonel Garcia told us that Carrera always had on his writing table -a toy representing Louis Philippe with his hat in his hand. This toy -had a rounded base and was so weighted that, when it was touched, it -rolled backwards and forwards, and would thus represent Louis Philippe -constantly bowing hat in hand. Carrera when engaged at his official -work would frequently make the toy move, and then would say to those -that stood near him “It was in that way, by too much bowing, that -Louis Philippe lost his throne, I shall take care that I do not make -the same mistake.” Carrera was not only supported by the priests, but -also by the Spaniards, who knew that he alone could keep the Indians in -subjection. Latterly he spoke much of the Indian chief Cruz, and said -that he was the only man in the State who was to be feared. - -During our residence in Guatemala, I was fortunate in having the -acquaintance of Don Francisco Gavarrete, who held a post under the -Government and was well informed upon all subjects relating to -the Indians. He was also, I understood, the proprietor of some of -the lands within which were the sculptured monoliths and idols of -Quirigua. At the Museum in the city there was a good collection of -Indian antiquities which had been found within the territories of -the Republic, including several idols from Copan and Santa Cruz del -Quiché. When examining these I was accompanied by him and he directed -my attention to certain objects of importance. Many of them were well -carved and it was clear that the sculptors were able to work and shape -the hardest stone with accuracy and skill. - -There was a small idol, made of hard green stone, which had been -found hidden behind the high altar of a church near the town of -Gueguetenango. Dr. Scherzer, who during his travels in Central America, -had learnt much about the religious customs of the natives, told us -that the priest of a church situated amongst the hills near Atitlan -had noticed an Indian girl, who was one of his parishioners, showing -an unusual fervour in her devotions, and he tried to find out the -cause. He, at last, discovered that she had buried an idol in the -ground close behind the church beyond the altar, so that although she -appeared to be praying to what was before her in the church, she was -actually addressing her requests to the idol outside. This priest -considered that his Indians were by nature idolaters and that it was -not practicable to prevent them from returning to their ancient habits. -Señor Gavarrete said that in the Department of Vera-Paz the Indians -had still the custom of erecting somewhere near the churches small -idol-houses in which they kept the image of a saint. To this they -offered sacrifices of meats and flowers, and at certain seasons they -were accustomed to keep watch or guard at the door throughout the night. - -It is more than strange that nothing has been discovered in the course -of the explorations of the various ancient sites in this part of the -continent, which throws any light upon the methods employed by the -Indians, for the purpose of carving and shaping granite, green marble, -and hard lava. No mason’s implement of any kind has been found. A -few copper chisels appear to have been used for some purpose which -is unknown. They could not apparently have been of much service in -working stone, for the edges were rounded and the metal was soft. This -question as to the system adopted by the Indian sculptors in producing -such excellent work, is as inexplicable now as it was to the Spaniards -in the sixteenth century. - -Señor Gavarrete asked me to accept a fine obsidian spear head which had -been found amongst the ruins of Quirigua. This black volcanic glass is -admirably adapted for cutting and wounding purposes. I had previously -picked up in an ancient earthwork outside the city, several fragments -of the same substance, which had evidently been placed on the edges of -wooden daggers or swords which inflicted jagged and dangerous wounds. -Obsidian knives were used by the Aztec priests when offering human -sacrifices to their gods. The spear head was in form and in the method -followed for chipping the mineral into the requisite shape, similar to -the large arrow heads made by the Indians in the western parts of North -America, where obsidian is obtained near the volcanic ranges of the -Sierra Nevada. - -During the latter part of the month numerous groups of Indians passed -through the city on their return from the pilgrimage to Esquipulas. -The festival of the church at that place occurs annually on the 15th -of January. It is estimated that upon an average over eighty thousand -Indians are present upon that occasion. Esquipulas became an important -shrine in consequence of a wooden crucifix, black from age, having -been found buried in the ground near that town. It was supposed by -the Spaniards that it must have been lost by one of their missionary -priests when passing through that part of the province at some early -period soon after the conquest. This black crucifix was placed in the -sanctuary, and from some cause which has not been ascertained, it was -soon held in the highest veneration by the natives. - -Indians assembled there in great numbers from all parts of the country, -and travelled great distances in order to be present at the festival, -and to take part in the performance of the religious ceremonies. - -At the Cathedral in Guatemala we frequently saw the pilgrims kneeling -before the shrines and showing much devotional respect to certain -images. These natives were invariably grown up men and women. -They journeyed on foot, carrying with them their provisions and -water-gourds. They seemed to be desirous of avoiding all contact or -conversation with others. Their conduct was quiet and unobtrusive. -It was their custom to pass silently through the city. At the doors -of each church they stopped for a few moments, and then entered and -knelt before the altar. After the completion of these acts of worship, -they proceeded on their journey across the plains towards the huts and -villages scattered over the slopes of the distant hills. They never -halted in the street, or took any part in the daily movements of the -inhabitants. - -The pilgrimage is also undertaken by Indians from the distant regions -of Central America. Many of them traverse hundreds of miles. There is -something in the devotional nature of these ignorant aboriginal people -which escapes the comprehension of those who observe them. I noticed -that the Indians varied considerably in stature and complexion. The men -who dwelt among the Cordilleras seemed to be of a finer race than those -who were settled on the plains, and were much darker in the colour of -their skin. - -The most attractive spot in the city was the market place. Within the -square, crowds of people, Indians and Ladinos, were daily assembled, -all of them buying, selling and carrying on the ordinary traffic, with -a silence and listless indifference which was in strong contrast with -the life and animation of the cities in the United States. It was a -constant pleasure to observe the movements of the younger Indian women, -who in their appearance and demeanour, were far superior to the men. -This difference arises from their habits and employment. The women -have a certain kind of dignity in their manner, caused, in a great -measure, by their usage of carrying water jars and pans of crockery -poised upon their heads. They therefore walk slowly and hold themselves -upright. This custom which begins from early childhood, and forms part -of their daily life, has the result of giving them good figures and a -particularly graceful movement. - -The men, on the contrary, have a crouching appearance, caused by the -method in which they have been accustomed, from boyhood, to carry -their burdens. They relieve the pressure of the weight on their -backs by means of a broad band passed over the forehead and thus, -by bending forward, the load is made less oppressive. The men and -boys consequently contract a stooping posture, and this presents -an unfavourable contrast to the women, whose bearing is precisely -the reverse. There is another circumstance which has its influence -in shaping the figures of the women. They carry all small things on -the open palm of the left hand, which is thrown back and held well -raised up. In fact the same causes which affect the appearance of the -Indians in North America are present here, but with the difference -that there it is the squaw who contracts the stooping and bent figure, -through carrying her children and other burdens, and it is the man who -maintains the upright figure and dignified manner. - -On the plains a few miles to the west of the city, in the direction of -the village of Mixco, there is a large and extensive group of ancient -Indian mounds of whose construction or purpose nothing is known. They -have never been scientifically examined and I was not able to ascertain -that any plans had been made of them. No author has alluded to them -unless by a mere passing notice, and yet they seemed to throw more -light upon the question of the Toltecan or Aztecan migrations than any -other remains of ancient antiquities. Possibly no previous traveller in -this part of Central America had also seen the mounds of Cahokia, near -the eastern banks of the Mississippi, or he could hardly have failed to -have observed that their resemblance is so great, and indeed so evident -as to place it almost beyond doubt, that the builders of the mounds -at Cahokia were of the same race as those that dwelt on the plains of -Mixco. - -As it would be highly improbable that any nation would migrate from -lands abounding with means of food, comfort and warmth to what must -have been, at that period, the comparatively inhospitable regions of -North America, the tribes that constructed these mounds must have -originally migrated from the valley of the Mississippi. - -I was employed for several days in making a rough survey of this Indian -settlement and took measurements of the inclosure. The ground plan was -made in the form of an extensive and irregular parallelogram about -twelve hundred yards long and five hundred yards wide. The mounds upon -the sides of the greatest length vary in their dimensions. Some of them -are very large and exceed forty-five feet in height. The most important -are those platform earthworks at each end of the inclosure upon which -may have been placed the principal communal buildings, or the houses of -the Caciques. There was also a mound of an exceptional shape, situated -in the interior which, from its position, may have been intended for -purposes similar to those that existed within the embankments of Fort -Ancient in Ohio. - -When Carrera was President of Guatemala he wished to know for what -object these mounds were built, and he therefore gave orders that -one of the largest of them should be thoroughly examined. It was -ascertained, contrary to expectation, that it was not a burial place. -The only thing found in it was a large and well carved granite -grindstone of the same shape as those at present used by the Indians -for grinding maize. The results of Carrera’s excavations appeared -to establish the conclusion that the mounds were chiefly raised for -the purpose of placing dwellings upon them; and this is also, I was -informed, the opinion of the natives living in the neighbourhood. - -[Illustration: ANCIENT INDIAN MOUNDS NEAR GUATEMALA.] - -In the meanwhile from day to day the capital had been disturbed by -rumours of the movements of the advancing insurgents, and it was -difficult to make any decided plans with regard to my journey in the -interior. It was considered by the Government authorities that it would -be highly imprudent for me to attempt to pass through the disturbed -provinces, as the natives were known to have become unsettled and -excited. It was therefore with great satisfaction that I heard that the -Indians were coming near and that a decisive battle was imminent. The -President Don Vincente Cerna had taken all proper precautions, and had -placed the troops under the command of his most able officer, General -Solares. - -On the twenty-third of January we were informed that the rebels were -approaching, and that an action between the forces was expected to -take place immediately. Baron Herbert and myself then went into the -adjoining country with the hope of obtaining a distant view of the -operations. In the afternoon we heard the firing of guns from the -castle announcing to the people that the Indians were defeated, and, -to prevent there being any doubts upon the subject, messengers arrived -from General Solares bringing with them the head of his opponent. This -practical method of assuring the inhabitants of the success of the -Government troops had a good effect. It was afterwards made known that -the Indians had been surrounded at an early hour and taken by surprise -whilst they were amongst the ravines. Serapio Cruz fought desperately -but was killed and decapitated. - -Thus ended the Indian rebellion, and a period of considerable local -anxiety. A political revolution is an event which may be expected to -occur frequently in Spanish-American republics, but a rising of Indians -in rebellion or, as it is called, a “Guerra de Castas” (war of races), -is a far more serious matter, as was proved by the occurrences that -happened at the time of the revolt of the Indians in Yucatan, in 1847, -when their war cry was “Death to all Spaniards.” - -At a dinner given at the English legation upon the evening of the -conclusion of the insurrection, the subject of the state of the -Guatemalan provinces was considered, with reference to the expediency -of my intention to travel alone through the disturbed districts. -Many of the members of the foreign legations were present.[55] It -was thought that the Indian population near the Mexican frontier -and amongst the remote parts of the Cordilleras would be, for some -time, in a restless and excitable condition, and might be inclined -to show their revenge for what had lately happened, by killing any -white man who should attempt to pass through the country or who -should by misadventure fall into their power. I was however informed -by a Spaniard who understood the character of the native races -that, although this opinion was true with respect to Spaniards, an -Englishman would probably travel over the Cordilleras with safety. I -accordingly lost no time in completing my preparations for the journey. - -There was a difficulty in obtaining a good ambling mule, without which -long rides over a rugged country would be necessarily fatiguing. -Fortunately the Duke de Licignano, who was residing in Guatemala, -was willing to part with one of his trained mules, and it was with -great satisfaction that I saw this well-bred animal brought into the -courtyard of the inn, and placed under the care of my guide. - -I received from the Government an official passport or letter of -recommendation to the Corregidors under their jurisdiction, which I -hoped would be of service as far as the frontier. - -Mexico was reported to be temporarily in a lawless condition, but -I expected to find upon my arrival within its boundaries, that the -authority of the republic was sufficiently established to enable me to -proceed without any serious obstacles to the ruins of Palenque. - - - - - CHAPTER X. - - Mixco. — La Antigua Guatemala. — Volcanoes of Fire and Water. — - Comolapa. — Ancient Indian Ruins of Patinamit. — Kachiquel - Indians. — A Dominican Priest. — Barrancas. — Las Godinas. — - Panajachel. — Human Sacrifices to the Lakes and Volcanoes. — - Lake Atitlan. — Sololá. — Orchids. — San Tomas. — Quiché - Indians. - - -At daybreak on the thirtieth day of January, my Indian guide Anastasio, -reported that the mules were ready. He had filled the saddle bags with -a good supply of provisions, together with a store of native chocolate, -and had otherwise made due arrangements for the mules in the event of -any mischance happening to them. We then proceeded on our way to the -town of La Antigua Guatemala. Baron Herbert came with us for several -miles, and Mr. Hague proposed to accompany me for a day’s journey and -see me safely started on my road. - -When we came near the Indian mounds, I halted for a short time to take -a sketch of them from some rising ground whence a good view could be -obtained. On the left rose the Volcan de Agua. In the distance could -be seen the village of Mixco, and on the right were the Sierras, -stretching far away towards the North, looking well defined in the -clear atmosphere of a bright and sunny morning. - -At Mixco we stopped for breakfast, and were joined by the cura of the -parish, who was an agreeable and well-informed man. Mixco is especially -interesting to Englishmen on account of its having been the curacy -of our fellow countryman, Thomas Gage.[56] He was appointed there in -December, 1629, and had the charge of this and some adjacent parishes -for about seven years. He then left Guatemala and returned to England. -Beyond the village we obtained a view of the Lake Amatitlan. We then -passed San Lucas, and reached La Antigua Guatemala in the afternoon. - -Upon our arrival we called upon Padre Martinez, and asked him to show -us the ancient cathedral. It was in a ruined condition, and at the -time of our visit the nave and aisles were occupied by cattle. In the -centre of the roof we observed the emblem of the imperial arms of -Austria, the double-headed eagle, which fixed the date of the erection -of the building as being in the reign of the Emperor Charles V. There -still remained within the shrines many fine wood carvings, and it -could be seen that the ornamentation of the interior must have been in -accordance with the artistic abilities of the Spanish architects of -that period. After leaving this fine example of one of the earliest -churches in Central America, we looked at the ruins of the palace -and government buildings. It was evident that the ancient Guatemala, -before it was destroyed by earthquakes, must have well deserved its -reputation of being, next to Mexico, the most flourishing city in the -New World. - -Close at hand and dominating the ruins, are the lofty twin volcanoes -of Agua and Fuego (Water and Fire). The former in 1541, caused the -destruction of the first town established by the Spaniards, which -is now called La Vieja Guatemala. The manner in which that capital -was overwhelmed and destroyed, was so exceptional, that it is -desirable that the events which then occurred should be brought into -consideration. - -It was stated by a Spanish resident who was present on that occasion, -that although the rainfall had been abundant during the year, there -was nothing in the other atmospheric conditions to give any reason for -anxiety. But on the 10th of Sept., 1541, two hours after sunset, a -mass of water suddenly issued from the crater of the nearest volcano, -and rushing down the slope of the mountain with great velocity, -immediately swept away the greater part of the town. This inundation -was accompanied by the shock of an earthquake. During the night the -disasters caused by the rapid waters are described as having been -terrible. The torrents, with which were mingled masses of detached -rocks and the trunks of uprooted trees, carried away everything before -them. Amongst those who perished was Doña Beatriz de la Cueva, the -widow of Alvarado, the conqueror of these southern provinces.[57] - -[Illustration: CATHEDRAL AND SQUARE, LA ANTIGUA GUATEMALA.] - -The Spanish inhabitants formed the belief that this unusual disaster -must have been caused by movements of a miraculous nature, and that the -eruption of a volcano throwing out floods of water was a punishment -inflicted upon them on account of their sins. They thought that evil -spirits had been permitted to cast loose upon them the penalties of -fire, water and earthquake. Bernal Diaz who a few years afterwards -resided at La Antigua Guatemala, gives in his History of the Conquest a -vivid but imaginative description of the horrors of that night, based -upon statements made by the bishop of the diocese. He reports that -during the tempest great stones were rolled down the mountain and into -the city by numbers of demons (muchos demonios,) and that many people -heard shouts, yells, and voices, and saw two monstrous black men moving -in the rolling waters, calling out, “Forsake everything, for the end of -all things is at hand.”[58] - -Various theories have been suggested in explanation of this outburst -of water from the volcano. It is supposed that the crater may have -contained a large volume of water, which after the excessive rainfall -of the year exerted such pressure as to burst open the inclosing -sides and that the contents were suddenly set free. If this theory is -accepted as being correct, it must be granted that the interior of the -crater was sufficiently compact to enable it to be water-tight, and -consequently capable of becoming a small reservoir or lake. It is -possible that the Volcan de Agua may have been for a long time extinct, -and that consequently the sides of the interior of the crater gradually -became impermeable. Under ordinary circumstances the materials of which -volcanic cones are formed, would not be capable of retaining great -quantities of water.[59] - -I believe that the destruction of La Vieja Guatemala by the action of a -vast torrent of water issuing from a volcano is the only instance that -is known of such an extraordinary event, and it can be well understood -how it happened that the superstitious residents in that capital felt -assured that such a catastrophe must have been the work of demons and -the powers of darkness. The second city was placed in a position where -there was less liability to injury from any eruption, but it suffered -so constantly from the shocks of numerous and successive earthquakes, -that it was abandoned after having been occupied for more than two -centuries. The present capital was established in 1775. - -The Volcan de Fuego is still occasionally active, and not many years -before I passed near it, flames and dense volumes of smoke were -reported to have come out of the crater, but no serious eruptions have -taken place in this century. In the last century several occurred, and -upon one occasion the city was enveloped in complete darkness during -the greater part of the day. At the present time the volcanoes look -down upon the ruined cities with grandeur and repose. - -On the morning of our departure from La Antigua Guatemala, we rode -through the Plaza and passed near to the ancient palace of the Spanish -governors, the public buildings, and the cathedral. All these ruins -looked beautiful in the clear light of dawn. - -[Illustration: Volcan de Agua. Volcan de Fuego.] - -As the sun rose we began to ascend the hills. When we reached the -summit I stopped for a few minutes for the purpose of observing, -towards the south, the lofty cones of Agua and Fuego whose graceful -outlines were clear and distinct in the atmosphere of a deep blue -tropical sky. In the forenoon we reached Chimaltenango, which was once -a place of importance but is now becoming deserted. Beyond this town we -followed a track leading to the village of Comolapa, and had to descend -an abrupt and deep ravine, which crossed that part of the country. -We then rode up a long hill and passed near several groups of oak -trees, whose leafless branches were made gay by clusters of brilliantly -coloured orchids. - -Upon arriving at Comolapa, I obtained a room in a little inn, where -we arranged to remain for the night, having already accomplished a -distance of nine leagues. The parish priest, Padre Rodriguez, proposed -that I should join him at supper, at which meal there also appeared a -Mexican, travelling on his way to Guatemala from the frontier, and who -was able to give me some useful intelligence about the roads and the -political state of the country in the province of Chiapas. The Padre -spoke with earnestness about the difficulties he had to overcome with -regard to the teaching of the Catholic doctrines. He said that there -were more than two thousand Indians under his charge. They attended -church as a custom, and seemed to take part in the services, yet, he -was certain that in their hearts they retained a faith in their ancient -worship, and that they had shrines concealed amongst the mountains -where they kept their idols. He had also found, by experience, that -there was the greatest repugnance amongst them to all attempts at -education, and no children would attend school after they were seven or -eight years old. - -We looked at the interior of the church. Some of the wood carvings -at the altars were well designed and executed. Over the western -porch there was a large coat-of-arms, with lions as supporters. In -this district a great number of the Mexican allies, who accompanied -Alvarado in the conquest of Guatemala, were given lands, and many of -them, during the early periods of the Spanish occupation, were men of -considerable wealth; but their descendants and their families have now -disappeared or have become merged into the aboriginal population. - -On the following morning we proceeded on our journey to Patinamit. We -passed a high mound, situated near the path, which in shape was like -that of Grave Creek, in Virginia; but it was not so large. Its height -was about fifty-five feet. Augustin proposed that we should take a -short cut, in consequence of which we lost our way, lengthened the -ride by over two leagues, and had to descend and ascend a profound and -precipitous barranca. On the sides of the track we saw many ferns, and -passed clumps of mountain firs and other trees belonging naturally to -high altitudes. We were riding over a country at an average height of -seven thousand feet, and following steep and rough tracks, which tried -the prudence of our sure-footed mules to the utmost. At noon we reached -Tepan Guatemala, and were received at the convent by Padre Viatoro. -The remainder of the day was passed in examining the ruins of ancient -Patinamit, the chief city of the Kachiquels, a tribe of the same race -as the Quichés. - -Patinamit is placed upon the summit of a height separated from the rest -of the world by a steep ravine, which, except at one narrow point, so -completely encircles it as to make it practically a kind of detached -island. The site resembles that of Fort Ancient, and the earthworks -are nearly as large as those upon that great fortified hill. It is -supposed that the palaces and temples of the Kachiquels were built -upon this plateau, but nothing of them can now be traced. There are a -few mounds from ten to thirty feet high, and there are several heaps -of large loose stones, evidently taken from the ravine. The position -must have been exclusively chosen for the purposes of defence, for -it is almost impregnable to assault. The surrounding barranca is, in -several places, perpendicular for a depth of over two hundred feet. The -slopes are composed of a firm volcanic substance, consisting chiefly of -pumice, pozzolana, ashes and stones. - -It has been stated[60] that, in Patinamit there was, during the rule -of the Kachiquels, a small building, in which was kept a kind of stand -formed of a substance resembling glass. The judges sat round this -building and heard the causes brought before them. In the ravine below -there was a black transparent stone, in looking into which, could be -seen the representation of the punishment to be awarded. It was also -consulted in time of war. Upon my return to the convent, I asked the -padre if he knew anything about this stone, which might have been an -unusually large fragment of obsidian, such as would have been found in -this region, formed of matter thrown out from the craters of volcanoes. -He said that he had never seen it, and did not know whether it still -existed. He wished me to understand that he did not take any interest -in the past history of the parish, but devoted his attention to his -work amongst the numerous Indians placed under his care. - -Upon the morning of our departure, whilst the guide was saddling the -mules, I went out to the platform in front of the convent walls, to -look at the wide and distant views which it commanded. This outer court -was placed well above the ground. On the top of the steps which led -up to the platform, stood Padre Viatoro, dressed in his robes, and -receiving the homage of his Indian parishioners as they passed beneath -him on their way to their daily work. I had already become aware that -the influence of priests of the Dominican Order was exceptionally great -amongst the Indian tribes in the Cordilleras, but I had not hitherto -observed the actual evidence of their personal power over the minds of -the aboriginal race. The events that were taking place before me, were -extremely strange and characteristic. Each of the Indians, as he went -by, bowed down towards the earth, and waited to receive a blessing. -Several women who had requests to make, knelt and remained in that -posture. All of these meek, simple and ignorant natives seemed to look -upon their priest as a being of a far superior nature to themselves, -and Padre Viatoro by his imperious manner, did not permit them to -suppose that he could be approached otherwise than with the greatest -respect and deference. - -As we proceeded on our journey, I stopped my mule in order to take -a final glance at the convent, and saw the tall erect figure of the -Dominican sharply defined against the sky, whilst men, women and -children were still passing before him. In the far distance were the -ranges of the Cordilleras, and close at hand was the great stronghold -of the Kachiquel conquerors, who, many centuries earlier, held the -ancestors of this submissive race under their subjection and cruel -tyranny. It was a scene in all respects so remarkable, that it remains -fixed upon the memory. - -Our path to the hamlet of Las Godinas led over hills and plains, until -we arrived at the edge of a barranca which we had some difficulty in -crossing. This great chasm was about one mile wide at the top, and -was more than a thousand feet deep; it crossed the level country for -several miles. The sides were almost perpendicular for the first three -hundred feet of descent, and then sloped sharply downwards. Our path -was narrow and, in the places where it curved round the projecting -precipitous banks, looked dangerous, but the mules went forward without -hesitation. As it seemed to be unadvisable to attempt to guide my mule, -I adopted the plan which I thought to be the most safe, and dropped the -bridle over her neck, and she was thus left free to choose the road. I -soon found by experience, that complete confidence could be placed in -her wise and cautious judgment. - -Upon reaching the bottom we rode for some distance up the valley, and -then ascended to the level of the plain. After a short ride across the -open country we came to another equally steep barranca which had to be -crossed. This chasm I estimated to be nearly twelve hundred feet deep. -The sides were composed of volcanic ash, pozzolana and blocks of lava. -The nature of the violent influences that must have been at work in -the production of the ravines, which have thus separated these plateaux -has yet to be fully investigated. With regard to the theory that they -were caused by earthquakes, it may be observed that those around Tepan -Guatemala must be approximately twenty miles from the nearest volcano. - -At noon we reached Las Godinas and halted at a rancho to get breakfast, -and to give our mules a feed of sacate, which is an excellent and -nutritious fodder composed of the stalks of maize. At this hamlet -were assembled a large number of Indians who had come there from the -adjoining highlands. The men were in many respects like the North -American Indians. They were of a deep copper colour, and had black -hair, and large, well shaped noses, broad faces and peculiarly long -upper lips. Their eyes were round, black, furtive and restless. They -belonged to the Kachiquel tribe, and spoke a dialect of the Quiché -language. - -After a few hours’ rest we proceeded. Suddenly we opened upon a -magnificent view. Two thousand feet below us was the great Lake of -Atitlan, five thousand feet above the sea. It was a bright, calm, sunny -afternoon, and the still waters, reflecting the colour of the sky, were -as blue as a sapphire. On the opposite shore, overlooking the lake, was -the Volcano of Atitlan, eleven thousand, eight hundred feet high, and -beyond was a continuous chain of volcanoes stretching westwards towards -Quezaltenango. As we descended the hills the points of view kept -changing. It would be difficult to surpass these marvellously beautiful -combinations of lake and volcanic mountain scenery. - -In the afternoon we reached Panajachel, and after having found a place -of shelter for the mules, I asked the way to the house of a lady to -whom I had a letter of introduction. The envelope bore the address of -Doña Aña Gertrudio Leon de Montalban. I was told that I should find -her at home, and that I was to make inquiries at the small grocer’s -shop in the main street. Accordingly I went to the shop and asked the -old woman behind the counter, who was at the time employed in selling -tallow candles, if she could kindly tell me where Doña Aña de Montalban -was to be found. She said “Señor, permit me to look at the letter,” and -putting on her spectacles, she gazed at the envelope, opened it and -slowly read what was inside. After having grasped the meaning of the -writing, she smiled and said—“I am Doña Aña and this letter is written -by a very good friend of mine, and Señor, my house is very much at -your service; if you will wait for a few minutes until I have closed -the shop, I will give you a room, the cook shall prepare a supper this -evening, and I hope you will make yourself as comfortable as the poor -means at my disposal will permit.” - -Panajachel was crowded with Indians. It was the day of the festival -of the Patron Saint of an adjacent church, and they had all been to -there present offerings and light their candles at the shrines. In -the evening numerous Indian women dressed in white passed through the -village, carrying candles home to place before the altar of their own -house idol. - -The cura of the district, Padre Pedro, asked me to join him, after his -duties were concluded, and talk about the events of the day. The Padre -was evidently a capable and zealous priest. He had the reputation of -having studied the character and language of his Indian congregations, -and of being acquainted with their habits and traditions. I was -therefore glad to have an opportunity of obtaining from such a good -authority some well-founded information respecting the reports of -sacrifices to the lake and volcano. - -Father Pedro said that the ancient custom of sacrificing maidens at -Atitlan, was also followed at the mountain near Quezaltenango. Whenever -the rumbling noises were heard, threatening an eruption, a maiden -was offered as a sacrifice to the angry god by throwing her into the -crater. There used also to be performed some sacrificial ceremonies -connected with the worship of the goddess of the lake, but he did not -know what were the customs upon those occasions. The Abbé Brasseur de -Bourbourg relates, in his notes of a journey through S. Salvador, that -the lake of Xilopango was originally consecrated to the goddess of -water, and that in each year, when the maize was about to ripen, four -young girls were sacrificed. - -It was reported that, in some remote districts, sacrifices were still -offered, but this is very doubtful. The Padre observed that the -Indians at Panajachel, and in the villages bordering on the lake were -excessively superstitious. In their houses or huts they usually had -a room or space set apart for the abode of their saint’s image. This -image would sometimes be carried to the parish church and be left -there for a time, and then would be taken back to the house again with -ceremonies and lighted candles. I mentioned to the Padre how I had -noticed that the Indian women here had a habit of talking together in a -low tone. He said this was chiefly owing to the dialect of the Quiché -language which was spoken in this district, in which many of the sounds -were expressed like a whisper. - -At daybreak Augustin was at the door with the mules, and my kind -hostess prepared for me a cup of chocolate which she said would -fortify me for the journey. We then left for Sololá, and soon were -watching a glorious sunrise. The lake of Atitlan is irregular in its -shape. According to my travelling map it has a circumference exceeding -thirty miles. The most remarkable features are its great depth, and -the almost perpendicular cliffs on the northern side which seem to be -of volcanic formation. The deep blue of its waters is possibly owing -to their depth, and the rarefied state of the atmosphere at this -altitude. Our road led us through several villages containing chiefly -Indian populations, and then we ascended a long and abrupt hill. As -the day advanced we were joined by bands of Indians with cargo mules, -travelling to the market. - -Sololá is the chief town of the Department, and the Corregidor was good -enough to add some recommendations to my government letter. We stopped -there long enough to rest the mules, and then proceeded on our way to -San Tomas, eight leagues distant. Upon reaching the upper slopes of -the hill I dismounted, in order to visit some Indian farm buildings -that occupied several acres of rising ground near our path. Although -there were evidences of what may be called comparative wealth, these -Indians—like all others that I had seen—only possessed a single hut -with one large room in it. Men, women and lads were all busy; the boys -cleaning and spinning wool for their black ponchos or cloaks, and the -women, as usual, engaged in grinding maize and making tortillas. - -We followed a steep ascent. The path was cut into broad steps, up which -my excellent mule clambered with the utmost ease and rapidity, and in -a manner which brought back to the memory many rides amongst the Druse -villages in the mountains of the Lebanon. Upon reaching the summit of -the sierra, I turned the mule’s head round to enable me to look at the -lake and the group of volcanoes beyond it. It was then a scene of great -beauty, but at some remote period in the world’s history, it must have -been a centre of great volcanic violence and devastation. - -Our track led, in an almost straight direction, over hills and across -valleys, maintaining an average altitude of about seven thousand feet. -In this region orchids were numerous. On the edge of one of the lofty -plateaux overlooking a narrow valley, I stopped to look at and sketch a -tall wide-spreading pine, upon whose branches these plants were growing -with the utmost luxuriance. The orchids in this part of Guatemala are -constant to a certain altitude which, as nearly as can be estimated, is -about six thousand five hundred feet. They exclusively prefer to dwell -upon the branches of oaks and pines, and always cling to such as are -strong and full-grown. - -The manner of their habits in selecting the trees upon which they -desired to settle, was eccentric. Thus, with respect to the pines, -they chose those that had broad, spreading branches, and avoided those -whose branches grew upwards. They adopted the same rule with the -oaks. In no instance did I see orchids growing upon any trees except -oaks and pines; all others were left bare. But even when the groups -seemed to be all well suited for their purpose, they would select -certain favourites, and upon the branches of these they would abound, -giving life and colour to them, and leaving the neglected trees dark -and gloomy by contrast. The majority of the orchids were green, but -sometimes they were of a bright rose colour, and these when seen, as -we then saw them, clearly defined against a deep blue sky, gave a -brilliant colouring to the foreground. They added much to the pleasure -of our day’s ride. They were gay, capricious and beautiful. - -San Tomas stands high and commands wide and extensive views of the -sierras. Upon reaching the plateau we rode through the village, and -finally stopped at the gate of the convent within whose walls we were -received by Padre Hernandez. He afterwards proposed that I should look -at his church and the altars. - -There was much in the interior that had a special interest, in relation -to the obscure subject of the ancient faith of the Quichés, the great -tribe that possessed the dominant power in this part of Central America -at the time of the Spanish Conquest, and whose descendants are believed -to dwell in this secluded part of the country. There was no religious -service taking place or about to be held, and there was nobody present -within or without; but the nave and chapels were illuminated with -numbers of candles. The church was large and there were several side -altars. In front of each of them rows of lights had been placed. Down -the length of the nave there was a long thick block of wood in which -were fitted sockets for holding candles. There were also quantities -of offerings placed before each image, or whatever emblem the Indians -chose to worship. - -“For in these matters,” said the Father, “I do not interfere, and in -fact, I have no power or authority whatever within my own church. The -Indians come and go as they please, light their candles, hold their own -services before the altar, and frequently take one of the saints out of -the church, and carry it away to some hut where, for several days, they -will perform musical ceremonies before it, and then the saint will be -brought back to its proper altar.” - -Padre Hernandez, although he had lived many years with these Indians, -had not been able to obtain the slightest positive knowledge of what -they really believed. All that he knew about the subject was, that they -were very superstitious and devotional. He said that in many cases in -the sierras, they had their places of worship where they kept idols, -and at certain seasons of the year went to make offerings, and also to -sacrifice animals to them. - -After a stroll through the village, I went to the Plaza, in the centre -of which were assembled the Alcaldes and other parish dignitaries. They -were sitting round a wood fire, discussing some urgent matters of -local interest. As I had not hitherto stopped in a populous district or -village entirely peopled by Indians, and controlled by native Alcaldes, -I decided to join the group. I received an Indian welcome from these -Quichés, by not being noticed and was given a place in the circle in -silence. I soon became interested in listening to their extremely harsh -and guttural language, and in observing the types of the men, all of -whom were Indians of leading families. - -It was a fine night. The new moon was low in the horizon. The planet -Venus was just beneath it, and immediately above was Jupiter, a rare -and beautiful conjunction, looking bright and sharply defined in the -clear atmosphere of this elevated table land. - -When the discussion came to an end I left the Alcaldes engaged in -toasting tortillas over the embers of the fire, and returned to my -host at the convent. It had been the fate of Padre Hernandez to have -passed the best years of his life in the vain endeavour to get these -Indians to understand the tenets of his faith, but he had latterly -given up, as useless, all these attempts and left them to follow -their own wills. One great and unexpected difficulty he had found -impossible to overcome, in consequence of the imperfection of the -Quiché language, was his inability to convey in equivalent terms -the ideas he wished to explain. He also experienced another serious -hindrance in the execution of his duties. His parish was extensive and -contained several villages which lie amongst the sierras, remote from -each other; and as the Quiché is an unwritten language, and there are -consequently no grammars or dictionaries to create a fixed standard, -words are forgotten, sometimes their meaning becomes changed or they -are differently accented or applied; and thus, in the course of time, -the dialect of one village differs from another. - -I observed to the Padre, that, on the way from Sololá, I had noticed -that the Indians contrived to live in an isolated manner. He said this -was always the case with them. They were naturally inclined to keep -much apart. Those who lived amongst the mountains had their huts at -considerable distances from each other, and the villages maintained -but little communication; as a natural consequence the language was -always changing. “All these Quichés,” he said, “are becoming extremely -ignorant. They keep no record of time or events, and do not seem to -take interest in anything except the dull procedure of their daily -lives.” - -The Padre had found it impossible to feel in any degree assured, -that he understood the private feelings or political views of these -Indians. He considered them to be apparently indifferent to what -was passing around them, and yet capable of being aroused in a very -sudden manner, and of acting together for some common purpose. Their -enthusiasm for anything relating to their superstitious devotion to the -images was however very evident. One of the things which he thought -to be inexplicable, was their extraordinary veneration for the rite -of baptism. They seemed to attach some peculiar importance to this -ceremony, although the Padre did not think that what was in their -minds had any reference to the Church tenets. In all matters connected -with religion, the Indians had become quite independent. They came from -afar to make offerings of blossoms and leaves, lighted candles before -the altars of those saints they wished to honour, and then silently -returned to their huts. - -In the morning, before leaving San Tomas, I was interested in observing -in the crowded Plaza, some of the characteristics of this once -powerful Indian race. The men were of middle size, strongly built and -of a swarthy copper colour. Their noses were large and remarkably -broad at the base. Their eyes were dark and wild. In features many -of them resembled the Sioux. Their voices were loud and the language -disagreeably rough. The women had soft voices and were very gentle in -their manners. They reminded me of the Coptic women of Lower Egypt, in -their method of carrying their pitchers of water. There was the same -graceful attitude, and slow and steady walk. What perhaps, added to -some extent to the resemblance was the long blue dress, and the little -turban-shaped mat placed on the head to receive the pressure of the -weight. - - - - - CHAPTER XI. - - Barrancas. — Santa Cruz del Quiché. — Padre Andres Guicola. — - Ruins of Utatlan. — Report of Don Garcia de Palacio upon human - sacrifices to the gods in Central America, Statement of Bernal - Diaz, about the sacrifices in Mexico. — Burning of the Quiché - Caciques at Utatlan. — Worship of idols by the Quichés. — - Sierras. — Gueguetenango. - - -The journey from San Tomas to Santa Cruz del Quiché was made -unexpectedly fatiguing, in consequence of the difficulties placed -across our track by the numerous barrancas which traversed the plains. -Several of these ravines were of considerable depth, and their slopes -were abrupt. It was satisfactory to realize that we were travelling -in the dry season, and the footing for the mules was therefore fairly -secure. - -Upon our arrival at the village, I rode onwards to the convent steps -where I was met by Padre Andres Guicola, who was unfeignedly delighted -to see me. He said that he was glad to welcome me, and talk to somebody -who was not an Indian, and was particularly pleased to hear that I was -an Englishman, for he was a Biscayan, and had been born and bred near -San Sebastian, and had listened to the traditions concerning the great -Duke of Wellington, and memories, on the part of the ladies, of -the brave officers of his army. It added much to the pleasure he felt -in receiving me, to know that his guest was the son of one of those -officers, who had not only been present at the operations in Biscay and -on the French frontier, but was also severely wounded at Albuera, a -battle held in great respect by all patriotic Spaniards. - -[Illustration: QUICHÉ INDIAN. - - (HOLDING THE OFFICE OF ALGUAZIL.)] - -His isolation amongst these secluded mountains, must have been -repugnant to the nature of this kind hearted and genial padre. He told -me that he had been living in his parish twenty-one years, having been -appointed in 1849, and during that long time regularly fulfilled his -duties amongst his Indians. He declared, in answer to some questions -that I asked with reference to the adjacent ruins of Utatlan, that he -knew but little except from what he had read in the history of Juarros. -The friars of the convent wrote some observations about them, and -also possessed some documents relating to the ancient customs of the -Quichés, but these were destroyed during the revolution of 1829, when -the churches and convents were sacked. Consequently no records existed. - -The view from the Convent was magnificent, commanding towards the -north-west the ranges of the Cordilleras, and towards the south-west -the hills near Quezaltenango. The lofty plateau upon which it stood, -was nearly seven thousand feet above the sea. It is upon three sides -severed from the outer world by a steep barranca which almost surrounds -it. The ruins of Utatlan, the ancient capital of the Quichés, were -about one mile distant, and were evidently placed in such a manner as -to take the greatest advantage of this ravine, in order to form a -stronghold, which according to the conditions of Indian warfare must -have been practically impregnable. - -After having obtained some local information respecting the structures -that I wished to examine, I crossed the plain and entered this -fortress, which once held the reputation of being one of the greatest -of the Indian cities. I was prepared to see much that would be of the -highest interest, because no change had taken place within its walls -since the time when it was destroyed by Alvarado, in 1524. The site has -never since that period been occupied or in any way disturbed. Upon -making a slight preliminary survey of the position, it was evident that -it had been chosen for a fortified inclosure, in the same manner and -for the same purpose as Patinamit. Both fortresses resembled in their -character the defensive encampment of Fort Ancient in Ohio. - -Utatlan is, with the exception of its narrow approach, surrounded by -ravines. In consequence of the ground being thus confined, the original -extent of the city can be easily ascertained, and it is therefore -indisputable that the population maintained within the ramparts could -never have been numerous. It is however observable that it must have -contained buildings, temples, and sacrificial altars of considerable -magnitude. The sites of many of these were still apparent and their -ground plans could be traced. Portions of the walls were also standing. -Parts of the altars were covered with a strong thick cement. - -After having walked round the exterior of the fortress, I made a -series of measurements of the spaces covered by the courts of those -structures which were supposed to have been temples or places set apart -for the purposes of religion and instruction. I observed that some -of the ground plans were similar in their proportions to those that -I had noticed within some ancient earthworks near the modern city of -Guatemala. - -The pyramidal altars or Teocalli had, in their forms and constructions, -their platforms and places for idols, many points of resemblance with -others that were known to have existed in Mexico. - -The rectangular courts in front of the altars, were possibly the -quadrangles within which the ceremonies connected with human sacrifices -were performed. Nothing is absolutely known with respect to the -sacrificial customs of the Quichés, and the allusions to them in the -Quiché manuscripts are not definite. It is, therefore, fortunate that -there exists a statement made to the King of Spain in the year 1576, -upon the condition of the country and the customs of the Indians in the -districts presided over by the government of Guatemala, which describes -in considerable detail what happened amongst the Chontal and Pipil -Indians dwelling in the south-eastern parts of the province. It was -made by the licentiate Don Garcia de Palacio, and with respect to the -subject of these human sacrifices, there has been nothing written which -gives so full and evidently accurate an account of those remarkable -ceremonies. The Report is so valuable and instructive, that it is -desirable to quote what immediately relates to them. Palacio, after -describing the country near lake Uxaca, says:— - -“Three leagues from this is the village of Micla, where anciently the -Pipiles Indians of this district performed great devotions, and came -to offer their gifts and hold their sacrifices; as likewise did the -Chontales and other adjacent Indians of differing languages. They had -in their sacrifices some particularities different from other places, -and had _Kues_ and _teupas_ of great authority, of which there are yet -large signs and indications. - -“Besides the Cacique and usual chief, they had a Pá-pa[61] whom they -called _Tecti_, who was dressed in a long blue robe and wore on the -head a diadem, and sometimes a mitre worked in different colours, and -at the top of this a bunch of very fine feathers, from some birds that -there are in this country, which they call Quetzales.[62] - -“He commonly carried in his hand a staff like a bishop, and all obeyed -him in whatever related to spiritual matters. Next to him, the second -place in the priesthood was held by another who was called _tehu a -matlini_ who was the chief wizard and most learned in their books and -arts, and who declared the auguries and made prognostications. - -“There were, besides these, four priests who were called _teu pixqui_ -dressed in different colours, and with robes down to their feet, black, -green, red and yellow; and these were of the council in the matters of -their ceremonies, and were those who assisted in all the superstitions -and follies of their heathenism.[63] - -“There was also a majordomo who had the charge of the jewels and -ornaments of the sacrifices, and who took out the hearts of those that -were sacrificed, and performed the other personal things that were -necessary; and besides there were others who had trumpets and heathen -instruments to convoke and call together the people to the sacrifices -that were going to take place.” - -Palacio states that the rising sun was worshipped and that there -were two idols, one representing a man named Quetzalcoatl and the -other a woman named Itzqueye and that to these all the sacrifices -were made. There were two special ceremonies which took place, one -at the commencement of the winter and the other at the beginning of -the summer, when two boys between the ages of six and twelve were -sacrificed. Palacio then describes the sacrificial customs in war:— - -“The high priest, the learned wizard, and the four priests met -together, and ascertained by their sortileges and witchcrafts whether -they should have war or if any one was coming against them, and if the -sortileges said yes, they called the Cacique and captains of war, and -told them how the enemies were coming, and where they should go to make -war. - -“The Cacique summoned all his warriors, and went out in search of the -enemies, and if they gained the victory in the battle, the Cacique -dispatched a messenger to the high priest, and informed him upon what -day he had succeeded, and the sage examined unto whom the sacrifice -should be made. If it was to Quetzalcoatl the ceremonies lasted fifteen -days, and upon each day one of the Indians of those that had been -captured in the battle was sacrificed; and if it was to Itzqueye the -ceremonies lasted five days, and upon each day an Indian was sacrificed. - -“The sacrifice was performed in this manner. All those who had been -in the war came in order singing and dancing, and they brought those -that they had to sacrifice, with many feathers and _chalchivetes_[64] -on their feet and hands, and with strings of cacao upon their neck, -and the captains conducted them in their midst. The high priest and -priests together with the people went out to receive them with dances -and music, and the caciques and captains presented to the high priest -these Indians for the sacrifices, and then they all went together to -the court of their _teupa_, and they danced all the above said days and -nights. - -“In the middle of the court they placed a stone like a bench, and upon -this they placed the Indian that was to be sacrificed, and the four -priests held the Indian by the hands and feet. The majordomo then came -out with many feathers and covered with bells, with a stone razor in -his hand, and opened the breast and pulled out the heart, and when he -had taken it out he threw it upwards towards each of the four cardinal -points, and the fifth time he threw it in the middle of the court -directly upwards, thus declaring and giving to the god the reward for -the victory. This sacrifice was made in public, so that every one both -small and great could see it.” - -It is interesting to turn from the customs described as occurring in -the remote town of Micla, to the events that happened in the city -of Mexico, several hundreds of leagues distant. It was late in the -afternoon of a summer’s day, in the year 1521. The Spaniards had -been repulsed in one of their most important attacks on the enemy, -and had been driven back over the causeway after suffering serious -losses; Cortes was wounded, and sixty Spaniards had been captured, -together with many of their Indian allies. In accordance with the -Aztec superstitious rites, these captives were at once conveyed to the -Teocalli of the war gods. - -Bernal Diaz, who had taken a prominent part in the battle, states that -“during the retreat, they frequently heard the great drum resounding -with a deep and dismal noise.” At last the Spanish troops reached a -place of comparative safety, where they were secure from the enemy’s -attacks, and out of reach of stones and arrows, and then, Diaz says, -“Sandoval and Francisco de Lugo, and Andres de Tapia with Pedro de -Alvarado, were each relating what had happened and what orders Cortes -had given, when the drum of Huitzopotli again began to sound, together -with kettledrums, shell horns and other instruments like trumpets, and -these sounds were horrible and dismal, and we looked at the summit of -the highest Kue, and we saw our companions who had been captured in -the rout, and that they were being carried up by force, and with blows -and thrusts, and being taken violently to be sacrificed, and when they -had reached the top at a place where was the shrine in which were the -accursed idols, we saw that many of them had feathers put upon their -heads, others were made to dance before Huitzopotli, and after they had -danced they were thrown on their backs on the top of the sacrificial -stone, and then they cut open their breasts with flint knives, and -pulled out their heating hearts and offered them to the idols that were -in that place. The bodies and feet were thrown down the steps below, -where other Indian butchers were waiting, and who cut off their arms -and legs, and then flayed the skin from their faces, and tanned them -like glove skins with the beards on, and kept them to show at their -festivals and when they had their drunken feasts. In this manner were -all sacrificed; they devoured the legs and arms, and the hearts and -blood were offered to the idols.[65] These cruelties were seen by the -whole camp, and by Pedro de Alvarado, and Gonzalo de Sandoval, and all -the captains, and we said amongst ourselves, thank God that I was not -carried off to-day to be sacrificed.”[66] - -In the whole range of American history, there is nothing which more -vividly strikes the imagination than the scenes described by the -Spanish conquerors during the siege of Mexico. The human sacrifices -and the subsequent cannibalism, represent the most revolting acts of -superstition that have ever disgraced human nature. - -It is strange that, although so much has been recorded of the Aztecs -and their customs, no clear account has been given of the shape and -dimensions of their Teocallis within the city of Mexico. We have only -very doubtful representations given of them. Taking these as the best -available guides it is evident that the altars in Utatlan were built -upon similar principles, following upon a smaller scale the same -general structural plan and proportions. Utatlan was considered as -one of the most important places in Central America. According to the -historian Juarros, it held a rank only second to the capital of the -Aztecs. - -Alvarado conquered the city in April, 1524, and he states in his -official Report to Cortes, that in consequence of the natural strength -of the place, and the depth of the ravines which prevented a general -action, he had decided to destroy it. He gave directions to burn the -chief caciques alive, to set fire to the town and completely reduce it -to ruins, for it was so strong and dangerous, that it was more like a -stronghold of bandits than a town of citizens.[67] - -A curious circumstance is mentioned by him as happening during his -march against Utatlan. On the way, and near some rising ground, he -saw the Indians sacrifice a woman and a dog, and he says that his -interpreters told him that this act meant defiance. This statement is -remarkable because it has always been supposed that dogs were not found -amongst the Mexicans. Bernal Diaz observes that these dogs were of -small size, that they were used for food, and did not bark. - -[Illustration: Approach to Utatlan from the plain. - - Height of mound is about 30 feet.] - -Before leaving Utatlan, Alvarado placed in office as chief of the -Quichés, an Indian named Sequechul, who was according to the laws of -that race the next in succession. From this time nothing more was known -of the Quichés, until the licentiate Alonzo de Zurita, passed this way -about the year 1554, in the execution of the duty assigned to him by -the command of the king, to report upon the condition and customs of -the Indians, both before and after the conquest. Zurita was informed -that, before the conquest, the Quichés had three chiefs. The first had -over his seat or throne three canopies of feathers, the second two, and -the third one. He says that the city had at one time contained several -kues, (small pyramidal altars) dedicated to idols, but that they were -then in ruins, and the successors of the caciques were in the utmost -poverty. - -I passed over the ground where Alvarado’s camp had been pitched, -and where the caciques were sentenced to be burnt. Certainly the -sixteenth century witnessed most extraordinary scenes of cruelty -and carnage in this unhappy country. At this distance of time it -is difficult to understand what could have been the reasons which -impelled the Spaniards to burn the Indians in such numbers. Many -of them were consigned to the flames for disobedience to orders, -others upon suspicion of treasonable designs against the conquerors, -others for being discovered worshipping their ancient gods, or for -not conforming to the new religion. Perhaps the most inexplicable of -all these cruelties is what happened soon after the conquest of the -city of Mexico. Cortes, upon his return there after his expedition to -Honduras, heard that during his absence, there had been a rising of -Indians in one of the distant provinces, a sort of local rebellion -which had been suppressed. Upon his making inquiries as to the cause of -this disaffection, the principal inhabitants of the province came and -reported to him that the Spaniards under whom they had been placed had -burnt alive eight of their principal chiefs, five of whom died on the -spot, and the remaining three a few days afterwards, and although they -had demanded reparation and justice it had not been granted to them.[68] - -Later in the century all the penalties of the Inquisition were -established, but it was found that the results of these acts to enforce -the Spanish rule, and to convert the Indians were unsatisfactory. The -Indians fled to the hills and forests, and would not obey the orders -to form communities or villages and thus be exposed to such cruelties. -Finally the punishment of burning alive was abolished, and the milder -punishment of whipping at the post was introduced and has remained. It -is at the present time the customary method of punishing the natives -for any default or misconduct. - -In considering this subject of the treatment of the Indians at the -time of the conquest, due weight has to be given to the influence of -the priests, their enthusiasm, and their intense desire to convert the -natives by persuasion or by force. The well-known inveterate hatred -of the Indians towards their conquerors, a hatred which still exists, -was a dangerous element always present and to be guarded against by -adopting severe measures of repression. The good fortune that had -attended the operations of Cortes and his handful of Spaniards in the -conquest of this region, was doubtless in a great measure due to the -condition of the country, and the never ceasing tribal wars. Cortes and -his generals were consequently always able to obtain the assistance of -numerous allies who were glad to seize any opportunity of destroying -their enemies. But when the conquest was completed and the Spaniards -had the lands distributed amongst them, and the system of _encomiendas_ -was adopted, it became necessary, at all hazards, to prevent any -combinations of Indians against them, and to put down or crush out with -unmerciful firmness the slightest tendency to rebel against the iron -and cruel rule under which they found themselves to be subjected. Many -risings were quelled, all tendency to insubordination was punished, -and the Indians remained under control. But this result was only -obtained after these unfortunate tribes had been subjected to the most -astonishing severities that have ever been inflicted by a civilised -race of conquerors. - -At the convent at Santa Cruz, Padre Guicola spoke much about his -parishioners. He said that he was impressed with the conviction that -the Quichés in many respects still followed their old idolatries, and -worshipped their idols secretly. He thought that he had discovered -that certain Indians were “sacerdotes” to these idols, and that in -some manner which he had not been able to find out, they, amongst -themselves, maintained their ancient priesthood. - -The accommodation for strangers was more monastic than I had expected -to find. My cell contained nothing but a wide hard board placed upon -four legs, and there were neither hooks nor posts to which I could hang -my hammock, consequently it was not practicable to make convenient -arrangements for securing comfortable quarters at night. - -Before my departure I had a conversation with the Padre about the -history of the convent, and the work that used to be carried out by -the monks. Some of the descendants of the caciques of Utatlan were -educated by them, and the traditions of the origin and migrations of -the Quichés were composed by them, whilst they were still capable of -remembering what had been related concerning their early history. The -most important of the manuscripts is stated to have been written in -1544, by the son of one of the Quiché caciques, who took part in the -operations of war at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards. The -Padre was not well acquainted with the subject of the past history of -his convent, and like the other priests that I had met in the Indian -parishes, his attention was almost exclusively directed to his duties, -one of the most significant of which, in the opinion of his Indians, -was the performance of the rite of baptism. - -I asked him what was the best track to follow in crossing the sierras, -and he made inquiries for me. Several of the inhabitants of the village -said, that in the remote parts of the hills I wished to cross, the -paths were not well known, and might be found to be impracticable, and -there was the danger of meeting scattered bands of rebels. Augustin -however informed me, that he had learnt from several of the natives, in -whom he could place confidence, that we need not expect to meet with -any serious difficulties, and that in the event of being uncertain -about the right direction, we might rely upon coming across Indians who -would guide us. My large Government map was of no use in the matter, -as nothing was marked upon it except ranges of mountains. Meanwhile -to guard ourselves against possible trouble, I gave directions that -we should take with us a sufficient supply of food for ourselves and -the mules, and thus we started upon our road, without feeling any -hesitation with regard to our future proceedings. - -In the forenoon we came to a halt amongst the mountains, and Augustin, -who was proficient in his knowledge of making a fire out of the most -scanty materials, prepared breakfast. Whilst we were thus engaged -we were passed by numbers of Indians carrying goods and provisions. -Young and old were hurrying rapidly forward, urged by some impulse -which we were unable to comprehend, towards a destination which was -to us unknown. They looked wild and restless, and when addressed were -shy and reserved. In the evening before sunset we arrived at some -farm buildings, and I slung my hammock to the rafters of a deserted, -half-ruined shed. Augustin obtained from an adjoining hut some -tortillas, frijoles[69] and eggs, the three chief elements of Indian -domestic existence, and with these, together with a good supply of -sacate for the mules, we made ourselves at home in the Cordilleras. - -In accordance with a custom that I usually adopted whenever it was -possible, I established friendly relations with an Indian family in the -neighbourhood in order to obtain some knowledge of their language or -dialect. I had a list of words in Spanish to which I obtained the local -equivalents. In this manner I made a small vocabulary of the dialects -spoken by the Indians amongst the Altos near Guatemala, by the Quichés -at Santa Cruz and San Tomas, by the Kachiquels near Las Godinas, and by -the tribe near Patinamit. This custom was not only useful in helping -me to understand the various links or differences in the tribes that -we met, but it was also a means of bringing about a small degree of -friendliness, and of overcoming that very decided unsociability which -forms such an integral part of the Indian nature. - -At sunrise we were in our saddles, and soon found ourselves to be -riding over a difficult and rugged country. The hills were steep, and -the mule tracks, in many places, almost impassable. In the afternoon we -crossed a high mountain ridge, and then descended towards the Indian -hamlet of San Lorenzo, and pushed on as fast as possible, in order to -reach Gueguetenango before the night. On our arrival, we rode up to the -convent gate, where I was welcomed by Padre Juan Batista de Terran. -He was in a highly disturbed and irritated state of mind. His convent -had been battered and almost destroyed by the artillery of the Indian -rebels, commanded by Cruz, and his church was filled with soldiers who -had been quartered there, and were eating and drinking, gambling, and -leading wild and irreverent lives within the shrines. - -On the following day I called upon the Corregidor and obtained a -passport for Augustin, and then sent him and the baggage mule back -to Guatemala. He had faithfully performed his duties as guide and -attendant, and had been careful in looking after the wants of the -mules, often taking great trouble in finding for them a proper supply -of forage wherever we were quartered in the night. But he had not -expected to meet with such rough tracks as we had passed over amongst -the sierras and down the barrancas, and was glad to be able to return -by more secure and better known roads. - -The inhabitants of Gueguetenango, at the time of our arrival, were -in an excited and disorganised condition. They had not recovered from -the alarm caused by the recent events of the rebellion. The Plaza -was crowded with wild-looking Indians, and throughout the town there -was an unusual movement of armed men. My chief preoccupation was the -search of a trustworthy guide, which was a matter for considerable -difficulty. Finally I succeeded in securing the services of an Indian -belonging to a local tribe of the Mams. He bore the name of Carlos, and -spoke Spanish sufficiently well to enable me to keep up a tolerably -intelligible conversation with him. - -I now thought it advisable to make some changes with regard to the -manner of travelling. Hitherto I had managed very well with Augustin -and one spare mule. The mule carried in the saddle bags, provisions -for several days, together with a change of clothing in case of wet -weather, but experience had shown me that it would be better to reduce -the weights to what could easily be carried by an Indian in his pack, -and who, at the same time, could act as guide. I should thus avoid the -risk of being detained by any accident happening to the cargo mule. -My own good mule carried nothing but its rider, and a great coat and -hammock, rolled up in military fashion, and strapped over the pommel of -the saddle. - -Everything being satisfactorily arranged, Carlos appeared at the -convent steps at daybreak with his pack duly placed over his shoulders, -and carried by the head band. Into this were put two days’ provisions, -and part of the change of clothing. My mule carried the halter wound -round her neck. A small supply of fodder was added to the Indian’s -load, and thus we started. Carlos took the lead by breaking into a -quick, rapid pace, or steady Indian run. The mule followed at her -best speed, and before the sun had risen above the summits of the -Cordilleras, we were well forward on our way towards Jacaltenango and -the Mexican frontier. - - • • • • • - - Gueguetenango, the chief city of the Department, was a place - of importance before the conquest. It was the capital of the - Mams, a warlike tribe, whose caciques and principal families - were of the same race as the Quichés. They were conquered - and reduced to submission by the Spaniards in 1525. There - are certain circumstances respecting that campaign and the - methods of defence adopted by the Mams, which should receive - particular attention in connection with the theories and Indian - traditions, respecting the migrations of the mysterious tribe - who have been named the Toltecs, and who appear to have been - the predecessors of the Aztecs. There are, in the accounts of - the campaign several details which are valuable, as leading to - the conclusion that the Mams, Quichés and Kachiquels, whose - leaders were all of the same race, pursued systems of defensive - warfare, which had analogies with the habits of the tribes who - raised the fortified hill works in Ohio. - - When it was decided by Alvarado to attack the Mams, a force - suitable for the purpose was organized. It consisted of a main - body of Mexican Indian allies who were supported by a small - force of Spanish cavalry and infantry; there were three hundred - Indians carrying spades and hatchets acting as pioneers, and - many others who were employed in the work of transport. After - an engagement with the Mams, who were defeated, the attacking - forces advanced to[70]Gueguetenango. Upon their arrival at - that place the Spanish General was informed that the Mams had - retreated to their fortress of Socoleo. The position of this - entrenched camp was so strong, that it was not possible to - capture it by direct assault, and the Spaniards in the end - reduced the Indians to surrender by famine. - - The historian Fuentes who is stated to have personally examined - this fortress about the year 1695, reported (according to - Juarros) that the approach “was by only one entrance and that - was so narrow as scarcely to permit a horseman to pass it; from - the entrance, there ran on the right hand a parapet, raised - on the berm of the fosse, extending along nearly the whole of - that side; several vestiges of the counter-scarp and curtain - of the walls still remain, besides parts of other works, the - use of which cannot now be easily discovered; in a courtyard - there stood some large columns, upon the capitals of which were - placed quantities of pine wood, that being set on fire, gave - light at night to the surrounding neighbourhood. The citadel or - lofty cavalier of this great fortification was in the form of - a square, graduated pyramid, rising twelve or fourteen yards - from the base to the platform on the top, which was sufficient - to admit of ten soldiers standing on each side; the next - step would accommodate a greater number, and the dimensions - proportionably increased to the last or twenty-eighth step. - The steps were intersected in unequal portions by parapets - and curtains, rendering the ascent to the top so extremely - difficult, that Fuentes says, he attempted several times to - reach the platform, but was unable to perform the task, until - his Indian interpreter acted as his guide and conducted him - to the summit. The ruins of several buildings were then in - existence; they appeared to have been intended as quarters for - the soldiers; were extremely well arranged, and distributed - with due regard to proportion. Between each three or four of - these buildings there was a square courtyard paved with slabs - made of stiff clay, lime, and sand; every part of the fortress - was constructed of hewn stone, in pieces of great size, as - one which had been displaced, measured three yards in length, - by one in breadth.” ... “As the place was circumvallated by - a deep ravine, there was no way by which the walls could be - approached.” - - From the above description of Socoleo it is made clear that - its construction and position were in accordance with the - principles and objects which governed the selection of the - strongholds at Patinamit and Utatlan. The pyramidal structure - called the citadel must have closely resembled the Resguardo - which guarded the entrance into the Quiché fortress. - - It is of importance to note that the account given by Fuentes - of Socoleo, establishes to a great extent, the accuracy of - certain portions of the manuscripts composed by the young - Quiché caciques which relate to the traditions of the - migrations of the Quichés from Mexico, and the manner in which - they divided into separate governments the countries which they - had conquered, under the names of Quiché, Kachiquel, Mam and - Zutugil. With regard to the three first-named divisions the - methods adopted to secure their domination, were so identical, - that there can be no doubt that the statements recorded in the - manuscripts, so far as they relate to the historical accounts - of the Quichés after their arrival in Central America, may be - assumed to be trustworthy records of the Indian traditions. - - According to the dispatches of the Spanish conqueror Alvarado, - he found that the Quichés inhabited the town of Quezaltenango, - and it was after the decisive battle fought near that place, - that they retreated to their entrenchments at Utatlan; thus - adopting the same tactics as were afterwards followed by the - Mams, who fought their chief battle near Gueguetenango and then - after their defeat fled to Socoleo. This custom of the Quichés - appears to be similar to that of the Mound Builders in Ohio, - who established their fortified camps in positions which were - naturally nearly impregnable or most difficult to approach, - and it is such as would be considered advisable by the chiefs - of tribes who hold their territories by conquest, and would - therefore endeavour to maintain their power by having large - entrenched encampments, within which they would be secured from - danger in the event of being unable to meet their enemies on - the plains. - - - - - CHAPTER XII. - - The Sierra Madre. — Todos Santos. — Evening Prayer (La - Oracion). — Indian domestic habits. — Religious devotion. — - Goitre. — Jacaltenango. — Indian Festival. — A Temblor. — - Indian Idolatry. — Custom of ancient inhabitants to serve - the parents whose daughters they wished to marry. — Doubtful - fidelity of my guide. — Condition of Mule. — Mexican Frontier. — - Comitan. — Note on President Juarez, and the Execution of the - Emperor Maximilian. - - -On our way to Jacaltenango we had to cross the Sierra Madre, a range -of mountains which traverses the centre of Guatemala. The mule track -led us over some steep and rugged ascents, and through a long and deep -barranca filled with a cold damp mist. During the greater part of the -day we were enveloped in clouds which covered the summits of the hills. -We finally reached the hamlet of Todos Santos, and obtained shelter at -an Indian rancho. - -Towards nightfall we heard the distant bell of the chapel ringing -for evening prayer.[71] The Indians stood in front of their huts, -and looking in the direction of the sound of the bell, recited the -Ave Maria. This is one of the religious customs taught by the Spanish -friars that retains its influence upon the inhabitants of these remote -highlands. - -[Illustration: BARRANCA, CENTRAL AMERICA.] - -[Illustration: INDIAN HUTS.] - -Darkness rapidly succeeds daylight in tropical latitudes, and upon my -return to the rancho I observed that the hut was lighted by a method -mentioned by the early historians of the conquest as having been in -universal use amongst the Mexican Indians. In the centre of the room -was a rude wooden stand, upon which was placed crosswise, a lighted -piece of resinous pinewood. The flame gave a sufficient light for all -practical purposes. After turning into my hammock, I watched by the -fitful glare of the firebrand, the domestic habits of the Indians. The -first thing done, was to put the child to bed, and this was managed in -the following manner:—The mother wrapped the child tightly in swaddling -clothes, until it looked like a mummy. The head was left exposed. It -was then fastened upon a flat board about three feet high and eighteen -inches wide. This board was put upright against an angle of the wall. -The child remained throughout the night perfectly quiet. The bed upon -which the father and mother slept, was a low wide frame resting on -four legs, and raised a few inches above the ground. Everything was of -the rudest simplicity. The smoke from the fire rose directly upwards -and escaped through the roof. - -In the morning, while Carlos was making a cup of chocolate, the Indian -came to my side and said that he wished to ask me a question about the -people who lived beneath the earth (abaxo). He had been told, that men -like ourselves were living and moving about below us, and he could not -understand how this was possible. I endeavoured to explain to him that -the world was round, and that on the other side of the earth beneath, -things were much the same as at Todos Santos. My attempts to teach the -laws of gravitation were, however, not successful, and he went away in -a state of bewilderment, probably under the impression that the people -below were upside down. - -After leaving the hamlet, we passed by the little church whose bell -we had heard upon the previous night. The door was closed, and I -noticed that it was charred by burning and blackened by smoke. I was -told that this remote church was frequently closed during the time -that the priest was away in other parts of the district, and when the -Indians came here, they stuck lighted candles upon the door as nearly -as possible in the direction of the image to which they wished to make -their offerings. The church door was consequently deeply marked by the -flames. Here, as also before the closed doors of other chapels in the -mountains, the Indians have the custom of raising a temporary altar -outside, before which they place offerings, and sit patiently in -silence for many hours. They then fill a brazier with chips of resinous -wood, and light their candles and the brazier and go away to their -huts, leaving the incense burning. This is possibly a survival of the -ancient usage of burning copal incense before their idols. - -During the forenoon we went over several steep ranges of hills, and -down very abrupt descents until we arrived at the village of St. -Martin, when we stopped at a deserted shed, and Carlos proposed that -he should get ready the breakfast. It was always a pleasure to watch -an Indian lighting a fire. His materials are usually a few dry sticks, -some leaves, a flint, a steel, and a roll of prepared cotton, which, -when slightly burnt, easily catches fire from the sparks of the flint. -There was often, however, a difficulty in getting the fuel to burst -into a flame, and the steady persistent patience of Indians in doing -this is extraordinary. It was a great comfort in riding amongst the -sierras, to have always the power of making a fire. It was of still -greater importance to carry your own bed. - -Each morning when starting upon a journey over an unknown country, -with much uncertainty as to where quarters would be found for the -night, there was a sense of satisfaction in seeing placed upon the -pommel of the saddle the hammock in which you intended to sleep. It -gave freedom from all anxiety with regard to the future. There was -no cause to feel any doubts respecting the beds at a Spanish posada, -or the rough interior of an Indian hut, and there was always the -prospect of obtaining, after the fatigues of the day, a good night’s -rest. In thus travelling and having at hand sufficient provisions and -fuel to guard against being by any accident in want amongst these -mountainous regions, there was a feeling of independence which was -very exhilarating. This kind of gipsy, Bohemian life was singularly -attractive, and the small element of risk from the possibility of -meeting hostile Indians was too slight to have any influence upon the -mind. There was a certain degree of solitude in thus riding without a -companion, as the guide ran several hundred yards ahead, but this was -not much felt, for there was a never ending change of scene, and every -hour brought something new and unexpected. - -In the evening as we descended the slopes of the valleys, we met -numbers of Indians carrying heavy loads on their backs. I had noticed -when riding amongst the higher parts of these hills that crosses were -placed upon all remarkable positions, and at the corners where paths -branched off towards the hamlets. When passing these crosses the men -invariably took off their broad straw hats, and showed by their manner -great respect. - -I was surprised at observing in the valleys that the Indians suffered -much from goitre. This unsightly growth seemed chiefly to affect -the women. It was the same in size and appearance as that which -exists amongst the inhabitants of several of the secluded valleys in -Switzerland. - -At intervals during the afternoon we heard the distant sound of the -beating of a drum calling the attention of the Indians for some purpose -which we did not then understand. When we drew near to Jacaltenango -we became aware that something was occurring which caused considerable -excitement amongst the people. We passed an open space at the entrance -of the pueblo, upon which had been built, temporarily, a “Santo” house. -It was a small round hut, within which was an image, which had been -removed from the church and placed there, in order that it should -receive special honour and devotion. Before this shrine a dance was -taking place. It represented incidents of the wars between the Spanish -Christians and the Moors during the period when the latter were finally -driven out of Spain. A little beyond the “Santo” house was the church -where an Indian festival was in progress, and an orchestra was busily -engaged within, performing a musical service. I stopped for a few -minutes to look at the strange and fantastical scene, and the groups of -swarthy, wild-looking Indians, and then rode on to the convent, where -we were welcomed by Padre Juan Chrysostemos Robles. My guide Carlos -went away to join in the festivities of his tribe. - -In the morning an Indian passed rapidly through the village beating a -small drum, and later in the day, a large crowd of Indians assembled -in the square in front of the church. It thus became known that an -important meeting was to be held in order to bring about a settlement -of some difficulty or disagreement between two hamlets, with respect -to the buying and selling of lands. About three hundred of the men, -chiefly interested, gathered together. The speaking began in tones so -harsh that it was almost inconceivable that human language could have -developed into such rough and grating sounds. - -These Mams were men of strong and muscular frames, compact and well -made, but they were all short in stature. Their general appearance was -wild and they had a restless manner. They came from the adjacent hills, -and it was noticeable with them as with other Indians I had seen in -the mountains, that they were darker than those living on the plains. -The meeting lasted for about an hour, and as soon as the business -was ended they immediately left Jacaltenango and returned to their -homes. I was told that the matter in dispute had been settled to the -satisfaction of all present, and that there was no longer any fear of -local disturbances. - -Meanwhile the numerous orchestral services within the church were still -proceeding. It was a curious scene. The chief instrument was a large -wooden marimba made on the principle of short and long sounding boards, -the upper notes of which were played by the leading performers, whilst -three other men kept up a continuous accompaniment on the bass. It was -evidently an improvement upon the African marimba which had probably -been introduced into America by the negro slaves. There were also -violins and several rudely constructed guitars. The musical ceremonies -were performed before the altars, the Indian congregation maintaining -a complete silence. Not the least strange part of the function was the -fact that Padre Robles was an unconcerned spectator, although it was -his church that was occupied by the Indians and his “Santos” that were -being carried about and worshipped, and to whom offerings were made. - -Although the music was noisy and monotonous, the players seemed to have -a correct knowledge of harmony. The Padre explained how this happened. -He said that this comparative knowledge of music was obtained in -consequence of the teaching of the friars before the dissolution of the -monasteries. These friars devoted much of their time to the education -of a certain number of Indian lads in orchestral music, in order to -train them to take part in the church services, and he supposed that -the instruction then given was kept up in some way which he did not -understand, and that young Indians were taught in their villages for -this work. He thought that the preparations for the church festivals -and for the dances were also arranged in a similar manner. - -In the afternoon we went to the entrance of one of the valleys, as the -Padre wished to show me the position of an Indian “_adoratorio_”[72] -situated on the side of a steep mountain. He said he had not seen it, -but had been told by his Indians what occurred there. An idol, held -in much reverence by the Mams had its shrine inside, and the Alcaldes -charged with the duties of the religious rites and other ceremonies -relating to Indian sacerdotalism, visited it at certain seasons of -the year and offered sacrifices to it. The idol had also days for the -performance of penances, and there was one special day when there -was a solemn feast, and turkeys were killed and eaten with peculiar -observances, and the blood of the turkeys was sprinkled and offered in -a manner unknown to him. - -After passing through the place where the “Santo” house was erected, -and before which dances and other ceremonies were still going on, we -returned to the convent. - -Soon after sunset an event occurred which proved that a disturbance -had taken place in the interior of the earth. We were sitting inside -the precincts when we were alarmed by, what was to me, a quite unknown -rumbling sound amongst the adjacent mountains. At first I thought that -it was caused by distant thunder reverberating amongst the valleys, -but it was soon evident that the sounds were of an entirely different -character. - -The Padre, who was listening attentively to the noise, said, after -a few moments’ pause, that it was a “Temblor” or trembling of the -earth below, and that it was quite different from a “Terra Moto” or -earthquake, as it never caused any harm, although it was considered to -be a warning. According to my map, the nearest crater was the Volcan de -Tacara, fourteen leagues away in a south-easterly direction. The deep -sounds rolled like thunder beneath the massive ranges of the Sierra -Madre. - -When living amongst these mountains, and hearing these intimations of -great volcanic movements below the surface of the ground, it can be -understood how it came to pass that the superstitious and fanatical -Indians living in these regions believed that the earth beneath them -was peopled by evil demons capable of doing injury, who required to be -propitiated, and that when seeing the expression of their anger in the -fire, smoke and ashes issuing from the craters, thought it necessary -to appease them by offering them their daughters. It is probable that -the sacrifices known to have taken place to the volcanoes near Atitlan -and Quezaltenango were also customary throughout the long range of -volcanoes in this part of Central America. - -When talking about the present customs of the Indians living in these -sierras, the Padre said that the ancient rule of young men serving for -a certain time the parents of the girl they wished to marry had ceased, -and that now it was usual for an Indian to make up his mind on the -subject, and then to begin his courtship by giving presents of maize, -fowls, or clothing to the parents.[73] Finally he proposes to take the -girl in marriage, and if they consent, he pays for her according to -his means, generally about two dollars, but sometimes as much as eight -dollars. - -Upon the morning of our departure from Jacaltenango, whilst I was -engaged in superintending the saddling of the mule and the various -preparations for the day’s journey, which from the neglected state -of the road was expected to be long and fatiguing, I observed Padre -Robles walking rapidly backwards and forwards in front of the convent, -evidently in a state of much anxiety and alarm. - -Presently, when Carlos had moved to another part of the courtyard, the -Padre hurried to my side and said, in a very decided tone, “Señor you -must go back at once to Guatemala.” I said, “What is the meaning of -this! What has happened?” He replied, “I must not tell you, but I know -that if you do not go back to Guatemala you will be robbed and perhaps -killed,” and, he added with a look of much distress, “they will steal -your beautiful mule.” I told him that it was quite impossible that I -should return to Guatemala, and that I intended to go forward. “But,” -I said, “if you know anything about which I ought to be informed, you -should tell me what it is that you fear.” - -After some hesitation, he took me aside close to the convent wall and -said, “It is this, Señor: last night my housekeeper overheard two -Indians talking together in a low tone. One of them was your guide, -the other was a man whom she did not know, and she listened to what -they were saying. They were sitting in a corner of the courtyard, just -beneath her window, and she could hear what they said. She heard them -arrange a plan to rob you and to take away your mule. Their plan was -this: At about an hour’s journey from this pueblo, you have to pass a -long hedgerow of aloes; when you arrive at the aloes, an Indian will -jump out from behind them into the road. Your guide will then come to -you and say, that the man is his brother who wishes to go to Comitan, -and he will ask if he may be permitted to accompany you. After you -have gone on for some distance, the Indians intend to come behind you -and take a favourable opportunity to attack and rob you, and, whatever -happens you will certainly lose your mule.” - -After walking together within the quadrangle for a few minutes to -discuss the subject, I said, that I had no reason to doubt the fidelity -of Carlos. He had been recommended to me by the priest at Gueguetenango -as a trustworthy guide, and was considered to be a good and honest -man. He had proved himself, so far, to be faithful, and was willing -and careful; consequently I should still continue to place confidence -in him. With respect to the conversation that had taken place, I -thought that the housekeeper must have made some mistake, and had been -unreasonably alarmed. In any case, however, I said it was necessary for -me to proceed across the frontier. The Padre looked very unhappy, so I -told him that he must not be anxious about my fate, and that I would -take care to send him information about my movements. I hoped that he -would soon hear of my safe arrival in Mexico. He then gave me a letter -of introduction to his brother Captain Robles, who commanded the small -force stationed on the frontier at Lenton. - -By this time Carlos had filled his pack, fitted the head band over his -forehead, and was waiting to start; so I said good-bye to the kind -Padre, and as I turned round in the saddle to get a last glimpse of -Jacaltenango, the most beautifully situated village that I had seen in -Guatemala, I observed him watching us from the top of the convent steps. - -I had ridden about a league or more and had quite forgotten all about -the housekeeper and her forecast of events, when I noticed that we were -approaching a long row of tall aloes bordering the left side of the -path, and soon afterwards an Indian—a most villainous and evil-looking -scoundrel—jumped from his place of concealment amongst the aloes and -stood before me on the road. At the same moment Carlos ran back close -to the mule’s head and told me that this man was his brother who wished -to go to Comitan and asked permission to join us. - -The scene was like the realisation of a dream. For a few moments I was -in doubt as to the best course to pursue, but having been forewarned -I was forearmed, and knowing that the Indians could not have the -slightest idea that I was aware of their plans, I decided to go on -without showing them that I had any suspicions. I said to Carlos “you -tell me that this man is your brother and perhaps you are stating the -truth, but he is a stranger to me and I do not like his appearance.” -However I gave him permission to join us. Carlos thanked me, and the -other Indian, who did not understand Spanish, gave a guttural sound of -satisfaction, and then both men ran forward and kept their places well -in front, at about a hundred yards distance. - -In the forenoon we passed St. Marcos and halted at St. Andres, in -a district remarkable for the luxuriant growth of fruit trees and -plantains. We then descended a long hill at the foot of which we halted -for breakfast. - -As the mule had shown signs of distress, I took off the saddle and -noticed that there was a broad low swelling upon her back. A muleteer -happened to be passing by on his way to Jacaltenango, and I asked him -to examine the swelling and give me his opinion about it. He told me -that the mule was ill from a “pica de luna” or moonstroke, and that -upon some previous night I must have tethered her out in the open air -exposed to the light of the full moon, whilst her back was still warm -after the saddle had been removed. I said that I remembered this having -been done. The muleteer said that the injurious effects of the moon -was well known, and that the mule ought not to have been exposed to -it so soon after I had dismounted. He thought that the swelling would -not prevent my riding her, provided that the pressure was taken off by -resting the saddle upon pads placed upon each side of the swelling, and -he arranged some rolls of padding for the purpose. - -In the afternoon we were going through a desolate and uninhabited -part of the country, when I observed that my guide and his brother -were lagging on the way. Finally they dropped behind, and began to -run together a few yards in the rear. The time had now come when it -was necessary to take a decisive action. I had to be careful not to -let Carlos suppose that there were any doubts in my mind about his -fidelity, for I knew nothing of the road, and it was important that I -should appear to have entire confidence in his guidance. - -I stopped the mule, and called Carlos up to my side, and said, “Carlos, -you must not run behind me. You are the guide, and must keep in front -to enable me to follow you, and not miss the track, and,” I added in -a more marked manner, “remember that you are to keep well ahead. Let -there not be any mistake in this matter, and your brother is to be with -you.” Carlos immediately obeyed my orders. There was no danger to be -apprehended so long as this precaution was taken, for I always carried -with me a small loaded revolver to defend myself in case of attack, an -event which I thought to be improbable. - -When we arrived at Lenton, we were given rooms within the quarters -of the garrison. Captain Robles, the commandant, showed me every -attention, and at supper I joined the officers’ mess. In the morning -it was found that although every possible care was taken to raise -the saddle above the swelling, the mule could not bear any pressure. -Consequently I asked Captain Robles if he could provide me with a -horse. After some difficulty an animal was obtained, which although of -very rough appearance, I thought would answer the purpose of carrying -me the two days’ journey to Comitan. An Indian lad, called a mozo, was -hired to bring the horse back, and lead my disabled mule. By the time -that all these arrangements were completed it was getting late in the -morning. More than three hours daylight were lost, and it was important -with regard to my Indians to reach our next stopping place before -sunset. - -For eight leagues the road led through a dreary desert without any -signs of habitation, and then we reached a pond called San José where -we halted for an hour. It was quite dark when we reached a hut near -Sinigiglia within the Mexican frontier, and where I decided to stop. An -Indian and his wife were inside, but they not only refused to open the -door and give us shelter, but to all applications for food or water, -replied in the words so usually employed by all Indians when asked for -anything, “No hay.” “There is nothing.” The only thing to be done was -to make the best of the circumstances, so a supper was made from our -store of provisions, and with the saddle for a pillow, and the hammock -stretched upon the ground, I passed the night. - -On the following day the sun was sinking below the horizon when we -entered the town of Comitan, and I was not sorry to find myself within -the walls of a comfortable posada, called the Hotel de la Libertad, -where I was given a room looking into the court. I was not, however, -destined to pass the night without disturbance. - -After having been asleep for several hours I was startled by hearing -a peculiar noise. It was a gentle and continuous tapping, accompanied -by the word Señor spoken in a low, soft voice. It was quite dark so -I lighted the candle and asked who was there, and I heard “Señor it -is your mozo from Lenton, and I have brought your saddle, and wish to -speak to you.” I opened the door and told the lad to explain the reason -for coming to me in the middle of the night. He came in looking very -frightened and said that he was afraid of my Indians for he thought -they were bad men. He had heard them say that it was their intention -to go back with him, and he feared that when they were in the deserted -part of the country they would steal the horse; so he came to ask my -permission to leave at once. The Indians were asleep but he was afraid -that they would soon awake and prevent him from getting away alone. -He said also that the mule was safe in the stable, and that he had -brought with him the saddle, sheepskin and halter which he placed upon -the floor in a corner of the room. I thought that the fears of the lad -were perhaps well founded, and gave him directions to leave at once and -get on as fast as possible. As he still looked anxious, I assured him -that measures should be taken to prevent the Indians from following him -for several hours. The mozo thanked me and disappeared into the dark -courtyard, and I never heard of him or the horse again. It is to be -hoped that he arrived at his village in safety. - -Shortly before sunrise I was awoke by a loud tapping at the door. This -time it was the landlord who came to tell me that my Indians were -making a great noise and were very excited. They were calling out -that the mozo had gone away during the night with my horse, and they -wished to see me immediately and be paid and discharged. I told the -landlord what had happened and that the mozo had left by my orders, and -then requested him not to permit the Indians to leave the inn, and to -tell them that I would not see them before the middle of the day. “I -understand you,” said the landlord, “and will do all that is necessary.” - -In the afternoon at the time when I estimated that if the mozo had made -a proper use of his start he would be at least forty miles away, the -Indians were discharged, and an hour afterwards I was informed that -they had been seen on the road running fast towards the frontier. - -It was now necessary to take steps to cure the mule and get a guide. -Don Manuel Castillo, to whom I had a letter of introduction, was away -at his hacienda, but his friend Don Mariana Godillo in the kindest -manner undertook to arrange everything for me. Upon an examination -of the mule it was considered advisable that she should have a few -days’ rest to allow the swelling to subside, and in the meanwhile, the -experience of local muleteers was made available in applying the most -approved remedies. - -During this time the town of Comitan was in a state of unusual -excitement in consequence of the arrival of numerous bands of Indians -to take part in the festival of San Caralampio, to whom was dedicated -one of the churches. In front of that church numerous Indians were -assembled. In some respects the scene was like that which took place at -Jacaltenango, but the proceedings were more of the character of a fair -than of a religious ceremony. The plaza was covered with booths, and a -local Indian traffic was being busily transacted. Indian musicians with -drums, fifes, and fiddles were engaged in making an incessant noise. -The interior of the church was always crowded, and continuous services -were performed at the shrines. The women wore white hoods which were -drawn tightly across the lower part of their faces. The men usually -wore black yergas.[74] - -Upon the fourth morning of my stay in the town, as I could not see any -signs of improvement in the state of the mule, and it was necessary not -to lose any more time, I held a small meeting of experts in the stable. -It was thought that some weeks must elapse before she would be fit to -travel, and Señor Godillo proposed to give me one of his best mules in -exchange for her, and also insisted upon giving me twenty dollars, as -he considered my mule to be well worth that additional value. In the -end this arrangement was carried out, and thus with infinite regret I -parted with my intelligent and sure-footed companion. - -It was reported at Comitan that the border provinces toward Palenque -had become settled and had ceased to be in a lawless condition. This -state of things was undoubtedly due to the remarkable influence of -the President Juarez over the Indian tribes, and it was probable that -the cause of this influence was attributable to the fact that, like -Carrera, the first President of the Republic of Guatemala, he was by -birth an Indian. - -Juarez was known to be an Indian of a good unmixed stock. He was born -in Oaxaca, the province bordering Chiapas on the west. Of his early -youth but little is known, but as a young man he took a prominent -part in the political movements which preceded the declaration -of Independence. He was elected a Deputy to the Congress, and in -1858 became President, and was given very extensive authority. In -considering the characteristics and capacity of the Indians in -Central America, it can never be forgotten that, during a period of -great revolutionary agitation, two unknown Indians should, in a most -extraordinary manner, have risen to the surface, and controlled the -destinies of the new Republics. - -Under such conditions, requiring much administrative ability, it -might have reasonably been expected that men of a white race, either -Spaniards or belonging to the large population of half-castes of -partly Spanish descent, would, in consequence of their superior -qualifications, or their education, or military training, have taken -the lead in these revolutions. As a matter of racial capacity, it -is strange that ordinary Indians with absolutely no help from their -surrounding circumstances, should have attained the highest power.[75] - - - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - Camping on the plains. — A night amongst the hills in Chiapas. — - Lopez. — Indian Sun worship. — Ocosingo. — An ancient idol. — - Proposed expedition through the unknown region occupied by the - Lacandones to British Honduras. — Bachajon. — Tzendal Indians. — - Chilon. — Indian Carnival. — Yajalon. — Carnival amongst the - Tzendales. — Drunkenness. — Dances. — Horse races. — Ruined - Churches and Convents. — Influence of the Priests over the - Indian Tribes. — Las Casas. — Forced labour. — The Presbitero - Fernando Macal. - - -It was a fine February morning when we left Comitan. An Indian named -Lopez was hired to guide me as far as Ocosingo, three days’ journey -distant. No trustworthy man could be found who was acquainted with the -country beyond that place. With regard to the subject of safety and -fidelity, it was arranged that Lopez should receive half his wages in -advance and the remainder upon his return. The money was deposited -with my friend who engaged him. Lopez was also to bring back a letter -from me to the effect that he had performed his duty, and that I -was satisfied with his conduct. These measures of precaution were -considered to be advisable. - -After a long day’s ride we reached a place where we decided to pass the -night. It was upon an open plain where we saw some muleteers encamped. -As there were no trees upon which to hang the hammock, it was necessary -to sleep on the ground. There was a heavy mist and everything was very -damp. We noticed that the muleteers had taken off the halters from -their mules and tied them together and placed the long rope thus made -in a circle, within which they were sleeping. Lopez said that I must -follow the same plan, which he explained to be a method employed to -prevent serpents from crawling near them, the rough fibrous nature of -the halter being so disagreeable to them that they would not pass over -it. Consequently I was encircled in this manner and with a saddle for -a pillow, endeavoured to get rest, but the thick mist was the cause of -much discomfort. Lopez passed the time on guard, watching the mule. - -The next day as early as possible we continued our journey. After -passing a few huts called Jotána, we entered upon a wide expanse of -undulating land well studded with trees. Here we met some Mexicans -travelling on their way from their hacienda or farm. They were men, -women, boys and girls, all bright and gay, riding horses and mules, -galloping over the smooth grass land and enjoying the sunny weather. -I took the opportunity of occasionally joining the laughing cheerful -group, and I was sorry when we had to part company and follow different -paths. - -In the afternoon we reached a steep, sharp ascent. The track was -difficult to trace, and in several places was almost impassable. Large -masses of stone had fallen over it. There were also numerous deep, -slippery ruts, through which the mule plunged with difficulty. It was -sunset when, after having made our way over several leagues of this -rough ground, we came to an open space, where it was thought expedient -to stop. We found two trees, between which the hammock was secured. -The mule was tethered within reach, and Lopez went to an adjacent wood -and got some twigs and leaves to enable us to make a fire. This was a -work of difficulty requiring great patience; no one but an Indian would -have succeeded. The first supply of fuel, after half an hour’s useless -endeavour, could not be ignited, and Lopez made a second expedition -to find drier materials. Finally, when I thought that it was useless -to continue the attempt, an accidental spark suddenly set fire to a -dry leaf and we were soon sitting round a blazing mass of flame, and -preparing a supper of tortillas and chocolate. - -The air was too chilly and damp to permit of our expecting much rest, -and the night was chiefly occupied in attending to the fire, and -in listening to Lopez’s account of his superstitions and religious -beliefs, and those generally held by his tribe. There was something -in Lopez’s character which showed that he was possessed of a kind of -devotional enthusiasm, which made his stories of Indian faiths, past -and present, singularly interesting, because it was evident that he -spoke with earnestness and as a man convinced. Thus the night passed -away, and in the morning as soon the earliest signs of dawn appeared in -the sky, and long before the sun had risen over the hills, we continued -our journey northwards through Chiapas. - -In the forenoon we reached the hamlet of San Carlos. I observed that -Lopez went to the rising ground near at hand, and stood for several -moments facing the sun, with the palms of his hands joined together and -raised to the level of his face. He seemed to be muttering a request. -When he returned I asked him what he had been doing. He said that the -Indians of his tribe always thanked the sun in the morning for coming -and giving light, and thus enabling men to work. In the evening they -again thanked the sun for what had been done, and asked it to return -again. They also offered prayers to the moon for the same reason, -because it gave light and helped men to live. The stars they did not -worship. - -In answer to questions that I put to him, he said that the Indians -always prayed or made offerings with reference to the world in which -they lived, and for objects relating to themselves and their wants, -and never took into consideration anything regarding a future life. -He thought it was impossible to know if a man was to live again, or -whether he was to be given some other shape or kind of existence. -I told Lopez about the “adoratorio” in the Sierra Madre above -Jacaltenango. He declared that the Indians near Comitan also had a -stone image in a cave amongst the hills. He went there once a year to -light a candle, “la sua candela,” before it, but it was usual amongst -the men of his tribe to go there more frequently. The image was about -two feet six inches in height, and had its arms folded. It was one of -the ancient idols worshipped before the conquest. - -From San Carlos there was a ride of six leagues over a less difficult -road, and as we approached Ocosingo we passed through some fine -scenery. The path followed the line of the summit of the hills, and -commanded extensive views of both valleys. At Ocosingo, I called upon -Don Remigio Salorzano, to whom I carried a note of introduction. Don -Remigio told me that the ancient Indian ruins were over a league from -the pueblo, but that there was very little to be seen there. - -The temples were almost destroyed, and the materials had been taken -away for building purposes. There were, however, fragments of stones -covered with hieroglyphic characters still remaining there. I went with -him to look at some idols that had been brought from the ruins. One of -these at once arrested my attention. It was made of hard sandstone, and -was about three feet high. The head was broken off, and had been taken -away to prevent the Indians from worshipping it. I at first thought -that the idol must have been made subsequent to the Spanish occupation -of this part of Mexico, for by the costume it seemed to be intended to -represent a Spanish cavalier. In front of the waist belt there was a -small head surmounting a rudely shaped cross. - -It appeared as if the native sculptor had wished to make the image -of a knight holding before him a head, such as is not infrequently -seen in early sacred pictures.[76] But although this was the vague -impression made upon the mind by an examination of the front of the -statue, it was evident upon looking at the reverse side that the date -of its sculpture was of a much earlier period, for it was covered -with an upright line of hieroglyphics of the same character as those -carved upon the idols at Copan. I examined with care the details of the -figure, and made sketches of the front and back, as I thought that it -would be useful to preserve a slight memorial of this idol which may -eventually share the fate of many others and be destroyed. - -[Illustration: Indian statue. Ocosingo.] - -Two larger idols were placed against the wall of the church. These -were also headless. Don Remigio showed me several long stones that -were used for the door steps at the entrance of some of the largest -of the huts occupied by Ladinos and which had been taken from the -ruins. One of these, made of limestone, was covered with deeply carved -hieroglyphics still quite clear and distinct. In front of one of the -dwellings there was a flat stone measuring about three feet square. On -the surface of this stone were two figures. A woman in an imploring -attitude was presenting a cup to a man, who was standing up and bending -forward to receive the offering. The wall of an adjoining house was -partly built with stones also taken from the temples. They had a -perfectly smooth surface and were each about two feet long, one foot -wide and two inches thick. Similar stones were scattered about the -pueblo, and many were used as stepping stones across the stream that -flowed eastwards to join the waters of the river Usamacinta. - -The church, from its size and manner of construction, had been -evidently of considerable importance. It was then in ruins and the roof -had fallen. As there were no funds available for its restoration it was -deserted. - -The Gefe Politico, who held the appointment in this town and district -of Civil Governor, spoke to me about an expedition that was under -consideration, for constructing a road or mule path to connect this -part of Mexico with the English port of Belize in Honduras. He thought -that if such a road was practicable it would become the principal -line for trade, and the ranges of mountains near Tumbalá would be -avoided. This was to be the primary purpose of the expedition, but -there were other objects which influenced the minds of the inhabitants -of Ocosingo. It was thought that the surveyors might make strange -discoveries in the mysterious and unknown region occupied by the -Lacandon Indians. Possibly amongst the forests in the sierras, temples -and hidden treasures might be found; or perhaps a city where the -ancient ceremonies and sacrifices were still performed. - -The Gefe said that a small band of explorers had lately penetrated -a few leagues into the forest, and had seen several circular shaped -huts, but the Indians who lived in them had fled. They found maize and -tomatoes growing upon the open spaces, but they saw no horses, dogs or -other animals. He pointed out to me the hills amongst which the wild -Lacandones lived. It was afterwards suggested that I might take the -post of leader of the proposed expedition. - -If I had been quite free, with sufficient time at my disposal, I -should have been much inclined to assist to the best of my power in -the formation of a preliminary surveying party. I thought that a -practicable route would be found to connect Ocosingo with the existing -road leading from Guatemala to Flores, on the lake of Peten, and -thence to Honduras, and that, in this manner, the distance to Belize -would be much shortened. The first portion of the survey would have -to be conducted through a region which is unknown, and possibly many -interesting facts would be ascertained, and perhaps an ancient ruined -temple might be discovered. - -Whilst staying at Ocosingo I collected a small vocabulary of the words -of the local dialect. These were nearly the same as those spoken near -Comitan, and I was surprised to find that Lopez could not carry on a -conversation with these men. I asked him how this happened and he said -that the languages (lenguas) were quite different, and that he could -not speak with the Ocosingos. It seems probable that, in the course of -time, the construction of the phrases commonly used, or the manner of -the application of the words must have become changed. Although it is -only three days’ journey between the two tribes, it is evident that -there cannot have been much communication between them for several -centuries. - -As Lopez did not know the country beyond Ocosingo, it was settled that -he should return to Comitan. I was sorry to part with him. He had -carried the luggage and provisions, and although a part of the journey -must have been extremely fatiguing to him he never complained. He -also showed the utmost zeal in obtaining forage for the mule, and was -willing and attentive. Don Remigio hired for me a guide named Bito, who -spoke Spanish and knew the paths as far as Chilon, about eleven leagues -distant. Bito brought with him a horse, and thus we were able to travel -at a fair speed. After riding through several leagues of pine forests -we reached Bachajon in the afternoon. - -Bachajon was a strictly Indian village, for the natives objected to any -white people or Ladinos settling amongst them. In the Plaza we found -numbers of Indians congregated together. They differed greatly from -those that I had hitherto seen both in appearance and dialect. The -men wore a white cloth folded round the head, and white frocks and -trousers. The women wore a white frock cut open and square over the -shoulders, and below this a blue skirt reaching nearly to the feet. -Their thick black hair was tied back with a strip of bright red cotton. -Many of the younger women were handsome, but their figures were spoilt -and bent by the custom of carrying large water jars on the hip. The men -were of a larger stature than the natives on the Pacific side of the -Cordilleras, and their skin was of a dark copper colour. Their faces -were broad, but the cheek bones were not so high as is usual with the -North American Indians. Their hair was long, black and very thick, and -their eyes were dark, large, round and restless. With all of them the -nostrils were very wide. - -The church was in ruins, the roof had entirely disappeared, and only -the porch and outer walls remained standing. I remained for several -hours in the Plaza, and my attention was directed to a remarkable -observance. The Indians, when returning from their fields upon the -completion of their day’s work, invariably, before going to their -huts, went to the front of the ruined porch. There they knelt down -and prayed for some minutes. I was deeply interested in observing the -practice of this custom. There was something that appealed strongly to -the imagination in witnessing the simple and earnest devotion of these -wild, ignorant and uncivilised people. It was impossible to conjecture -what was present in their minds, as one by one they, in their solitary -manner, knelt devoutly before these ruined walls. Possibly they -worshipped in their memory the images that, many years before, had -been enshrined within. - -In the evening, as we approached Chilon, we met hundreds of Indians, -men and women, all of whom came forward by the side of my mule, and -inclined their heads saying “Tá” (Padre.) Bito told me that they -supposed that I was a priest, and that they expected me to follow the -custom of the priests and put my hand upon their foreheads. As I did -not wish to sail under false colours, I made an objection to this -proceeding, but Bito said that if I did not do it the Indians would -feel distressed, and would not understand why they were treated in an -unkind manner. He also begged me to do what they wished, or otherwise -some trouble might arise, as many of the men appeared to be in a -half-drunken condition. - -At Chilon I was welcomed by the Justicia, to whom I had a letter from -Don Manuel Cansino. The town was in a state of much excitement. It was -the commencement of the Carnival, an event which caused a considerable -degree of anxiety and apprehension in the minds of the officials. -Processions of Indians, dressed in appropriate costumes, were marching -through the town, and groups of wild-looking men were dancing to the -sounds of rudely shaped fifes and hollow wooden drums. In the morning -these Indians, in accordance with their annual custom, performed a -dance before the door of each house. These dancers were supposed to be -dressed like the conquerors. They wore red, slashed doublets, and loose -white trousers. They carried spears or lances with coloured pennons. -The scene was bright, gay and picturesque. - -During the day I discharged Bito, and obtained a guide to accompany me -to Yajalon. We arrived there about sunset and the Presbitero Fernando -Macal received me with much kindness and attention. At Yajalon the -Indians had assembled in great numbers and the Carnival was at its -height. Here as at Chilon, the performances chiefly consisted of -processions and dances. There were also horse races in front of the -cabildo, and one of the most curious scenes was the representation of -the Spaniards entering a captured city on horseback. The Indians were -Tzendales of the same race as those at Bachajon and were very wild -looking men. An important part of the festival consisted in eating as -great a quantity of food as possible, and drinking copious draughts of -strong spirits. In the evening there was much drunkenness. - -The Carnival lasted for three days, and during that time I had to -remain in Yajalon, as no Indian could be found who would willingly -leave this scene of revelry and excitement. On the second day the -President called upon me at the convent, and informed me that, in -his opinion, it would be highly dangerous for a white man who was a -stranger, to venture out into the open country before the Indians had -recovered from the effects of the carnival, as, in consequence of their -known hatred to all white people, it was impossible to say what might -happen when they were in an excited condition. In anticipation of local -troubles he had organised a small police force which was employed in -patrolling the pueblo day and night, for the purpose of preventing any -quarrels of castes. He had also a company of seventy soldiers prepared -to act in the event of any serious outbreak. As far as I could judge, -the Indians, when in a drunken state, were quiet and inoffensive, but -the President was evidently very anxious about their conduct. - -As I had no share in the responsibility for maintaining good order, the -strange life and the sounds of drums and fifes and marimbas afforded -me inexhaustible pleasure and amusement. The pretty dresses of the -women also added much to the charm of the scene. Many of these Tzendal -women were very handsome. Their heads were well set upon finely shaped -throats and shoulders. Their costume consisted of a long white frock -cut open round their neck, and embroidered with red and yellow squares, -which had a pleasing effect of colour. But not only was the festival -attractive from the quaint and novel character of the scene, but it was -also most enjoyable weather. The skies were blue, the sun was bright, -and the surrounding hills and valleys formed an agreeable contrast. -There was perhaps a slight, underlying sense of danger and a doubt as -to what would occur after sunset, and what might be the effect of the -subsequent orgies upon the savage natures of these Indians. Possibly -what began at daylight as a drama might end at night as a tragedy. -The conduct of the timorous half-caste population or Ladinos was -remarkable. They were conscious that they were hated by the Indians, -and consequently they remained within their houses, and kept themselves -out of sight. - -The dances and processions are said to have been taught by the Spanish -monks. It is evident that they usually have some connection with the -events of the wars between the Spaniards and the Moors, for the Indians -always speak of these representations under the general name of “los -Moros.” But they are also mixed up with other subjects which, not -improbably, have some relation to events that happened before Cortes -conquered Mexico. - -There was a peculiarity in the Indian character which was noticeable in -all their proceedings. This was the absence of all conversation amongst -the numerous spectators. The games, races and processions, the beating -of the wooden drums and the continuous sounds of the marimbas went -on incessantly, but there was no other noise and no murmur of human -voices. The gift of speech with these tribes seems almost unnecessary -for the purposes of their lives, and the language of signs would -possibly be sufficient for their requirements. - -The Spaniards in the sixteenth century were astonished by the -extraordinary debauchery of the Indians during their festivals. The -events which occurred upon these occasions, especially in Yucatan, -surprised the soldiers belonging to a nation remarkable for its -sobriety. The Indians in Cuba, Hayti, and the islands of the Caribbean -sea, and those inhabiting Florida, the valley of the Mississippi, and -other parts of North America, had no knowledge of an intoxicating -spirit. The origin of the excessive insobriety amongst the Mexican -Indians is clearly traceable to the indigenous growth of the Maguey -(_Agave Americana_). This aloe grows abundantly in the sterile regions -of Central America, and supplies a fluid which, after undergoing -certain preparations, is highly alcoholic. - -At Yajalon, as at Bachajon and Ocosingo, the church was in ruins. There -was nothing left of it except the bare walls, marks of the old altars -and parts of the chancel. Long grass was growing over the ground of -the nave. The convent was also in a ruinous condition and only one -side of the quadrangle remained. The interior was overgrown with weeds -and grass, and was used as a pasture for the horses belonging to the -convent. - -The Presbitero was eloquent upon the subject of the wrongs suffered by -the Catholics in Mexico, and he particularly dwelt upon the harm that -had been done to the people in consequence of the decrees which had -nationalised the possessions of the church, suppressed the convents and -abolished all religious fraternities. He thought that the withdrawal -of the monks would have an injurious effect upon the condition of -the Indians, and that they would gradually relapse into a state of -ignorance and barbarism. Thus the system begun by Bishop Las Casas, -and carried on afterwards by monks and priests would come to an end, -and all their efforts to advance and benefit the aboriginal tribes be -rendered useless and vain. - -It is difficult at this distance of time to estimate correctly the -value of the work done by Las Casas, and the consequences of the -enactments in favour of the Indians, obtained by his appeals to the -Spanish government. In this diocese of Chiapas his zeal led to the -establishment of numerous churches and convents. Dominicans and -brethren of other orders came over from Europe for the purpose -of living amongst these Indians, converting them, educating them -and forming centres of local civilization. To a certain extent the -ceremonies of the church, and especially the worship of images, seemed -to obtain a powerful hold upon the devotional nature of many of the -tribes, and the monks obtained great influence over them. - -Thus far the work begun by Las Casas unquestionably did much good in -this and the adjoining provinces. The exhortations of the principal -authorities of the Church in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, -were also beneficial in moderating the hardships inflicted upon the -natives by the Spanish landowners. But in advocating the cause of the -Indians, Las Casas, in the fervour of his zeal, created evils the -effect of which he could not have foreseen. It was in consequence -of the measures adopted through the representations of this ardent -reformer that negro slavery was introduced into America. It was also -chiefly owing to his efforts that consecutive ordinances was decreed, -which, although issued with the intention of putting a stop to the -harsh treatment of the Indians, made it almost impossible to carry on -successfully the government of New Spain. Thus, by the abolition of -forced labour, it was found that there was an immediate danger of the -lands granted to the Spaniards becoming thrown out of cultivation and -their owners ruined. In no part of New Spain was this danger more to be -apprehended than in the neighbourhood of La Antigua Guatemala, and in -the country through which I passed on my way to Santa Cruz del Quiché. -The lands there were fertile and the farms prosperous. The Indians -performed labour upon them under fixed rules which, although strict -and exacting, were not opposed to their previous habits. When these -regulations were withdrawn the Indians ceased to work. Finally protests -were made to the government, and it was pointed out that this usage -of forced labour was not introduced by the Spaniards, but that it had -previously been practically the base of the tribal administration. - -There was another usage which was stopped by orders from Spain. This -was the employment of natives as carriers of merchandise. The abolition -of this system was found to be disadvantageous to the prosperity of the -country, and it was submitted to the king that it had always been the -custom amongst the Indians to transport all things by men working as -porters, for before the arrival of the Spaniards there were no horses -or other beasts of burden. The practice of personally carrying heavy -loads still forms part of the habits of all the inferior classes of -Indians in Central America. - -The restrictions enforced upon the Spanish landowners did not however -much affect the prosperity of the church, particularly in the more -remote districts, where the priests and friars devoted themselves to -the spiritual welfare and education of the natives. At the convents, -schools were established for boys and, in the chief towns, sisters -belonging to nunneries in Spain, came across the Atlantic to teach -the girls. The monks also endeavoured to arrange that the boys upon -completing their studies, should teach other Indians and thus spread -education amongst them. These exertions which, in their origin, -seemed to promise well were not subsequently attended with success, -and the authority of the brethren declined. Finally the declarations -of Independence, the revolutions, and the establishment of republics, -dealt a fatal blow to all educational work. - -Amongst the various consequences of the nationalisation of -ecclesiastical property, it had come to pass that in the country -parishes, there were no funds available for maintaining the churches in -repair, and they were all rapidly falling into ruins. The Presbitero -was convinced, now that the influence of the priests upon the -characters of the tribes was no longer felt, and the church services -were not maintained, that the Indians, especially the Tzendales under -his care, would return to the practice of their ancient idolatries. - -Upon a subject so doubtful as the effect of the teaching of the priests -upon the minds of the Indians it is difficult to form an opinion. -In the sixteenth century the Roman Catholic religion appeared to be -willingly accepted by the natives; but several of the priests that I -had met and who discussed this question, were in doubt as to whether -this readiness to conform with the ceremonies had not some vague -connection with some previous religious customs. The influence of -the friars also possibly had some relation to the system of Indian -priesthood before the conquest; for, according to the statements -of the Spaniards, there was a strange and inexplicable coincidence -between certain regulations by which they were bound, and those of the -Franciscans and Dominicans. - -It was fortunate that during my detention at Yajalon I was the guest of -a man so well informed and highly educated as the Presbitero Fernando -Macal. It was an exceptional fate for him to be thus placed in that -parish, with its numerous detached hamlets, to perform clerical duties -amongst these intractable tribes. At the convent in the evening, the -Presbitero usually discussed questions of theology, together with his -opinions upon the aboriginal and mixed races in Chiapas. The President -occasionally joined us, but his mind was preoccupied with anxiety about -the maintenance of order. All the time, both day and night, the pueblo -was disturbed by the continuous and monotonous sounds of native music. - -On the fourth morning the Carnival was over and a dissipated, -savage-looking Tzendal named Villafranca appeared at the convent -wall, and volunteered to act as my guide to Tumbalá and Palenque. -The necessary arrangements were made to secure the fulfilment of his -duties. The mule was brought out of the quadrangle and we were soon -ready to start. I was warned that the paths over the sierras were in a -bad condition, and that many difficulties would have to be overcome in -passing through the forests. - - - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - An Indian steam bath. — Tumbalá. — Sierras and Forests. — San - Pedro. — Desertion of guide. — Alguazils. — Construction of - Indian huts. — Habits of Indians. — Cargadores. — Crossing a - River. — Forests beyond San Pedro. — Powers of endurance of - Indians. — Arrival at San Domingo del Palenque. - - -The base of the sierra whose summit we had to reach before night, was -about two leagues from Yajalon. After having ridden that distance I -expected to see some indications of Tumbalá, but not being able to make -out anything, I asked Villafranca where it was. He pointed upwards -towards the sky, and said “En el núbe, (in the cloud) Señor.” In effect -it was just possible to see the church amongst the clouds which were -sweeping over the highest ridge of the Cordilleras. - -The greater part of the day was passed in making the ascent, which was -a steep and continuous rise for over three leagues. In the afternoon, -when we had attained to a considerable height, we left below us the -bright and sunny daylight, and entered into the region of cloudland. -The weather became cold and gloomy, and as we approached Tumbalá it -was scarcely possible to see our way for we were moving in a dark fog. -Near the outskirts of the hamlet we passed close to a structure of an -unusual shape, not unlike an oven. I was afterwards informed that it -was used by Indians in time of sickness and was practically a steam -bath. The methods of using it were similar to those adopted by many of -the tribes in North America. The patient finds inside a supply of water -to generate steam. Heated stones are passed in from outside and these -he drops into the water. This system is said to be efficacious in the -disorders to which men living amongst the Cordilleras are subject, and -which are probably caused by exposure to sudden changes of temperature. -It was strange to see amongst these remote sierras a practice which -seemed to establish the fact that there were links connecting these -Mexican Indians with the Dakotas in North America, the natives of -Hawaii, and the Maoris in the distant islands of New Zealand. - -When we arrived at the walls of the convent it was evident that there -was a general state of commotion without and within. Some event had -happened, the nature of which I was unable to ascertain. The precincts -were crowded with numerous groups of Indians and Ladinos. The priest -was living in a large shed. The quadrangle was apparently used as -a farmyard and was filled with cattle, horses, mules, turkeys and -fowls, all wandering about at their own free will, and causing an -indescribable disturbance. The mists were so thick that it was quite -impossible to make anything out clearly. - -Inside the shed the state of affairs was equally confusing. Men, women -and children were busily engaged in preparing to pass the night under -the protection of the roof, and were choosing their sleeping places. -As it was necessary to find room without delay, I told Villafranca to -hang my hammock to the rafters as near to the fire as possible. We then -went out and tethered the mule upon a level open space beyond, which we -thought to be convenient for the purpose, but the clouds were so dense -that we could not see what we were doing. After some further trouble, -supplies of forage and water were obtained, and placed within the -mule’s reach. We then returned to the shed within which the priest was -endeavouring to find suitable quarters for his numerous visitors. - -Later in the evening we were joined by a young couple who had just -been married, and wanted shelter. It happened that there was an Indian -bedstead available and this together with two extemporized pillows -was placed at their disposal. When it became night, we sat round the -fire and cooked our suppers, and then sleeping mats were unrolled and -spread upon the ground. The Cura placed his mat near the fire, beneath -my hammock. Amongst the crowd were several young mothers who had -their infants with them. These little creatures were duly attended to -and their wants supplied. The mothers then proceeded to roll them up -tightly in swaddling clothes until only their heads were visible. They -were afterwards placed in a row against the wall, where they looked -like diminutive Egyptian mummies, their large round eyes staring at us -in a most unmeaning manner. When all these various arrangements were -completed the doors were closed. - -What happened during the night I do not know, but upon awaking in the -morning I found that I was alone and that the shed was empty. All the -numerous inmates of the previous night had departed. I turned out of -my hammock and joined the Cura who was walking in front of his ruined -convent. He said he would accompany me for a few hundred yards to the -outer edge of the sierra, to look at the world around and beneath us. - -The clouds had disappeared, the sun had risen brightly above the -eastern horizon, the sky was blue, the air felt pure and exhilarating, -and the view was magnificent. Not only did we command range upon -range of these Cordilleras, but there were also extensive views of -the valleys below us. Beyond, looking northwards, were the savannahs -and the tropical lowlands near Palenque; and in the far distance the -sunlight was flashing upon the calm waters of the Laguna de Terminos. - -Near at hand were groups of wild-looking Indians watching our -movements. The Cura said he believed they belonged to the Maya -race, and were allied to the tribes that occupied Yucatan. In their -appearance they were like the Tzendales near Bachajon. They were -strongly built men, rather low in stature, and very dark in colour; -their eyes had peculiarly rounded orbits, and their long black hair -was cut square over the forehead. They spoke a language which sounded -very rough and abrupt. The Cura observed that the Indians dwelling -amongst the mountains were daily becoming neglected, and that they -were left entirely free to follow their own beliefs and customs. In -consequence of there being no regular stipend for the clergy, it had -become impossible to maintain a sufficient number of priests to -carry out the duties. He had to superintend the parishes at Tumbalá, -San Pedro, Palenque and the districts around Las Playas, near the -river Usamacinta, and therefore he could not attend personally to the -numerous and scattered Indians placed under his charge. - -Upon our return to the convent, Villafranca came to me and reported -that the mule was ready and that he had got his machete sharpened -in order to clear away any branches or brushwood that we might find -to be obstructing the track. He added to his pack some part of the -weights carried by the mule, as it was necessary that she should be as -free as possible, to push her way through the woods, and we reduced -the quantities of food and other necessaries to the lowest amount -practicable. A young Mexican who was going to the seacoast came with -us as far as the entrance to the forest. He then told me that he should -not attempt to go through it with his clothes on, so he stopped and -stripped to the skin, and tied his clothes up in a bundle which he -fastened to the top of his head. He was a white man of mixed descent -and in his action he showed some elements of the nature of his remote -Indian ancestry. He ran rapidly to the front, plunged into the forest -like a lithe athletic young savage, and was soon out of sight. - -As it was not possible to ride I dismounted, and we began to descend -the steep sides of the mountain. It was very hard work. Villafranca -led the way. I followed close to him, holding the halter at its full -length, to prevent the mule as she slipped forward from falling upon -me. This manner of progression was made difficult by the obstinate -conduct of the mule. She would occasionally attempt to choose her own -way and go the wrong side of a tree, and as no energy expended in -trying to get her back was of any use, I had always to yield and to -follow her round the trunk. Upon one occasion she got away into the -forest and was nearly lost. The guide at once threw off his pack and -went after her. - -The instincts of an Indian were apparent in his proceedings. He -carefully marked every step of his advance through the dense -undergrowth by cutting down small branches of the trees and placing -them on the line of his track. He also here and there, but always -on the left hand side, cut notches in the trees or bent some twigs -backwards. After a few minutes interval he returned triumphantly with -the mule, and after this experience I took care not to allow the halter -to leave my hands again. - -The fatigues of the day were beyond description. I had been prepared -to expect difficulties from the steepness of the ascents and descents -and the growth of the underwood, but there were other obstacles which -were previously unknown. Our track was constantly barred by creepers -which crossed from tree to tree in festoons like thick ropes. They hung -loosely in bends and bights in every conceivable shape, but usually -they swept the ground in semicircles. Others were hanging in graceful -loops three or four feet above the ground, so that the mule was unable -to pass under them. There were also miry, swampy places in which the -mule sometimes sank to an almost dangerous depth. But what I found -to be the most serious trial was the want of ventilation. There was -absolutely no movement in the air or any sounds of life, and there was -very little daylight, for the rays of the sun above did not penetrate -to the ground. - -The forest was dark and gloomy, and the atmosphere most oppressive. -The want of a proper supply of fresh air to breathe made the journey -extremely exhausting. After struggling for several hours down the -rugged slopes of the first mountain, we reached a narrow valley and -crossed a small stream. We then had to climb up another sierra so -steep that it required all my available strength to reach the summit. -From this height there remained another league to be traversed down a -steep rocky slope to a wide open savannah, upon which was situated San -Pedro. Towards sunset we arrived at the village and found shelter under -a shed, within which was installed the official who ruled over the -district, and who was called the Maestro. - -In the morning I discovered that during the night my guide had -deserted. Possibly some accident may have happened to him, but in my -opinion his conduct was a deliberate act of desertion. I reported the -case immediately to the Maestro, but Villafranca could not be found -and I never saw him again. It was supposed that he found the work and -fatigue of the day greater than he had expected, and was not willing to -make his way on the morrow through the equally dense forests between -San Pedro and Palenque. If this surmise was correct his view of the -situation was quite intelligible, but as I did not consider that an act -of this kind should remain unpunished, I arranged with the Maestro that -a letter from me should be dispatched to Yajalon where the man had -been hired. - -I wrote to the Presbitero Macal an account of the desertion and -requested him to bring the case to the notice of the alcalde, in order -that Villafranca should receive a punishment in accordance with the -custom of the country, and that he should be deprived of his wages -which had been left in the Presbitero’s charge. I also requested that -this money should be given to any of his deserving or distressed -parishioners. In justice however to this Tzendal, it should be noted -that he did not rob me. I found everything carefully piled up in -a corner of the shed; saddle, clothes, rug and the remains of the -provisions sufficient for one day. The mule was safely tethered outside -the door. - -I was thus placed in a very insecure position and had to rely entirely -upon my own resources. The hamlet was surrounded in all directions -by sierras and forests, and I had not the slightest knowledge of the -mountain passes. With regard to food I could manage very well as I was -able to make a fire and was prepared to make the provisions last for -more than one day if necessary, but in other respects I was entirely -dependent upon the good will of the San Pedro Indians about whom very -little was known, but who were considered to be untrustworthy. - -The Maestro declared that he would do all that was in his power to -assist me, and promised that he would get a guide who would go with -me to Palenque. But he said that he could not find a man at once, and -that it would be necessary that I should stop in the convent until the -following day. In some respects I was not sorry to be detained, for I -was thus enabled to have some spare time to see something of the habits -of life amongst the inhabitants of this isolated village, so singularly -placed in the heart of these remote Cordilleras. I observed that the -Maestro maintained towards those who were placed under his rule a -dignified and reserved manner. He was supported in his authority by two -alcaldes, and two alguazils who were Indians elected annually for these -posts. The alguazils wore suitable dresses and performed regular police -duties, walking at intervals about the village, carrying long wands of -office. It was also their custom to visit the Maestro occasionally, -attend to his wants, and render such personal service as he required. -In obedience to his directions, they obtained for me supplies of maize -and water for the mule, and tortillas and beans for myself, and thus I -was able to cook a tolerable breakfast. - -During the day I wandered amongst the huts within and near the hamlet -in order to see something of the natives who lived in them and were -said to follow the ancient customs and habits of domestic life. Near -the borders of the savannah some Indians were building a large hut and -I observed a method of construction which, although absolutely the -reverse of any system that I had previously known, was most suitable -for their wants. In the first place the roof is built. This when -completed, looks like an open thatched shed resting upon upright poles. -The eaves are brought down low, but sufficiently high to enable a man -of moderate height to pass under them without stooping. When the roof -is considered firm and secure, the four walls inclosing the room are -made. They are usually constructed of crossed laths and sticks, and -thickly plastered over with a kind of mud which has a good binding -consistence. - -The walls are raised until they reach within a short distance from the -slope of the roof, a sufficient space being left for the escape of -smoke. The size of the hut and the height of the walls are determined -by the width and slope of roof. A few rough cross poles are placed -across the top of the walls for the purpose of hanging up any household -goods, and sometimes at one end some of these poles are placed close -together so as to form a platform, where bags of maize and other farm -produce are kept or dried. When the roof is wide and the overhanging -eaves are low there is an agreeable and well shaded space outside the -main hut, where the Indians rest during the day.[77] - -As far as it was possible to judge from a passing observation the -Indians at San Pedro seemed to be a contented race. They cultivated -their milpas or corn fields sufficiently to get enough to supply them -with maize bread and pozole, and at most of the huts there were fowls -and a few pigs. The women laboured in some form of household work, -and much of their time was occupied in grinding the maize to make -tortillas. At this village, as in others chiefly inhabited by Indians, -there was an absence of any human sounds. In the interior of the huts, -as also outside them, all the occupations of life were performed in -silence. In the evening, when the men returned home from their work, -there was the same manner of moving about without noise. There appeared -to be also an absence of all interest in what was happening around -them, which gave an element of sadness to the scene. Their lives seem -to be passed in a state of quiet melancholy and listlessness. - -This condition of the Indians is practically the same throughout this -part of Central America. The problem of existence is worked out in its -lowest terms. It cannot however be said that they live in want and -poverty, because they have no wants. They exist, and are apparently -content to exist, in the state in which they find themselves placed. -The bare ground, a thatched roof, bedstead, a few mats, some firewood, -and a small store of maize suffice for the necessities of their lives. -Their submissive natures assent to these conditions and they seem to -accept their fate with passive resignation. - -Upon my return to the shed in the evening, I found that it was -enlivened by the arrival of a busy, loud-voiced Spaniard named Don Pepe -Ortiz. He informed me that he was travelling from Oaxaca towards the -coast of the Gulf of Campeachy with a cargo of tobacco. He had with -him a band of cargadores to carry the bales. He also employed for -his own personal use a man of great strength to carry him in places -where he could not ride a mule. The direction of his journey over the -sierras was for some distance the same as my own, and he proposed that -we should, without delay, make arrangements for crossing a river which -occasionally was difficult to pass over. I had not heard that there was -a stream of any importance in our way, and I asked Don Pepe to do what -was expedient. Accordingly he sent on an Indian to order several canoes -to be in readiness for us on the following morning. - -[Illustration: INDIAN WOMAN GRINDING CHOCOLATE, CENTRAL AMERICA.] - -At sunrise my new guide José arrived and we all started together. After -riding about a league we reached the bank of a river, called the San -Pedro, which we found to be a deep stream about three hundred yards -wide. The passage was not made without difficulties, chiefly caused by -the conduct of the mules, when they reached the opposite bank, which -was very steep. The canoes were in attendance, and I selected one -which seemed to be convenient for the moderate weights to be carried. -The mule was fastened by the halter to the stem of the canoe, and -swam across with ease, but she obstinately refused to go on shore at -the proper landing place, and consequently, after several unavailing -attempts, I allowed her to go free and choose for herself. She swam -down with the current for about a hundred yards, and then with much -good judgment she selected her own spot and scrambled safely up the -bank. - -After having successfully accomplished my crossing, I watched the -movements of Don Pepe and his men in their canoes. It was a picturesque -scene, but it was within two hours of midday before we were all -established on the northern side of the river. We then commenced the -dreaded ascent about which many warnings had been given to me. It was -a steep climb for five long leagues and it was nearly sunset when we -reached the summit. We stopped for the night in a small shed which -sheltered us from the dew. - -Don Pepe’s Indians arrived after us and insisted upon lighting a large -fire just outside the hut, with the object they said of keeping away -tigers, and kept it burning like a bonfire as long as it was dark. At -daylight José and myself and mule began the descent of the opposite -slope of the sierra. I had been told that we should find this part of -the journey very arduous, but it exceeded in difficulty anything that I -had imagined. - -The track, or opening through the trees had almost disappeared, and -we had to make our own way between detached masses of sharp, angular -rocks. Frequently it was necessary to scramble over them or to slide -down them, and it occasionally seemed to me that we were going at -random down the side of the mountain. But what made our progress more -than usually difficult was the fact that, in several places, decaying -trunks of large trees had fallen across our path, and as it was not -practicable to get the mule over them, we were obliged to diverge into -the forest to pass round them. When it was thus necessary to quit our -line of direction, José would instantly draw his machete and mark -our movements by cutting down branches, so as to secure the means -of retreat to our starting point, in case we failed to find the path -again. I was quite aware of the importance of this action. It was -astonishing to find how in a few seconds in a dense forest and amongst -thick growth of underwood and creepers all knowledge of direction seems -to be lost. - -The length of this precipitous descent was a little more than five -miles, and we took four hours to accomplish the distance. During that -time I never saw a glimpse of the sky, although I knew that, above the -trees, the sun was shining brilliantly. - -In the forenoon we reached the banks of the Nopá, which ran at the -base of the sierra, and halted there to rest. We then passed over the -river, and pushed or cut our way through two leagues of dense forest -and thick brushwood. There were also several small streams with low but -steep and slippery banks that had to be crossed. Finally we reached and -forded the river Michol. The worst was then over, and we emerged from -the forest and saw before us a savannah where we decided to encamp. I -obtained a slight shelter under the sloping roof of a little open hut, -which had been left there by some passing Indians. Thus ended a most -fatiguing day. - -Don Pepe and his Indians arrived after sunset and encamped near us. The -methods adopted by these Indians when preparing to pass the night upon -an open savannah were instructive. In the first instance they placed -upon the ground a quantity of broad dry leaves to protect them from the -damp grass. They then dispersed, and in a few minutes the adjacent -forest resounded with the noise of the blows made by their machetes. -They returned bearing loads of firewood and also several strong forked -branches. These they sharpened at one end and fixed into the earth -near the camping place to form supports to carry the bales of tobacco. -In this manner the cargo was raised about three feet, and thus they -carried out the invariable rule of Indians who never leave anything -upon the ground at night. They then lighted a large fire. - -There were characteristics with respect to these Oaxaca Indians, which -I had already observed on the previous day, but which more particularly -came under my notice upon this occasion. They had gone through a long -day’s work of most severe labour, and yet upon settling down for -the night’s rest they neither ate any food or drank any water. My -guides, who were not, like these men, trained to carry great weights -for considerable distances, were also able to live upon very small -quantities of food and never seemed to be tired at the end of the day’s -journey. - -It was the custom of each Indian before leaving his home to provide -himself with a small quantity of a substance called pozole, which was -prepared for him by his wife. This was usually made in the following -manner. A sufficient quantity of maize was partly boiled, until the -grain could be easily removed from the husks. These softened grains -were then ground upon the metatl or grindstone until a thick paste was -made. This was either put into a little bag or rolled up in a green -leaf. This paste was the principal part of the food that was carried, -but sometimes the wives gave their husbands a supply of tortillas. To -make these, the grains of maize, after being slightly boiled, are put -upon the metatl, and rolled out into a very thin pancake; this is taken -off the stone and put upon a large leaf and made into a round shape. -It is then placed upon a pan and held for a few minutes over the fire, -until it is properly baked, when it becomes a tortilla. With a few of -these and his scant store of pozole an Indian always considers himself -to be amply provisioned until he returns to his village or secluded -country hut. - -My guides took their principal meal about noon. A portion of the paste -was taken out of the leaf and placed upon the palm of the left hand, a -small quantity of water was then mixed with it until it became slightly -fluid and then it was eaten. In the evening they usually took more -pozole and a tortilla, after which they would drink some water mixed -with enough of the pozole to make it become the colour and consistency -of thin milk. In this manner they avoided drinking pure cold water. -This was the daily food of my Indians, upon which they could go long -journeys carrying considerable weights, and they never appeared to be -tired.[78] - -The cargadores are trained from boyhood to carry heavy burdens over -great distances. Don Pepe expected them to travel eight leagues a day. -But when carrying lighter loads they will sometimes travel for several -consecutive days at the rate of nearly forty English miles a day. When -the cargo-bearers were moving in single file with their burdens, they -looked like the Tamemes bearing tribute to Montezuma as represented -in the ancient pictures. It is probable that these men were enduring -labours similar to those that had been performed by their ancestors for -centuries before the arrival of the Spaniards. - -In the morning the Indians proceeded on their journey towards the -coast. We followed a path leading in another direction, through open -and wooded lowlands. Finally after a ride of four leagues we reached -the savannah upon which is situated the village of San Domingo del -Palenque. - -Never have I known a moment of more keen pleasure and satisfaction, -than that when José pointed out to me this beautiful spot. I had become -fatigued by the hardships of the previous days, and the buoyancy -of mind that was felt in getting at last into a region of life and -sunshine cannot be adequately expressed. - -We stopped to ask where Doctor Coller lived, and were shown the -position of a low, thatched cottage, at the door of which stood the -only European living in the village.[79] I was received by him with -friendly welcome. My hammock was placed under the shade of the -projecting thatch. The mule was set free to wander at will amongst the -plains, and I was advised to take twenty-four hours complete rest. On -the following forenoon I made arrangements for proceeding to the ruins, -and a few Indians were sent there to open the path, and to clear the -inner courts of the palace from weeds and brushwood. - -San Domingo del Palenque is placed upon a rising grassy slope studded -with fine trees. The church was in ruins and roofless. The population -consisted chiefly of Ladinos. The Indians lived in secluded places near -the outskirts, where they cultivated their milpas or cornfields. There -was a charm about this sunny fertile savannah and the simple habits of -life of its inhabitants, which must be attractive to men of sensitive -temperaments. The land is fertile, corn is abundant, and cattle, horses -and mules wander over the green pastures in freedom. - -It was an unusual series of circumstances that had caused Dr. Coller to -settle for life in this remote part of the world. He told me that he -was a native of Switzerland and was born at Zurich. He was educated in -that city but completed his studies at Berlin. Much of his early life -was passed in different countries. About ten years before my arrival, -he felt a wish to see Palenque and found his way to this region from -the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. Upon reaching the village he was -fascinated by its beautiful situation, its repose and its proximity to -the ancient ruins in which he felt the strongest interest. He found -that the life at San Domingo had an attraction for him which he did -not wish to resist, and he decided to make this place his home, and -married a native who possessed, in her own right, some land in the -neighbourhood.[80] - -Dr. Coller was a man of varied and extensive information and an -excellent linguist. He had devoted much time, not only to the -investigation of the Indian antiquities, but also to the study of the -geology and botany of the district, and I was much pleased when he -proposed to accompany me to Palenque. It was of the greatest advantage -thus to have the benefit of his accurate knowledge of the positions of -the mounds and temples. - -[Illustration: PALACE OR MONASTERY, PALENQUE. EAST FRONT.] - - - - - CHAPTER XV. - - Palenque. — The Forest. — The Palace or Monastery. — Night - at Palenque. — Brilliancy of the light of the fireflies. — - Pyramidal Mounds and Temples. — Tablet of the Cross. — - Hieroglyphs. — An Indian Statue. — Antiquity of the Buildings. — - The Tower. — Stucco Ornamentation. — Action of the tropical - climate upon the Ruins. — Note upon the decipherment of the - hieroglyphic characters. - - -It was a bright tropical morning when we mounted our horses and -followed the narrow path leading to Palenque. After riding for a league -through woods, savannahs, and cornfields, we reached and crossed the -river Michol. - -As we approached the ruins, the forest was so thick that we were not -able to see anything beyond the track which had been cleared for us by -our men. At a distance of about three Spanish leagues from San Domingo, -we came to the borders of a small running stream. Dr. Coller stopped -and said that at this point we should dismount, as we had arrived at -our destination. We then went up a steep slope, on the summit of which -I could see dimly, the pillars and ruined roof of the “Palace.” - -Our Indians met us at the entrance. They had already cleared the -brushwood which had overgrown the quadrangles, and had removed all that -interfered with any exploring work that they thought we might wish -to carry out. The luxuriance of the vegetation was surprising. In one -of the open courts we observed a large plant which we found to be a -species of arum. The leaves were of an extraordinary size, and averaged -four feet six inches long by three feet six inches wide; the stalks -were over seven feet high. - -The greater part of the day was occupied in making a survey of the -ground plans of the building, as far as it was possible to trace them -amongst the accumulations of fallen ruins. Upon the completion of this -work, and after having made an examination of the series of small -chambers below the corridors, it became evident that the building -was erected with the intention of establishing a monastery, similar -to those which were described by the historians of the conquest of -Mexico as being dedicated to the use of the priests who worshipped -and performed ceremonies at the shrines of the god Quetzalcoatl, and -who, in addition to those duties, were given the charge of educating -the children of the chiefs. They also trained those youths who were -intended to become priests. - -It is to be regretted that this great structure was called by its first -discoverers “The Palace,” and that its purpose was rendered perplexing -by theories connected with the dwellings of Kings or Caciques. - -According to the investigations of Mr. Stephens, its extreme dimensions -were two hundred and twenty-eight feet long, by one hundred and eighty -feet wide. The height of the rectangular mound upon which it is placed -has been variously estimated. It appears to have been about twenty -feet high. Upon the summit of this platform was built with stone and -mortar, the various foundations upon which the buildings and galleries -of the monastery were erected. The base upon the east front was about -ten feet high. The height of the building may be estimated to have been -nearly twenty-four feet. Thus it may be concluded that the whole height -from the ground to the roof must have been approximately fifty-four -feet. The architectural proportions seem to have been well designed. - -The interior gave me the impression of being Moorish in its style, -especially with respect to the open inner courts, the arrangement -of the corridors and the lavish employment of stucco ornamentation, -brilliantly coloured. A closer investigation into architectural details -left the subject in doubt, but there still remained upon the mind the -feeling that in some unintelligible manner, the construction had been -directed either by foreigners or by Indians who were partly descended -from men of foreign origin. The forms of ancient mosques and of the -inner courts and quadrangles of Arabian or Moorish and Spanish public -buildings were indistinctly recalled to the memory. It was however to -be observed, upon an examination of the methods adopted at Palenque -in supporting the weight of the roofs, that the arches (if it is -permissible for that term to be applied to straight converging slopes -covered with flat coping stones,) are absolutely exceptional and unlike -any other arch that is known. I was reminded, to a certain extent, of -the ruins of Alatri, near Mycenæ on the plains of Argos, and of an -Etruscan tomb near Perugia, but the system employed by the American -architects, in placing the cap or terminal cross stones was essentially -different. - -In the exploration of the ruins our attention was chiefly directed -to certain doubtful points, particularly with regard to the chambers -which are beneath the corridors, and are entered from the level of the -courts. There have been several conjectures respecting the purposes -of these cells. I think that it is probable that they were used as -dormitories. In some of the chambers there was a low, wide stone table, -placed against the wall at the end. These benches were large flat -smooth slabs of limestone supported on four stone legs. In height, -shape and dimensions they were like the wooden bedsteads used by the -Indians at the present time. - -There is a square tower in one of the inner courts which must be -considered as the most singular structure in Palenque. In position and -manner of construction it is abnormal in character. It was probably -intended for some special object, after the monastery had been -completed. When Captain Del Rio saw this tower, in 1787, he estimated -its height to be sixteen yards. In 1870 there were heaps of rubble -and fallen stones piled against the base, which made it difficult for -me to make exact measurements, but an approximate estimate gave the -sides of the square near the base as twenty-three feet, and the height -about forty-five feet. The peculiarity about the construction is the -fact that it consists of a tower within a tower. The inner structure -contains a steep and narrow staircase. Light is obtained through large -openings in the sides of the outer tower, and then through smaller -openings in the walls of the interior one. The steps appear to have -led up to the top. The walls are formed of rough slabs of limestone -which had been thickly coated over with cement, portions of which -still remained. It was raised to a height which commanded views of the -adjacent temples. - -Upon my return to the eastern front, I found that the Indians had -slung the hammocks in the outer corridor overlooking the forest. A -few minutes before sunset we heard the strange and beautiful notes of -a solitary bird singing amongst the ruins. The song resembled in its -tone that of a thrush. Dr. Coller said that the bird was a kind of -nightingale, and that it was only known to live within and around the -Palenque temples. The bird sang in a slow, deliberate manner, each of -the notes having a short interval of time between them. The song was -maintained during the twilight, and ceased as soon as it became dark -and the night had begun. It was an evening hymn to the setting sun. -The hoarse screams and movements of troops of monkeys then disturbed -the precincts. These harsh noises gradually stopped, and as the -night advanced the forest became silent. The moon was up and we knew -that it was shining brightly above the trees, but we could only see -occasionally its faint glimmer. I had expected to hear the croaking of -frogs or the sounds of cicadas, the usual accompaniment to a tropical -evening, but although there was a running stream of water at the foot -of the mound, these familiar sounds were absent. - -The brushwood covering the ground was made brilliant by numerous -fireflies. The light which shone from these beetles far exceeded -anything of that nature that I had seen in other regions, and I took -the opportunity of ascertaining the strength of the illuminating power. -I sent one of the men into the wood to catch the largest firefly -that he could find, and then, after having made the corridor dark by -extinguishing our candles, the insect was held about two inches from a -blank page of my note book, Dr. Coller watched the experiment. We found -that the light was steady and shed a soft clear phosphorescent glow -over the paper. The luminous power was sufficient to enable us to read -or write with ease over a surface two inches square. After writing a -few notes upon what had been done during the day we added:— - - “Written by the light of a firefly in the Palace, in the ruins - of Palenque, the night of Wednesday, March 10th, 1870, the - candle (firefly) held by Dr. Albert Coller. The light about - equal to that of a small wax candle and very pure. The light - rather greenish.” - - “Dr. A. J. COLLER.” - -Before turning into my hammock I visited the horses tethered at the -base of the mound near the stream. They were much worried by flies, -mosquitos, and small ticks called garrapátas, which find their way -under the skin and cause great irritation. In the corridor, thirty -feet above them, we were not troubled with any of these pests, but -there were numerous bats. The Indians said that, sometimes, horses were -seriously injured by bats biting them above their hoofs. - -In the morning, upon the earliest indications of dawn, the solitary -nightingale again began its song, and the clear staccato, and -singularly musical note was again heard amongst the ruins until -sunrise, when it ceased. Thus this bird sang its song of praise as the -herald of the day. - -At sunrise Dr. Coller returned to San Domingo, leaving me alone at -Palenque to carry out the investigation of the mounds and temples, a -work which he thought would be laborious and oppressive. My guides -were however well acquainted with the ruins, and I consequently -knew that I should be spared all unnecessary exertion. But until I -began the exploration I had no idea of the difficulties that had to -be encountered. The men were employed in cutting a path through the -brushwood and it was impracticable to do more than follow a certain -line of direction and obtain ideas of distances by counting the -number of paces or by noting intervals of time. I soon ascertained -that with the means at my disposal it was hopeless to expect to do -more than obtain a general knowledge of the extent and form of the -chief structures, and the positions of the mounds. It was a serious -disappointment to find that it was impossible to make a thorough -examination without the aid of a large number of Indians to cut down -the trees and clear the ground. This would have been a work involving -much time and expenditure and was entirely beyond my power. The forest -was sombre, for the light that penetrated through the trees, was -insufficient. It was however possible to obtain a fair knowledge of the -extent of the space covered by the mounds, and their distances from the -monastery. The ground plan of the inclosure could also be approximately -understood. - -The first and, with respect to its altar, the most important building -that I saw, was that known by the name of the Temple of the Cross. -Before ascending the sides of the mound upon which it stands, I -examined the formation of an ancient causeway which covered, for some -distance, the stream near its base. I traced it for about one hundred -and fifty yards. A small portion was sufficiently preserved to enable -the system of construction to be ascertained. It appears to have been -intended for the purpose of confining the rivulet that ran beneath it, -and thus to secure a dry roadway, or crossing, during the rainy season. -It was stated by the Indians, that there still existed, in the forest, -the remains of a stone bridge. As far as I could understand their -description, it appeared that in shape it was not unlike the ancient -Chinese bridges, and rose to the centre by steep gradients. - -After finishing the measurements of the causeway we began to ascend -the mound. About halfway up the slope, the men stopped and pointed to -a place where, lying with its face on the ground, was the stone of -the cross. As this tablet had been the subject of much investigation, -and is undoubtedly, with respect to its meaning, the most remarkable -monument at Palenque, I was anxious to examine it with the utmost care. -I directed the Indians to turn it over and thoroughly clean it from -moss and dirt, so as to enable me to make a sketch of it. I found that, -in consequence of the action of the earth upon the face of the stone, -parts of the sculpture were difficult to trace, but the central figures -were quite distinct. I was able to make a satisfactory outline, -chiefly confining my attention to the cross, the bird surmounting it, -and the dress of the man, having in his hands what seemed to be a -child, which he was presenting as a votive offering. - -The bird, with its long double tail feathers, was probably the -representation of the Quetzal, the sacred bird of the Quichés, and -thus it may be assumed that the temple in which this tablet formed the -centre of the altar-piece, was dedicated to the worship of the god -Quetzalcoatl. But, judging by the peculiarities of the dress worn by -the principal worshipper, I formed the opinion that he was not, as has -previously been supposed, a priest offering sacrifice. The worshippers -and the offerings have, I believe, other significations.[81] - -The temple, placed upon the top of the mound, must have been—when it -was externally perfect—a graceful and well proportioned shrine; but -when I saw it, the outer walls were so enveloped in brushwood and -enclosed by trees, that it was not practicable to do more than obtain -a conception of its proportions. After having measured the length, -breadth and height, and made a ground plan, I examined the interior. -A corridor ran along the front; within was the chamber which had -contained the inscribed stone slabs which formed the back of the altar, -in the centre of which had been the figure of the cross. This, and the -right and left hand tablets, had been all closely joined together so -as to form one subject,[82] the meaning of which was probably explained -by the hieroglyphic characters. The right hand tablet, which had been -removed, I had already seen at the museum in Washington. - -After leaving this sanctuary, we descended the southern slope until -we reached the base, and then began to ascend the adjoining mound, on -whose summit was another temple. Thus we proceeded until we reached a -singular little structure which has been considered to be exceptional, -from the fact that the figure upon the altar had been placed upon a -base supported by what are supposed to have been two tigers. I could -only trace the remains of the feet, as everything within and without -the temple was in ruins. Following the direction of the quadrangular -precincts, we finally crossed over an unusually lofty mound, and then -arrived at the back or western face of the monastery. - -We had completed a slight survey of the mounds and temples on the sides -of the inclosure, having passed successively over them and examined the -altars, as far as their more or less ruined state permitted. These all -varied in their dimensions, but they were evidently built for analagous -purposes as shrines for the worship of the Indian gods.[83] There was, -however, one important exception which requires to be noticed. - -At the south-west angle of the monastery—and connected with it in such -a manner that it seems to have been an adjunct to the main building—are -the ruins of a structure which has been considered to have been a -temple, but which, I think, served for a different purpose. It stands -upon a mound about forty-five feet high. Its frontage was found to be -longer than that of any of the other temples. In the interior there -was no altar, but the upright slabs of stone placed upon the inner -wall were covered with hieroglyphs. When the Indians, who accompanied -Mr. Stephens, saw these groups of characters they declared that the -building was an escuela or schoolhouse. Other opinions were also given, -but the subject has not received any investigation. I think it is -probable that the opinion of the Indians was correct, and that it was -here that the boys were taught the meaning of the hieroglyphic symbols, -and were thus able to read and interpret the signs placed upon the -idols and altars. - -In the afternoon we re-entered the monastery. We had been for nearly -seven hours occupied in crossing over the mounds and clearing a path -through the forest, and yet at no time did I estimate that we were more -than five hundred yards from our starting point. At the end of this -part of the day’s work, I found that I was able to establish some -deductions respecting the positions and heights of the raised platforms -and the character of the stone edifices. - -It may be concluded that Palenque consists of a group of mounds having -buildings upon them exclusively devoted to the purposes of religion. -In the year 1840, five of the mounds had temples upon their summits -which were in a fair state of preservation. The survey of Captain -Antonio Del Rio was made in the year 1787, and, as he was an officer -of the Artillery, his Report, with respect to the general plan, and -the bearings and distances of the mounds then remaining, may be -accepted as being correct. He states that he visited the ruins called -Casas de Piedras (stone houses) on the 5th of May, and finding that -nothing could be distinctly made out in consequence of the forest, -he engaged a large number of Indians from Tumbalá, who felled the -trees and afterwards cleared the ground by fire, thus opening up a -sufficient space to enable him to observe the true positions of the -mounds and buildings. He found that they were all contained within a -rectangular area, four hundred and fifty yards long and three hundred -yards wide. In the centre was the mound upon which stood the largest -structure. This was surrounded by other edifices, “namely: five to the -northward, four to the southward, one to the south-west, and three to -the eastward.” - -Thus it appears that in 1787 there were thirteen mounds with buildings -upon their summits, besides the large platform earthwork upon which -was placed the “Palace.” In 1806, nearly twenty years afterwards, the -Spanish Government ordered another survey to be made. The expedition -was placed under the orders of Captain Dupaix, who had served as -an officer in the Dragoons. He reported that, at that time, eleven -temples were still standing. Thirty-four years later, Mr. Stephens -could only discover five temples not utterly ruined. It is strange that -in these short intervals of time, such changes should have happened -amongst monuments of this nature. With regard to this subject, it is -of consequence to notice the statements given by the local authorities -who made the original discoveries which led to the survey of Del Rio. -The explorations were conducted, under the orders of the Spanish -authorities at Guatemala, by one of the principal inhabitants of -the village of San Domingo, named Calderon, aided by the Government -architect, Bernasconi. In their Report, which was made only three years -before that of Del Rio, they declared that there were evidences of the -ruins of numerous houses occupying a large space of land to the west -of the temples. Nothing was known by my Indians upon this subject. It -should, however, be observed, with respect to undiscovered ruins, that -any rumours relating to what may, or may not, exist in the heart of a -tropical forest, must necessarily be doubtful, for where nothing can be -seen, except what may happen to be found in the direction of the path, -much must be unknown. - -On the slopes of the ground in front of one of the temples I saw a -large and rudely carved statue, which in consequence of its form -and manner of sculpture is of much importance. There is reason to -believe that it was intended to represent Quetzalcoatl, an Indian god, -a mythical or real personage, who, for many reasons connected with -Palenque, requires to have an especial consideration given to him. It -is a distinctive characteristic of this statue, that the features are -essentially different from those of the Indians whose figures are to be -seen upon the altars of the temples and within the courts and corridors -of the monastery. These have receding foreheads and sharply defined -prominent faces, quite unlike the present races in Central America, but -in a marked degree resembling the tribes of the North American Indians, -who had the custom of flattening the heads of their children. - -The statue by my measurement, was a few inches more than eight feet in -height, exclusive of the lower part of the stone, which tapered off in -such a manner as to show that it had been originally placed upright and -fixed in the ground. The feet stood on a base upon which was carved the -hieroglyph which probably denoted the name. The forehead was low and -straight. The face was completely different in type and expression, -from that of any known race of Indians. The head was surmounted by a -kind of high tiara. The left hand held in front of the figure a small -head, in the same position as in the little figure at Ocosingo. - -As, after completing the circuit of the mounds, there were still a few -hours at my disposal before leaving Palenque so as to reach the village -before nightfall, I decided to devote the time to the investigation of -certain problems regarding the age and construction of the buildings. -But in the first place, attention should be directed to the manner in -which the open courts within the monastery are disposed, and access is -obtained to the rooms beneath the corridors. Commencing from the east -front, there are two ranges of corridors which are separated throughout -their whole length by a strong wall, which receives the thrust of the -two inner slopes supporting the roof. There is only one entrance or -means of communication between them in the existing northern portion -of the ruins. The interior width of each of these galleries is about -seven feet four inches. After passing across them, the principal court -is reached and the floor of the open space is seen ten feet below. -A wide flight of large and well hewn stone steps leads down to the -bottom, which appears to have been paved with several layers of cement. -This court is twenty-eight paces wide. The rooms are entered through -doorways in the sides of the inclosing walls. Opposite to the first -flight of steps there are similar steps leading to a second series of -corridors. Passing through these, another court is reached, and beyond -is the outer gallery which runs along the western side of the building. -The total width of this cross section of the monastery is approximately -one hundred and seventy-six feet. - -[Illustration] - -When wandering amongst these courts, and looking at the vestiges of -an unknown state of civilisation, I endeavoured to form conclusions -with regard to the purpose and antiquity of all that was seen. The -problem is difficult to solve. It has been surmised that the temples -of Palenque were erected during a period not exceeding four centuries -before the Spanish conquest. This opinion was based upon what has been -observed with respect to the condition of the ruins, and the freshness -of portions of the colouring of the stucco. This method of estimating -comparative antiquity presents some local difficulties. - -The square tower was originally faced with thick cement, and then -covered with washes of colour, in the same manner as the walls of the -Teocallis in the Quiché city of Utatlan upon which the faded colours -are still visible. If the existing outer coating was the only one that -had been given it would be reasonable to infer that the age of the -tower was not great. But it happens that in those places where portions -of the stucco have fallen, there have been numerous applications -of colour, and therefore admitting that the latest may look bright -and fresh, it is not possible to estimate the periods that may have -elapsed between the dates of successive layers. Although I was at first -inclined to think that the building could not be ancient, yet a more -careful examination left the subject indeterminate. Any conclusions -which may have been thought probable on account of the state of the -walls and roofs are equally uncertain. With regard to this matter it is -necessary to take into consideration certain existing conditions. - -Immediately behind the ruins are the slopes of the sierras which -I traversed on the way from Tumbalá. They are covered with loose -fragments of the limestones of which they are formed. These were the -building materials used by the architects of the temples. Their small -size and flat surface were suitable for the purpose, when combined with -mortar, the mixing of which the Indians well understood. The walls of -the monastery were made with layers of these flat stones bound together -with quantities of this mortar. The outer faces were carefully arranged -to receive a thick casing of cement, which was so hard and sound, that -it is evident the builders must have had an accurate knowledge of the -best proportions of the substances required for its composition. The -cement had a smooth surface and in several places it was still perfect. -The colours laid upon it are red, blue, yellow and white. They appear -to have been made more or less vivid and varied in accordance with what -was thought necessary to obtain good contrasts. The stucco figures and -scrolls were skilfully designed, and were coloured in a manner which -was harmonious and effective. The sound state of the cement where -it is sheltered from the action of the rain is extraordinary. It is -strange that in this tropical climate where, for half the year there -are continuous and heavy rainfalls, the variations from the damp, close -atmosphere in the summer to the dry season of winter should not have -had a more destructive influence upon buildings, mainly composed of -rubble and mortar. - -In one instance, that of the tower, the astonishing growth of tropical -vegetation has had the effect of preventing its fall. Thick creepers -have wound themselves like strong ropes around the walls and bound -them firmly together. The walls at the corners of the entrances to the -courts were remarkably uninjured. The cement was intact, and this, even -in positions where it might have been expected that, in a long course -of time, in consequence of being partly exposed and partly sheltered, -it would have broken away and fallen. - -It would be justifiable to conclude from these evidences of stability -that the buildings are comparatively modern. But there is a difficulty -with regard to this assumption which has to be considered. In the -year 1525, when Cortes on his march from Mexico to Honduras passed -with his expeditionary forces within a few leagues of this place, the -temples had been already abandoned. Consequently not less than four -centuries must have now elapsed since Palenque was deserted. If then, -within the tropics, buildings made of such perishable materials have -remained for that long period in a fair state of preservation, it may -be inferred that there are some local circumstances which have caused -an exceptional power of resistance to the disintegrating action of the -climate. The forest may have afforded some protection, and therefore -the age of the monastery may be greater than might be estimated from -the condition of the ruins. - -There are, however, other facts which are opposed to any theories -of great antiquity. The Indians had cleared, for my inspection, the -stone steps leading from the western side of the principal court. -Upon these were carved groups of hieroglyphs which were in an almost -perfect state. The edges of the steps were unworn. It was therefore -made evident that in an open court, completely exposed to the weather -and the influence of the tropical rains, inscriptions graven upon the -surface of these flat stone slabs had remained uninjured. - -After looking at the sculptures, and the coloured stucco figures which -adorned the piers and inner walls, I endeavoured to establish some -standard of comparison by which I might be able to form well-founded -conjectures regarding their age. I thought of various ruins in Egypt -and Asia Minor, then of those belonging to later periods in Italy -and Great Britain, but there were such essential differences in the -materials used, and the influences of the atmosphere, that it was not -possible to establish any assured conclusions. Opinions formed upon -the results of an examination of the temples on the mounds would -be equally unsatisfactory, for some of them, especially in their -interiors, were in a comparatively good condition, others were in -ruins. But, there are proofs of a moderate antiquity. The lintels -that once supported the walls over the doorways and other openings -have completely disappeared. In only one instance, which came under -my notice, were there any signs of the thick, hard beams of zapote -wood which had been employed for that purpose. A broad lintel in the -monastery had left its impress upon the under surface of the wall which -had weighed downwards upon it. The marks of the fibre and the shape -of the lintel were clearly defined upon the mortar. Dr. Coller found -amongst the ruins a piece of this wood. It was exceedingly heavy and -close-grained, and was of the nature of what is known, in the East -Indies, by the name of iron wood. The zapote trees grow chiefly in the -forests in the valley of the Usamacinta and towards the lake of Peten. - -When the evening drew near, I called my Indians together and entered -the forest on the way back to the village. As I rode slowly forward -I felt that these mysterious ruins contained a secret which has yet -to be unravelled. The priests of a powerful race, having strange and -unknown forms of religion, had been for centuries worshipping at these -shrines. Within the sanctuaries were graven upon tablets of stone those -records which, when interpreted, may throw some light upon what is now -obscure.[84] - - - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - Mounds in the valley of the Usamacinta. — Lacandones. — - Catasaja. — Canoe voyage. — Rivers and Lagoons. — Alligators. — - Jonuta. — Cortes’s March to Honduras. — Cannibalism. — The - Mexican Emperor Guatimozin. — Palisada. — Laguna de Terminos. — - Island of Carmen. — Campeachy. — Yucatan. — Pyramidal Altar. — - Human sacrifices. — Tzibalché. — Maya Indians. — Arrival at - Uxmal. - - -At San Domingo Dr. Coller showed me a chart which he had drawn of -the country around for a distance of twelve miles, exclusive of the -neighbourhood of Palenque where the forest prevented him from making a -survey. Upon this chart he had placed the positions of eleven mounds -that he had discovered. They were situated near the left bank of the -Usamacinta. On the slopes of these mounds were loose slabs of worked -limestone which he thought must have formed part of houses built on -their summits. Some excavations had been made and it was proved that -the mounds were not burial places. - -I met in the village the proprietor of a small hacienda near Balancan. -He told me that in one of his fields there was a large mound forty feet -high, which must have had a building upon it, for on the top there -were large blocks of squared stone. He wished to know what the mound -contained and had therefore dug through it, but he found nothing but -a curved grindstone precisely similar in shape and size to those now -used by the women in the neighbourhood. In the adjoining land he had -found near the surface numerous terra-cotta idols, but he had not seen -any human bones. It is a coincidence perhaps of some importance, with -reference to the origin of the race once occupying Palenque, that a -grindstone was also the only thing found within the mound opened by -the orders of Carrera on the plains of Mixco, in that part of Central -America which, before the conquest, had been occupied by the Quichés. - -San Domingo is occasionally visited by groups of the wild Indians -called Lacandones who live isolated amongst the adjacent forests. -Dr. Coller told me that during his ten years’ residence, he had seen -several of these men enter the village for the purpose of exchanging -beans, tobacco and wax for spirits and other goods. They were always -dressed in long white cotton frocks which reached nearly to their feet, -and they wore their hair loose and very long. They seemed to be of a -shy and inoffensive disposition. It is probable that they are of the -same tribe as the Indians who live scattered amongst the Cordilleras -near Comitan, a few of whom occasionally come down to that town from -the forests bringing for barter bags of cocoa beans. - -The journey from Palenque to the coast of the Gulf of Mexico had to -be made by rivers and lagoons. The embarkation place was at Catasaja, -where canoes were to be obtained. After riding eight leagues through -forests and savannahs we reached “Las Playas,” where I was welcomed by -the Licenciado Vadillo. Catasaja was a flourishing village, prettily -situated on the upper waters of a branch of the Usamacinta. It was in -an unusually busy state. Preparations were in progress for holding a -fair, and celebrating the annual festival of the church. Great numbers -of Indians and Ladinos were expected to arrive from the surrounding -country, and sheds were being built as shelters for them. In the -morning, at an early hour, I found that Señor Vadillo had made all -necessary arrangements for my journey, and had secured for me a good -canoe manned by trustworthy Indians. With his assistance I was able to -sell my mule. The saddle and hammock were retained as I should want -them in Yucatan. - -In the forenoon the men reported that the boat was ready. After -paddling swiftly down the stream for several leagues we entered a -channel whose muddy banks were covered with alligators. The river also -swarmed with them. Upon several occasions I thought that the canoe was -in danger of being capsized by the waves made by the alligators, in -consequence, as we approached them, of their habit of slipping off the -bank into the river, and I told the Indians to be careful. They said -that the canoe was perfectly safe, but that if, by any accident, we -should be rolled over there was nothing to be feared, as the alligators -never attacked people in the water. I was doubtful about this theory, -although it may be correct. It is well known that natives in other -parts of the world have been seized by alligators when incautiously -going too near them when they were watching for their prey on the -banks. But I do not know if there is any evidence to show that they -would seize men in the same manner if they were actually floating in -the water.[85] - -Lower down the river we came to a place where the stream was sluggish. -The banks were flat and covered with dense vegetation. Here we saw -an extraordinary scene. The water was thick, green, and putrid with -animal matter. The surface was covered with the inflated bodies of dead -alligators. - -Large carrion birds were feeding upon them in the most revolting -manner. Their claws were firmly fixed upon the hard skin of the -reptiles, and they drove their beaks, like pickaxes, deep down into -their entrails and gorged themselves with the decaying flesh. The -stench was horrible, and together with the oppressive heat, the foul -state of the air and the enormous mosquitoes, made this part of the -journey very disgusting. - -At sunset we arrived at a place called Jonuta, near the junction of the -river Palisada with the river Usamacinta, and the canoe was hauled -up on the bank. We could not have been far from the spot where Cortes -crossed over on his march to Honduras, one of the most extraordinary -military expeditions, through an absolutely unknown country and amongst -unknown men, that has ever been successfully accomplished. This part -of the march through the forest and across the numerous streams of -the estuary of the Usamacinta was especially difficult and laborious, -and at one time, the forces were driven to great straits for want of -provisions. The events that occurred here are described by Bernal -Diaz, who accompanied the troops, and by Cortes in his despatch to the -Emperor Charles V. One of these events was so remarkable that it at -once arrests the attention. - -The Spaniards and their Indian allies had been for several days -suffering from famine, and the state of affairs in the camp was -becoming serious. It was then discovered that several acts of -cannibalism had taken place. “It appeared,” states Bernal Diaz, “that -certain Caciques from Mexico had captured two or three of the Indians -belonging to the villages that we had passed through, and had brought -them hidden amongst their baggage, and on account of the hunger on -the road they killed them and roasted them in ovens which were made -under the ground with stones, as was their custom in Mexico, and they -devoured them, and in the same way they had also secreted the two -guides that we had with us who had run away, and they ate them. When -Cortes knew what had happened he ordered the Mexican Caciques to be -called together and spoke angrily to them, and told them that if such -things occurred again he would punish them. The Franciscan friar, who -accompanied us, also preached to them many holy and good sayings and -after he had concluded his sermon Cortes, as a matter of justice, -ordered a Mexican Indian to be burnt on account of the murder of the -Indians that they had eaten.” - -Cortes in reporting this punishment to the Emperor says,—“I ordered -him to be burnt, giving the said Señor to understand the reason for -this act of justice. That it was because he had killed an Indian and -eaten him; which act was forbidden by your Majesty and that I, in your -Royal name, had notified and ordered that it should not be done, and -that therefore for having killed and eaten him I ordered him to be -burnt.”[86] - -Another strange event that took place whilst the troops were in this -region, was the tragic fate of Guatimozin, who had succeeded Montezuma -as Emperor of Mexico. It is difficult to understand what could have -been the object that Cortes had in view when he ordered this monarch -to be executed. He may have thought it expedient to destroy, as far -as possible, the whole race of caciques throughout New Spain and thus -minimise the risk of any organized rebellion. These chiefs ruled with -absolute power over the natives, and it is possible that the Spanish -authorities deemed it advisable to get rid of them. Hundreds of them -were burnt alive at the stake upon the slightest pretexts. After one -of the local insurrections the officer who suppressed it reported that -he had burnt forty of the rebellious caciques. In a similar manner the -leaders in Cuba and Haiti were also destroyed. - -In the case of Guatimozin, Cortes considered that he and his cousin, -the King of Tlacupa, had been proved guilty of conspiring with other -Indians to kill the Spaniards; and he accordingly ordered them to be -put to death. The sentence was immediately carried out, and the two -Mexican monarchs were hanged upon a tree within sight of the army as it -continued its march through the forest. - -The positions where these events occurred can only be approximately -determined. The wooden bridges which were constructed for the passage -of the troops have disappeared. All local records of this famous march -have passed away. The villages or pueblos mentioned by the conquerors -no longer exist, and their names are forgotten. It is only by the most -attentive study that even a presumptive knowledge of the route can be -obtained. From the accounts given in the official dispatches and the -statements of Bernal Diaz, and also from the fact that Cortes steered -a straight course by compass, it may be concluded that the forces must -have passed near Jonuta and about twenty-eight miles from the ruins of -Palenque. - -With respect to the acts of cannibalism it should be observed, in -justice to other tribes, that the caciques who devoured the bodies were -Mexicans, and there are reasons for believing that before the arrival -of the Aztecs cannibalism was unknown in Central America. The method -of cooking by baking in ovens which, after the holes had been dug out -of the ground, were surrounded and covered by heated stones, are the -same as those that were customary with the Maoris in New Zealand, who, -after their fights, feasted upon their captured enemies in that manner. - -Upon the evening of the day upon which we left Jonuta, we reached -Palisada and brought to an end our wearisome canoe voyage down the -Usamacinta. At Palisada the logwood, which is obtained in the forests -bordering upon the upper parts of the rivers, is gathered together and -shipped upon small schooners which carry their cargoes of palo tinto -(red wood) to the town of Laguna on the island of Carmen, whence the -wood is sent to Europe and other parts of the world. - -In one of these little fore-and-aft rigged schooners I embarked and -proceeded on my way down the river. In the afternoon we stopped in a -place where we could get some shade until sunset. I found a shelter -within a hut near the bank. Throughout the night the atmosphere was -very oppressive. We slowly made our way by the help of a small boat, -manned by our Indian crew, which took us in tow. All of us suffered -greatly from the attacks of myriads of mosquitoes. On the following day -we arrived at an open sheet of water, called the inner lagoon, where -it was perfectly calm and we had to endure on the open and exposed -deck, the full strength of the tropical sun. In the evening a strong -head wind called “el Norte” sprang up, together with heavy squalls and -showers of rain which continued all that night and the whole of the -next day. As we could not make any headway we anchored. The sun was -very powerful and it was not possible to escape from its influence. -The Indians appeared to be much affected by the weather and were in -a worn and prostrate condition. I had to endure, equally with them, -the alternate exposure to extreme heat and cold driving rain. During -the night the wind moderated, and towards the morning we weighed our -anchor and proceeded to the entrance of the outer lagoon and waited for -daylight. As the sun rose, the wind suddenly shifted, and we sailed -rapidly across the bay to the anchorage off the town, arriving there -early in the forenoon. - -Thus terminated the voyage “par los rios” (by the rivers). The exposure -to the sun by day, the attacks of mosquitoes by night, and the sickly -condition of the banks of the rivers and lagoons, had combined to make -that part of the journey across the continent extremely exhausting. - -The long narrow island of Carmen is placed like a natural breakwater, -sheltering the bay from the open sea of the Gulf of Campeachy. The -earliest notice of it occurs in the Reports of the Spanish expedition -under Grijalva in 1518. Bernal Diaz, who was one of those who took -part in it, mentions a fact that throws some light upon the religious -customs of the Indians. He observes that the fleet after having -visited the coasts of Yucatan arrived at this island and remained -for several days at anchor in the bay. Many of the officers and men -landed, he being amongst the number. After traversing the island it -was ascertained that it was not inhabited, but some small temples -(adoratorios) were seen. These were made of stone and mortar, and -contained many idols made of clay and of wood, some were like figures -of gods, others like women, and many seemed to represent serpents. At -the present time there are no remains visible of these adoratorios. -The fact, however, of their having been erected upon this island is -instructive. It tends to prove that temples were placed in positions -where there were no inhabitants, and thus, to some extent, supports the -theory that certain holy places were set apart for religious purposes, -and were not necessarily attached to centres of population. - -During the stay of Grijalva’s fleet, a greyhound, belonging to one of -the ships, strayed on shore and was lost. The following year, upon the -arrival of a second expedition, when the ships anchored, the dog was -seen on the beach watching them. Bernal Diaz relates how the dog knew -his own ship, and fawned upon the crew when they landed, showing the -utmost happiness and affection. How the dog had obtained food and water -through such a long period was not known. - -Soon after my arrival I was informed that a small schooner called the -Rosita was about to sail for Campeachy and that her skipper would take -a few passengers. I accordingly made arrangements with him and went on -board. I found that the only accommodation was the open hold under the -main hatch. Here on the top of the cargo, made smooth and level for -the purpose, were placed mats. We embarked two ladies and some Spanish -officials and left La Laguna at daylight. The wind was against us and -we had to make a long tack towards the Yucatan coast, near Champoton. -During the night the wind became more favourable and in the forenoon -we sighted the white walls of Campeachy. The cathedral and mediæval -fortifications looked very picturesque from the sea as we approached -the coast. The Rosita did not draw much water, so we were able to -anchor within half a mile of the landing place. I was glad to find in -the town a tolerable inn called the Paloma, and a worthy, attentive -landlord named Ruiz. The constant exposure and the hardships endured -latterly had seriously affected my constitution, and I felt weak and -ill. It was a comfort to get shelter and quiet, and the shade and rest -which was obtained by having a large room opening upon an inner court. -Here I remained for several days suffering from very severe headaches -and without feeling that I was, in any perceptible degree, regaining my -strength. - -On the morning of the fifth day I heard a gentle tap at the door, and -my landlady asked if she could come in. She looked at me with much -sympathy and said, “Señor, may I speak to you?” I replied, “Certainly.” -She then said, “Señor, you have upon you the lagoon fever, from which -strangers seldom recover, and I have come to ask you where you keep -your money and where your friends live, so that I may be able to carry -out your wishes.” I said, “My kind donna, perhaps I may get better if -I change the air. Do you know how I can get away?” The landlady looked -pleased and said that she knew that a certain Señor Escalanta was about -to start for a village called Tzibalché, and that perhaps he would -share with me the expenses of a conveyance. This arrangement was made, -and in the forenoon a covered cart, with three mules harnessed abreast, -was drawn up at the door of the inn. I took my place upon a mattress, -and before midday we were several leagues away breathing the pure and -bracing air of the open country. The change acted like magic. The fever -seemed almost immediately to leave me, but there remained a persistent -headache. - -We stopped at a village to get dinner, and met an intelligent man who -was employed as constructor of a new road that was being made on this -part of the coast. It had happened, that in the course of his work, he -had made several cuttings and excavations, and discovered many things -of much antiquarian importance. He told us of a large pyramidal altar -or Kue which was situated in the neighbourhood, and as I particularly -wished to see it, Señor Escalanta consented to halt whilst an -examination of it was made. - -We found the altar to be one of that type of structures upon the -summit of which the Mexican priests were accustomed to perform human -sacrifices. This Yucatecan Kue was more than fifty feet high and was -entirely faced with large, squared, well hewn blocks of hard limestone. -It was very steep. I estimated the angle of the slope to be about -70°. There were two ledges, respectively one-third and two-thirds up -the pyramid and on the top was the platform, which was in a ruinous -condition. - -There were a number of small stone chambers built on the sides. The -existence of these singular little cells had caused the people in the -adjacent hamlets to form the opinion that the Kue had been inhabited -by dwarfs. We examined these chambers very carefully, and although it -was not possible to come to any satisfactory conclusion with regard to -their purpose, it was clear that they could not have been intended for -habitation. It seemed probable that they were either places for idols -or that they were used as vaults for burial. They were built with much -skill, and the squaring of the masonry was perfect. The inner wall of -these cells was formed by the stone casing of the pyramid. Several -small idols were found here. We were chiefly interested in examining -the method of construction followed by the Indian architects. This was -made apparent by the fact that portions of the outer casing had been -demolished. It appeared that the inner portion was a solid mass of -stones and mortar which, when completed, was covered with thick slabs -of masonry, smooth and well jointed. On the west face there were the -remains of a large chamber, but as that part of the pyramid was in a -ruinous condition, its dimensions could not be measured. - -It is strange that so little is known concerning the ancient rites and -ceremonies performed by the priests upon these high altars. Immediately -after the conquest these Indian customs ceased, and all the signs of -their religion and religious usages disappeared like a dream. When -Grijalva’s expedition reached the Bay of Campeachy, they saw a large -Kue which must have been similar to that we were examining. Bernal -Diaz in his history relates that they landed to get a supply of water -for the ships near a spot where there was a village. The natives came -down to the beach in a friendly manner, and asked them if they arrived -from the spot where the sun rose. They then proposed that they should -go with them to their pueblo, and took them to a large building made -of stone and mortar. Whilst the Spaniards were looking about them -and observing the habits of the people, “Ten Indians dressed in long -white cloaks came out of another adoratorio. Their long thick hair was -clotted with blood and so twisted, that it could not have been combed -or spread without cutting it off. These men were sacerdotes of the -idols, and in New Spain they called themselves Pápas. Again I say that -in New Spain they called themselves Pápas, and thus I shall name them -henceforwards. These Pápas brought to us perfumes like a kind of resin -which they call copal, and with earthen braziers filled with fire they -commenced to incense us.” Diaz thought that the stone buildings were -altars, and he saw numerous idols, and “it appeared to us,” he says, -“that at this time they had been sacrificing to the idols certain -Indians to give them the victory over us.” - -On their further voyage near another part of the Mexican coast, where -is now situated the town of Vera Cruz, the fleet arrived at the Island -of Sacrificios, a name that was given to that land in consequence of -what was observed to take place there. The island was explored by the -Spaniards, and they discovered two Kues made of lime and stone, and -ascended by steps. “In these altars,” observes Diaz, “were idols of -evil figures which were their gods, and here they had sacrificed on -the previous night five Indians. Their breasts were opened and their -arms and thighs were cut off and the walls were covered with blood.” -It happened that the Chaplain-General of the Fleet wrote an itinerary -of this voyage, and he also visited these temples. He mentioned the -extraordinary fact of having noticed within one of the shrines “some -bordered stuff made of silk, similar to what was worn by the Moors and -which were called by them “Almaizales.”[87] At another temple, situated -near the coast, four Indian priests were seen, who had lately been -performing sacrifices. In this instance they had sacrificed two young -boys. Their breasts had been opened and their hearts had been taken out -and placed before the idol as an offering. The Spaniards were surprised -when they observed that these priests were dressed like Dominicans and -wore long cloaks and capes. This, together with their manner of using -incense, seemed in some inexplicable degree to resemble the observances -of their own monastic fraternities. - -In the various accounts that have been given by the conquerors -concerning the Indians, there is nothing mentioned about the burial -customs, and even at the present time the subject is obscure. I was -therefore interested in listening to the contractor’s remarks about -some discoveries made by his workmen when excavating along the line of -road. They found the ruins of several houses. Each of them contained -beneath the centre of the principal room a vaulted tomb, in which it -was supposed that the proprietor had been buried when he died. They -also found, when tracing the direction of the work, several small Kues -of pyramidal shapes, around the sides of which were numerous small -stone cells. The contractor told me that he had measured and surveyed -these carefully. He had come to the conclusion that they were burial -places. - -These discoveries were important, and corroborated in every essential -particular the statements of several Indian caciques dwelling beyond -Uxmal, in the sixteenth century. They informed the Spanish missionaries -that it had been customary, with the common people in Yucatan, to -bury their dead either inside their houses or at the back of them. -In certain cases they afterwards abandoned these dwellings and moved -elsewhere. The bodies of caciques and chiefs were burnt, and the ashes -were placed in urns. Small pyramids or temples were sometimes raised -over them.[88] - -I was sorry when it became necessary to proceed on our journey. The -road contractor was an official who took a comprehensive interest -in whatever related to the ancient inhabitants, and his practical -knowledge was invaluable. - -It was late when we finished the survey of the pyramid and its -chambers; we consequently travelled throughout the night at our best -speed. We passed through the pueblos of Tenabon and Hekelchakan and -reached Señor Escalanta’s house in Tzibalché at daylight. We were -received by the ladies of the establishment with cold and tranquil -apathy. Without saying a word, they turned out of their hammocks, and -proceeded to carry out their respective household duties. It must be -understood that the arrangements with all Ladino families are very -simple. In the tierras calientes or hot regions every one sleeps in a -hammock. The hammocks are slung to the cross poles in the principal, -and often, only apartment. At night when the ladies wish to go to bed -they turn in, to use a sailor’s expression, all standing. The women -of all ages, young or old, wear but one dress which is always a long -cotton garment reaching from the shoulders to the feet. This is worn -day and night. The languid indifference of men and women, towards -each other and to all around them, is a marked characteristic of the -whole of the Ladino race throughout Central America. Nothing seems to -arouse their indolent natures, and although many of them are fairly -educated, they do not appear to have those qualities which form the -foundation of a good and energetic population. It cannot be considered -that the enervating influences of a tropical climate are chiefly the -cause of this inertness, for it exists in varying altitudes. It should, -however, be acknowledged that this half-caste race retains much of the -old-fashioned courtesy of their Spanish ancestors. The Ladinos have -ceased to intermarry with the Indians, and there is now no sympathy -between the two races. The Indians have almost as great a dislike to -them as they have to the Spaniards. - -At Tzibalché I enlisted in my service an Indian, named Anastasio, and -after some difficulty, hired a horse of doubtful merit. Anastasio -declared that we could avoid the long round to Uxmal by the main roads, -as he knew a short cut across the country which would shorten the -journey. By that path, he said, the distance to the hacienda at Uxmal -did not exceed nine or ten leagues. Accordingly we quitted the village -at sunrise and soon afterwards entered the bush. - -This part of Yucatan was covered with a thin light kind of brushwood -which grew to a height of about twelve feet. Our path was cut through -this bush which excluded all view to the right or left. Occasionally -we passed through a few acres of open land where the Indians were -cultivating some crops, but the soil was poor and stony. At noon we -arrived at a farm; the proprietor was inclined to be hospitable and -gave me food and shelter. I was suffering from a recurrence of what I -had endured at Campeachy and could scarcely bear the fatigue of the -journey, especially as the rays of the nearly vertical sun were very -powerful. - -During the afternoon, whilst resting in the shade, I listened to the -loud, discordant, and grating sounds pronounced by the Indians around -me. The language spoken was Maya, which has been ascertained to be the -parent stock of most of the languages and dialects spoken in Guatemala, -Yucatan and the bordering territories. I asked my host to give me a -specimen of their dialect. He replied that he would tell me what had -happened in the morning, and he leant forward and said:—“Ti lé kin -béhilá, kuch yuayé humpel tzul ingles, bin tiar ten. Tumentin, katah -uchi y etel tin káhol ta hatchutz apockzi chalé; katin kámá tin nayle, -katin sah balu hante kati álá téné bin ku bétic Uxmal, tacthoh cásumac -tuh lú mil.” “This day came here an English Señor and spoke to me. -Having questioned him and knowing him to be of a good heart, I received -him in my house and gave him to eat. Then he told me that he was going -to Uxmal, and thence to Merida and afterwards to his own land.” - -Towards the end of the day, when the sun was low, I ventured out of -the hut, mounted my horse, and pushed forward rapidly towards Uxmal. -After passing through several plantations of sugar-cane attached to -small Indian farms, we reached some rising ground and I saw, about four -miles distant towards the east, the great building, called the Casa -del Gobernador, with its terraces and adjacent pyramids standing out -high and distinct. The sun had disappeared below the horizon, and the -sky was brilliant with the vivid colouring of a tropical sunset. The -Casa del Gobernador was clear and well defined in the midst of this -magnificent frame of evening splendour, looking scarcely less beautiful -than a Greek temple on some lofty headland, when seen at twilight from -Ægean seas. - -It was getting dark when we slowly passed round the base of a Teocalli, -and it was night when we halted at the hacienda. The proprietor and -the agent were both absent, but the mayor-domo received me with much -kindness. He gave me a large room next to one which he told me had -been occupied by the Empress Charlotte when she visited Uxmal in 1866. -The next morning, after giving Anastasio directions to join me at the -Casa del Gobernador and to bring with him my hammock and provisions, I -walked out to the ruins. - -[Illustration: - - CASA DEL GOBERNADOR. CASA DE LAS TORTUGAS. CASA DE LAS PALOMAS. - - UXMAL.] - - - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - Uxmal. — Extent of ground occupied by the Ruins. — Teocallis. — - Burial places at the foot of the Pyramid of the Dwarf. — - Evening Service at the chapel of the hacienda. — Casa del - Gobemador. — Sacrificial customs. — Preservation of the wooden - lintels. — The Nunnery or Casa de las Monjas. — Religious - customs of the Indians. — Emblem of the Serpent. — Sculptures. — - Conjectures respecting the possibility of Moorish, Spanish, - or Oriental influence upon architectural design. — Methods of - construction. — Note upon a fall of rain supposed to be caused - by the fires of the Indians. - - -It is considered that the ruins of Uxmal are, in extent and -construction, the most important in Yucatan, and therefore, excepting -in certain particulars, those at Palenque, the most remarkable in -Central America and Mexico. - -The ground occupied by them is in length about six hundred yards. -The width is slightly more than five hundred yards. Consequently the -area within which Uxmal is contained, may be approximately estimated -as being sixty acres. It therefore exceeds by twenty acres the space -covered by the mounds of Palenque. The buildings are irregularly -placed. The Casa del Gobernador (House of the Governor) with its -adjacent pyramids form the principal group towards the south. The -Casa de las Monjas (House of the Nuns) is situated towards the north. -These are the two great structures upon which the other temples and -mounds seem chiefly to depend. There are two smaller edifices called -respectively, the Casa de las Palomas (House of the Pigeons) and the -Casa de las Tortugas (House of the Turtles). There is also a detached -pyramid with a ruined temple upon its summit, which has been given the -name of the House of the Old Woman. Looking at these ruins as a group, -they appear to have consisted of quadrangular residences with pyramidal -mounds attached to them, raised for the purpose of obtaining lofty -sites for the altars of the Indian gods. - -One of the most important of these is that known as the Pyramid of -the Dwarf. I examined it with particular attention for the purpose -of studying the character of a series of small stone vaults or cells -placed round its base, which were similar in size and design to those -that I had seen on the lower slopes of the Kue near the coast above -Campeachy. Many of these cells were sufficiently perfect to enable -their dimensions and shape to be verified. It seemed evident that they -must have been made for sepulchral purposes. If this conclusion is -correct it is probable that they were the burial places for the ashes -of the caciques who ruled over this part of Yucatan. - -Upon an investigation of the outer parts of the pyramid, it is to be -observed that it was not only carefully constructed, but its plan must -have been accurately drawn and the relative mathematical measurements -calculated with reference to the space that was required for the -temple. The magnitude of the base could not be determined, on account -of the quantities of fallen stones and other débris. In 1841, Mr. -Stephens considered that it was two hundred and thirty-five feet long -by one hundred and fifty-five feet wide. The perpendicular height to -the platform was estimated to be eighty-eight feet. - -[Illustration: PYRAMID AND TEMPLE OF THE DWARF.] - -The steps leading up to the summit are broad, and must have formed an -imposing approach, but in consequence of the angle of the slope they -are necessarily steep, and are placed so close together that there -is barely sufficient width for the foot to rest. At the base of the -pyramid there is an open court, which I observed to be similar in shape -to one adjoining the base of an altar built by the Quichés at Utatlan, -but it was larger in extent. The court leads to the entrance of the -Casa de las Monjas. - -This building may be considered to be the result of the greatest powers -of sculpture and ornamentation that the Indians possessed, and judging -from the condition of many of its chambers, it is probably one of the -latest of their works. It is nearly quadrangular, and encloses an area -of over six thousand square yards. - -My first day at Uxmal was employed in making a rough survey of the land -occupied by the ruins. - -Upon my return to the hacienda, I found that an evening service, called -“el Rosario,” was being held in the chapel. A large number of Indians -were assembled. These Yucatecos had attached to the fingers of the -church images, many of their own small idols, made of metal. It was -consequently impossible to know (as the priests in the Cordilleras -said of their Indian parishioners), whether they were worshipping the -saints, or following in secret their ancient idolatries. - -The next morning I established myself in the “House of the Governor,” -and selected for our occupation the largest of the outer series of -apartments, opening upon the eastern courts. The size of these was -necessarily regulated by the angle of the converging slopes of the -walls, for the builders were limited in their plans in consequence -of their incomplete acquaintance with the formation of arches. In -one of the rooms there were some cross poles made of zapote wood, to -which Anastasio fastened my hammock. The architectural proportions -of the exterior are unusual. The length is about three hundred and -twenty-two feet, but the breadth is only thirty-nine feet, and the -low, narrow structure, is only twenty-five feet high. The effect, -however, of the long and elaborately carved façade, is particularly -pleasing both to the eye and the mind. In all respects, the Casa del -Gobernador is rightly given the distinction of being the grandest of -the stone structures that were built by Indians. The platform upon -which this great edifice stands, is forty feet above the level of the -ground. Sixteen feet below this is a large open court, which is about -one hundred and eighty yards long, and over eighty-two yards wide, -containing a level surface of nearly fifteen thousand square yards—or -more than three acres. There is a third outer terrace, raised a few -feet above the plain. - -The Casa de las Monjas is also placed upon three terraces, but they are -of smaller dimensions, and the height of the base of the building -above the natural ground, is not more than seventeen feet. The terraces -were surrounded by strongly built walls. Wide stone steps gave access -to each platform. When looking at these flat spaces, pyramids and -temples, it is practicable to form reasonable conjectures regarding the -nature of the religious ceremonies that may have taken place within, or -before them. - -[Illustration: CASA DEL GOBERNADOR.] - -[Illustration: AN ANGLE OF THE CASA DE LAS MONJAS.] - -Bishop Landa, in his work on Yucatan, which he wrote in that country -soon after the conquest, gives an account of the feasts and sacrifices -performed in the temples. His description was based upon information -which he received from the descendants of caciques, who had governed a -powerful tribe dwelling east of Uxmal. After mentioning the nature of -the offerings made to the idols during certain festivals, he observes -that, besides sacrificing animals, the priests would sometimes on -occasions of tribulation or public necessity, command that human -victims should be sacrificed. There is this statement given of what -then happened. - -“Every one took their part in offering contributions, in order that -slaves should be bought, and some of the more devotional would offer -their little children. Great care was taken of them that they should -not run away or commit any fault, and whilst they were conducted from -village to village with dancing, the priests fasted. Upon the arrival -of the day, they all came into the patio (court) of the temple, and if -the victim had to be sacrificed by wounds from arrows he was stripped -naked, his body was anointed with blue, and a cap like a mitre was -placed on his head.” He was then, after certain dances made by the -people in honour of the god, killed by flights of arrows. - -It will be remembered that a similar custom was followed by the -Pawnees in North America who, upon certain occasions, chiefly in -connection with offering a propitiation to the Manito who had power -over the harvest, also killed the victim by a flight of arrows.[89] The -coincidence of this practice is very strange. - -Landa, after relating the manner in which these Indians in Yucatan -conducted the ceremony of inflicting death by arrows, proceeds to -state what was done if the priests, for some special reasons, directed -that the victim should be offered to the gods in accordance with their -more appalling rites. “If it had been decided to take out the heart, -he was taken to the patio with much pomp, and was accompanied by many -people, and after being daubed over with blue, and his mitre placed on -his head, he was carried to the round step which was the place where -these sacrifices were made, and after the priest (sacerdote) and his -officials had anointed this stone with blue colour, and had cast out -the devil by purifying the temple; the unfortunate man that was to be -sacrificed was then seized, thrown suddenly backwards upon the stone, -and held there by the legs and arms kept apart from the middle. Then -came the sacrificer with a stone razor, and struck with much dexterity -and cruelty, a gash between the ribs of the left side below the -teat; he then thrust in his hand and took hold of the heart like a -furious tiger and snatched it out still palpitating, and put it upon a -dish which he gave to the priest, who took it quickly and anointed the -faces of the idols with the fresh blood.”[90] - -[Illustration: CASA DE LAS MONJAS, UXMAL.] - -[Illustration: AN ANGLE OF THE CASA DE LAS MONJAS.] - -This statement of the sacrificial customs in Yucatan is in accordance -with the Report made by Palacio[91] concerning the sacrifices of the -captives taken in war by the Pipiles, a tribe who were believed to be -of Mexican origin and were then dwelling near the Pacific coast of -Guatemala. It may also be surmised that the ceremonies performed by the -priests of the Quichés upon the altars at Utatlan were of a similar -nature. It thus seems evident that the barbarous practices that are -supposed to have been introduced by the Aztecs into Mexico, during some -period subsequent to the twelfth century, were becoming prevalent in -Central America. - -It is possible that the custom of offering human sacrifices, together -with subsequent acts of cannibalism, may have become grafted upon -the religious observances of an earlier and less cruel race. It is, -however, to be noticed that the plan of the pyramid of the Dwarf with -its altar, and the open court at the foot of the steps leading down -from the temple, conform with the particular purposes of the ceremonies -connected with the sacrifices to the idols. Bernal Diaz, when -describing the manner in which the Spanish captives were sacrificed and -eaten during the siege of Mexico, mentions facts which agree with the -statements made by the caciques in Yucatan, concerning the events that -occasionally happened in their sacred places. - -“Sometimes,” observes Landa, “the sacrifice took place on the stone -upon the highest step of the temple, and then the body was thrown down -the steps and rolled below. The officials then seized it and flayed off -the skin excepting the feet and hands, and the priest, having taken off -his garments until he was naked, covered himself with it, and danced -with the others. This was considered to be a matter of much solemnity. -It was the custom to bury those who were sacrificed in the court of the -temple, or, if not, they were eaten by the chiefs and those who were -able to obtain portions; the hands, feet and head were for the priest -and officials. Those who were thus sacrificed were held as saints -(tenian por santos). If they were slaves captured in war their owner -took the bones and kept them to show them in the dances as emblems of -victory.” - -The aboriginal inhabitants of Yucatan were, like those dwelling in the -neighbouring land of Guatemala, devoted to the worship of idols, and -travelled great distances to take part in the ceremonies which were -performed at the shrines of their principal gods. The Island of Cozumel -was one of the sacred sites which was held in great veneration when -the fleet of Grijalva arrived there in 1518. It was observed by the -Spaniards that there and elsewhere, the pyramidal structures or altars -were maintained in good order, and had regular priests attached to -them for the purpose of executing the various duties connected with the -superstitious usages. It was afterwards ascertained that several of the -larger sacred temples in the interior had at that time been abandoned, -although many of them looked as if they had not been long built. With -respect to Uxmal, it was considered that the ruins were comparatively -modern and belonged to a period but little anterior to the Spanish -conquest. - -The well preserved state of portions of the buildings is, at the -present time, nearly four centuries after the arrival of the -Spaniards, especially noticeable. I observed that the wooden lintel -over the door of my room in the Casa del Gobernador was in perfect -condition. The edges or corners were still sharp and unworn. It was -also evident that, although the great weight of the masonry above must -have exerted a heavy pressure upon the centre of the lintel, there -were no signs of the slightest deflection. The strength of the wood -seemed to be unimpaired. The preservation of many of the lintels over -the doorways of the rooms in the Casa de las Monjas was, in several -instances, equally sound. Many of the stone carvings on the exterior -were also apparently uninjured by their exposure to the weather. But, -before proceeding with this subject, it is expedient to take into -consideration some of the characteristics of this building. - -It is not known why it was called the Casa de las Monjas (House of the -Nuns). Possibly the Spaniards may have been surprised by its similarity -in plan with their own nunneries, but it is also not improbable that -there may have been some tradition received from the Indians which -caused the adoption of this name. It has been stated by Clavigero, and -other historians, that there were certain especial customs attending -the worship of the god Quetzalcoatl. Women served for terms of years -within his temples. They were dedicated to the performance of religious -service from an early age, lodged in a convent and instructed in -religion. They were also educated and employed in a manner suitable -to their station and sex. It was said that certain vows were made and -various religious duties were performed. - -[Illustration: Entrance to the Casa de las Monjas.] - -The main entrance to the nunnery is through a gateway placed in the -centre of the southern part of the quadrangle. Upon each side of this -entrance there are four chambers, and it is to be noticed, as an -evidence of the conventual character of the building, that these are -the only rooms that have direct access to the outer world. All the -others are within and look into the court. They had a blank wall at the -back, which excluded all communication with the exterior. The principal -front looks towards the pyramids adjoining the Casa del Gobernador. -The architectural proportions of the archway are symmetrical. The -height and span, like all other parts of these Indian structures, are -practically determined by the angle of inclination of the converging -sides. In this case the arch is about seventeen feet high and nearly -eleven feet wide. After passing through it, a wide court is entered. It -is surrounded on four sides by long ranges of low stone buildings. The -base, or lower part of them, is built of plain square slabs of masonry. -The upper parts are covered with fanciful designs, sculptured with -great skill. - -The whole of these buildings are exclusively arranged for the purpose -of providing the greatest possible number of chambers or monastic -cells. I did not count them, but it has been stated that there are -altogether eighty-eight. It is perhaps important to note, with -reference to this unusual number of rooms, that they are too numerous -to admit of the theory that they were intended for the accommodation -of the priests serving the adjacent temples, for according to the -statements of Clavigero, the number of priests always corresponded with -the number of the Teocallis. It is therefore presumable that these -cells had some other purpose. The priests may have been lodged in the -Casa del Gobernador. That building contains twenty-four chambers, the -majority of which are of the same size and plan as these in the Casa de -las Monjas. It is useless to attempt to conjecture the precise purposes -of these buildings, for there has been no exact information obtained -upon the subject, but everything points to the conclusion that the -whole of the structures at Uxmal were connected with the worship of the -gods, and had no relation to the ordinary lives of the Indians. - -It is probable that places like Uxmal and Palenque with their temples -and monasteries, were set apart for religious purposes, and the -Indians assembled there from the adjacent country with the object of -being present at the ceremonies, in the same manner as they are now -accustomed to perform their pilgrimages when the patron saints of the -churches have their festivals. When taking into consideration the -question of the period when it may be conjectured that the temples at -Uxmal were abandoned, it is necessary to direct attention to the design -or emblem which is placed upon one of the walls of the interior of the -Casa de las Monjas. - -Upon an examination of the accompanying illustration, it will be -observed that the figure represented is that of a huge serpent or -rattlesnake. A serpent was also the emblem or Totem of one of the -tribes of the Mound Builders in Ohio, and there appear to be singular -resemblances between the reptile carved in stone at Uxmal and that -which is rudely made of earth and stones, and placed on high ground -overlooking a valley in North America. Both reptiles have peculiarly -large mouths, opened wide, ready to devour and swallow their prey -or their enemies. It is perhaps not unreasonable to infer that the -tribe who migrated from the north, conquered the unwarlike natives -of Yucatan, raised the great pyramids, and built the temples in that -region, were subsequently conquered by a more powerful tribe of the -same race, also migrating from higher latitudes. The former tribe were -forced to desert their buildings, and avoided slavery or extermination -by escaping into the interior. The serpent stands out in bold relief. -The whole of the façades of the nunnery are elaborately sculptured, and -the mechanical abilities of the builders are well brought into notice. - -[Illustration: SERPENT EMBLEM, CASA DE LAS MONJAS.] - -As all investigations or theories respecting these architects and their -works, depend greatly upon the conclusions that may be drawn from the -evidence regarding the period when Uxmal was built, I directed my -attention to certain points bearing upon this subject. Conjectures -upon the origin and civilisation of the Indians must be influenced by -what can be ascertained with respect to the probable dates when these -religious buildings were constructed. - -It is to be seen in the Casa de las Monjas that there was a lavish use -of ornamentation in stone. There is, throughout, a wealth of sculpture -which is astonishing when it is remembered that the sculptors, as far -as we know, had no proper implements to work with. Stone chisels and -obsidian scrapers appear to be inadequate for the purpose. - -It can be understood that if the Indian masons and stone cutters had -wished to show their ability, they might have adorned their buildings -with barbarous figures or rude idols, such as were carved by the -natives of Easter Island out of soft volcanic stone. But at Uxmal they -revelled in their powers. The walls of the Nunnery and the Casa del -Gobernador are covered with designs deeply cut and perfectly joined. -Thus it is proved that the sculptors had not only much capacity as -workmen, but they must have been able to chisel hard limestone with -ease and facility of execution. In the interior of the Nunnery many -of the designs are most artistic. Nothing can be more graceful than -the block of buildings on the eastern side of the quadrangle. The -lattice work, in its appearance and general effect, seems to have an -indefinable accordance with the wood and stone carvings that are to -be seen in the ancient quarters of Cairo, and the interior of the -earliest Arabian mosques. Upon the opposite side of the quadrangle, -the ornamentation upon the walls is of a different character and in -some respects resembles the designs of Hindoo or Buddhist architecture. -This confusion of styles is puzzling to the eye and embarrassing to the -judgment. - -At Palenque the long corridors, the courts, and the use of coloured -stucco ornamentation appeared to have some vague relation to a mixed -style of Moorish and Spanish architecture. If a corsair, with a crew -of Moors and a cargo of Spanish captives, had been driven by the trade -wind across the Atlantic, and the strangers, after landing upon the -new continent, had married the daughters of the caciques; it would be -intelligible that the descendants of the mixed races might have -constructed monasteries, temples and pyramids of this strange and -complex design. Such was my impression when pacing the corridors at -Palenque. - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE CASA DE LAS MONJAS AND ITS ADJOINING - PYRAMID AND TEMPLE, UXMAL.] - -At Uxmal there were no coloured stuccoes and no corridors. The bold and -fantastic style of the sculptures had a character more Eastern, and it -might be permissible to imagine that wandering fakirs from Hindostan, -or Buddhist pilgrims from Java, Burmah or Cambodia, had reached the -Pacific coasts, and had implanted their incomplete acquaintance with -the forms of Hindoo or Buddhist temples upon the barbaric ideas of the -Indians, and that in this manner were produced the fanciful types of -construction or symbolism that are present at Uxmal. - -These are only conjectures, but it cannot be supposed that this -knowledge of architecture and of sculpture arose as suddenly as it -disappeared, and sprang into existence as the outcome of the natural -capacity of the Indian mind. The problem is interesting and attractive. -It is one that is exceedingly difficult to solve. - -There are certain differences in the methods of construction of -Palenque and Uxmal which have to be analyzed. The walls at Palenque -are composed of compact masses of stones and mortar covered with thick -layers of cement. At Uxmal no coatings of cement are used and the walls -are faced with well-worked masonry. At Palenque there are great numbers -of human figures either formed of thick stucco, or graven upon slabs -of stone. At Uxmal there are no human figures, no delineations of -caciques, priests, or captive victims. The principle of ornamentation -is different. - -Judging from the condition and appearance of the buildings it is clear -that Uxmal must be more modern than Palenque, and this is particularly -noticeable upon an examination of the Casa del Gobernador and the -Casa de las Monjas. The influences of the tropical climate (Uxmal is -half a degree south of the twenty-first parallel) are such as would -be expected to act injuriously upon exposed limestone sculptures, for -between May and November the rains are heavy and continuous. But the -façades of these structures seem to have been very little affected by -the weather. - -In forming opinions respecting the antiquity of ruins, it is perhaps -injudicious to give much weight to considerations based upon appearance -or state of dilapidation, but in the instance of Uxmal there are -circumstances which make it impossible to admit that it belongs to -a period more than very few centuries earlier than the arrival of -the Spaniards. Thus the preservation of the wooden lintels over the -doorways in the Casa de las Monjas must be taken into consideration, -when any attempts are made to estimate the age of that building. They -have had to bear considerable pressure, for there are heavy masses of -concrete and masonry to be supported. - -With regard to this subject, it is necessary to draw attention to the -size and construction of one of the principal rooms which I measured, -and it will be understood how the architects were limited or restricted -in their actions, and to what extent the employment of wood was found -to be requisite. - -It was a narrow chamber twenty feet four inches long, twelve feet -wide, and about twenty-three feet high. The height of the entrance was -eight feet, the width six feet seven inches. The interior walls were -perpendicular up to nine feet three inches from the ground, and then -curved inwards until they approached within one foot of each other. -They were capped by broad flat stone slabs. The curvature of the walls -was correctly formed, and a considerable gain in space was thereby -obtained. It was evident that the Indians were advancing towards a -knowledge of the round arch and keystone. This form of rounding the -inner roof was not however adopted in all the rooms of the nunnery. -Many of them still retained the straight lines of converging walls, as -at Palenque. The manner in which the advance in construction had been -reached was simple and yet ingenious. - -I measured a room in another part of the quadrangle which had different -dimensions, and was more in accordance with the earlier system of -building. It was twenty-two feet long and ten feet five inches wide. -The height of the perpendicular portion of the walls was eight feet -three inches, and the length of the upper slope to the cap-stone was -eight feet nine inches. The total height of the room about sixteen -feet. The doorway was a little over seven feet high and the width -was five feet eight inches. The dimensions of the chambers round the -quadrangle varied, but the instances I have given represent their -average sizes. There were two lintels over each doorway, for the width -of each piece of timber was not sufficient to occupy the full depth of -the wall. In the first-mentioned chamber they were each nine feet five -inches long, one foot wide and eight inches deep, and had a bearing -upon each wall of one foot five inches. In this and other openings the -inner lintel rested in its place a little lower than the outer one. -The object of this singular method of placing these supports was not -apparent. The lintels were externally in perfect condition, and were -without any signs of decay. - -The main mass of the Uxmal walls is composed of rubble limestones, made -into a strong compact substance, by the plentiful use of good binding -mortar. Each facing stone was made into a triangular shape, and the -point or apex seems to have been pushed or fitted into its place, and -there firmly secured by mortar. This method of applying the masonry -was adopted not only with the plain smooth blocks of square stone used -for facing the lower portions of the buildings, but also with all the -sculptured portions of the walls. The blocks fit closely together -in their places so accurately and with such careful finish that the -joints or edges can scarcely be distinguished. It is thus made evident -that the stone-masons who built Uxmal must have been men capable of -performing their work with skill. The architect must have possessed a -competent knowledge of the preparation of a plan or design, and the -masons, in separately executing their part of the sculpture, must -have been able to follow the design with an exactness that is almost -mathematical. - -There have been many theories respecting the methods that may have been -practised by the Indians in executing their carvings upon stone, -but no knowledge has been obtained which throws sufficient light upon -the subject.[92] No attention has however been directed to the artisan -qualities of the workmen who shaped and fitted the lintels, which -however prove that the workers in wood were as skilful as the masons. -The lintels were made of wood harder than mahogany. I examined many -of them with the utmost care, and could not detect the slightest mark -or dent. It is doubtful whether a good carpenters plane could have -given them a smoother surface. The zapote trees out of which they -were formed, must have been fashioned into broad baulks of timber, and -afterwards squared and divided into the required lengths. The face of -the timber was levelled and smoothed, and the corners or angles were -sharply defined. All this work had to be done, as far as is known, with -stone implements. - -[Illustration: QUADRANGLE, CASA DE LAS MONJAS.] - -Upon taking a final glance at these ruins it seems reasonable to form -the conclusion that Uxmal was built exclusively for the purposes of -religion. The pyramids and their teocallis or temples were devoted as -shrines for the gods, and monasteries were attached to them. The human -sacrifices and the ceremonies that were customary in time of war took -place in the open courts attached to the high altars of the chief idols. - - • • • • • - - Upon the last day of my stay at Uxmal, the morning was fine - and the sky was clear. In the forenoon I observed that there - were dense volumes of light-coloured smoke covering the fields - towards the east. As the day advanced the air became hot and - oppressive, and the sky was obscured. Upon inquiring the cause - of this smoke I was told that the Indians were burning their - weeds and stalks in accordance with their custom at that time - of the year. - - In the afternoon, whilst I was engaged in sketching the - south-east angle of the Casa del Gobernador, heavy drops of - rain began suddenly to fall. As it was the dry season, this - change of weather was unexpected. The rain drops soon ceased, - but after an interval there were some slight showers which - continued for about two hours. At the farmhouse I was told - that such weather was unusual, and that the rain must have - been caused by the smoke and heat rising from the fires. If - this opinion was correct the change may have been caused by - the heated air rising into a cooler region above, and thus - producing an atmospherical disturbance. - - This fact of rain being produced or caused by human agency - supports the opinion that the efforts of the rain-makers - amongst the North American Indians were in accordance with some - vague knowledge, and were not altogether absurd, and that the - action of the Californian rain-maker, whose attempts to obtain - rain were successful, was based upon an experience which was - practical. - - - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - Departure from Uxmal. — Indian officials at Abalá. — Indian - Ceremonies. — Worship of demons. — Baptismal customs. — Laws - of the Emperor Charles V. for the government of the natives in - Yucatan. — Superstitions. — An Indian Well. — Halt at night. — - Merida. — Convent of the Conceptionistas. — Sisal. — The Basque - brig Aguinaga. — Departure for Cuba and Florida. — Tampa. — - Cedar Keys. — Buccaneers. — Shell Mounds. — Ancient Burial - Mounds. — Florida Indians. - - -At sunrise on the day of our departure from Uxmal, the Indians were -hurrying along the paths on their way to the corn fields, and the women -were engaged in carrying water from the wells. It was a busy scene of -life and movement. - -We proceeded to Múna and then journeyed onwards to the village of Abalá -which we reached in the afternoon, having accomplished a distance of -eight leagues. We obtained shelter in a public building called the -cabildo, which was used as a travellers’ rest house, where everyone, -as in a Turkish or Syrian caravansary, selected whatever spot was -available or unoccupied. Anastasio deposited the luggage in a corner -and found a place where my hammock could be secured above the ground. - -Upon examining my horse I found that it was quite unfit for work, and -therefore I went at once to the head man of the district, who was an -Indian holding the office of Judge, and was at the time sitting in the -Court-house. I asked him if he would give directions that I should be -supplied with another horse or mule to carry me to Merida. The Judge at -first made some objections and said that there were no horses, or that, -if there were any, they were in the fields and would have to be caught. -Finally, after a long discussion, the second or junior Judge, who -seemed inclined to help me, promised that a horse should be ready at -the cabildo on the following day as soon as the sun appeared. Trusting -in this arrangement, I discharged Anastasio and sent him back with the -old horse to Tzibalché. - -In the morning the sun duly appeared but no horse came, and as -Anastasio had left at daybreak, I found myself unattended, and -surrounded by strange groups of Indians passing through Abalá. It -was fortunate that, in accordance with a local regulation, an Indian -alguazil was in charge of the cabildo, for this native official -immediately informed me that he would attend to my requirements. He -was useful in carrying out my wishes, and performed his duties with -care and zeal. After waiting for an hour to see if any horse arrived, -I went again to the Court-house but found that the Judges were not -sitting, and that they were away for the day upon other occupations. On -my return to my quarters it was evident that some event had occurred. -I was told that a band of muleteers on their way from the interior had -halted there, and intended to proceed to Merida later in the day, after -their mules had been given rest and food. These men were uncouth and -noisy, but I thought it would be wise to join them, if they made no -objection. It happened that they had with them a young horse that was -not laden. After overcoming some preliminary difficulties, an agreement -was made that I should hire the horse, but that he was not to carry -any weight except that of the rider; one of their mules was to convey -my luggage. As soon as all preparations were completed the leader of -the muleteers told me that they would be ready to proceed late in the -afternoon and that he would call for me at the cabildo. The men then -dispersed. - -Having the greater part of the day at my disposal, I walked out beyond -the village for the purpose of being present at an Indian ceremony. It -was the commemoration of a death that had taken place in the previous -year. I was informed that in this part of Yucatan it was the custom -amongst the Indians to have three services or meetings of this nature. -The first took place a week after the death; the second after an -interval of a month, and the last on the anniversary. This was the -anniversary service and was considered the most important. Very few -of the religious ceremonies of the Indians have been permitted to be -maintained, for they were so singularly connected with their worship of -demons, that it was found necessary to abolish everything that recalled -their ancient superstitions. These memorial observances are, however, -to a modified extent yet performed. - -Upon arriving at the hut I saw that it was crowded with Indians. I -was received in the usual manner with apparent inattention, and was -allowed to take my place with the others. I noticed that my friend -the junior Judge, who had promised to send me a horse, was one of the -mourners. As he made no remark and I had made other plans the subject -was not mentioned, and my attention was directed to what was going -on around me. The Indians were engaged in making melancholy sounds -of wailing. In the centre of the room was a table upon which was a -large plain wooden cross. Before the cross were placed offerings of -flowers, fruits and baked tortillas. I waited for some time to see what -ceremonies were going to take place, but nothing happened. The wailing -continued in a dreary and monotonous manner. - -The scene reminded me in some respects of observances of a religious -character that I had previously witnessed when travelling amongst the -Cordilleras of Guatemala, and again at a village near Tzibalché, on -the road to Uxmal. When the Spanish priests settled in their various -parishes in these regions after the conquest, it was noticed by them -that the Indians appeared to have a peculiar dread of death. This dread -did not seem to be caused by any personal fear, but had its origin in -connection with their belief in demons. They believed that death was -an evil spirit that required to be propitiated, and whose influence -over the sick or dying person was malignant. Thus it was usual to make -offerings to this demon, who was supposed to be lying in wait somewhere -near the hut. They imagined that he might be contented with what was -given to him and not carry off his victim. When I was at Palenque, -I was told that in some of the remote parts of the province, this -ancient observance still existed and that the Indians placed offerings -of food outside the door of the hut in the hope that the demon would be -appeased, and pass by without stopping to enter within.[93] In Yucatan -a similar custom prevailed, but the method of propitiation was slightly -different. Various kinds of food and jars of liquid were hung upon the -walls or thatch outside the hut to gratify the demon and cause him to -accept the offerings instead of human life. - -Amongst the ancient customs of the Indians none, however, are more -strange than those connected with an almost unintelligible form of -baptism. The Franciscan missionaries who endeavoured to convert the -Indians at the time of the conquest, observed with astonishment the -veneration of the natives for the Catholic rites of baptism and the -readiness of their converts to accept this part of their teaching. -In the course of their inquiries upon the subject they discovered -that a form of baptism already existed, and was considered to be one -of the most important and essential of their ceremonies.[94] Upon -an examination of the accounts of the manner in which the Indians -performed their customary rites, it does not appear that there was -much analogy with the ceremony that was insisted upon as a duty by the -friars, except that the Indian baptism was a religious act performed by -their priests, in which the children were touched with something that -had been dipped in water. - -The Indians, although disinclined to adopt the new faith, showed -extraordinary ardour and devotion in this particular observance. It was -found that they would frequently bring their children to be baptised -again after they had already received baptism. Finally the conduct -of the Indians in this matter became so unsatisfactory that special -clauses upon the subject, were introduced into the laws established by -the order of the Emperor Charles V. for the government of the Indians -in Yucatan. - -One of these clauses ran thus— - -“Baptism is one of the sacraments which is not to be repeated, and -if this is done great offence is committed against the Holy Ghost -conferred upon us by baptism when it is repeated. - -“Many of the natives of this province say that although already -baptised, they repeat baptism deceiving the ministers of the gospel, -and furthermore they say that they baptise others and consent that -others should do so. For which reason I order that henceforth no Indian -man or woman of this province who has once received legitimately holy -baptism shall return to be baptised or consent to others doing it, or -baptise on their own authority any other person.” - -Since these orders were put in force many changes have taken place, -and the Indians have become, in a manner reconciled to the new order -of things. It is, however, stated that in remote parishes the priests -are still frequently deceived, and that children are sometimes brought -three or four times to be given baptism. - -The circumstances under which the cross was placed upon the table -in the hut near Abalá were peculiar. It was clear that the cross -was looked upon as an idol, and that the offerings made to it were -propitiations. In Yucatan there were instances known of several of -the principal Indians keeping a cross in their house. This was not -necessarily a Latin cross, for it was sometimes formed into a shape -varying according to the imagination of the owners. The Indians are -rapidly becoming so neglected with regard to all religious education, -that it is not improbable that they will gradually return to many of -their idolatrous practices. - -In the beginning of this century the Spanish authorities in Mexico -ordered an inquiry to be made regarding the condition of the Yucatan -Indians, and directions were given to ascertain whether they still -maintained any of the superstitious usages followed before the -conquest. There was a Report made by the curate of Yaxcabá which was -considered to be especially deserving of mention, because he had been -in charge of a large parish and had lived for many years among his -Indians, and was known to be well acquainted with their language and -habits. One of the superstitions that he reported is remarkable from -its having evident analogies with one of the methods adopted by the -medicine men in curing the sick amongst the Dakotas in North America. -It will be seen by his account of the custom of divining through the -medium of a crystal, that ignorant human nature in Yucatan, as in many -other parts of the world, seeks to learn the future by similar methods. - -The curate, in his reply to one of the questions put to him, stated -as follows[95]:—“Amongst the common masses of the Indians there are -many superstitions. In the first fifteen years that I held this curacy -they told me much, but after making examples upon the delinquents by -punishing them with floggings and penances in accordance with superior -commands, it is now fully fifteen years that all is done in silence, -and it is only from time to time that there is any sign. - -“The most frequent divination is by means of a piece of crystal which -they call _zaztun_. This is a clear and transparent stone, by which -they say that occult things are seen and the causes of sickness. What -I have been able to understand in this matter is that they have had -some one who, by a compact with the demon, has divined by the means -of the said _zaztun_: but the more ordinary way is that those that -use it are certain cheating impostors who by this means gain credit -amongst themselves and are consulted and are well treated so that they -have idle lives, and with their artifices and cunning make the simple -and ignorant believe that they have divined what they have secretly -managed. I will take this example which is frequent: they make the sick -man believe that by the means of the _zaztun_ they have known that -some malevolent person has bewitched him, and in order to discover the -wizard or evil doer it is necessary to watch three nights and make -preparation of ardent spirits or pitarilla, provisions and lighted -candles; during these three nights they enjoy themselves and eat and -drink till they are satisfied. When the others are not observing or -asleep they bury inside the house or near it a small figure of black -wax having a thorn run into the part corresponding to that where the -sick person feels the most pain. Finally when all are awake they -commence to make their operations with the _zaztun_ and go straight to -the spot where they buried the little figure, they take it out within -sight of everybody and make them believe that this was the witchcraft. -They then apply for the cure any herbs that they can find and if -sometimes by chance the sick person gets cured they gain much credit -amongst the ignorant.” - -A most extraordinary account was given by the curate of Yaxcabá, of -a religious or superstitious ceremony which at a certain season of -the year was performed by the Indians of his parish in the beginning -of this century. They erected near the village a rudely constructed -table upon which was placed a turkey. When the ceremony commenced, the -Indian who acted as the priest poured into the beak of the turkey a -small quantity of pitarilla. He then killed the bird and gave it to -his assistants at the table, who carried it away to season it and -prepare it for being eaten. Large tortillas were also prepared and -when everything was ready the turkey and tortillas were placed upon -the table together with several jars of pitarilla. “Then,” stated the -cura, “the sacerdote commences to incense them with copal.”... “And -then taking some of the pitarilla upon a hissop he sprinkles it towards -the four winds invoking the four _Pahahtunes_ who are the gods and -custodians of the rains. Then approaching the table he raises on high -one of the jars, and offers it to the mouths of the surrounding people, -who are kneeling. The function concludes by all eating and drinking to -their satisfaction.” - -Near a hamlet a few leagues from Uxmal, I observed a group of Indians -performing ceremonies similar to those described by the curate of -Yaxcabá, and I then formed the opinion that they were imitating what -they had seen in the Spanish churches. It may, however, be possible -that these native observances have some relation to practices that -may have been customary amongst the natives before the conquest. Near -Jacaltenango, amongst the hills of the Sierra Madre, ceremonies and -sacrifices were still, at certain periods of the year, performed by -the Mams; turkeys were killed, and special and peculiar rites were -customary. In Yucatan it was found necessary in the sixteenth century -to enforce regulations, preventing the caciques from convening meetings -of the natives which were held for the purpose of maintaining the -ancient worship of their gods. These meetings usually took place in -secret, and the services and superstitious propitiations were taught -or performed by men who were the descendants of the priests or caciques. - -The tendency of the Indians to have religious rites performed in their -houses or in huts set apart for the purpose, and their custom of having -these ceremonies conducted by one or more men selected from among -themselves to act as priests, or “sacerdotes,” is noticeable throughout -Guatemala, Yucatan and Chiapas. - -Before leaving Abalá I visited a large and deep cenote or well. It was -one of those natural caverns the Indians of Yucatan were accustomed to -use for their supply of water, and which presumably mark the sites of -the ancient centres of population. It was chiefly fed by the waters -penetrating through the surrounding calcareous limestone formation. As -it was late in the dry season of the year, the waters were low and the -natives were engaged in going up and down the steps cut into and around -the sides of the cavern. The work of filling their jars was laborious, -as the depth to which they had to descend was nearly one hundred feet. - -After examining this natural well, I returned to the cabildo, where I -found that everything was ready and the muleteers were waiting for me. -We started without delay. At night we stopped at what appeared to be a -farmhouse. The muleteers unloaded the mules and found places to sleep -in an outer shed. I unrolled my hammock and secured it to the rafters -outside the dwelling of the young proprietress, and found protection -from the dew under the overhanging thatch. From this exposed position I -watched for several hours the clear star-light, regretting that this -was the last time that I should lead this free and wandering life; for -on the next day we were to be in Merida. At daybreak we continued our -journey and arrived in the capital of Yucatan shortly before noon and -halted in the market place. - -My travelling companions then left me and I remained a solitary -stranger amongst a crowd of busy Indians. I was told that there was no -hotel, but that possibly I might get a room in an old disused convent -which was being altered for the purpose of receiving guests. I rode -up to the gate and there saw a Spaniard who informed me that he had -lately bought a portion of the ruins, and was re-arranging the interior -sufficiently to enable him to keep an inn. He had a room at my disposal -and assured me that he would be pleased if I would occupy it. This room -had been a nun’s cell, the door of which opened into the quadrangle. - -I found that I was quartered within the Convent of the Conceptionistas, -which after the suppression of the monastic orders had been abandoned. -Thus, by a strange series of events, I had come from the ruined Indian -“nunnery” at Uxmal to the ruined Spanish nunnery at Merida. The cells -and the quadrangle of the Conceptionistas reminded me of the interior -of the “Casa de las Monjas.” - -During my brief sojourn in Merida I was generally occupied during the -day in observing the habits of the Indians who came into the town from -the adjacent country. In the evenings, within the convent walls where, -for many years, the nuns had led their quiet and secluded lives, I -listened to the plans of my worthy and eager landlord for converting a -building, constructed for the purposes of solitude and prayer, into a -busy and prosperous inn. I frequently thought of the past of this land. -The monastic institutions of an unknown race of Indians had flourished -and had been destroyed, and were succeeded by the churches and convents -established by an enthusiastic race of devoted missionaries who came -across the Atlantic to spread their faith in the New World. Many -changes had happened, the old order of things had passed away. The -work of the Spanish priests for the education and conversion of the -Indians, maintained for centuries with such zeal and self-sacrifice, -was destined to become useless, and in their turn the monasteries of -the Spaniards are doomed to fall into the same condition of ruin as the -temples and religious structures of the Indians. - -One evening the landlord (Miguel Yturran) told me that a brig had -arrived and was at anchor off the port of Sisal, and was going to sail -for Cuba on the afternoon of the next day. I accordingly arranged to -leave on the following morning. A good level road led to the northern -coast, the distance was about thirty-eight miles. We changed mules at a -village called Junucuma, and reached Sisal before nine in the morning. -We had left Merida at daybreak and travelled at an average speed -exceeding twelve miles an hour. In the offing we saw the brig with her -sails loosed, preparing for sea. - -Upon getting on board I was told that she was the Aguinaga, belonging -to the port of San Sebastian. She was manned by a crew of Basques. -Shortly before weighing our anchor, I was leaning over the port side -of the vessel looking at the long, low, line of coast stretching -far away towards the east, when my attention was called to an -animated conversation that was taking place between the Basques and -a boat’s-crew of Indians who had come alongside, bringing provisions -and fruit. It was surprising to hear a conversation carried on between -men of races so absolutely distinct, and I asked the skipper, who was -standing near me, how this power of communicating ideas between his -crew and these Yucatan Indians had been established. - -He said that he did not know, but as a matter of fact, his men, -speaking Basque, were able to make themselves understood by the Indians -living on these coasts, especially in the regions around Tabasco beyond -Carmen and the bay of Terminos. - -In the afternoon we left Sisal and were employed in beating against a -fresh N.E. wind, usually standing in towards the coast during the day -and tacking out to sea at night. It was not until the sixth day that -we weathered the parallel of Cape Catoche, the extreme eastern point -of Yucatan, and it was with no slight satisfaction that, after having -been nine tedious days at sea, I heard that Cuba was in sight. The -confinement on board the brig had been extremely irksome, and had only -been made tolerable by the novelty of being thrown amongst a race of -men that I had never met before and whose language was unintelligible. - -These Basques were excellent sailors, quick and handy at their work -aloft or on deck, and although incessantly employed, were willing and -obedient. My messmates in the cabin consisted of the skipper, the -boatswain and the mate, and a fellow passenger who had been for the -greater part of his life a Honduras pilot. There was also a second -class passenger who usually lived under the forecastle. This man was a -wanderer upon the earth; an exile from his own land who, in the course -of his travels, had seen much of men and manners. He told me that he -was a Frenchman and had been drawn for the conscription, but he managed -to evade his duty and had got away from France, consequently he was -not able to return to his home as he was liable to be punished. He had -managed to subsist by following various trades and he was about to try -his fortune in one of the islands. - -Upon approaching Havannah we at last got a fair wind and were able -to find an obscure berth amongst the merchant shipping without -difficulty.[96] After leaving the brig and her Basque crew I proceeded -across the Gulf to Florida. Amongst the various places that I visited -was Tampa, situated at the head of a bay, near the spot where Hernando -de Soto landed in 1539 and began the conquest of that part of America. - -About one hundred miles to the north of Tampa are numerous sand -islets. Upon one of these was situated the old settlement of Cedar -Keys. I was fortunate in meeting there a good seaman and enthusiastic -antiquary named Clarke, who had made his home at that place. He was -well acquainted with the various channels and bays of the coast, and -in consequence of the interest that he felt in all that related to -the customs of the Indian tribes, had gathered together a store of -information that was exceedingly curious. He had also made discoveries -respecting the haunts of the buccaneers, and knew of stories about -hidden treasure. Fragments of old vessels that were supposed to have -belonged to the pirates had been found, and clearings in the forest had -been noticed, where it is supposed they formed their camps when the -crews were landed. This part of the Florida coast with its tortuous -channels and land-locked bays is precisely the position that buccaneers -would have chosen for careening their vessels and for all purposes that -required concealment after their raids upon the Spaniards. - -Upon one of the islands near the main-land there was an ancient kitchen -midden or shell mound of unusual size. We found that it extended along -the beach for eight hundred yards. It averaged eighty yards in width -and was forty feet high. It was composed principally of large oyster -shells, but there were also the shells of clam fish and numerous -smaller shells. The mound throughout its length presented on its face -a series of alternate layers of earth, about half-an-inch thick. The -thickness of these intervening deposits of shells was greater than at -Damariscotta in Maine, from which fact it may be inferred that the -tribes who came here were more numerous, or that they were capable -of extraordinary powers of consuming oysters. Upon cutting away -portions of the outer slope of the mound, we found many fish bones and -quantities of fragments of broken pottery. - -Not far from the shell mound was an ancient Indian burial place. -Captain Clarke had made excavations into it, and amongst the -accumulation of bones he had found some flint arrow heads and a few -rude stone axes. I examined these and noticed that they were similar -to those that had been found in several of the burial mounds of the -Iroquois. As I wished to see this mound for the purpose of ascertaining -certain points respecting the methods of burial adopted by the Florida -Indians, Captain Clarke proposed that we should make an examination of -it. - -The heap was irregular in shape and about four hundred yards in -circumference at the base. It consisted entirely of quantities of human -skulls and bones. We examined it sufficiently to enable certain facts -to be made clear. From the manner in which groups of skulls and thigh -bones were placed and separated, it was evident that the burials took -place at considerable intervals of time. This is in accordance with -what is known of the funeral customs of the Indians in Florida and the -southern parts of the Mississippi Valley at the time of the expedition -of De Soto. - -It was then ascertained that in each of the villages there was a large -building in which were kept boxes containing human bones. Before the -bones were collected in this manner, the bodies had been placed in -the adjacent forest, exposed to the air but raised on a scaffolding -sufficiently high to prevent them from being disturbed by wild animals. -After a suitable time had elapsed the bones were separated and -cleaned, and were then deposited in the charnel-house, where religious -ceremonies were frequently performed. Upon certain occasions, when the -boxes were getting full, the bones were taken away and conveyed to the -tribal burial place. - -Judging from the manner in which the bones were deposited in the mound, -it is probable that they were brought in their separate cases, and that -the contents of each case were carefully kept together and finally -thrown out in separate heaps. The occasions when the bones were brought -here, may have been those when the tribes made their migrations to -the seacoast. The methods of cleaning and removing the bones of the -Indians in Florida were similar to those of the Dakotas. - -On the coast, a few miles north of Cedar Keys, there were other large -shell mounds, and in Tampa Bay I was shown the position of a long and -extensive range of similar heaps on its southern shores. It is evident -that before the sixteenth century there must have been a numerous -aboriginal race inhabiting these coasts. The scattered remnants of the -tribes that remained in Florida at the conclusion of the last Indian -war in this region, have been removed and placed upon lands beyond the -Mississippi. - - - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - Mounds and Earthworks in North and Central America. — - Migrations of the Toltecs and Aztecs. — The Quichés. — - Aboriginal races. — Palenque. — Hieroglyphs. — Temples. — - Desertion of the Temples and stone buildings in Yucatan. — - Conquest of Yucatan by the Aztecs. — Antiquity of Palenque and - Uxmal. — Aztec custom of imprisoning captives in cages and - sacrificing them to the gods. — Civilisation of the Toltecs. — - Note upon the symbol or Totem of the Serpent. - - -In the following chapters I propose to bring together the various notes -upon the Indians and their temples and earthworks which were made when -traversing Central America, and to add to them the conclusions which -have been formed subsequently. - -There are certain problems which particularly require to be examined. -With respect to the antiquity of the stone buildings and pyramids, -it would be difficult to attempt to do more than endeavour to form -reasonable deductions from the evidence afforded by the state of those -ruins, and the information given about them by the Indians at the time -of the conquest. The conquerors, after they had settled in Yucatan and -Guatemala, were accompanied by Spanish missionaries of great ability. -We possess in the writings of Bishop Las Casas and Bishop Landa works -of the greatest value, for both those prelates when they were engaged -in their duties of converting the natives, were acquainted with the -language of the tribes amongst whom they worked. - -In the prosecution of researches into subjects which relate to Central -America, it is desirable as a preliminary step to consider the -comparative civilisation of the Indians, as far as that is brought -into evidence by what has been discovered with respect to mounds and -earthworks, not only in that region, but also throughout the valley of -the Mississippi. A distinction must also be made between earthworks -which are unquestionably of great antiquity, and those that possibly -may have been raised since the date of the arrival of European -settlers. Therefore the geometrically planned inclosures in Ohio should -be excluded from this inquiry. It is otherwise with great ramparts such -as those inclosing Fort Ancient on the steep promontory in the valley -of the Little Miami, which are of special importance on account of the -parallelisms with the similar fortifications made by the Quichés and -Kachiquels in Guatemala. - -There are exceptional circumstances connected with the mounds in North -America. It has to be remembered that they were not always burial -places. When De Soto arrived with his fleet in Florida, the chief -cacique of the tribe dwelling near the landing place, was living on the -top of a mound about fifty feet high. This mound was pointed out to me -when I was at Tampa. It appeared to be made for the purpose of placing -huts upon its summit. The platform was sufficiently large to give room -for several dwellings. There are also mounds near the western bank of -the Mississippi, between Natchez and the mouth of the Arkansas. One of -them resembled that at Tampa, and had a wide level space on the summit. - -When the earliest Spanish expedition passed through that part of the -country, it was observed that the Indians frequently placed their -houses upon artificial earthworks raised sufficiently high to be above -the inundations. At Natchez the tribe, which, from their peculiar -customs, have been called the sun worshippers, raised mounds primarily -for the residence of their chiefs, who differed from other Indians of -that rank, in being invested with special attributes in connection with -ceremonies performed before the rising sun. But there were customs with -respect to them which require to be noticed. It was stated by Father le -Petit, who was for many years a missionary amongst the Natchez, that -when their principal chief died his hut was demolished and a new mound -was raised, upon which was built the wooden cabin of his successor in -that dignity. It can be understood that where a large tribe having -this custom dwelt for a long time in one place, it might happen that -a series of connected platform mounds, forming an inclosure, would -probably have a rectangular shape. - -Higher up the Mississippi, above the junction of the Ohio, are the -Cahokia earthworks. There were also several mounds placed on high -ground near the east bank of the river, not far from the borders of -Illinois and Wisconsin. One of these, which was about forty feet -high, was opened ten years before I went to St. Paul’s. A vault was -discovered beneath the level of the ground, which contained several -skeletons sitting in a circle. The earth of which it was composed was -a kind of loam, not occurring in the vicinity, and it was supposed -that it must have been brought from a considerable distance by Indians -who wished to show their respect for the burial place of their chiefs, -by bringing tributes of earth taken from the ground near their -encampments. The high mounds placed around the edge of the promontory, -now called Dayton’s Bluff, and which are the most northern group in the -valley of the Mississippi, have been described in a preceding chapter. - -When I was in Chiapas, the Presbitero Macal told me that he was present -when two mounds were examined in 1860, near San Cristobal. They were -each ten feet high and covered vaults made of large flat slabs of -stone. Within these tombs were two skulls, but nothing else was found. -There were no weapons or fragments of pottery. In the vault under the -mound in Illinois there were several large pieces of pottery, and on -the surface, immediately above the tomb, were ashes and other evidences -of fire. - -But before proceeding farther with this subject, it is necessary to -bring under consideration the progress of archæological knowledge in -North America, since the date of my visit to the ancient mounds and -earthworks in Ohio. Great advances have been made in the classification -of the discoveries that have taken place in the burial mounds that -exist throughout the United States. Deductions can consequently be -established with regard to the civilisation of the Indians, and it has -become possible to establish, upon a scientific basis, their position -as a race. A long series of investigations have been completed, and a -summary of the results published, under the auspices of the Smithsonian -Institution, by Professor Cyrus Thomas.[97] - -“It seems desirable at the present time,” he observes, “to make a -statement explaining the plans and describing the work of the mound -exploring division of the Bureau of Ethnology.”... “The questions -relating to prehistoric America are to be determined not alone by -the study of its ancient monuments, but by the study also of the -languages, customs, art, beliefs, and folk-lore of the aborigines. -Only by such a comprehensive study can the exact relations of the -ancient archæological remains to the historic Indian tribes be made -apparent. Major J. W. Powell, the Director of the Bureau, taking this -comprehensive and scientific view of the subject, saw at the outset the -necessity of deciding as soon as possible the question ‘Were the mound -builders Indians?’” - -The work was carried on for several years, and Professor Thomas states -that “Over two thousand mounds have been explored, including almost -every known type as to form.... Nothing trustworthy has been discovered -to justify the theory that the mound builders belonged to a highly -civilised race, or that they were a people who had attained a higher -culture status than the Indians. It is true that works and papers -on American archæology are full of statements to the contrary, which -are generally based on the theory that the mound builders belonged to -a race of much higher culture than the Indians. Yet when the facts -on which this opinion is based are examined with sober, scientific -care, the splendid fabric which has been built upon them by that -great workman, imagination, fades from sight.” Professor Thomas also -observes—“That the links discovered directly connecting the Indians and -mound builders are so numerous and well established that there should -be no longer any hesitancy in accepting the theory that the two are one -and the same people.” - -The origin and nature of the American mounds, and the customs of the -Indians who raised them, have also been investigated by Professor -Lucien Carr. He claims “that the mounds and inclosures of Ohio, like -those in New York and the Gulf States, were the work of the red Indians -of historic times, or of their immediate ancestors.”[98] - -With reference to this much debated question of the formation of these -inclosures, a re-survey of several of them was made. The measurements -of Professor Thomas and his assistants appear to have established the -fact of the geometrical accuracy of the octagonal, square and circular -works near Newark.[99] In the introduction to the memoir upon the -Ohio mounds, Professor Thomas observes that “The constantly recurring -question ‘Who constructed these works?’ has brought before the public -a number of widely different theories, though the one which has been -most generally accepted is that they originated with a people long -since extinct or driven from the country, who had attained a culture -status much in advance of that reached by the aborigines inhabiting -the country at the time of its discovery by Europeans. The opinions -advanced in this paper, in support of which evidence will be presented, -is that the ancient works of the State are due to Indians of several -different tribes, and that some at least of the typical works, were -built by the ancestors of the modern Cherokees.”[100] - -As a consequence of the examination of the Indian mounds throughout -the United States, the majority of the modern American archæologists -consider that the aboriginal inhabitants were never in a higher -state of civilisation than they were when they first became known to -Europeans. It is not however the questions of the burial mounds, and -the importance of what has been found in them which have chiefly to -be considered here. Attention should be principally directed to the -difficult problem respecting the great fortified ramparts of Fort -Ancient. - -The traditions of the Delawares,[101] which affirmed that the defensive -earthworks of Ohio were built by the Tallegwi, have generally been -accepted as being well founded. They were stated to have been a -powerful tribe who built fortifications and entrenchments. Finally -they abandoned their lands and went southwards, down the valley of the -Mississippi and never returned. It may be conjectured, after observing -the similar works and methods of selecting their defensive positions -in Guatemala, that the Tallegwi were the same race who were afterwards -known as Toltecs. The probability of this assumption being reasonable, -becomes more evident when the group of platform and circular mounds on -the plains near Mixco are observed to be similar to those raised on the -plains of Cahokia near the banks of the Mississippi. - -The question of the condition of intelligence amongst the North -American Indians, has a direct bearing upon the problem of the origin -of the civilisation of the Toltecs and Aztecs, and it is satisfactory -to know that there are sound reasons for supposing that the Indians -who constructed the fortified camps in Ohio were not more advanced in -knowledge than the tribes who were dwelling in that region at the time -of the discovery of America by Columbus. - -Several years after the conquest of Mexico, the Spaniards sent -expeditions into the southern parts of Central America, and conquered -the Quichés and the surrounding country, in which were situated -the ramparts defending Utatlan and Patinamit. It was subsequently -considered desirable that investigations should be made into the -ancient systems by which the aboriginal inhabitants had been governed -by their caciques, and orders were given to this effect by the Emperor -Charles the Fifth and by his successor Philip the Second. In the -reports of the officers who conducted these inquiries, it was stated -that an extraordinarily rigid line of caste was maintained amongst the -Quichés. There was an absolute distinction between the ruling families -descended from the caciques, and the great mass of the races who were -under their control. It was also evident, judging from the language of -several appeals made by Indian chiefs to obtain justice and to have -their rank and authority acknowledged, that they considered the working -classes of Indians as their absolute slaves. - -“There was no instance,” states the historian Juarros, “of any person -being appointed to a public office, high or low, who was not selected -from the nobility; for which reason, great anxiety was felt by them -to keep the purity of their lineage unsullied. To preserve this rank -untainted in blood, it was decreed by the law, that if any cacique -or noble should marry a woman who was not of noble family, he should -be degraded to the caste of mazegual or plebeian, assume the name of -his wife, and be subject to all the duties and services imposed upon -plebeians.” These services generally consisted of works performed -by forced labour. The lands belonging to the ruling families were -cultivated in this manner, and, in fact, the Indians of the native -and working class were entirely at the disposal of their masters. One -of the Spanish bishops, whose diocese was in Mexico, mentions that he -had ascertained that these mazeguales could be sold or killed by their -owners. There were marked differences in the dress of the people. The -mazeguales wore, as a rule, nothing but the loin cloth, or sometimes, -as is the case now with the Lacandones, a long cotton shirt, reaching -nearly to the feet. It was a matter of observation amongst the -conquerors that the inferior classes of Indians were submissive, but -that their rulers were intractable, harsh and warlike. - -It is inexpedient to pursue this particular subject to any great -extent, for it is made clear by the reports of the Spanish authorities -that the relations of the governing class of the Quichés to the -other Indians under their rule were those of a race of conquerors -to a race of slaves, and the victors treated those whom they had -conquered in a manner in accordance with the habits of a savage and -barbarous tribe of North American Indians. This much may be admitted -from the consideration of the circumstances of the laws and customs -of the Quichés at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards. But if a -due estimation is also given to the evidence afforded by the strange -and otherwise inexplicable similarities in the methods of choosing -fortified positions and raising ramparts with those in Ohio, it becomes -reasonable to infer that the Quiché chiefs originally migrated from -that part of North America. - -It is however necessary to note that, at whatever period their -migration may have taken place, it cannot be granted or inferred that -the Ohio tribes brought with them any knowledge of architecture, or -of any form of civilisation, for had it been otherwise, they would -have left behind them some vestiges of that civilisation or mechanical -skill. It is especially remarkable that throughout the length and -breadth of North America there is not the smallest fragment of any -hewn stone building, or of any carved stone hieroglyphic characters. -Thus the theory of migratory tribes of Indians bringing with them from -the North into Mexico, a comparatively advanced knowledge of arts -and sciences is opposed to all evidence. It is almost certain that -the state of civilisation that at one time existed in the regions of -Chiapas and Yucatan, was introduced into the country at some period -subsequent to the arrival of the invading tribe, unless it can be -established that the aboriginal races already possessed a competent -intelligence, and an architectural capacity. A proposition of this -character cannot be reasonably maintained, for it is known that in -the fifteenth century the Indians in Cuba and Haiti, the Caribs on -the coasts south of Yucatan, and the aborigines in the interior were -savages, existing in a low state of human intelligence. This subject -respecting the Indian migrations and the state of civilisation that was -existing, or had existed, in Central America, can be more definitely -considered after attention has been directed to the question of the -antiquity and purpose of the buildings at Palenque and Uxmal. It is -much to be regretted that Palenque was not known to the Spaniards when -Cortes marched within a few leagues of it in 1524. Possibly, at that -time it had not been long abandoned, and perhaps some of the caciques -dwelling in that part of the valley of the Usamacinta might have been -able to explain the meaning of the hieroglyphs. Unfortunately the -ruins were not discovered until more than two centuries had elapsed, -and nothing could be ascertained from the Indians which gave the -slightest clue to their signification. It has been surmised—and there -are good reasons for thinking that the surmise may be correct—that the -characters relate to the migrations of the tribes. But in consequence -of the incomplete knowledge of these Indian hieroglyphs, it would be -impossible to attempt to form any satisfactory conjectures regarding -their meaning. - -There exists, however, graven on the tablet of the cross, two figures -which, if I am correct in my opinion with regard to them, are of the -greatest importance in establishing certain facts with regard to the -builders of Palenque. Upon referring to the illustration of the altar -tablet that was placed within the temple of the cross, it will be -noticed that the two standing figures offering sacrifice to the quetzal -or sacred bird of Quiché, are evidently intended to represent persons -actually living at the time that the altar was designed, for there is -nothing fantastic in the costume that is worn by them. If a careful -examination is made into the details of their dress it will, I think, -be concluded that these men were the chief caciques of the Quichés. - -“The nobles,” observes Juarros, “wore a dress of white cotton dyed or -stained with different colours, the use of which was prohibited to the -other ranks. This vestment consisted of a shirt and white breeches, -decorated with fringes; over these was drawn another pair of breeches, -reaching to the knees and ornamented with a species of embroidery; -the legs were bare; the feet protected by sandals, fastened over the -instep and at the heel by thongs of leather; the sleeves of the shirt -were looped above the elbow, with a blue or red band; the hair was -worn long, and tressed behind with a cord of the colour used upon the -sleeves, and terminating in a tassel, which was a distinction peculiar -to the great captains; the waist was girded with a piece of cloth of -various colours, fastened in a knot before; over the shoulders was -thrown a white mantle, ornamented with figures of birds, lions and -other decorations of cord and fringe. The ears and lower lip were -pierced, to receive star-shaped pendants of gold or silver.” - -Upon an examination of the figures it will be observed that, although -their dress corresponds with what is described as being worn by the -Quiché caciques, neither of them are wearing sandals. But, on the -altar of the temple placed on an adjacent mound, the same figures are -again offering sacrifices, and the tallest of them is wearing sandals -precisely as described above. It was the custom among the Quichés -to associate with the principal cacique another chief, to whom was -intrusted the control and management of the troops and the conduct of -all hostilities, and it is stated that sometimes this chief was the -eldest son of the cacique. As the second temple appears to have been -dedicated to the god of war, it may be assumed that the shorter figure -was intended to represent a war chief. He is dressed in accordance -with that rank and wears a mantle and a heavy tassel. In this temple -the chief is drawn as standing upon a kneeling captive, but in that -dedicated to Quetzalcoatl he is placed upon a block of stone, upon -which is a hieroglyph. To Quetzalcoatl the offering appears to have -been in conformity with the attributes assigned to him, of religion -and education. Possibly the child, held in the hands of the tallest -cacique, was dedicated to serve in the temple after having been trained -for the priesthood in the monastery. - -[Illustration: PART OF THE ALTAR-PIECE IN A TEMPLE AT PALENQUE.] - -It is satisfactory to be able to establish the conclusion that the -figures are caciques of the Quichés, for it thereby becomes possible to -advance a few steps towards the solution of a problem which presents -many difficulties with regard to the period of the construction of -Palenque, and state of civilization of the builders. In a manuscript -left in a Franciscan convent by one of the descendants of the Quichés, -an account was given of the migrations of that tribe before they -settled near Utatlan. It was stated that they reached that country -after a long journey from Mexico, and adopted the name of Quiché in -memory of one of their leaders; but before that time the people were -called Toltecs. - -Before endeavouring to establish conclusions with regard to Palenque, -attention should be directed to the temples and other stone buildings -in the adjacent regions. With respect to the numerous groups of -ruins in Yucatan, we possess the testimony of the Spanish priests who -dwelt in their parishes in that country at a period when many of the -governing class of Indians were of the same generation as those who -inhabited the land when it was conquered. One of these missionaries -was Father Landa, who was not only zealous in the performance of his -duties, but also studied the language and civilisation of the race -amongst whom he dwelt. He was present in Tihoo soon after the capture -of that Indian settlement, which was afterwards chosen for the site of -the city of Merida. - -He states that in that place there were several stone edifices. He made -a plan of the largest of them from which it is evident that they were -of the same character as those at Uxmal. Tihoo was occupied by the -Spanish forces in 1541, and the terraces, upon which were placed the -principal buildings, were given to the Franciscans as a site for their -convent. The friars began their work in 1547. Thus only six years had -elapsed since the Indians had left their town. Landa’s descriptions -of the state and condition of the ancient ruins are therefore of the -greatest assistance in forming conclusions with regard to them. - -The principal edifice was placed upon the highest of three terraces, -each of which was surrounded or faced by thick walls, and approached -by steps. There was a large interior quadrangle having ranges of -rooms or cells occupying the four sides. These were similar to those -in the “House of the Nuns” at Uxmal. In the vicinity there were -several pyramids which had small temples on their summits. It was -observed that all these structures appeared to have been disused for a -considerable period. The Franciscans found that the Indian structures -were covered with thick brushwood. This was cleared away. The buildings -were destroyed and the materials supplied the stone required for their -church and convent.[102] - -The fact that the desertion of the temples had occurred before the -arrival of the Spaniards is important. It explains many of the -circumstances then existing in Yucatan which otherwise would be -unintelligible. When the conquerors settled in that land they were -surprised to find numerous stone buildings in various parts of the -country, all of which were unoccupied. They were informed that they had -not been abandoned in consequence of their conquest. They found that -it was impracticable to obtain from the natives any explanation of the -nature of the events which had happened and had caused this change. -Thus the problem regarding the purposes of these extensive buildings, -and the architectural skill of the constructors was as obscure to them -at that time as it is now to the present inhabitants. - -At Izamal, about thirty-five miles east of Tihoo, there were also -numerous temples, and it was noticed by Landa that there were evidences -of there having been a paved road between the two places. A Franciscan -convent was established at Izamal, and a brief account of its temples -was written in 1663 by Father Lizana, in which he states, with respect -to the ruins in Yucatan, that the deserted edifices appeared to -have been of one style of architecture, and that some of them were -so perfect that it might be said that twenty years had not elapsed -since they were built. These edifices were however, he observes, not -inhabited by the Indians when the Spaniards arrived. The natives lived -scattered in huts amongst the woods, but they used them as temples or -sanctuaries, and occasionally performed religious ceremonies and fasts -there.[103] - -The Franciscan missionaries were not able to obtain from the natives -an intelligible explanation of the events that had occurred which had -caused the temples to be abandoned. But they were informed that an -invasion had taken place about two hundred years before their arrival, -and many of the caciques and ruling families had been driven out of the -land. The invaders did not occupy the sacred buildings, and allowed -them to fall into ruin, but they were visited occasionally by those who -still had faith in the ancient gods and wished to offer sacrifices to -them. It was ascertained that the greater part of Yucatan had become -subject to the control of chiefs belonging to the Aztec race, and that -several of them paid tribute to Montezuma. - -The question of the antiquity of the temples of Palenque, Uxmal and -other structures of that character must therefore, in a great degree, -be decided by the evidence upon which are based the traditions of the -migrations of the Toltecs who preceded the Aztecs, and were the first -of the hordes who conquered the aboriginal races of Central America. -The historians who have investigated those traditions concur in -considering that the arrival of the Toltecs within Mexican territory -happened in the seventh century. After remaining some time in the -northern part of the country, they migrated southwards to Cholula, -Palenque and Yucatan.[104] If the historic evidence is accepted as -being trustworthy, it follows that all the stone edifices in these -regions must have been erected later than that date. The Aztecs arrived -at the close of the twelfth century. Therefore it may be concluded that -Palenque was built later than the eighth century, and was deserted -before the fourteenth century. Uxmal is evidently more modern than -Palenque, and it may be assumed that it was constructed after the tenth -century, and abandoned not much earlier than a hundred years before -the Spaniards landed upon the shores of the New World. - -The Aztec chiefs introduced into Yucatan one of their barbarous -customs which was similar to what was practised by them elsewhere. -It was found by the conquerors, that in Mexico they kept slaves and -prisoners in cages, where these victims were fattened and prepared for -sacrifice.[105] After having been killed and offered as propitiations -to the gods their bodies were eaten. In 1511, it happened that a -Spanish vessel was wrecked upon some shoals fifteen leagues south of -the island of Jamaica. The crew after having been thirteen days in -an open boat, landed upon the north-eastern shores of Yucatan near -Cape Catoche, and were made captives by the cacique of the district. -Valdivia, who was in command, together with four of his men, were at -once sacrificed and eaten, others were put in cages, but several of -these men escaped. When the fleet under the command of Cortes anchored -off Cozumel, in 1519, one of the captives, named Aguilar, went on board -the flagship. - -Bernal Diaz, who was with the expedition and saw this man when he -arrived, relates that when Aguilar came before the presence of Cortes -he cowered down according to the manner of Indian slaves. Aguilar -stated that only he and another Spaniard named Gonzalo Guerrero, were -then alive. Most of his companions had been sacrificed to the gods, -but some had died, and two women who were with them had perished from -misery and the severity of the labour of grinding maize. Guerrero had -married an Indian woman and followed the native customs. He had been -tattoed, his ears were pierced and his lips were turned down.[106] -Aguilar had become acquainted with the Maya language, and was -afterwards employed by Cortes as an interpreter. Guerrero remained in -Yucatan with the Indians. - -Upon a review of the facts ascertained by the conquerors in the -sixteenth century in Mexico and Guatemala, and by the Franciscan and -Dominican missionaries in Yucatan and Chiapas, together with the -researches made since that time by archæologists and explorers, it -appears to be possible to form certain conclusions. The architectural -and mechanical knowledge, and the advance towards writing characters, -forming calendars and reckoning time by astronomical observations must -have been reached within a period of less than four centuries. It is -therefore probable that the priests of the Toltecs became acquainted -with their arts and sciences not long after they had left North America -and had migrated to the regions around Téotihuacan in the direction -of the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. In what manner and under what -circumstances their knowledge was obtained, is a problem which requires -to be given a careful investigation. - - • • • • • - - In an Aztec or Toltec manuscript which forms part of the - collection of ancient Mexican codices placed in the library of - the Vatican, there is a representation of a cacique making an - offering to a rattlesnake. - - The manner of propitiation resembles the methods of sacrificing - to this Manito which were followed by the Dakotas (see p. 170). - The head dress of the cacique which consists of plumed feathers - is similar to that worn by the chiefs of that race, and is - placed in the same position as the feathers of Rocky Bear - (illustration, chapter viii). - - The rattlesnake appears to have been the Totem of the Toltecs - and is the chief emblem at Uxmal and Chichen Itza. - - It is thought that a serpent is represented upon the central - stone of the tablet of the cross at Palenque and as the - god to whom the temple is dedicated was named Bird-Serpent - (Quetzal-Coatl), it is probable that the sculptors delineated - the symbol in a manner that was intelligible to the Quichés. - - Upon an examination of the illustration of the centre tablet, - which is an exact reproduction from a photograph of the - original stone (see frontispiece), these symbols may perhaps - be traced. I may here venture to express the opinion that the - Toltecs may have been the tribe that once dwelt in that part of - Ohio to the west of the river Scioto, where is still to be seen - the Totem of the serpent. - - The illustration of the propitiation to the serpent is taken - from a part of the Mexican manuscript represented in Humboldt’s - “Vues des Cordilléres.” - -[Illustration: MEXICAN CACIQUE (?) MAKING AN OFFERING TO A - RATTLESNAKE. - - (FROM AN ANCIENT TOLTEC OR AZTEC MANUSCRIPT.)] - - - - - CHAPTER XX. - - Conjectures respecting the descendants of the tribes who built - the Temples. — Knowledge and education of the Caciques and - Priests. — Traditions of the arrival of white strangers from - the East. — Las Casas. — Quetzal-Coatl. — Crosses found in - Yucatan. — Gomara. — Legend of the flight of Spaniards by sea - towards the West after the conquest of Spain by the Saracens. — - Fabulous island of Antilia. — Columbus on his outward voyage - steers for Antilia. — Trade-winds. — Considerations upon the - probabilities of vessels being driven across the Atlantic or - Pacific Oceans towards America. - - -The subject of the origin and migrations of the Toltecs has been given -much attention. It has been a matter of conjecture whether any of -the descendants of the people who built the temples of Palenque, and -inscribed upon tablets of stone their hieroglyphic records, are at -present living in Central America. - -The chief difficulty in attempting to form a decision upon this -question, is the uncertainty regarding the distinction to be made -between the people belonging to the conquering Quichés and the -aboriginal races whom they had reduced to slavery, and who constituted -the greater part of the population. It is known that the caciques and -other members of the governing families of Utatlan became gradually -reduced to the utmost poverty. But there were other chiefs of tribes of -Quiché origin who did not resist the Spaniards, and who volunteered -to become their allies. Many of these were permitted to hold lands in -the neighbourhood of Lake Atitlan, and lived in a prosperous condition -until the early part of the eighteenth century, when they disappeared -from notice. Possibly, in accordance with Quiché customs, they may have -kept apart from those who were mazeguales, and intermarried amongst -Indians of the same race as themselves. - -The statements of the grandsons of the caciques of Utatlan, as recorded -in their manuscripts, with regard to the dates of the arrival of their -tribe, the building of the fortresses, and their system of dividing the -country they had conquered into separate governments, are undoubtedly -entitled to be considered as deserving of attention. They agree in -a remarkable manner with what has been since ascertained. It may be -inferred from the account of their migrations and the list of their -kings or chief caciques, that they had been settled in Guatemala about -three or four hundred years before Utatlan was conquered by Alvarado. - -During the time that I was crossing the Cordilleras in the region -which had been governed by the Quichés, I endeavoured to ascertain if -there were any marked differences in the types or characters of the -tribes then occupying the land. Near Patinamit I saw several groups of -Kachiquels who were of the same race as the Quichés, and I noticed that -in many respects they resembled the Dakotas, and in appearance were -unlike the ordinary natives. I also observed in the district adjacent -to Santa Cruz del Quiché that the Indians holding official positions -in the villages were usually of a larger stature than the inferior men -and, in their harsh and overbearing manner and features, recalled to -mind the chiefs of the North American tribes. I found, however, that it -was not possible to form definite conclusions based upon the facts that -came within my personal observation. The Quichés are reserved in their -intercourse with strangers. Whatever may be their comparative condition -of wealth or poverty they all live in the same manner, and seem to be -satisfied with the barest necessaries. Near Jacaltenango, when amongst -the Mams, I met one of the richest and most influential of the Indians -of that tribe. He was living like the meanest of the people, although -he was the owner of a prosperous estate. This apparent equality in the -habits of life is universal amongst the Indians. - -In the sixteenth century, after the conquest, the caciques of the -Quichés and Mams who had submitted to the Spaniards were accustomed -to maintain a state ceremonial of considerable dignity; and at a -later period the Indians who claimed to have held high rank and who -were granted lands and privileges lived in a manner suitable to their -condition. This comparative distinction has entirely disappeared. With -respect to the migrations of the governing classes of the Quichés it is -a matter of interest to observe that several of the Indian chiefs who -accompanied the Spanish conquerors from Mexico, married the daughters -of these Quichés, and said that they did so because they had discovered -that they were of the same race as themselves. - -In the consideration of subjects relating to the Indians it is -necessary to discriminate between the observances of the aboriginal -inhabitants and those of the races who were of foreign origin. Thus -with respect to the superstitious and extremely devotional inclinations -of the natives in Guatemala and Chiapas, it may be assumed that those -instincts belong to the race who dwelt in those lands before they were -conquered by the Toltecs and Aztecs; but the customs of sacrificing -human beings to the gods together with other acts of barbarity were -introduced from North America. - -The Spaniards considered that the most evident proclivities of the -masses of the natives were drunkenness and idolatry. The latter -tendency prevailed to an excessive degree. Las Casas states that -throughout New Spain the idols were so numerous that they could not -be counted. During his journeys he found them in every place and of -every kind, in their huts, in the villages, amongst the hills and in -the sacred places. The numbers of them, he relates, were infinite. -In the sixteenth century the Indians were gradually, but not without -difficulty, brought under the control of the Spanish ecclesiastics. The -idols were destroyed, and the superstitious practices, especially all -those which were connected with the worship of demons, were suppressed. - -The national instinct of idolatry still remains. There is in the -nature of the aboriginal races a religious fervour which apparently -forms an integral part of their character. They are also submissive -and inoffensive, and it can be understood how any invading and warlike -tribe would, without difficulty, conquer and control people having -this mild disposition. It is not surprising that a fierce tribe of -North American Indians was able to reduce them into a state of servile -obedience. The Toltecs and, afterwards, the Aztecs would undoubtedly -have introduced into Mexico the barbarous usages which prevailed -amongst the tribes dwelling in the valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio, -and these usages, when grafted upon the vices which existed amongst the -natives, may have been the inciting cause of the revolting condition of -national demoralisation which was so severely described by Bernal Diaz -and other Spanish historians. - -The Dominican missionaries in Guatemala observed that the Indians -were passionately fond of dancing and singing. The joyousness which -originally existed in their nature or temperament has become extinct. -The usual tenour of their lives seems to be accompanied by a quiet, -subdued melancholy. It is not improbable that, as a consequence of -several centuries of Spanish domination, the aboriginal races have -sunk into a dull and apathetic state. It is however possible that -other influences acted upon the taciturn and wild natures of these -tribes.[107] The innate disposition of the natives to worship idols in -Guatemala was found to be equally existing with the Mayas in Yucatan, -who also had the custom of making pilgrimages to the shrines. It is -mentioned by Landa that the pilgrims stopped when passing near any of -the deserted or ruined temples, and were accustomed to mutter prayers, -and offer incense. This custom was in accordance with the acts of -devotion which I saw practised by the Tzendal Indians in Chiapas before -the ruined walls of the church at Bachajon. - -There are circumstances connected with the domination of the Aztecs, -and possibly also with that of their predecessors the Quiché-Toltecs, -which require to be noticed. It is unquestionable that slavery would -have been the fate of any tribe or race conquered by North American -Indians. But the fact of slaves or captives being bought and sold for -the purpose of being killed and offered to the gods is extraordinary. -Great numbers of the natives were annually sacrificed, and astonishing -acts of cannibalism were committed. Whatever may have been the -hardships inflicted by the Spaniards upon the Mexican Indians, it is -satisfactory to be assured that the discovery of America, and the -conquests of Cortes put an end to the most horrible condition of things -that has ever been known to have existed in any part of the world. - -There are, however, other facts to be taken into consideration. It has -been assumed that there was a condition of comparative civilisation -amongst the ruling tribes, which seemed to be in such a progressive -state as to lead to the conclusion that there were elements of -knowledge which might have been so far developed in the course of -time as to have brought these Indians into the ranks of civilised -nations. With regard to this subject it should be observed that when -the Spaniards conquered Central America, the progress that may have -been partially made had already ceased. The monasteries at Palenque and -in Yucatan had been abandoned. Even when they were flourishing, the -knowledge that was taught did not extend to the people. It was confined -to the priesthood, the caciques, and the few scholars who were trained -for the purpose of interpreting the signs and characters by which -information was spread abroad. It was by one of these interpreters that -Cortes was made acquainted with the conspiracy that was being organized -against him by Guatimozin during the march to Honduras. How or in what -manner this comparative intelligence arose suddenly in the land is a -problem of the greatest difficulty. - -The possibility of a previous condition of civilisation having existed -amongst the aboriginal tribes cannot be considered as being within the -limits of reasonable conjecture, for there are no vestiges of any stone -buildings, sculptures, or of hieroglyphic inscribed characters, used as -a means of recording events, except in those regions which are known -to have been occupied by the Toltecs or Aztecs. With especial regard -to the temples on the mounds at Palenque, it is evident that these and -their sculptures and hieroglyphs were the results of a certain degree -of architectural knowledge obtained by the Quiché-Toltecs after they -had migrated into Mexico. - -But admitting that this may have been the case, it becomes extremely -difficult to understand how their mechanical skill could have sprung -into existence within such a limited period of time. It was found -that the Indian progress in their peculiar civilisation was very -local. Bishop Landa, writing exclusively about Yucatan, states that -all education was under the management of the priests attached to the -monasteries. Similar systems appeared to have been followed in other -regions which had been under the rule of the Toltecs.[108] The results -of the investigations into the subject of the extent and methods which -were adopted for the purpose of maintaining knowledge amongst the -Indians, confirm the opinion that the literature and civilisation found -to have existed in Mexico and Yucatan was exclusively caused by the -teaching of the priests. - -Explanations of the circumstances under which the priests became -acquainted with their sciences were given to the Spaniards by the chief -priests attached to the temple of Quetzalcoatl at Cholula and also by -certain caciques in Yucatan. - -[Illustration: MEXICAN CALENDAR STONE.] - -Las Casas relates that when he was making a journey within his diocese, -he met one of his missionaries named Francisco Hernandez, who had been -for some years living in Yucatan, and had become acquainted with the -language. Thinking that this ecclesiastic would be useful for the work -of converting the Indians to the faith, he made him his vicar and sent -him into the interior to preach amongst the natives. After a lapse -of several months he received a letter from the vicar stating that -he had been told by one of the principal caciques, that it was known -that, anciently, there had arrived in Yucatan twenty strangers. They -were dressed in long robes, had sandals upon their feet, and taught -religion. It was also mentioned that these men wore long beards,[109] -and that they had a leader who was named Cucul-can (Quetzalcoatl). - -Las Casas concludes by observing that “Certainly the land and kingdom -of Yucatan gives us to understand most especial things, and of the -greatest antiquity with regard to the grand, admirable and exquisite -styles of ancient edifices, and writings of certain characters which -are in no other place. Finally, these are secrets which God only knows. -(Finalmente, secretos son estos que sólo Dios los sabe).”[110] - -But the most explicit statements with regard to Quetzalcoatl were -those which were given by the chief-priests of the temples raised to -his memory at Cholula.[111] They affirmed the tradition of the arrival -of strangers of a white race and foreign origin coming by sea in -vessels from the east. These strangers were said to have taught the -Indians to build monasteries, and maintain seminaries for religious -instruction. According to Clavigero, they taught certain natives the -methods of arranging the divisions of time and the use of the calendar. -The priests also showed the Spaniards some ornaments which they said -had been worn by the chief of these strangers. - -The positive declarations about white people having landed upon the -shores of the Mexican Gulf have been carefully investigated. It has -been usually considered that they were the result of a myth, or that -they were based upon vague traditions relating to events which, if -they had any foundation, must have happened at a period exceedingly -remote and possibly referred to early migrations from Asia. But it has -to be remembered that the facts reported by the caciques and priests -invariably related to a period when their tribes were established in -Yucatan or Mexico; and the arrival of the strangers was always said to -have taken place on the eastern seaboard of those lands. As the Toltecs -according to the Indian records were not established there before the -sixth century the event, if it occurred, must have happened after that -date. - -There are also other circumstances connected with this legend which -appear, to some extent, to remove it from a mythical character and to -place it within the limits of legitimate inquiry and investigation. The -Indians who described the events spoke of them in a manner which was -not vague, but was clear and decided, and as being within the personal -knowledge of their ancestors. They also always gave a description of -the monuments of the strangers or of their chief. Thus, in Yucatan, -the leader was said to have left that region for the coast of Mexico. -At Cholula, it was the tradition that Quetzalcoatl, with several of -his companions, went away to the sea shore near Goascoalco, in the -direction of Yucatan and never returned. In the regions of the interior -of Chiapas and Guatemala, it was stated that in several of the native -manuscripts accounts were given of a great leader or chief named -Votan who was believed to have arrived in that country with nineteen -companions or other chiefs. Votan was supposed to have landed in -America near the Laguna de Terminos and to have established his first -settlement near Palenque.[112] - -The most singular circumstance relating to the worship of Quetzalcoatl -is the fact that a cross should have been the chief emblem in the -temple especially dedicated to him at Palenque. The fact of this symbol -being worshipped by the Indians in the New World may perhaps not be -deemed particularly strange, but it has to be taken into consideration -that there is no record of any figure in the shape of a cross having -been an object of devotion in any part of America, except in the -regions that had been occupied by the Toltecs. - -When the Spaniards arrived in Yucatan they reported that they saw in -the court of a temple at Cozumel a cross made of lime and stone which -was worshipped by the natives. There were some doubts about the precise -meaning assigned to this image, possibly owing to the difficulties of -understanding the Maya language, but it was afterwards ascertained that -it represented the god of rain. - -The cross on the altar at Palenque is of an entirely different -character, and evidently forms the principal part of the emblem -representing Quetzalcoatl. How did it come to pass that this -exceptional figure of a cross should have been sculptured upon the -tablet representing the emblems of the white stranger who, according -to the Indian traditions, landed upon their shores, coming from the -east in a sacerdotal dress, wearing sandals upon his feet and having -red crosses embroidered upon his cape?[113] - -It is this coincidence that causes attention to be directed to an -endeavour to form some reasonable solution of the problem. It will be -observed, upon an examination of the illustration of the tablet of the -cross, that the name Quetzalcoatl is represented by the quetzal, the -emblematic bird of the Quichés, and by peculiar marks surrounding the -cross which are thought to be intended to denote a serpent (coatl) -which, as at Uxmal, was probably the Totem of the tribe.[114] But -the principal figure placed in the centre of the altar is the cross. -This by its shape and position must have been intended to have had an -especial significance. - -It is related by Gomara that, upon the occasion of the discovery of -Yucatan by the expedition under the command of Francisco Hernandez -in 1517, the Spaniards observed in the country near Cape Catoche, -crosses of brass and wood placed over graves. The unexpected finding of -these crosses in an hitherto unknown land attracted the attention of -geographers in Spain and, to some extent, led to theories with regard -to the possible arrival in Yucatan of the Spanish ecclesiastics who -had, according to an ancient legend, fled from Spain when that country -was conquered by the Saracens in the eighth century, and were believed -to have reached an island in the western parts of the Atlantic ocean -called Antilia. - -What Gomara wrote upon this subject is as follows:— - -“In that place there were found crosses of brass and wood over the -dead, from whence some argue that many Spaniards had fled to this land -when the destruction of Spain was done by the Moors in the time of -the King Don Roderick: but I do not believe it; since there are not -any in the islands that we have mentioned: in some one of which it is -necessary, and also compulsory to touch at, before arriving there.” - -Gomara was undoubtedly correct in not believing that these crosses -were placed over the graves of Spaniards who had arrived in Yucatan -after the defeat and flight of King Roderick. It is not requisite to -go back to events that occurred in Spain in the eighth century to -account for the existence of crosses on the promontory of Cape Catoche. -When Hernandez landed there in 1517, nearly a quarter of a century -had elapsed since Columbus had founded his settlements in Cuba and -Hispaniola, and during that interval many small expeditions had been -organised by Spanish adventurers for the purpose of exploring the -coasts in the direction of Honduras and Nicaragua. In pursuing these -voyages of discovery their vessels must have frequently passed at no -great distance from the eastern shores of Yucatan where, on their -return from the south, they would have been baffled by contrary winds -and currents. Under such conditions it is not improbable that one of -the vessels may have been wrecked or abandoned off Cape Catoche, and -that some of the crew perished and were buried by the survivors near -the seacoast. - -The Spanish legend to which Gomara refers is, with respect to America, -chiefly remarkable for its surprising concurrence in date and other -circumstances with the Toltec legend of the arrival of strangers -wearing cassocks. It is therefore necessary to ascertain if there -are sufficient reasons for placing any confidence in statements that -appear to be founded upon tradition, and whether the event that was -believed to have taken place could have been possible. The tradition -did not escape the attention of Washington Irving. In his “Life of -Columbus”[115] he states that “It was recorded in an ancient legend, -that at the time of the conquest of Spain and Portugal by the Moors, -when the inhabitants fled in every direction to escape from slavery, -seven bishops, followed by a great number of their people, took -shipping, and abandoned themselves to their fate on the high seas. -After tossing about for some time, they landed upon an unknown island -in the midst of the ocean. Here the bishops burnt the ships to prevent -the desertion of their followers, and founded seven cities.”[116] - -In the principal maps published during the fifteenth century, before -the discovery of America, the island of Antilia was usually given a -position in the middle of the western Atlantic, south of the Azores. -In the chart of the geographer Toscanelli, which was sent to Columbus, -Antilia was placed in the direct track by sea from the Canary islands -to Cipango (Japan), the large and prosperous country supposed at that -time to be situated in the extreme west, near the eastern limits of -Asia. It is evident that Columbus firmly believed in the existence of -Antilia, for when he left the Canaries on his outward voyage, he shaped -his course for that island and steered due west for about sixteen -hundred miles. - -Upon reaching the latitude and longitude where he expected to see -land, the admiral conferred with his captains, but as nothing had been -observed it was thought that the ships must have passed the island. -At sunset, the captain of the Pinta hailed the admiral and reported -that land was in sight to the south-west. The course of the ships was -accordingly altered towards that direction. On the next day it was -found that what had been seen was cloudland. The ships resumed their -course and proceeded until the landfall was made upon the island of -Guanahani. - -The belief in the existence of the legendary island was, however, -not then dispelled and it is remarkable, as a proof of the opinions -of geographers, that in the important map of the world by Ruysch, -published in 1508, in which were placed the latest discoveries in the -west; Antilia still retained its position.[117] - -[Illustration: FROM RUYSCH’S MAP OF THE WORLD (1508). - - (NORDENSKIÖLD’S FACSIMILE ATLAS.)] - -In the early part of the sixteenth century, several expeditionary -fleets were fitted out and sailed across the seas towards the New -World. Many islands were seen, but Antilia was not found. Thus when it -became known that Yucatan had been discovered and that a cross placed -within a stone temple was worshipped by the Indians, and that other -crosses had been seen placed over graves, it was surmised that the -bishops must have finally reached that distant land. - -Such an event may be thought to be improbable, but as, in consequence -of the trade-winds, it is not impossible, it is expedient to consider -in what manner it might have happened. It has to be assumed that the -legend, so far as it relates to Christian fugitives escaping from the -tyranny of Mahometan conquerors, may be considered as being within the -limits of reasonable historical inquiry. Men deliberately leaving -their own country to seek a place of refuge where they would be free to -establish their religion, would, before embarking upon unknown seas, -take with them supplies of provisions and water, and thus, by proper -precautions, secure themselves from the risk of starvation. It is also -probable that they were informed by the pilots or other navigators -acquainted with the adjacent shores, that there were islands situated -beyond the Mauritanian coasts within a distance not too great for them -to undertake the voyage with a fair prospect of reaching land. - -In the eighth century the Canary Islands had not been discovered by -Europeans, but their position was known to the Arabs and Moors and -rumours concerning them and their proximity to the coast of Morocco -were doubtless familiar to the sea-faring men living near Cadiz. The -pilots would, therefore, have shaped a course for the Canaries. They -would have expected to reach those islands within eight or ten days. -But a slight error in their course would have taken the vessels into -the trade-winds and, in that case, they would have been driven across -the Atlantic in the direction of Florida, whose coasts might easily -have been reached in less than six weeks from the date of the departure -from Spain. It is also possible that they may have been chased by some -of the armed vessels which had conveyed the Saracens from Mauritania. - -It is not, however, necessary to pursue this investigation to any -greater length. It is sufficiently clear that if the event, as recorded -by tradition, actually happened, there is no difficulty in accepting -the conclusion that several of the bishops and their companions may -have reached America in safety.[118] Thus the statements of the Indian -priests, that white strangers wearing beards and dressed in cassocks -had arrived from the East, would be confirmed. - -Upon an examination of the laws that govern the direction of the -trade-winds in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, it is found that there -is a strong easterly wind continuously blowing across the Atlantic -towards Florida, Mexico and Yucatan. There is also a strong westerly -wind invariably blowing across the North Pacific, over the regions -between the fortieth and fiftieth parallels of latitude, from Japan -towards the north-west coast of North America. In consequence of this -prevailing wind several junks have been driven out of their course -and have reached the American seacoasts. In 1833 a junk was wrecked -near Vancouver island and several of the crew landed and were received -by the Indians. In the previous year a Japanese junk laden with fish -arrived at the Sandwich islands. She had been driven across the seas by -a violent storm which had caught her off Japan. Four of her men were -alive and they were taken to Honolulu. - -Taking therefore into consideration the prevalence of trade-winds -blowing towards America, and the peculiar conditions of architectural -and astronomical intelligence possessed by the Mexican Indians, there -are certain inferences which may be accepted. It is not improbable that -men belonging to European, Moorish, or Asiatic races arrived in Central -America during a period between the sixth and eleventh centuries. -There is not sufficient evidence to determine in what manner this may -have happened; but after giving due weight to the statements of the -Indian priests and caciques, and the traditions of the circumstances -under which their knowledge was introduced into Mexico, together with -the adoption of monastic institutions, and the systems of education, -it is reasonable to conjecture that the comparative civilisation of -the Toltecs and Aztecs was originally caused by the influence and -instruction of strangers who came to their land in vessels which had -crossed the Atlantic. - -[Illustration: - - A Map to illustrate - “TRAVELS AMONGST AMERICAN INDIANS” - by Admiral Lindesay Brine. - - _London: Stanford’s Geog^l. Estab^t._] - -[Illustration: - - A Map of - THE UNITED STATES, - MEXICO &c. - to accompany “Travels amongst American Indians” - - _London: Stanford’s Geog^l. Estab^t._] - - - - - INDEX. - - - Abalá, village of, 360–362, 366, 370. - - Abenakis Indians, 33. - - Acapulco, 179. - - Adams, Mr. Charles Francis, 9, 28. - - _Adoratorio_, an Indian, 245, 246, 262. - - Agassiz, Professor, 12, 13, 23. - - Agua, volcano, 181, 182, 194, 196–200. - - Aguilar, 397. - - Aguinaga, brig, 372–374. - - Albatrosses in the South Pacific, 178. - - Alcaldes, the, at San Tomas, 212, 213. - - Algonquin tribe of Indians, 34, 111, 150, 153. - - Alligator totem, 85, 86. - - Alligators, 179, 320–322. - - Alumni, the, of Harvard, 25–28. - - Alvarado, Pedro de, 202, 218, 225–228, 235–237. - - Amatitlan, village of, 182. - - American Civil War, 9–11. - - American politics, 23. - - Annapolis, Naval Academy at, 6–8. - - Antilia, Island of, 417–419. - - Apache Indians, 122. - - Ara-po-gai-sik (Day-catcher), 122. - - Atitlan, volcano of, 206. - - Atwater, Mr., and the Circleville Inclosures, 79–84. - - Aztecs, the, 130, 172, 174, 385, 394, 404–406, 422: - sacrifices of, 132, 224–226, 345: - barbarous custom of, 396–398: - obsidian knives used by, 186. - - - Bachajon, village, of 267, 268, 273. - - Baird, Dr., 98. - - Baptismal customs, Yucatan Indians, 364–366. - - Barrancas (ravines), 205, 216. - - Bartlett, Professor, 7, 11. - - Bartram, Mr., 322. - - Basques, crew of, 372, 373. - - Bates, Mr., 321. - - Beaver dams, 36–40. - - Beech-tree, chief of the Oneidas tribe, 51. - - Bisons, herds of, 143. - - Boulders, on the Minnesota prairies, 126, 127: - Sioux worship of, 169. - - Braddock, General, 134. - - Bridgman, Laura, 16–18. - - Burial customs; of the Dakotas, 173: - of the Sacs and Foxes, 174: - in Yucatan, 333, 334. - - Burial by the Mound Builders, manner, 61–63. - - Burial mounds in Illinois, 19: - (_see also_ Ohio, &c.). - - Burial place of Sioux, 114. - - - Cabarrus, M. de, 192. - - Cahokia earthworks, the, 105–108, 189, 380, 385. - - Californian Indians, 20. - - Cambridge, Indian collections at, 19–21: - Commencement Day at, 27, 28. - - Campeachy, 328, 329: - gulf of, 327. - - Cannibalism, 135, 323–325, 345. - - Cape San Lucas, 177. - - Cargadores, the, 293, 294. - - Carmen, Island of, 326–328. - - Carnival, an Indian, 269–272, 277. - - Carp, River, 36, 41. - - Carr, Professor Lucien, 383. - - Carrera, President, 183, 184, 190, 256. - - Carver, Captain, 119, 120. - - Casa de las Monjas at Uxmal, xiv, xv, 339–343, 347–358. - - Casa del Gobernador at Uxmal, 337–343, 347–358. - - Castillo, Don Manuel, 255. - - Catasaja, 319, 320. - - Catherwood, Mr., 294. - - Cayugas, tribe, 34, 151, 152, 155, 156, 158. - - Cedar Keys, settlement of, 375. - - Ceremonies of the Dakotas, 157, 158. - - Cerna, President Don Vincente, 191. - - Charnay, M. Desiré, xv, 44. - - Chase, Chief Justice, 23. - - Cherokee Indians, 384. - - Cheyenne Indians, 145. - - Chiapas, mounds in, 261, 277, 381. - - Chimaltenango, 200. - - Chilon, 269. - - Chippewas, Indians, 44, 47, 49, 111, 127, 131, 135, 150, 153, 173, - 174. - - Cholula, temple at, 410, 412. - - Chontal Indians, 220–224. - - Circleville, inclosures at, 79–84, 96–102. - - Civil War, troops in the American, 9–11. - - Clarke, Capt., of Cedar Keys, 375. - - Clavigero, 411. - - Clemens, Dr., and the Grave Creek Mound, 58–60. - - Coller, Dr., at Palenque, 138, 294–297, 301–303, 316–319. - - Columbus and the island of Antilia, 416–419, 421. - - Commencement Day at Cambridge, 27, 28. - - Comitan, town of, 253, 255. - - Comolapa, village of, 200, 201. - - Conceptionistas, Convent of the, 371, 372. - - Concord, shell heaps at, 21, 28, 29. - - Copan, 410, 411: - idols at, 264. - - Copper mines in Michigan, 35, 43–51. - - Corbett, Mr., 192. - - Cordilleras, the, 204–205, 278. - - Cortes, 228, 314, 323–325, 397, 406. - - Cozumel, island of, 346: - cross at, 414. - - Cruz, Serapio, Indian named, 183, 184, 191, 233. - - Cuba, 373. - - Cuoq, M., 150. - - Curing illness by steam, 174, 175. - - Cutler, Rev. Dr., 100. - - - Dakota Indians, 127, 133, 145, 147–149, 150, 153, 154, 159: - human sacrifices of the, 132–134, 171–173, 401: - language of, 159, 160: - and sun worship, 163, 164: - and sickness, 164–165: - and lightning, 166: - and transmigration, 167–168: - fasts of the, 168–169: - and serpent worship, 170: - burial customs of, 173, 175: - curing illness by steam, 174–175: - burial mound, 377. - (_see also_ Sioux.) - - Damariscotta, shell mounds at, 27, 30–33, 376. - - Dance, Indian, at Chilon, 269–272. - - Dancing, Indians and, 404. - - Darwin’s coral theories, 13. - - Dauphin, the (Williams), 52, 53. - - Davis, Mr., 64. - - Dayton’s Bluff, 381. - - Debauchery of the Mexican Indians, 272, 403. - - Demons, Indian offerings to, 363, 364. - - Des Moines River, 138. - - Delaware Indians, 94, 134, 385. - - Dialect at Ocosingo, 266, 267. - - Dialects of the North American Indians, 151–154: - of Guatemala Indians, 232. - - Diaz, Bernal, 197, 220, 223–227, 323–328, 331–333, 346, 396–398, 404. - - Digger Indians, 147, 148. - - Dighton, rock at, 33. - - Dowding, Captain Herbert, xv. - - Dupaix, Captain, 309. - - - Earthworks in Ohio, ancient Indian, 54–103, 379–385. - - Emerson, Mr. Ralph Waldo, 22–26, 28, 29. - - Escalanta, Señor, 335. - - Esconauba, River, 36. - - Escuintla, town of, 181. - - Esquipulas, pilgrimage to, 186–188. - - Evans, chief Elder of the Shakers, 8, 9. - - - Faribault, half-breed Indian, 117–119, 161, 164–169, 172, 173. - - Fasting of the Dakotas, 159, 160. - - Festival, Indian, at Jacaltenango, 243–245. - - Festival of San Caralampio, 255. - - Fire, Indian method of lighting a, 241, 261. - - Flathead Indians, 20. - - Florida, 102, 103: - Professor Agassiz and, 12, 13: - shell mounds in, 14, 21: - rivers in, 322: - coast of 374–377: - Indians in, 376, 377. - - Forests; in Michigan, 41, 139, 140: - near Palenque, 42, 138, 139: - of Aracan, 140, 141: - between San Pedro and Palenque, 282–284, 290–294, 303. - - Forster, Mr. J. H., 45, 46, 51. - - Foster, Mr. J. W., 137. - - Fort Ancient, on the Little Miami river, 87–96, 190, 202. - - Fort Du Quesne, 76, 77. - - Fort Hill, 92. - - Foxes, Indian tribe, 109, 174. - - Franciscan Missionaries in Yucatan, 364–366. - - Franklin, Sir John and Lady, 4. - - Fuegians similar to the Ute Indians, 148. - - Fuego, volcano, 181, 182, 196, 199, 200. - - Fuentes, the historian, 236, 237. - - Fuller, Margaret, 24. - - - Gage, Thomas, 195. - - Gallatin, Mr. Albert, 130. - - Game in the Platte valley, 145. - - Garcia y Granados, Colonel, 183, 184. - - Gavarrete, Señor, 184–186. - - Glacial action near Ishpeming, 50. - - Godillo, Don Mariana, 255, 256. - - Goitre, Indians suffering with, 242. - - _Golden City_, ship, 176, 177, 180. - - Gomara, 415, 416. - - Grant, President, 5. - - Grave Creek Mound, 58–61. - - Great Britain, Daniel Webster on, 22. - - Great Salt Lake, the, 146. - - Great Star, human sacrifice to the 131–134. - - Grey, Judge, 27. - - Grinnell, Mr. Henry, 4. - - Grijalva, 346. - - Guatemala, city of, 182, 183: - museum at, 184–187: - cathedral in, 187: - market place, 188: - foreign residents in, 192. - - Guatimozin, Emperor, 224, 406: - execution of, 324, 325. - - Gueguetenango, 233–237. - - Guerrero, Gonzalo, 397. - - Guicola, Padre Andres, 216, 230. - - Guides, Indian; Anastasio, 194, 231–233: - Bito, 267, 269, 270: - Carlos, 234, 235, 240, 241, 248–252: - José, 289, 290: - Lopez, 259–262, 267: - Villafranca, 277, 278, 282–285. - - Gurney, Professor, 26. - - - Hague, Mr., 192, 194. - - Hardy, M., 192. - - Harris, Mr., 8. - - Harvard, the Alumni of, 25. - - Haven, Mr., 98. - - Henry, Mr. Alexander, 7, 48, 135. - - Herbert, Baron, 176, 180, 191, 194. - - Hernandez, Padre, 211–214, 409, 415. - - Hieroglyphs in temples at Palenque, 307, 315, 389. - - Hildreth, Dr., and inclosures at Marietta, 70–75, 99. - - Hill, Mr. of S. Pauls’ city, 114. - - Hillard, Mr., 13. - - Hoar, Judge, 26, 27. - - Hockmeyer, Mr. and Mrs., 192. - - Hogs, and destruction of rattlesnakes, 144, 145. - - Holmes, Mr. Oliver Wendell, 26–28. - - Houghton, town of, 44, 45, 47, 50. - - Howe, Dr., 25: - institution in Boston, 16–18: - Mrs. Julia Ward, 22. - - How-wan-ni-yu (the Great Spirit), 156–158. - - Huitzopotli, 224. - - Human sacrifices: of the Pawnees, 131–134, 171–173: - of the Dakotas, 171–173: - of the Pipil Indians, 220–224: - in Yucatan, 332, 333. - - Humboldt and the Toltecs, 395. - - Hunting grounds of Indians, the U.S. Government and, 122, 123. - - Hurons, tribe of Indians, 34, 112. - - Huts, Indian construction of, 286, 287. - - - Idolatry of Indians, 403. - - Idols, Indian, 221–223: - in Museum at Guatemala, 184–186: - at Ocosingo, 263–265: - in Yucatan, worship of, 346, 347. - - Illinois, burial mound in, 19. - - Illinois, Indians, 153. - - Inclosures, sacred; near Newark, 64–70: - at Marietta, 70–76: - at Circleville, 79–84, 96–102. - - Indian, battlefield, 49: - baptismal customs, 364–366: - carnival, an, 269–272, 277: - ceremonies in Yucatan, 362–365: - cemetery, 84: - civilisation in Yucatan, 406–8: - collections at Cambridge, 19–21: - construction of huts, 286–287: - debauchery, 272: - dialects, 232: - domestic habits, 239–241: - earthworks in Ohio, 54–103: - education, Judge Williams and, 109–111: - farmhouse, an, 209, 210: - festival, an, 243–245: - idols, 184–186, 221, 245–6: - inclosures, _see_ Circleville, Marietta, Newark, &c.: - marriage custom in the Sierra Madre, 247: - mines round Lake Superior, 35, 36: - officials at Abalá, 361, 362: - mounds in Ohio, 54–103: - pilgrims, 186–188: - population in North America, 153: - reservations in North America, 34: - rebellion in Guatemala, 183, 191: - religious devotion, 240, 241, - _see also_ Yucatan: - skulls, 19, 20: - statue at Ocosingo, 264: - steam bath, 279: - traditions, Ohio earthworks, 94–103: - warfare, 112: - war customs, 134–5: - well, an, 370. - - Indians, diversity of languages, 150–154: - hunting grounds of, the U S. Government and, 122, 123: - shell heaps of, 14, 21, 28–33. - - Indians; _see_ Abenakis, Algonquins, Apaches, Californian, Cheyennes, - Chippewas, Chontal, Dakotas, Delaware, Flathead, Florida, Foxes, - Hurons, Iroquois, Kachiquels, Lacandon, Maya, Mohawks, Natchez, - Oaxaca, Oneidas, Onondagas, Pawnees, Pipiles, Quichés, Sacs, - Senecas, Shawnees, Shoshones, Sioux, Tzendales, Utes, Winnebagoes, - Yucatan, Zambos, &c., &c. - - Insurrections of Indians in Guatemala, 183–4, 191. - - Iowa, prairies in, 124–127, 129, 137. - - Iron mines in Michigan, 35, 45–51. - - Iroquois, Indians, 34, 77, 111, 112, 134, 150, 159: - battle with the Chippewas, 49: - burial mounds of the, 63, 376: - traditions and customs of, 151–155: - the Grand River, 155, 156. - - Ishpeming, village of, 36, 40, 50, 140. - - Itzqueye, idol of, 221–223. - - Izamal, 393. - - - Jacaltenango, 235, 243–249, 369, 402. - - James, Mr. William D., xiv, 131. - - Jesuit Mission at Sault St. Marie, 48. - - Jonuta, 322, 326. - - Jotána, 260. - - Juarez, President, 256–258. - - Juarros, the historian, 226, 386, 387, 390, 410. - - - Kachiquels Indians, 202, 203, 205, 206, 235–237, 401. - - Kee-wai-wona Bay, 48, 49. - - Kue (altar) at Yucatan, 330–334. - - - La Antigua Guatemala, 194, 195. - - Lacandon Indians, 266, 319. - - Ladinos, the, 179, 271, 295, 335. - - Laguna de Terminos, 281. - - Lake Amatitlan, 195. - - Lake Atitlan, 181, 206, 209. - - Lake Ontario, mound near, 60. - - Lake Pepin, 113. - - Lake Simcoe, 139. - - Lake Superior, 48, 112: - ancient Indian mines round, 35, 36. - - La Laguna de Cuyutlan, 178, 326, 328. - - Landa, Bishop, work on Yucatan, 343–346, 364, 378, 392, 393, 405, 407. - - Languages, diversity of, among Indians, 150–154. - - La Oracion, a prayer in Guatemala, 238, 239. - - Lapidge, Captain, 176, 179, 180. - - Las Casas, Bishop, iii, iv, 247, 273–276, 378, 403, 408, 409, 414. - - Las Godinas, 205, 206. - - La Vieja Guatemala, 196, 199, 200. - - Lenton, 252. - - Licignano, Duke de, 192, 193. - - Licking Creek, 64, 70. - - Little Miami River, the, 87. - - Lizana, Father, 394. - - Locke, Professor, 87, 92. - - Longfellow, Mr., 25, 26. - - Lowell, Mr., J. R., 26–28. - - - Macal, Presbitero Fernando, 270, 277, 285, 381. - - Madoc, Prince, 96. - - Maguey (aloe), 272, 273. - - Maine, shell mounds in, 28–33. - - Mams tribe, 234–237, 244, 245, 402. - - Mandans, the, 95. - - Mankato, 120, 138. - - Manzanillo, 178. - - Marietta, mounds at, 57, 58: - inclosures at, 70–76, 99–101. - - Marimba (instrument), 244. - - Maoris; curing illness by steam, 175: - method of cooking, 326. - - Marquette in Michigan, 35. - - Martinez, Padre, 195. - - Masagua, village, 181. - - Maudslay, Mr., 357. - - Maximilian, Emperor, execution of, 257–258. - - Maya race of Indians, 281, 336, 405. - - Mechanics, a triumph of, 26, 27, - - Medicine man, the, 164, 165. - - Mendota, settlement of, 116, 118, 120, 169. - - Merida, 371, 392, 393. - - Mestizos, the, 179. - - Metternich, Prince, 14. - - Mexican antiquities at Cambridge, 20. - - Miamisburgh mound, 56–59. - - Michigan, beavers in, 36–40: - ancient mining pits in, 42–51: - early surveys of, 139, 140. - - Michol River, 291, 297. - - Micla, village of, 220–223. - - Military Academy at West Point, 7, 8. - - Mines in Michigan, ancient Indian, 35, 36, 42–51. - - Minnesota, prairies in, 124–127. - - Mississippi River, 108, 109: - falls of, 119. - - Missouri River, 108, 109. - - Mitla, ruins of, 357. - - Mixco, ancient mounds near, 189–191, 194, 385. - - Mohawks, tribe, 34, 151, 157. - - Monastery at Palenque, 297–302, 307–317. - - Monks Mound, 106. - - Montalban, Doña Aña de, 207. - - Montezuma, 411. - - Morgan, Mr. Lewis, 103, 159. - - Mormons, the, 111, 112. - - Mounds and earthworks of Indians in Ohio, 54–103, 379–385: - near Mixco, 189–191, 194, 385. - - Mounds near St. Paul, 114, 115: - near Lake Ontario, 60, - _see_ Mixco, Palenque, &c. - - Mourning customs of the Sioux, 165, 166. - - Múna, 360. - - Murray, Hon. C. A., 144. - - Muskinghum River, 70. - - - Natchez Indians, 161, 380. - - Nauvoo, 111. - - Naval Academy at Annapolis, 6–8. - - Naval power, the Atlantic seaboard, and, 30, 31. - - Nebraska, 129, 130: - plains in, 137. - - Negroes in the Southern States, 5: - in the American Civil War, 11. - - Newark, town of, 61: - inclosures at, 64–70, 96–103. - - New Zealanders, burial custom of, 175. - - Nightingale, a, at Palenque, 301, 303. - - Nopá river, 291. - - North American Indians, _see_ Indians. - - Norwood, Dr. Joseph, 141. - - - Oaxaca Indians, 292. - - Obsidian knives used by Aztecs, 186. - - Ocosingo, 259, 263–267, 273. - - Ogallalas, tribe of Sioux, 122, 123. - - Ohio, ancient Indian mounds and earthworks in 54–103, 384, 385. - - Oliphant, Mr. Laurence, 9. - - Omaha, prison at, 163. - - Oneidas tribe, 34, 151, 155: - reservation of the, 51–53. - - Onondagas, tribe, 34, 151. - - Ontonagon, town of, 44, 46, 48. - - Orchids in Guatemala, 210, 211. - - Ortiz, Don Pepe, 288–294. - - Ottawa Indians, 153. - - - Pacaya, volcano, 181, 182. - - Palacio, Don Garcia de, 219–223. - - Palenque, ruins and temples at, 2, 193, 303–307, 350–358, 389, - 391–395, 406, 413: - arrival at, 294–296: - “Palace” or monastery at, 297–302, 307–317, 406: - square tower in 300, 301, 312–314: - mounds about, 318–320. - - Palisada, 326: - river, 322. - - Panajachel, 207, 208. - - Parker, Mr. Frank, 13, 15. - - Parkman, Mr. Francis B., 158, 159. - - Patinamit, Indian ruins of, 202, 203. - - Pawnees, the, 109, 129–136, 147, 163–165, 344. - - Pedro, Padre, 207–209. - - Pelicans, flocks of, 178. - - Penance of Indians, 161–163. - - Petz, Rear-Admiral Baron, 176. - - Pilgrimage to Esquipulas, 186–188. - - Pipiles, Indians, 220–224. - - Pintos, the, 179, 180. - - Pitcher, General, 7, 8. - - Platte, valley of the, 141, 143, 145. - - Portsmouth Ohio, Indian entrenchments at, 57, 58. - - Pozole, substance called, 292, 293. - - Prairie-dog villages, 141–143. - - Prairie fires, 125, 126, 136, 137. - - Prairies and glacial action, 12. - - Prairies in Minnesota and Iowa, 124–129. - - Prescott, Mr., 171. - - Pyramid of the Dwarf, Uxmal, xv, 340–342, 345. - - Pyramidal altars, Yucatan, 330–334. - - - Quezaltenango, 206, 208, 217, 237. - - Quetzalcoatl, god named, 221–223, 310, 348, 391, 409, 412, 413, 414. - - Quetzales (birds), 220, 305. - - Quichés Indians, 202, 206, 209, 214–5, 230, 387, 389–391, 400–402: - religious ceremonies of the, 212, 213, 219: - chiefs, 227–8: - traditions of, 235–7, - _see also_ Utatlan. - - Quirigua, idols at, 184: - ruins of, 186, 410. - - - Rae, Dr., 141. - - Rain, a fall of, 358, 359. - - Rain-makers, 164, 359. - - Ransonnet, Baron, 177, 179, 180. - - Rattlesnake totem, xiv, 398, 399. - - Rattlesnakes, 142, 170. - - Rau, Professor Charles, xv., 316, 317, 414. - - Red Cloud, a chief of the Sioux, 123. - - Religious ceremonies in Yucatan, 362–365, 368–369. - - Religious devotion of Indians, 240–241. - - Reservation lands for Indians, 34. - - Rigdon (Mormon preacher), 111, 112. - - Rio, Captain Antonio del, 300, 308, 309. - - Robles, Captain, 249, 252. - - Robles, Padre Juan C., 243–249. - - Rodriguez, Padre, 201. - - Rogers, Commodore, 13. - - Romero, Señor Matias, 257. - - Roubaud, Father, 135. - - Ruins, of Uxmal, 339–358, 389, 394, 395. - _see also_ Palenque, &c. - - - Sacrificial customs at Uxmal, 343–346. - - Sacrificial rites of the Aztecs, 224–226. - - Sacrifices of the Indians to Volcanoes and Lakes, 208. - _see also_ Human. - - Sacrificios, island of, 332. - - Sacs tribe of Indians, 109, 174. - - St. Andres, 250. - - St. Clair, Governor, 100. - - St. Louis, 108. - - St. Martin, village of, 241. - - St. Paul, city of, 113–115 - - Salorzano, Don Remigio, 263–265, 267. - - Salt Lake City, 112, 146. - - San Caralampio, festival of, 255. - - San Carlos, 261. - - San Domingo de Palenque. _see_ Palenque. - - San José de Guatemala, 180. - - San Pedro, 284–288: - Indians, 285–288: - River, 289. - - Santa Cruz del Quiché, 216, 230. - - Santorin, island of, 198. - - San Tomas, 209, 211, 215. - - Sault Ste. Marie, Jesuit Mission at, 48. - - Scherzer, Dr., 176, 180, 183, 185. - - Scioto River, 76, 77. - - Seal rocks, the, 177. - - Senecas tribe, 34, 151, 152, 155, 157. - - Sequechul, Indian named, 227. - - Serpent totems, xiv, 350, 351. - - Serpent worship, 398, 399: - by the Dakotas, 170. - - Seward, Mr., 257–258. - - Shakers, the, 8, 9. - - Shawnee tribe, 94, 153: - burial mounds of, 78. - - Shell heaps at Concord, 21. - - Shell mounds in Florida, 14, 375, 377: - in Maine, 28–33. - - Shoshone Indians, 146–148, 174. - - Sierra Madre mountains, 238, 246, 247. - - Sierras between San Pedro & Palenque, 282–284, 290–294. - - Sinigiglia, 253. - - Sioux Indians, 131: - methods of burial with, 63: - an encampment of, 114–116: - worship of spirit rocks, 117–119, 169: - the Ogallalas tribe of, 122, 123: - Red Cloud, chief of the, 123: - and sun worship, 162, 163: - medicine man, 164, 165: - mourning customs, 165–166: - and lightning, 166: - and transmigration, 167–168: - human sacrifice of, 172, 173. - - Sioux War, the, 120–122. - - Sisal, port of, 372, 373. - - Sissiton tribe of Sioux, 172, 173. - - Skulls of Indians, 19, 20. - - Smith, Mr. James, 134. - - Smith, Joseph, founder of Mormonism, 111, 112. - - Snowstorm, a violent, 128, 129. - - Socoleo, fortress of, 235–237. - - Solares, General, 191. - - Sololá, 209. - - Southern States of America, 5. - - Spain and Utatlan, 226–231: - and employment of natives as carriers in Mexico, 275. - - Spaniards kept in cages by Aztecs, 397. - - Spirit rocks, Sioux worship of, 117–119, 169. - - Squier, Mr. E. G., 19, 64, 159, 221. - - Stansfield, Captain, 142. - - Steam bath, an Indian, 279. - - Stephens, Mr., 2, 294, 298, 307, 309, 341. - - Stone at Dighton, 33. - - Stone hammers, 44. - - _Stonewall_, S.S., 104, 105. - - Succession of forest trees, 139, 140. - - Sumner, Mr., 26. - - Sun worship, by the Pawnees, 133: - by all the Indian tribes in Mississippi valley, 161–164, 261–262. - - Sun worshippers, the Natchez tribe, 381. - - Superstition, the Pawnees and, 134: - the Dakotas and, 170: - Yucatan Indians and, 366–369. - - - Tacara, volcano, 246. - - Tallegewi, the, 94, 385. - - Tampa, 374, 377, 379. - - “Temblor,” a, 246. - - Téotihuacan, pyramids of, 395. - - Temples at Izamal, 393: - at Uxmal, 339–358, 394, 395. - - Temple of the Cross, at Palenque, 304–306. - - Tepan Guatemala, 202, 206. - - Terran, Padre Juan Batista de, 233. - - Thomas, Professor Cyrus, 68, 69, 382–384. - - Thornton, Mr., 5. - - Ticknor, Mr., 13, 14, 22, 25. - - Tihoo, 392, 393. - - Tlacupa, King of, 325. - - Todos Santos, 238–241. - - Toltecs, 391, 395, 398, 400–404, 422, - _see also_ Aztecs, Tallegwi. - - Totems of Indians, 84–86: - of the Toltecs, 398, 399. - - Trade-winds in the Atlantic, 419, 420: - in the Pacific, 421–422. - - Traditions, Indian, _re_ Ohio earthworks, 94–103. - - Trappists, the, at Cahokia, 106. - - Trees, marking forest, as a guide, 42, 43: - Professor Locke and age of, 92, 93: - absence of, on the Iowa plains, 137–138: - succession of forest, 139, 140. - - Troops in the American Civil War, 9–11. - - Tumbalá, 278–282. - - Tuscaroras tribe, 34, 151, 155. - - Tzendales, Indians, 270, 271, 276, 281, 405. - - Tzibalché, 335, 336, 363. - - - Usamacinta River, 318–323, 326. - - Utatlan, ruins of, 217–220, 312, 401: - conquest of, 226–9. - - Utes, the, or Digger Indians, 147, 148. - - Uxmal, 336–338: - ruins of, 339–358, 389: - antiquity of temple at, 394, 395. - - - Vadillo, Señor, 320. - - Valdivia, 397. - - Vestal the (frigate), 374, 421. - - Viatoro, Padre, 202, 204. - - Vogdes, General, 10, 11. - - Volcanoes in the American Continent, 180, 181, 247, - _see also_ Agua, Atitlan, Fuego, Pacaya, Tacara. - - Votan, chief, 412, 413. - - - Washington, 5. - - Webster, Daniel, 22. - - Well, an Indian, 370. - - Welsh speaking Indians, 95, 96. - - West Point, Military Academy at, 7, 8. - - Whittlesea, Mr., 98. - - Williams, Judge, 174: - and Indian education, 109–112. - - Williams (the Dauphin), 52, 53. - - Wilson, Professor Daniel, 60, 62, 159. - - Winnebagoes, the, 119–123. - - Winona, an Indian maiden, 113. - - Woolner, Mr., 357. - - Wyman, Professor Jeffries, 14, 19–21, 26, 28. - - Wynne, Dr., 192. - - - Yajalon, 270, 273, 277. - - Yaxcabá, curate of, 366–369. - - Young, Brigham, 112, 146. - - Yucatan, pyramidal altars at, 330–334: - Indians in, 336. - - Yucatan, Bishop Landa’s work on, 343–346: - worship of idols in, 346–347: - religious ceremonies in, 362–365: - superstition of Indians, 366–368: - ruins in, 394: - education in, 407–408: - discovery of, 415. - - Yule, Colonel, 140. - - - Zambos Indians, 181. - - Zurita, Alonzo de, 227. - - - • • • • • - Farmer & Sons, Printers, 295, Edgware Road, W. - - - -+----------------------------------------------------------------------+ -| | -| FOOTNOTES: | -| | -| [1] Many of those who were interested in Arctic research and the | -| then unknown fate of Sir John Franklin, will remember the meetings | -| at Lady Franklin’s house at Kensington Gore, and how greatly Mr. | -| Grinnell’s exertions and enterprise were appreciated. | -| | -| [2] Mr. Laurence Oliphant, whom I had known in other parts of the | -| world, was then living with his community upon the Southern shores | -| of Lake Erie. | -| | -| The last time that I saw him was at a Levée, held in St. James’s | -| extreme Palace, in the year 1880, under circumstances which were | -| in contrast with his daily life of labour at Brocton. I understood | -| that he had come over to England to arrange some business matters | -| connected with the affairs of his society. | -| | -| America is the home of many groups of people endeavouring to carry | -| out their various schemes of communistic life. I visited several | -| of their settlements and found that their methods of management | -| were very different. The prosperity and the harmony of the men and | -| women, evidently depended upon their faith in their own strange | -| forms of religion. It was also observable that, in all cases, the | -| leaders were men of dogmatic character. | -| | -| [3] The question respecting the proportion of foreigners in the | -| armies of the North came under consideration. | -| | -| It had been supposed that a large number of the troops consisted | -| of men of foreign nationalities, but an investigation that had | -| been made into the subject has proved that the alien strength of | -| the army had been the subject of much exaggeration. | -| | -| Upon the examination of the numbers it will be seen, however, | -| that the composition of the forces deserves attention. Their | -| classification was as follows:— | -| | -| British Americans (volunteers from | -| British possessions in N. America) 53,500 | -| English 45,000 | -| Irish 144,000 | -| German 176,800 | -| Men of unknown nationality 74,900 | -| Negroes (about) 140,000 | -| National Americans 1,523,000 | -| | -| National Americans include all emigrants who in consequence of | -| having been five years in the States are entitled to become | -| citizens. | -| | -| [4] Mr. Ticknor preceded Mr. Longfellow at Harvard University as | -| Professor of Modern Languages. As an author he is well known by | -| his History of Spanish Literature, and the biography of his friend | -| Mr. Prescott, the historian. | -| | -| [5] Then Professor of Anatomy in Harvard College, and Curator of | -| the Peabody Museum of Archæology and Ethnology. | -| | -| [6] Laura Bridgman was born in 1829 so, at the time that I saw her, | -| she was forty years old. | -| | -| [7] In one of the many brilliant speeches made by this orator, the | -| following graceful allusion to the mother-country may be mentioned | -| here. “Great Britain,” he said, “had dotted over the whole surface | -| of the globe with her possessions and military posts, whose | -| morning drum-beat, following the sun and keeping company with the | -| hours, circles the earth daily with one continuous and unbroken | -| strain of martial music.” | -| | -| [8] The geographical conditions of the Atlantic seaboard are so | -| favourable for the development of naval power, that it is evident | -| that the United States have every possible natural advantage | -| placed at their disposal to enable them to become a great maritime | -| nation. | -| | -| There is, however, a difficulty for them to surmount. Serviceable | -| American-born men do not readily volunteer to join their ships | -| of war, and, consequently, the crews are largely composed of | -| foreigners, chiefly of English and German origin. The reasons | -| for this disinclination on the part of the Americans to accept | -| sea service seem to be caused by the fact that the prospects | -| for success in life in other directions are sufficiently good | -| to prevent them from seeking an employment in which they would | -| be subject to discipline and have to sacrifice their habits of | -| independence. It will probably be found expedient, ultimately, to | -| adopt a system of entry and training for seamen similar to that | -| which has been found to succeed in England. The systems followed | -| on the European continent, and which are based upon conscription, | -| could find no place amongst a people with whom all service must be | -| essentially voluntary. | -| | -| If the difficulties with regard to men can be overcome, the naval | -| strength of the United States may be as great as Congress may | -| deem desirable, for, with respect to the capacities of harbours | -| and dockyards and the means available for the construction and | -| armaments of ships, there is practically no limit to the power of | -| fitting out and maintaining large fleets. | -| | -| [9] In the summer of 1870 I went to the village of Dighton to look | -| at the inscribed stone in the river near that place. | -| | -| Upon my arrival there it was high water and the rock was covered. | -| The next day, when the tide was low, I hired a boat, pulled down | -| the stream and stopped by its side, which was then fully exposed, | -| and examined it with care. It was a boulder formed of hard close | -| grained granite. | -| | -| As the inscription was originally supposed by Danish and other | -| antiquarians to have had some relation with the history of the | -| arrival of the Northmen upon that coast, I traced the figures and | -| rude characters with particular attention. | -| | -| I have seen rolls of birch bark scratched in the same manner by | -| Chippewas, for the purpose of giving information of the movements | -| of their hunting parties, and I think that the figures on the | -| Dighton stone were meant to represent similar events. As, however, | -| the inscriptions are deeply cut, and as it must have taken some | -| considerable time to execute them, it may be granted that the | -| Indians wished to leave, near the mouth of the river, a permanent | -| record which would be intelligible to others. | -| | -| At many parts of this seaboard the New England tribes, as at | -| Damariscotta visited the tidal waters to obtain food. | -| | -| [10] When afterwards passing through the forests near Palenque, | -| in Central America, I observed that whenever the Indians found | -| it necessary to quit the track, they immediately broke off small | -| branches from the trees, and placed them on the ground over which | -| they had trodden. As an additional precaution, they also made | -| marks on the trunks with their hatchets. It was thus easy for | -| them to get back to the place from which they had started. It is | -| however evident, that this plan is only useful in those cases | -| where the path is intentionally left. When the path is | -| accidentally missed, it is of the greatest importance not to lose | -| touch with the spot where you happen to be when your error is | -| discovered. This position will necessarily be within a short | -| distance by a straight line from the place from which you | -| wandered. It has been ascertained that it is the tendency of men | -| who have lost their way to unconsciously move in a circle, and | -| thus much time may be wasted in trusting to personal judgment. It | -| is a good plan to make a series of short tentative marches in | -| different directions, in straight lines from your starting point, | -| which should be considered as a central position to which you can | -| always return if necessary. Such straight lines of direction can | -| be made by marking trees, and keeping them as much as possible in | -| line with each other. In dense forests a watch is not serviceable, | -| as the sun does not penetrate them, and its bearing cannot be | -| seen. A compass is useful to a certain extent, but the constant | -| deviations that have to be made to avoid obstacles, tend to make | -| the line of progress a succession of broken curves, and it becomes | -| unsafe to rely upon the accuracy of the direction. Explorers have | -| found it desirable to send men occasionally to the tops of the | -| tallest trees to observe the nature of the country that is being | -| traversed. When Cortes made his celebrated expedition from Mexico | -| to Honduras, he maintained a straight march by the use of a ship’s | -| compass, but in that case there was no difficulty, for the | -| direction was followed by cutting down the trees that were in the | -| line of the advance. | -| | -| [11] See “Report on the Geology and Topography of a portion of the | -| Lake Superior Land District,” by I. W. Foster and I. D. Whitney. | -| Washington, 1850. | -| | -| [12] The Jesuit Mission that was placed at Sault Ste. Marie, at | -| the entrance of Lake Superior was, during the seventeenth and | -| eighteenth centuries, one of the most important and influential | -| of the missionary establishments in North America. Many of the | -| Fathers who were attached to it had received a good mathematical | -| education and were capable of making accurate geographical | -| surveys. An excellent plan of Lake Superior and its islands was | -| made by them in 1670, and the coast lines and bays were traced | -| over a distance exceeding fifteen hundred miles. Amongst the | -| distinguished men who worked at the mission were the Fathers | -| Jogues, Allouez, Mesnard (who lost his way and perished in the | -| forest when travelling across the Kee-wai-wona promontory), | -| Dablon, and the well-known and devoted missionary, Jacques | -| Marquette. | -| | -| [13] At Marietta, there still exists an ancient Indian mound or | -| tumulus, about thirty feet high. It is situated near the | -| south-east limits of the inclosures. When I saw it, it was under | -| the care of the local authorities. | -| | -| [14] Morton’s Crania Americana, pp. 221. | -| | -| [15] It is known that a communication between the south-western | -| extremity of Lake Superior and the Mississippi Valley, existed | -| from an early time. When I was at Toronto, Professor Daniel | -| Wilson, to whom I was indebted for much information upon subjects | -| relating to American archæology, told me that it had been | -| ascertained that the copper found in these mounds, was of the same | -| character as that in the Lake Superior Mines: so that the question | -| of its origin was practically settled. It thus seems probable that | -| some of the small lumps of pure copper found in the forests and on | -| the shores of the lake, near the Kee-wai-wona promontory, were | -| brought into Ohio. | -| | -| A mound that was opened near Lake Ontario, and whose contents I | -| examined, was stated to have been twelve feet high. Within it were | -| about twenty skeletons, some coarse pottery, a number of arrow | -| heads made of a hard flinty stone and several flat rectangular | -| stones, pierced with one or two holes, which had been used as | -| breast ornaments, possibly denoting a certain rank. There were | -| also stone gouges, some stone axes and many fragments of charred | -| wood. This was probably an Iroquois grave. | -| | -| [16] In the valley of the Mississippi, especially in the northern | -| part which had been occupied by the Dakotas, I afterwards saw many | -| burial mounds, which, with the exception of the unusually great | -| mounds near Miamisburgh and Wheeling, resembled in all respects | -| those in Ohio. The methods of burial with the Sioux were evidently | -| similar to those of the Mound Builders, with respect to the custom | -| of conveying skeletons from considerable distances for the purpose | -| of placing them together in one burying heap. | -| | -| In several of the ancient burial mounds in Ohio, thin flat plates | -| or slabs of mica are placed with the skeletons. This shining and | -| silvery looking mineral appears to have been greatly valued by | -| Indians. When I was on the coast of California, I happened to | -| be present when a shell bank was cut open and a section of it | -| examined. There was found, piled within it, a confused heap of | -| skulls and shells, together with a larger quantity of rough pieces | -| of mica. It is remarkable that the use of mica as an ornament | -| should have been prevalent over such a wide geographical area | -| amongst tribes dwelling so far apart. | -| | -| [17] I have seen a re-survey of the Newark inclosures made on | -| behalf of the Smithsonian Institution, under the direction of | -| Professor Cyrus Thomas. The results of this survey are very | -| useful. The measurements have evidently been taken with much care. | -| With respect to the Octagon, Professor Thomas observes that, “The | -| angles at the crossings of the diagonals and diameters at the | -| centre O, are so nearly right angles as to be worthy of notice in | -| this connection. For instance, the angles at the crossings of the | -| diagonals BF and DH, differ but 10´ from true right angles, while | -| those at the crossing of the diameters AE and CG differ but 2´.” | -| | -| As regards the Square he states, that, “This inclosure varies but | -| slightly from a true square, the course of the opposite sides in | -| one case differing but 31´, and the other but 6´. The greatest | -| variation at the corners from a true right angle is 57´.” | -| | -| The large Circle D is said to have a difference of diameters of | -| twenty-six feet, these being respectively 1189 feet and 1163 feet. | -| | -| The Observatory Circle, which is the inclosure connected with the | -| Octagon, was found to have been made with remarkable correctness. | -| “The widest divergence between the line of the survey and the | -| circumference of the true circle is four feet. It is therefore | -| evident that the inclosure approaches in form very nearly an | -| absolute circle.” | -| | -| Professor Thomas also states with reference to the Observatory | -| Circle, that the radius is almost an exact multiple of the | -| surveyor’s chain. | -| | -| The geometrical accuracy of the lines of embankments and of the | -| inclosed areas in earthworks of such great dimensions, covering | -| such large spaces of ground, is not the least strange fact | -| concerning these works. | -| | -| [18] Archæologia Americana, Vol. I. The plan of the Marietta | -| Inclosures is a reduction of a part of the survey made in 1837 | -| by Mr. Charles Whittlesea, and published by the Smithsonian | -| Institution in 1848. | -| | -| [19] Fort Du Quesne was built about the year 1752. It was | -| situated near the spot where is now the town of Pittsburgh. In | -| 1731 the Indians who then occupied the lands near Marietta formed | -| an alliance with the French, and obtained their assistance in | -| protecting them from the attacks of hostile tribes. These were | -| probably the Iroquois, who at that period had made a treaty with | -| the English, and were their allies during the wars against the | -| French in Canada and this part of North America. | -| | -| [20] Archæologia Americana, Vol. I. | -| | -| [21] See Plan. | -| | -| [22] Upon an examination of the map it will be seen that the | -| Serpent is placed in the territory west of the Scioto, and that | -| the Alligator is east of that river. | -| | -| The mouth of the serpent is described as being opened wide. This | -| peculiarity is observable with the serpent carved upon the walls | -| of the Casa de las Monjas at Uxmal. | -| | -| [23] The valley below the Alligator is in the possession of a race | -| of Welsh colonists who emigrated from Wales about the year 1802. | -| At that time they did not speak English, and for many years | -| refrained from learning that language. | -| | -| The church services are held in their town of Granville. | -| | -| These colonists were prosperous and contented. The majority of | -| them bore the names of Griffith, Price, Lewis, and others which | -| are usual in the seaboard counties of Wales. | -| | -| The adjacent high lands are called the Welsh hills. | -| | -| [24] “Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,” pp. 19. | -| | -| [25] Second Annual Report of the Geological Survey of the State of | -| Ohio, 1838, pp. 269. | -| | -| [26] The earthworks thrown up between Gallipoli and the Gulf of | -| Saros during the Crimean war in 1854–1855 had the appearance of | -| considerable antiquity when I saw them nearly a quarter of a | -| century afterwards in 1878. | -| | -| [27] According to Hakluyt, Madoc “prepared certaine ships with | -| men and munition, and sought adventures by seas; sailing West and | -| leaving the coast of Ireland so farre North, that he came vnto a | -| land vnknowen, where he saw many strange things. | -| | -| Of the voyage and returne of this Madoc there be many fables | -| fained, as the common people do vse in distance of place and | -| length of time, rather to augment than to diminish: but sure it is | -| there he was.... This Madoc arriving in that Westerne countrey, | -| vnto the which he came in the yere 1170, left most of his people | -| there, and returning backe for more of his owne nation, | -| acquaintance and friends to inhabit that faire and large countrey, | -| went thither again with ten sailes, as I find noted by Gutyn Owen. | -| | -| I am of opinion that the land whereunto he came was some part of | -| the West Indies.” | -| | -| Hakluyt’s Voyages, vol. iii, p. 21. | -| | -| [28] When examining the inclosures near Newark, I had with me | -| the plan of the survey of Mr. Atwater, published in 1820 in the | -| 1st Volume of the Archæologia Americana. The plan pp. 66 is, in | -| its proportions, a reduction that I made of the survey of Mr. | -| Whittlesea, but the inclosures are drawn according to the plan of | -| Mr. Atwater. | -| | -| The survey of Mr. Whittlesea is given at pp. 67 “Ancient Monuments | -| of the Mississippi Valley.” Some of the smaller earthworks and | -| parallels no longer exist, having been probably removed by the | -| plough. | -| | -| With respect to the subject of Archæology in North America, I have | -| to thank Dr. Baird, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, | -| for having placed in my hands the valuable and impartial work | -| written by Mr. Haven. | -| | -| [29] See the Journal of Mr. Thaddeus Harris, pp. 54, published in | -| Boston in 1805. | -| | -| [30] Florida was discovered in 1512 by Ponce de Leon, the aged | -| governor of Porto Rico, who was then seeking for the Fountain of | -| Youth, which, according to the statements of the historian of the | -| voyage, was believed to have the power to rejuvenate old men, and | -| restore to them the vigour of early manhood. | -| | -| An expedition undertaken a few years later, in 1528, by Pamphilo | -| de Narvaez had a disastrous termination. Many Spaniards were left | -| behind, the majority of whom were probably tortured and killed. | -| Others, in accordance with Indian customs, may have been chosen by | -| squaws to be their husbands, and would have consequently taken | -| part in the conduct of tribal affairs. | -| | -| It is not unlikely that some of these Spanish adventurers, would | -| have taken advantage of any opportunity that may have occurred, to | -| proceed into the interior of the new continent. Due consideration | -| should also be given to the fact that the French may have assisted | -| the Indians in the construction of their forts on the plains, at | -| any period between the dates of their first partial occupation of | -| Canada in 1541, and the final abandonment of their positions in | -| the valley of the Ohio in 1758. | -| | -| Amongst the various opinions that have been held with respect to | -| the Mound Builders, there is one which attributes their origin to | -| the northern part of Mexico. | -| | -| Mr. Lewis Morgan, whose works upon the subject of the Indian races | -| have placed him in the position of being a high authority upon all | -| matters relating to them, wrote to me a letter upon the question | -| of their migrations, in which he observed as follows:—“Any opinion | -| as to who were the mound builders must be speculative. It is quite | -| probable that they were village Indians from New Mexico, and | -| having found the climate too severe for their type of village | -| life, retired gradually from the country.” Although it has to be | -| admitted that all theories as to the Mound Builders must be | -| necessarily indeterminate, yet nothing has been found amongst the | -| ornaments or weapons that were placed in their burial mounds, | -| which supports the hypothesis that they were different in race or | -| intelligence from the tribes that surrounded them. | -| | -| [31] The school teacher, Miss Maud Osborn, requested me to accept | -| this spear head in memory of my visit. | -| | -| [32] The Missouri joins the Mississippi after having pursued a | -| devious course from the Rocky Mountains, for a distance estimated | -| to be nearly three thousand miles, of which the greater part is | -| navigable at that season of the year when its waters are at their | -| highest level. | -| | -| [33] Nauvoo was once brought into prominent notice in connection | -| with the Mormons, as it was here that they built their first great | -| temple. | -| | -| Judge Williams had personally known Joseph Smith, the founder of | -| Mormonism, and Rigdon his chief colleague. Joseph Smith, he said, | -| was an illiterate man, but, was remarkable for a kind of | -| shrewdness combined with great insight into character. | -| | -| Rigdon, who had been formerly a Baptist preacher, was well | -| educated, and was generally employed in obtaining converts and | -| explaining to them the meaning of Smith’s visions and the | -| doctrines of the new religion. | -| | -| He described Brigham Young, with whom he was also acquainted, as | -| being a person of determined character, with a domineering manner. | -| | -| When I was at Salt Lake City, in the following December, I had a | -| long interview with that able and astute leader of men. | -| | -| Within twenty years from the time when he conducted the flight | -| of the Mormons across the deserts from Nauvoo to Utah, he had | -| succeeded in establishing a highly satisfactory condition of | -| good order and prosperity throughout the territories under his | -| government; and controlled, with unquestioned authority, a | -| community consisting of one hundred and forty thousand people. | -| | -| [34] As I looked at the cliff and the reflection of its shadow in | -| the calm smooth waters of the lake, I recalled to mind a similar | -| scene viewed from the deck of H.M.S. Racer when passing at sunset | -| the promontory of Cape Leucate, in Santa Maura, the classical site | -| of Sappho’s leap. There is a special interest attached to the | -| fate of Winona, for it proves that Indian girls of Dakota birth | -| are capable of higher degrees of sentiment with regard to their | -| marriage, than those believed to exist among other tribes. She | -| was not permitted for some tribal reason to marry the man she had | -| chosen, and preferred death to marriage with the warrior to whom | -| she was assigned by the command of her parents. | -| | -| [35] The accompanying illustration is drawn from a pencil sketch | -| made by the author near this spot. | -| | -| [36] “I was greatly surprised,” states Captain Carver, “at | -| beholding an instance of such elevated devotion in so young an | -| Indian, and instead of ridiculing the ceremonies attending it, as | -| I observed my Catholic servant tacitly did, I looked on the prince | -| with a greater degree of respect for these sincere proofs he gave | -| of his piety; and I doubt not, but that his offerings and prayers, | -| were as acceptable to the universal Parent of mankind, as if they | -| had been made with greater pomp, or in a consecrated place.” | -| _Travels in North America_, pp. 62. | -| | -| [37] Archæologia Americana, Vol. II, pp. 128. | -| | -| [38] In Chapter xvii it will be seen that the Aztecs or Toltecs in | -| Yucatan, also, in certain cases, killed the victim by a flight of | -| arrows. | -| | -| [39] One of the best authenticated instances of this custom of | -| torturing prisoners was witnessed by a Mr. James Smith who, during | -| the time that he was a captive amongst the Delawares, was present | -| when the English prisoners taken after General Braddock’s defeat | -| were brought into camp by the Indians. | -| | -| He states that, upon that occasion, about a dozen of the prisoners | -| were stripped and tied to stakes, tortured with fire-brands and | -| burnt to death. | -| | -| The ferocity of the Indians towards their captives after battle | -| was well known to the British and French commanders, and was one | -| of the difficulties that attended their employment as allies. | -| There is a subject indirectly connected with these Indian customs | -| in war which may here be considered. It is that of cannibalism. | -| | -| Investigations into this question lead to the conclusion that | -| there is no evidence to show that any of the North American tribes | -| were in the habit of following this revolting custom except under | -| rare circumstances during the prosecution of a serious war. | -| | -| I only know of two instances, seen and recorded, of Indians | -| devouring human flesh. In both cases it is evident that the acts | -| were committed in accordance with the usages of hostile tribes | -| when engaged in war. | -| | -| The first case is mentioned in a report made to his superiors, by | -| the French missionary, Father Roubaud, who accompanied the Indian | -| allies of the French troops during the operations against the | -| British forces in 1757. | -| | -| An English captive, who was believed to have been an officer, was | -| cooked and eaten by the Ottawas under circumstances singularly | -| repulsive. The Father Roubaud, who was present and witnessed part | -| of the proceedings, was horrified by what he saw, and finding that | -| he could do nothing to check the tribe in their savage feast was | -| forced to withdraw to his tent. | -| | -| The other instance occurred after the capture of the garrison of | -| Michel Mackinac by the Chippewas. Mr. Alexander Henry, the same | -| person who, at another time, undertook the mining operations on | -| the shores of Lake Superior which are mentioned in a preceding | -| chapter, was a captive. He states that one of the white prisoners | -| was killed and divided into five parts which were cooked in five | -| kettles and then eaten at a special feast. | -| | -| Mr. Henry was of opinion, from what he observed, that this food | -| was taken with repugnance. An Indian told him that what he saw was | -| done to inspire the warriors with courage. | -| | -| [40] When I was at the village of San Domingo del Palenque in | -| Central America, Dr. Coller, a resident there, told me he had | -| carried out, during several years, a series of investigations to | -| ascertain the reasons for the existence of large green savannahs | -| in the heart of the adjacent forests. He had formed the conclusion | -| that those open spaces were caused by the exceptional character of | -| the ground which, he said, differed from that upon which the trees | -| grew. The similar openings amongst the forests in Ceylon called | -| patenas, are, I believe, also supposed to be the effect of the | -| nature or poverty of the land. | -| | -| It is noticeable that the forests usually skirt or surround | -| savannahs in sharp well-defined outlines like an enclosing | -| barrier, in the same manner as the meadows, formed by the | -| consequences of the action of beavers, occur in Michigan. | -| | -| [41] After my return to England I happened to discuss this subject | -| with Colonel Yule, who had just then completed his work of editing | -| the Travels of Marco Polo. He told me that when he was in Burmah, | -| Lord Dalhousie, who was at that time Governor-General of India, | -| sent him into the interior to visit the forests of Aracan. | -| | -| He found within them several large clearings, and observed that | -| the new growths were of a different character from the old trees | -| and were invariably bamboos. He also saw amongst the mountains | -| many deciduous trees which were quite bare of leaves whilst their | -| branches were covered with brilliantly coloured flowers. | -| | -| Upon another occasion Dr. Rae, who had passed much of his life in | -| the Hudson Bay Territories and became known by his discovery of | -| the relics of Sir John Franklin’s expedition, mentioned to me that | -| he had frequently seen that when trees had been uprooted, | -| raspberry bushes sprang up in their place thus showing that their | -| seeds must have been in the ground. Dr. Joseph Norwood, Assistant | -| Geologist, in his report of the survey of the region west of Lake | -| Superior, undertaken in 1847, states that from facts which had | -| come under his observation, he was led to believe that, “if after | -| the clearing of the pine forests, the annual fires cease, a growth | -| of oak springs up in some places and aspen in others.” (_Owen’s | -| Geological Survey_, pp. 296). In British Columbia the ancient | -| forest pines are often succeeded by cedars or alders. | -| | -| [42] The subject of the destruction of snakes is mentioned by Mr. | -| Murray, in his “Travels in North America.” | -| | -| When passing through a ravine in the territories of the Pawnees | -| he observed, “I never should have believed it possible that so | -| many rattlesnakes could have been assembled together as I saw in | -| that ravine. I think there must have been nearly enough to fatten | -| a drove of Missouri hogs,” and he adds in a note. “It is well | -| known that in the Western States where rattlesnakes are still | -| plentiful the hogs kill and eat them; nor is their bite formidable | -| to their swinish enemy, on whom its venomous fangs seem to produce | -| no effect. It is owing to this well-known fact that families | -| resident in those districts conceive that hogs-lard must be a kind | -| of antidote to their poison, and frequently use it (I believe | -| successfully) as a remedy.” (_Travels in North America, by Hon. | -| Charles Augustus Murray, Vol._ ii, _pp._ 42.) | -| | -| An Englishman who had a large farm in West Virginia, told me that | -| the hillsides were cleared of the snakes, which had previously | -| infested them, by turning out pigs upon them. | -| | -| A similar result took place in Minnesota and upon the prairies | -| east of the Missouri. | -| | -| [43] “Etudes Philologiques sur quelques Langues Sauvages de | -| L’Amérique,” Montreal, 1866. | -| | -| [44] In the Encyclopædia Americana (1886), the total Indian | -| population is said to be (exclusive of Alaska) 264,369. The | -| Dakotas are stated to number thirty-one thousand. | -| | -| [45] The Council building on the reservation was called the Long | -| House, not on account of its size or shape, but in accordance with | -| an ancient tradition. | -| | -| When the separation of the Iroquois took place, it was decided by | -| the Council that the expression Long House was to be used as a | -| symbol, that the nations were theoretically under one roof, which | -| extended over all the lands occupied by them. In pursuance of this | -| theory, certain tribes were given particular duties. The Senecas | -| had to guard the gates looking towards the sunset, and the Mohawks | -| were to watch the approaches to the gates placed in the direction | -| of sunrise. | -| | -| As far as it is possible to form conclusions, with respect to the | -| state of the Indian tribes in the sixteenth century, it appears | -| that the Iroquois, in consequence of their league, had attained | -| to a comparatively advanced state of warlike capacity, and had | -| organised methods of conducting a campaign. | -| | -| They also formed regular alliances, and made treaties which they | -| faithfully executed. | -| | -| In their treatment of captives they were cruel and barbarous, but | -| they possessed in the highest degree the qualities of courage and | -| endurance. | -| | -| [46] I should here mention that, when I was at Boston, I was much | -| assisted in making investigations into certain characteristics of | -| the North American Indians by Mr. Francis Parkman, whose | -| researches upon all subjects relating to the condition of the | -| aboriginal tribes in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, have | -| placed him in the first rank of the historians of that period. | -| | -| Mr. Parkman was personally well acquainted with the Dakotas, | -| amongst whom he had dwelt for nearly two years. | -| | -| He, on several occasions arranged, in the kindest manner, that I | -| should meet those who were interested in the native races. Upon | -| one of these occasions I met Mr. E. G. Squier, whose original | -| surveys of the ancient earthworks in Ohio were published by the | -| Smithsonian Institution. | -| | -| The introductions given to me by Mr. Parkman to the distinguished | -| archæologists, Mr. Lewis Morgan and Professor Daniel Wilson, were | -| also most useful. | -| | -| [47] In the prison at Omaha I saw three Pawnees named Blue-Hawk, | -| Yellow-Son and Tall-Wolf, who had endeavoured to commit suicide in | -| order to avoid being hanged. One of them, I think it was Blue-Hawk | -| (Sha-to-ko), had managed to conceal a long piece of hard wood, | -| one end of which he had rubbed down to a sharp point. He was | -| employed in pushing this through his body, between the ribs, when | -| he was observed by the warder and prevented from completing his | -| purpose. Another prisoner had removed a brick from the floor and | -| was trying to fracture his skull with it. All of them had torn | -| away portions of their skin and cut themselves in many places with | -| small fragments of glass which they had obtained secretly. The | -| warder told me that he had taken every precaution to stop these | -| desperate attempts of the Indians to destroy themselves. They | -| seemed to be able to bear these self inflicted wounds without | -| showing signs of distress. | -| | -| [48] The supernatural powers attributed to the “medicine men” are | -| not worthy of attention, except so far as they illustrate the | -| credulity of Indians, and show the influence of certain methods of | -| imposture upon them. Their tricks are usually of a kind which are | -| perfectly within the capacity of an ordinary juggler. | -| | -| Their pretension of possessing the power of making rain is however | -| a subject of a different nature. | -| | -| This particular act is chiefly remarkable because there is no form | -| of imposture which can be so readily detected. Nevertheless the | -| Indian tribes throughout the western parts of North America | -| usually have “Rain-makers,” in whose powers they appear to have | -| confidence. | -| | -| I met in California a young Englishman who had been living for | -| several months with various tribes near the coast, between British | -| Columbia and New Mexico. | -| | -| He told me that he had been present upon an occasion when a | -| successful attempt at rain-making occurred. The event took place | -| upon a promontory in the southern part of California. | -| | -| The tribe wanted rain, and their rain-maker declared that he could | -| obtain what was desired. He proceeded to make upon an adjoining | -| hill, a large bonfire which was kept well supplied with fuel and | -| gave out dense volumes of smoke. The fire was kept burning for | -| over twenty-four hours, and then the efforts of the rain-maker | -| were rewarded by a good and sufficient fall of rain. Here, as | -| elsewhere, the Indians employed fire and smoke as agents for | -| producing rain. | -| | -| [49] See Chapter VI. | -| | -| [50] The offerings are sometimes made to appease the angry spirit | -| dwelling in the serpent. | -| | -| Occasionally the Dakotas sacrifice a dog to it. | -| | -| [51] “Indian Tribes of North America.” Vol. IV. pp. 51. | -| | -| [52] The remaining daughters were alive when I was in Minnesota. | -| One of them was married to a man of the tribe. The other was the | -| wife of a white man, who, Faribault said, was employed as a | -| drummer at Fort Snelling. | -| | -| [53] With many of the Dakota and Chippewa tribes there existed a | -| custom of placing upon the scaffolding a wand which was painted | -| red, blue and white. They believed that the spirit of the Indian | -| had to cross a river over which was a long log of wood. Upon | -| reaching the opposite bank, the spirit met the spirits of his | -| enemies. To one of them he would show the red, to another the | -| blue, and finally he pointed to the white and then all enmities | -| ceased. | -| | -| [54] The albatrosses in the Southern ocean which, like the | -| pelicans, are birds of great size and weight (I have measured some | -| which exceeded twelve feet across the wings) maintain for hours an | -| equal height above the level of the sea. | -| | -| In the high latitudes south of the Cape of Good Hope and the | -| Crozet Islands there is always a strong gale blowing, and | -| consequently by a very slight and imperceptible movement or | -| inclination of the wings the albatrosses obtained the necessary | -| pressure which enabled them to rise, descend, or maintain their | -| hovering position. | -| | -| In the case of pelicans moving rapidly in a perfect calm, the | -| method by which they maintain their height in the air is not so | -| easily understood. | -| | -| [55] The foreign residents living in Guatemala, included Mr. | -| Corbett, our Chargé d’affaires; M. de Cabarrus, chief of the | -| French legation; the Duke and Duchess de Licignano, Dr. Wynne, Mr. | -| and Mrs. Hague, Mr. and Mrs. Hockmeyer, and M. Hardy: to all of | -| whom I was indebted for much kindness and hospitality. | -| | -| [56] Author of “A New Survey of the West Indies,” published in 1648. | -| | -| [57] “Relation of what happened by the Will of God, on Saturday, | -| the 10th of September, 1541, two hours after sunset in the town of | -| Santiago de Guatimala.” Ternaux-Compans. | -| | -| [58] Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de la Nueva España escrita | -| por el Capitan Bernal Diaz del Castillo, uno de sus | -| Conquistadores. | -| | -| [59] The substances thrown out from craters frequently differ in | -| their character. Judging from the composition of the surface of | -| portions of the land near the Guatemala volcanoes, especially upon | -| the slopes of the barrancas, it is evident that large quantities | -| of pozzolana were ejected. One of the latest eruptions that has | -| occurred was at the Island of Santorin in the Grecian Archipelago | -| in February, 1866. I was present when the new volcano emerged from | -| the sea. | -| | -| The inhabitants of Santorin, upon seeing volumes of steam and | -| smoke issuing from the waters of the bay, apprehended some serious | -| peril to be imminent. They feared the possibility of their town | -| being overwhelmed by an eruption of ashes, and made a request that | -| a ship of war should be sent to the spot to render any assistance | -| that might be necessary. I immediately went there in the “Racer” | -| and remained until all fears of danger had passed away. | -| | -| The crater of the volcano, afterwards called Aphroessa, rose | -| slowly from the surface of the water, and it was possible to | -| observe the nature of the interior during the intervals between | -| the eruptions. There was no lava or pozzolana, but only large | -| cinders which, as they issued from the crater, were thrown into | -| the air, and then fell upon the outer slopes, thus gradually | -| forming an island. | -| | -| It was a very remarkable scene; during the day there were heavy | -| volumes of smoke and constant rumbling sounds, as the pent up | -| forces below the mouth of the crater were gathering strength to | -| throw forth the mass of cinders that closed them in. At night the | -| glare caused by the reflection of the fire of the interior upon | -| the dense clouds immediately overhanging it was very vivid. The | -| surface of the surrounding waters was over-spread by running | -| tongues of brilliantly coloured flames. The island was composed of | -| cinders and ashes, whose porous nature could never permit any | -| lodgement of water upon them. I examined several of the craters of | -| the extinct volcanoes on the islands adjacent to Aphroessa, and | -| there was no instance of any small pond or collection of water | -| existing within them. The interior of the Volcan de Agua, possibly | -| contained a thick substratum of water-bearing pozzolana. | -| | -| An account of the volcanoes of Santorin was given by Sir Charles | -| Lyell. “Principles of Geology.” Vol. ii, pp. 70. | -| | -| [60] “History of the Kingdom of Guatemala,” by Don Domingo Juarros, | -| translated by J. Baily, Lieutenant R.M., pp. 384. | -| | -| [61] Bernal Diaz states that “Pá-pa,” was the name given by the | -| Indians in Yucatan to their chief-priests. The Spaniards were much | -| surprised to find upon their arrival in America, that the Indian | -| chief-priests were called by the same name as the Pope of Rome. | -| “Kues” were temples or altars. | -| | -| [62] Quetzales are birds with bright green plumage, having their | -| tail feathers of great length, and are found chiefly in the | -| highlands of Guatemala. | -| | -| [63] Palacio’s Report was published for the first time in the | -| original Spanish by Mr. E. G. Squier, in 1860. As it is important | -| that the author’s meaning should not be misunderstood, I have | -| translated it literally, as far as this is possible, considering | -| that it is written in the Spanish of the 16th century. | -| | -| [64] Carved and polished ornaments made of hard stone of green | -| colour. | -| | -| [65] Diaz observes that Guatimozin—who, after the death of | -| Montezuma had become the Emperor of the Mexicans—sent the hands | -| and feet of the Spaniards that had been sacrificed, together with | -| the heads of the horses that had been killed, to the Indian chiefs | -| who had formed a league of alliance with Cortes, and sent them | -| messages to the effect, that the remaining Spaniards would soon be | -| conquered, and that consequently those chiefs should submit to the | -| Aztec power and send ambassadors to him. In the meantime, human | -| sacrifices took place daily in the great temple, accompanied by | -| the dismal sound of the drum, the discordant noises of the shell | -| trumpets, and the horrible shouts and yells of the Mexicans. | -| During the night large fires were kept burning on the platform, | -| and on each night several Spaniards were sacrificed. | -| | -| These ceremonies lasted for ten days, until all the captives had | -| been sacrificed; and during this time the Mexicans made frequent | -| and furious attacks upon the troops. Diaz relates, that the Indian | -| soldiers told them that they were wretched creatures who would | -| soon be all killed, and that their flesh was disagreeable to taste | -| and bad to eat. “Vuestras carnes son tan malas para comer.” | -| | -| The last Spaniard who was sacrificed was Christobal de Guzman. | -| | -| [66] Bernal Diaz, Historia Verdadera, chap. clii. | -| | -| [67] First Report of Pedro de Alvarado to Cortes, dated Utatlan, | -| 11th April, 1524. | -| | -| [68] See the 5th letter of Cortes, to the Emperor Charles V. | -| | -| [69] Small black beans. | -| | -| [70] Juarros, Baily’s Translation, p. 457. | -| | -| [71] In Guatemala this prayer is called La Oracion. | -| | -| This custom is familiar to those who have travelled upon the | -| Italian coasts, or who have visited the western parts of Brittany | -| near Carnac and in the Morbihan, where the faith of the peasants | -| still remains strong. | -| | -| The Indians living amongst the hills frequently assemble in | -| considerable numbers, and, kneeling on the ground, worship outside | -| the doors of their churches; and there is a singular resemblance | -| in the manner of their devotion to what is to be seen at the | -| “Pardons” of the Bretons, where the peasants come from long | -| distances, light their candles, and kneel before the church door, | -| the line of the worshippers often extending beyond the precincts | -| of the churchyard. | -| | -| [72] A name given by Spanish priests to the ancient temples and | -| shrines of the Indians. | -| | -| [73] Las Casas, who was Bishop of the adjacent diocese of Chiapas | -| in the sixteenth century, mentions that it was the custom there | -| amongst the lower classes to give a year’s service to the | -| parents.—“Pero la gente comun tenía de costumbre de servir in sus | -| labores un año al padre de la que por mujer queria, de la manera | -| que Jacob sirvio à Laban por sus hijas Rachel y Lya.” This was | -| also the custom in Yucatan. | -| | -| [74] Long capes made of sackcloth. | -| | -| [75] When I passed through Mexico, the execution of the Emperor | -| Maximilian and the unhappy fate of the Empress Carlotta, were | -| subjects of discussion. It has often been a matter of surprise, | -| that Juarez should have thought it necessary that the sentence of | -| the court-martial should be carried out. The French troops, upon | -| whom the stability of the empire depended, had been withdrawn, | -| and the success of the National party was assured. An act of | -| forbearance upon this occasion would have met with approval, and | -| have been acknowledged as a wise exercise of superior authority. | -| It was however otherwise determined, and the Emperor was shot | -| outside the walls of Querétaro. | -| | -| In the American official book upon Mexican affairs, there is a | -| memorandum of the conversation between Mr. Seward, the Foreign | -| Secretary, and Señor Matias Romero, the Mexican Minister, at | -| Washington. Mr. Seward stated, that England, France and Austria, | -| had desired the United States to use their good offices for | -| Maximilian, and further observed, that “Mr. Seward does not fear | -| any contingency possible in virtue whereof any European power may | -| attempt to invade or interfere in future in Mexico, or in any | -| other Republican nation on this continent. For this reason he does | -| not think that Mexico need fear any attempt at reprisals on the | -| part of any European powers, as a consequence of any extreme | -| decision which the Mexican Government may take; but at the same | -| time, Mr. Seward also believes that a feeling universally | -| favourable, conciliatory and friendly towards the Republic of | -| Mexico and the other American Republics, would probably be the | -| result of the act of clemency and magnanimity, which the United | -| States have thought proper to recommend.” | -| | -| Clemency is not a quality that naturally exists in the mind of a | -| North or Central American Indian. | -| | -| [76] It recalled to my memory an old Spanish picture belonging to | -| Dr. Pusey, which always held the principal place upon the walls of | -| his library in Christ Church, Oxford. | -| | -| [77] The method of building their huts varies amongst different | -| tribes, but the general principles are much the same. I have | -| passed many hours of the day and night within them, and noticed | -| their practical convenience in tropical climates; and although, | -| according to civilised ideas of comfort, there is much that is | -| wanting, yet for the purposes of the simple and solitary lives of | -| these shy and inoffensive Indians, it would be difficult to | -| contrive any shelter more suitable for their requirements. | -| | -| [78] I had previously observed when travelling in the Cyrenaica in | -| the regions around Cyrene, that the Bedouins could perform a long | -| day’s hard work and subsist upon a few handfuls of grains of wheat | -| moistened with water. | -| | -| [79] Dr. Coller was surprised to see me. It was supposed that I was | -| the first Englishman who had come to Palenque from the coasts of | -| the Pacific, Mr. Stephens, my predecessor being an American. I am | -| however under the impression that his companion, Mr. Catherwood, | -| was an Englishman. | -| | -| [80] Dr. Coller’s hut at San Domingo del Palenque was not a Castle | -| of Lirias, but probably the lines quoted by Gil Blas were often in | -| his mind. Indeed there are many others who, if they saw that | -| hamlet as I saw it in the month of March, would concur with him in | -| saying: | -| | -| “Inveni portum. Spes et Fortuna valete. | -| Sat me lusistis: ludite nunc alios.” | -| | -| [81] In the final chapters, xix-xx, will be found the conclusions | -| that I have formed with regard to the temple and tablet of the | -| cross. | -| | -| [82] See frontispiece. | -| | -| [83] The areas occupied by the temples differed considerably in | -| their extent. The largest of them which I measured was that of the | -| Temple of the Cross. | -| | -| Its interior dimensions were forty-three feet seven inches long | -| by twenty-five feet four inches deep; the outer walls were three | -| feet thick. Therefore the ground space covered by the building was | -| nearly fifty feet in frontage and a little more than thirty-one | -| feet in depth. Its exterior height was about twenty feet. The | -| measurements of the temple on the adjoining pyramid were less. | -| | -| [84] A clear and instructive memoir by Professor Charles Rau, upon | -| the subject of the interpretation of the Palenque hieroglyphs, is | -| to be found in one of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, | -| published in 1879. | -| | -| Investigations have also been made in England, France and Germany. | -| I believe it has been ascertained that a dot means one, a bar | -| five, a bar with two dots seven, and two bars represent ten. It | -| has also been discovered that the hieroglyphs are to be read from | -| left to right, and from the top downwards. If this is correct it | -| is a discovery of considerable importance. Upon an examination of | -| the illustration in the frontispiece of the Palenque altar tablet | -| it will be observed, from the position of the leading groups of | -| figures on the left slab, that the heads are probably intended to | -| represent the chiefs of the Toltec tribe. | -| | -| The numerous explorations that have latterly taken place | -| throughout Mexico, Guatemala and Yucatan have practically | -| determined the positions and extent of all the ancient Indian | -| ruins that still exist in those lands. Therefore it is not | -| expected that any more discoveries of importance will be made. It | -| is however possible that one or more small temples or structures | -| may be found hidden among the forests in the line of direction | -| between Ocosingo and Flores. | -| | -| In the United States much attention is being given to the study of | -| the Mexican and Maya manuscripts. | -| | -| It is to be hoped that methods of interpretation will be | -| established upon a sound basis, and that the characters written | -| upon the codices, and the hieroglyphs graven upon the idols and | -| stone tablets will be ultimately deciphered. | -| | -| [85] Some years after my return to England I had a long | -| conversation upon the subject of alligators with Mr. Bates, who | -| was then our Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society, and | -| whose knowledge upon all matters concerning the habits of animals | -| in tropical lands was very extensive. In his book “The Naturalist | -| on the Amazons,” he mentions a case that happened at a place | -| called Carcara. | -| | -| An Indian, one of the crew belonging to a trading canoe, whilst in | -| a half-drunken state went down to bathe in the lake and stumbled. | -| A pair of gaping jaws seized him round the waist and dragged him | -| under water; after a short lapse of time the brute came up to | -| breathe and was seen with one leg of the man sticking out from his | -| jaws. | -| | -| Other instances of this kind have been mentioned by naturalists, | -| but I do not remember any cases of men being seized when actually | -| swimming in the water. Possibly my Indians may have known from | -| hearsay or experience the truth of what they stated. | -| | -| It has been said that alligators, owing to the formation of their | -| throats, cannot swallow their prey in the water, but are obliged | -| to go to the banks for that purpose. | -| | -| It was not, however, upon the subject of the danger to men from | -| approaching these reptiles that the conversation chiefly turned. | -| | -| We discussed the question of their food supply. Mr. Bates said | -| that they lived upon fish. I observed, with reference to that part | -| of the river where I had seen them congregated in such amazing | -| numbers, that it was impossible that the supply of food from fish | -| alone could be sufficient, and also that in consequence of the | -| filthy state of the water no fish could live in it. | -| | -| Mr. Bates after some consideration said that their food must be | -| fish, but he added, that it was probable that they could live in | -| an almost torpid condition for long periods. | -| | -| Mr. Bates felt assured that fish formed the food of alligators. It | -| was not possible to feel quite satisfied with this solution of the | -| problem, especially under circumstances where alligators abound in | -| stagnant lagoons in which fish must necessarily be scarce. | -| | -| In the unfrequented parts of the estuaries of rivers flowing into | -| the Caribbean sea, it can be understood that at certain seasons of | -| the year the supply of fish may be great, and we have the | -| authority of that careful observer Mr. Bartram, for the statement | -| that upon those occasions the numbers of alligators crowding the | -| rivers in Florida were astonishing. | -| | -| In 1853 the “Vestal” happened to be cruising off Cuba, and I was | -| sent in charge of the boats to look for fresh water in Guantanomo | -| harbour, at a spot which was reputed to have been a favourite | -| haunt of pirates in the seventeenth century. | -| | -| After some search we discovered a small stream, but the entrance | -| was defended by such crowds of alligators that we had great | -| difficulty in passing through them. If, as was possible, they were | -| waiting for the arrival of fish from the upper waters, it may be | -| inferred that a comparatively small supply of food suffices for | -| their sustenance. | -| | -| [86] “Cartas de Hernan Cortes,” collected by Don Pascual de | -| Gayangos, p. 407. | -| | -| [87] “Almaizal, a sort of veil or head attire used by the Moorish | -| women, made of thin silk, striped of several colours, and shagged | -| at the ends, which hangs down on the back.” Baretti’s Dictionary, | -| 1807. | -| | -| [88] See “Landa’s Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan,” edited and | -| translated by L’Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg. | -| | -| [89] See chapter vii. | -| | -| [90] Landa “Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan.” p. 164. | -| | -| [91] See chapter xi. | -| | -| [92] The facing stones placed upon the walls of the ruins of Mitla, | -| in the Mexican province of Oaxaca, are fitted, or bedded, into the | -| mortar and rubble in the same manner as at Uxmal. | -| | -| At one of the evening conversaziones given by the Royal Society at | -| Burlington House, in the spring of 1892, I happened to discuss the | -| subject of Palenque and Uxmal with Mr. Woolner, the sculptor. Some | -| experiments had previously been carried out in France which had | -| proved that with stone chisels it was possible to carve granite, | -| limestones, and hard sandstones. | -| | -| The investigations did not, however, make it clear how it could | -| have happened that the Indian sculptors were able to work with | -| such facility that they covered their buildings with deeply | -| chiselled ornamentation. Mr. Woolner said that he thought it | -| probable that the Indians may have been acquainted with some | -| strong acids, and that they may have used these to soften the | -| stone and make it more workable. | -| | -| We were looking at some photographs exhibited by Mr. Maudslay, | -| who had lately returned from Palenque, and the question of the | -| method of carving the outlines of the figures on the stone slabs | -| of the courts came under consideration. Mr. Woolner thought that | -| the subject was very difficult, but that it was possible that the | -| figures had been previously traced and then worked with acid as he | -| had already suggested. | -| | -| [93] When I heard of this Indian practice my thoughts went far away | -| from the forests of Palenque. Memories of the Eton playing fields | -| were recalled and an old Eton Latin grammar, and the familiar | -| line, “Pallida mors æquo pulsat pede pauperum tabernas regumque | -| turres.” With Indians, as with others, the fatal footstep cannot | -| be turned aside. | -| | -| [94] For a description of this ceremony see Landa, chap. xxvi. | -| “Manner of baptism in Yucatan. How it was celebrated.” | -| | -| [95] See “Historia de la Guerra de Castas de Yucatan,” p. 77. | -| Merida, 1866. | -| | -| [96] As the little Aguinaga was timidly seeking for an anchorage, I | -| remembered a far different scene in which I had taken part in | -| 1853, seventeen years earlier. | -| | -| The Vestal, a twenty-six gun frigate in which I was then serving, | -| had captured three slavers off the north coast of Cuba. One of | -| them was a fast sailing vessel called the Venus. She had become | -| notorious for her success in evading our cruisers and landing | -| large cargoes of slaves. | -| | -| When we arrived off the mouth of the port of Havannah we formed | -| our fleet of prizes into line and passed between the castles in | -| triumph: our movements being watched by thousands of the Spanish | -| inhabitants as we took up our anchorage in the centre of the | -| harbour. | -| | -| [97] “Work in Mound Exploration of the Bureau of Ethnology,” by | -| Cyrus Thomas, Washington, 1887. | -| | -| [98] “The Mounds of the Mississippi Valley, Historically | -| Considered,” by Lucien Carr, Assistant Curator of the Peabody | -| Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology, Cambridge, Mass. | -| | -| [99] See Note, chapter iv., p. 69. | -| | -| [100] In the sixteenth century, the Cherokees occupied the lands in | -| that part of America where the States of North Carolina, Alabama | -| and Georgia border upon the State of Tennessee. | -| | -| [101] See chapter v., p. 94. | -| | -| [102] Merida now occupies the site of Tihoo. The stones, with which | -| were built the pyramids and temples, were used in the construction | -| of the new city. | -| | -| [103] Relation des choses de Yucatan, p. 351. | -| | -| [104] According to Humboldt, the Toltecs arrived in Anáhuac | -| (Mexico) A.D. 648, and reached Tula in 670. The pyramids of | -| Téotihuacan, a few leagues north of the modern city of Mexico, | -| were built by them. They afterwards raised the great pyramid of | -| Cholula, and on its platform built a temple for the worship of | -| Quetzalcoatl. From Cholula, colonies of the Toltecs went to | -| Tabasco and Yucatan. | -| | -| The Aztecs arrived in Mexico in 1190, and found there the pyramids | -| which they believed to hive been the work of their predecessors | -| the Toltecs, who had obtained a knowledge of hieroglyphics and | -| of methods of computing time by calendars. The Aztecs founded | -| Tenochtitlan (the city of Mexico) in 1325. | -| | -| [105] The custom of confining captives or slaves in wooden cages | -| for the purpose of being prepared for sacrifice, was supposed to | -| have been established by the Aztecs about a century after they had | -| settled in Mexico. | -| | -| There is reason to believe that in consequence of their being | -| surrounded by enemies and engaged in constant wars, they | -| considered it necessary to propitiate the war god in the most | -| terrific manner. Thus when the great Teocalli, erected for the | -| worship of Huitzil-pochli, was completed, many thousands of | -| victims were sacrificed as propitiatory offerings. When colonies | -| of the Aztec race were advancing in the direction of Tabasco and | -| Yucatan, similar sacrificial ceremonies were performed. | -| | -| Bernal Diaz saw, in one of the Indian towns that had been captured | -| by the Spaniards, three large cages full of prisoners who were | -| waiting to be sacrificed. They were fastened by collars to prevent | -| their escape. They were taken out of the cages and sent back to | -| their own tribes. He elsewhere observes that the Indians devoured | -| human flesh after the victims had been sacrificed, in the same way | -| as the Spaniards devoured oxen. It is evident that great numbers | -| of the aboriginal natives must have been kept in slavery and, in | -| time of war, were killed and eaten by the Aztecs. | -| | -| [106] Bernal Diaz, chapter xxix, and Landa, p. 12. | -| | -| [107] It was noticed soon after the Spanish conquest that the | -| Indians died rapidly from causes of a mental character. They died | -| because they did not wish to live. The conditions of slavery they | -| were forced to endure had such an effect upon them that they | -| gradually lost their strength. After submitting for a time to | -| the hardships imposed upon them they appeared to become resigned | -| to their fate. Life was a burden. They lost heart and died from | -| misery. This was particularly the case in Cuba and Hispaniola. | -| | -| [108] The Indians in Yucatan, had a chief priest who had a general | -| control over all matters relating to the priesthood. He nominated | -| the priests to the villages, examined them in their sciences and | -| ceremonies, provided them with books and sent them to attend in | -| the service of the temples. | -| | -| According to Landa “they taught the sons of other priests and the | -| younger sons of the chiefs that were brought to them for this | -| purpose when they were children, if it was observed that they were | -| inclined towards this office. The sciences which they taught were | -| the computations of the years, months, and days, the festivals and | -| ceremonies, the administration of their sacraments, the days and | -| times that were fatal, the manner of divinations and prophecies | -| and coming events, the remedies for sickness and things concerning | -| antiquities, and to read and write with their books, and | -| characters with which they wrote and with figures which explained | -| the writings.” | -| | -| In Yucatan, as in Mexico, the calendar was carefully constructed. | -| The year consisted of three hundred and sixty-five days and six | -| hours. Landa observes that the months were of two kinds. One was | -| lunar and was regulated by the movements of the moon. The other | -| method of computation was formed by dividing the year into | -| eighteen divisions or months, each consisting of twenty days and | -| there were five days and six hours over. Of these six hours one | -| day was made every four years. For these three hundred and | -| sixty-six days they had twenty letters or characters by which they | -| were named. (Relacion de las cosas de Yucatan, pp. 42; 202). | -| | -| Las Casas observes in his Apologética Historia, chapter cxxi, that | -| “the year of the Mexican people consisted of three hundred and | -| sixty-five days divided into eighteen months and five days. Each | -| month was twenty days, and the week was thirteen days of which | -| they had constituted a calendar, and for each day of the week, of | -| the month and of the year they had its idol with its own name, and | -| these names were of men, or of women which they held or had held | -| as gods; and thus all the days were filled up with these idols | -| and names and figures in the same manner as our breviaries and | -| calendars have for each day its saint.” | -| | -| The illustration of the calendar stone is from a photograph | -| taken from the original stone in the city of Mexico. This great | -| astronomical record was discovered in the year 1790, buried | -| several feet below the surface, in the spot where stood the chief | -| pyramid and temple of the Aztecs. It is made from a large mass of | -| basalt, and the circular part has a circumference of more than | -| thirty-eight feet. It is probably one of the earliest and one of | -| the most elaborate of the sculptured works of the Toltecs. It will | -| be observed that the points have a singular resemblance to those | -| of the mariner’s compass. The head placed in the centre has been | -| supposed to represent the Mexican god of the sun. It is possible | -| that it may have been intended to represent Quetzalcoatl, the | -| traditional teacher and originator of the Mexican knowledge of | -| astronomy. | -| | -| [109] The fact of men wearing beards would be considered | -| extraordinary by the American Indians. Landa states that | -| “Cucul-can raised several temples, established regulations for the | -| maintenance of good order, and then left Yucatan and proceeded | -| towards Mexico.” | -| | -| [110] Apologética Historia, chapter cxxiii. | -| | -| [111] With respect to the ancient Indian structures it is expedient | -| to give a brief consideration to those that were raised at Copan | -| and Quirigua. The earliest account of the sculptures existing at | -| Copan was given by Palacio in 1576. In his Report to the King of | -| Spain he mentions that within the ruins was a stone cross three | -| palms high, and beyond it “There was a statue more than four yards | -| high, sculptured like a bishop in his pontifical robes with his | -| mitre well worked and with rings in his hands.” | -| | -| After describing other large statues and the ruins overlooking the | -| river, Palacio observes, “I enquired with all possible attention | -| for any traditions from the ancient people as to what people lived | -| here, and if anything was known of their ancestors, and whether | -| there were any books concerning these antiquities ... They say | -| that anciently there came there a great chief of the province of | -| Yucatan who made these edifices, and after several years he went | -| back to his country, and left them solitary and unpeopled.... It | -| also appears that the style of the said edifices is like what was | -| found in other places by the Spaniards who first discovered | -| Yucatan and Tabasco, where figures of bishops were seen and armed | -| men and crosses, and since such things have not been found in | -| other regions it can be believed that those that made them were | -| probably of one nation.” (Report of the Licentiate Dr. Don Diego | -| Garcia de Palacio to the King of Spain, 1576.) | -| | -| It is recorded by Juarros that in the year 1700, Fuentes, who | -| wrote the Chronicles of Guatemala, stated with respect to Copan, | -| that the figures, “both male and female were of very excellent | -| sculpture, which then retained the colours they had been enamelled | -| with; and what was not less remarkable, the whole of them were | -| habited in the Castilian costume.” The same author relates that at | -| “a short distance, there was a portal constructed of stone, on the | -| columns of which were the figures of men likewise represented in | -| Spanish habits, with hose, ruff round the neck, sword, cap, and | -| short cloak”.... | -| | -| “All the circumstances,” observes Juarros, “lead to a belief that | -| there must have been some intercourse between the inhabitants of | -| the old and new world at very remote periods.” | -| | -| The information given traditionally by the Indians living at | -| Copan, is singularly in accordance with the traditions of the | -| priests and caciques in Mexico and Yucatan with respect to the | -| arrival of a stranger who commanded temples and pyramids to be | -| built and then went away and never returned. | -| | -| It is remarkable that, in the first interview between Montezuma | -| and Cortes, a singular tradition was mentioned by that Emperor. | -| Cortes in his second letter (Segunda carta-relacion) dated 30th | -| October, 1520, relates that Montezuma spoke to him as follows:—“We | -| know from our writings that we received from our ancestors, that I | -| and all those who live in this land are not the natives of it. We | -| are strangers and came into it from very distant regions. We also | -| know that our nation was led here by a chief whose vassals all | -| were. He afterwards went back to his native country. Afterwards he | -| returned and found that those he had left had married the native | -| women (mujeres naturales) and had many children, and had built | -| villages where they lived, and when he wished them to proceed with | -| him they did not want to go, or even receive him as their chief | -| and therefore he went away.” | -| | -| [112] The author of the Popol Vuh, does not mention the tradition | -| about Votan. | -| | -| [113] Las Casas in commenting upon the subject of the Cozumel | -| cross, mentions that it was ten palms high. In the course of | -| the extensive explorations carried out by M. Desiré Charnay, in | -| 1880–82, a similar stone was discovered at Téotihuacan. It is | -| considered to be the emblem of Tlaloc, the god of rain. | -| | -| [114] Professor Rau in his memoir upon the Palenque tablet, states | -| that it is his belief that the Maya language, or a kindred | -| dialect, was spoken by the builders of Palenque. | -| | -| With regard to this subject it has to be observed that when the | -| Toltec tribes, or the tribe that built the temples, settled at | -| Palenque they had possibly forgotten their own original language, | -| which may have been a Pawnee or Dakota dialect. | -| | -| It would naturally happen after their wives had been taken from | -| among the aboriginal race, that the children would speak the | -| dialects of their mothers. It has been mentioned by an early | -| Spanish writer that the Aztecs, when they settled in Mexico, | -| endeavoured to establish their own language, but without success. | -| | -| [115] Vol. iv., p. 333. | -| | -| [116] According to Gibbon, the Goths under the command of King | -| Roderick, were defeated by the Saracens on the plains of Xeres in | -| the neighbourhood of Cadiz, upon July 19–26, A.D. 711. This great | -| battle decided the fate of Spain. It was supposed that Roderick | -| was drowned in the river but it was not known with certainty what | -| became of him as his body was never found. | -| | -| Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap. li. | -| | -| The subject of the flight of the bishops, was afterwards brought | -| into notice by a report of the discovery of the island where they | -| had settled. This fabulous report was believed, in the fifteenth | -| century, to be true. An historian states that:— | -| | -| “In this yeare also, 1447, it happened that there came a Portugal | -| ship through the Streight of Gibraltar; and being taken with a | -| great tempest, was forced to runne westward more than willingly | -| the men would, and at last they fell vpon an island which had | -| seuen cities, and the people spake the Portugall toong, and they | -| demanded if the Moores did yet trouble Spaine, whence they had | -| fled for the loss which they had received by the death of the King | -| of Spain, Don Roderigo. | -| | -| The boatswaine of the ship brought home a little of the sand, and | -| sold it unto a goldsmith of Lisbon, out of the which he had a good | -| quantitie of gold. | -| | -| Don Pedro, understanding this, being then gouernor of the realme, | -| caused all the things thus brought home, and made knowne, to be | -| recorded in the house of Justice.” | -| | -| The Discoveries of the World, by Antonio Galvano. | -| | -| [117] Antilia appears as a large island in the Atlantic in the rare | -| maps of Andreas Bianco (1436) and Bartolomeo Pareto (1454). On | -| Martin Behaim’s globe (1492) it is placed about eighteen hundred | -| miles west of the Canaries. In the earliest maps published after | -| the return of Columbus to Spain, Antilia is placed near the newly | -| discovered islands of the West Indies. | -| | -| The legend upon the accompanying map may be rendered as follows:— | -| | -| “The island of Antilia was, at some period, discovered by the | -| Lusitanians, but the exact time is not known. There have been | -| found there in it families who speak Spanish as it was spoken in | -| the days of Roderick, who was the last King of Spain in the time | -| of the Goths, and they are supposed to have fled to this island | -| from the face of the Barbarians who had then invaded Spain. They | -| have here one Archbishop with six other Bishops, each of whom has | -| his own proper city, hence it is called by many the island of the | -| seven cities. The population are strict Christians and abound in | -| all this world’s wealth.” | -| | -| [118] In the first voyage of Columbus the vessels left the Canaries | -| on the 6th of September and arrived off Guanahani on the night | -| of the 11th of October, having been thirty days at sea. They had | -| traversed a distance, according to the Admiral’s journal, of 1,092 | -| leagues or 3,276 miles. On the second voyage from the Canaries to | -| Dominica they left on the 3rd of October and arrived on the 3rd of | -| November. Upon the last voyage, Columbus left Ferro (one of the | -| Canary islands) on the 26th of May and reached St. Lucia in the | -| West Indies on the 15th of June. This was a quick passage and only | -| occupied twenty days. | -| | -| In the Vestal, a sailing frigate of 26 guns, we left the island | -| of Gran Canaria in the year 1852, on the morning of the 27th of | -| September, and passed between Antigua and Guadeloupe at noon on | -| the 16th of October after a voyage of nineteen days, having sailed | -| over a distance of 2,800 miles. During the whole of this time we | -| were running before the wind with our studding sails set, steering | -| West. A favourable N.E. wind prevails from Florida to Yucatan and | -| the Mexican coast. With respect to Columbus’s first voyage it | -| should be observed that his landfall at Guanahani was four or five | -| days’ sail further west than the islands of Dominica and St. | -| Lucia. | -| | -+----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Redundant title page has been removed. - - Blank pages have been removed. - - Silently corrected typographical errors. - - Spelling and hyphenation variations made consistent. - - Page 416: Nicuaragua corrected to Nicaragua. - - Anchor added for footnote 111. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Travels Amongst American Indians, by Lindesay Brine - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRAVELS AMONGST AMERICAN INDIANS *** - -***** This file should be named 60170-0.txt or 60170-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/1/7/60170/ - -Produced by MFR, Robert Tonsing, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: Travels Amongst American Indians - Their Ancient Earthworks and Temples - -Author: Lindesay Brine - -Release Date: August 25, 2019 [EBook #60170] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRAVELS AMONGST AMERICAN INDIANS *** - - - - -Produced by MFR, Robert Tonsing, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - <div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/cover.jpg" width="500" height="800" alt="" /> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_frontis"><img src="images/i_frontis.jpg" width="700" height="392" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption">ALTAR-PIECE, TEMPLE OF THE CROSS, PALENQUE.</div> - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">iii</span></p> - - <h1><span class="xlarge lh3">TRAVELS AMONGST</span><br /> - <span class="xxxlarge lh3">AMERICAN INDIANS</span><br /> - <span class="large">THEIR ANCIENT EARTHWORKS<br /> - AND TEMPLES;</span> - </h1> - - <div class="center"> - <div class="lh2"> - <span class="xsmall">INCLUDING A JOURNEY IN</span><br /> - GUATEMALA, MEXICO AND YUCATAN,<br /> - <span class="xsmall">AND A VISIT TO</span><br /> - THE RUINS OF PATINAMIT, UTATLAN, PALENQUE<br /> - AND UXMAL. - </div> - - <div class="mt5 mb5 lh2"> - <span class="xsmall">BY</span><br /> - <span class="large smcap">Vice-Admiral LINDESAY BRINE,</span><br /> - <span class="xsmall">(<i>Member of Council of the Royal Geographical and Hakluyt Societies.</i>)<br /> - <i>Author of “The Taeping Rebellion in China; a Narrative of its Rise - and Progress.”</i></span> - </div> - - <hr class="short" /> - - <div class="mt5 lh1"> - <span class="small">LONDON</span><br /> - SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON & COMPANY,<br /> - <span class="small"><i>LIMITED</i>,</span><br /> - <span class="small gothic">St. Dunstan’s House,</span><br /> - <span class="small">FETTER LANE, FLEET STREET, E.C.<br /> - 1894.</span> - </div> - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">iv</span></p> - <div class="center xsmall smcap">london:<br /> - Farmer & Sons, Printers, 295, Edgware Road, W.;<br /> - and at kensington. - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="PREFACE"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span> - <h2>PREFACE.</h2> - </div> - <hr class="short" /> - - <p><span class="smcap">The</span> attention of archæologists and students of the ancient Mexican - hieroglyphs has latterly been directed to the mysterious subject of the - origin of the astronomical and architectural knowledge that existed - in Mexico, Guatemala, and Yucatan before the discovery of America. - In the United States researches have also been made for the purpose - of establishing, upon a scientific basis, conclusions respecting the - tribes who made the extraordinary ramparts and geometrically planned - inclosures in Ohio.</p> - - <p>It is a remarkable fact that although, since the period when Mexico was - conquered by Cortes, an almost uninterrupted series of investigations - have taken place into the peculiar conditions of civilization of the - Mexican and Central American Indians, nothing satisfactory has yet been - ascertained which explains the manner in which that civilization could - have arisen amongst those exceptionally instructed races.</p> - - <p>Las Casas who, in the sixteenth century, lived for many years amongst - the Indians in his diocese of Chiapas and Yucatan and saw several of - the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span> temples in that region, - declared that the land contained a secret. - That secret may possibly be discovered if the hieroglyphs and symbolic - characters of the Toltecs and Aztecs can be interpreted. But until - trustworthy methods of decipherment are determined, all conclusions, in - default of other evidence, must necessarily be conjectural.</p> - - <p>It was with the vague expectation that I should observe, either amongst - the earthworks in the North or in the constructions at Palenque and - Uxmal, analogies with the works of other races in Asia or Polynesia, - that the travels described in this volume were undertaken. After my - arrival in England a brief paper upon the subject of those travels, - so far as they related to Guatemala and Mexico, was read before the - British Association in Edinburgh and was afterwards published in 1872 - under the title of “The Ruined Cities of Central America.”</p> - - <p>More than twenty years then elapsed before the approaching termination - of my naval career gave me sufficient leisure to examine my journals - with that exclusive attention which the complicated and perplexing - nature of the subject required. This interval of time has enabled - me to obtain a more vivid perception of the relative proportions - of the problem, and to bring together in a more defined focus the - impressions and observations which had been written during the journey. - The theories then adopted have been modified or strengthened by the - knowledge <span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span>that has been subsequently acquired in other quarters of the - world.</p> - - <p>It will be observed, upon an examination of the illustrations of the - ruins of Uxmal, that the Indians in Yucatan must have possessed great - architectural capacities. Pyramids, Temples, Monasteries and other - religious structures were built under most difficult circumstances, in - a manner which commands admiration.</p> - - <p>But it is not only the later civilization of the Mexican Indians that - has to be taken into consideration in any attempts that may be made - to solve the difficult and complex problem of this Indian advance - towards higher conditions of life. Underlying the whole question - are the native proclivities based upon the strange and significant - practices of earlier forms of Pagan superstitions and sacrifices. Some - of the profoundly interesting characteristics of these developments of - the aboriginal Indian belief in supernatural influences have formed - the subject of that chapter which relates to the ancient religious - observances of the North American Indians.</p> - - <div class="mt5"><span class="smcap">Athenæum Club</span>, <i>May</i> 15, 1894.</div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CONTENTS"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span> - <h2>CONTENTS.</h2> - </div> - <hr class="short" /> - - <table summary="Contents"> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc0"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdr xsmall"><div>PAGE.</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - New York.—Mr. Grinnell.—Search for Sir John Franklin.—Southern States.—The - Negroes and their prospects.—Naval Academy at Annapolis.—Military Academy - at West Point.—Shakers.—Boston.—Professor Agassiz.—Prairies and Glacial - Action.—Coral Reefs in Florida.—Mr. Ticknor.—Shell Mounds in Florida.—Schools.—Dr. - Howe’s Institution for the Blind.—Laura Bridgman - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>1</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - Professor Wyman.—Indian Antiquities.—Concord.—Mr. Ralph Waldo Emerson.—Margaret - Fuller.—Note upon a visit to Mr. Longfellow.—Saturday Club.—Dinner at Harvard - University.—Shell Mounds at Concord and Damariscotta.—Note upon the Ancient - Inscription upon the Dighton Rock - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>19</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - Indian Reservations.—Lake Superior.—Beavers and their works.—The - Forest.—Houghton.—Ancient Indian mining pits and trenches.—An Indian battle - ground.—The Glacial Drift.—Note regarding the Dauphin - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>34</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span> - <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - <span class="smcap">Ancient Indian Mounds and Earthworks in Ohio</span>.—Earthworks - of the Mound Builders and their geographical position.—Miamisburgh Mound.—Grave - Creek Mound.—Ages and contents of burial mounds.—Rectangular, circular and octagonal - Inclosures near Newark.—Marietta Earthworks.—Discoveries made in a burial - mound.—Fortifications near Portsmouth.—Encampments in the valley of the Scioto - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>55</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - <span class="smcap">Mounds and Earthworks in Ohio</span>.—Ancient Fortified Inclosures - at Circleville.—Discoveries in a Burial Mound.—Alligator Totem near Newark.—Fort - Ancient.—Age of Trees growing upon the Ramparts at Fort Hill.—Traditions.—Geometrical - Ground Plans of Indian Inclosures.—Conclusions - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>79</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - The burning of the Steamer Stonewall.—Indian Mounds and Earthworks at Cahokia.—Confluence - of the Mississippi and Missouri.—Sacs and Foxes.—Education of Indians.—Nauvoo.—Winona.—Sioux - Encampment.—Ancient Mounds near St. Paul’s.—The Sioux War in Minnesota.—Note upon the - Ogallalas - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>104</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - Prairies in Minnesota and Iowa.—Boulders.—Glacial Drift.—Wild Rice.—Snow Storm.—Nebraska.—The - Pawnees.—Human Sacrifices.—Note on Indian Customs in War and Cannibalism.—Prairie - Fires.—Prairie-Dog Villages.—Rattlesnakes.—Variations in the succession of growths of - Trees.—Causes of absence of Trees upon Prairies.—Shoshone Indians on the Western - Deserts.—Note upon Ute Indians and Fuegians - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>124</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span> - <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - North American Indians.—Diversity of Languages.—The Iroquois.—Dialects.—Descent of - Iroquois chiefs through the female line.—Pagan Indians.—Belief in a Great - Spirit.—Ceremonies.—Dakotas.—Superstitions.—Dreams.—Fasts.—Sun worship.—Medicine - men.—Customs of mourning by widows.—Supernatural - influences.—Lightning.—Transmigration.—Worship of Spirit rocks.—Serpent - worship.—Human sacrifices.—Burial customs.—Method of curing sickness by steam.—Note - upon analogies between the customs of the Indians, Maoris, and the natives of the - Sandwich Islands - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>149</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - The Golden City.—Coast of California—Cape San Lucas.—Manzanillo.—Alligators and - Sharks.—Acapulco.—San José de Guatemala.—Escuintla.—City of Guatemala.—Indian - pilgrims from Esquipulas.—Ancient mounds on the plains of Mixco.—Insurrection - of Indians.—Decapitation of their leader.—Preparations for the journey across - the Continent to Palenque and Yucatan - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>176</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - Mixco.—La Antigua Guatemala.—Volcanoes of Fire and Water.—Comolapa.—Ancient - Indian Ruins of Patinamit.—Kachiquel Indians.—A Dominican Priest.—Barrancas.—Las - Godinas.—Panajachel.—Human Sacrifices to the Lakes and Volcanoes.—Lake - Atitlan.—Sololá.—Orchids.—San Tomas.—Quiché Indians - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>194</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span><div class="tdc"> - <a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - Barrancas.—Santa Cruz del Quiché.—Padre Andres Guicola.—Ruins of Utatlan.—Report - of Don Garcia de Palacio upon human sacrifices to the gods in Central America, - Statement of Bernal Diaz, about the sacrifices in Mexico.—Burning of the Quiché - Caciques at Utatlan.—Worship of idols by the Quichés.—Sierras.—Gueguetenango - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>216</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - The Sierra Madre.—Todos Santos.—Evening Prayer (La Oracion).—Indian domestic - habits.—Religious devotion.—Goitre.—Jacaltenango.—Indian Festival.—A - Temblor.—Indian Idolatry.—Custom of ancient inhabitants to serve the parents - whose daughters they wished to marry.—Doubtful fidelity of my guide.—Condition - of Mule.—Mexican Frontier.—Comitan.—Note on President Juarez, and the - Execution of the Emperor Maximilian - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>238</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - Camping on the plains.—A night amongst the hills in Chiapas.—Lopez.—Indian - Sun worship.—Ocosingo.—An ancient idol.—Proposed expedition through the - unknown region occupied by the Lacandones to British Honduras.—Bachajon.—Tzendal - Indians.—Chilon.—Indian Carnival.—Yajalon.—Carnival amongst the - Tzendales.—Drunkenness.—Dances.—Horse races.—Ruined Churches and - Convents.—Influence of the Priests over the Indian Tribes.—Las Casas.—Forced - labour.—The Presbitero Fernando Macal - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>259</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - An Indian steam bath.—Tumbalá.—Sierras and Forests.—San Pedro.—Desertion of - guide.—Alguazils.—Construction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">xii</span> of - Indian huts.—Habits of Indians.—Cargadores.—Crossing a River.—Forests beyond - San Pedro.—Powers of endurance of Indians.—Arrival at San Domingo del Palenque - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>278</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - Palenque.—The Forest.—The Palace or Monastery.—Night at Palenque.—Brilliancy - of the light of the fireflies.—Pyramidal Mounds and Temples.—Tablet of the - Cross.—Hieroglyphs.—An Indian Statue.—Antiquity of the Buildings.—The - Tower.—Stucco Ornamentation.—Action of the tropical climate upon the - Ruins.—Note upon the decipherment of the hieroglyphic characters - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>297</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - Mounds in the valley of the Usamacinta.—Lacandones.—Catasaja.—Canoe - voyage.—Rivers and Lagoons.—Alligators.—Jonuta.—Cortes’s March to - Honduras.—Cannibalism.—The Mexican Emperor Guatimozin.—Palisada.—Laguna - de Terminos.—Island of Carmen.—Campeachy.—Yucatan.—Pyramidal Altar.—Human - sacrifices.—Tzibalché.—Maya Indians.—Arrival at Uxmal - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>318</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - Uxmal.—Extent of ground occupied by the Ruins.—Teocallis.—Burial places - at the foot of the Pyramid of the Dwarf.—Evening Service at the chapel - of the hacienda.—Casa del Gobernador.—Sacrificial customs.—Preservation - of the wooden lintels.—The Nunnery or Casa de las Monjas.—Religious - customs of the Indians.—Emblem of the Serpent.—Sculptures.—Conjectures - respecting the possibility of Moorish, Spanish, or Oriental influence - upon architectural design.—Methods of construction.—Note upon a fall of - rain supposed to be caused by the fires of the Indians - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>339</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span> - <div class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - Departure from Uxmal.—Indian officials at Abalá.—Indian Ceremonies.—Worship - of demons.—Baptismal customs.—Laws of the Emperor Charles V. for the - government of the natives in Yucatan.—Superstitions.—An Indian Well.—Halt - at night.—Merida.—Convent of the Conceptionistas.—Sisal.—The Basque brig - Aguinaga.—Departure for Cuba and Florida.—Tampa.—Cedar Keys.—Buccaneers.—Shell - Mounds.—Ancient Burial Mounds.—Florida Indians - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>360</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - Mounds and Earthworks in North and Central America.—Migrations of the Toltecs - and Aztecs.—The Quichés.—Aboriginal races.—Palenque.—Hieroglyphs.—Temples.—Desertion - of the Temples and stone buildings in Yucatan.—Conquest of Yucatan by the - Aztecs.—Antiquity of Palenque and Uxmal.—Aztec custom of imprisoning captives - in cages and sacrificing them to the gods.—Civilisation of the Toltecs.—Note upon - the symbol or Totem of the Serpent - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>378</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> - Conjectures respecting the descendants of the tribes who built the Temples.—Knowledge - and education of the Caciques and Priests.—Traditions of the arrival of white - strangers from the East.—Las Casas.—Quetzal-Coatl.—Crosses found in - Yucatan.—Gomara.—Legend of the flight of Spaniards by sea towards the West after - the conquest of Spain by the Saracens.—Fabulous island of Antilia.—Columbus on his - outward voyage steers for Antilia.—Trade-winds.—Considerations upon the probabilities - of vessels being driven across the Atlantic or Pacific Oceans towards America - </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>400</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#INDEX"><span class="smcap">Index</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>423</div></td> - </tr> - </table> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">xiv</span> - <h2>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> - </div> - <hr class="short" /> - - <table summary="Illustrations"> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc0">PLATES.</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdr xsmall"><div>PAGE.</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_frontis"><span class="smcap">Altar-piece, Temple of the Cross, Palenque</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div><i>Frontispiece</i>.</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_036f"><span class="smcap">Beaver Dam, Lodge and Pond, near Ishpeming</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>36</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_050f"><span class="smcap">Chippewa Chief</span> (West of Lake Superior)</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>50</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_108f"><span class="smcap">Indian Mounds, Cahokia</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>108</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_116fa"><span class="smcap">Chippewa Encampment</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>116</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_116fb"><span class="smcap">Sioux Encampment</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>116</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_118f"><span class="smcap">Spirit Rock</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>118</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_132f"><span class="smcap">Pawnee, (Sha-to-ko)</span> Blue-Hawk</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>132</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_136f"><span class="smcap">Pawnee Woman</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>136</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_142fa"><span class="smcap">Prairie and Boulders, North Iowa</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>142</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_142fb"><span class="smcap">Prairie Dogs, Nebraska</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>142</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_146f"><span class="smcap">Indian, Salt Lake Valley, Utah</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>146</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_174f"><span class="smcap">Chiefs of the Ogallalas</span> (Dakotas)</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>174</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_190f"><span class="smcap">Ancient Indian Mounds near Guatemala</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>190</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_196f"><span class="smcap">Cathedral and Square, La Antigua Guatemala</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>196</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_216f"><span class="smcap">Quiché Indian holding the office of Alguazil</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>216</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_238fa"><span class="smcap">Barranca, Central America</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>238</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_238fb"><span class="smcap">Indian Huts</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>238</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_288f"><span class="smcap">Indian Woman Grinding Chocolate</span>, (Central America)</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>288</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_297f"><span class="smcap">Palace or Monastery, Palenque (east front)</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>297</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_339f"><span class="smcap">†Uxmal</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>339</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_340f"><span class="smcap">†Pyramid and Temple of the Dwarf</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>340</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_342fb"><span class="smcap">†An Angle of the Casa de las Monjas</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>342</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_342fa"><span class="smcap">†Casa del Gobernador</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>342</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_344fb"><span class="smcap">†An Angle of the Casa de las Monjas</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>344</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_344fa"><span class="smcap">†Casa de las Monjas</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>344</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">xv</span> - <a href="#i_350f"><span class="smcap">Serpent Emblem, Casa de las Monjas</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>350</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_352f"><span class="smcap">†Interior of the Casa de las Monjas and its adjoining Pyramid and Temple, Uxmal</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>352</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_356f"><span class="smcap">†Quadrangle, Casa de las Monjas</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>356</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_390f"><span class="smcap">Part of the Altar-piece in a Temple at Palenque</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>390</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_398f"><span class="smcap">Mexican Cacique making an offering</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>398</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_408f"><span class="smcap">Mexican Calendar Stone</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>408</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc">MAPS AND PLANS.</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_035"><span class="smcap">Lake Superior</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>35</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_054"><span class="smcap">Region of the Mound Builders</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>54</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_066"><span class="smcap">Inclosures near Newark</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>66</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_071"><span class="smcap">Inclosures at Marietta</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>71</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_081"><span class="smcap">Inclosures at Circleville</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>81</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_088"><span class="smcap">Fort Ancient</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>88</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_097"><span class="smcap">Octagonal and Circular Inclosures, Newark</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>97</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_418f"><span class="smcap">Antilia</span> (from Ruysch’s Map of the World, 1508)</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>418</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_422fa"><span class="smcap">Central America And Yucatan</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div> </div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_422fb"><span class="smcap">United States And Mexico</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div> </div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><div class="tdc">ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_177"><span class="smcap">The Golden City passing the Seal Rocks</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>177</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_200"><span class="smcap">Volcan de Agua and Volcan de Fuego</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>200</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_227"><span class="smcap">Approach to Utatlan</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>227</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_264"><span class="smcap">Indian Statue, Ocosingo</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>264</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_311"><span class="smcap">Indian Statue, Palenque</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>311</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_348"><span class="smcap">Entrance to the Casa de las Monjas</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><div>348</div></td> - </tr> - </table> - - <hr class="tb" /> - <p><span class="smcap">Note</span>.—The illustration of the Serpent Emblem in the - Casa de las Monjas is reproduced from a large photograph taken - at Uxmal by William D. James, Esq. It will be observed that the - details of the sculpture of the rattlesnake are very clearly - defined.</p> - - <p>The illustrations marked † are from a series of valuable - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">xvi</span> - photographs, also taken at Uxmal, by Captain Herbert Dowding, - Royal Navy, who placed at my disposal such of them as I - considered to be required for the purposes of this work.</p> - - <p>I wish to call particular attention to the representation of - that part of the Casa de las Monjas where the adjacent Temple - of the Dwarf is seen. In comparing the structures with the - pyramid, it has to be remembered that the Casa de las Monjas is - placed upon a raised platform not less than seventeen feet in - height. The Pyramid of the Dwarf is completely detached.</p> - - <p>Upon an examination of the frontispiece it will be noticed that - the centre stone which, when I saw it lying on the ground at - Palenque, was uninjured, is there shown in two portions which - are kept in position by iron clamps.</p> - - <p>It was accidentally broken when being removed from Palenque to - the museum in the City of Mexico.</p> - - <p>The left slab, upon which is graven the smaller figure, is from - a photograph of a moulding made by M. Desiré Charnay. The right - slab is from a photograph of the original stone now placed in - the museum at Washington, and which was represented in the - Memoir upon the Palenque Tablet written by Professor Rau, and - published by the Smithsonian Institution. The photographs of - the right and left slabs have been reduced to the size of that - of the centre, and thus an exact reproduction of the whole of - the Tablet of the Cross has been obtained. The representation - in the frontispiece is, approximately, upon the scale of one - inch to the foot and is therefore a twelfth of the size of the - original tablet when it was in its position within the temple.</p> - - <p>The illustrations of Indians are from photographs collected by - me during my travels and were selected as being typical of the - respective tribes. My small sketch of the entrance to the Casa - de las Monjas at Uxmal is drawn to scale, and the character of - the Indian horizontal arch is delineated in its architectural - proportions.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_I"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span> - <div class="ph2"> - <span class="xlarge">TRAVELS AMONGST AMERICAN INDIANS:</span><br /> - <span class="small">THEIR</span><br /> - <span class="xlarge">ANCIENT EARTHWORKS AND TEMPLES.</span> - </div> - <hr class="short" /> - <h2 class="no-break">CHAPTER I.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - New York.—Mr. Grinnell.—Search for Sir John Franklin.—Southern - States.—The Negroes and their prospects.—Naval - Academy at Annapolis.—Military Academy at West - Point.—Shakers.—Boston.—Professor Agassiz.—Prairies and Glacial - Action.—Coral Reefs in Florida.—Mr. Ticknor.—Shell Mounds in - Florida.—Schools.—Dr. Howe’s Institution for the Blind.—Laura - Bridgman. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Upon</span> my return to - England, after having completed several years of - foreign service, I obtained permission from the Admiralty to proceed - upon a journey into North and Central America.</p> - - <p>There were certain subjects that I particularly wished to examine, - especially those that were connected with the mounds or earthworks in - the valley of the Ohio, and the ruined temples of the southern regions - of Mexico and Guatemala. In the lands inhabited, at the time of the - Spanish Conquest, by Indian tribes who had reached a singular form - of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span> civilisation, the origin of which has not yet been traced, it is - probable that some discovery will be made which will throw light upon - the manner in which their knowledge was obtained.</p> - - <p>The problems which have yet to be solved with respect to the ruins - at Palenque, and in Yucatan, have a fascination for those who are - interested in the endeavour to seek an explanation of the strange - events that must have happened amongst the Indians who inhabited that - part of the world. It is possible that evidences may be found which - will lead to the conclusion that at some period, not very remote, there - has been an introduction amongst the aboriginal races of influences - derived from Europe or Asia, and it is not unreasonable to expect that - when the hieroglyphs within the altars of Palenque are interpreted, - much that is now unintelligible will be made clear. The investigations - of Mr. Stephens, in 1840, together with the earlier reports of Del - Rio and Dupaix, directed attention to the extraordinary character of - the pyramids and stone structures that were found deserted and ruined - within the tropical lands and forests.</p> - - <p>In the North the field of research has been carefully examined by - competent explorers, but, even in that region, there is much that is - open to theory or conjecture with regard to the purposes for which the - great earthworks in the interior of the Continent were raised. There is - also an almost complete absence of definite knowledge respecting the - race and subsequent migrations of the tribes that dwelt within those - embankments. The extensive shell heaps or kitchen middens found near - the seacoasts, have been partly excavated, and, judging from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span> - implements of bone and the weapons which they contain, it has been made - evident that the Indians must have had customs singularly corresponding - with those of the tribes who formed the shell mounds in Europe.</p> - - <p>I had no theories to establish, but I expected to find that the tribes - in the West and North-West resembled the Manchu race I had seen in the - North of China, and that the Indians in Central America would show - traces of kindred with the Malays. I also thought that, in the ruined - temples, there would be seen architectural affinities with the Buddhist - monasteries in Upper Burmah and Cambodia. These were however only - surmises, and I was prepared to recognise that it would be necessary to - adopt other conclusions.</p> - - <p>It was difficult to arrange for any decided plan of travel, but I - intended, in the first instance, to visit the Navy Yards and observe - what progress was being made with respect to ships and their armaments; - and then to proceed to those parts of America where the principal works - of the aboriginal tribes still remain. Finally, I hoped to be able to - cross the Continent and go down the Mexican and Guatemalan coasts, and - from one of the ports on the Western seaboard, cross Central America - from the Pacific to the Atlantic towards Yucatan. Such was the outline - of the direction that I proposed to follow, but which would be varied - or changed as circumstances might require.</p> - - <p>We left Liverpool in the Samaria on the 15th of March, 1869, and - reached New York late in the evening of the 28th, after having - experienced a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> continuation of head winds and stormy weather, which - made our passage across the Atlantic long and tedious. My first care, - upon arrival, was to call upon Mr. Henry Grinnell,<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> whose exertions - and services in prosecuting, at his own expense, the search for Sir - John Franklin and the ships beset in the Arctic ice, are so well known.</p> - - <p>In the year 1850 Lady Franklin sent her appeal to the President of the - United States, in which she urged the Americans, as a kindred people, - to help in the enterprise of rescuing our sailors from perishing from - cold and starvation in those Northern latitudes. The appeal was not - unanswered, but in consequence of the unavoidable delays incidental to - obtaining the sanction of Congress for the necessary expenditure, there - was much risk of the season becoming too advanced for reaching the - channels in time, and that, consequently, a whole year’s work would be - lost. It was then that Mr. Grinnell, a leading merchant and shipowner, - prepared and fitted out for Arctic service two of his own vessels. - These ships, respectively called the “Advance” and the “Rescue,” were - officered and manned by the Naval Department and reached the ice in - time to do useful work. The fate, however, of Sir John Franklin and his - crew was not ascertained, although traces of his winter quarters were - discovered.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span></p> - - <p>At Washington, I found that Congress was sitting. Political affairs - were in an unusually excited condition in consequence of the state of - things resulting from the Civil War and the admission of negroes to - the franchise. Soon after my arrival I attended the Levée of President - Grant, and in the evening dined with our Minister, Mr. Thornton, at the - Legation. Several members of the Diplomatic body were present, some of - whom I had previously met in Europe.</p> - - <p>The question of the capacity of the negroes with respect to their - taking an equal share with the white citizens in the management of the - government policy occupied the attention of politicians. It was thought - impossible to foresee what would be the effect of the emancipation of - over three millions of slaves. It seemed certain that the Americans - would have eventually a complicated problem to deal with, presenting - grave difficulties.</p> - - <p>From Washington I went into the Southern States. In the districts - where large numbers of slaves had been employed, the subject of their - education was being seriously considered, and schools were established - for the purpose of advancing the intelligence of the black children. - The ignorant and hopeful parents were speculating upon the brilliant - future that seemed to be opening before them. They had vague dreams - that some new and prosperous destiny was going to be granted to their - race. They thought that, as a result of freedom and education, their - children would become active and useful citizens, equal, if they had - fair opportunities, to those who had been their masters.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span></p> - - <p>Such was the universal belief amongst the elders, and great will be the - disappointment amongst the children upon growing up into manhood to - discover, that, in obedience to an unexplained law, there seems to be a - limit to their power of reaching the standard of proficiency to which - they aspired.</p> - - <p>I had seen the emancipated negroes in the islands of the West Indies, - and the extraordinary condition of Hayti when under the rule of the - black emperor Soulouque. It was therefore not possible to think that - there was any probability of these school children rising to an - equality with the white races around them. There was something almost - painful in listening to the faith of the fathers in the prospects of - their sons, and the earnest manner in which they spoke of their future - career, if they worked hard and did their best to deserve success.</p> - - <p>After passing through the low-lying lands near the coast, which had - in previous years been cultivated by this race, I proceeded up the - Chesapeake Bay, and stopped at Annapolis for the purpose of looking - at the Naval Academy. The system of training officers for sea service - is, in many respects, radically different from that which is followed - in England. With regard to the comparative results it is difficult to - form an opinion. It is presumable that the English system is the best - for developing the naval capacity of English lads, and the regulations - carried out at Annapolis may be more suitable for the Americans. Both - schools succeed in producing efficient young officers.</p> - - <p>The principle underlying the policy of the training system in England - is youth. It is thought that in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> order to make a good sailor, officer - or man, the future seaman must be entered when young, and thus begin - his sea life while he is still capable of being naturally accustomed to - the performance of his duties. In America and also with the maritime - powers on the European continent different conclusions are held. At - Annapolis the age for entry is between fourteen and sixteen, and as the - entries usually take place at the latest period, the age upon passing - out into sea service is about twenty. The preliminary training is - thoroughly carried out, and the Academy is exceptionally fortunate in - being situated on the shores of a large and well-sheltered bay where - there is room for practising the necessary gunnery exercises.</p> - - <p>The Military Academy at West Point is placed in a very beautiful - situation. Nothing can be finer than the scenery at that part of - the Hudson river. The site has been well selected with regard to - the various requirements for training officers for general service, - with reference to drills, cavalry exercises, and topographical and - engineering studies. Professor Bartlett, to whom I had a letter of - introduction from Professor Henry, of the Smithsonian Institute, did - everything that was in his power to make my stay agreeable. I was also - much indebted to General Pitcher, the officer in command, who made me - acquainted with all the details of the system in operation.</p> - - <p>The Cadets are chosen in the same manner as at Annapolis. Ten are - appointed annually by the President, and the remainder are usually - nominated by members of Congress from their respective states. Private - allowances are discouraged, and the Government <span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span>make a grant of 500 - dollars a year for each pupil, or the same allowance that is given to - the midshipmen at Annapolis. General Pitcher told me that about one - half of the candidates usually failed at the preliminary examination, - and that, upon the average, one-third of the remainder were rejected at - the succeeding examinations, a proportion of failures which corresponds - with that at the Naval Academy. They rise at five, clean their rooms, - place everything in order, attend early drills, and are constantly - at work throughout the day. The series of drills and studies is very - continuous, and there is only just sufficient time allowed for meals, - and very little time for recreation. The average age of the lads - is over twenty-one; the term is for four years. Many distinguished - officers have graduated here and habits of self-reliance are strictly - enforced. The principle which governs the system which is maintained - during the earlier part of the training is that of accustoming each - cadet to be independent of help.</p> - - <p>In proceeding from West Point, I visited the Shakers at their - settlements, near the village of Lebanon. I was received by their chief - Elder, a man named Evans, who, by his energy and firmness of will, had - obtained much personal influence over the community. The Shakers had - been successful in securing for themselves a considerable degree of - financial prosperity which was the result of their economy and industry.</p> - - <p>Evans was acquainted with the scheme of life contemplated by Mr. - Harris, near Brocton. The community established there had been joined - by Mr.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span> Laurence Oliphant,<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and I was interested in hearing the - opinions of the Shakers about them. Evans thought that they could not - long keep together, because marriage was permitted amongst its members. - Marriage, he said, meant personal property and where that existed a - communistic society could not succeed.</p> - - <p>A few days after arriving at Boston, I dined with Mr. Charles Francis - Adams, who had for many years been the United States Minister in - England. I had met him frequently at the house of Sir Charles Lyell in - London. The conversation turned chiefly upon the conduct of the troops - in the Civil War,<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> all the details of which were eagerly discussed.</p> - - <p>An officer present, who had commanded a brigade with distinction - throughout the campaign, gave us <span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span>some information with regard to the - behaviour of the troops of the Northern army under fire, from the point - of view of their respective nationalities. Of the negroes he spoke - highly from personal knowledge, for during a part of his service, a - regiment of those troops was placed under his command. He said that - they were not intelligent, but were easily disciplined and controlled. - They were found to be useful in covering an assault as they did not - appear to be shaken in their courage or firmness by any great slaughter - in their ranks.</p> - - <p>The Germans were expected to be cool and phlegmatic, but it was found - that they were excitable and easily startled and unsettled. The Irish - were always ready to fight, but they were soon depressed by any - reverses. The Americans were excellent as cavalry, as infantry they - were steady and deliberate.</p> - - <p>I mentioned that, at West Point, I had met General <span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span>Vogdes, who had - commanded a negro regiment, and that he considered his men to have - proved that they were reliable and obedient, and capable upon occasions - of showing that they were not wanting in daring. In the operations - around Nashville, a great proportion of the losses in the army fell - upon the coloured troops in consequence, as the general commanding - reported, of the brilliant manner in which they charged the enemy’s - earthworks. This kind of dashing courage on the part of negroes, who - had been bred in slavery, was surprising. I was deeply interested in - hearing the details of the war, particularly such of them as related to - the conduct of the black troops when under fire.</p> - - <p>I had seen in the South, the emotional side of the character of the - American born negroes, as shown in their political meetings and their - religious services, but I had not been previously aware that these - apparently lethargic people had by nature, the capacity for becoming - brave and impulsive soldiers. It is obvious that they felt they were - fighting for freedom, and for the emancipation of their wives and - children, the most powerful incentives that could stimulate their - actions. They were ready and willing to face the risk of death in order - to obtain that freedom which, to those that have it not, must be the - most coveted prize that this world can give.</p> - - <p>One afternoon I went to Cambridge for the purpose of meeting Mr. - Bartlett, a partner in the publishing firm of Messrs. Little and Brown. - I was indebted to him for many kind acts in assisting me in visiting - the museums, and we had arranged to go to the Harvard University - together, in order to have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> an interview with Professor Agassiz, who - had returned from Florida, where he had been engaged in the examination - of the coral reefs.</p> - - <p>After looking at the extensive collection of corals and shells which - had been placed in the Museum, we walked across the college grounds - to the Professor’s house. I delivered my letter of introduction, and - was received with great courtesy. Agassiz for some time talked about - his varied experiences in many parts of the world and his recent - researches, but upon hearing that I was going to visit the prairies in - the North-west, he showed much interest in the details of the journey - that I proposed to take.</p> - - <p>He said that he had been in many parts of those prairies, and had made - several careful investigations with the object of establishing certain - facts with regard to their formation, and had come to the conclusion - that they were caused by glacial action. He thought that the theory - that they were once sea beaches was erroneous, for he was convinced - that the sea had never been in those regions. He also spoke about the - consequences of the habits of the numerous herds of buffaloes that had - roamed, in remote times, over those lands and had made their wallows - there. These shallow depressions collected large quantities of water, - and influenced the manner in which many of the streams originated.</p> - - <p>After having drawn my attention to the chief objects of geological - interest that might possibly come within my notice in the region to the - south of Lake Superior, Agassiz mentioned his work in Florida. He had - given much consideration to the outlying banks fringing the southern - coasts of that promontory.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> The facts he had established were not in - accordance with the views of Darwin and Lyell. “If,” he said, “the - Pacific formations were as described by Darwin and others, those on - the coast of Florida were entirely different. In no way could Darwin’s - theory explain the Florida formations.” He had ascertained that the - corals grew up from great depths, for he had dredged to a depth of - eight hundred fathoms and had brought up live corallines; thus proving - that they existed and worked in very deep waters. It was his opinion - that Darwin’s coral theories had not had a sufficient study of evidence - given to them.</p> - - <p>In the evening, at Mr. Ticknor’s house, there were present at dinner - Commodore Rogers, Superintendent of the Navy Yard; Mr. Francis - Parkman, author of several historical works relating to the early - European settlements in North America; Mr. Hillard, also an author of - considerable reputation, and Mr. Frank Parker. Mr. Ticknor<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> told us - anecdotes of his travels in Europe soon after the restoration of Louis - XVIII. He had known many of the celebrities of that time, and spoke of - Sir Walter Scott, Sir Humphrey Davy, Mrs. Siddons, Lord and Lady Byron, - Talleyrand, Madame de Stael and Madame Récamier.</p> - - <p>There was a long discussion upon the uncertain future of the republic. - It seemed to be considered that as America became more populated, it - was much <span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span>to be feared that universal suffrage, freedom and equality - of race, would lead to disorder. Mr. Ticknor mentioned that Prince - Metternich, when speaking to him about this subject, remarked that - there was a great difference between old Austria and America. In - Austria he had always to look out for mischief and prepare to meet - it or contrive a remedy. In America, he said, a mischief, if it - exists, takes time and grows until it gradually forces itself upon the - attention of the people. Finally, if it becomes alarming, the mass - deals with it and arrests its progress as it best can, and then things - go on as before.</p> - - <p>Professor Jeffries Wyman,<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> who had discovered several extensive - shell banks on the eastern coasts of Florida, gave me, at his house at - Cambridge, an interesting account of his investigations. He thought - that the mounds were entirely formed by the refuse of the food eaten by - the tribes dwelling near the sea; but, whether by a large settlement - of tribes in a comparatively short time, or by a small tribe in a - long time, it was difficult to determine. Some of the banks were from - fourteen to twenty-five feet high. They varied in length from one - hundred to five hundred yards. On the tops of several of them he had - seen large trees, whose age he estimated to be not less than eight - hundred years. It did not appear that the mounds followed the outlines - of any particular plan of encampment, except in an instance where one - of the longest of them had the shape of an amphitheatre.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span></p> - - <p>He also examined some fresh water shell heaps. These, he thought, were - made in the same manner as the sea shell mounds, by the Indians eating - the fish and piling up the shells. In all of them he had discovered - fragments of pottery and other marks of human life. The Professor - proposed that I should make an appointment with him in order to have a - thorough examination of his collection, not only from the shell heaps, - but also from the tumuli of the mound builders and other Indian tribes. - A day for this purpose was accordingly fixed. In the meanwhile my time - was occupied in visiting the public schools: Mr. Frank Parker, who was - interested in educational work, usually went with me.</p> - - <p>From a national point of view it was considered of great importance - that the children of the emigrants should receive a sound education - so as to enable them to become useful and self-respecting citizens. - The majority of the parents upon their arrival at New York or Boston, - do not attempt to seek their fortunes away in the West, but settle in - those quarters of these cities where they find that others of their - race are already established. The elder members of the emigrating - families are quite aware that their age or other circumstances - practically debar them from all hope of success in any attempts to - gain a livelihood by their own work. Thus their attention is directed - to the training of their children, so that these may have a fair start - in life. For this purpose, the free and thoroughly practical system of - education carried out in the schools seems to be excellent.</p> - - <p>It is needless to dwell upon the methods adopted in American cities - for raising the standard of knowledge <span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span>among the boys and girls of the - poorer classes, for they are well known. Nothing can be more pleasing - than to observe the development of the minds of these young wanderers - from other lands, where their fate was adverse and their lives were - without hope. They appear to seize with eagerness the chances that are - given them to attain, by their own intelligence, higher and more secure - positions, and thus break away from the discouraging conditions into - which they were born. The construction and size of the school buildings - were well adapted for their purpose. The health and attention of the - students are, therefore, not affected by close confinement or the - insufficiency of pure air.</p> - - <p>There was an institution in Boston, devoted to the work of teaching - the blind, which had an especial interest of its own, and I was - therefore glad to accept Dr. Howe’s invitation to dine with him and - then see Laura Bridgman,<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> the blind girl, whose education had been so - successfully managed, and whose history had, for many years, attracted - observation.</p> - - <p>After dinner Laura came into the room. I noticed that she was of - average height and looked thin, pale and delicate. She had a shy and - peculiar manner. Mrs. Howe placed herself in communication with her, - and Laura immediately became more assured. When I was introduced she - expressed, by the movements of her fingers, that she was much pleased - to have my companionship. I asked if she wished to inquire <span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span>about any - English friends? She replied, “Yes. Do you know Dickens, how is he?” - Then suddenly, before I had made any answer, she felt Mrs. Howe’s - sleeve and said, “You have a new dress,” and named the material—a - sort of French silk. Mrs. Howe said that the guess was correct. She - then became more animated and bright, but showed a singularly quick - impatience when wanting Mrs. Howe to listen to her. When not occupied - in maintaining a conversation she became quiet and looked sad.</p> - - <p>Mrs. Howe asked in what way she amused herself and what was her - greatest pleasure. She replied, “reading.” “What reading do you like - best?” To this question Laura replied, “Bible, hymns and psalms.” Mrs. - Howe turned round to me and said this answer was very curious as Dr. - Howe had brought her up without any religious training, because he did - not wish to give her mind any especial bent in that matter; but owing, - it was supposed, to the influence and teaching of some friend, she had - been made acquainted with the Bible and had become intensely attached - to it.</p> - - <p>It was said that Laura was able to articulate two words—“Doctor” and - “Grandmother”—and I asked her to say them. “Doctor,” was pronounced in - a distinct manner giving the sound “Dok-tá.” The word “Grandmother” - was not so clearly spoken and she gave the sound very rapidly. It - was however sufficiently expressed to be understood. I was told that - these words had in some manner been learnt by feeling the throats of - other people who pronounced them, and finding that certain expansions - of the muscles occurred when the sounds were made. She conversed <span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span>by - holding out one hand and moving the fingers. Mrs. Howe held her wrist - and communicated her remarks by touch upon it. In this manner an - intelligent conversation was carried on. Laura evidently enjoyed the - excitement caused by this interchange of ideas, for when thus engaged - she looked very happy.</p> - - <p>She was blind, deaf and dumb.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_II"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> - <h2>CHAPTER II.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - Professor Wyman.—Indian Antiquities.—Concord.—Mr. Ralph - Waldo Emerson.—Margaret Fuller.—Note upon a visit to Mr. - Longfellow.—Saturday Club.—Dinner at Harvard University.—Shell - Mounds at Concord and Damariscotta.—Note upon the Ancient - Inscription upon the Dighton Rock. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Upon</span> the day arranged for my visit to Cambridge, I found Professor - Wyman prepared to employ several hours in examining the Indian - collections. He proposed that we should begin by looking carefully over - the contents of a case within which was placed everything that had been - discovered in a burial mound in Illinois. The mound had contained the - bones of nine adults, several fragments of rude stone implements, and - some arrowheads. The skulls had been flattened and shaped by pressure.</p> - - <p>We then examined the collections of human skulls that had been received - from all parts of the continent. Amongst these, were several of an - important character, obtained by Mr. Squier in Central America. They - were long and flattened upon the top, and were supposed to have - belonged to the race that built the stone temples in Yucatan. Other - groups were then compared. It was observable that some tribes had the - custom of pressing in the back of the head to such an extent as to make - it nearly perpendicular.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> Others pressed the skulls so as to give them - great length. In a few instances, they were given a tall, oval form. - The Californian Indians appear to have given their children a high, - receding forehead. This method of shaping the head is still followed by - the Flathead Indians in the West. It is done by the pressure of boards - tied together in such a manner that the infant gets its skull shaped - when it is in the cradle.</p> - - <p>A question arose as to the effect of the artificial shapes of the - head upon the character of the tribes; and particularly, whether, in - accordance with certain theories, there was any known difference in - disposition between the tribes who flattened the forehead and those who - flattened the skull at the back. The Professor said that the matter - had been the subject of inquiry. It was considered, as far as could - be ascertained, that the alterations in shape made no difference in - the character, and that the Indians, whether with long, high, or flat - heads, were similar in their savage nature.</p> - - <p>Amongst the Mexican antiquities were a number of terra-cotta figures - which were thought to be emblematic of the worship of serpents, - lizards, and other reptiles. There were also idols carved out of - hard, volcanic stone. After having seen these, and also quantities of - rudely shaped stones, which were probably used by the Indians on the - north-east coast for sinking their nets, the Professor began to examine - the various things that had been taken from the American shell mounds.</p> - - <p>First, in order, were the collections that had been brought from Maine - and Massachusetts. There were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> oyster shells, the bones of wolves, deer - and birds, fragments of coarse pottery, layers of charcoal, and bone - awls. In the shell heaps at Concord there had been discovered various - stone weapons and flint arrowheads. In the Florida mounds there were - found the remains of crocodiles, implements made of stone, the bones of - deer, and numbers of small sharp needles, made from bird bones, which - had been used by hand.</p> - - <p>It appears from the evidence obtained by the investigation of the - shell banks, that tribes of similar habits dwelt on the cold coasts - of New England and the almost tropical shores of Florida. It is also - clear, that in many of their customs and methods of obtaining food they - resembled the races that formed the kitchen middens in Denmark. Their - stone and flint implements and their bone awls and needles were of the - same shapes as those used by the prehistoric people who lived upon the - shores of the Swiss lakes.</p> - - <p>Many of the stone axes and arrowheads that have been found in - the burial mounds, or in the neighbourhood of the ancient Indian - encampments in North America are of the same type, and show the same - system of workmanship as those that were made by the aboriginal tribes - in Western Europe. The similarities in form, size and methods of - adaptation for use are remarkable, for, although it may be expected - that men, in an uncivilised condition would, in all parts of the - world, have the same wants or necessities, yet it must be considered - surprising that in the construction of the implements for war and for - domestic purposes, the methods of design should be so singularly <span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span>alike - amongst the savages of the old and new continents.</p> - - <p>Upon a subsequent occasion, when the doubtful question of the influence - of the formation of the skull upon the mind was discussed, Mr. Ticknor - mentioned the singular fact that the head of Daniel Webster<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> grew - larger after he had passed middle age. His attention had been drawn - to this circumstance by observing a change in the likeness of that - statesman, and, as he knew Webster intimately, he asked him about - the matter, and Webster said, “Yes, I find that I have constantly to - increase the size of my hats.”</p> - - <p>Towards the latter part of my stay in Boston, I received a letter from - Mr. Ralph Waldo Emerson, asking me to dine with him at Concord, and - mentioning that he had also invited Mrs. Julia Ward Howe. Upon the day - he had fixed for the purpose, we travelled down to the station, and - were met by Miss Emerson, who drove us home in her quaint old-fashioned - carriage. The pony, she told us, was a friend who had been in the - family for twenty years. We were received by Mr. and Mrs. Emerson. A - few other guests came from Cambridge, and then we went in to dinner. - Mr. Emerson talked much of De Quincey, whom he had known <span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span>at Lasswade, - near Edinburgh, and then referring to our English poets, mentioned - with admiration, Tennyson’s poem, “Tithonus.” One of his daughters - spoke with enthusiasm about Professor Agassiz’s deep sea dredgings, the - lectures upon which she had been attending.</p> - - <p>Finally, the (always) absorbing topic of American politics was dwelt - upon, especially with respect to the effect of democratic institutions - upon the character of the people. Mr. Emerson alluded with much sadness - to those evil influences of political corruption and office-seeking - which appeared to be inevitable blots upon all systems of democracy, - but he said that he thought things would come right in the end. Upon - the various occasions that I met and conversed with leading politicians - (amongst whom was Chief Justice Chase), I observed that they usually - spoke of the future of their country with the same anxiety.</p> - - <p>There was much doubt and uncertainty as to what was going to happen - in the Southern States, which had so recently been made desolate. - Men’s minds were still agitated by the memory of the serious events - that had happened during the Civil War. That great national convulsion - had engaged the thoughts and actions of all American citizens to the - fullest extent, and had necessarily diverted the conduct of affairs - from the ordinary channels. There was consequently a feeling of - disquietude amongst those who loved their country, their freedom and - their laws. But this temporary form of misgiving was always accompanied - by the firm conviction that in some manner, not then quite clear, the - nation would ultimately triumph over all difficulties.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span></p> - - <p>After dinner, Mr. Emerson took me into the library, and began to look - over his books and point out his favourites. He said that what he most - delighted in were the translations from Persian and other Eastern - works. Finding that I was interested in his Oriental studies, he did - not care to quit his books, and so we remained in the library until it - was time to leave. In the meanwhile, he had taken down from the shelves - many volumes. He also showed me photographs of his friends, and drew my - attention to a likeness of Margaret Fuller, whom he had known for many - years, and for whom he had felt great regard and esteem.</p> - - <p>Margaret Fuller, who must have been a woman of extraordinary - genius, was one of the leaders of the school of thought called - Transcendentalism. Her end was as strange as her life. She crossed - the Atlantic, travelled in Italy, married the Marchese d’Ossoli and - was in Europe when the Revolution of 1848 broke out. Her sympathies - being entirely with the cause of Italian freedom, she took a prominent - part, under the direction of Mazzini, Garibaldi and other patriots, in - the defence of Rome, doing much good service in the hospitals. After - the adverse events of 1849, she embarked with her husband on board a - sailing vessel bound for her own land, on the shores of which she was - wrecked in a storm and all perished.</p> - - <p>Before we went away, Mr. Emerson suggested that I should look at the - exterior of the house, in which he seemed to take great interest. He - told me that he had lived in it thirty-five years and had only made one - change—the addition of the drawing room. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> was an unpretending plank - building of two stories, standing in its own small grounds, and was - chiefly noticeable in consequence of having some fine chestnut trees in - front between the door and the road.</p> - - <p>Upon our return to the city, the President of the University asked me - to be the guest of the Alumni of Harvard. His letter ran thus:—</p> - - <blockquote> - <p class="right">“<i>June</i> 23.”</p> - - <p class="noindent">“<span class="smcap">My dear Sir</span>,”</p> - - <p>“On behalf of the Alumni of Harvard College, I invite you to be - present at the Commencement Dinner in Harvard Hall, Cambridge, - on Tuesday, the 29th inst. The Alumni and their guests will - assemble in Gore Hall, the Library, at 2 p.m. on that day. I - hope to receive your acceptance, and to have the pleasure of - meeting you on the occasion.”</p> - - <p class="right">“Very respectfully yours,<br /> - WM. GRAY,<br /> - <i>Pres. of Alumni Assoc.</i>”</p> - </blockquote> - - <p>At one of the customary afternoon meetings of the members of the - Saturday Club, I dined with them as the guest of Dr. Howe. Among - those present <span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> - were Mr. Sumner, Professor Wyman, Mr. Lowell, Judge - Hoar, Mr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, and Professor Gurney, the editor - of the North American Review. Mr. Emerson was the chairman. The - possibility of spontaneous generation, was the topic that happened to - be chiefly discussed. Professor Wyman had been carrying out a series of - experiments at Cambridge, and he told us what had been the results of - his experience. He said that he had ascertained that the theory that - boiling water killed life was, to a certain extent, erroneous. A first - boiling killed some of the living creatures, a second boiling killed - more, living organisms being reduced gradually in quantity. After a - fourth severe boiling he failed to trace any life whatever. Finally - after having carried out with great care, tests of all natures, he - doubted the possibility of creating life where no life had previously - existed.</p> - - <hr class="tb" /> - <blockquote> - <p>In the following year I accepted the invitation of Mr. Ticknor - to stay a few days with him before leaving America, and I was - fortunate in meeting at his house, Mr. Longfellow, who, at - the time of my previous visit to Boston, was away from home, - travelling in England, chiefly, as he afterwards told me, - amongst the English lakes and in Devonshire. He proposed that - I should go and see him at Cambridge, and this was arranged, - and I went down there upon the first available day. I found - him in his study, a small room looking out upon the lawn, and - commanding a view of the country towards the bridge.</p> - - <p>Before dinner, he showed me a bill of fare which had been - given to him at a public banquet in London, which was framed - and placed on the mantel piece of the dining-room. It was - a coloured drawing of a scene described in his poem of - “Hiawatha.” The sun was shining on the still waters of a - lake, or inland sea, and a group of Indians were gazing at - it. I think it was meant to represent the final departure of - Hiawatha, westwards towards the sunset.</p> - - <p>Mr. Longfellow said that he was much pleased with this mark of - attention, not only on account of the merit of the picture, but - because he appreciated the feeling that prompted the gift, as - “Hiawatha” was the poem by which he most cared to be remembered.</p> - - <p>He expressed strong sympathies with the poetical legends and - traditions of the Iroquois and Dakota Indians. His conversation - was, however, chiefly directed to the question of the future - social and political condition of the negroes in the Southern - States.</p> - </blockquote> - - <hr class="tb" /> - - <p>Later in the day, I witnessed a most important triumph of mechanics, - as applied to the removal of a <span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> - heavy building. The house that was - being moved was large and strongly constructed of stone. It stood at - the corner of a street which was about to be widened, and therefore it - was necessary, either to pull it down or place it in another position, - and it had been decided to execute the latter operation. The building - had a frontage of seventy feet and a depth of one hundred feet. It was - composed of a basement, five principal stories and a Mansard roof. - The engineer in charge of the works told me that his calculations - were based upon having to move a weight of fifty thousand tons. At - the time I saw the house, it was full of residents, many of whom were - looking out of the windows and watching the proceedings. The contractor - permitted me to go underneath and observe the process of moving. The - weight was taken by a vast number of screw jacks, and the building was - lifted off the foundations. It was progressing towards its new site at - the rate of fourteen inches in one hour.</p> - - <p>On Commencement Day I went down to Cambridge early in the afternoon, - and after being received by the President, fell into my place in the - ranks of the procession formed in the college grounds. We then marched - into dinner and I took my seat at the table. My immediate neighbours - were Mr. Lowell, Mr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Judge Hoar and Judge Grey. - About six hundred were present in the hall and three hundred dined in - another room. The gradations of age corresponded with the positions of - the tables. The seats towards the left were occupied by comparatively - young men, but on the right, were successive rows of heads, showing - advancing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> - years, until upon the extreme right were the white haired seniors.</p> - - <p>At the conclusion of the dinner, in accordance with an ancient custom, - all stood up and sang a Psalm to the tune known by the name of St. - Martin. The President then gave his annual address and the usual - speeches followed. Mr. Adams made a good speech and referred to his - late absence as the United States Minister to Great Britain. The - President then rose and told the Alumni that a “representative of Great - Britain” was present and called upon me to respond. This I did as - briefly as possible, and upon resuming my seat I was astonished at the - enthusiastic manner with which the said representative was received. - After much cheering, the band played “God save the Queen,” which was - again the occasion for a strong outburst of cordial good feeling - towards England. As I looked down the hall I saw the slight, tall form - of Mr. Emerson bending forward as he joined in our National Anthem. Mr. - Holmes then recited a poem and Mr. Lowell gave a speech in which he - alluded to the question of the Alabama which was causing such bitter - feeling in America, and after speaking of the volcanic ground into - which he had wandered, said</p> - - <div class="center-container"> - <div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="i0">“O matre pulchra filia pulchrior,</div> - <div class="i0">Pout if you will, but sulk not into war.</div> - <div class="i0">Had Adams stayed, this danger had not been,</div> - <div class="i0">This less than kindness of two more than kin.”</div> - </div> - </div> - </div> - - <p>The singing of “Auld Lang Syne” was the fitting conclusion to an - interesting day.</p> - - <p>Professor Wyman told me that, before leaving the States, I ought to - visit the shell mounds at Damariscotta in Maine and also those near - Concord. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> - latter were considered to be remarkable on account of - their being composed of fresh-water shells. Mr. Emerson had offered to - help me in my examination of them, but not wishing to occupy his time - in this unusual manner, I went down to Concord and tried to find them - by myself. In this attempt I failed, and, finally, I decided to obtain - his help. Fortunately, he was at home and at once put the harness on - his pony and drove me down to the place. We crossed some fields and - found the shell heaps near a sharp bend of the river. They were about a - hundred and fifty yards long, twenty yards wide and twelve feet high, - and were chiefly composed of mussel shells. For more than an hour we - worked zealously and made slight excavations at different parts of the - banks, and found some fragments of bones which had been shaped by hand, - but we were not successful in seeing any stone celts. We then went to - an adjoining hillock upon which the Indians were accustomed to encamp - and there we picked up three rudely-made arrow heads which had been - formed out of hard porphyritic stone.</p> - - <p>After finishing the inspection of the middens, we went back to the - house, and remained for an hour or two in the library where we had tea. - Mr. Emerson told me that in order to pass through, with comparative - comfort, the long winter, he and others had formed a society of - twenty-five members and arrangements were made for meeting at their - respective houses. Each member gave a reception in turn upon Tuesdays. - When the time was at hand for going to the train he went to the stable, - and again harnessed the pony, and drove me to the station. When saying - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span>“Good-bye,” he expressed many kind wishes with regard to my projected - journey.</p> - - <p>Americans must naturally feel interested in whatever relates to the - past history of the native races who were the original inhabitants of - their country, and who possessed, in combination with their savage - nature and cruel practices, certain qualities of honour and fortitude - which seem to point to the existence of latent conditions of mind - placing them upon a different footing from other ordinary savage races. - Theories which relate to the migrations of the tribes who entered - Mexico from the North have also much attraction. As years roll onwards, - and the events, that then occurred, are more distant or obscure, the - causes of those movements and the origin of the influences that created - the subsequent advance in civilisation amongst those Indians are - becoming almost incomprehensible.</p> - - <p>On the way from Concord towards Canada I stopped at Portsmouth for - the purpose of seeing the Navy Yard,<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> which was the last naval - establishment that I had to visit on the eastern coast, and then - proceeded to the remotely situated village of Damariscotta.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span></p> - - <p>The shell mounds near the adjacent river far exceeded in magnitude - what I had expected to find. They were placed about twelve miles from - the sea within the limits of the ebb and the flow of the tides, and - formed the banks of a small promontory round which the river made a - sharp bend. Within these banks was a flat space of land which had been - used by the Indians for their camping ground, and which is known to - have been visited by small bands of them as late as the end of the last - century. The heaps extend along the shores of the river and round the - promontory for a length of about six hundred yards, and vary in height - from fifteen to thirty-five feet. It was difficult to estimate their - average width, but in many places it was not less than twenty-two yards.</p> - - <p>The mound that I chiefly examined rose directly from the beach close to - the line of the present high water mark. It was thirty-three feet high, - sixty feet wide and one hundred and fifty feet long. Looking <span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span>from the - river, it presented the appearance of a steep cliff formed of compact - layers of large oyster shells. In consequence of the face of this cliff - being exposed, it was possible to trace all the horizontal strata. - Beginning from the top of the bank there was, in the first place, a - deposit of shells closely packed about eighteen inches thick. Then - there was a well-defined layer of earth or mould, averaging a thickness - of half-an-inch throughout the whole length of the bank without any - break or change in its width. The next layer was not so deep as that on - the top, and was one foot thick. Then came another deposit of mould, - half-an-inch in thickness, resting upon another layer of shells. In - this manner, the alternating deposits of earth and shells succeeded - each other down to the base.</p> - - <p>There were not any signs of kitchen midden refuse amongst the shells, - but in the intermediate layers of earth I saw fragments of broken - pottery, charred wood, several rounded stones, small quantities of - bones of animals, and one bone awl which had evidently been much used. - A portion of the cliff which had been undermined by the action of the - river had slipped down upon the beach, consequently the interior of the - mound was exposed. I made an excavation into this new face and found a - stone knife, or scraper, and a small stone chisel. In another part of - the bank I discovered a plank lying flat upon the third layer of mould - below the surface. It was made of fir, and was four feet six inches - long, six inches wide and half-an-inch thick.</p> - - <p>These shell heaps, the relics of the feasts and food of the Indians, - although interesting as evidences of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> the habits of life of the savage - races that once occupied this part of America, prove but little more - than the fact that those races have existed and passed away. The - successive layers of earth in the heaps would enable an estimate to be - made of their age, if the length of the intervals of time that elapsed - between the encampments could be known. The saw-cut plank, resting upon - the third layer is an evidence that the two upper deposits of shells - were made since the arrival of the English colonists. The Indians then - dwelling on these lands were called the Abenakis. These oyster heaps - may have been raised by them when they visited the coast of Maine after - leaving their hunting grounds.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_III"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> - <h2>CHAPTER III.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - Indian Reservations.—Lake Superior.—Beavers and their - works.—The Forest.—Houghton.—Ancient Indian mining pits and - trenches.—An Indian battle ground.—The Glacial Drift.—Note - regarding the Dauphin. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">From</span> Damariscotta I went up the valley of the St. Lawrence, and visited - the reservation lands of the Algonquins, Hurons, and other tribes - that had originally held possession of that part of the country. The - most important assemblage of Indians was placed upon a large tract - of land near the banks of the Grand river in Upper Canada. There I - saw, dwelling in their separate villages, the descendants of the once - powerful confederacy of the Iroquois, who had been our faithful allies - in our wars.</p> - - <p>Nearly three thousand Indians were gathered together belonging to - the tribes of the Senecas, Onondagas, Mohawks, Cayugas, Oneidas and - Tuscaroras. Some of them had been converted, but many still maintained - their ancient faiths and performed their customary Pagan ceremonies.</p> - - <p>It was extraordinary to observe how unavailing had been the influence - of European civilisation in advancing the intellectual capacities of - the tribes. The French missionaries at Lorette, Oka, and St. Régis, - many of whom were well acquainted with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> - language of the converts - put under their care, told me that all their efforts were useless, and - that the labours of nearly three centuries were absolutely without any - practical result.</p> - - <p>After having passed a few weeks in the vicinity of the lakes, for the - purpose of seeing the condition of various remnants of certain North - American Indian tribes placed upon reservations, I reached the shores - of the Georgian bay, and then proceeded to the port of Marquette in - Michigan.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_035"><img src="images/i_035.jpg" width="600" height="388" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption">Plan of the Lake Superior Iron and Copper region.</div> - </div> - - <p>My chief object in landing upon the southern shores of Lake Superior, - was to visit the places where ancient Indian mining operations had - been discovered, in order that I might be, in some degree conversant - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> - with matters relating to the origin of the copper ornaments that had - been found in some of the burial mounds in Ohio. I also wished to make - some excursions into the forests where, amongst the numerous lakes and - rivers, the beavers were still constructing their dams and building - their lodges. I desired to see something of beaver life and work before - the advance of civilisation had removed these forests and beavers away - for ever.</p> - - <p>I obtained convenient quarters in the mining village of Ishpeming, - placed in a clearing that had been made in the forest, on the summit of - the hills ten miles from the coast. In the interior, within a few miles - from the settlement were two rivers called the Carp and the Esconauba. - Upon these streams and their connected ponds, the works of the beavers - were numerous. They consisted of lodges, dams, canals, excavations, and - the open spaces in the forests called beaver meadows.</p> - - <p>There happened to be an unusually large work constructed across one of - the principal bends of the Carp, which by its action in confining the - waters had created a small lake. As the size and formation of that dam - give a good knowledge of the capacity of the beavers, and their powers - of executing works of considerable magnitude, it will be interesting to - describe it with some detail.</p> - - <p>It was two hundred and sixty-two feet in length and nearly six feet - high in the centre, where the water was deep. This height diminished - gradually towards the banks. The average width upon the top was two - feet. The slope outwards was in the direction of the angle which - happened to give the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> - utmost resisting power. The base was about - fourteen feet wide. The dam was not made in a direct line across the - stream, but had curves which were convex towards the current, and were - placed at the points of the greatest pressure. The slopes were formed - in such a manner that the upper side acted as a barrier against the - water, and the opposite side acted as a supporting buttress.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_036f"><img src="images/i_036f.jpg" width="700" height="490" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Beaver Dam, Lodge, and Pond, near Ishpeming, Michigan.</div> - </div> - - <p>The entire construction was evidently made with a correct knowledge - of the strength that was necessary to resist the outward pushing - force that was exerted against it. When an engineering work of this - nature, so great in proportion to the power and intelligence of - its constructors, is examined, and its fitness for the object for - which it has been made and for the duty it has to perform, has been - ascertained, it occurs to the mind to consider whether such operations - are the results of instinct or of some exceptional degree of reasoning - faculties.</p> - - <p>Within the pond was the lodge. It was placed near to the bank which by - its curve gave the most shelter. It was shaped like a rounded beehive - and measured nearly eight feet in diameter, and twenty-two feet over - the outer circumference. The exterior was composed of small sticks cut - in nearly equal lengths, and so intertwined, crossed and plastered with - mud as to give great cohesion.</p> - - <p>There were three entrances, two of them leading in the direction of the - bank, and one towards the middle of the pond. The former are said to be - used as the approaches to the inner room, and the latter for escape. - All these entrances were below the surface of the water, and ran - upwards into the dwelling room<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> which was a dry comfortable apartment, - the floor being well above the highest water level.</p> - - <p>The beavers, when cutting the branches of the trees into the requisite - lengths, seem to have an accurate perception of what is necessary for - the special works that are then in progress. Thus in their lodges, - which are chiefly made for shelter and warmth, the sticks composing - them are small, and when well plastered together with mud make a - good compact residence. The dams which have a different purpose are - differently built, and in these the sticks are often of considerable - size, being sometimes fully six feet long. Some of the cuttings, - however, are small and many of them are like short poles, having a - diameter about the size of a man’s arm.</p> - - <p>The methods of forming the foundations of their dams are most - practical, and the manner in which earth, stones, mud, twigs, fibres - and brushwood are combined, not only show marvellous ingenuity, but - prove that beavers work perseveringly together with incessant labour - for long periods of time.</p> - - <p>The superstructures are differently made. They are composed of a - framework of sticks placed at various angles inclined upwards. This - open form of disposition appears to be intended to allow the surface - waters to escape to the extent that is necessary to keep the level of - the pond at the uniform height that is desirable.</p> - - <p>Although it is usually considered that the intelligence of the beaver - communities is chiefly shown by their ability in raising works of - construction, I was informed by men who were intimately acquainted with - the habits of these animals, that a greater<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> sagacity was displayed - in the methods adopted by them, under especial circumstances, for - maintaining communications between their dwelling places and the woods - from which they obtained their food and building materials.</p> - - <p>These rare and singular works of excavation are called beaver canals. - One of these, which was the largest that was known to occur in this - part of Michigan, I examined with the utmost attention. It was an open - trench or channel, about half a mile long, two to three feet wide, - and from one to two feet deep. The bottom was of the same width as - the surface, the sides being perpendicular. It connected a large pond - with the adjacent forest. The canal was sufficiently large to give - room for a beaver to swim in it and push in front of him the cutting - of birchwood that was to be conveyed to the lodge and there stored for - the winter supply of food. The depth was enough for the purpose of - concealment.</p> - - <p>I also examined some other canals connecting the ponds with trees, - which were of a different character and much smaller. The Indians were - of opinion that these must have been made exclusively for escape when - the beavers, whilst at work, were suddenly alarmed.</p> - - <p>But the most important results of the actions of the beavers are the - alterations made by them in the aspect of the country, in consequence - of their raising the levels of the water and causing large spaces of - land to be subject to overflow. Thus, when the dams are in order and - efficiently maintained, much of the adjoining land, when it lies low, - becomes a swamp and the trees decay and fall. Then if the works<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> are - neglected and the waters follow their usual direction, the lands become - dry and are changed into fertile grass meadows. Some of these meadows - are of considerable extent. Around Ishpeming they supply the fodder - required for the cattle employed at the mines. One of them, which - occupies a large acreage, yields over fifty tons of hay annually.</p> - - <p>An explorer who happened to pass through a region of this nature after - it had been deserted by the beavers, would be surprised, when following - the trail through the forest, to find himself entering into one of - these open spaces, which have the appearance of small savannahs, and he - would be unable to understand how such sharply defined inclosures could - have been formed.</p> - - <p>Near the borders of the meadows and ponds, several birches were - undergoing the process of being felled. The operations were extremely - curious, and it was evident that the beavers are both careful and - ingenious in the execution of the work.</p> - - <p>The trees selected for their purposes are generally about three or - four feet in circumference at the part that is within reach. The trunk - of each tree is, in the first place, gnawed evenly round, until only - a portion of the centre, about two inches in diameter, is left to - maintain it in an upright position. It is then carefully gnawed from - the direction towards which the tree is intended to fall, which is - often a matter of some importance. When it is lying upon the ground, - the bark is stripped and stored for food, the branches are cut into - the requisite lengths and used also partly for winter provision, but - chiefly with regard to what may be wanted for the construction and - repair of the dams and lodges.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span></p> - - <p>Upon returning one afternoon from the River Carp, I found that, by some - inattention, I had left the track and had wandered into the forest. Men - who are accustomed to explore this region had stated that the safest - course to adopt when such an event occurred was to observe the position - of the marks of the weather upon the trunks of the trees. In Michigan, - it held been noticed that these evidences of exposure, consisting of - moss or lichen, were upon the Northern sides, and it was considered - that by watching these indications, a line of direction could be - followed.</p> - - <p>It is possible that in places where the trees are much exposed this - system may be useful, but in this case I did not find it so.</p> - - <p>The indications of weather were often very faint and difficult to - trace. Where they did clearly exist, they varied so greatly in - their position, that it was impossible to follow a straight line. I - consequently soon gave up the attempt to find the trail by this method. - Night was approaching, and the outlook was becoming grave. In all - directions but one, there was nothing but many miles of dense forest, - which it would be hopeless to attempt to pass through.</p> - - <p>The direction which was available had a broad base, being the road - from Ishpeming to Marquette. This I knew must lie between south and - south-west. Consequently if I could follow a line between these points, - it was probable that the road would soon be reached, as its distance - was less than three miles. I had my watch with me, and fortunately, - the sun could be seen occasionally, so it was possible to make that my - guide.</p> - - <p>Upon a rough calculation of the true bearing of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> the approaching - sunset, I found that by keeping the glimmer of the light on the right - hand, and walking steadily forward, the road ought to be reached before - dark. It was, however, anxious work and it was getting late when I - unexpectedly emerged into an open clearing, where a squatter had - temporarily settled. It was with no slight pleasure that I heard the - sounds of life, the lowing of cattle, and the welcome movements of a - busy farmyard.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p> - - <p>After concluding my expeditions to the lands and ponds of the beavers, - I went to that part of Michigan where the ancient mining pits and - trenches have been discovered. The earliest knowledge of them was - obtained by an American explorer who, in the year 1847, when seeking - for indications of metal ore, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span>noticed several depressions in the - ground, and saw lying in a heap, near what seemed to be an ancient - excavation, a number of rude stone hammers that he thought had probably - been used by hand.</p> - - <p>In the following year another excavation was discovered, and after - clearing this out to a depth of eighteen feet, there was found a - detached mass of copper weighing over six tons which rested upon oak - sleepers, and beneath it there was a vein of copper five feet thick. - There were also several stone hammers, grooved for the purpose of - having handles attached to them, and a copper chisel with a socket for - a wooden handle, a fragment of which although much decayed, was still - in its place. In an adjoining pit at a depth of ten feet, there was - a wooden bowl and some charcoal.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> In some workings, subsequently - discovered upon Isle Royale and near the end of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span>the Kee-wai-wona - promontory, a number of wooden wedges were seen, together with traces - of extensive trenches.</p> - - <p>In consequence of these discoveries further investigations were - made, and a large number of ancient pits were found in the forests, - especially in the districts where are now placed the towns of Ontonagon - and Houghton. It was within a few miles from the latter town, that the - explorers observed the heap of stone hammers, and their attention was - directed to the fact that they had been preceded in the search for - copper by men of some unknown race, who possessed capacities for mining - operations greater than could be attributed to the Chippewas who then - occupied the land.</p> - - <p>In order to examine this heap I engaged a man—who knew the mining and - forest region—to guide me to the spot where the hammers still remained. - After crossing the Portage Lake and passing over some low neighbouring - hills, we came to a depression in the ground which looked like an old - ditch or trench. At the side of this ditch, I saw several hundreds of - rounded water-worn stones of various sizes. These had evidently been - chosen on account of the convenience of their shape, for the purpose of - being used for crushing the rocks that contained metal.</p> - - <p>A few of the stones appeared to have been partly shaped by hand, - but the majority of them were in their natural form. Several were - perforated by small round holes, caused probably by the action of - water. Some men who happened to be employed at one of the mines in the - neighbourhood, told me<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span> that in their opinion they had been made for - thumb holes. They were, however, much too small for such a purpose.</p> - - <p>Upon my return to Houghton I met Mr. I. H. Forster, who was the agent - for mines and a Senator for the State. He proposed to accompany me to - the sites of those ancient workings that he had personally inspected. - After passing through a forest of birch and pine trees, we reached an - open space where we saw the evidences of the nature of the operations - that had been executed.</p> - - <p>The direction of the trenches could be easily traced, although they - were filled with earth and leaves. Several of the pits had been cleared - out by the men employed at one of the new mines, and it was therefore - possible to go down to the bottom of them and observe the methods of - excavation. The first that I examined was twelve feet deep; from the - base there ran two nearly horizontal galleries or adits, following the - direction of the lode which ran N.W. and S.E. These adits were five - feet wide and extended laterally about six feet. Upon the surface, near - the edge of the pit, was the stump of a basswood tree, six feet in - circumference, and at the opposite edge was the stump of a pine, four - feet in circumference.</p> - - <p>The second pit was twenty yards from the first, and had evidently been - sunk in the direction required in order to reach the same lode. It was - ten feet deep. From the base there was one adit following the direction - of the deposit of copper. Close to the edge of this pit was the stump - of a small birch tree. Beyond this were seven other pits, from twenty - to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> fifty yards apart, and in connection with these, there were several - short trenches from two to four feet wide.</p> - - <p>The pits were discovered in 1865. Some animals were being driven along - a track in the forest, when one of them straying from the path, plunged - his feet deep into the ground; this was noticed, and an explorer for - copper examined the place and pushed his stick down it. This led to a - further search, and the hole was found to be an ancient pit. Shafts - were sunk, and the result has been, that, one of the most important - mines in the district was established near the spot.</p> - - <p>Upon another occasion I went with Mr. Forster to look at the trenches - and pits that had been found in a more distant part of the forest. - These pits were smaller than those that I had previously seen, but the - trenches were frequently of considerable depth. I measured several that - exceeded six feet deep. These trenches were usually in short lengths, - but one of them was nearly two hundred feet long. Upon making inquiries - amongst the leading men of the various copper mines that have been - placed in the neighbourhood of the earlier workings, I was told that - the practical miners were of opinion that these excavations were of - considerable antiquity. It has, however, been proved by the condition - of the things that were found in the pits that these conjectures are - not well founded.</p> - - <p>Near Ontonagon, to the south-west of Portage Lake, a line of trenches - was observed in 1863, and a shaft was sunk in a depression which was - considered to be an old pit. At a depth of nine feet, one of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> - workmen drew out upon the point of his pickaxe, a small untanned - leather bag in a good state of preservation. It was noticed that the - mouth of the bag was traversed by a leather string, which was in its - place and could be used for drawing the opening together. The bag was - seven inches wide and eleven inches deep.</p> - - <p>Two years afterwards, some men exploring the same part of the forest, - observed a small mound about six feet high. After digging through - it down to the ground, they reached the surface of a pit, which was - carefully excavated by them. At the top there was a deposit of sand; - below that, were many closely pressed layers of decayed leaves. At - the bottom of the pit they saw a birch bark basket, in all respects, - similar to those that are made and used by the modern Chippewas. Near - the basket they also found a bit of beaver or otter skin with the fur - upon it, portions of the jaw of a bear, several pieces of charcoal, a - beating block—fourteen inches square and three inches thick—made out - of a lump of copper conglomerate, some lengths of knotted strips of - buckskin, and a rough bit of wood about three feet long, which the - miners call a digging stick. A collection of these things had been - placed in an office at Houghton, where I saw them. I noticed that the - digging stick was worn and frayed at the end where it had been used, - and that the fur on the beaver skin was still in good condition.</p> - - <p>In the same forest country as that where the pits were dug, several - copper spear heads have been picked up. Those examined by me were - unquestionably made by persons skilled in the working <span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span>of metal. - Several of the members attached to the mission at Sault Ste. - Marie,<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> - in the early part of the eighteenth century, made crosses and ornaments - from copper that was brought to them by Indians, who had found small - lumps of the metal on the surface of the ground. The spear heads may - have been made at the mission house.</p> - - <p>After the cession of the Canadas to Great Britain in 1763, an English - Company was formed for the purpose of searching for metal in this - region. The operations were conducted by Mr. Alexander Henry, and it - has been ascertained that for several years he worked near Ontonagon, - and at other places upon the Kee-wai-wona promontory. Judging from the - method in which, at the ancient workings, the lodes of copper have - been traced through dense forests, it is evident that fixed plans of - operations must have been pursued, and I came to the conclusion that - the surveyor who directed them, must have had a competent knowledge of - the use of the compass. It is <span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span>therefore not unreasonable to assume, - that all the pits and trenches were excavated under the superintendence - of Europeans, at some period later than the sixteenth century.</p> - - <p>Several miles to the south of these works I was shown the spot - where the last and decisive battle was fought between the Chippewas - and Iroquois. This battle field, which was on a point of land near - Kee-wai-wona bay, was remarkable because it affords an instance of - the great distances that were sometimes traversed by Indians when - conducting their wars of extermination. The Iroquois whose territories - and villages were upon the southern shores of Lakes Ontario and Erie, - crossed into the Chippewa lands by the way of the channels leading to - Sault Ste. Marie. Therefore, supposing that they followed the most - direct line to the place where the battle was fought, they must have - passed over a distance of not less than six hundred miles.</p> - - <p>One of the burial mounds which had been opened, contained a large - skull, a pipe made of dark slate and a stone hatchet. Upon the - top of the mound was a pine tree which measured thirty inches in - circumference. The scattered descendants of the Chippewa tribes dwell - in the districts to the west of Lake Superior, but they occasionally - wander into their original country. I met some of them near the shores - of that great inland sea.</p> - - <p>During the time that I was travelling in these iron and copper regions, - I took the opportunity of accompanying the superintendent of one of the - mines to look at the evidences of the action of the glacial drift upon - the surfaces of the hills that had been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> cleared for the purpose of - executing some preliminary mining operations. Some of these hills were - composed of solid hematite iron and jasper, and yet these hard rocks - were deeply grooved by the pressure that had been exerted against them.</p> - - <p>Near Ishpeming there was a low range of hills or knobs, whose formation - was a compact greenstone with wide veins of iron, which had been - subjected to a severe grinding, and was furrowed with grooves two feet - wide and five and a half inches deep. The general direction of this - range was from E.N.E. to W.S.W. and the action of pressure was greatest - where the sides of the hills faced towards the north. The grooves were - about nine hundred feet above the level of Lake Superior. Large erratic - boulders covered the surface of the land. I measured one of them which - was lying exposed in a depression between two conical hills, eight - hundred and fifty feet above the lake. It must have weighed over twenty - tons. The boulders were usually masses of basalt, black or red granite, - porphyry and jasper. Rounded boulders of pure copper are sometimes - found. One of these, of exceptional size, was in the forest, in the - direction of Ontonagon, and was estimated to weigh about eighteen tons.</p> - - <p>Near Houghton, Mr. Forster showed me the surface of a hill, four - hundred feet above the lake, which had been made perfectly smooth by - the action of the drift passing over it. At another part where the rock - was exposed we counted fifty-seven grooves over a space of sixty-seven - feet of surface. Judging from the direction of the groovings on the - Kee-wai-wona promontory and the iron hills of Michigan,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> - the boulders appear to have been carried from Labrador.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_050f"><img src="images/i_050f.jpg" width="516" height="700" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Chippewa Chief.<br />(west of lake superior.)</div> - </div> - - <p>The waters and floating icebergs must have swept over this country with - much force for in many places the pressure exerted seems to have been - enormous.</p> - - <p>On my way south from this land, which contained so much that attracted - attention, I visited the reservation of the Oneidas, at the spot where - the council fire of that tribe was originally established, near Lake - Ontario. I was received by the hereditary chief of that tribe, who - was named Beech-tree. As he could not speak a word of English, our - conversation was carried on with the assistance of his grandson, who - acted as interpreter. Beech-tree was a large, broad shouldered man, - with a remarkably massive head. If I had met him in the north of China, - I should have taken him for a Manchu Tartar. His hair was very long and - black, and tinged with grey.</p> - - <p>He told his grandson to say that he was proud of his unmixed descent - from the ancient chiefs of his nation, which had once been powerful, - and that the land upon which we stood belonged by right to the Oneidas, - and was the place where they held their great councils and decided - upon questions of war or peace. After having made, with assumed - dignity, this brief oration, Beech-tree retired into the interior of - his hut, and I returned to my country cart, which had conveyed me to - his territory, and finally reached the shores of Lake Erie. After - traversing Lakes Huron and Michigan, I proceeded to the banks of the - Ohio river, with the purpose of making expeditions to the works of the - Mound Builders.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span></p> - - <p>Before quitting the Oneida reservation, I made inquiries about a man - named Williams, concerning whom I had heard, when at Boston, a strange - and romantic story. It appears that Williams, whose parentage was - uncertain or unknown, was sent early in the present century from the - Indian village of St. Régis, to act as a missionary among the Oneidas. - Some years later, rumours were spread to the effect that he was the - true Dauphin, the son of Louis XVI. These rumours were stated to be - based upon grounds which warranted a fair degree of belief.</p> - - <p>The story as told to me at Oneida was that Williams was supposed to - have been born at St. Régis (a picturesque village reservation on the - South bank of the St. Lawrence, and which, at the time that I saw it, - contained a population of fifteen hundred Iroquois, the majority of - whom were half-breeds).</p> - - <p>In early manhood he was sent to a college, trained for missionary work, - and ultimately appointed to preach among the Oneidas. I was informed, - by those who had previously known him, that he was an honest, zealous - missionary, who was quite incapable of attempting any form of imposture.</p> - - <p>It however happened (such is the story,) that the Prince de Joinville, - when travelling in America, came to Oneida and saw Williams. It is also - stated that he visited him on a second occasion. After this second - meeting, it was thought by the residents in the neighbourhood, that - Williams was possibly the Dauphin.</p> - - <p>A picture of Simon, the gaoler who treated the young prisoner in - the Temple with such incredible brutality, was shown to him, and he - instantly started back with horror, as if recalling some painful - memory. Williams had no recollection of anything about his youth before - the age of fourteen.</p> - - <p>In consequence of these apparent corroborations of the local surmises, - it was conjectured that after the execution of Louis XVI., the young - Dauphin was removed from the prison, sent to America and placed in an - Indian family at St. Régis. Williams lived for many years with the - Oneidas, and died at an advanced age. He was described as having been - a man of portly physique, with large features and big hands and feet. - His complexion was rather dark. I think it is probable that he was - descended from half-breed Indian parents.</p> - - <p>It will be observed, that, the whole value of the evidence supporting - the theory of his being the Dauphin, depends upon the accuracy - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> of the - story that he received two visits from the Prince de Joinville. This - statement, if correct, appears however to establish the presumption - that the Royal Family of France, may have had some doubts with regard - to the truth of the report of the death of Louis XVII. in the Temple. - It is certain that a boy, said to have been that young prince, was - buried by the orders of the Commune in an obscure churchyard in the - Faubourg St. Antoine, in the year 1795; but the evidence is scarcely - conclusive upon the subject.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> - <a id="i_054"><img src="images/i_054.jpg" width="700" height="487" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption"><i>Plan of the region within which are the Earthworks - of the Mound builders.</i></div> - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_IV"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> - <h2>CHAPTER IV.<br /> - <span class="subhead center"><b>ANCIENT INDIAN MOUNDS AND EARTHWORKS IN OHIO.</b></span> - <span class="subhead"> - Earthworks of the Mound Builders and their geographical - position.—Miamisburgh Mound.—Grave Creek Mound.—Ages and - contents of burial mounds.—Rectangular, circular and octagonal - Inclosures near Newark.— Marietta Earthworks.—Discoveries made - in a burial mound.—Fortifications near Portsmouth.—Encampments - in the valley of the Scioto. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> great earthworks in Ohio are the subject of much antiquarian - interest and conjecture. Several surveys of them have been made for the - purpose of ascertaining their purpose and the probable period of their - construction, but nothing definite has yet been determined.</p> - - <p>In considering the various theories respecting the migrations of - the aboriginal tribes, it is strange that traces of the same kind - of encampments have not been found either in the North-West towards - Asia, or in the southern parts of the valley of the Mississippi. It - is difficult to understand how it happens that these works only occur - within a comparatively confined region. Their actual geographical - limits are contained within an area bounded approximately, towards the - South, by the left bank of the river Ohio, from the neighbourhood of - Cincinnati towards the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> - West, to Wheeling towards the East, and not - extending northwards beyond a line drawn from East to West through the - centre of Ohio.</p> - - <p>Consequently it will be seen, upon making a reference to the map, that - the works of the people called the Mound Builders, are situated within - the southern division of the State including both banks of the Ohio - river. These were their extreme limits, but the part of the country - chiefly occupied by them has a much lesser area.</p> - - <p>It is evident from the positions of the earthworks, that the tribes - which raised them thought it necessary to maintain their communications - by water with the valley of the Ohio, and on the banks of that river - they had several important fortifications or encampments. It is, - however, upon the banks of the tributaries that fall into the Ohio from - the North, that their settlements were most numerous, especially upon - the Scioto, the Muskinghum and the streams entering those rivers near - Newark and Chillicothe.</p> - - <p>The first earthwork that I visited was the great mound of Miamisburgh, - which is situated upon the summit of high ground overlooking the - valley of the Little Miami river. It was opened and examined in 1869, - a few months before I saw it. In appearance and shape it resembled the - largest of the Tumuli that were raised upon the plains of Troy, but the - dimensions of this American mound are much greater. It is sixty-eight - feet high, and has a circumference at the base of about eight hundred - and thirty feet.</p> - - <p>A perpendicular shaft was sunk from the centre of the summit to the - centre of the base, and two horizontal shafts were made, one at - eighteen feet, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span> - another at thirty-six feet respectively. At a - depth of four feet from the top, there was a layer of wood ashes. At - eight feet there was discovered a skeleton and some decayed wood. At - fifteen feet there was a layer of charcoal and lime. At the depth of - twenty-four feet a singular construction was found. It consisted of an - upright stone, standing upon two flat stones, together with a number of - rounded water-worn stones. With these there was some closely pressed - material, looking like a kind of cloth made from wood fibre. Upon - reaching the depth of thirty feet, there was discovered a quantity of - charcoal and ashes. Six feet below this was a hollow space and, from - the character of the contents within, it was supposed that there must - have been a vault there, which had been surrounded and covered with - logs of wood. At the base of the mound there was a large quantity of - charcoal.</p> - - <p>Before the tumulus was opened, it had been conjectured that it was - raised by the Indians for the purposes of observation. It is situated - at the extreme western limit of the territories of the Mound Builders, - and at a considerable distance from any of their other earthworks. - The other great burial mound was placed in a similar manner beyond - the eastern boundary at the confluence of a small stream called the - Grave Creek with the Ohio, near Wheeling. On my way there by the - river, I passed the mouths of the Scioto and Muskinghum, and the towns - of Portsmouth and Marietta,<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> where are the remains of - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span>extensive - encampments.</p> - - <p>The Grave Creek Mound is similar to that at Miamisburgh, but it is, in - all its measurements, rather larger and rises to a height of seventy - feet. In the early part of the present century, some slight excavations - were made upon the slopes, and it was then ascertained that numerous - skeletons were buried there.</p> - - <p>In the year 1838, a more thorough system of examination was adopted. - A shaft was carried through horizontally from the surface of the - ground at the base to the centre. Then a perpendicular shaft was sunk - from the centre of the summit to the base, connecting these with the - passage already opened. At three feet from the summit there was found - a skeleton in a complete state of decay. Thirty-two feet lower down, - there was a small vault or structure of logs of wood, within which was - another skeleton also decayed. At the base there was a larger vault, - containing two skeletons which were in a sufficiently well preserved - condition to enable them, subsequently, to be exhibited. These - skeletons were found to be partly enveloped in a fibrous material, and - they were placed within a structure, formed by a number of upright logs - of wood, covered by other similar logs placed horizontally. Upon the - top of this roof there had been piled a small heap of stones.</p> - - <p>The excavation of the horizontal shaft, near the surface, disclosed a - very singular system of burial.</p> - - <p>Dr. Clemens,<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> in his account of this operation, - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span>states that at a - distance of twelve or fifteen feet were found masses of a substance - composed of charcoal and burnt bones, and also that when enlarging the - lower vault, in which were the two skeletons, ten more skeletons were - discovered, all of them in a sitting posture, but in a state so fragile - as to defy all attempts to preserve them. In this lower vault there - were six hundred and fifty beads made of shell and perforated in the - centre. In the smaller vault above, in which was the single skeleton, - there were seventeen hundred shell beads, about one hundred and fifty - small plates of mica perforated at their sides and corners, five - hundred marine shells and five copper bands or bracelets which were - placed on the bones of the arms.</p> - - <p>There was a tree growing upon the top of the mound which interfered - with the operations. Dr. Clemens stated that it was two-and-a-half - feet in diameter, and had three hundred growths from centre to - circumference. Some years earlier another oak which had become decayed - was cut down by the proprietor, who said that he had counted upon it - nearly five hundred annual rings. The number of rings in the trunk of - a tree, growing upon any part of the mound, gives clear evidence upon - the question of its least age, and therefore it may be assumed that the - date of the completion of the burial mound cannot be later than the - fourteenth century. It is, however, possible that there may have been - several successive growths of trees on the slopes, and in that case it - may have been raised at some earlier period. The Miamisburgh mound, at - the time when I saw it, was covered with trees, none of which appeared - to be of great age.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> - They must have been preceded by other growths.</p> - - <p>The nature of the ornaments buried with the skeletons in the Grave - Creek mound, seems to prove that there must have been communications - between these Ohio races, and the tribes dwelling to the South of - the Mississippi valley,<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> for the small sea shells were considered - to be of the same kind as those seen on the beaches in Florida. The - glittering flat slabs of mica, which hung over the breast, either as - ornaments or marks of distinction, were similar to those discovered in - burial mounds in the Iroquois country, near Lake Ontario. The copper - bracelets were of rude workmanship, and were probably hammered into - their shape from lumps of native copper. Similar bracelets have been - found <span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> - in some smaller burial mounds in other parts of Ohio. Those - examined by me were made in the most rough and simple manner. The - copper seems to have been beaten out into the required lengths, and - then bent over to form the bracelets. The shapes resembled the bangles - made in Hindostan and Persia.</p> - - <p>There are circumstances with respect to the manner of burial by the - Mound Builders which require to be noticed. It seems from the evidence - of the various excavations that have been made, that it was frequently - the custom to construct in the centre of the spot intended to be a - burial place, a vault surrounded by upright logs of wood. In this was - put the earliest burial, which was probably that of a chief. This vault - was then covered with a roof of logs, and over it was piled a heap of - stones. Other mounds were added in the course of time, and were placed - on the surface of the ground in a circle surrounding the vault. This - system of placing mounds was then continued in circles, one outside - the other, until the space or area intended to be occupied was filled - up. The later interments were probably made successively one above the - other, until the tumulus was completed. The time that would elapse - before a tribe had raised such a high mound as that at the Grave Creek, - would necessarily be very long.</p> - - <p>In the town of Newark, situated in a part of the country which appears - to have been much occupied by the races that built the ancient - earthworks, a very interesting collection of local antiquities had been - brought together. Amongst the various relics discovered in the mounds - were, stone axes and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> - chisels, quantities of rude coarse pottery, many - shell beads, and some copper bracelets.</p> - - <p>Dr. Wilson, who was a resident in the neighbourhood, and took much - personal interest in antiquarian investigations, told me he had - observed that the larger burial places seemed to have been raised - gradually, and at intervals. He had formed the opinion that the - Indians usually traced upon the surface of the ground the outer base - of the tumulus. Within the inclosed space a number of skeletons were - then laid and covered over with layers of earth or small mounds. Over - these, after a certain time had elapsed, more skeletons were placed - and similarly covered. This system of burial was continued until the - mound was completed. There were evidences of a great burning having - taken place upon the top of every successive series of burials. The - nature of the contents of such of the smaller mounds as had been opened - varied in many respects. In some instances nothing was found except - ashes and broken pottery. In others were skeletons together with stone - pipes, chisels made of hard greenstone, flint arrow heads, bone awls - and numerous beads. There were also occasionally found a few rudely - made copper rings. In a mound which was supposed to be a child’s grave, - a necklace of beads, strung upon a kind of fibre, was placed round the - neck of the skeleton.</p> - - <p>There was a large cairn, above forty feet in height, placed a few - miles south of the town, which was destroyed about the middle of the - present century in order to obtain materials for constructing a portion - of the banks of a canal. When the stones were removed, fifteen small - mounds composed of earth were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> - discovered ranged in a circle at some - distance from the centre, and near the outer part of the base. There - was also a central mound which contained a quantity of human bones. In - one of the outer mounds the explorers saw a hollow wooden trough, in - which was a skeleton and several rings made of copper. I examined some - fragments of this trough that were preserved in the Museum. The wood - was black and very hard. It was considered that the mounds beneath the - cairn contained earth that must have been brought from a distance. This - singular fact is in accordance with what has been observed in other - Indian works, and probably has a special significance.</p> - - <p>Judging from the character of the relics that have been discovered - in the Ohio mounds,<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> it does not appear that there is any reason - to justify the conclusion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> - that the Mound Builders differed in - their condition of civilisation from the other Indian tribes. The - consideration of this subject has been made perplexing in consequence - of the existence of the numerous burial places of the tribes who were - settled in this region after the arrival of the Europeans. In several - mounds were found gunbarrels, silver crosses and other objects which - are undoubtedly of foreign workmanship. The crosses were usually placed - upon the breasts of the skeletons, and from this circumstance it is - probable that they belonged to Indians who had been converted by the - French missionaries.</p> - - <p>After I had seen the principal burial places of the Mound Builders, I - proceeded to look at the largest and most important group of that class - of earthworks, which were considered by Messrs. Squier and Davis, who - surveyed them in 1845, to have been raised for the purpose of religious - ceremonial, and who accordingly called them sacred inclosures. It has - also been conjectured that they may have been fortified camps.</p> - - <p>They are situated a few miles from Newark, upon a slightly elevated - plain, about forty feet above a river now called the Licking Creek. - Upon two sides of them there are smaller streams, respectively named, - South Fork and Racoon Creek: thus the camps are surrounded on three - sides by water. The site chosen by the Indians was well adapted for - the purpose of defence, when the habits or requirements of the tribes - were such as to make it desirable for them to establish their dwelling - places as near as possible to a river. The inclosures are designed - with skill, and their construction must have involved arduous and long - continued labour, which was probably <span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> - executed in consequence of the - apprehension of serious danger from the attacks of enemies. Upon an - examination of their formation, it becomes evident that the men who - traced the lines of the embankments, followed clear and well-defined - rules.</p> - - <p>As these earthworks are, with respect to their principles of - construction, the most remarkable of their kind in North America, it - is expedient to investigate their plans with careful attention. The - inclosure, which is marked A on the annexed ground plan, consists - of a large octagonal work connected with a smaller circular work. - The octagon contains an area of about forty acres, surrounded by an - embankment whose existing average height slightly exceeds five feet. - There are eight entrances or gateways placed at equal distances from - each other. They are guarded by mounds, made sufficiently wide to - extend a little beyond the width of the openings and thus cover the - approach. These mounds are of the same height as the ramparts, and are - placed within them. They were made flat upon the top, and possibly the - platform thus made was useful for defensive operations.</p> - - <p>At one end of the inclosure the ramparts leave the octagon, and form - two parallel banks leading into the circle B. This approach - is nearly one hundred yards long and about fifteen yards wide. At its - termination the banks turn to the right and left, and form a circular - work containing an area of twenty acres. At the outer edge of the - circle and opposite to the entrance, is placed a large flat-topped - mound, attached to, but outside the general line of the banks. This - mound, according to my measurements, was twelve feet in perpendicular - height, and had a platform on its summit which was about one hundred - and eighty feet long by thirty feet wide. In consequence of being - several feet higher than the embankments and outside their line, it - commands the approaches to that part of the inclosure. There is no - exterior or interior ditch to either of these works.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> - <a id="i_066"><img src="images/i_066.jpg" width="700" height="488" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption"><i>Plan of Indian Inclosures and Parallel Embankments - near Newark, Ohio</i></div> - </div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span></p> - - <p>From the central, or eastern opening of the octagon a long low line - of parallel embankments connect it with another group of earthworks - which, in the plan, is marked C. The inclosure has been, in - many parts, destroyed or levelled, but it is possible to trace its - original form. It appears to have been an exact square, containing - an area of twenty acres. This square is connected with the circular - work D by parallel banks in the same manner as the octagon - is joined to the circle B, but they are of greater length - and magnitude. At the entrance, where the banks diverge outwards and - begin to form the curve of the circle, they rise to a height exceeding - fifteen feet.</p> - - <p>The appearance of these great avenues of approach, and the inclosing - banks, covered with forest trees, is very impressive, and it can be - well understood why it has been thought probable that the circular - work was raised for the purpose of performing religious or sacrificial - ceremonies. With respect to that opinion it should be observed that, in - this particular instance, the theory that the lofty banks were intended - as a fortification is to some extent doubtful, because it happens that - the ditch is placed within the ramparts. This method of defence is - unquestionably <span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> - opposed to all the rules of European fortification. - Possibly in the systems of Indian warfare where stockades were - generally used, and sometimes placed on the sides of sloping banks, an - inner ditch may have been considered more capable of defence than one - placed externally.</p> - - <p>The inclosure, like that at B, is in the shape of a circle. - It contains an area of about twenty-six acres. The ramparts have an - average height of nearly twelve feet, and the depth of the ditch is - over nine feet. At that part of the work which is near the entrance, - the dimensions are, however, of still greater importance, and the - perpendicular height measured from the bottom of the ditch exceeds - twenty-eight feet. The length of the inner slope may be estimated as - being about forty-two feet. In the centre of the inclosure, there is a - low heap of earth and stones which, in consequence of its shape, has - received the name of the eagle mound. It is not improbable that this - was the spot where, after the Indians returned from their wars, their - prisoners were tied to a stake, then tortured, and burnt in accordance - with the usual customs, and war dances with other savage ceremonies, - were performed in the presence of the women and children assembled - around.</p> - - <p>When taking into consideration the various circumstances which are - apparent in the<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>Newark <span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> - inclosures, particular attention should be - given to the fact that their ground plans are geometrical figures. - Thus the circle B is accurately traced. D has some small difference - in the lengths of its diameters, but is very nearly a true circle. - The square has its four sides equal, and all its angles are right - angles. The octagon is carefully laid down, and its angles are almost - mathematically correct.</p> - - <p>The plans and measurements are evidences of the existence of mental - capacities which were far in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> - advance of those of the present Indian - races, who are remarkable for their extreme indifference to all ideas - of regularity of form, and who have not, and never could have had, the - slightest acquaintance with the rules of geometry.</p> - - <p>The Licking river, after passing these inclosures, finally enters the - Muskinghum, and the Muskinghum falls into the Ohio. The confluence - takes place near the town of Marietta, where there are groups of - earthworks which, in many respects, resemble those at Newark, and - some of the areas were equal. The positions for the inclosures - were evidently chosen upon similar principles. They were upon a - comparatively elevated plateau, and had direct communication with the - river.</p> - - <p>In the early part of the present century some discoveries were made, - which were considered to be of the utmost importance. It was thought - that they had a direct bearing upon the question of the civilisation - and antiquity of the Mound Builders, and a letter, written by Dr. - Hildreth, has been acknowledged to be a very important contribution to - the evidence upon these subjects.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> - - <p>The letter ran as follows:-</p> - - <blockquote> - <p class="right">“Marietta, July 19th, 1819.</p> - - <p>“In removing the earth which composed an ancient mound in one - of the streets of Marietta, on the margin of the plain, near - the fortifications, several curious articles were discovered - the latter part of June last. They appear to have been buried - with the body of the person to whose memory this mound was erected.</p> - </blockquote> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> - <a id="i_071"><img src="images/i_071.jpg" width="496" height="700" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Inclosures at Marietta. 1837.</div> - </div> - - <blockquote> - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> - “Lying immediately over, or on the forehead of the body, were - found three large circular bosses, or ornaments for a sword - belt, or a buckler; they are composed of copper, overlaid - with a thick plate of silver. The fronts of them are slightly - convex, with a depression, like a cup, in the centre, and - measure two inches and a quarter across the face of each. On - the back side, opposite the depressed portion, is a copper - rivet or nail, around which are two separate plates, by which - they were fastened to the leather. Two small pieces of the - leather were found lying between the plates of one of the - bosses; they resemble the skin of an old mummy, and seem to - have been preserved by the salts of the copper. The plates of - copper are nearly reduced to an oxyde, or rust. The silver - looks quite black, but is not much corroded, and on rubbing, - it becomes quite brilliant. Two of these are yet entire; the - third one is so much wasted, that it dropped in pieces on - removing it from the earth. Around the rivet of one of them - is a small quantity of flax or hemp, in a tolerable state of - preservation. Near the side of the body was found a plate of - silver which appears to have been the upper part of a sword - scabbard; it is six inches in length and two inches in breadth, - and weighs one ounce; it has no ornaments or figures, but has - three longitudinal ridges, which probably corresponded with - edges, or ridges of the sword; it seems to have been fastened - to the scabbard by three or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> - four rivets, the holes of which yet remain in the silver.</p> - - <p>“Two or three broken pieces of a copper tube, were also found, - filled with iron rust. These pieces, from their appearance, - composed the lower end of the scabbard, near the point of the - sword. No sign of the sword itself was discovered, except the - appearance of rust above mentioned.</p> - - <p>“Near the feet, was found a piece of copper, weighing three - ounces. From its shape it appears to have been used as a plumb, - or for an ornament, as near one of the ends is a circular - crease, or groove, for tying a thread; it is round, two inches - and a half in length, one inch in diameter at the centre, and - half-an-inch at each end. It is composed of small pieces of - native copper, pounded together; and in the cracks between the - pieces, are stuck several pieces of silver; one nearly the size - of a four-penny piece, or half a dime. This copper ornament - was covered with a coat of green rust, and is considerably - corroded. A piece of red ochre, or paint, and a piece of - iron ore, which has the appearance of having been partially - vitrified, or melted, were also found. The ore is about the - specific gravity of pure iron.</p> - - <p>“The body of the person here buried, was laid on the surface of - the earth, with his face upwards, and his feet pointing to the - north-east, and head to the south-west. From the appearance of - several pieces of charcoal, and bits of partially burnt fossil - coal, and the black colour of the earth, it would appear that - the funeral obsequies had been celebrated by fire; and while - the ashes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> - were yet hot and smoking, a circle of flat stones - had been laid around and over the body. The circular covering - is about eight feet in diameter, and the stones yet look - black, as if stained by fire and smoke. This circle of stones - seems to have been the nucleus on which the mound was formed, - as immediately over them is heaped the common earth of the - adjacent plain, composed of a clayey sand and coarse gravel. - This mound must originally have been about ten feet high, and - thirty feet in diameter at its base. At the time of opening - it, the height was six feet, and diameter between thirty and - forty. It has every appearance of being as old as any in the - neighbourhood, and was, at the first settlement of Marietta, - covered with large trees, the remains of whose roots were yet - apparent in digging away the earth. It also seems to have been - made for this single personage, as the remains of one skeleton - only were discovered. The bones were much decayed, and many of - them crumbled to dust on exposure to the air. From the length - of some of them, it is supposed the person was about six feet - in height.</p> - - <p>“Nothing unusual was discovered in their form, except that - those of the skull were uncommonly thick. The situation of - the mound on high ground, near the margin of the plain, and - the porous quality of the earth, are admirably calculated - to preserve any perishable substance from the certain - decay which would attend it in many other situations. To - these circumstances, is attributed the tolerable state of - preservation in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> - which several of the articles above described - were found, after lying in the earth for several centuries. We - say <i>centuries</i>, from the fact that trees were found growing - on those ancient works, whose ages were ascertained to amount - to between four and five hundred years each, by counting the - concentric circles in the stumps after the trees were cut down; - and on the ground, besides them, were other trees in a state of - decay, that appeared to have fallen from old age.”</p> - </blockquote> - - <p>It should be observed with reference to the statements made in the - above letter, that the age of the trees, said to have been estimated by - the early settlers at Marietta, has generally been accepted as being - correct, and based upon direct and accurate evidence. Consequently it - would be necessary to admit that the earthworks were raised at some - period before the fifteenth century.</p> - - <p>Passing from the question of this date, as calculated by the annular - rings counted upon the trees, to the subject of the contents of the - burial mound which was excavated in the presence of Dr. Hildreth; the - problem that has chiefly to be solved is the age of the silver-plated - ornaments. It is difficult to fix the time when these were made, but - judging from the sketches of them, as published in the account of these - discoveries, the ornaments appear to have been such as would have been - placed upon the sword belt and scabbard of a European officer of rank.</p> - - <p>When the inclosures and their ramparts were for the first time surveyed - and described in the year 1805, it was observed that there were - parallel passages or protected ways leading from the larger of - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span> the - forts down to the river. These appear to correspond with the parallels - that can still be traced at Newark, and which also lead to the river. - Those at Marietta were however more remarkable, because, in order to - obtain the gradual approach which was required, it was necessary, - apparently, to excavate the river bank in such a manner as to make a - sunken road. A conveniently sloped communication with the water was - thus constructed. It is probable that at the river side where the - protecting embankments terminated, a fleet of canoes was kept ready for - use or escape.</p> - - <p>The next confluence of rivers below Marietta, occurs at the point - where the Scioto falls into the Ohio. Near the spot where the town of - Portsmouth is now situated, are traces of an extensive series of low - embankments which seem to have been made for temporary entrenchments. - On the opposite or south bank of the river, there was an inclosure - constructed in the shape of a square, each of the sides being eight - hundred feet long; the area inclosed was nearly fifteen acres. The - embankments were over twelve feet high: and there was no ditch.</p> - - <p>This fort was brought into especial notice in consequence of a strange - discovery. A large number of iron pickaxes, shovels and gunbarrels were - found buried in the ramparts. It has been conjectured that they were - hidden there by the French soldiers when they retreated down the Ohio - after the capture of Fort Du Quesne<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> by the British forces in the - year <span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> - 1758. The Indian fortifications on the banks of that river were - placed upon the direct line of the communication with the other French - forts in the valley of the Mississippi and Louisiana. In the ordinary - course of events they would probably have been used by the French and - their Indian allies, when they happened to be in their neighbourhood.</p> - - <p>The valley of the river Scioto above Portsmouth, towards Chillicothe, - was evidently much frequented by the Indians, who dwelt in inclosures - resembling in their formation the square and circular works at - Newark, although the embankments were of smaller dimensions. A brief - description of one of them as it existed when first surveyed, is - sufficient to give a knowledge of the usual plans of these encampments. - It was situated on the left bank of a tributary of the Scioto, called - Paint Creek.</p> - - <p>There was a square inclosure, each of whose sides was one thousand and - eighty feet in length. Attached to this square, which contained an area - of twenty-seven acres, was a large circular inclosure having a diameter - of about seventeen hundred feet. This circle had another smaller work - connected with it which was also circular, and had a diameter of eight - hundred feet. The embankments of all these inclosures were low, and did - not anywhere <span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> - exceed five feet in height. The position of the gateways - and the mounds protecting them was the same as in the octagonal work - at Newark. The large circle had an opening into it leading out of the - square, and the small circle had also one opening which connected it - with the other.</p> - - <p>This part of Ohio was, in the eighteenth century, occupied by - settlements of the Shawnee tribes. In several of the burial mounds, - which are supposed to have belonged to them, there have been found - copper kettles, silver crosses and iron gunbarrels—all of which must - have been unquestionably made by workmen of European descent.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_V"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> - <h2>CHAPTER V.<br /> - <span class="subhead"><b>MOUNDS AND EARTHWORKS IN OHIO.</b></span> - <span class="subhead"> - Ancient Fortified Inclosures at Circleville.—Discoveries - in a Burial Mound.—Alligator Totem near Newark.—Fort - Ancient.—Age of Trees growing upon the Ramparts at Fort - Hill.—Traditions.—Geometrical Ground Plans of Indian - Inclosures.—Conclusions. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Before</span> quitting the subject of those ancient earthworks, which were - planned upon geometrical figures, it is necessary to take into - consideration certain inclosures that were situated in the higher parts - of the Scioto Valley, in a position which is at the present time, - occupied by the town of Circleville.</p> - - <p>The embankments or ramparts have been razed to the ground, and no - traces remain of what appears to have been one of the most perfect - examples of the mathematical accuracy of that type of construction. It - is fortunate that during the demolition of the works, there happened - to be present an antiquarian of such an acknowledged reputation as - Mr. Atwater, for he has written a full account of their form and - dimensions,<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> together with a report upon the strange - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span>discoveries - made when excavating a burial mound, inside the circular inclosure near - its centre. Mr. Atwater, who evidently took careful measurements,<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> - wrote a statement which includes the following extracts:-</p> - - <blockquote> - <p>“There are two forts, one being an exact circle, the other an - exact square. The former is surrounded by two walls, with a - deep ditch between them. The latter is encompassed by one wall, - without any ditch. The former was sixty-nine rods in diameter, - measuring from outside to outside of the circular outer wall; - the latter is exactly fifty-five rods square measuring the - same way. The walls of the circular fort were at least twenty - feet in height, measuring from the bottom of the ditch, before - the town of Circleville was built. The inner wall was of clay, - taken up probably in the northern part of the fort, where was a - low place, and is still considerably lower than any other part - of the work. The outside wall was taken from the ditch which - is between these walls, and is alluvial, consisting of pebbles - worn smooth in water, and sand, to a very considerable depth, - more than fifty feet at least. The outside of the walls is - about five or six feet in height now; on the inside, the ditch - is, at present, generally not more than fifteen feet. They are - disappearing before us daily, and will soon be gone. The walls - of the square fort are at this time, where left standing, about - ten feet in height. There were eight gateways or openings - leading into the square fort, and only one into the circular - fort. Before each of these openings was a mound of earth, - perhaps four feet high, forty feet perhaps in diameter at the - base, and twenty or upwards at the summit. These mounds, for - two rods or more, are exactly in front of the gateways, and - were intended for the defence of these openings.” ...</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> - <a id="i_081"><img src="images/i_081.jpg" width="484" height="700" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Inclosures at Circleville.</span><br /> - <span class="small">Reduced from the survey of Mr. Atwater.</span></div> - </div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> - “The extreme care of the authors of these works to protect and - defend every part of the circle, is nowhere visible about this - square fort. The former is defended by two high walls, the - latter by one. The former has a deep ditch encircling it, this - has none. The former could be entered at one place only; this - at eight, and those about twenty feet broad.” ... “The round - fort was picketed in, if we are to judge from the appearance of - the ground on and about the walls. Half-way up the outside of - the inner wall, is a place distinctly to be seen, where a row - of <em>pickets</em> once stood, and where it was placed when this work - of defence was originally erected.” ...</p> - - <p>“What surprised me on measuring these forts, was the exact - manner in which they had laid down their circle and square; - so that after every effort, by the most careful survey, to - detect some error in their measurement, we found that it was - impossible, and that the measurement was much more correct - than it would have been, in all probability, had the present - inhabitants undertaken to construct such a work.”</p> - </blockquote> - - <p class="noindent">The mound that had been raised within the circle - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> was ten feet high. - Its summit had been levelled in order to obtain a platform which had a - diameter of nearly thirty feet, and had probably been used as a site - for the dwelling of the chief of the tribe. Mr. Atwater watched the - proceedings when this mound was destroyed. He states that it contained:—</p> - - <ol> - <li>“Two human skeletons lying on what had been the original - surface of the earth.</li> - - <li>“A great quantity of arrow heads, some of which were so - large as to induce a belief that they were used for spear heads.</li> - - <li>“The handle either of a small sword or a large knife, - made of an elk’s horn; around the end where the blade had been - inserted, was a ferule of silver which, though black, was not - much injured by time. Though the handle showed the hole where - the blade had been inserted, yet no iron was found, but an - oxyde remained of similar shape and size.</li> - - <li>“Charcoal and wood ashes on which these articles lay, - which were surrounded by several bricks very well burnt. The - skeleton appeared to have been burned in a large and very hot - fire, which had almost consumed the bones of the deceased. - This skeleton was deposited a little to the south of the - centre of the tumulus, and, about twenty feet to the north of - it was another, with which were—</li> - - <li>“A large mirror, about three feet in length, and one foot - and a half in breadth, and one inch and a half in thickness. - This mirror was of isinglass (mica membranacea) and on it—</li> - - <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span>“A - plate of iron which had become an oxyde; but before it - was disturbed by the spade, resembled a plate of cast iron. - The mirror answered the purpose very well for which it was - intended. This skeleton had also been burned like the former, - and lay on charcoal and a considerable quantity of wood ashes. - A part of the mirror is in my possession as well as a piece of - brick, taken from the spot at the time.”</li> - </ol> - - <p>About two hundred yards from this tumulus, and outside the circular - inclosure was a large mound, supposed to have been the common Indian - cemetery. It contained an immense number of human skeletons of all - sizes and ages. The skeletons are laid horizontally, with their heads - generally towards the centre, and the feet towards the outside of the - tumulus. A considerable part of this work still stands uninjured, - except by time. In it have been found, besides these skeletons, stone - axes and knives, and several ornaments with holes through them, by - means of which, with a cord passing through these perforations, they - could be worn by their owners.</p> - - <p>The vestiges of occupation that have been left by those ancient tribes - who raised the earthworks in this region are not of a character that - render it possible to form any absolute conclusions about them.</p> - - <p>There are, however, in Ohio two large and important mounds built in the - shape of animals which may, possibly, have been made for the purpose - of indicating the emblems which were adopted by the Indians as their - totems. One of these is placed on the summit of a hill overlooking the - valley of one of the tributaries of the Licking river, and about three - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> - miles from the octagonal inclosure near Newark.</p> - - <p>In consequence of its shape, it is called the Alligator. There have - been various theories with regard to this strange earthwork, and it has - been supposed that sacrificial ceremonies were performed there. I had - expected to find this figure to a certain extent excavated upon the - surface of the earth, but I observed, upon examining it, that it was a - regularly built up mound of considerable size.</p> - - <p>The other large totem, which represents a huge serpent, is upon the - brow of a hill about one hundred miles to the South-west of the - Alligator, above a small river called the Brush Creek. According to the - measurements of the earliest surveyors, its length, if extended, is - about one thousand feet. It was five feet high in the centre, and had, - at that part, a base of thirty feet, which diminished towards the head - and tail.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> - - <p>Upon the slopes of the hills near the Alligator, there are numerous - remains of ancient earthworks. One of the most extensive of them was in - every respect different from those at Newark, and other geometrically - designed works, and seems to have been raised for other purposes, or - possibly by a different tribe. Its embankments, which are irregular in - their form, are in no part higher than six - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span>feet, and are thrown up in - such a manner as to inclose the top of a small hill, which is situated - a short distance from the Alligator. The area contained within them is - about eighteen acres. In the centre there is a small circular earthwork - nearly one hundred yards in circumference, and in another part of the - inclosure there are two mounds which have been opened. They contained - large quantities of ashes and some broken pottery.</p> - - <p>There are also other camping grounds near the river. The largest of - them inclosed a space exceeding twenty acres, and was surrounded - by a low bank evidently thrown up for the purposes of inclosing a - temporary encampment. Near the Alligator totem I noticed a singular - earthwork made in the shape of a half-moon. The farmers living in the - neighbourhood told me that they had opened and destroyed many of the - small mounds that had been upon their lands. In all cases they had - contained nothing but fragments of rough pottery, together with small - heaps of ashes.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> - - <p>Finally, there remains to be taken into consideration those great - earthworks on the hills which have been specially classified as having - been undoubtedly raised <span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> - for the purposes of defence, and which - entirely differ from such works as those that were placed upon the - plains. The largest of these camps has been called Fort Ancient, and - it must be acknowledged to be one of the most important fortified - entrenchments that has ever been constructed in any part of the world.</p> - - <p>It is placed upon the summit of a hill overlooking the Little Miami - river about thirty miles above its junction with the Ohio. The site - that was chosen by the Indians is remarkable for its natural strength - and is, upon three sides of it, almost impregnable. The hill which is - about two hundred and thirty feet above the valley, is in the form of - a narrow promontory having almost precipitous sides except where it is - joined to the plateau. The Little Miami winds round one part of the - base, and some small tributary streams join it from the other side.</p> - - <p>The shape and length of the embankments are shown in the accompanying - plan, which is a reduction that I have drawn from one that was made - in 1843 by Professor Locke of Cincinnati.<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> It will be observed - that the ramparts follow closely the curves of the ridge of the hill - and that the camp is practically divided into two parts, the outer - division being near the plain, and the inner one being at the head of - the promontory, where the sides of the hill are the most steep and - inaccessible. The latter was probably intended as a final stronghold in - the event of the outer work being captured.</p> - - <p>The magnitude of the inclosing embankments of the outer camp is - astonishing. It is here that the position is most open to direct - attack, and no efforts or labour have been spared in carrying out - what was thought necessary to prevent capture. No Roman or British - encampment that I have seen surpasses this great Indian work. I walked - round the entire circuit of the ramparts. They are not less than four - miles in length. They follow every curve of the hill and the heads of - all the numerous ravines.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> - <a id="i_088"><img src="images/i_088.jpg" width="500" height="700" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption"><i>Fort Ancient</i></div> - </div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span></p> - - <p>The ground of the inclosure is level. At the time of my visit it was - covered with forest trees, amongst which were many poplars. Upon the - slopes of the embankments there was a luxuriant growth of large beeches - and oaks. The quantity of earth that must have been conveyed and thrown - up when forming these banks must have been enormous. The ramparts - vary in height between ten and twenty feet according to the character - of the natural defence afforded by the slopes of the hill. At the - approach from the plain they are fifteen feet high and have a base of - sixty-three feet. The platform at the top averages five feet wide.</p> - - <p>There is no ditch. Nothing could more clearly mark the difference - between this fortification and one that would have been made by a white - race. An outer ditch is usually considered as not only of essential - importance in works of defence, but its excavation supplies the earth - required for the ramparts. It seems evident that either these Indians - in their method of defensive warfare did not always consider a ditch to - be useful, or it is possible that, in consequence of not having shovels - or pickaxes, they preferred obtaining earth in some other manner which - they found more convenient.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span></p> - - <p>Upon inquiring among the farmers who were occupying the adjacent land, - I found that there was a prevalent opinion amongst them that the earth - composing these embankments had been brought from a distance and that - it had been carried by hand. It was also believed by them that the fort - could not have been made by Indians and that it was built at a very - remote period by some other race.</p> - - <p>When walking upon the top of the broad ramparts I observed that there - were no evidences of the excavations that supplied the earth for the - formation of the enormous banks. In some parts of the interior there - were some shallow depressions, and also several holes which had been - made for some unknown purpose, but they could not have provided the - quantities required. It is possible, and, I think probable, that the - earth was taken from the surface of the land within the inclosure. A - shallow excavation made to a depth not exceeding six inches over the - whole area of one hundred and forty acres would have given a sufficient - supply. The methods of digging the ground, and of conveying the earth - must necessarily have been very primitive, and it is surprising that, - with all the difficulties that had to be overcome, works of such - magnitude should have been raised.</p> - - <p>At a gap in an angle over-looking the river the remains of a road, - which led down to the water, can still be traced. At the part where - this road entered the fort it is evident that it had been paved - with flat water-worn stones. The ramparts here reach their greatest - dimensions, being fully twenty feet high. The appearance of Fort - Ancient from this position was very remarkable, and the effect was - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span> - heightened by the beautiful foliage of the forest trees that crowned - the summits of these lofty earthworks.</p> - - <p>The inner part of the camp was strongly fortified. High banks were - raised across the narrow part of the enclosure at the centre, and - two mounds guarded the approach. The road to the outer camp from the - plain was also protected by two mounds, and from these there ran low - parallels for a distance of nearly fourteen hundred yards. They then - terminated by closing round another mound which was probably used for - the purpose of a look-out. Some labourers at a farm near this position - told me that there once existed other parallel banks connected with the - fort, which could be traced for several miles, but that these had been - destroyed.</p> - - <p>There are certain features in the construction of this fortification - which have attracted attention, but their purpose has not been, and - probably cannot be, explained. There are not less than seventy gaps - or openings leading out of the embankments. It has been supposed that - these were intended to allow the escape of water from the interior. - There is another theory which has been suggested, according to which - it is thought possible that they were openings made with the object - of enabling the Indians to rush out at several points to repel their - enemies, and that they were fenced by stockades.</p> - - <p>It, however, happens that these gaps are sometimes in positions where - the slopes of the hill are so steep as to be practically inaccessible, - and at other places they are on the level ground from which no surplus - waters could drain away. They seem to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> - have formed part of the system - of fortification, for they occur in the same inexplicable manner at - another hill work of defence, built under similar conditions, on the - summit of a promontory with precipitous slopes, about forty miles to - the south-east of this position, which was evidently built by the same - race.</p> - - <p>This large earthwork is called Fort Hill, and it is singular in the - respect of having afforded to its surveyor the means of forming a - judgment upon the question of its antiquity. Consequently it has become - possible to establish well-founded conclusions with respect to the - dates of the construction of earthworks of a similar character.</p> - - <p>Professor Locke, in his report on the geology of that part of Ohio, - stated that on the top of the wall of Fort Hill stood a chestnut tree - six feet in diameter. “Counting and measuring,” he observes, “the - annual layers of wood where an axeman had cut into the trunk, I found - them at nearly 200 to the foot, which would give to this tree the age - of 600 years. A poplar tree, seven feet in diameter, standing in the - ditch, allowing the thickness to the layers which I have found in - like poplars, 170 to the foot, would give nearly the same result, 607 - years.”<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> - - <p>Accepting the deductions of Professor Locke as being correct, it - follows that the period when this hill fort was constructed was not - later than the thirteenth century. Admitting that the thirteenth - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span> - century, is therefore the latest age that can be ascribed to works - of this type, they may be much older, for the forest trees within the - inclosures may have succeeded earlier growths.</p> - - <p>It is not possible to form an estimate of the age of earthworks from - their appearance,<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> and it is only by counting the annual rings - of trees that happen to have been growing upon them, that any safe - theories respecting their antiquity can be adopted.</p> - - <p>Looking at the geographical position of Fort Ancient, with reference - to the other hill works of defence that are supposed to have been - made by the Mound Builders, there are good reasons for assuming that - this was their last stronghold, built with the intention of creating - a permanent barrier against the attacks of their enemies. In time - of war it was a secure encampment, large enough to contain the men, - women and children of a numerous tribe. In time of peace it was well - situated for the usual requirements of Indians. It was in the midst - of a country abounding with game, and was immediately connected with - a good navigable river which enabled their canoes to maintain direct - communications with the Ohio and Mississippi.</p> - - <p>Although, as far as I was able to judge, there was nothing in the - principles of construction of the hill defensive works which appeared - to be beyond the capacities of a purely Indian race, I invariably - found <span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> - that the men who were settled as farmers near the principal - entrenchments held the opinion that they must have been raised by a - people possessing a superior condition of civilisation to the tribes - who occupied the land at the close of the eighteenth century, and who - were personally known by many of the early settlers.</p> - - <p>It is, perhaps, desirable that these local opinions should not be - altogether disregarded, especially when it is remembered that they are - supported to some extent by Indian traditions and by the fact that no - embankments of a similar formation exist in any other part of North - America. It is therefore necessary that the statements of the Indians, - respecting the previous occupation of parts of Ohio and Kentucky by men - of a white race, should be given a passing consideration.</p> - - <p>The Shawnees, who were found to be in possession of this region, - informed the European colonists that the ancient forts had been made - by white people, who after long wars against the Indians had been - exterminated. Their traditions upon this subject were said to have been - clear and decided.</p> - - <p>On the other hand the statements of the Delawares, who were settled in - the Northern parts of the State point to other conclusions. They said - that the men who had raised the forts and entrenchments were called - the Tallegewi, and that great wars took place between them and the - Iroquois. After many years the Tallegewi were defeated and left the - country. The Delawares made no allusion with respect to any differences - of race or colour between the Tallegewi and the other Indian tribes.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span></p> - - <p>It is much to be regretted that the evidence upon this interesting - subject is so vague and obscure. If men of foreign origin had been - settled in Ohio before the fourteenth century it would be reasonable - to expect that traces of them would have been left there or some - remaining indications of their religion. In the reports and letters of - the French missionaries, many of whom spoke and understood the language - of the tribes amongst whom they lived, there is no mention made of any - rumours or traditions of white people having dwelt in this part of - America. There were however at a later period, about the middle of the - eighteenth century, certain statements made by officers and men who had - been made prisoners by the Indians, which, at that time, received much - attention. A cavalry officer, named Stuart, said that in the country - west of Mississippi he had seen a tribe of Indians who were remarkably - white in colour and had reddish hair. He was informed by them that - their forefathers came from a foreign land and had settled in Florida, - but that when the Spaniards invaded that country they moved to their - present dwelling places. A fellow-captive, who was a Welshman, declared - that he understood the language of the tribe, as it differed very - little from what was spoken in Wales.</p> - - <p>Other reports of a similar character were made by men who had lived - with tribes occupying lands near the southern parts of the Mississippi - valley. It has also been noticed that Indians having fair hair and - blue eyes, were living with the Mandans in their settlements near the - Missouri. With respect to the statements about Welsh speaking Indians, - it is possible <span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span> - that the captives may have been influenced by the - belief in the truth of the tradition that ships, under the direction - of Prince Madoc, left the Welsh coasts in the twelfth century and - landed their crews and emigrants on the eastern shores of the Florida - peninsula.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p> - - <p>It is not, however, necessary to account for the existence of large - but irregular embankments, such as those at Fort Ancient, by the - supposition that the actions of a numerous tribe of Indians were under - the influence or direction of men belonging to another race. But it is - otherwise with reference to the geometrical inclosures on the plains, - for these must have been unquestionally planned by men who possessed a - competent knowledge of the methods of tracing mathematical designs.</p> - - <p>Take for example the plans of the works at Newark and Circleville. - It may be thought that simple figures, such as the squares, would be - within the comprehension of uneducated Indians. It would nevertheless - be found difficult to lay down upon open fields a square, with all the - sides equal and its angles true right angles, containing so large an - area as twenty acres.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> - <a id="i_097"><img src="images/i_097.jpg" width="493" height="700" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Octagonal and Circular Inclosures<br /> - <span class="small">near newark</span>.</div> - </div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span></p> - - <p>The execution of the outlines of correct circles inclosing spaces of - nearly thirty acres, presents still greater difficulties. It would - have required a specially trained mind to form the conception of a - circumference having an imaginary point within, from which all lines - drawn to it would be equal.</p> - - <p>But the figure which would have been absolutely impracticable to - construct without proper surveying appliances for making accurate - measurements, and fixing the true angles, is that of the octagon. Even - under the most favourable circumstances, with the help of suitable - instruments, it would have required much skill and calculation to - trace a true octagon <span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> - whose embankments contained within them an area - exceeding forty acres. It is difficult to suppose that an accurately - designed work of this shape and magnitude could have been planned by - Indians, or that the construction of a figure so essentially scientific - and unusual, could have been originated by them. It is therefore - possible to conclude, that, the geometrical earthworks in Ohio may have - been raised by native tribes, acting under the direction of European - surveyors, or of men who had received a mathematical education.</p> - - <p>Considerations upon the subject of the race and capacity of the - builders, have been to some extent complicated by the reports that were - made concerning the ages of the trees that grew upon and within the - ancient ramparts at Marietta. In the letter of Dr. Hildreth, quoted - in the previous chapter, it is clearly stated that trees were growing - there which were from four to five hundred years old.</p> - - <p>As this evidence is very important it is desirable to examine it with - attention. This statement was made when he was attempting to fix an - approximate date for the age of a burial mound which was placed near - the fortifications. It was at the bottom of this mound that were - discovered the ornaments of a sword belt and scabbard. These ornaments - were made of copper and plated with silver, and must therefore have - been of European manufacture.</p> - - <p>The calculation of the age of the trees is probably based upon the - results of an examination that took place shortly after the settlement - of Marietta during the latter part of the eighteenth century. It was - at that time decided by several of the inhabitants to - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> fell some of - the largest and oldest trees then growing within the earthworks, and - ascertain their ages by counting the number of annual rings contained - in them. The operations were executed in the presence of Governor St. - Clair and the Rev. Dr. Cutler. Several of the trees were found to have - between three hundred and four hundred circles. One tree was carefully - examined and Dr. Cutler stated that it contained at least four hundred - and sixty-three circles.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> - - <p>As nothing can be more conclusive as a proof of age than the number - of rings found in any tree growing beyond the tropics, this evidence - establishes an antiquity for these embankments earlier than the middle - of the fourteenth century.</p> - - <p>The ages of the trees growing upon the Marietta inclosures do not - however enable a date to be estimated for the construction of such - works as those at Newark, for the shapes at Marietta are irregular - and, according to the survey, do not appear to have been laid down - with geometrical accuracy. It is therefore probable that the Newark - inclosures were made at some later period.</p> - - <p>The fact of a ferule of silver and a plate of iron having been placed - with the skeletons in the burial mound at Circleville leads to the - conclusion that the tumulus like the one at Marietta was raised since - the time of the arrival of the Europeans. On account of its having been - placed within the inclosure it was - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span>originally conjectured that it - belonged to the same people that formed the surrounding embankment, but - the evidence is not sufficient to establish the correctness of a theory - of such importance.</p> - - <p>It is difficult to understand what could have been the object of the - Indians in constructing large earthworks in the shapes of squares and - circles. Various theories have been advanced upon the subject, but - nothing that can be considered satisfactory has yet been ascertained. - Upon an examination of the plans it naturally occurs to the mind - to endeavour to form an opinion as to the reasons which led to the - adoption of these particular forms.</p> - - <p>It is probable that these types of inclosures would be convenient for - the habits and purposes of an Indian tribe during peace, and that - they afforded protection in war. The square inclosures may have been - intended to contain the village, the dwellings of the chiefs, and the - council house. The circles, with their single opening for approach, - which could be strongly guarded, would in that case be the strongholds - in which, during hostilities, would be placed the women and children. - A circular fort, such as that at Newark, would, under the usual - conditions of Indian warfare, be practically impregnable. In the event - of the outer square being captured it would have a sufficient area to - give the space that would be wanted for the defending tribe.</p> - - <p>The antiquity of these works is a problem that does not possess all - the elements that are required for its solution. But in consequence - of the exceptional system of construction certain inferences can be - determined. It may be assumed that the geometrically - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span>shaped inclosures - could not have been planned by Indians, and that therefore the - square, circular and octagonal works, were constructed at some period - subsequent to the landing of the Spaniards in Florida, in the beginning - of the sixteenth century.<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> - - <p>If these embankments were raised before that period, it would be - almost necessary to admit, that white men possessing a knowledge of - mathematics were living amongst the Indians before the discovery of - America by Columbus in 1492.</p> - - <p>The difficult and interesting questions relating to the origin, - civilisation and fate of the Mound Builders, have been the subjects of - frequent investigations and of numerous theories. They appear to have - inhabited Ohio for many centuries.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_VI"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> - <h2>CHAPTER VI.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - The burning of the Steamer Stonewall.—Indian Mounds - and Earthworks at Cahokia.—Confluence of the - Mississippi and Missouri.—Sacs and Foxes.—Education of - Indians.—Nauvoo.—Winona.—Sioux Encampment.—Ancient Mounds - near St. Paul’s.—The Sioux War in Minnesota.—Note upon the - Ogallalas. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Upon</span> the conclusion of a navigation of the waters of the Ohio, which - had extended over a distance exceeding nine hundred miles, we arrived - at the mouth of that river, and proceeded on our course up the - Mississippi. Evening was approaching when we saw a large steamer called - the Stonewall, passing us on her way to New Orleans, crowded with - passengers happily unaware of the terrible nature of their impending - fate, and of the event about to happen before nightfall.</p> - - <p>At sunset, all those who were on board of our vessel, were assembled - upon the upper deck, watching the unusual brilliancy of the reflections - upon the water, and the vivid colouring of the clouds gathering round - the setting sun. We then supposed these effects to be caused by the - haze sometimes observed in the atmosphere during that beautiful season - towards the close of the year, which has been given the name of the - Indian summer. We were ignorant of the conflagration that was taking - place<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> - lower down the river, or we might have surmised that the glowing - tints were possibly caused by the smoke and flames rising from the - burning of the steamer we had seen earlier in the afternoon.</p> - - <p>We were afterwards informed that news had been received, that a - disastrous fire had occurred on board the Stonewall shortly after we - passed her, and the flames spread with such rapidity, that, although - she was close to the river banks, only thirty-five out of two hundred - and forty passengers were saved. The accident was caused by the - carelessness of a man, who, when lighting his pipe, accidentally set - fire to a quantity of hay that was carried between the upper decks as - cargo. It was usual to protect the hay when embarked in this manner, - by covering it with a tarpaulin, but through some inattention this - precaution had been neglected. The Stonewall was burnt to the water’s - edge.</p> - - <p>As we drew near to St. Louis, we passed the wide low plains upon which - is situated the great Cahokia Mound. As it was my purpose to make an - expedition to that part of Illinois before proceeding to the upper part - of the Mississippi Valley, I went there a few days after we had landed - from the steamer.</p> - - <p>The mound when seen from the plains, stands out from them in a manner - so isolated and prominent, that it seems at the first glance, to be - unquestionable that it must have been raised by human labour; but upon - a closer investigation there are good reasons for believing it to be - a natural formation of the land, shaped originally like a rounded - hillock, and subsequently terraced and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> - altered in such a manner as to - make it appear to be altogether artificial. It is ninety feet high, and - the base, if the whole of the irregular and spreading area is included, - covers a space of about nine acres. The summit is level, and contains - nearly two acres. Upon this was established a substantial farmhouse, - which I found to be tenanted by a kind and hospitable family, who were - evidently in a prosperous condition, and able to cultivate their land - advantageously.</p> - - <p>The hillock has been given locally the name of Monks Mound, in - consequence of its having been for several years the site of a small - monastery, belonging to some of the brethren of La Trappe, who, towards - the close of the last century, emigrated to this remote spot when the - monastic orders were suppressed during the French Revolution. The - monks used the lower slopes as a garden, and there still remain the - indications of the terraced ground which was used by them for their - solitary walks. The Trappists are supposed to have left Cahokia at the - time of the restoration of the Bourbons. Probably they returned to - France when the Monastery of La Trappe was re-established, in the reign - of Louis XVIII.</p> - - <p>Before the mound was used as a farm there was on its summit an Indian - tumulus. The farmer <span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> - taking a practical view of this burial heap, - destroyed it and spread the contents over his land.</p> - - <hr class="tb" /> - <blockquote> - <p>The accompanying sketch of the mounds was taken from the slope - of the Cahokia Mound, at a height of about forty feet above - the plain. It represents what now remains of these singular - earthworks; they must originally have been much more numerous.</p> - </blockquote> - <hr class="tb" /> - - <p>On the plain below, there exists a remarkable group of circular and - platform mounds, which, in consequence of their unusual position and - ground plan, demand careful attention. They differ from the earthworks - in Ohio, and appear to have been raised by a tribe having exceptional - customs and habits of life. The mounds are not surrounded by any - embankments, and were entirely unprotected. They were probably raised - to make high platforms for the dwellings of the chiefs. One of them was - used, at the time of my visit to Cahokia, as the site of the village - schoolhouse.</p> - - <p>I endeavoured to trace the plan of the ancient inclosure, which - contained a group of the greatest archæological importance, but so - many of the mounds had been levelled, that it was difficult to form - definite conclusions with regard to its shape or extent. It seems to - have been an irregular parallelogram, about fifteen hundred yards in - length, having at each end a large earthwork or mound, with a wide - and well levelled platform on the top. In the centre, there were two - conical mounds, which must have been raised in that position for some - important purpose. They were each about forty feet high, and appeared - to have been so placed as to dominate the mounds forming the sides of - the inclosure. The men farming the adjacent plains, stated that there - had been a large number of small burial mounds on their lands, most of - which had been destroyed. They had found in them quantities of bones - and skulls, but no ornaments or stone weapons.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span></p> - - <p>When ploughing the ground, they had seen below the surface, fragments - of rude pottery and many flint arrow heads. A large and highly polished - stone spear head was discovered near the settlement and given by the - finder to the young American lady who was then acting as teacher at the - school house on the mound. It was a hard kind of flinty chert, and was - a singularly fine specimen of Indian workmanship.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> - - <p>When I had completed the measurement of the spaces inclosed by the - mounds on the plain, I returned to the great mound in order to examine - it, and my previous conjecture that it was a natural formation remained - unchanged. It was, however, impossible to form a decided opinion - upon the subject, for it required a properly executed scientific - investigation to be made, before the problem of the construction could - be determined. If it should be proved to be artificial, its position - and shape as a high platform earthwork, would support a theory, that it - was raised by the same race that built the greater temple platform of - Cholula, in Mexico.</p> - - <p>After quitting the Cahokia mounds and traversing several miles of the - plains, where for centuries many generations of Indians had encamped, - I returned to St. Louis and embarked on board the Muscatine, a steamer - about to proceed to the highest part of the navigable waters of the - Mississippi. Sixteen miles above St. Louis we passed the mouth of the - Missouri, and observed how its waters, thickly charged with - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> earth, - entirely changed the character of the river into which it flowed. Above - the confluence, the Mississippi is a clear, tranquil stream, but after - receiving the Missouri it becomes muddy, rushing, and turbulent.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_108f"><img src="images/i_108f.jpg" width="700" height="533" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Indian Mounds, Cahokia.</div> - </div> - - <p>It had been my intention to have gone up the Missouri to Nebraska, and - the ancient hunting grounds of the Pawnees, but there were certain - difficulties which made that plan impracticable, so I decided to - proceed northwards, and then to cross the prairies of Minnesota, and - Iowa towards the valley of the river Platte. I was fortunate in having - as a companion on board the steamer, an American judge, who, before - being appointed to the post he then held, had been for many years - acting as Indian agent to the Sacs and Foxes, and was well acquainted - with the habits of the tribes, who were at that time dwelling upon the - territories bordering on the banks of the river.</p> - - <p>Judge Williams had great sympathy for the condition of the tribes with - whom he lived, and he endeavoured to ascertain if it were possible - to establish a higher state of civilisation amongst them. He thought - that the younger members of the Sacs and Foxes might be educated in - such a manner, that with due attention to the nature of the Indian - temperament, they could be made capable of taking - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span>a sensible part - in the conduct of affairs, and become fitted to fulfil the duties or - occupations of useful and peaceful citizens. The authorities with - whom he consulted, agreed with him as to the utility of the scheme - suggested. Suitable school buildings were placed upon the reservation, - and good teachers were selected. For a time the work progressed - favourably; the boys were in the first place well grounded in the - English language, and then their attention was directed to mathematics.</p> - - <p>After several years of study, the senior class of boys had become so - far advanced, as to be able to draw geometrical figures and understand - elementary algebra. The teachers were hopeful, and it was thought - probable, that some of the pupils might ultimately make such progress - as to enable them to be prepared for Yale University. All the zeal and - energies of the masters, were however proved to have been useless. - One morning the whole of the senior class appeared at school, dressed - and painted for war. They had thrown off their ordinary clothes, had - put on mocassins and leggings, twisted their hair in accordance with - savage customs and had stuck feathers in it. The principal asked them - what was meant by this extraordinary conduct. “We have come to say,” - they replied, “that we now leave you; we are no longer boys: we are - Indians.” They then, without saying another word, abruptly left the - school and never returned to it.</p> - - <p>The experiences of Judge Williams, with respect to the subject of the - higher education of those tribes of North American Indians, whose - territories were in the upper part of the valley of the Mississippi, - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> - corresponded with what I was told by the French Missionaries placed in - charge of the Indian convents in the valley of the St. Lawrence. More - than two centuries had elapsed since the work of converting, educating - and civilising the Iroquois, Chippewa and Algonquin tribes was - undertaken. During that long time there had been no good result. The - earnest labours and devotion of their lives to these duties had been - unavailing, and the attempts to overcome the wild instincts of Indians - were thoroughly unsuccessful. The Judge was of opinion, that, with all - Indians, the desire for a free and savage life, became irrepressible - upon reaching manhood.</p> - - <p>On the plains near the river, there were numerous vestiges of native - encampments. At Nauvoo, I was told by a farmer that he opened a great - number of low mounds which were on his land, and had found in them - nothing but broken pottery and charcoal, but in ploughing his fields - he had discovered quantities of arrow heads, and several grooved stone - hammers.<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> Higher up the Mississippi we entered the country once - occupied by the Dakotas, who in the seventeenth century were considered - to be a <span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> - most brave and powerful tribe, having superstitious customs - and tribal regulations of an unusual nature.</p> - - <p>One of their minor methods of warfare was noticed by the early - explorers on the prairies through which we were passing. It was the - custom with wandering bands of this race, if surprised by a larger body - of enemies and thus unable to make an open resistance, to dig wide, - shallow pits, in which they placed the women and children, and obtained - a certain amount of protection for themselves. These excavations were - scooped out with great rapidity, the men and their families using - for this purpose knives, tomahawks and wooden ladles. This method of - digging the ground, may probably have been similar to that adopted by - the Mound Builders in raising their ramparts. War pits were also made - by the Hurons when retreating from the Iroquois. When coasting the - north shore of Lake Superior, I was shown on the map the positions - where several of these places of refuge and defence had been observed.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span></p> - - <p>We saw at night upon the bluffs, the fires of Indian camps; it was - thought probable that these Indians, whose villages were situated far - towards the West, had come to this part of their ancient territory, for - the purpose of performing certain forms of worship before one of the - large detached granite boulders, situated on the plateau near to their - tents. On the following evening, as we steamed slowly through Lake - Pepin, we looked with much interest at the high steep promontory, upon - whose summit the love-distracted maiden Winona<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> sang her death song, - and then leapt from the edge of the cliff and was dashed to pieces on - the rocks below, within sight of her tribe who were assembled near - their tents on the shore.</p> - - <p>The Muscatine terminated her long upward voyage against the swift - stream, at the city of St. Paul’s, nineteen hundred and forty-four - miles above the mouth of the river, a few miles below the great falls - of St. Anthony, and near the confluence of the Minnesota. All this - region was at one time, the principal <span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span> - gathering place of the branch of - the Dakotas, called Sioux, and near at hand was the cave where their - annual council meetings took place. To this place were also brought for - burial, the bones and skulls of their dead, whose bodies had previously - been placed upon scaffolds, and exposed to the influences of the winds - and weather.</p> - - <p>Upon a bluff overlooking the Mississippi, there are still to be seen a - strange group of large mounds, whose purpose has not been ascertained. - The examination of them has failed to afford the slightest clue by - which any theory or conjecture can be safely established. Soon after my - arrival I went there to examine them with particular attention, for I - had observed certain peculiarities in their shape and position, which - resembled portions of the defensive hill works of the Mound Builders. - Mr. Hill, a member of the Historical Society of St. Paul’s, accompanied - me, and pointed out those mounds which had been opened, and carefully - inspected by competent observers. It has been supposed that they were - the burial places of the Sioux during long periods of time, and it was - hoped that some discoveries would be made of antiquarian importance.</p> - - <p>The largest of the mounds was first examined, but nothing was found - in it. There were no signs of burials near the slopes, and at the - base, contrary to expectation, there was not found any indication of a - fire having been made, and there was no charcoal. In another conical - mound, although no bones were seen, there was in the centre a hollow - space which contained several pieces of charred wood. A comparatively - low platform mound was then opened. Two - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> skeletons were found buried - near the surface, but from their position and state of preservation, - they were considered to be late interments; nothing else was found - within. Finally a large mound, situated upon the extreme edge of the - bluff, was thoroughly excavated, and in this there was found, as in - the previously opened conical earthwork, a small hollow space in the - centre. In consequence of these negative results, it was not possible - to form any conclusions as to the object of Indians in raising these - exceptional works. I thought it not improbable that it might have been - their intention to use them, either for raised dwelling places, or for - defensive inclosures which had not been completed.</p> - - <p>Their position is almost impregnable; the mounds are not placed - separately but are closely joined together, so that they form a kind - of embankment. The outer slopes are so close to the edge of the cliff, - that they are practically a prolongation of the steep slopes, and thus - present a singular parallel with portions of those embankments of Fort - Ancient which overlook the valley of the Little Miami. The similarity - in the methods of placing the mounds, is made additionally obvious from - the fact, that there are numerous springs issuing from the upper parts - of the bluff, which flow down as rivulets into the river below. There - are altogether fifteen mounds on the top of the promontory; the largest - of them is about twenty feet high.</p> - - <p>Upon our return to St. Paul’s, we heard that a band of Sioux had - come into the neighbourhood, and were encamped amongst the woods on - the opposite side of the river. As I wished to see these Indians, I - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> - crossed over to the settlement of Mendota, and after a walk of a few - miles, saw their tents pitched close to the borders of a small lake. I - was greeted with a loud noise of barking from their dogs, who were as - numerous outside the camp of the Sioux as they usually are around the - dwellings of the Kurds in Asia Minor. After overcoming some preliminary - hostile difficulties with these yelping curs, I received a silent and - not pressing welcome from the Indians, who were mostly squaws and - children, the men having gone away temporarily upon some expedition.</p> - - <p>It was getting dark, and the women were making preparations for supper. - Good fires were burning brightly in the centre of the wigwams, the - kettles were hung over them, the water was boiling, and the interiors - were cheerful scenes of enjoyment. The life within and without, was - similar to what may be seen in an English gipsy encampment in the New - Forest in Hampshire. There was something singularly attractive in the - habits of life amongst these wandering nomads, and the warmth and - comfort inside the tents, was in pleasing contrast to the cold and - wintry aspect without. This simple and natural state of existence, has - unquestionably a great charm for those whose natures are essentially - Bohemian. It is not surprising that Indian lads, accustomed to this - kind of life, should feel wearied and cramped by the trammels of - civilization. It is natural that they should long to get away from the - confinement and irksome training of school, and return to the freedom - and independence of their savage hunting and wandering instincts.</p> - - <p>There lived at the adjacent town of Mendota, a - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span>half-bred Indian, - of French and Sioux parentage named Faribault, with whom I became - acquainted. In his youth, he had dwelt with his mother in the - villages of the Sioux, and spoke their language. In manhood, he had - acted as an agent and trader for the tribes, and passed much of his - life in constant communication with them, and possessed an intimate - acquaintance with their superstitions and religious ceremonies. This - kind of direct personal knowledge, can only be obtained by a man whom - the Indians consider as being one of themselves, in consequence of - his having had an Indian mother belonging to their tribe. It was the - custom of the Sioux, when they encamped in this part of the country, to - meet at his house, and several of them happened to be there when I was - present.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_116fa"><img src="images/i_116fa.jpg" width="600" height="432" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Chippewa Encampment.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_116fb"><img src="images/i_116fb.jpg" width="600" height="529" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Sioux Encampment.</div> - </div> - - <p>Faribault, like all Indians, was usually very reticent, but when he - noticed that I took much interest in matters relating to the habits - of his tribe, especially such as were connected with their religious - beliefs and customs, he became frank and outspoken. He told me of his - own various strange personal experiences, and was particularly earnest - when he mentioned some of the most remarkable of the rules relating to - their fasts and sacrifices. The Indians, who were usually standing near - us listening to what he said, would occasionally, from time to time, - signify their assent to his statements by harsh grunts of approval.</p> - - <p>Amongst the superstitions mentioned by him, none caused more attention - than those connected with the worship of their Spirit rocks. One of - these, which has always been considered to be an important - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> Manito, - happened to be on the plateau above Mendota, and the Indians directed - me to the spot where it was placed. I found it to be a huge granite - boulder, which had probably been deposited there by the moving waters - or icebergs, during that remote period when they were travelling - southwards from the sub-arctic latitudes. As it had no geological - relation whatever with the sandstone ground upon which it rested, the - Sioux might have conjectured, that it had been dropped from the clouds. - To ignorant savages, unversed in the mysteries and conclusions of - scientific geology, no other explanation could have been satisfactory. - It lies upon a level space of land, upon the top of a bluff, commanding - magnificent views over the valleys of the Mississippi and Minnesota. - The confluence of these great rivers can be seen, and the steep - water-worn cliffs below the falls of St. Anthony.</p> - - <p>Whilst standing upon the promontory, and looking at this wide prospect, - I was joined by a priest, who had been fulfilling his duties at a - neighbouring settlement. We remained near the Spirit rock,<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> looking - at the solitary mass of granite, glittering in the sunshine, and - thought that it was not surprising that the Indians believed this - strange rock to be the manifestation of a great unknown power, and - should have invested with supernatural attributes what must have seemed - to them to be marvellous.</p> - - <p>The boulder is polygonal in form, and stands about - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span>seven feet high - above the ground. In the other dimensions, it averages a thickness from - nine to twelve feet. It is composed chiefly of grey granite, and its - weight must exceed seventy tons. Faribault said that, when he was a - young man, wandering bands of Sioux occasionally came to this Spirit - rock and encamped near it. They usually stopped about a week, but - sometimes during a whole moon. It was their custom during this period - to continually offer sacrifices, dance round the stone, and paint it - with various colours, red, blue or white. Finally, before taking down - their tents, they covered it with their best furs or skins, and left - them there as propitiatory offerings.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_118f"><img src="images/i_118f.jpg" width="600" height="543" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Spirit Rock.<br /> - <span class="small">Confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota.</span></div> - </div> - - <p>The falls of the Mississippi were also worshipped by the Indians, - through whose territories that great river flowed in its upper course, - and the manner in which adoration was made to the Power, which was - manifested in the movements of these cataracts, is well described - by Captain Carver, who visited them with one of the chiefs of the - Winnebagoes in 1767. The chief in the first place, addressed a brief - invocation to the Manito, and then he made his offerings. In this - instance he gave everything he possessed, that was valuable, including - all his ornaments, together with his pipe and roll of tobacco. He - concluded his acts of devotion<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> by asking the Great - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span>Spirit to give - them his protection, a bright sun, a blue sky, and untroubled waters. - I visited the spot near which the chief must have stood upon that - occasion. Much had been changed in the succeeding century, but the wild - and tumultuous character of the falls, and the noise and foam caused by - the rushing waters, are still very impressive.</p> - - <p>From Mendota I proceeded towards the north-west, in the direction of - the Minnesota as far as Mankato, with the intention of crossing the - prairies southwards towards Nebraska. It was also my purpose to visit - the Winnebagoes at their reservation. This tribe had been removed - from their lands near Lake Michigan, and settled a few miles from - Mankato; but upon my arrival at that town, I was informed that they - had been again removed to a reservation further west, to give room - for the occupation of the land by the numerous emigrants from Europe, - especially those thrifty, hard-working agriculturists, who came from - Sweden and Norway. The new settlements in this part of Minnesota were - still in an alarmed condition, in consequence of the memory of the - massacres that had taken place a few years previously, when the Sioux - rose in rebellion, and committed a grave series of atrocities upon the - white inhabitants.</p> - - <p>At the conclusion of the war, thirty-eight of the chief perpetrators - of cruelties upon the unoffending <span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> - white people, were condemned to - death and were hanged. The events that took place upon that occasion - were described to me by an eye-witness, as having been exceedingly - repulsive, in consequence of the defiant shouts and gestures of the - prisoners. Hanging is a form of execution particularly disliked by - Indians, because they consider that it is ignominious. The war was - caused by a belief, spread among the tribes, that they had been treated - with great injustice. They declared that they were not allowed to - remain in possession of their lands, and that the treaties which had - been made with them, had not been fairly carried out. The savage desire - for revenge was aroused, and barbarous acts were committed by the - Sioux, whilst they were in a state of passionate excitement.</p> - - <p>On a terrace overlooking the waters of the Minnesota, close to the - spot where the Sioux had been executed, I met a half-breed Indian, who - was known to have seen some of the unmerciful deeds that had taken - place. I asked him to give me an explanation of the reasons that had - caused the Sioux, most of whom had led peaceful lives, to suddenly - avenge themselves in this brutal manner. He said, that whatever may - have seemed to be their character, all these Dakotas had an inveterate - hatred for the pale faces, who had deprived them of their lands, - their hunting grounds, their freedom, and all that made their lives - tolerable. After a pause, he observed in a harsh angry tone, that the - women and children were killed, because, in cases such as these, it was - a rule with Indians, to not only kill all the men, but also all who - could become men or give birth to men, and - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> that it was their object to - secure the total extermination of their enemies.</p> - - <p>I afterwards met, near the lands which had been occupied by the - Winnebagoes, one of those waifs of civilization, who prefer the - adventurous freedom of the Indians to the ordinary forms of existence - among the whites. He was a Virginian by birth, and had left his home at - an early age to join the Apaches, whose hunting grounds were near the - borders of New Mexico. He lived with them for several years, and then, - desiring a change, he had joined a band of Chippewas. He was given by - them the name of Ara-po-gai-sik or Day-Catcher, because he was first - observed when approaching their camp at daybreak. I found him to be a - man of considerable intelligence, and conversant with the habits of the - tribes with whom he had dwelt.</p> - - <p>It is unusual to find men of English descent electing, by their own - wish, to entirely live with Indians. It seems to be different as - regards the French or French Canadians, who appear to have certain - instincts in their nature, which enable them to conform readily with - the domestic customs of Indian life.</p> - - <hr class="tb" /> - <blockquote> - <p>The subject of the claims of the Indians to the possession of - their ancient hunting grounds, was brought to the notice of the - United States Government during the time I was at Washington, - after my return from Yucatan in the summer of 1870.</p> - - <p>A large deputation from the Ogallalas, a warlike tribe of - Sioux, who dwelt on the prairies to the west of the Missouri, - came to the city for the purpose of making a statement of their - grievances, with regard to their lands. They declared that the - treaties concerning them had not been faithfully carried out.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span></p> - - <p>The deputation consisted of the principal chief, an Indian - named Red Cloud, who held a great reputation as a brave and - daring warrior, and with him were Brave Bear, Rocky Bear, Red - Dog, and other chiefs, who were also well known for their - courage and fearlessness, which they had shown upon several - occasions in fights upon the plains. Several men of the tribe - accompanied them.</p> - - <p>I happened to see those Ogallalas frequently, under various - circumstances; they had that power, which is characteristic - with thoroughbred Indians, of assuming when thought necessary, - a reserved and dignified manner. Red Cloud, especially, - maintained the deportment consistent with his position as the - hereditary chief of his nation.</p> - - <p>The speeches delivered by them in the presence of the - Commissioner of Indian affairs were remarkable as proving - that they possessed great natural oratorical abilities. The - description of the events occurring in their territories, and - the unfair treatment which they considered they had received, - were expressed with much force and poetical imagination.</p> - - <p>Their appeals were, however, unavailing. It was made clear - to them, that it was not possible, that small numbers of - Indians could be permitted to retain possession of extensive - grounds, to the exclusion of the necessities of an advancing - civilization, and that they must accept the fate which was - inevitable, and accustom themselves to be confined within - reservations of a limited and definite area.</p> - - <p>The Secretary of the Interior, told the Sioux that the existing - things were changing, and that they might as well try and keep - back the winds with their hands, as to prevent these changes.</p> - </blockquote> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_VII"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> - <h2>CHAPTER VII.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - Prairies in Minnesota and Iowa.—Boulders.—Glacial Drift.—Wild - Rice.—Snow Storm.—Nebraska.—The Pawnees.—Human Sacrifices.—Note - on Indian Customs in War and Cannibalism.—Prairie - Fires.—Prairie-Dog Villages.—Rattlesnakes.—Variations in the - succession of growths of Trees.—Causes of absence of Trees upon - Prairies.—Shoshone Indians on the Western Deserts.—Note upon - Ute Indians and Fuegians. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">It</span> was getting late in the year, when I commenced to cross the prairies - of Minnesota and Iowa. The higher plateaux were in many places already - covered with snow, upon which we saw numerous tracks of wolves. The - long icicles upon the graceful little waterfall of the Minne-ha-ha, - indicated the approach of a severe winter, and flocks of wild geese - were flying towards the upper lakes.</p> - - <p>For many miles the surface of the land looked black, in consequence - of the prairie fires that had burnt the grass, during the latter part - of the autumn. On the eastern borders, near the rivers, we passed - some scattered villages, chiefly occupied by emigrants of Welsh or - Scandinavian origin; but towards the interior the land was too wet - and exposed for the purposes of cultivation. Here and there, on the - plains, we saw the lonely huts of adventurous squatters, who obtained - a precarious<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> - living by supplying the wants of those who passed near - them, on their way towards the South. At one of these dwellings - situated upon the open plain, twenty miles from the nearest village, - we halted after a long journey over a dreary country, forming the - watershed of the streams that flowed east or west into the valleys of - the Missouri and Mississippi.</p> - - <p>The hut was occupied by a man, who, with his wife and family, had - been settled in this remote region for several years. As there was no - timber to be obtained in the neighbourhood, he had built the walls of - his house with wide, thick slabs of turf, which made a good protection - against the storms of winter. He possessed one hundred and fifty acres - of land, of which he only cultivated the small portion he had been - able to preserve from the ravages of prairie fires. The difficulty of - guarding the homestead against this danger, had caused him to feel much - anxiety, but he said that he had, at last, discovered an effectual - method of preventing any damage being caused, as far as his crops and - buildings were concerned.</p> - - <p>He saw upon one occasion, that the grass was burning on the verge of - the southern horizon, and the flames appeared to be advancing rapidly - in the direction of his farm. It occurred to him to try the plan of - running two plough furrows in parallel lines between the edge of his - land and the approaching fire. He made them about twenty yards apart, - and then burnt the grass, thus leaving a bare space of blackened earth. - The flames advanced upon their onward course, destroying everything - before them until they reached the outer furrow, when they were - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> - stopped by there not being any grass for fuel, and as they could not - leap over the intervening space, the fire passed to the right and left, - leaving the farm in the centre untouched. The prairie around this - squatter’s home, was wild and dreary.</p> - - <p>The track led us over a region which had been shaped into hollows and - undulations, caused by the action of numberless streams and rivulets - which had cut their way in all directions. There were also many small - depressions which contained pools of water. We observed in all these - ponds numerous erratic boulders of various sizes. The majority of them - were small, but others were of considerable magnitude, and must have - weighed from fifteen to twenty tons. They were usually composed of - red, green, and dark grey granites, similar to those I had seen on the - surface of the country to the south-west of Lake Superior.</p> - - <p>The boulders were usually standing detached on the ground near the edge - of the water, but sometimes they were heaped together in a pile in the - middle of the pond. Upon an examination of the positions of the strange - aggregations of stones which had been moved from their original place - in the north to this plateau, the impression was conveyed to the mind - that these smaller boulders may have been dropped during the period - when icebergs were floating over the land. It seemed to be probable - that some of the icebergs were stranded, and had left on these spots - the cargo they had carried away from higher latitudes.</p> - - <p>Upon other parts of the level prairie where the land was dry, there - were many isolated masses<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> - standing up in their places upon the - surface, in the same manner as the Spirit rock near Mendota. It was - remarkable that these boulders, which were often very large, were not - embedded in the soil, but appeared to have remained in the positions - in which they had been deposited. Some of the larger ponds contain - quantities of wild aquatic plants, which yield a kind of rice—the same - which was frequently mentioned by the French exploring missionaries in - the seventeenth century—by the name of La Folle Avoine. This wild rice - was gathered by the Dakotas and Chippewas, and stored by them for food - in time of scarcity.</p> - - <p>As we approached the boundaries of North Iowa, we found that the - winter had set in earlier than usual, and the prairies were covered - with several inches of snow. The aspect of the country, upon which the - only marks of life were the footprints of animals, was exceedingly - desolate. The horizon was sharply defined by the white edges of the - land against the sky, and the curvature of the earth was thereby made - distinct. The land seemed to fall away from the eye at a distance which - looked very near. On plains of this perfectly level character in these - latitudes, the actual true distance of the horizon—as seen by a person - of average height standing upon the ground—would be about three miles; - but in consequence of the conditions of light upon the surface of the - snow, it appeared to be less, and the borders of the round line of - horizon seemed to confine us within a small circle. This effect was - particularly noticeable when the sun rose and touched the eastern parts - of the curvature, the sky at that time in the morning being clear and - cloudless.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span></p> - - <p>The weather became daily more severe, and at last we had to encounter - a hard gale of wind from the north-west. Suddenly one afternoon, a - sweeping snow storm overtook us, and in a few hours all vestiges of - the track were lost. Our position became perilous, as nothing could be - seen which would help us in the slightest degree as a guide, and enable - us to steer a straight course. The sky was gloomy and dark with snow - clouds, and the prairie was as bare as the open sea.</p> - - <p>The night was approaching, and matters were beginning to be serious, - when the coach was stopped by striking against some concealed obstacle, - and the horses swerved round. After gazing upon the fresh snow for - a few seconds, the driver said that it was practically useless to - attempt to follow the track, as it was impossible to make out its - direction. It was evident that there was not the slightest reason for - making any endeavours to follow one way more than any other, and we - had the dangerous prospect before us of having to pass the night under - circumstances of great hardship.</p> - - <p>Fortunately it was suggested, that we might try the experiment of - maintaining a line of progress by attending to the point from which - the wind came. It had been observed that, when we were going along the - straight track, the wind was upon the right hand, nearly abeam, and it - was considered possible that if we could manage to keep it upon that - bearing, we ought finally to arrive at our destination. The driver - thought that this plan did not offer much prospect of success, on - account of the scattered boulders and the rough nature of the country. - He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> - however decided to do what was proposed, and started forward. An - unforeseen difficulty soon arose. The horses having no track before - them to follow, kept constantly swerving to the left to avoid the wind, - and it required much skill and energy to keep their heads pointed in - the right direction.</p> - - <p>The obstructions we had to encounter, caused us much anxiety, for - we were exposed to a bitterly cold gale, and the storm blew against - us with a severity that was unendurable. It was with no slight - pleasure that, just before the night, we saw upon the verge of the - horizon ahead, the lights of the town where we intended to stop. - When we arrived there, it was found that the roads had become almost - impassable, in consequence of the great depth of the snow that had - fallen in a few hours.</p> - - <p>As the prairies of Western Iowa had thus become a vast white - table land, whose ground was hidden from view, I crossed the Missouri - as soon as possible and proceeded to the interior of Nebraska where - the storm had not taken place and the surface of the land was still in - its autumnal condition. I stopped at various places in the valley of - the river Platte and, at one of the newly formed settlements, obtained - convenient quarters in the house of a man who had passed the greatest - part of his life with the Pawnees, a tribe of Indians who have always - been considered to hold an exceptional position with respect to their - religious observances and language.</p> - - <p>He had lived in the tents and was well acquainted with their habits - of life, and like all other men whom I had met who had been much - in contact with the Indians, occupying the country west of the - Mississippi, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> - he had been impressed by the reality of their personal - faith in supernatural manifestations of power for good or evil.</p> - - <p>I was much interested in ascertaining the existence of certain facts - which seemed to show analogies between these Pawnees and the race who - under the name of Toltecs or Aztecs had migrated from some unknown - country into Mexico. It has not hitherto been explained how it - happened that this tribe who, as far as is known, have always lived - in this region, placed in the centre of the continent, should possess - a language which is absolutely different from that of any other race - of North American Indians, and that they should have been, for a long - period of time, surrounded by powerful tribes with whom they could - never have held any spoken communications. Mr. Albert Gallatin, a - learned American ethnologist, draws attention to their singularly - isolated position. He states that “they speak a language altogether - different from that of the Sioux tribes or of any other Indians known - to us.”<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p> - - <p>They do not appear to have been a numerous race, for, when their - territories were first explored, it was estimated that, including men, - women and children, their numbers were under seven thousand. At the - time that I passed through the ancient hunting grounds in Nebraska, - their descendants (of whom there were said to be about three thousand) - were gathered together in a reservation north of the Platte. I saw a - few of them near the banks of that <span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> - river, and some others who had - committed a series of ferocious acts on the plains and had carried - off several scalps. They were captured, imprisoned and condemned to - death. These men were wild-looking savages who stalked restlessly round - the cells in which they were confined like intractable and untameable - animals. Those I saw wandering near the Platte had, for some unknown - reason, dressed themselves in war paint. Their eyes were encircled by - broad bands of red ochre. Their faces were covered with blue stripes - which in their outlines resembled the tattoed lines of the Maoris in - New Zealand.</p> - - <p>The natural colour of the Pawnees I met was rather darker than the - skins of the Sioux and Chippewas. The men were of more than the - ordinary stature and were powerfully built. Their heads were broad and - massive and all of them had remarkably high cheek bones.</p> - - <p>The early explorers, sent by the Government towards the West, did - not learn much about the superstitions of the native tribes, but it - is mentioned in the Report of the Expedition to the Rocky Mountains - in 1819–20 that the Pawnees, then living near the forks of the river - Loup in the valley of the Platte, had originally a custom, which was - believed to be annual but was no longer followed, of offering a human - sacrifice to the Great Star.</p> - - <p>The victim was always a prisoner that had been captured in war.</p> - - <p>Mr. James, one of the members of the exploring party, stated that the - star to which the sacrifice was made, was the planet Venus. It is - probable therefore that this ceremony had some connection with the - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> - worship of the sun, as the Indians, who were accurate observers of all - natural events, would have noticed that Venus, both as a morning and - evening star, appeared to govern the movements of the greater light, - and either announced its approach at dawn or followed its departure at - sunset.</p> - - <p>The Pawnees and the Dakotas are the only North American tribes known - to have had the custom of killing human beings, for the purpose of - presenting them to their gods as propitiations in time of distress, or - as thanksgiving offerings after successful wars. The sacrifices made to - their gods of war by the Aztecs were probably introduced into Mexico - by that fierce race. The last human sacrifice offered by the Pawnees - occurred in the year 1837, and in this case it is believed that the - offering was made to the spirit who caused the land to produce fertile - crops.</p> - - <p>A young girl of fourteen years of age had been captured during a war - with the Sioux, and it was decided that she was to be killed and - sacrificed to this particular Manito. The strange character of the - method of immolation arrests attention. The girl was carefully secured - upon a framework made of light poles, raised a few feet above the - ground. When she was in the right position for the sacrifice, a fire - was kindled beneath, but before the flames had actually begun to - touch her, and precisely at the moment when it was perceived that the - fire was sufficiently strong to begin to burn her, she was suddenly - killed by a flight of arrows.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> She was then - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span>taken down from the - scaffolding and the flesh was cut into small portions and taken away - into the fields, where the blood was sprinkled over certain parts of - the land which had been planted.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_132f"><img src="images/i_132f.jpg" width="465" height="700" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Sha-to-Ko (Blue Hawk). A Pawnee.</div> - </div> - - <p>The fact of a sacrifice so important as that of a girl on the verge of - womanhood being made to the god believed to have power over all matters - relating to the growth of corn and other vegetable produce, proves that - the Pawnees cultivated the earth to a greater extent than other tribes. - Their neighbours, the Dakotas, were more exclusively a hunting race, - and their human sacrifices, as far as has been ascertained by events - that have happened within the past century, were usually made for the - purpose of propitiation in the more solemn forms of Sun worship, or of - appeasing the anger of evil spirits or demons when manifested by storms - of lightning and thunder.</p> - - <p>My host told me that during the time he had lived amongst the Pawnees - he had not seen anything in their observances which led him to suppose - that they had any kind of belief in a future state beyond this world, - or in any absolutely over-ruling Power. The few ceremonies performed by - them were apparently propitiations of the various supernatural Manitos - who, they considered, had influence over them either individually or - as a tribe. One of their most frequent practices consisted of offering - incense to them in the form of tobacco smoke, and they invariably - presented it in the same manner by throwing the first whiff upwards - towards the sky, the next downwards to the ground and then to the right - and left. He had also observed that when - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span> this act was finished, each - Indian seemed to mutter some brief ejaculation or prayer.</p> - - <p>With respect to their superstitions he thought that they were - practically spiritualists, and believed in the presence of unknown and - unseen influences below, above or around them, having each in their own - separate degree powers of good or evil. He mentioned an event which had - happened within his personal observation.</p> - - <p>A Pawnee during a violent storm was injured by a flash of lightning. - The tribe were convinced that this misfortune had been inflicted upon - him as a direct punishment for some wrong deed he had committed, or - that he had in some way, by his own conduct incurred the displeasure of - the god of Lightning. As a consequence of this belief, he was avoided, - and compelled to live apart, as a man placed under a curse or malignant - influence.</p> - - <p>These Pawnees had the reputation of being cruel to their prisoners, - and in that respect had the same usages as the Iroquois who tortured - the captives and then burnt them at the stake.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> All North - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span>American - tribes appear to have similar habits when their savage natures are - aroused by bloodshed and war, but it is also acknowledged by those who - have had an intimate knowledge of them, that under other and milder - conditions, they possess <span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span> - qualities of an affectionate nature, which - are shown in their domestic lives. An event occurred not far from the - settlement which exemplified their attachment to their children.</p> - - <p>The only child of a Pawnee and his wife died and was buried in a grave - dug in the open prairie near a spot where a small band of Indians - had temporarily erected their tents. In the grave with the child - were placed all the things which had belonged to her, including her - mocassin shoes, her plate and cup and her trinkets. Her father had in - his possession a good set of sleigh bells, said to be worth seventeen - dollars which he had intended to sell to one of the white men in the - neighbourhood, but after the death of his daughter he said that he was - happy because no one had yet bought his bells, for he was consequently - able to give them to her, and they were put by the child’s side and - buried. The father and mother then built round the grave a wooden fence - to keep the wolves away, as the Pawnees were going to move their tents - to a distant part of the country. This fence was shortly afterwards - destroyed by a prairie fire, and the place of the grave is not now - known.</p> - - <p>These fires are becoming less frequent and, when they occur, are - attributable to carelessness. I happened to see one of them sweeping - over the plains near the river Missouri, my position at the time being - at right angles to the line of its direction. A high wind was blowing - from the South-west and the tall grass was bent over in such a manner - that the flames instead of going with the wind towards the North-east, - caught the tops of the grass and consequently travelled steadily to - windward in the teeth <span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span> - of the gale. The smoke rolled away to leeward - in dense clouds and the flames leapt upwards on tongues of fire to - heights of twenty or thirty feet. The movement forward was like that of - the rapidly advancing crest of a breaking wave. I estimated the length - of the front of the fire to be nearly two miles.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_136f"><img src="images/i_136f.jpg" width="472" height="700" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Pawnee Woman.</div> - </div> - - <p>When wandering over the wide Iowa and Nebraska plains, many problems - present themselves to the mind with regard to their formation and - existing condition. Of these, none are so perplexing to the farmers - as those which relate to the absence of trees. Several theories have - been mooted and many conclusions have been adopted, and thought to be - rational, but as a rule they cannot be accepted as being altogether - satisfactory. One of the most general opinions, is that the treeless - state of the land has been caused by the destructive effects of fire. - Another opinion is that which attributes the greatest counteracting - influence to the nature of the soil.</p> - - <p>One of the most careful investigators into this subject was the - accomplished geologist Mr. J. W. Foster, whom I met at Chicago, and - who was at that time President of the American Association for the - Advancement of Science. He told me what had been the results of his - work, and accompanied me to parts of the outlying Illinois prairies, - to examine the character of the earth near the surface. He had, a - short time previously, carried out a series of experiments relating to - the physical geography of the Mississippi valley, and had given his - attention to the composition of the upper formation of the prairies on - both sides of the river.</p> - - <p>He had arrived at the conclusion that the absence of trees upon them - was not caused by fires or by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> - character of the ground, but was the - consequence of the conditions of rainfall, temperature, climate, and - exposure, all acting in a direction opposed to that natural order of - things in which trees would be inclined to flourish.</p> - - <p>On the way south from Mankato, I observed that the banks of the Des - Moines river were thickly timbered, and that on the borders of the - various rivulets which had cut their way through the ground to a - considerable depth, there was usually a flourishing growth of trees, - chiefly consisting of oak, black walnut, basswood, and maple varieties. - In all these instances the trees were sheltered, but on the exposed - prairie immediately adjacent the ground was bare, and without a vestige - of any signs of trees or shrubs. In that particular region it seems - therefore probable, that the exposure to gales of wind sweeping over - the plateau, may be the principal cause of trees not being able to take - root and live.</p> - - <p>There are, however, other prairies equally bare of timber which are - not so exposed. Upon those situated near the water shed or dividing - ridge of the tributaries of the Missouri and Mississippi, it may be - the quantities of water lying permanently within a few feet below the - surface which prevent any growth taking place. No single theory seems - to explain the facts, but from my own observation, I am inclined to - think that the chief deterring influence is the nature of the soil.<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span></p> - - <p>There is an unexplained problem respecting the growth of trees - in certain parts of North America, which has received much local - notice. My attention was directed to the subject when I was in the - neighbourhood of Lake Simcoe in Upper Canada. An Englishman, who had - established a homestead there and made clearings in the forests, told - me he had observed that after the old trees had been felled, new shrubs - and timber of an entirely different character grew up in their place. - There was nothing in the nature of the surrounding woods which, to his - mind, could account for the change, as there were no trees of the class - that had taken root existing in that part of the country.</p> - - <p>A similar alteration in the order of succession of forest growths was - reported by the geologists employed by the Government in conducting - the early surveys of Michigan. They stated that large tracts of land, - originally covered with pines, had been succeeded by a second growth - consisting of white birch, aspen, pine and hazel. In this case the - primeval forest had been destroyed by high winds and afterwards - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> burnt. - It was supposed that where clearings had been made by fire, changes - of the above nature occurred, but no suggestions were given as to the - manner in which these new and strange growths established themselves.</p> - - <p>Near Ishpeming, I saw that in all cases where forest openings had been - made by the action of fire, luxuriant masses of dense raspberry bushes - occupied the land; and it was said that where the woods were cut down - by the axe bushes of another class, bearing different berries, sprang - up and flourished.</p> - - <p>In other parts of the North-west, variations in the succession of - forest trees have been seen to occur; and usually there seems to be - some connection between the type of the new plants and the methods by - which the clearings have been made. As a general rule there are very - few birds to carry seeds or pips from distant regions and therefore - it is possible that in places where the ground has never for many - centuries been previously disturbed and where the thick forest has - been for the first time removed, and sunlight and fresh atmospheric - conditions are admitted upon the land, new circumstances arise which - are favourable to the development of dormant life.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span></p> - - <p>Before leaving the valley of the Platte I made several excursions on - the plains for the purpose of examining two of the most extensive of - those singular groups of mounds which have been called prairie-dog - villages. The largest of them was situated about two hundred miles west - of the Missouri and three miles north of the Platte. It occupied a - space exceeding fifty acres, which was covered by the rounded heaps of - earth and pebbles thrown up by the little marmots when excavating their - burrows. These creatures, when they are sitting on the tops of their - mounds in a watchful attitude keeping a sharp look out around them and - holding their paws before them, resemble a colony of ground squirrels. - When I was at a certain distance from them they maintained continuous - and defiant sounds like the shrill - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span> - yelps of puppies, but upon a nearer - approach they suddenly disappeared down their holes.</p> - - <p>The existence of these isolated groups of burrowing animals, dwelling - together in communities, was made the subject of observation by - the expeditions sent by the United States Government to explore - these regions, and it was reported that it was not unusual to find - rattlesnakes living in the same holes as the prairie dogs. Captain - Stansfield, the leader of one of these exploring parties, stated that - the holes were generally guarded by a rattlesnake, and that when the - hand was about to be thrust into the hole to draw out the prairie dog - which had been shot at, but had got into its burrow, the ominous rattle - of the reptile was heard within.</p> - - <p>Twenty years had elapsed since that time, and many changes had taken - place in the conditions of animal life upon these plains. I thrust - my stick down various holes but there were no rattlesnakes in them. - I afterwards heard that in these districts the reptiles, which had - been so numerous, had disappeared. Another group of these village - communities which I examined was placed to the south of the Platte. - Although it covered a comparatively small area it was more fully - tenanted and the dwellings were closer together, each mound almost - touching its neighbour. One of the young occupiers of this village - had been captured and tamed by a squatter living near the settlement - in which I was then stopping. As it rarely happens that the habits of - these marmots can be regularly observed, this creature’s actions were - noticed with great curiosity.</p> - - <p>It was the daily habit of this prairie dog to sit - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span>for hours upon - its haunches, with its fore-paws held steadily in front of him, - continuously maintaining a careful watch upon everything that was - happening. I observed that although the method of sitting was that - of the squirrel tribe, the shape and appearance of the body was of - a different type, and like that of a large guinea-pig. The most - attractive point about the little animal was its keen manner of keeping - guard like a sentinel. Nothing seemed to escape its vigilance.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_142fa"><img src="images/i_142fa.jpg" width="600" height="457" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Prairie and Boulders, North Iowa.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_142fb"><img src="images/i_142fb.jpg" width="600" height="457" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Prairie Dogs, Nebraska.<br /> - <span class="small">(the mounds are about eighteen inches high.)</span></div> - </div> - - <p>When the fact of rattlesnakes living in the same holes as the prairie - dogs was originally made known, there were several theories advanced - upon the subject; but, in the absence of any direct evidence as to - the nature of the apparent alliance or friendship, nothing could be - positively proved. It was however subsequently discovered that young - marmots were occasionally found inside the bodies of rattlesnakes which - had been killed near the mounds. It is therefore probable that the - reptiles used the burrows for their winter residences, after having - expelled the previous inhabitants.</p> - - <p>Nothing is more surprising than the effect of the movement of - civilisation westwards upon the number of the animals who were - accustomed to exist upon the prairies. The explorers who passed through - these waste lands in the beginning of the nineteenth century, reported - that the surface of the country, especially near the river Platte, was - often blackened by immense herds of bisons. Fifty years later when I - went over the same ground no buffaloes were to be seen there, and they - no longer frequented that part of Nebraska. The rattlesnakes have also - almost<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> - disappeared in consequence of the introduction of animals that - were hostile to them.<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p> - - <p>The manner by which this destruction of the snake tribe has been - carried out, was brought to my notice when I was crossing Lake Erie. - Near the west shores of the lake there were several islands which had - been infested with reptiles to such an extent as to make it dangerous - for men to land upon them. A resident who had lived for many years upon - the adjacent shore, and who happened to be on board the steamer when we - passed near one of the largest of the islands, told me that in order - to clear the ground a large number of hogs were landed upon it, and - within a short time the island was made perfectly safe. It was observed - that they rushed <span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> - immediately forward and when close to the snakes they - dropped upon their knees and commenced to devour them with the greatest - avidity. The darting of the fangs upon them did not seem to have the - slightest injurious effect. It is therefore probable that this strange - invulnerability of the hog is due to the thickness of its hide, and the - close stiff bristles which prevent the penetration of the poison.</p> - - <p>On the prairies, the explorers mention their having seen, besides - buffaloes, deer, hares, wolves, eagles, buzzards and ravens. I saw - several herds of antelopes and a few wolves: one of them belonging to - the coyote species was observed in the evening to be prowling round - the huts of settlers at the forks of the Platte. It was caught and - forthwith dispatched. It was a good sized wolf with a thick coat of - shaggy iron-grey hair and looked fierce and savage. On the banks of - the southern branch of the river near this spot I joined an American - companion in an expedition to look for prairie grouse. We found them - amongst the brushwood in considerable numbers, but the birds were wild - and it was difficult to get within range of them. The Platte at this - part was nearly three thousand feet above the sea.</p> - - <p>On the desert, at a height of seven thousand feet, I saw antelopes - grazing upon the prairie grass which was growing abundantly and - afforded ample supplies of food for them. Wolves were also on these - plains skulking in the vicinity doubtless hoping to appease their - hunger before many hours had elapsed. These wide and lofty table lands - were the ancient hunting grounds of the Dakotas and Cheyennes.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span></p> - - <p>It was getting late upon a fine winter’s evening when our coach crossed - the brow of a hill and we caught sight of the calm blue waters of the - Great Salt Lake surrounded by snow-covered mountains. It was a quiet - scene of singular beauty. The skies were brilliant with the glowing - effects caused by the rays of the declining sun. It was nearly dark - when we arrived at the City of the Mormons and our horses were pulled - up at the door of an attractive little inn which Brigham Young had - provided for the accommodation of strangers.</p> - - <p>After quitting the prosperous lands of Utah on my way to California - I stopped in the centre of that part of the American desert situated - near the borders of Oregon and bounded on the west by the ranges of the - Sierra Nevada. It was my object to visit a tribe of Shoshones who were - then encamped in the neighbourhood. I found them dwelling on a dreary - and exposed plateau in the midst of a region covered with small black - volcanic stones and fragments (or flakes) of obsidian, with which an - old arrow head maker was busily engaged fashioning the rude weapons - required by the tribe. It was the middle of December. The winter was - cold, and the country around looked bleak and desolate.</p> - - <p>The Indians were in wigwams made of saplings or withies, bent over - in such a manner as to form the shape of a semi-circle or a low - rounded beehive. They resembled, in their construction and size, the - temporary huts used by wandering bands of Chippewas upon the shores of - Lake Superior. The interiors of these rude and miserable lodges were - not inviting. Squalor, dirt and gloom were present to the eye, and - influenced the mind.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_146f"><img src="images/i_146f.jpg" width="493" height="700" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Indian, Salt Lake Valley, Utah.</div> - </div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span></p> - - <p>The men differed to some extent from all other Indians that I had seen, - and were in appearance like the Asiatics in the southern Provinces - of China, and had not the massive heads and aquiline features of the - Dakotas or Pawnees; they were also of a more debased type. This, - however, may have been the result of many centuries of struggles - against starvation and exposure to the severe weather that must be - experienced in the deserts upon which they wander. Outside the main - part of the encampment there was a small group of wigwams, which I - found to be occupied by Utes, a tribe even more degraded and wretched - than the Shoshones.</p> - - <p>The Utes, or Digger Indians, have always been considered to be the - lowest in civilization of all the American tribes. It has been thought - that they may be the descendants of outcasts, but this opinion does not - seem to be based upon sufficient evidence. There are good reasons for - believing that they are allied in race and language with the Shoshones, - and they are apparently treated by them on terms of friendship and - equality.</p> - - <p>The Diggers have been given that name in consequence of it being - their custom to live chiefly upon roots, or whatever other food they - can obtain by digging. They also find a scanty support from grass, - seeds and locusts. They have been occasionally met wandering in Utah - in a naked and half-starved condition. It is not possible to imagine - human beings to be in a lower or more harsh state of existence. Misery - and want do not however appear to influence the natural buoyancy and - cheerfulness of these nomads. Possibly their freedom, the constant - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> - occupation of searching the hills and deserts for subsistence, and - their unconstrained life, give them compensation for the hardships that - they are forced to endure.</p> - - <hr class="tb" /> - <blockquote> - <p>There is only one other race that I have seen living under - similar conditions of continuous want and wretchedness, with - whom the struggles for bare existence are equally severe.</p> - - <p>That unfortunate people are the Fuegians, who wander in search - of food upon the rugged coasts of Tierra del Fuego.</p> - - <p>When passing through the Straits of Magellan in H.M.S. Pearl - in January, 1877, we saw several families of the natives in - Churruca Bay occupying wretched wigwams, placed close to the - water’s edge.</p> - - <p>Some of them embarked in their canoes and came alongside to ask - for food and tobacco. They appeared to be in a half-starved - and emaciated state, and were sustaining life upon mussel and - edible roots. The medical officers of the ship measured the - men, as I wished to ascertain their size and weight as compared - with the Patagonians dwelling upon the opposite shores of the - Straits. It was found that the height of these Fuegians was - between four feet nine inches and five feet two inches. The - average stature was under five feet. The measurements round - the chest were comparatively large, being thirty-four to - thirty-five inches.</p> - - <p>We afterwards anchored in Gregory Bay, Patagonia. As soon as we - were observed, a numerous tribe of Patagonians rode down to the - beach, and pitched their tents opposite the ship. Several of - the chiefs came on board and subsequently allowed themselves to - be weighed and measured.</p> - - <p>It was ascertained that their average height was five feet - eleven inches, and their chest measurements averaged forty-four - inches. Their weights averaged two hundred and thirty-two - pounds.</p> - - <p>The contrast in the physical condition between the Patagonians - and Fuegians is extraordinary when it is considered that only a - narrow channel of water, easily traversed by canoes, separates - them. It is probable that the Utes, Shoshones and Fuegians - may have been forced by adverse circumstances to retreat to - the inhospitable regions in which they live. No race would - willingly accept or undergo such unchangeable hardships.</p> - </blockquote> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_VIII"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span> - <h2>CHAPTER VIII.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - North American Indians.—Diversity of Languages.—The - Iroquois.—Dialects.—Descent of Iroquois chiefs through - the female line.—Pagan Indians.—Belief in a Great - Spirit.—Ceremonies.—Dakotas.—Superstitions.—Dreams.—Fasts.—Sun - worship.—Medicine men.—Customs of mourning by widows.—Supernatural - influences.—Lightning.—Transmigration.—Worship of Spirit rocks.—Serpent - worship.—Human sacrifices.—Burial customs.—Method of curing sickness by - steam.—Note upon analogies between the customs of the Indians, Maoris, - and the natives of the Sandwich Islands. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">It</span> is expedient with respect to the condition of the North American - Indians, to take into consideration some of the circumstances relating - to their languages, customs, and superstitions; particularly such of - them as may appear to have remote analogies with the observances of - other races, or with the more advanced state of civilisation that - existed in the fifteenth century, among the tribes who had conquered - the aboriginal inhabitants of Mexico, Central America, and Yucatan. - It is also especially necessary that a brief investigation should - be directed to certain exceptional forms of the Indian faith in the - influence and power of the unknown gods by whom the Dakotas believed - themselves to be surrounded and who were propitiated by acts of severe - personal suffering and penance.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span></p> - - <p>In the Northern continent there are two principal facts which attract - the attention of those who are thrown into contact with the Iroquois, - Chippewas and Dakotas. The first of these which comes under notice - is the extraordinary number and diversity of their languages, and - afterwards, upon a more extended acquaintance with the customs of these - Indians, the strange and most grave nature of the higher character of - their ancient religion. With regard to the differences of the languages - my attention was first called to this circumstance by M. Cuoq, who, - when I visited the Missionary establishment upon the shores of the “Lac - des deux Montagnes” in Canada, was in charge of the converts. M. Cuoq - was a learned philologist and had published a volume of studies upon - the Indian languages.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> - - <p>The assemblage of Roman Catholic converts brought together at the - Mission was composed of two tribes, who spoke different languages - which were so absolutely distinct that they were unable to converse - with each other. One of these groups were Algonquins, whose ancestors - originally dwelt to the north of the St. Lawrence, the other was formed - from the Iroquois who came from territories bordering upon the southern - banks of that river. M. Cuoq, when conducting the religious services, - preached to them in their own languages alternately. It is not - surprising that these scattered remnants of the two great tribes whose - languages were radically dissimilar should still (although they have - lived as <span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> - neighbours for several generations) be unable to understand - each other. It is, however, a different matter when the conditions - are considered under which the original Iroquois language has become - changed into the six languages spoken by the Senecas, Oneidas, - Cayugas, Onondagas, Mohawks and Tuscaroras. The extraordinary manner - in which the Iroquois language has thus become separated is especially - noticeable at the Canadian reservation of those tribes situated near - the banks of the Grand River.</p> - - <p>According to the traditions of the Iroquois it appears that the nations - were composed originally of one large tribe, all of whom spoke one - language, and that they dwelt on the southern shores of Lake Ontario. - It is stated that they became too numerous for the land which they - occupied, and a great council was held to consider what steps should - be taken to establish themselves in such a manner as to have hunting - grounds sufficiently extensive to enable them to obtain supplies - of food. After long discussion it was decided to disperse and to - divide into communities. But, in order to prevent disaster from the - possibility of being conquered by their enemies when thus separated, - it was arranged that they should dwell near each other and thus be - able to unite for the purpose of war. It happened, in consequence of - this dispersion, that the language gradually became so greatly changed - that the tribes were unable to understand each other, and in a period - comparatively brief, six distinct dialects were formed which in the - course of time became practically new languages.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span></p> - - <p>When these Iroquois, who had been our allies in war, were gathered - together and placed upon lands within the Canadian frontier, it was - found expedient by them to make one of the dialects a language, which - might be so far understood by the six nations, as to be employed upon - all occasions when they had to perform their ceremonies, or carry out - any purposes which they had in common.</p> - - <p>Upon the occasion of my visit to their reservation, I was accompanied - by two Indians respectively of the Seneca and Cayuga tribes, both - of whom spoke English intelligibly. I asked the Seneca what was the - dialect they had chosen to be their language when the Iroquois were - assembled together. He replied, that it was the Cayuga, because - they believed it was the original language which had been spoken by - all of them, and the six nations at the Grand River had learnt it - sufficiently to enable them to understand what was said when they met - at the Council house, but, for all ordinary purposes, and amongst - themselves, each nation spoke its own dialect. With reference to this - subject of variations in language, it is evident that amongst the - North American Indians, who are scattered over such a large extent of - country, the differences in the spoken tongues of the tribes must, - in many instances, be caused by the fact of there being no written - language, and of their being divided into races, kept apart by wars. - It is therefore to be expected that great changes would occur within - comparatively short intervals of time. With tribes originally belonging - to one nation, these would rapidly become formed into dialects - according to the manner in which the - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> tribes moved into other hunting - grounds, and became settled into distinct tribal groups. But after - making all due allowances for these conditions, it still remains - difficult to understand how so great a number of languages have become - established amongst a comparatively small population. At no time, since - the discovery of America, have the total numbers of Indians within the - regions now forming the United States, exceeded five hundred thousand - men, women and children. In 1829, it was estimated that the Indian - population slightly exceeded three hundred and thirteen thousand. In - 1850, according to the census, the total numbers were four hundred - thousand.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p> - - <p>The most remarkable fact with regard to the Iroquois tribes is that, - after having had one original language, they should have become - unintelligible to each other, although they lived in close proximity. - Their territories were within the limits now occupied by the State - of New York. With the Dakotas and Chippewas, whose territories are - adjacent, the conditions are different, for these languages have no - relation with each other, and the most careful researches have failed - to trace any connection between them. The Chippewa dialect belongs to - the group of languages classified as Algonquin. Dialects belonging to - that original stock are spoken by the Chippewas, Ottawas, Illinois, - Shawnees, and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> - all the New England tribes. The Dakota language is at - present known to be spoken in thirteen principal dialects, and several - sub-divisions. The Iroquois is exclusively confined to the six dialects - spoken by the six nations assembled in their reservations.</p> - - <p>The history of the dispersion of this race seems to establish the fact - that Indian languages can, within a comparatively short period, be so - greatly altered as to become practically distinct. This has happened - with a nation whose separated tribes have always remained at peace with - each other and have united for common defence, or for the prosecution - of a war against powerful enemies. With savage nations whose original - languages are essentially dissimilar, the constant wars which take - place between them possibly introduce elements of change which would - influence very considerably the spoken dialects of the opposing tribes. - It was a frequent custom after the conclusion of hostilities for the - conquerors to incorporate in their tribe the women and children of - those whom they had vanquished. Thus a new dialect would be introduced - amongst them, and the two languages would necessarily become blended. A - succession of wars would cause a continuance of variations of language, - and thus it would gradually come to pass that dialects would be formed - not only greatly differing from each other, but most difficult to trace - to any positive origin.</p> - - <p>The Iroquois were not only exceptional in having a fixed system of - confederation which enabled them to combine their forces in a manner - which increased their fighting strength, but they also had special - customs with regard to their chiefs. It was established - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span>amongst them - as an unalterable regulation that their hereditary descent should be - in the female line. This unusual system has attracted much attention. - When I was at their reservation I asked my Indian companions for an - explanation of the manner in which this was carried into effect in - ordinary practice, for it seemed to involve difficulties with regard to - intermarriage between the respective nations, and I wished to hear some - direct evidence upon that subject.</p> - - <p>The Seneca said: “Our children always take the rank of their mothers - and join their tribe; thus I, a Seneca, not a chief, married a Cayuga - woman the daughter of a chief and my son is therefore a Cayuga and - will be a chief of the Cayugas.” Another Indian said: “I live with the - Cayugas and my father was a Cayuga, but I am an Onondaga because my - mother was an Onondaga woman.”</p> - - <p>Whilst I was talking with these men, and passing through the villages - of the Oneidas, Senecas and Tuscaroras, I observed that there was no - church or any building set apart for religious purposes and I asked - the Seneca how this happened, as in the other Iroquois reservations - that I had seen, the church usually was in a prominent position near - the centre of the settlement. He said that I was amongst men who were - called Pagan Indians, and that the Grand River Iroquois were divided - into two classes, Christians and Pagans. The former were settled upon a - part of the lands a few miles distant. He also told me that they always - kept themselves distinct from the converts, and were careful to follow - their ancient belief and maintain,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> - as far as possible, the ceremonies - and religious customs of their ancestors.</p> - - <p>I asked a Cayuga, who had joined us, and who was one of the leading men - of his tribe, if he would tell me to what extent, and in what form, - their Pagan worship was practised. I also mentioned, that I wished for - information with regard to the Iroquois belief in a Supreme Being. - It was ascertained by the Jesuit missionaries, that a belief in one - over-ruling Power was found to exist among them, and in this respect - they differed from all other American Indians, with whom it seemed - to be conclusively ascertained, that their worship only consisted of - propitiations of the various powers that they believed had influence - for good or evil in connection with matters around them. It was found - by the priests, that the chief obstacle in enabling the savages to - comprehend the meaning of their teaching, was the want of capacity - in the minds of the Indians to understand the nature of a Power who - controlled all movements of the heavens and earth. It was consequently - interesting to meet an Indian who could intelligently explain this - unusual peculiarity of the Iroquois belief.</p> - - <p>This Cayuga, in reply to my questions, said, “We all believe in the - Great Spirit whom we call How-wan-ni-yu, and we have four feasts in - every year made to him. Those at the New Year and at the Harvest time - are the greatest. We meet at the Long House<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> dressed, as was the - custom in former times, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> - with skins and feathers, and have our faces - painted. In the middle of the room we place our offerings of wheat, - fruit, tobacco, and flesh, according to what we can give, and the - season of the year. Round this pile of offerings we have a dance. After - this is over, our principal chief makes a speech and tells us about the - goodness and nature of How-wan-ni-yu. Then we have another dance, after - which another chief makes a speech, and so on, until all the speeches - are finished. Then all the offerings are divided amongst us and the - meeting ends.”</p> - - <p>I asked the Indians if they had any other kind of worship or prayer. - They said they had nothing more, and that the dance to How-wan-ni-yu - was not considered by them to be a prayer, but was meant as an - acknowledgment of the goodness of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span> - harvest. I found a difficulty - in obtaining from these Iroquois any definite opinion with regard to - their ideas of the nature of How-wan-ni-yu, but at last the Cayuga - said abruptly: “We consider him to be the maker of all things upon - the earth, and we know nothing more about the matter.” There were, - originally, various ceremonies performed by the tribes in connection - with the appearance of the first new moon of the year, and there - were also tribal dances after any success in hunting or in war, but - these are no longer performed. One of the new moon ceremonies was the - sacrifice of a dog by fire, and the ashes were scattered over the - ground as an offering.</p> - - <p>Upon leaving the reservation, it was not possible to feel otherwise - than regret that it had become the fate of the descendants of a - powerful nation of warriors to be penned within these restricted - limits. Men, women and children, were leading aimless and useless - lives. They were pensioners upon Governments which would gladly escape - from the duties and expenses which the existence of these Indians - demand, and who are, in many cases, victims to the temptations offered - to them by the habits of modern civilisation.<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span></p> - - <p>The Dakotas and the Iroquois have always been considered as the most - powerful and warlike of the aboriginal races of North America. Both of - these tribes also possessed, certain religious customs relating to the - mental and physical training of their youthful warriors, which were - intended to strengthen their characters, and to give them the power to - endure privations and suffering with fortitude. The Dakotas carried - into effect their observances to an extent far beyond that of any other - race. Their superstitions and religious ceremonies, with reference - to this system of preparing the foundations for the establishment of - the qualities required to enable a Dakota to fulfil his duties as a - courageous and honourable member of his tribe, are most characteristic, - and appear to be invaluable elements in the formation of the qualities - required by a race dwelling in wild and desolate lands, surrounded - by enemies. It was an invariable rule with all the Dakotas, that the - youths upon reaching manhood, should pass through a probationary - period of fasting. This was done for the purpose of enabling each - young Dakota to obtain a knowledge of the spiritual world by which he - was surrounded, and to learn, by the revelations that - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span>would be made - to him in dreams, the nature of the Manito which would influence his - thoughts and actions during his life. The fasts were always performed - in solitude, far away from the tribe, and frequently continued for a - considerable time. It was supposed that towards the latter part of this - probation, his dreams would give him an insight into the mysterious - conditions of life and nature that appeared to be supernatural, and - that he would discover the god, animal or other object to which he was - especially linked and which he was to propitiate by sacrifices.</p> - - <p>It was an essential part of this early endurance of trial and - abstinence, that it not only should be performed in secret, but that - for the remainder of his life the Indian should hold his faith in - silence, and never communicate to others what his dreams had revealed - to him. Thus far this early initiation into the mysteries of the - unknown world had practically the effect of establishing the mental - character, and was a form of training which impressed upon each Indian - a separate individuality. Upon the conclusion of the probation of - fasting and solitude, the youths had each to pass through trials of - their physical endurance, and had to suffer various tortures to prove - themselves to be capable of becoming warriors, and to show their - manhood by their power of bearing pain with unflinching fortitude.</p> - - <p>When I was in that part of the continent which for long periods of - time had been occupied by the branch of the Dakota race called Sioux, - I endeavoured to ascertain the nature and practice of these customs as - far as they were known by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> - existing Indians. In prosecuting these - researches into a subject so interesting and exclusive, I was fortunate - in meeting with a man so well informed upon all matters connected - with these Indians as the half-breed Faribault. He had lived with the - Sioux for many years at the time when they had possession of lands - bordering upon the banks of the Mississippi, and had been present, on - several occasions, when their most serious superstitious ceremonies - were performed. Amongst these were the propitiations made to the sun, a - form of worship which was more rigidly and earnestly practised by the - Dakotas than by any other nation in North America.</p> - - <p>Sun worship existed amongst all the Indian tribes dwelling in the - Mississippi valley, particularly with the Natchez in Louisiana, but - the manner and the ceremonies differed, and with none of them were the - painful personal sufferings and penances, undergone by the worshippers, - so great as they were with the Dakotas. An instance of the severity - of this penance occurred in the year 1849, when Faribault was living - with a Sioux tribe encamped on the western shores of the Mississippi, - near Prairie la Crosse. “An Indian,” he said, “dreamt that he had - incurred the displeasure of the Great Spirit, and that it was necessary - to appease him by sacrificing to him everything that he valued, and - also to perform penance by undergoing the utmost pain that he was - able to endure. A scaffolding was raised near the camp, consisting of - two upright poles—of sufficient length—which were firmly fixed in the - ground. These were connected near the top by a cross pole. When this - was completed the Indian stood up and, shortly - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span> before daybreak, a cut - was made within the fleshy parts of each arm near the shoulders through - which was passed a rope. Cuts or holes were then made in the breasts - and other ropes were pushed through them. The cords were then tied to - the stakes in such a manner that the arms were suspended by them. The - breast ropes were secured in a position such as to allow that a certain - portion of the man’s weight was held by them. His feet were allowed - just to touch the ground. His dog was killed and placed in front of - him together with his blanket, cut into strips, his feathers, his - ornaments, and all that he possessed.</p> - - <p>“When these preparations were made the Indian waited for the rising - of the sun, and directly it appeared above the eastern horizon he - threw his head back and fixing his gaze upon it commenced dancing. His - friends at the same time maintained an incessant beating of a small - drum. The dancing continued throughout the day, the Indian moving his - position as the sun moved and taking care always to keep the sun in his - front and to gaze steadfastly upon it without shrinking from its full - light. After sunset he remained watching the western sky throughout the - night. In the morning he turned round towards the dawn and when the sun - appeared, was immediately cut down from the scaffold and fell exhausted - upon the ground.”</p> - - <p>This act of sun worship is frequently performed, and the Sioux firmly - believe that if they do not obey the dream which points out to them - this duty, serious misfortunes will happen to them and their families. - Instances have been known of men being - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span> able to endure long periods of - torture, and young Indians, when passing through the early trials of - their strength, will frequently remain for hours entirely suspended - by ropes rove through their flesh. It is not possible to estimate the - actual personal suffering thus inflicted upon themselves by these - North American Indians, by the standard of what would be felt by more - sensitive and more highly organised races. I have seen Chinamen endure - with stolid indifference, tortures that would cause Europeans to feel - the utmost agony.<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p> - - <p>The Dakotas had another form of sun worship, which is still practised - by some of the tribes in the West, but which appears to be chiefly - intended as a tribal thanksgiving or rejoicing. A pole is raised in - the centre of the encampment and upon it are placed figures of birds, - beasts and reptiles. The Indians dance round this pole during the day - taking <span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> - care to keep their faces towards the sun. Shortly before sunset - the figures are shot at until they have all fallen upon the ground. - After this there is another dance which ends when the sun sinks below - the horizon. The ceremony is then concluded.</p> - - <p>Sickness is, with the Dakotas as with the Pawnees, considered to have - been sent as a punishment for some wrong deed that has been committed - either by an individual or by the tribe. I was told by Faribault that - whenever a Sioux found that he was suffering from illness he sent for - the medicine man,<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> who, upon his arrival, would immediately proceed - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> - to ascertain what evil act the patient had done, and would then take - the requisite measures to drive out the evil spirit representing the - nature of the offence. It is assumed that the offence committed by - the sick person has some reference to a man, woman or animal. The - medicine man, who pretends to have the power of second-sight, looks - steadily at the patient, until he declares that he can see the inner - demon that torments him. After certain incantations, he makes out - of clay an image of the creature which is causing the sickness, and - then shoots at it until it is shattered. It is expected that this act - will cause the devil to depart. If this method of cure fails, other - images are made, as it is then assumed that more than one evil deed - has been perpetrated. Finally, if all these remedies are unsuccessful - it is pronounced that the patient must perform a penance. This usually - consists of a long fast, and is considered to be a personal matter - strictly confined to the relations that exist between the Indian and - the Manito under whose guidance he believes himself to be, and which - has been ascertained during the period of the great fast performed in - his youth.</p> - - <p>It was the custom with the Sioux, whenever the head of the household - died, for the women to mourn for a year. One of their chiefs had died - a few years before I was at Mendota, and Faribault, who had known him - intimately, went to the settlement to see the widow. He found her - engaged in the occupation of cutting deep gashes in her arms and legs. - She had, in her hand a rounded scalping knife and with this weapon - she was striking herself and inflicting - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span> wounds from which blood was - flowing. All the furniture and mats had been removed from the tepee or - tent, and she was sitting upon the earth. At the conclusion of the time - of mourning it is usual for the women to go to their friends or join - some other household, and the old tepee is then thrown down and left in - a heap upon the ground.</p> - - <p>At the time that Faribault was speaking about these customs, there - were present several Sioux, who had come from their encampment, and - were listening to him. When he had finished his narrative, I took the - opportunity of asking these men some questions about the belief of - the Sioux, with respect to lightning and thunder, as I had heard that - the Dakotas held some especial opinions upon these manifestations of - supernatural power. One of the beliefs attributed to them was that - lightning was a stone, and it was difficult to understand what could be - their reason for holding such a strange belief. They said, in answer - to my question, that lightning was certainly a stone, and that they - knew it was so because they had seen it, and it was very hard and like - a rock. Possibly the Indians had seen the fall of some aerolites, or - they may have observed the effects of lightning after it had struck the - earth. They state, that sometimes a small hot stone is found near the - roots of a tree that has been injured by a flash of lightning.</p> - - <p>I asked Faribault, whether any of the tribes with whom he had - lived, appeared to have any belief in one supreme Great Spirit. He - replied, that, as far as he had been able to judge of this matter, - the Sioux held this belief vaguely, but, that it did - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> not influence - their actions. The Dakotas have a Pagan custom of investing animals, - hills, mountains, and all remarkable natural manifestations of - unknown powers with especial spirits of good or evil influence, each - demanding different forms of worship and propitiation. They have - also—under certain conditions—a belief in the transmigration of souls - into animals. They consider that this takes place when an Indian has - been guilty of some act of cowardice or treachery. In such a case, - his spirit is supposed, after death, to go into some animal or to - take its form, and then it is sometimes believed that it haunts the - neighbourhood of the camp. The superstitious nature of the Sioux is - often strangely affected by traditions respecting these wandering - spirits, and when under this influence, it is said by the half-breeds - living amongst them, that they seem to possess the power of seeing - supernatural things.</p> - - <p>There was an instance of this mentioned as having occurred a few years - previously. A Sioux died: it was known that he had dreamed that, after - his death, he would enter the body of a bear, and would then wander - round the tents of the tribe. After his death, an Indian looked out - at daybreak, and declared that he saw upon an opposite hill a large - grey bear. Upon hearing this rumour the tribe assembled, and many of - the men imagined that they saw it. After this appearance there was a - universal dread of the bear. It was frequently seen, and the Indians - were careful to avoid meeting it. During the time that the tribe were - encamped in this part of the country, south of the Minnesota, the bear - was occasionally seen prowling over the hills. One - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> of the chiefs was - asked by a white man, who was trading with this tribe, why it was not - killed, and he was told, that it was because it contained the spirit - of a dead brother. There was no doubt in the minds of the Indians - about the reality of the vision. They were positive in declaring that - they saw the bear, and would point it out to the half-breeds staying - in the camp, who could never see it. This power of seeing what is to - other men unseen, is stated to be possessed by many of the Dakotas, and - is probably, in a great measure, due to a highly sensitive condition - of mind, caused by their long periods of self-imposed abstinence. - Faribault said, that Sioux, when travelling the country, will - suddenly start and tremble, and point to something not visible to the - half-breeds, and declare that they see the form of the spirit that they - dread.</p> - - <p>The dreams and fasts of the Dakotas, and the time passed by them - in solitude, explain much that is strange and exceptional in their - nature. It is thus intelligible how it happens, that the young Indians - have such an earnest and vivid belief in the spiritual nature of the - unknown and mysterious world, and that they invest with supernatural - attributes the mysterious powers which surround them. It must seem - natural to them, that thunder and lightning, sun, moon, mountains, and - rivers, should be considered as manifestations of powerful spirits, - that require to receive worship and sacrifice. What, however, is not - so obvious, is the cause which impels them to worship large rocks and - stones, which cannot, by any stretch of the imagination, be supposed - to possess active powers of good or evil. - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span> Upon this subject I asked - the Indians for their explanation, saying, that I supposed they did not - directly worship a stone, such as that near Mendota, but the spirit who - had placed it there. Faribault said, that this worship also followed - upon dreams, and the Indians, who were present, concurred in his - statement. It sometimes happens that a Sioux, in his dream, instead of - seeing the image of the sun or some animal, will see nothing but one of - these large Spirit rocks. It is thus conveyed to his mind, that this is - his god, by which his actions and fate are to be governed during his - life, and to whom he must offer sacrifices.</p> - - <p>The whole tribe will occasionally take part in the worship of a - boulder.<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> A dreamer, usually in this case, a man who is supposed to - be gifted with prophetic power, dreams that it has become necessary to - propitiate some unknown spirit. Then if he afterwards dreams of one of - these boulders he acquaints the tribe with the nature of his dream, and - the camp is immediately moved to the neighbourhood of the particular - stone that is to receive sacrifices. This worship of Spirit rocks - continues to take place. There is a large rounded mass of granite on - the west bank of the Mississippi, lying upon the prairie a few miles - below Lake Pepin, which is still visited by wandering bands of Sioux. - It had been painted a bright red colour. When passing near the spot - where it was situated, I saw the fires of the encampment of Indians who - had come there to perform their ceremonies.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span></p> - - <p>Amongst the various superstitious customs of the Dakotas, none are - more singular than those which are related to serpent worship, and I - listened with attention to the opinions of the Sioux upon this subject. - They said that with serpents, as with other animals, the sacrifices - made to them were entirely a personal matter, depending upon the - nature of the dreams and upon the special kind of affinity that an - Indian might believe himself to possess with them. With regard to - rattlesnakes the methods of propitiation varied, for it happens that - some of the men of a tribe find that they have a power of fascination - over these reptiles. Others are aware of a feeling of dread of them, - and consequently act differently. Usually a snake worshipper, upon - meeting a rattlesnake, carefully clears and smooths the ground and - places upon it his offering. He then fills his pipe with tobacco, - lights it and turns the mouth-piece towards the snake, holding the bowl - in his hands. He then makes his request.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> But, said the Sioux, these - things are done in secret and very little is known about them. Each - Indian, especially concerned, knows how and in what manner to offer his - sacrifice.</p> - - <p>There is necessarily a difficulty in comprehending the depth or extent - of the belief in the supernatural powers of the gods ruling over them, - as understood and acted upon by ignorant and savage natures, such as - the Dakotas, whose opinions have been <span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span> - formed after they have undergone - long periods of fasting and suffering. An event occurred in a tribe - then dwelling near the banks of the Minnesota, which proved that these - Indians believed that their gods took a direct part in the government - of the world beneath them, and manifested their anger by punishing - those men who had offended them, unless a sufficient sacrifice was made - as a propitiation. This event was reported in the year 1852, by Mr. - Prescott, who was residing amongst the Sioux.</p> - - <p>His letter ran as follows:—</p> - - <blockquote> - <p class="right">“St. Peters, <i>January</i> 26, 1852.</p> - - <p class="smcap noindent">“Sir,</p> - - <p>“I mentioned an instance of human sacrifice amongst the Sioux, - but I did not know for what cause at the time, but since I have - found out the cause of the sacrifice.</p> - - <p>“There came up a terrible thunder-storm. The lightning was - flashing and falling in every direction about the Indian’s - lodge, and the Indian thought the lightning or thunder was - angry with him, and was about to kill him; so the Indian took - his gun and shot his own son, and offered him as a sacrifice to - the thunder, to save his own life.”<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> - </blockquote> - - <p>Amongst the Indian races occupying the Northern American continent, - the Dakotas and the Pawnees are the only tribes who are known to have - had the custom of sacrificing human beings to their gods. It is of - importance to remark that these two races dwelt in neighbouring lands, - and had customs <span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> - which point to analogies with the Toltecs and Aztecs, - in Southern Mexico, and the Mound Builders in Ohio. With the Dakotas - human sacrifices were the greatest of the propitiations to their angry - gods. It was known that Faribault had dwelt with a tribe of the Sioux - upon an occasion when one of these sacrifices occurred, and I asked - him to give me a detailed account of the proceedings that then took - place, for cases of that serious nature rarely happen, although some - centuries earlier, when tribal wars were frequent and perilous, it may - be conjectured that they were numerous.</p> - - <p>Faribault said that, at the time when this human sacrifice occurred, - he was living with a band of Sioux belonging to the Sissiton tribe, - and they were encamped near the west shores of Lake Pepin. “They - had come to the conclusion that, for some reason which they did not - comprehend, a curse was upon them. Everything seemed to go wrong. Game - was scarce and hard to kill, and there was much distress and sickness. - Fastings and the usual sacrifices seemed to be of no avail, and nothing - removed the evil influences which surrounded them. Finally an Indian, - not a chief, but a man who was an orator and a prophet, had it made - known to him by a dream what propitiation was required. This man had - three daughters. The youngest of them was twelve years old; she was a - beautiful child and her father’s favourite. He dreamt that, to appease - the Great Spirit, it was necessary to sacrifice this child. In the - morning before sunrise, he awoke the girl and told her to go out of - the tent, wash herself and then put on her best dress and all her - ornaments. He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span> - then called the tribe together and told them his dream. - When they had heard what he declared they removed the tents to an - adjacent camping ground and remained there until he joined them. He was - then left alone with his daughter. He told her that in his dream he had - seen the Great Spirit who had commanded that she should be sacrificed. - His daughter accordingly stood up, and facing the sun, began to sing - her death song, which was a kind of hymn. At noon, when the sun had - risen to its highest point in the sky, he killed her.”</p> - - <p>The Sioux stated that after this sacrifice everything prospered, - sickness ceased, game became abundant and all went well with the - tribe.<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p> - - <p>The burial customs of the Dakotas were, in several respects, - distinctive. The dead were placed upon an open framework or - scaffolding, which, when the tribes were encamped upon the prairies, - was raised a sufficient height above the ground to be out of the reach - of wolves. Ultimately the bones were taken to the tribal burial places. - It is not improbable that the Mound Builders had similar usages.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span></p> - - <p>The Sacs and Foxes who dwelt on the lands near the southern borders of - a part of the Dakota territories had different customs. Judge Williams - told me that, when he was residing amongst them, it was their practice, - when burying a man, to fix two upright posts. The body was placed in - a sitting position on the surface of the ground with the back resting - against one of the posts, and the feet touching the other. It was then - covered over with earth.</p> - - <p>The methods followed by the Dakotas and Chippewas in curing illness by - the use of steam appear to be of very ancient origin, and evidently are - the same as those that were described by Clavigero as being practised - by the Aztecs in the towns of Mexico. They are also adopted by the - Shoshones in the deserts of Utah. Amongst the Dakotas a low circular - wigwam is made about four feet high. The frame is usually covered - with buffalo skins in such a manner that no steam can escape. A small - opening is left through which the patient can crawl in. In the interior - of the wigwam some sand is put upon the ground. Stones which have been - heated by fire are then pushed in under the wigwam and placed upon this - sand, together with a jar of water. The patient then pours the water - upon the stones until the interior is filled with vapour or steam.</p> - - <p>When the Jesuit missionaries surveyed the shores of Lake Superior in - 1669, they reported that the savages in preparing their meals, used - a pail made of birch bark, which contained water. Hot stones were - thrown into this until the water was raised to a temperature which was - sufficiently high to cook<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span> - their food. This custom was similar to - that which was followed by the Maoris in New Zealand.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_174f"><img src="images/i_174f.jpg" width="600" height="597" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Bear Skin. - Red Dog. Rocky Bear.<br /> - Chiefs of the Ogallalas.<br /> - <span class="small">(dakotas.)</span></div> - </div> - - <hr class="tb" /> - <blockquote> - <p>It is hazardous to attempt to form any conclusions, based upon - analogies, respecting the habits and superstitions of savage - races, but with regard to the Maoris and the Dakotas, there are - circumstances which require that a passing notice should be - given to them.</p> - - <p>The New Zealanders, like the Dakotas, placed the bodies of the - dead upon platforms or high scaffoldings. After a certain time - the bones were scraped and gathered together, and taken to the - burying place.</p> - - <p>The Maoris also had much faith in dreams, and believed that it - was chiefly through them that they received communications from - their gods. It was also usual for widows to show their grief, - upon the death of their husbands, by cutting themselves with - sharp instruments.</p> - - <p>The Sandwich Islanders, who are believed to be of the same race - as the Maoris, used, in cases of sickness, a steam bath in the - same manner as the Dakotas.</p> - - <p>In 1878, I met a number of Maoris in the valley of the Waikato, - in the northern island of New Zealand. The men and women - differed from the Malay type, and resembled, in many respects, - the North American Indians. I am of opinion, that at a remote - period, there must have been a communication between the - aboriginal natives of the Sandwich Islands, and the Indians - dwelling upon the western coasts of North America.</p> - </blockquote> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_IX"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span> - <h2>CHAPTER IX.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - The Golden City.—Coast of California.—Cape San - Lucas.—Manzanillo.—Alligators and Sharks.—Acapulco.—San José de - Guatemala.—Escuintla.—City of Guatemala.—Indian pilgrims from - Esquipulas.—Ancient mounds on the plains of Mixco.—Insurrection - of Indians.—Decapitation of their leader.—Preparations for the - journey across the Continent to Palenque and Yucatan. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span>In</span> the forenoon of the third day of January, the “Golden City” - commanded by Captain Lapidge, left San Francisco for the Central and - South American Pacific ports.</p> - - <p>We had on board, as passengers, several members of the Austrian - mission, originally embarked in the frigate Danube under their chief - Rear-Admiral Baron Petz, with instructions to make commercial treaties - with China, Japan, Siam, Guatemala, Chili and other Spanish-American - States. This part of the mission had been detached to visit Guatemala - and it was arranged that upon the completion of their duties in Central - America, they should rejoin the frigate in the Southern Pacific. Dr. - Scherzer, the author of the narrative of the voyage of the Novara, and - who had also published the journal of his travels in Central America, - was placed in charge of this service. He was accompanied by Baron - Herbert and Baron<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span> - Ransonnet, acting as secretaries. I had already met - these members of the staff and it was a mutual pleasure to find that we - were proceeding to the same regions.</p> - - <p>Soon after leaving the harbour we approached the rocks upon which great - numbers of seals were seen. They watched our movements with attention, - and in reply to the sound of the blows of our paddlewheels upon the - water, bellowed at us defiantly.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_177"><img src="images/i_177.jpg" width="600" height="305" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption">The “Golden City” passing the Seal Rocks.</div> - </div> - - <p>We at first steered a course near the shore, but finding that there - was a heavy ground swell, we kept about four miles out from the land, - a distance sufficiently close to enable us to have a good view of the - Californian hills. One night, large beacon fires were reported to be - observed on the heights of the southern extremity of Lower California. - The course was consequently altered towards a small bay within Cape San - Lucas, and a boat came alongside conveying passengers. It was very dark - and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> - signal fires threw a fitful glare upon the sea and our ship, - at intervals. As we followed the line of the coast, the scenery became - very grand as we approached the mountain ranges of Mexico. The weather - was fine, the sea, rightly called Pacific, was as smooth as glass, and - there was an effect of atmosphere which gave a marvellously beautiful - colouring to the slopes and valleys of the mountains.</p> - - <p>Several days after our departure from San Francisco we entered the - little land-locked harbour of Manzanillo. When rounding the point - we disturbed several flocks of pelicans. They gathered speed with - a few flaps of their great wings and then swept over the water - noiselessly without further effort, altering the direction of their - flight until they were sheltered from observation by some intervening - rocks.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> Manzanillo is one of the seaports of the city of Mexico, - and communicates with the capital by a road leading to Colima and - Guadelajara. Near the village there is a shallow lake called La Laguna - de Cuyutlan, in which exist an extraordinary number of alligators.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span></p> - - <p>After our ship had anchored, some of the passengers went to look at - this quiet reptile-infested lagoon, which is separated from the sea by - a narrow strip of land. Captain Lapidge told us that a few years before - our arrival, there had been a long continuance of westerly winds, and - these together with an unusually high tide caused the sea to flow over - the isthmus into the lagoon. Numerous alligators then came out from it - and crossed over into the bay where they were immediately attacked by - sharks, which abound on this part of the coast. He said that a fearful - combat took place and for several days the bay was deluged with blood.</p> - - <p>It had become dark before we returned from the lagoon, and we passed - through the Indian village situated near its banks. The women were busy - grinding, on rounded granite slabs, grains of maize; or cooking various - herbs and vegetables in small earthern pans. The interior of their huts - contained one room. The ground was usually bare, but in some instances - a few mats were laid down. The exterior was formed of long upright - poles or sticks closely bound together. The roofs, which were high and - sloped steeply downwards, were made of brushwood and palm leaves.</p> - - <p>During the night we continued our voyage near the Mexican coast, and on - the morning of the 10th entered the harbour of Acapulco. In the crowded - market place we saw a strange medley of races, Indians, Negroes, - Ladinos, Mestizos, and Pintos who afforded ample occupation for the - artistic talents of Baron Ransonnet. The Indians were of moderate - stature and of a dark swarthy colour, their faces - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> were broad, and - their hair was long, heavy and very black. All had peculiarly restless - eyes. We were interested in looking at the Pintos, a numerous race of - Indians inhabiting the hills of this part of Mexico, who are given that - name in consequence of the coloured spots on their skin. Some of them - were merely spotted, others had their feet or hands almost white and of - a disagreeable livid tint. In several, the dark red skin of the face - was completely covered with white round spots. These spots always begin - as blue marks and develop into sores, which afterwards heal into these - indelible white scars. The Indians say that this kind of leprosy is - inherited. In all other respects they were perfectly healthy.</p> - - <p>At midnight on the 13th, we arrived off San José de Guatemala. Captain - Lapidge lowered a boat and put us on board the nearest vessel, which - we afterwards found to be a North German barque called the Gelert. - Although the sea was smooth she was rolling heavily. The Golden City - also gave some deep lurches, and it was difficult to get in or out of - the boat. Baron Ransonnet left us with the intention of proceeding to - Panama. Finally Dr. Scherzer, Baron Herbert, and myself, made the best - of our position and slept—or endeavoured to sleep—for the rest of the - night upon the deck of the Gelert.</p> - - <p>The view from the barque when the sun rose above the horizon, was of - a character not to be forgotten. The great range of volcanoes which, - commencing in the North in Alaska, runs like a backbone near the - Pacific Coast through the entire length of the American continent to - the southern limits of Patagonia, is here very remarkable. The - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> great - mountains of Agua and Fuego, rising respectively over twelve and - thirteen thousand feet above the sea, were immediately opposite to us. - The volcano of Pacaya was on the right, and, on the left, were the - distant volcanoes near the Lake of Atitlan.</p> - - <p>Our landing was accomplished without difficulty, and in the forenoon - we left San José for the capital in an open carriage, with three good - horses harnessed abreast. The road ran in a straight line through the - forest which covered the low tropical plain, extending for a distance - of forty miles from the sea to the base of the hills. Occasionally - we passed the huts occupied by the mixed race descended from African - negroes and Indians, who have been given the name of Zambos.</p> - - <p>It would be difficult to account for the existence of a race of African - descent, dwelling near the Western coasts of the Pacific, if we did not - possess the statements of the Spanish historians, and their explanation - of the circumstances which necessitated the introduction of negroes for - the purpose of working in the mines or plantations, and to take the - place of the Indians who died in great numbers in consequence of the - severity of their treatment by the conquerors. The features of these - Zambos, resembled those of the aboriginal race of Indians, but the hair - was like that of the negroes on the West coast of Africa.</p> - - <p>At the village of Masagua, we saw several Indians who had come down - from the hills. They were men of unusually diminutive stature, all - of them being under five feet in height, but they were well-formed, - muscular and active. The town of Escuintla was reached after sunset, - and towards midnight I went<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span> - to the Plaza to see the numerous groups of - Indians, who were resting there for the night on their way to a church - festival that was going to be held several days’ journey eastwards. - The moonlight was extraordinarily brilliant, and the Indians evidently - considered that its influence was dangerous, for they carefully avoided - it, and sheltered themselves amongst the trees, or within the deep - shadows cast by the walls of the church. The platform in front of the - beautiful façade of that building, was surrounded by colonnades of palm - trees. Beyond, but seemingly close at hand, were the gigantic forms of - the twin volcanoes of Water and Fire.</p> - - <p>Before daybreak we arrived at the village of Amatitlan, situated on - the borders of the lake of that name near the base of the volcano of - Pacaya, and in the morning we saw before us the plateau upon which - stands the city of Guatemala, five thousand feet above the sea. - Gradually we found that we were accompanied by Indians belonging to the - various villages near the road, who were on their way to the market - place, carrying on their backs heavy loads of wood, crockery and - vegetables.</p> - - <p>As we approached the gates of the city, our horses increased their - pace, and the scene became very animated. Hundreds of Indians joined - us from all directions, and ran by the sides of our carriage. The - bells of the numerous churches were ringing for prayers. We passed the - castle, the market place crowded with Indian women selling their wares, - and the cathedral. Priests and sisters of mercy were hurrying along - the streets; groups of soldiers carrying old-fashioned muskets, were - lounging near their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span> - barracks. Our horses became excited and broke into - a gallop, and finally, with great noise and speed, we drove up to the - doors of the Hotel Aleman, and were soon installed in comfortable rooms - opening into the central court or patio, which forms such an agreeable - feature in all well-arranged Spanish inns.</p> - - <p>Soon after our arrival Colonel Miguel Garcia y Granados, one of the - Government officials, called upon Dr. Scherzer and gave us a vivid - report of the political condition of the Republic. The Indians of the - provinces between Guatemala and the Mexican frontier were in rebellion. - A large force of them under the leadership of an Indian, named - Serapio Cruz, were marching towards the city, and a battle between - them and the Government troops was imminent. He also mentioned some - interesting facts with respect to the late President Carrera. Carrera - was a remarkable instance of native capacity. He was an uneducated - Indian of obscure birth who, by sheer force of character, energy, and - courage, was, at an early age, placed at the head of large bodies of - Indians during the various revolutionary outbreaks which succeeded the - declaration of Independence from Spain. Finally he became President of - the Republic and governed the people with such obstinate determination - and firmness of will that, in a few years, he was able to place the - whole country under a steady system of control. In doing this he was - assisted by the fact of being an Indian and having, consequently, great - personal influence over the natives. He also received the support of - the priests for, like all Indians, he was extremely fanatical.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span></p> - - <p>Colonel Garcia told us that Carrera always had on his writing table - a toy representing Louis Philippe with his hat in his hand. This toy - had a rounded base and was so weighted that, when it was touched, it - rolled backwards and forwards, and would thus represent Louis Philippe - constantly bowing hat in hand. Carrera when engaged at his official - work would frequently make the toy move, and then would say to those - that stood near him “It was in that way, by too much bowing, that - Louis Philippe lost his throne, I shall take care that I do not make - the same mistake.” Carrera was not only supported by the priests, but - also by the Spaniards, who knew that he alone could keep the Indians in - subjection. Latterly he spoke much of the Indian chief Cruz, and said - that he was the only man in the State who was to be feared.</p> - - <p>During our residence in Guatemala, I was fortunate in having the - acquaintance of Don Francisco Gavarrete, who held a post under the - Government and was well informed upon all subjects relating to - the Indians. He was also, I understood, the proprietor of some of - the lands within which were the sculptured monoliths and idols of - Quirigua. At the Museum in the city there was a good collection of - Indian antiquities which had been found within the territories of - the Republic, including several idols from Copan and Santa Cruz del - Quiché. When examining these I was accompanied by him and he directed - my attention to certain objects of importance. Many of them were well - carved and it was clear that the sculptors were able to work and shape - the hardest stone with accuracy and skill.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span></p> - - <p>There was a small idol, made of hard green stone, which had been - found hidden behind the high altar of a church near the town of - Gueguetenango. Dr. Scherzer, who during his travels in Central America, - had learnt much about the religious customs of the natives, told us - that the priest of a church situated amongst the hills near Atitlan - had noticed an Indian girl, who was one of his parishioners, showing - an unusual fervour in her devotions, and he tried to find out the - cause. He, at last, discovered that she had buried an idol in the - ground close behind the church beyond the altar, so that although she - appeared to be praying to what was before her in the church, she was - actually addressing her requests to the idol outside. This priest - considered that his Indians were by nature idolaters and that it was - not practicable to prevent them from returning to their ancient habits. - Señor Gavarrete said that in the Department of Vera-Paz the Indians - had still the custom of erecting somewhere near the churches small - idol-houses in which they kept the image of a saint. To this they - offered sacrifices of meats and flowers, and at certain seasons they - were accustomed to keep watch or guard at the door throughout the night.</p> - - <p>It is more than strange that nothing has been discovered in the course - of the explorations of the various ancient sites in this part of the - continent, which throws any light upon the methods employed by the - Indians, for the purpose of carving and shaping granite, green marble, - and hard lava. No mason’s implement of any kind has been found. A - few copper chisels appear to have been used for some purpose which - is unknown. They could not apparently - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span>have been of much service in - working stone, for the edges were rounded and the metal was soft. This - question as to the system adopted by the Indian sculptors in producing - such excellent work, is as inexplicable now as it was to the Spaniards - in the sixteenth century.</p> - - <p>Señor Gavarrete asked me to accept a fine obsidian spear head which had - been found amongst the ruins of Quirigua. This black volcanic glass is - admirably adapted for cutting and wounding purposes. I had previously - picked up in an ancient earthwork outside the city, several fragments - of the same substance, which had evidently been placed on the edges of - wooden daggers or swords which inflicted jagged and dangerous wounds. - Obsidian knives were used by the Aztec priests when offering human - sacrifices to their gods. The spear head was in form and in the method - followed for chipping the mineral into the requisite shape, similar to - the large arrow heads made by the Indians in the western parts of North - America, where obsidian is obtained near the volcanic ranges of the - Sierra Nevada.</p> - - <p>During the latter part of the month numerous groups of Indians passed - through the city on their return from the pilgrimage to Esquipulas. - The festival of the church at that place occurs annually on the 15th - of January. It is estimated that upon an average over eighty thousand - Indians are present upon that occasion. Esquipulas became an important - shrine in consequence of a wooden crucifix, black from age, having - been found buried in the ground near that town. It was supposed by - the Spaniards<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span> - that it must have been lost by one of their missionary - priests when passing through that part of the province at some early - period soon after the conquest. This black crucifix was placed in the - sanctuary, and from some cause which has not been ascertained, it was - soon held in the highest veneration by the natives.</p> - - <p>Indians assembled there in great numbers from all parts of the country, - and travelled great distances in order to be present at the festival, - and to take part in the performance of the religious ceremonies.</p> - - <p>At the Cathedral in Guatemala we frequently saw the pilgrims kneeling - before the shrines and showing much devotional respect to certain - images. These natives were invariably grown up men and women. - They journeyed on foot, carrying with them their provisions and - water-gourds. They seemed to be desirous of avoiding all contact or - conversation with others. Their conduct was quiet and unobtrusive. - It was their custom to pass silently through the city. At the doors - of each church they stopped for a few moments, and then entered and - knelt before the altar. After the completion of these acts of worship, - they proceeded on their journey across the plains towards the huts and - villages scattered over the slopes of the distant hills. They never - halted in the street, or took any part in the daily movements of the - inhabitants.</p> - - <p>The pilgrimage is also undertaken by Indians from the distant regions - of Central America. Many of them traverse hundreds of miles. There is - something in the devotional nature of these ignorant aboriginal people - which escapes the comprehension<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> - of those who observe them. I noticed - that the Indians varied considerably in stature and complexion. The men - who dwelt among the Cordilleras seemed to be of a finer race than those - who were settled on the plains, and were much darker in the colour of - their skin.</p> - - <p>The most attractive spot in the city was the market place. Within the - square, crowds of people, Indians and Ladinos, were daily assembled, - all of them buying, selling and carrying on the ordinary traffic, with - a silence and listless indifference which was in strong contrast with - the life and animation of the cities in the United States. It was a - constant pleasure to observe the movements of the younger Indian women, - who in their appearance and demeanour, were far superior to the men. - This difference arises from their habits and employment. The women - have a certain kind of dignity in their manner, caused, in a great - measure, by their usage of carrying water jars and pans of crockery - poised upon their heads. They therefore walk slowly and hold themselves - upright. This custom which begins from early childhood, and forms part - of their daily life, has the result of giving them good figures and a - particularly graceful movement.</p> - - <p>The men, on the contrary, have a crouching appearance, caused by the - method in which they have been accustomed, from boyhood, to carry - their burdens. They relieve the pressure of the weight on their - backs by means of a broad band passed over the forehead and thus, - by bending forward, the load is made less oppressive. The men and - boys consequently contract a stooping posture, and this presents - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span> - an unfavourable contrast to the women, whose bearing is precisely - the reverse. There is another circumstance which has its influence - in shaping the figures of the women. They carry all small things on - the open palm of the left hand, which is thrown back and held well - raised up. In fact the same causes which affect the appearance of the - Indians in North America are present here, but with the difference - that there it is the squaw who contracts the stooping and bent figure, - through carrying her children and other burdens, and it is the man who - maintains the upright figure and dignified manner.</p> - - <p>On the plains a few miles to the west of the city, in the direction of - the village of Mixco, there is a large and extensive group of ancient - Indian mounds of whose construction or purpose nothing is known. They - have never been scientifically examined and I was not able to ascertain - that any plans had been made of them. No author has alluded to them - unless by a mere passing notice, and yet they seemed to throw more - light upon the question of the Toltecan or Aztecan migrations than any - other remains of ancient antiquities. Possibly no previous traveller in - this part of Central America had also seen the mounds of Cahokia, near - the eastern banks of the Mississippi, or he could hardly have failed to - have observed that their resemblance is so great, and indeed so evident - as to place it almost beyond doubt, that the builders of the mounds - at Cahokia were of the same race as those that dwelt on the plains of - Mixco.</p> - - <p>As it would be highly improbable that any nation would migrate from - lands abounding with means of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span> - food, comfort and warmth to what must - have been, at that period, the comparatively inhospitable regions of - North America, the tribes that constructed these mounds must have - originally migrated from the valley of the Mississippi.</p> - - <p>I was employed for several days in making a rough survey of this Indian - settlement and took measurements of the inclosure. The ground plan was - made in the form of an extensive and irregular parallelogram about - twelve hundred yards long and five hundred yards wide. The mounds upon - the sides of the greatest length vary in their dimensions. Some of them - are very large and exceed forty-five feet in height. The most important - are those platform earthworks at each end of the inclosure upon which - may have been placed the principal communal buildings, or the houses of - the Caciques. There was also a mound of an exceptional shape, situated - in the interior which, from its position, may have been intended for - purposes similar to those that existed within the embankments of Fort - Ancient in Ohio.</p> - - <p>When Carrera was President of Guatemala he wished to know for what - object these mounds were built, and he therefore gave orders that - one of the largest of them should be thoroughly examined. It was - ascertained, contrary to expectation, that it was not a burial place. - The only thing found in it was a large and well carved granite - grindstone of the same shape as those at present used by the Indians - for grinding maize. The results of Carrera’s excavations appeared - to establish the conclusion that the mounds were chiefly raised for - the purpose of placing dwellings upon them; and this is also, I was - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span> - informed, the opinion of the natives living in the neighbourhood.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_190f"><img src="images/i_190f.jpg" width="700" height="447" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Ancient Indian Mounds near Guatemala.</div> - </div> - - <p>In the meanwhile from day to day the capital had been disturbed by - rumours of the movements of the advancing insurgents, and it was - difficult to make any decided plans with regard to my journey in the - interior. It was considered by the Government authorities that it would - be highly imprudent for me to attempt to pass through the disturbed - provinces, as the natives were known to have become unsettled and - excited. It was therefore with great satisfaction that I heard that the - Indians were coming near and that a decisive battle was imminent. The - President Don Vincente Cerna had taken all proper precautions, and had - placed the troops under the command of his most able officer, General - Solares.</p> - - <p>On the twenty-third of January we were informed that the rebels were - approaching, and that an action between the forces was expected to - take place immediately. Baron Herbert and myself then went into the - adjoining country with the hope of obtaining a distant view of the - operations. In the afternoon we heard the firing of guns from the - castle announcing to the people that the Indians were defeated, and, - to prevent there being any doubts upon the subject, messengers arrived - from General Solares bringing with them the head of his opponent. This - practical method of assuring the inhabitants of the success of the - Government troops had a good effect. It was afterwards made known that - the Indians had been surrounded at an early hour and taken by surprise - whilst they were amongst the ravines. Serapio Cruz fought desperately - but was killed and decapitated.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span></p> - - <p>Thus ended the Indian rebellion, and a period of considerable local - anxiety. A political revolution is an event which may be expected to - occur frequently in Spanish-American republics, but a rising of Indians - in rebellion or, as it is called, a “Guerra de Castas” (war of races), - is a far more serious matter, as was proved by the occurrences that - happened at the time of the revolt of the Indians in Yucatan, in 1847, - when their war cry was “Death to all Spaniards.”</p> - - <p>At a dinner given at the English legation upon the evening of the - conclusion of the insurrection, the subject of the state of the - Guatemalan provinces was considered, with reference to the expediency - of my intention to travel alone through the disturbed districts. - Many of the members of the foreign legations were present.<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> It - was thought that the Indian population near the Mexican frontier - and amongst the remote parts of the Cordilleras would be, for some - time, in a restless and excitable condition, and might be inclined - to show their revenge for what had lately happened, by killing any - white man who should attempt to pass through the country or who - should by misadventure fall into their power. I was however informed - by a Spaniard who understood the character of the native races - that, although <span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span> - this opinion was true with respect to Spaniards, an - Englishman would probably travel over the Cordilleras with safety. I - accordingly lost no time in completing my preparations for the journey.</p> - - <p>There was a difficulty in obtaining a good ambling mule, without which - long rides over a rugged country would be necessarily fatiguing. - Fortunately the Duke de Licignano, who was residing in Guatemala, - was willing to part with one of his trained mules, and it was with - great satisfaction that I saw this well-bred animal brought into the - courtyard of the inn, and placed under the care of my guide.</p> - - <p>I received from the Government an official passport or letter of - recommendation to the Corregidors under their jurisdiction, which I - hoped would be of service as far as the frontier.</p> - - <p>Mexico was reported to be temporarily in a lawless condition, but - I expected to find upon my arrival within its boundaries, that the - authority of the republic was sufficiently established to enable me to - proceed without any serious obstacles to the ruins of Palenque.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_X"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span> - <h2>CHAPTER X.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - Mixco.—La Antigua Guatemala.—Volcanoes of Fire and - Water.—Comolapa.—Ancient Indian Ruins of Patinamit.—Kachiquel - Indians.—A Dominican Priest.—Barrancas.—Las - Godinas.—Panajachel.—Human Sacrifices to the Lakes and - Volcanoes.—Lake Atitlan.—Sololá.—Orchids.—San Tomas.—Quiché - Indians. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">At</span> daybreak on the thirtieth day of January, my Indian guide Anastasio, - reported that the mules were ready. He had filled the saddle bags with - a good supply of provisions, together with a store of native chocolate, - and had otherwise made due arrangements for the mules in the event of - any mischance happening to them. We then proceeded on our way to the - town of La Antigua Guatemala. Baron Herbert came with us for several - miles, and Mr. Hague proposed to accompany me for a day’s journey and - see me safely started on my road.</p> - - <p>When we came near the Indian mounds, I halted for a short time to take - a sketch of them from some rising ground whence a good view could be - obtained. On the left rose the Volcan de Agua. In the distance could - be seen the village of Mixco, and on the right were the Sierras, - stretching far away towards the North, looking well defined in the - clear atmosphere of a bright and sunny morning.</p> - - <p>At Mixco we stopped for breakfast, and were - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span> joined by the cura of the - parish, who was an agreeable and well-informed man. Mixco is especially - interesting to Englishmen on account of its having been the curacy - of our fellow countryman, Thomas Gage.<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> He was appointed there in - December, 1629, and had the charge of this and some adjacent parishes - for about seven years. He then left Guatemala and returned to England. - Beyond the village we obtained a view of the Lake Amatitlan. We then - passed San Lucas, and reached La Antigua Guatemala in the afternoon.</p> - - <p>Upon our arrival we called upon Padre Martinez, and asked him to show - us the ancient cathedral. It was in a ruined condition, and at the - time of our visit the nave and aisles were occupied by cattle. In the - centre of the roof we observed the emblem of the imperial arms of - Austria, the double-headed eagle, which fixed the date of the erection - of the building as being in the reign of the Emperor Charles V. There - still remained within the shrines many fine wood carvings, and it - could be seen that the ornamentation of the interior must have been in - accordance with the artistic abilities of the Spanish architects of - that period. After leaving this fine example of one of the earliest - churches in Central America, we looked at the ruins of the palace - and government buildings. It was evident that the ancient Guatemala, - before it was destroyed by earthquakes, must have well deserved its - reputation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span> - of being, next to Mexico, the most flourishing city in the - New World.</p> - - <p>Close at hand and dominating the ruins, are the lofty twin volcanoes - of Agua and Fuego (Water and Fire). The former in 1541, caused the - destruction of the first town established by the Spaniards, which - is now called La Vieja Guatemala. The manner in which that capital - was overwhelmed and destroyed, was so exceptional, that it is - desirable that the events which then occurred should be brought into - consideration.</p> - - <p>It was stated by a Spanish resident who was present on that occasion, - that although the rainfall had been abundant during the year, there - was nothing in the other atmospheric conditions to give any reason for - anxiety. But on the 10th of Sept., 1541, two hours after sunset, a - mass of water suddenly issued from the crater of the nearest volcano, - and rushing down the slope of the mountain with great velocity, - immediately swept away the greater part of the town. This inundation - was accompanied by the shock of an earthquake. During the night the - disasters caused by the rapid waters are described as having been - terrible. The torrents, with which were mingled masses of detached - rocks and the trunks of uprooted trees, carried away everything before - them. Amongst those who perished was Doña Beatriz de la Cueva, the - widow of Alvarado, the conqueror of these southern provinces.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_196f"><img src="images/i_196f.jpg" width="483" height="700" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Cathedral and Square, La Antigua Guatemala.</div> - </div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span></p> - - <p>The Spanish inhabitants formed the belief that this unusual disaster - must have been caused by movements of a miraculous nature, and that the - eruption of a volcano throwing out floods of water was a punishment - inflicted upon them on account of their sins. They thought that evil - spirits had been permitted to cast loose upon them the penalties of - fire, water and earthquake. Bernal Diaz who a few years afterwards - resided at La Antigua Guatemala, gives in his History of the Conquest a - vivid but imaginative description of the horrors of that night, based - upon statements made by the bishop of the diocese. He reports that - during the tempest great stones were rolled down the mountain and into - the city by numbers of demons (<span xml:lang="es">muchos demonios</span>,) and that many people - heard shouts, yells, and voices, and saw two monstrous black men moving - in the rolling waters, calling out, “Forsake everything, for the end of - all things is at hand.”<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p> - - <p>Various theories have been suggested in explanation of this outburst - of water from the volcano. It is supposed that the crater may have - contained a large volume of water, which after the excessive rainfall - of the year exerted such pressure as to burst open the inclosing - sides and that the contents were suddenly set free. If this theory is - accepted as being correct, it must be granted that the interior of the - crater was sufficiently compact to enable it to be water-tight, and - consequently <span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span> - capable of becoming a small reservoir or lake. It is - possible that the Volcan de Agua may have been for a long time extinct, - and that consequently the sides of the interior of the crater gradually - became impermeable. Under ordinary circumstances the materials of which - volcanic cones are formed, would not be capable of retaining great - quantities of water.<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span></p> - - <p>I believe that the destruction of La Vieja Guatemala by the action of a - vast torrent of water issuing from a volcano is the only instance that - is known of such an extraordinary event, and it can be well understood - how it happened that the superstitious residents in that capital felt - assured that such a catastrophe must have been the work of demons and - the powers of darkness. The second city was placed in a position where - there was less liability to injury from any eruption, but it suffered - so constantly from the shocks of numerous and successive earthquakes, - that it was abandoned after having been occupied for more than two - centuries. The present capital was established in 1775.</p> - - <p>The Volcan de Fuego is still occasionally active, and not many years - before I passed near it, flames and dense volumes of smoke were - reported to have come out of the crater, but no serious eruptions have - taken place in this century. In the last century several occurred, and - upon one occasion the city was enveloped in complete darkness during - the greater part of the day. At the present time the volcanoes - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span>look - down upon the ruined cities with grandeur and repose.</p> - - <p>On the morning of our departure from La Antigua Guatemala, we rode - through the Plaza and passed near to the ancient palace of the Spanish - governors, the public buildings, and the cathedral. All these ruins - looked beautiful in the clear light of dawn.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_200"><img src="images/i_200.jpg" width="600" height="346" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption">Volcan de Agua. - - Volcan de Fuego.</div> - </div> - - <p>As the sun rose we began to ascend the hills. When we reached the - summit I stopped for a few minutes for the purpose of observing, - towards the south, the lofty cones of Agua and Fuego whose graceful - outlines were clear and distinct in the atmosphere of a deep blue - tropical sky. In the forenoon we reached Chimaltenango, which was once - a place of importance but is now becoming deserted. Beyond this town we - followed a track leading to the village of Comolapa, and had to descend - an abrupt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span> - and deep ravine, which crossed that part of the country. - We then rode up a long hill and passed near several groups of oak - trees, whose leafless branches were made gay by clusters of brilliantly - coloured orchids.</p> - - <p>Upon arriving at Comolapa, I obtained a room in a little inn, where - we arranged to remain for the night, having already accomplished a - distance of nine leagues. The parish priest, Padre Rodriguez, proposed - that I should join him at supper, at which meal there also appeared a - Mexican, travelling on his way to Guatemala from the frontier, and who - was able to give me some useful intelligence about the roads and the - political state of the country in the province of Chiapas. The Padre - spoke with earnestness about the difficulties he had to overcome with - regard to the teaching of the Catholic doctrines. He said that there - were more than two thousand Indians under his charge. They attended - church as a custom, and seemed to take part in the services, yet, he - was certain that in their hearts they retained a faith in their ancient - worship, and that they had shrines concealed amongst the mountains - where they kept their idols. He had also found, by experience, that - there was the greatest repugnance amongst them to all attempts at - education, and no children would attend school after they were seven or - eight years old.</p> - - <p>We looked at the interior of the church. Some of the wood carvings - at the altars were well designed and executed. Over the western - porch there was a large coat-of-arms, with lions as supporters. In - this district a great number of the Mexican allies, - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span> who accompanied - Alvarado in the conquest of Guatemala, were given lands, and many of - them, during the early periods of the Spanish occupation, were men of - considerable wealth; but their descendants and their families have now - disappeared or have become merged into the aboriginal population.</p> - - <p>On the following morning we proceeded on our journey to Patinamit. We - passed a high mound, situated near the path, which in shape was like - that of Grave Creek, in Virginia; but it was not so large. Its height - was about fifty-five feet. Augustin proposed that we should take a - short cut, in consequence of which we lost our way, lengthened the - ride by over two leagues, and had to descend and ascend a profound and - precipitous barranca. On the sides of the track we saw many ferns, and - passed clumps of mountain firs and other trees belonging naturally to - high altitudes. We were riding over a country at an average height of - seven thousand feet, and following steep and rough tracks, which tried - the prudence of our sure-footed mules to the utmost. At noon we reached - Tepan Guatemala, and were received at the convent by Padre Viatoro. - The remainder of the day was passed in examining the ruins of ancient - Patinamit, the chief city of the Kachiquels, a tribe of the same race - as the Quichés.</p> - - <p>Patinamit is placed upon the summit of a height separated from the rest - of the world by a steep ravine, which, except at one narrow point, so - completely encircles it as to make it practically a kind of detached - island. The site resembles that of Fort Ancient, and the earthworks - are nearly as large as those upon that great fortified hill. It is - supposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span> - that the palaces and temples of the Kachiquels were built - upon this plateau, but nothing of them can now be traced. There are a - few mounds from ten to thirty feet high, and there are several heaps - of large loose stones, evidently taken from the ravine. The position - must have been exclusively chosen for the purposes of defence, for - it is almost impregnable to assault. The surrounding barranca is, in - several places, perpendicular for a depth of over two hundred feet. The - slopes are composed of a firm volcanic substance, consisting chiefly of - pumice, pozzolana, ashes and stones.</p> - - <p>It has been stated<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> that, in Patinamit there was, during the rule - of the Kachiquels, a small building, in which was kept a kind of stand - formed of a substance resembling glass. The judges sat round this - building and heard the causes brought before them. In the ravine below - there was a black transparent stone, in looking into which, could be - seen the representation of the punishment to be awarded. It was also - consulted in time of war. Upon my return to the convent, I asked the - padre if he knew anything about this stone, which might have been an - unusually large fragment of obsidian, such as would have been found in - this region, formed of matter thrown out from the craters of volcanoes. - He said that he had never seen it, and did not know whether it still - existed. He wished me to understand that he did not take any interest - in the past history of the parish, but devoted his attention to - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span>his - work amongst the numerous Indians placed under his care.</p> - - <p>Upon the morning of our departure, whilst the guide was saddling the - mules, I went out to the platform in front of the convent walls, to - look at the wide and distant views which it commanded. This outer court - was placed well above the ground. On the top of the steps which led - up to the platform, stood Padre Viatoro, dressed in his robes, and - receiving the homage of his Indian parishioners as they passed beneath - him on their way to their daily work. I had already become aware that - the influence of priests of the Dominican Order was exceptionally great - amongst the Indian tribes in the Cordilleras, but I had not hitherto - observed the actual evidence of their personal power over the minds of - the aboriginal race. The events that were taking place before me, were - extremely strange and characteristic. Each of the Indians, as he went - by, bowed down towards the earth, and waited to receive a blessing. - Several women who had requests to make, knelt and remained in that - posture. All of these meek, simple and ignorant natives seemed to look - upon their priest as a being of a far superior nature to themselves, - and Padre Viatoro by his imperious manner, did not permit them to - suppose that he could be approached otherwise than with the greatest - respect and deference.</p> - - <p>As we proceeded on our journey, I stopped my mule in order to take - a final glance at the convent, and saw the tall erect figure of the - Dominican sharply defined against the sky, whilst men, women and - children were still passing before him. In the - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span> far distance were the - ranges of the Cordilleras, and close at hand was the great stronghold - of the Kachiquel conquerors, who, many centuries earlier, held the - ancestors of this submissive race under their subjection and cruel - tyranny. It was a scene in all respects so remarkable, that it remains - fixed upon the memory.</p> - - <p>Our path to the hamlet of Las Godinas led over hills and plains, until - we arrived at the edge of a barranca which we had some difficulty in - crossing. This great chasm was about one mile wide at the top, and - was more than a thousand feet deep; it crossed the level country for - several miles. The sides were almost perpendicular for the first three - hundred feet of descent, and then sloped sharply downwards. Our path - was narrow and, in the places where it curved round the projecting - precipitous banks, looked dangerous, but the mules went forward without - hesitation. As it seemed to be unadvisable to attempt to guide my mule, - I adopted the plan which I thought to be the most safe, and dropped the - bridle over her neck, and she was thus left free to choose the road. I - soon found by experience, that complete confidence could be placed in - her wise and cautious judgment.</p> - - <p>Upon reaching the bottom we rode for some distance up the valley, and - then ascended to the level of the plain. After a short ride across the - open country we came to another equally steep barranca which had to be - crossed. This chasm I estimated to be nearly twelve hundred feet deep. - The sides were composed of volcanic ash, pozzolana and blocks of lava. - The nature of the violent influences <span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span> - that must have been at work in - the production of the ravines, which have thus separated these plateaux - has yet to be fully investigated. With regard to the theory that they - were caused by earthquakes, it may be observed that those around Tepan - Guatemala must be approximately twenty miles from the nearest volcano.</p> - - <p>At noon we reached Las Godinas and halted at a rancho to get breakfast, - and to give our mules a feed of sacate, which is an excellent and - nutritious fodder composed of the stalks of maize. At this hamlet - were assembled a large number of Indians who had come there from the - adjoining highlands. The men were in many respects like the North - American Indians. They were of a deep copper colour, and had black - hair, and large, well shaped noses, broad faces and peculiarly long - upper lips. Their eyes were round, black, furtive and restless. They - belonged to the Kachiquel tribe, and spoke a dialect of the Quiché - language.</p> - - <p>After a few hours’ rest we proceeded. Suddenly we opened upon a - magnificent view. Two thousand feet below us was the great Lake of - Atitlan, five thousand feet above the sea. It was a bright, calm, sunny - afternoon, and the still waters, reflecting the colour of the sky, were - as blue as a sapphire. On the opposite shore, overlooking the lake, was - the Volcano of Atitlan, eleven thousand, eight hundred feet high, and - beyond was a continuous chain of volcanoes stretching westwards towards - Quezaltenango. As we descended the hills the points of view kept - changing. It would be difficult to surpass these marvellously beautiful - combinations of lake and volcanic mountain scenery.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span></p> - - <p>In the afternoon we reached Panajachel, and after having found a place - of shelter for the mules, I asked the way to the house of a lady to - whom I had a letter of introduction. The envelope bore the address of - Doña Aña Gertrudio Leon de Montalban. I was told that I should find - her at home, and that I was to make inquiries at the small grocer’s - shop in the main street. Accordingly I went to the shop and asked the - old woman behind the counter, who was at the time employed in selling - tallow candles, if she could kindly tell me where Doña Aña de Montalban - was to be found. She said “Señor, permit me to look at the letter,” and - putting on her spectacles, she gazed at the envelope, opened it and - slowly read what was inside. After having grasped the meaning of the - writing, she smiled and said—“I am Doña Aña and this letter is written - by a very good friend of mine, and Señor, my house is very much at - your service; if you will wait for a few minutes until I have closed - the shop, I will give you a room, the cook shall prepare a supper this - evening, and I hope you will make yourself as comfortable as the poor - means at my disposal will permit.”</p> - - <p>Panajachel was crowded with Indians. It was the day of the festival - of the Patron Saint of an adjacent church, and they had all been to - there present offerings and light their candles at the shrines. In - the evening numerous Indian women dressed in white passed through the - village, carrying candles home to place before the altar of their own - house idol.</p> - - <p>The cura of the district, Padre Pedro, asked me - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span> to join him, after his - duties were concluded, and talk about the events of the day. The Padre - was evidently a capable and zealous priest. He had the reputation of - having studied the character and language of his Indian congregations, - and of being acquainted with their habits and traditions. I was - therefore glad to have an opportunity of obtaining from such a good - authority some well-founded information respecting the reports of - sacrifices to the lake and volcano.</p> - - <p>Father Pedro said that the ancient custom of sacrificing maidens at - Atitlan, was also followed at the mountain near Quezaltenango. Whenever - the rumbling noises were heard, threatening an eruption, a maiden - was offered as a sacrifice to the angry god by throwing her into the - crater. There used also to be performed some sacrificial ceremonies - connected with the worship of the goddess of the lake, but he did not - know what were the customs upon those occasions. The Abbé Brasseur de - Bourbourg relates, in his notes of a journey through S. Salvador, that - the lake of Xilopango was originally consecrated to the goddess of - water, and that in each year, when the maize was about to ripen, four - young girls were sacrificed.</p> - - <p>It was reported that, in some remote districts, sacrifices were still - offered, but this is very doubtful. The Padre observed that the - Indians at Panajachel, and in the villages bordering on the lake were - excessively superstitious. In their houses or huts they usually had - a room or space set apart for the abode of their saint’s image. This - image would sometimes be carried to the parish church and be - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span> left - there for a time, and then would be taken back to the house again with - ceremonies and lighted candles. I mentioned to the Padre how I had - noticed that the Indian women here had a habit of talking together in a - low tone. He said this was chiefly owing to the dialect of the Quiché - language which was spoken in this district, in which many of the sounds - were expressed like a whisper.</p> - - <p>At daybreak Augustin was at the door with the mules, and my kind - hostess prepared for me a cup of chocolate which she said would - fortify me for the journey. We then left for Sololá, and soon were - watching a glorious sunrise. The lake of Atitlan is irregular in its - shape. According to my travelling map it has a circumference exceeding - thirty miles. The most remarkable features are its great depth, and - the almost perpendicular cliffs on the northern side which seem to be - of volcanic formation. The deep blue of its waters is possibly owing - to their depth, and the rarefied state of the atmosphere at this - altitude. Our road led us through several villages containing chiefly - Indian populations, and then we ascended a long and abrupt hill. As - the day advanced we were joined by bands of Indians with cargo mules, - travelling to the market.</p> - - <p>Sololá is the chief town of the Department, and the Corregidor was good - enough to add some recommendations to my government letter. We stopped - there long enough to rest the mules, and then proceeded on our way to - San Tomas, eight leagues distant. Upon reaching the upper slopes of - the hill I dismounted, in order to visit some Indian farm buildings - that occupied several acres of rising - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span> ground near our path. Although - there were evidences of what may be called comparative wealth, these - Indians—like all others that I had seen—only possessed a single hut - with one large room in it. Men, women and lads were all busy; the boys - cleaning and spinning wool for their black ponchos or cloaks, and the - women, as usual, engaged in grinding maize and making tortillas.</p> - - <p>We followed a steep ascent. The path was cut into broad steps, up which - my excellent mule clambered with the utmost ease and rapidity, and in - a manner which brought back to the memory many rides amongst the Druse - villages in the mountains of the Lebanon. Upon reaching the summit of - the sierra, I turned the mule’s head round to enable me to look at the - lake and the group of volcanoes beyond it. It was then a scene of great - beauty, but at some remote period in the world’s history, it must have - been a centre of great volcanic violence and devastation.</p> - - <p>Our track led, in an almost straight direction, over hills and across - valleys, maintaining an average altitude of about seven thousand feet. - In this region orchids were numerous. On the edge of one of the lofty - plateaux overlooking a narrow valley, I stopped to look at and sketch a - tall wide-spreading pine, upon whose branches these plants were growing - with the utmost luxuriance. The orchids in this part of Guatemala are - constant to a certain altitude which, as nearly as can be estimated, is - about six thousand five hundred feet. They exclusively prefer to dwell - upon the branches of oaks and pines, and always cling to such as are - strong and full-grown.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span></p> - - <p>The manner of their habits in selecting the trees upon which they - desired to settle, was eccentric. Thus, with respect to the pines, - they chose those that had broad, spreading branches, and avoided those - whose branches grew upwards. They adopted the same rule with the - oaks. In no instance did I see orchids growing upon any trees except - oaks and pines; all others were left bare. But even when the groups - seemed to be all well suited for their purpose, they would select - certain favourites, and upon the branches of these they would abound, - giving life and colour to them, and leaving the neglected trees dark - and gloomy by contrast. The majority of the orchids were green, but - sometimes they were of a bright rose colour, and these when seen, as - we then saw them, clearly defined against a deep blue sky, gave a - brilliant colouring to the foreground. They added much to the pleasure - of our day’s ride. They were gay, capricious and beautiful.</p> - - <p>San Tomas stands high and commands wide and extensive views of the - sierras. Upon reaching the plateau we rode through the village, and - finally stopped at the gate of the convent within whose walls we were - received by Padre Hernandez. He afterwards proposed that I should look - at his church and the altars.</p> - - <p>There was much in the interior that had a special interest, in relation - to the obscure subject of the ancient faith of the Quichés, the great - tribe that possessed the dominant power in this part of Central America - at the time of the Spanish Conquest, and whose descendants are believed - to dwell in this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> - secluded part of the country. There was no religious - service taking place or about to be held, and there was nobody present - within or without; but the nave and chapels were illuminated with - numbers of candles. The church was large and there were several side - altars. In front of each of them rows of lights had been placed. Down - the length of the nave there was a long thick block of wood in which - were fitted sockets for holding candles. There were also quantities - of offerings placed before each image, or whatever emblem the Indians - chose to worship.</p> - - <p>“For in these matters,” said the Father, “I do not interfere, and in - fact, I have no power or authority whatever within my own church. The - Indians come and go as they please, light their candles, hold their own - services before the altar, and frequently take one of the saints out of - the church, and carry it away to some hut where, for several days, they - will perform musical ceremonies before it, and then the saint will be - brought back to its proper altar.”</p> - - <p>Padre Hernandez, although he had lived many years with these Indians, - had not been able to obtain the slightest positive knowledge of what - they really believed. All that he knew about the subject was, that they - were very superstitious and devotional. He said that in many cases in - the sierras, they had their places of worship where they kept idols, - and at certain seasons of the year went to make offerings, and also to - sacrifice animals to them.</p> - - <p>After a stroll through the village, I went to the Plaza, in the centre - of which were assembled the Alcaldes and other parish dignitaries. They - were sitting round a wood fire, discussing some urgent - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span> matters of - local interest. As I had not hitherto stopped in a populous district or - village entirely peopled by Indians, and controlled by native Alcaldes, - I decided to join the group. I received an Indian welcome from these - Quichés, by not being noticed and was given a place in the circle in - silence. I soon became interested in listening to their extremely harsh - and guttural language, and in observing the types of the men, all of - whom were Indians of leading families.</p> - - <p>It was a fine night. The new moon was low in the horizon. The planet - Venus was just beneath it, and immediately above was Jupiter, a rare - and beautiful conjunction, looking bright and sharply defined in the - clear atmosphere of this elevated table land.</p> - - <p>When the discussion came to an end I left the Alcaldes engaged in - toasting tortillas over the embers of the fire, and returned to my - host at the convent. It had been the fate of Padre Hernandez to have - passed the best years of his life in the vain endeavour to get these - Indians to understand the tenets of his faith, but he had latterly - given up, as useless, all these attempts and left them to follow - their own wills. One great and unexpected difficulty he had found - impossible to overcome, in consequence of the imperfection of the - Quiché language, was his inability to convey in equivalent terms - the ideas he wished to explain. He also experienced another serious - hindrance in the execution of his duties. His parish was extensive and - contained several villages which lie amongst the sierras, remote from - each other; and as the Quiché is an unwritten - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span>language, and there are - consequently no grammars or dictionaries to create a fixed standard, - words are forgotten, sometimes their meaning becomes changed or they - are differently accented or applied; and thus, in the course of time, - the dialect of one village differs from another.</p> - - <p>I observed to the Padre, that, on the way from Sololá, I had noticed - that the Indians contrived to live in an isolated manner. He said this - was always the case with them. They were naturally inclined to keep - much apart. Those who lived amongst the mountains had their huts at - considerable distances from each other, and the villages maintained - but little communication; as a natural consequence the language was - always changing. “All these Quichés,” he said, “are becoming extremely - ignorant. They keep no record of time or events, and do not seem to - take interest in anything except the dull procedure of their daily - lives.”</p> - - <p>The Padre had found it impossible to feel in any degree assured, - that he understood the private feelings or political views of these - Indians. He considered them to be apparently indifferent to what - was passing around them, and yet capable of being aroused in a very - sudden manner, and of acting together for some common purpose. Their - enthusiasm for anything relating to their superstitious devotion to the - images was however very evident. One of the things which he thought - to be inexplicable, was their extraordinary veneration for the rite - of baptism. They seemed to attach some peculiar importance to this - ceremony, although the Padre did not think that what was in their - minds<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span> - had any reference to the Church tenets. In all matters connected - with religion, the Indians had become quite independent. They came from - afar to make offerings of blossoms and leaves, lighted candles before - the altars of those saints they wished to honour, and then silently - returned to their huts.</p> - - <p>In the morning, before leaving San Tomas, I was interested in observing - in the crowded Plaza, some of the characteristics of this once - powerful Indian race. The men were of middle size, strongly built and - of a swarthy copper colour. Their noses were large and remarkably - broad at the base. Their eyes were dark and wild. In features many - of them resembled the Sioux. Their voices were loud and the language - disagreeably rough. The women had soft voices and were very gentle in - their manners. They reminded me of the Coptic women of Lower Egypt, in - their method of carrying their pitchers of water. There was the same - graceful attitude, and slow and steady walk. What perhaps, added to - some extent to the resemblance was the long blue dress, and the little - turban-shaped mat placed on the head to receive the pressure of the - weight.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_XI"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span> - <h2>CHAPTER XI.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - Barrancas.—Santa Cruz del Quiché.—Padre Andres Guicola.—Ruins - of Utatlan.—Report of Don Garcia de Palacio upon human - sacrifices to the gods in Central America, Statement of - Bernal Diaz, about the sacrifices in Mexico.—Burning of - the Quiché Caciques at Utatlan.—Worship of idols by the - Quichés.—Sierras.—Gueguetenango. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> journey from San Tomas to Santa Cruz del Quiché was made - unexpectedly fatiguing, in consequence of the difficulties placed - across our track by the numerous barrancas which traversed the plains. - Several of these ravines were of considerable depth, and their slopes - were abrupt. It was satisfactory to realize that we were travelling - in the dry season, and the footing for the mules was therefore fairly - secure.</p> - - <p>Upon our arrival at the village, I rode onwards to the convent steps - where I was met by Padre Andres Guicola, who was unfeignedly delighted - to see me. He said that he was glad to welcome me, and talk to somebody - who was not an Indian, and was particularly pleased to hear that I was - an Englishman, for he was a Biscayan, and had been born and bred near - San Sebastian, and had listened to the traditions concerning the great - Duke of Wellington, and memories, on the part of the ladies, - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span> - of the brave officers of his army. It added much to the pleasure he felt - in receiving me, to know that his guest was the son of one of those - officers, who had not only been present at the operations in Biscay and - on the French frontier, but was also severely wounded at Albuera, a - battle held in great respect by all patriotic Spaniards.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_216f"><img src="images/i_216f.jpg" width="437" height="700" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Quiché Indian.<br /> - <span class="small">(holding the office of alguazil.)</span></div> - </div> - - <p>His isolation amongst these secluded mountains, must have been - repugnant to the nature of this kind hearted and genial padre. He told - me that he had been living in his parish twenty-one years, having been - appointed in 1849, and during that long time regularly fulfilled his - duties amongst his Indians. He declared, in answer to some questions - that I asked with reference to the adjacent ruins of Utatlan, that he - knew but little except from what he had read in the history of Juarros. - The friars of the convent wrote some observations about them, and - also possessed some documents relating to the ancient customs of the - Quichés, but these were destroyed during the revolution of 1829, when - the churches and convents were sacked. Consequently no records existed.</p> - - <p>The view from the Convent was magnificent, commanding towards the - north-west the ranges of the Cordilleras, and towards the south-west - the hills near Quezaltenango. The lofty plateau upon which it stood, - was nearly seven thousand feet above the sea. It is upon three sides - severed from the outer world by a steep barranca which almost surrounds - it. The ruins of Utatlan, the ancient capital of the Quichés, were - about one mile distant, and were evidently placed in such a manner as - to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> - take the greatest advantage of this ravine, in order to form a - stronghold, which according to the conditions of Indian warfare must - have been practically impregnable.</p> - - <p>After having obtained some local information respecting the structures - that I wished to examine, I crossed the plain and entered this - fortress, which once held the reputation of being one of the greatest - of the Indian cities. I was prepared to see much that would be of the - highest interest, because no change had taken place within its walls - since the time when it was destroyed by Alvarado, in 1524. The site has - never since that period been occupied or in any way disturbed. Upon - making a slight preliminary survey of the position, it was evident that - it had been chosen for a fortified inclosure, in the same manner and - for the same purpose as Patinamit. Both fortresses resembled in their - character the defensive encampment of Fort Ancient in Ohio.</p> - - <p>Utatlan is, with the exception of its narrow approach, surrounded by - ravines. In consequence of the ground being thus confined, the original - extent of the city can be easily ascertained, and it is therefore - indisputable that the population maintained within the ramparts could - never have been numerous. It is however observable that it must have - contained buildings, temples, and sacrificial altars of considerable - magnitude. The sites of many of these were still apparent and their - ground plans could be traced. Portions of the walls were also standing. - Parts of the altars were covered with a strong thick cement.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span></p> - - <p>After having walked round the exterior of the fortress, I made a - series of measurements of the spaces covered by the courts of those - structures which were supposed to have been temples or places set apart - for the purposes of religion and instruction. I observed that some - of the ground plans were similar in their proportions to those that - I had noticed within some ancient earthworks near the modern city of - Guatemala.</p> - - <p>The pyramidal altars or Teocalli had, in their forms and constructions, - their platforms and places for idols, many points of resemblance with - others that were known to have existed in Mexico.</p> - - <p>The rectangular courts in front of the altars, were possibly the - quadrangles within which the ceremonies connected with human sacrifices - were performed. Nothing is absolutely known with respect to the - sacrificial customs of the Quichés, and the allusions to them in the - Quiché manuscripts are not definite. It is, therefore, fortunate that - there exists a statement made to the King of Spain in the year 1576, - upon the condition of the country and the customs of the Indians in the - districts presided over by the government of Guatemala, which describes - in considerable detail what happened amongst the Chontal and Pipil - Indians dwelling in the south-eastern parts of the province. It was - made by the licentiate Don Garcia de Palacio, and with respect to the - subject of these human sacrifices, there has been nothing written which - gives so full and evidently accurate an account of those remarkable - ceremonies. The Report is so valuable and instructive, that it is - desirable to quote what immediately<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span> - relates to them. Palacio, after describing the country near lake Uxaca, says:—</p> - - <p>“Three leagues from this is the village of Micla, where anciently the - Pipiles Indians of this district performed great devotions, and came - to offer their gifts and hold their sacrifices; as likewise did the - Chontales and other adjacent Indians of differing languages. They had - in their sacrifices some particularities different from other places, - and had <i>Kues</i> and <i>teupas</i> of great authority, of which there are yet - large signs and indications.</p> - - <p>“Besides the Cacique and usual chief, they had a Pá-pa<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> whom they - called <i>Tecti</i>, who was dressed in a long blue robe and wore on the - head a diadem, and sometimes a mitre worked in different colours, and - at the top of this a bunch of very fine feathers, from some birds that - there are in this country, which they call Quetzales.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p> - - <p>“He commonly carried in his hand a staff like a bishop, and all obeyed - him in whatever related to spiritual matters. Next to him, the second - place in the priesthood was held by another who was called <i>tehu a - matlini</i> who was the chief wizard and most learned in their books and - arts, and who declared the auguries and made prognostications.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span></p> - - <p>“There were, besides these, four priests who were called <i>teu pixqui</i> - dressed in different colours, and with robes down to their feet, black, - green, red and yellow; and these were of the council in the matters of - their ceremonies, and were those who assisted in all the superstitions - and follies of their heathenism.<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p> - - <p>“There was also a majordomo who had the charge of the jewels and - ornaments of the sacrifices, and who took out the hearts of those that - were sacrificed, and performed the other personal things that were - necessary; and besides there were others who had trumpets and heathen - instruments to convoke and call together the people to the sacrifices - that were going to take place.”</p> - - <p>Palacio states that the rising sun was worshipped and that there - were two idols, one representing a man named Quetzalcoatl and the - other a woman named Itzqueye and that to these all the sacrifices - were made. There were two special ceremonies which took place, one - at the commencement of the winter and the other at the beginning of - the summer, when two boys between the ages of six and twelve were - sacrificed. Palacio then describes the sacrificial customs in war:—</p> - - <p>“The high priest, the learned wizard, and the four priests met - together, and ascertained by their <span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span> - sortileges and witchcrafts whether - they should have war or if any one was coming against them, and if the - sortileges said yes, they called the Cacique and captains of war, and - told them how the enemies were coming, and where they should go to make - war.</p> - - <p>“The Cacique summoned all his warriors, and went out in search of the - enemies, and if they gained the victory in the battle, the Cacique - dispatched a messenger to the high priest, and informed him upon what - day he had succeeded, and the sage examined unto whom the sacrifice - should be made. If it was to Quetzalcoatl the ceremonies lasted fifteen - days, and upon each day one of the Indians of those that had been - captured in the battle was sacrificed; and if it was to Itzqueye the - ceremonies lasted five days, and upon each day an Indian was sacrificed.</p> - - <p>“The sacrifice was performed in this manner. All those who had been - in the war came in order singing and dancing, and they brought those - that they had to sacrifice, with many feathers and <i>chalchivetes</i><a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> - on their feet and hands, and with strings of cacao upon their neck, - and the captains conducted them in their midst. The high priest and - priests together with the people went out to receive them with dances - and music, and the caciques and captains presented to the high priest - these Indians for the sacrifices, and then they all went together to - the court of their <i>teupa</i>, and they danced all the above said days and - nights.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span></p> - - <p>“In the middle of the court they placed a stone like a bench, and upon - this they placed the Indian that was to be sacrificed, and the four - priests held the Indian by the hands and feet. The majordomo then came - out with many feathers and covered with bells, with a stone razor in - his hand, and opened the breast and pulled out the heart, and when he - had taken it out he threw it upwards towards each of the four cardinal - points, and the fifth time he threw it in the middle of the court - directly upwards, thus declaring and giving to the god the reward for - the victory. This sacrifice was made in public, so that every one both - small and great could see it.”</p> - - <p>It is interesting to turn from the customs described as occurring in - the remote town of Micla, to the events that happened in the city - of Mexico, several hundreds of leagues distant. It was late in the - afternoon of a summer’s day, in the year 1521. The Spaniards had - been repulsed in one of their most important attacks on the enemy, - and had been driven back over the causeway after suffering serious - losses; Cortes was wounded, and sixty Spaniards had been captured, - together with many of their Indian allies. In accordance with the - Aztec superstitious rites, these captives were at once conveyed to the - Teocalli of the war gods.</p> - - <p>Bernal Diaz, who had taken a prominent part in the battle, states that - “during the retreat, they frequently heard the great drum resounding - with a deep and dismal noise.” At last the Spanish troops reached a - place of comparative safety, where they were secure from the enemy’s - attacks, and out of reach of stones and arrows, and then, Diaz says, - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span> - “Sandoval and Francisco de Lugo, and Andres de Tapia with Pedro de - Alvarado, were each relating what had happened and what orders Cortes - had given, when the drum of Huitzopotli again began to sound, together - with kettledrums, shell horns and other instruments like trumpets, and - these sounds were horrible and dismal, and we looked at the summit of - the highest Kue, and we saw our companions who had been captured in - the rout, and that they were being carried up by force, and with blows - and thrusts, and being taken violently to be sacrificed, and when they - had reached the top at a place where was the shrine in which were the - accursed idols, we saw that many of them had feathers put upon their - heads, others were made to dance before Huitzopotli, and after they had - danced they were thrown on their backs on the top of the sacrificial - stone, and then they cut open their breasts with flint knives, and - pulled out their heating hearts and offered them to the idols that were - in that place. The bodies and feet were thrown down the steps below, - where other Indian butchers were waiting, and who cut off their arms - and legs, and then flayed the skin from their faces, and tanned them - like glove skins with the beards on, and kept them to show at their - festivals and when they had their drunken feasts. In this manner were - all sacrificed; they devoured the legs and arms, and the hearts and - blood were offered to the idols.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> These cruelties - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span>were seen by the - whole camp, and by Pedro de Alvarado, and Gonzalo de Sandoval, and all - the captains, and we said amongst ourselves, thank God that I was not - carried off to-day to be sacrificed.”<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p> - - <p>In the whole range of American history, there is nothing which more - vividly strikes the imagination than the scenes described by the - Spanish conquerors during the siege of Mexico. The human sacrifices - and the subsequent cannibalism, represent the most revolting acts of - superstition that have ever disgraced human nature.</p> - - <p>It is strange that, although so much has been recorded of the Aztecs - and their customs, no clear<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span> - account has been given of the shape and - dimensions of their Teocallis within the city of Mexico. We have only - very doubtful representations given of them. Taking these as the best - available guides it is evident that the altars in Utatlan were built - upon similar principles, following upon a smaller scale the same - general structural plan and proportions. Utatlan was considered as - one of the most important places in Central America. According to the - historian Juarros, it held a rank only second to the capital of the - Aztecs.</p> - - <p>Alvarado conquered the city in April, 1524, and he states in his - official Report to Cortes, that in consequence of the natural strength - of the place, and the depth of the ravines which prevented a general - action, he had decided to destroy it. He gave directions to burn the - chief caciques alive, to set fire to the town and completely reduce it - to ruins, for it was so strong and dangerous, that it was more like a - stronghold of bandits than a town of citizens.<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p> - - <p>A curious circumstance is mentioned by him as happening during his - march against Utatlan. On the way, and near some rising ground, he - saw the Indians sacrifice a woman and a dog, and he says that his - interpreters told him that this act meant defiance. This statement is - remarkable because it has always been supposed that dogs were not found - amongst the Mexicans. Bernal Diaz observes that - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span>these dogs were of - small size, that they were used for food, and did not bark.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_227"><img src="images/i_227.jpg" width="600" height="290" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption">Approach to Utatlan from the plain.<br /> - <span class="small">Height of mound is about 30 feet.</span></div> - </div> - - <p>Before leaving Utatlan, Alvarado placed in office as chief of the - Quichés, an Indian named Sequechul, who was according to the laws of - that race the next in succession. From this time nothing more was known - of the Quichés, until the licentiate Alonzo de Zurita, passed this way - about the year 1554, in the execution of the duty assigned to him by - the command of the king, to report upon the condition and customs of - the Indians, both before and after the conquest. Zurita was informed - that, before the conquest, the Quichés had three chiefs. The first had - over his seat or throne three canopies of feathers, the second two, and - the third one. He says that the city had at one time contained several - kues, (small pyramidal altars) dedicated to idols, but that they were - then in ruins, and the successors of the caciques were in the utmost - poverty.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span></p> - - <p>I passed over the ground where Alvarado’s camp had been pitched, - and where the caciques were sentenced to be burnt. Certainly the - sixteenth century witnessed most extraordinary scenes of cruelty - and carnage in this unhappy country. At this distance of time it - is difficult to understand what could have been the reasons which - impelled the Spaniards to burn the Indians in such numbers. Many - of them were consigned to the flames for disobedience to orders, - others upon suspicion of treasonable designs against the conquerors, - others for being discovered worshipping their ancient gods, or for - not conforming to the new religion. Perhaps the most inexplicable of - all these cruelties is what happened soon after the conquest of the - city of Mexico. Cortes, upon his return there after his expedition to - Honduras, heard that during his absence, there had been a rising of - Indians in one of the distant provinces, a sort of local rebellion - which had been suppressed. Upon his making inquiries as to the cause of - this disaffection, the principal inhabitants of the province came and - reported to him that the Spaniards under whom they had been placed had - burnt alive eight of their principal chiefs, five of whom died on the - spot, and the remaining three a few days afterwards, and although they - had demanded reparation and justice it had not been granted to them.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p> - - <p>Later in the century all the penalties of the Inquisition were - established, but it was found that the results of these acts to enforce - the Spanish rule, and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span> - to convert the Indians were unsatisfactory. The - Indians fled to the hills and forests, and would not obey the orders - to form communities or villages and thus be exposed to such cruelties. - Finally the punishment of burning alive was abolished, and the milder - punishment of whipping at the post was introduced and has remained. It - is at the present time the customary method of punishing the natives - for any default or misconduct.</p> - - <p>In considering this subject of the treatment of the Indians at the - time of the conquest, due weight has to be given to the influence of - the priests, their enthusiasm, and their intense desire to convert the - natives by persuasion or by force. The well-known inveterate hatred - of the Indians towards their conquerors, a hatred which still exists, - was a dangerous element always present and to be guarded against by - adopting severe measures of repression. The good fortune that had - attended the operations of Cortes and his handful of Spaniards in the - conquest of this region, was doubtless in a great measure due to the - condition of the country, and the never ceasing tribal wars. Cortes and - his generals were consequently always able to obtain the assistance of - numerous allies who were glad to seize any opportunity of destroying - their enemies. But when the conquest was completed and the Spaniards - had the lands distributed amongst them, and the system of <i>encomiendas</i> - was adopted, it became necessary, at all hazards, to prevent any - combinations of Indians against them, and to put down or crush out with - unmerciful firmness the slightest tendency to rebel against the iron - and cruel rule under which they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span> - found themselves to be subjected. Many - risings were quelled, all tendency to insubordination was punished, - and the Indians remained under control. But this result was only - obtained after these unfortunate tribes had been subjected to the most - astonishing severities that have ever been inflicted by a civilised - race of conquerors.</p> - - <p>At the convent at Santa Cruz, Padre Guicola spoke much about his - parishioners. He said that he was impressed with the conviction that - the Quichés in many respects still followed their old idolatries, and - worshipped their idols secretly. He thought that he had discovered - that certain Indians were “sacerdotes” to these idols, and that in - some manner which he had not been able to find out, they, amongst - themselves, maintained their ancient priesthood.</p> - - <p>The accommodation for strangers was more monastic than I had expected - to find. My cell contained nothing but a wide hard board placed upon - four legs, and there were neither hooks nor posts to which I could hang - my hammock, consequently it was not practicable to make convenient - arrangements for securing comfortable quarters at night.</p> - - <p>Before my departure I had a conversation with the Padre about the - history of the convent, and the work that used to be carried out by - the monks. Some of the descendants of the caciques of Utatlan were - educated by them, and the traditions of the origin and migrations of - the Quichés were composed by them, whilst they were still capable of - remembering what had been related concerning their early history. The - most important of the manuscripts <span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span> - is stated to have been written in - 1544, by the son of one of the Quiché caciques, who took part in the - operations of war at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards. The - Padre was not well acquainted with the subject of the past history of - his convent, and like the other priests that I had met in the Indian - parishes, his attention was almost exclusively directed to his duties, - one of the most significant of which, in the opinion of his Indians, - was the performance of the rite of baptism.</p> - - <p>I asked him what was the best track to follow in crossing the sierras, - and he made inquiries for me. Several of the inhabitants of the village - said, that in the remote parts of the hills I wished to cross, the - paths were not well known, and might be found to be impracticable, and - there was the danger of meeting scattered bands of rebels. Augustin - however informed me, that he had learnt from several of the natives, in - whom he could place confidence, that we need not expect to meet with - any serious difficulties, and that in the event of being uncertain - about the right direction, we might rely upon coming across Indians who - would guide us. My large Government map was of no use in the matter, - as nothing was marked upon it except ranges of mountains. Meanwhile - to guard ourselves against possible trouble, I gave directions that - we should take with us a sufficient supply of food for ourselves and - the mules, and thus we started upon our road, without feeling any - hesitation with regard to our future proceedings.</p> - - <p>In the forenoon we came to a halt amongst the mountains, and Augustin, - who was proficient in his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span> - knowledge of making a fire out of the most - scanty materials, prepared breakfast. Whilst we were thus engaged - we were passed by numbers of Indians carrying goods and provisions. - Young and old were hurrying rapidly forward, urged by some impulse - which we were unable to comprehend, towards a destination which was - to us unknown. They looked wild and restless, and when addressed were - shy and reserved. In the evening before sunset we arrived at some - farm buildings, and I slung my hammock to the rafters of a deserted, - half-ruined shed. Augustin obtained from an adjoining hut some - tortillas, frijoles<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> and eggs, the three chief elements of Indian - domestic existence, and with these, together with a good supply of - sacate for the mules, we made ourselves at home in the Cordilleras.</p> - - <p>In accordance with a custom that I usually adopted whenever it was - possible, I established friendly relations with an Indian family in the - neighbourhood in order to obtain some knowledge of their language or - dialect. I had a list of words in Spanish to which I obtained the local - equivalents. In this manner I made a small vocabulary of the dialects - spoken by the Indians amongst the Altos near Guatemala, by the Quichés - at Santa Cruz and San Tomas, by the Kachiquels near Las Godinas, and by - the tribe near Patinamit. This custom was not only useful in helping - me to understand the various links or differences in the tribes that - we met, but it was also a means of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span> - bringing about a small degree of - friendliness, and of overcoming that very decided unsociability which - forms such an integral part of the Indian nature.</p> - - <p>At sunrise we were in our saddles, and soon found ourselves to be - riding over a difficult and rugged country. The hills were steep, and - the mule tracks, in many places, almost impassable. In the afternoon we - crossed a high mountain ridge, and then descended towards the Indian - hamlet of San Lorenzo, and pushed on as fast as possible, in order to - reach Gueguetenango before the night. On our arrival, we rode up to the - convent gate, where I was welcomed by Padre Juan Batista de Terran. - He was in a highly disturbed and irritated state of mind. His convent - had been battered and almost destroyed by the artillery of the Indian - rebels, commanded by Cruz, and his church was filled with soldiers who - had been quartered there, and were eating and drinking, gambling, and - leading wild and irreverent lives within the shrines.</p> - - <p>On the following day I called upon the Corregidor and obtained a - passport for Augustin, and then sent him and the baggage mule back - to Guatemala. He had faithfully performed his duties as guide and - attendant, and had been careful in looking after the wants of the - mules, often taking great trouble in finding for them a proper supply - of forage wherever we were quartered in the night. But he had not - expected to meet with such rough tracks as we had passed over amongst - the sierras and down the barrancas, and was glad to be able to return - by more secure and better known roads.</p> - - <p>The inhabitants of Gueguetenango, at the time of - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span> our arrival, were - in an excited and disorganised condition. They had not recovered from - the alarm caused by the recent events of the rebellion. The Plaza - was crowded with wild-looking Indians, and throughout the town there - was an unusual movement of armed men. My chief preoccupation was the - search of a trustworthy guide, which was a matter for considerable - difficulty. Finally I succeeded in securing the services of an Indian - belonging to a local tribe of the Mams. He bore the name of Carlos, and - spoke Spanish sufficiently well to enable me to keep up a tolerably - intelligible conversation with him.</p> - - <p>I now thought it advisable to make some changes with regard to the - manner of travelling. Hitherto I had managed very well with Augustin - and one spare mule. The mule carried in the saddle bags, provisions - for several days, together with a change of clothing in case of wet - weather, but experience had shown me that it would be better to reduce - the weights to what could easily be carried by an Indian in his pack, - and who, at the same time, could act as guide. I should thus avoid the - risk of being detained by any accident happening to the cargo mule. - My own good mule carried nothing but its rider, and a great coat and - hammock, rolled up in military fashion, and strapped over the pommel of - the saddle.</p> - - <p>Everything being satisfactorily arranged, Carlos appeared at the - convent steps at daybreak with his pack duly placed over his shoulders, - and carried by the head band. Into this were put two days’ provisions, - and part of the change of clothing. My - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span> mule carried the halter wound - round her neck. A small supply of fodder was added to the Indian’s - load, and thus we started. Carlos took the lead by breaking into a - quick, rapid pace, or steady Indian run. The mule followed at her - best speed, and before the sun had risen above the summits of the - Cordilleras, we were well forward on our way towards Jacaltenango and - the Mexican frontier.</p> - - <hr class="tb" /> - - <blockquote> - <p>Gueguetenango, the chief city of the Department, was a place - of importance before the conquest. It was the capital of the - Mams, a warlike tribe, whose caciques and principal families - were of the same race as the Quichés. They were conquered - and reduced to submission by the Spaniards in 1525. There - are certain circumstances respecting that campaign and the - methods of defence adopted by the Mams, which should receive - particular attention in connection with the theories and Indian - traditions, respecting the migrations of the mysterious tribe - who have been named the Toltecs, and who appear to have been - the predecessors of the Aztecs. There are, in the accounts of - the campaign several details which are valuable, as leading to - the conclusion that the Mams, Quichés and Kachiquels, whose - leaders were all of the same race, pursued systems of defensive - warfare, which had analogies with the habits of the tribes who - raised the fortified hill works in Ohio.</p> - - <p>When it was decided by Alvarado to attack the Mams, a force - suitable for the purpose was organized. It consisted of a main - body of Mexican Indian allies who were supported by a small - force of Spanish cavalry and infantry; there were three hundred - Indians carrying spades and hatchets acting as pioneers, and - many others who were employed in the work of transport. After - an engagement with the Mams, who were defeated, the attacking - forces advanced to <a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a>Gueguetenango. Upon their arrival at - that place the Spanish General was informed that the Mams had - retreated to their fortress of Socoleo. The position of this - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span> - entrenched camp was so strong, that it was not possible to - capture it by direct assault, and the Spaniards in the end - reduced the Indians to surrender by famine.</p> - - <p>The historian Fuentes who is stated to have personally examined - this fortress about the year 1695, reported (according to - Juarros) that the approach “was by only one entrance and that - was so narrow as scarcely to permit a horseman to pass it; from - the entrance, there ran on the right hand a parapet, raised - on the berm of the fosse, extending along nearly the whole of - that side; several vestiges of the counter-scarp and curtain - of the walls still remain, besides parts of other works, the - use of which cannot now be easily discovered; in a courtyard - there stood some large columns, upon the capitals of which were - placed quantities of pine wood, that being set on fire, gave - light at night to the surrounding neighbourhood. The citadel or - lofty cavalier of this great fortification was in the form of - a square, graduated pyramid, rising twelve or fourteen yards - from the base to the platform on the top, which was sufficient - to admit of ten soldiers standing on each side; the next - step would accommodate a greater number, and the dimensions - proportionably increased to the last or twenty-eighth step. - The steps were intersected in unequal portions by parapets - and curtains, rendering the ascent to the top so extremely - difficult, that Fuentes says, he attempted several times to - reach the platform, but was unable to perform the task, until - his Indian interpreter acted as his guide and conducted him - to the summit. The ruins of several buildings were then in - existence; they appeared to have been intended as quarters for - the soldiers; were extremely well arranged, and distributed - with due regard to proportion. Between each three or four of - these buildings there was a square courtyard paved with slabs - made of stiff clay, lime, and sand; every part of the fortress - was constructed of hewn stone, in pieces of great size, as - one which had been displaced, measured three yards in length, - by one in breadth.” ... “As the place was circumvallated by - a deep ravine, there was no way by which the walls could be - approached.”</p> - - <p>From the above description of Socoleo it is made clear that - its construction and position were in accordance with the - principles and objects which governed the selection of the - strongholds at Patinamit and Utatlan. The pyramidal structure - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span> - called the citadel must have closely resembled the Resguardo - which guarded the entrance into the Quiché fortress.</p> - - <p>It is of importance to note that the account given by Fuentes - of Socoleo, establishes to a great extent, the accuracy of - certain portions of the manuscripts composed by the young - Quiché caciques which relate to the traditions of the - migrations of the Quichés from Mexico, and the manner in which - they divided into separate governments the countries which they - had conquered, under the names of Quiché, Kachiquel, Mam and - Zutugil. With regard to the three first-named divisions the - methods adopted to secure their domination, were so identical, - that there can be no doubt that the statements recorded in the - manuscripts, so far as they relate to the historical accounts - of the Quichés after their arrival in Central America, may be - assumed to be trustworthy records of the Indian traditions.</p> - - <p>According to the dispatches of the Spanish conqueror Alvarado, - he found that the Quichés inhabited the town of Quezaltenango, - and it was after the decisive battle fought near that place, - that they retreated to their entrenchments at Utatlan; thus - adopting the same tactics as were afterwards followed by the - Mams, who fought their chief battle near Gueguetenango and then - after their defeat fled to Socoleo. This custom of the Quichés - appears to be similar to that of the Mound Builders in Ohio, - who established their fortified camps in positions which were - naturally nearly impregnable or most difficult to approach, - and it is such as would be considered advisable by the chiefs - of tribes who hold their territories by conquest, and would - therefore endeavour to maintain their power by having large - entrenched encampments, within which they would be secured from - danger in the event of being unable to meet their enemies on - the plains.</p> - </blockquote> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_XII"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span> - <h2>CHAPTER XII.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - The Sierra Madre.—Todos Santos.—Evening Prayer - (La Oracion).—Indian domestic habits.—Religious - devotion.—Goitre.—Jacaltenango.—Indian Festival.—A - Temblor.—Indian Idolatry.—Custom of ancient inhabitants - to serve the parents whose daughters they wished to - marry.—Doubtful fidelity of my guide.—Condition of - Mule.—Mexican Frontier.—Comitan.—Note on President Juarez, and - the Execution of the Emperor Maximilian. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">On</span> our way to Jacaltenango we had to cross the Sierra Madre, a range - of mountains which traverses the centre of Guatemala. The mule track - led us over some steep and rugged ascents, and through a long and deep - barranca filled with a cold damp mist. During the greater part of the - day we were enveloped in clouds which covered the summits of the hills. - We finally reached the hamlet of Todos Santos, and obtained shelter at - an Indian rancho.</p> - - <p>Towards nightfall we heard the distant bell of the chapel ringing - for evening prayer.<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> The Indians<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span> - stood in front of their huts, - and looking in the direction of the sound of the bell, recited the - Ave Maria. This is one of the religious customs taught by the Spanish - friars that retains its influence upon the inhabitants of these remote - highlands.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_238fa"><img src="images/i_238fa.jpg" width="600" height="637" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Barranca, Central America.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_238fb"><img src="images/i_238fb.jpg" width="600" height="289" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Indian Huts.</div> - </div> - - <p>Darkness rapidly succeeds daylight in tropical latitudes, and upon my - return to the rancho I observed that the hut was lighted by a method - mentioned by the early historians of the conquest as having been in - universal use amongst the Mexican Indians. In the centre of the room - was a rude wooden stand, upon which was placed crosswise, a lighted - piece of resinous pinewood. The flame gave a sufficient light for all - practical purposes. After turning into my hammock, I watched by the - fitful glare of the firebrand, the domestic habits of the Indians. The - first thing done, was to put the child to bed, and this was managed in - the following manner:—The mother wrapped the child tightly in swaddling - clothes, until it looked like a mummy. The head was left exposed. It - was then fastened upon a flat board about three feet high and eighteen - inches wide. This board was put upright against an angle of the wall. - The child remained throughout the night perfectly quiet. The bed upon - which the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span> - father and mother slept, was a low wide frame resting on - four legs, and raised a few inches above the ground. Everything was of - the rudest simplicity. The smoke from the fire rose directly upwards - and escaped through the roof.</p> - - <p>In the morning, while Carlos was making a cup of chocolate, the Indian - came to my side and said that he wished to ask me a question about the - people who lived beneath the earth (abaxo). He had been told, that men - like ourselves were living and moving about below us, and he could not - understand how this was possible. I endeavoured to explain to him that - the world was round, and that on the other side of the earth beneath, - things were much the same as at Todos Santos. My attempts to teach the - laws of gravitation were, however, not successful, and he went away in - a state of bewilderment, probably under the impression that the people - below were upside down.</p> - - <p>After leaving the hamlet, we passed by the little church whose bell - we had heard upon the previous night. The door was closed, and I - noticed that it was charred by burning and blackened by smoke. I was - told that this remote church was frequently closed during the time - that the priest was away in other parts of the district, and when the - Indians came here, they stuck lighted candles upon the door as nearly - as possible in the direction of the image to which they wished to make - their offerings. The church door was consequently deeply marked by the - flames. Here, as also before the closed doors of other chapels in the - mountains, the Indians have the custom of raising a temporary altar - outside,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span> - before which they place offerings, and sit patiently in - silence for many hours. They then fill a brazier with chips of resinous - wood, and light their candles and the brazier and go away to their - huts, leaving the incense burning. This is possibly a survival of the - ancient usage of burning copal incense before their idols.</p> - - <p>During the forenoon we went over several steep ranges of hills, and - down very abrupt descents until we arrived at the village of St. - Martin, when we stopped at a deserted shed, and Carlos proposed that - he should get ready the breakfast. It was always a pleasure to watch - an Indian lighting a fire. His materials are usually a few dry sticks, - some leaves, a flint, a steel, and a roll of prepared cotton, which, - when slightly burnt, easily catches fire from the sparks of the flint. - There was often, however, a difficulty in getting the fuel to burst - into a flame, and the steady persistent patience of Indians in doing - this is extraordinary. It was a great comfort in riding amongst the - sierras, to have always the power of making a fire. It was of still - greater importance to carry your own bed.</p> - - <p>Each morning when starting upon a journey over an unknown country, - with much uncertainty as to where quarters would be found for the - night, there was a sense of satisfaction in seeing placed upon the - pommel of the saddle the hammock in which you intended to sleep. It - gave freedom from all anxiety with regard to the future. There was - no cause to feel any doubts respecting the beds at a Spanish posada, - or the rough interior of an Indian hut, and there was always the - prospect of obtaining, after<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span> - the fatigues of the day, a good night’s - rest. In thus travelling and having at hand sufficient provisions and - fuel to guard against being by any accident in want amongst these - mountainous regions, there was a feeling of independence which was - very exhilarating. This kind of gipsy, Bohemian life was singularly - attractive, and the small element of risk from the possibility of - meeting hostile Indians was too slight to have any influence upon the - mind. There was a certain degree of solitude in thus riding without a - companion, as the guide ran several hundred yards ahead, but this was - not much felt, for there was a never ending change of scene, and every - hour brought something new and unexpected.</p> - - <p>In the evening as we descended the slopes of the valleys, we met - numbers of Indians carrying heavy loads on their backs. I had noticed - when riding amongst the higher parts of these hills that crosses were - placed upon all remarkable positions, and at the corners where paths - branched off towards the hamlets. When passing these crosses the men - invariably took off their broad straw hats, and showed by their manner - great respect.</p> - - <p>I was surprised at observing in the valleys that the Indians suffered - much from goitre. This unsightly growth seemed chiefly to affect - the women. It was the same in size and appearance as that which - exists amongst the inhabitants of several of the secluded valleys in - Switzerland.</p> - - <p>At intervals during the afternoon we heard the distant sound of the - beating of a drum calling the attention of the Indians for some purpose - which we did not then understand. When we drew near - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span> to Jacaltenango - we became aware that something was occurring which caused considerable - excitement amongst the people. We passed an open space at the entrance - of the pueblo, upon which had been built, temporarily, a “Santo” house. - It was a small round hut, within which was an image, which had been - removed from the church and placed there, in order that it should - receive special honour and devotion. Before this shrine a dance was - taking place. It represented incidents of the wars between the Spanish - Christians and the Moors during the period when the latter were finally - driven out of Spain. A little beyond the “Santo” house was the church - where an Indian festival was in progress, and an orchestra was busily - engaged within, performing a musical service. I stopped for a few - minutes to look at the strange and fantastical scene, and the groups of - swarthy, wild-looking Indians, and then rode on to the convent, where - we were welcomed by Padre Juan Chrysostemos Robles. My guide Carlos - went away to join in the festivities of his tribe.</p> - - <p>In the morning an Indian passed rapidly through the village beating a - small drum, and later in the day, a large crowd of Indians assembled - in the square in front of the church. It thus became known that an - important meeting was to be held in order to bring about a settlement - of some difficulty or disagreement between two hamlets, with respect - to the buying and selling of lands. About three hundred of the men, - chiefly interested, gathered together. The speaking began in tones so - harsh that it was almost inconceivable that human - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span> language could have - developed into such rough and grating sounds.</p> - - <p>These Mams were men of strong and muscular frames, compact and well - made, but they were all short in stature. Their general appearance was - wild and they had a restless manner. They came from the adjacent hills, - and it was noticeable with them as with other Indians I had seen in - the mountains, that they were darker than those living on the plains. - The meeting lasted for about an hour, and as soon as the business - was ended they immediately left Jacaltenango and returned to their - homes. I was told that the matter in dispute had been settled to the - satisfaction of all present, and that there was no longer any fear of - local disturbances.</p> - - <p>Meanwhile the numerous orchestral services within the church were still - proceeding. It was a curious scene. The chief instrument was a large - wooden marimba made on the principle of short and long sounding boards, - the upper notes of which were played by the leading performers, whilst - three other men kept up a continuous accompaniment on the bass. It was - evidently an improvement upon the African marimba which had probably - been introduced into America by the negro slaves. There were also - violins and several rudely constructed guitars. The musical ceremonies - were performed before the altars, the Indian congregation maintaining - a complete silence. Not the least strange part of the function was the - fact that Padre Robles was an unconcerned spectator, although it was - his church that was occupied by the Indians and his - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span> “Santos” that were - being carried about and worshipped, and to whom offerings were made.</p> - - <p>Although the music was noisy and monotonous, the players seemed to have - a correct knowledge of harmony. The Padre explained how this happened. - He said that this comparative knowledge of music was obtained in - consequence of the teaching of the friars before the dissolution of the - monasteries. These friars devoted much of their time to the education - of a certain number of Indian lads in orchestral music, in order to - train them to take part in the church services, and he supposed that - the instruction then given was kept up in some way which he did not - understand, and that young Indians were taught in their villages for - this work. He thought that the preparations for the church festivals - and for the dances were also arranged in a similar manner.</p> - - <p>In the afternoon we went to the entrance of one of the valleys, as the - Padre wished to show me the position of an Indian “<i>adoratorio</i>”<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> - situated on the side of a steep mountain. He said he had not seen it, - but had been told by his Indians what occurred there. An idol, held - in much reverence by the Mams had its shrine inside, and the Alcaldes - charged with the duties of the religious rites and other ceremonies - relating to Indian sacerdotalism, visited it at certain seasons of - the year and offered sacrifices to it. The idol had also days for the - performance of penances, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span> - and there was one special day when there - was a solemn feast, and turkeys were killed and eaten with peculiar - observances, and the blood of the turkeys was sprinkled and offered in - a manner unknown to him.</p> - - <p>After passing through the place where the “Santo” house was erected, - and before which dances and other ceremonies were still going on, we - returned to the convent.</p> - - <p>Soon after sunset an event occurred which proved that a disturbance - had taken place in the interior of the earth. We were sitting inside - the precincts when we were alarmed by, what was to me, a quite unknown - rumbling sound amongst the adjacent mountains. At first I thought that - it was caused by distant thunder reverberating amongst the valleys, - but it was soon evident that the sounds were of an entirely different - character.</p> - - <p>The Padre, who was listening attentively to the noise, said, after - a few moments’ pause, that it was a “Temblor” or trembling of the - earth below, and that it was quite different from a “Terra Moto” or - earthquake, as it never caused any harm, although it was considered to - be a warning. According to my map, the nearest crater was the Volcan de - Tacara, fourteen leagues away in a south-easterly direction. The deep - sounds rolled like thunder beneath the massive ranges of the Sierra - Madre.</p> - - <p>When living amongst these mountains, and hearing these intimations of - great volcanic movements below the surface of the ground, it can be - understood how it came to pass that the superstitious and fanatical - Indians living in these regions believed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span> - that the earth beneath them - was peopled by evil demons capable of doing injury, who required to be - propitiated, and that when seeing the expression of their anger in the - fire, smoke and ashes issuing from the craters, thought it necessary - to appease them by offering them their daughters. It is probable that - the sacrifices known to have taken place to the volcanoes near Atitlan - and Quezaltenango were also customary throughout the long range of - volcanoes in this part of Central America.</p> - - <p>When talking about the present customs of the Indians living in these - sierras, the Padre said that the ancient rule of young men serving for - a certain time the parents of the girl they wished to marry had ceased, - and that now it was usual for an Indian to make up his mind on the - subject, and then to begin his courtship by giving presents of maize, - fowls, or clothing to the parents.<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> Finally he proposes to take the - girl in marriage, and if they consent, he pays for her according to - his means, generally about two dollars, but sometimes as much as eight - dollars.</p> - - <p>Upon the morning of our departure from Jacaltenango, whilst I was - engaged in superintending the saddling of the mule and the various - preparations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span> - for the day’s journey, which from the neglected state - of the road was expected to be long and fatiguing, I observed Padre - Robles walking rapidly backwards and forwards in front of the convent, - evidently in a state of much anxiety and alarm.</p> - - <p>Presently, when Carlos had moved to another part of the courtyard, the - Padre hurried to my side and said, in a very decided tone, “Señor you - must go back at once to Guatemala.” I said, “What is the meaning of - this! What has happened?” He replied, “I must not tell you, but I know - that if you do not go back to Guatemala you will be robbed and perhaps - killed,” and, he added with a look of much distress, “they will steal - your beautiful mule.” I told him that it was quite impossible that I - should return to Guatemala, and that I intended to go forward. “But,” - I said, “if you know anything about which I ought to be informed, you - should tell me what it is that you fear.”</p> - - <p>After some hesitation, he took me aside close to the convent wall and - said, “It is this, Señor: last night my housekeeper overheard two - Indians talking together in a low tone. One of them was your guide, - the other was a man whom she did not know, and she listened to what - they were saying. They were sitting in a corner of the courtyard, just - beneath her window, and she could hear what they said. She heard them - arrange a plan to rob you and to take away your mule. Their plan was - this: At about an hour’s journey from this pueblo, you have to pass a - long hedgerow of aloes; when you arrive at the aloes, an Indian will - jump out from behind them into the road. Your guide will then come to - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span> - you and say, that the man is his brother who wishes to go to Comitan, - and he will ask if he may be permitted to accompany you. After you - have gone on for some distance, the Indians intend to come behind you - and take a favourable opportunity to attack and rob you, and, whatever - happens you will certainly lose your mule.”</p> - - <p>After walking together within the quadrangle for a few minutes to - discuss the subject, I said, that I had no reason to doubt the fidelity - of Carlos. He had been recommended to me by the priest at Gueguetenango - as a trustworthy guide, and was considered to be a good and honest - man. He had proved himself, so far, to be faithful, and was willing - and careful; consequently I should still continue to place confidence - in him. With respect to the conversation that had taken place, I - thought that the housekeeper must have made some mistake, and had been - unreasonably alarmed. In any case, however, I said it was necessary for - me to proceed across the frontier. The Padre looked very unhappy, so I - told him that he must not be anxious about my fate, and that I would - take care to send him information about my movements. I hoped that he - would soon hear of my safe arrival in Mexico. He then gave me a letter - of introduction to his brother Captain Robles, who commanded the small - force stationed on the frontier at Lenton.</p> - - <p>By this time Carlos had filled his pack, fitted the head band over his - forehead, and was waiting to start; so I said good-bye to the kind - Padre, and as I turned round in the saddle to get a last glimpse of - Jacaltenango, the most beautifully situated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> - village that I had seen in - Guatemala, I observed him watching us from the top of the convent steps.</p> - - <p>I had ridden about a league or more and had quite forgotten all about - the housekeeper and her forecast of events, when I noticed that we were - approaching a long row of tall aloes bordering the left side of the - path, and soon afterwards an Indian—a most villainous and evil-looking - scoundrel—jumped from his place of concealment amongst the aloes and - stood before me on the road. At the same moment Carlos ran back close - to the mule’s head and told me that this man was his brother who wished - to go to Comitan and asked permission to join us.</p> - - <p>The scene was like the realisation of a dream. For a few moments I was - in doubt as to the best course to pursue, but having been forewarned - I was forearmed, and knowing that the Indians could not have the - slightest idea that I was aware of their plans, I decided to go on - without showing them that I had any suspicions. I said to Carlos “you - tell me that this man is your brother and perhaps you are stating the - truth, but he is a stranger to me and I do not like his appearance.” - However I gave him permission to join us. Carlos thanked me, and the - other Indian, who did not understand Spanish, gave a guttural sound of - satisfaction, and then both men ran forward and kept their places well - in front, at about a hundred yards distance.</p> - - <p>In the forenoon we passed St. Marcos and halted at St. Andres, in - a district remarkable for the luxuriant growth of fruit trees and - plantains. We then descended a long hill at the foot of which we halted - for breakfast.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span></p> - - <p>As the mule had shown signs of distress, I took off the saddle and - noticed that there was a broad low swelling upon her back. A muleteer - happened to be passing by on his way to Jacaltenango, and I asked him - to examine the swelling and give me his opinion about it. He told me - that the mule was ill from a “pica de luna” or moonstroke, and that - upon some previous night I must have tethered her out in the open air - exposed to the light of the full moon, whilst her back was still warm - after the saddle had been removed. I said that I remembered this having - been done. The muleteer said that the injurious effects of the moon - was well known, and that the mule ought not to have been exposed to - it so soon after I had dismounted. He thought that the swelling would - not prevent my riding her, provided that the pressure was taken off by - resting the saddle upon pads placed upon each side of the swelling, and - he arranged some rolls of padding for the purpose.</p> - - <p>In the afternoon we were going through a desolate and uninhabited - part of the country, when I observed that my guide and his brother - were lagging on the way. Finally they dropped behind, and began to - run together a few yards in the rear. The time had now come when it - was necessary to take a decisive action. I had to be careful not to - let Carlos suppose that there were any doubts in my mind about his - fidelity, for I knew nothing of the road, and it was important that I - should appear to have entire confidence in his guidance.</p> - - <p>I stopped the mule, and called Carlos up to my side, and said, “Carlos, - you must not run behind<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span> - me. You are the guide, and must keep in front - to enable me to follow you, and not miss the track, and,” I added in - a more marked manner, “remember that you are to keep well ahead. Let - there not be any mistake in this matter, and your brother is to be with - you.” Carlos immediately obeyed my orders. There was no danger to be - apprehended so long as this precaution was taken, for I always carried - with me a small loaded revolver to defend myself in case of attack, an - event which I thought to be improbable.</p> - - <p>When we arrived at Lenton, we were given rooms within the quarters - of the garrison. Captain Robles, the commandant, showed me every - attention, and at supper I joined the officers’ mess. In the morning - it was found that although every possible care was taken to raise - the saddle above the swelling, the mule could not bear any pressure. - Consequently I asked Captain Robles if he could provide me with a - horse. After some difficulty an animal was obtained, which although of - very rough appearance, I thought would answer the purpose of carrying - me the two days’ journey to Comitan. An Indian lad, called a mozo, was - hired to bring the horse back, and lead my disabled mule. By the time - that all these arrangements were completed it was getting late in the - morning. More than three hours daylight were lost, and it was important - with regard to my Indians to reach our next stopping place before - sunset.</p> - - <p>For eight leagues the road led through a dreary desert without any - signs of habitation, and then we reached a pond called San José where - we halted for an hour. It was quite dark when we reached a hut - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span> near - Sinigiglia within the Mexican frontier, and where I decided to stop. An - Indian and his wife were inside, but they not only refused to open the - door and give us shelter, but to all applications for food or water, - replied in the words so usually employed by all Indians when asked for - anything, “No hay.” “There is nothing.” The only thing to be done was - to make the best of the circumstances, so a supper was made from our - store of provisions, and with the saddle for a pillow, and the hammock - stretched upon the ground, I passed the night.</p> - - <p>On the following day the sun was sinking below the horizon when we - entered the town of Comitan, and I was not sorry to find myself within - the walls of a comfortable posada, called the Hotel de la Libertad, - where I was given a room looking into the court. I was not, however, - destined to pass the night without disturbance.</p> - - <p>After having been asleep for several hours I was startled by hearing - a peculiar noise. It was a gentle and continuous tapping, accompanied - by the word Señor spoken in a low, soft voice. It was quite dark so - I lighted the candle and asked who was there, and I heard “Señor it - is your mozo from Lenton, and I have brought your saddle, and wish to - speak to you.” I opened the door and told the lad to explain the reason - for coming to me in the middle of the night. He came in looking very - frightened and said that he was afraid of my Indians for he thought - they were bad men. He had heard them say that it was their intention - to go back with him, and he feared that when they were in the deserted - part of the country they would steal the horse; so he came to - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> ask my - permission to leave at once. The Indians were asleep but he was afraid - that they would soon awake and prevent him from getting away alone. - He said also that the mule was safe in the stable, and that he had - brought with him the saddle, sheepskin and halter which he placed upon - the floor in a corner of the room. I thought that the fears of the lad - were perhaps well founded, and gave him directions to leave at once and - get on as fast as possible. As he still looked anxious, I assured him - that measures should be taken to prevent the Indians from following him - for several hours. The mozo thanked me and disappeared into the dark - courtyard, and I never heard of him or the horse again. It is to be - hoped that he arrived at his village in safety.</p> - - <p>Shortly before sunrise I was awoke by a loud tapping at the door. This - time it was the landlord who came to tell me that my Indians were - making a great noise and were very excited. They were calling out - that the mozo had gone away during the night with my horse, and they - wished to see me immediately and be paid and discharged. I told the - landlord what had happened and that the mozo had left by my orders, and - then requested him not to permit the Indians to leave the inn, and to - tell them that I would not see them before the middle of the day. “I - understand you,” said the landlord, “and will do all that is necessary.”</p> - - <p>In the afternoon at the time when I estimated that if the mozo had made - a proper use of his start he would be at least forty miles away, the - Indians were discharged, and an hour afterwards I was - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span> informed that - they had been seen on the road running fast towards the frontier.</p> - - <p>It was now necessary to take steps to cure the mule and get a guide. - Don Manuel Castillo, to whom I had a letter of introduction, was away - at his hacienda, but his friend Don Mariana Godillo in the kindest - manner undertook to arrange everything for me. Upon an examination - of the mule it was considered advisable that she should have a few - days’ rest to allow the swelling to subside, and in the meanwhile, the - experience of local muleteers was made available in applying the most - approved remedies.</p> - - <p>During this time the town of Comitan was in a state of unusual - excitement in consequence of the arrival of numerous bands of Indians - to take part in the festival of San Caralampio, to whom was dedicated - one of the churches. In front of that church numerous Indians were - assembled. In some respects the scene was like that which took place at - Jacaltenango, but the proceedings were more of the character of a fair - than of a religious ceremony. The plaza was covered with booths, and a - local Indian traffic was being busily transacted. Indian musicians with - drums, fifes, and fiddles were engaged in making an incessant noise. - The interior of the church was always crowded, and continuous services - were performed at the shrines. The women wore white hoods which were - drawn tightly across the lower part of their faces. The men usually - wore black yergas.<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span></p> - - <p>Upon the fourth morning of my stay in the town, as I could not see any - signs of improvement in the state of the mule, and it was necessary not - to lose any more time, I held a small meeting of experts in the stable. - It was thought that some weeks must elapse before she would be fit to - travel, and Señor Godillo proposed to give me one of his best mules in - exchange for her, and also insisted upon giving me twenty dollars, as - he considered my mule to be well worth that additional value. In the - end this arrangement was carried out, and thus with infinite regret I - parted with my intelligent and sure-footed companion.</p> - - <p>It was reported at Comitan that the border provinces toward Palenque - had become settled and had ceased to be in a lawless condition. This - state of things was undoubtedly due to the remarkable influence of - the President Juarez over the Indian tribes, and it was probable that - the cause of this influence was attributable to the fact that, like - Carrera, the first President of the Republic of Guatemala, he was by - birth an Indian.</p> - - <p>Juarez was known to be an Indian of a good unmixed stock. He was born - in Oaxaca, the province bordering Chiapas on the west. Of his early - youth but little is known, but as a young man he took a prominent - part in the political movements which preceded the declaration - of Independence. He was elected a Deputy to the Congress, and in - 1858 became President, and was given very extensive authority. In - considering the characteristics and capacity of the Indians in - Central America, it can never be forgotten that, during a period of - great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span> - revolutionary agitation, two unknown Indians should, in a most - extraordinary manner, have risen to the surface, and controlled the - destinies of the new Republics.</p> - - <p>Under such conditions, requiring much administrative ability, it - might have reasonably been expected that men of a white race, either - Spaniards or belonging to the large population of half-castes of - partly Spanish descent, would, in consequence of their superior - qualifications, or their education, or military training, have taken - the lead in these revolutions. As a matter of racial capacity, it - is strange that ordinary Indians with absolutely no help from their - surrounding circumstances, should have attained the highest power.<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_XIII"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span> - <h2>CHAPTER XIII.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - Camping on the plains.—A night amongst the hills in - Chiapas.—Lopez.—Indian Sun worship.—Ocosingo.—An ancient - idol.—Proposed expedition through the unknown region occupied - by the Lacandones to British Honduras.—Bachajon.—Tzendal - Indians.—Chilon.—Indian Carnival.—Yajalon.—Carnival amongst - the Tzendales.—Drunkenness.—Dances.—Horse races.—Ruined - Churches and Convents.—Influence of the Priests over the Indian - Tribes.—Las Casas.—Forced labour.—The Presbitero Fernando Macal. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">It</span> was a fine February morning when we left Comitan. An Indian named - Lopez was hired to guide me as far as Ocosingo, three days’ journey - distant. No trustworthy man could be found who was acquainted with the - country beyond that place. With regard to the subject of safety and - fidelity, it was arranged that Lopez should receive half his wages in - advance and the remainder upon his return. The money was deposited - with my friend who engaged him. Lopez was also to bring back a letter - from me to the effect that he had performed his duty, and that I - was satisfied with his conduct. These measures of precaution were - considered to be advisable.</p> - - <p>After a long day’s ride we reached a place where we decided to pass the - night. It was upon an open plain where we saw some muleteers encamped. - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span> - As there were no trees upon which to hang the hammock, it was necessary - to sleep on the ground. There was a heavy mist and everything was very - damp. We noticed that the muleteers had taken off the halters from - their mules and tied them together and placed the long rope thus made - in a circle, within which they were sleeping. Lopez said that I must - follow the same plan, which he explained to be a method employed to - prevent serpents from crawling near them, the rough fibrous nature of - the halter being so disagreeable to them that they would not pass over - it. Consequently I was encircled in this manner and with a saddle for - a pillow, endeavoured to get rest, but the thick mist was the cause of - much discomfort. Lopez passed the time on guard, watching the mule.</p> - - <p>The next day as early as possible we continued our journey. After - passing a few huts called Jotána, we entered upon a wide expanse of - undulating land well studded with trees. Here we met some Mexicans - travelling on their way from their hacienda or farm. They were men, - women, boys and girls, all bright and gay, riding horses and mules, - galloping over the smooth grass land and enjoying the sunny weather. - I took the opportunity of occasionally joining the laughing cheerful - group, and I was sorry when we had to part company and follow different - paths.</p> - - <p>In the afternoon we reached a steep, sharp ascent. The track was - difficult to trace, and in several places was almost impassable. Large - masses of stone had fallen over it. There were also numerous deep, - slippery ruts, through which the mule plunged with difficulty. It was - sunset when, after having made<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span> - our way over several leagues of this - rough ground, we came to an open space, where it was thought expedient - to stop. We found two trees, between which the hammock was secured. - The mule was tethered within reach, and Lopez went to an adjacent wood - and got some twigs and leaves to enable us to make a fire. This was a - work of difficulty requiring great patience; no one but an Indian would - have succeeded. The first supply of fuel, after half an hour’s useless - endeavour, could not be ignited, and Lopez made a second expedition - to find drier materials. Finally, when I thought that it was useless - to continue the attempt, an accidental spark suddenly set fire to a - dry leaf and we were soon sitting round a blazing mass of flame, and - preparing a supper of tortillas and chocolate.</p> - - <p>The air was too chilly and damp to permit of our expecting much rest, - and the night was chiefly occupied in attending to the fire, and - in listening to Lopez’s account of his superstitions and religious - beliefs, and those generally held by his tribe. There was something - in Lopez’s character which showed that he was possessed of a kind of - devotional enthusiasm, which made his stories of Indian faiths, past - and present, singularly interesting, because it was evident that he - spoke with earnestness and as a man convinced. Thus the night passed - away, and in the morning as soon the earliest signs of dawn appeared in - the sky, and long before the sun had risen over the hills, we continued - our journey northwards through Chiapas.</p> - - <p>In the forenoon we reached the hamlet of San Carlos. I observed that - Lopez went to the rising<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span> - ground near at hand, and stood for several - moments facing the sun, with the palms of his hands joined together and - raised to the level of his face. He seemed to be muttering a request. - When he returned I asked him what he had been doing. He said that the - Indians of his tribe always thanked the sun in the morning for coming - and giving light, and thus enabling men to work. In the evening they - again thanked the sun for what had been done, and asked it to return - again. They also offered prayers to the moon for the same reason, - because it gave light and helped men to live. The stars they did not - worship.</p> - - <p>In answer to questions that I put to him, he said that the Indians - always prayed or made offerings with reference to the world in which - they lived, and for objects relating to themselves and their wants, - and never took into consideration anything regarding a future life. - He thought it was impossible to know if a man was to live again, or - whether he was to be given some other shape or kind of existence. - I told Lopez about the “adoratorio” in the Sierra Madre above - Jacaltenango. He declared that the Indians near Comitan also had a - stone image in a cave amongst the hills. He went there once a year to - light a candle, “la sua candela,” before it, but it was usual amongst - the men of his tribe to go there more frequently. The image was about - two feet six inches in height, and had its arms folded. It was one of - the ancient idols worshipped before the conquest.</p> - - <p>From San Carlos there was a ride of six leagues over a less difficult - road, and as we approached<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span> - Ocosingo we passed through some fine - scenery. The path followed the line of the summit of the hills, and - commanded extensive views of both valleys. At Ocosingo, I called upon - Don Remigio Salorzano, to whom I carried a note of introduction. Don - Remigio told me that the ancient Indian ruins were over a league from - the pueblo, but that there was very little to be seen there.</p> - - <p>The temples were almost destroyed, and the materials had been taken - away for building purposes. There were, however, fragments of stones - covered with hieroglyphic characters still remaining there. I went with - him to look at some idols that had been brought from the ruins. One of - these at once arrested my attention. It was made of hard sandstone, and - was about three feet high. The head was broken off, and had been taken - away to prevent the Indians from worshipping it. I at first thought - that the idol must have been made subsequent to the Spanish occupation - of this part of Mexico, for by the costume it seemed to be intended to - represent a Spanish cavalier. In front of the waist belt there was a - small head surmounting a rudely shaped cross.</p> - - <p>It appeared as if the native sculptor had wished to make the image - of a knight holding before him a head, such as is not infrequently - seen in early sacred pictures.<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> But although this was the vague - impression made upon the mind by an examination of the - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span>front of the - statue, it was evident upon looking at the reverse side that the date - of its sculpture was of a much earlier period, for it was covered - with an upright line of hieroglyphics of the same character as those - carved upon the idols at Copan. I examined with care the details of the - figure, and made sketches of the front and back, as I thought that it - would be useful to preserve a slight memorial of this idol which may - eventually share the fate of many others and be destroyed.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_264"><img src="images/i_264.jpg" width="206" height="450" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption">Indian statue. Ocosingo.</div> - </div> - - <p>Two larger idols were placed against the wall of the church. These - were also headless. Don Remigio showed me several long stones that - were used<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span> - for the door steps at the entrance of some of the largest - of the huts occupied by Ladinos and which had been taken from the - ruins. One of these, made of limestone, was covered with deeply carved - hieroglyphics still quite clear and distinct. In front of one of the - dwellings there was a flat stone measuring about three feet square. On - the surface of this stone were two figures. A woman in an imploring - attitude was presenting a cup to a man, who was standing up and bending - forward to receive the offering. The wall of an adjoining house was - partly built with stones also taken from the temples. They had a - perfectly smooth surface and were each about two feet long, one foot - wide and two inches thick. Similar stones were scattered about the - pueblo, and many were used as stepping stones across the stream that - flowed eastwards to join the waters of the river Usamacinta.</p> - - <p>The church, from its size and manner of construction, had been - evidently of considerable importance. It was then in ruins and the roof - had fallen. As there were no funds available for its restoration it was - deserted.</p> - - <p>The Gefe Politico, who held the appointment in this town and district - of Civil Governor, spoke to me about an expedition that was under - consideration, for constructing a road or mule path to connect this - part of Mexico with the English port of Belize in Honduras. He thought - that if such a road was practicable it would become the principal - line for trade, and the ranges of mountains near Tumbalá would be - avoided. This was to be the primary purpose of the expedition, but - there were other objects which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span> - influenced the minds of the inhabitants - of Ocosingo. It was thought that the surveyors might make strange - discoveries in the mysterious and unknown region occupied by the - Lacandon Indians. Possibly amongst the forests in the sierras, temples - and hidden treasures might be found; or perhaps a city where the - ancient ceremonies and sacrifices were still performed.</p> - - <p>The Gefe said that a small band of explorers had lately penetrated - a few leagues into the forest, and had seen several circular shaped - huts, but the Indians who lived in them had fled. They found maize and - tomatoes growing upon the open spaces, but they saw no horses, dogs or - other animals. He pointed out to me the hills amongst which the wild - Lacandones lived. It was afterwards suggested that I might take the - post of leader of the proposed expedition.</p> - - <p>If I had been quite free, with sufficient time at my disposal, I - should have been much inclined to assist to the best of my power in - the formation of a preliminary surveying party. I thought that a - practicable route would be found to connect Ocosingo with the existing - road leading from Guatemala to Flores, on the lake of Peten, and - thence to Honduras, and that, in this manner, the distance to Belize - would be much shortened. The first portion of the survey would have - to be conducted through a region which is unknown, and possibly many - interesting facts would be ascertained, and perhaps an ancient ruined - temple might be discovered.</p> - - <p>Whilst staying at Ocosingo I collected a small vocabulary of the words - of the local dialect. These<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span> - were nearly the same as those spoken near - Comitan, and I was surprised to find that Lopez could not carry on a - conversation with these men. I asked him how this happened and he said - that the languages (lenguas) were quite different, and that he could - not speak with the Ocosingos. It seems probable that, in the course of - time, the construction of the phrases commonly used, or the manner of - the application of the words must have become changed. Although it is - only three days’ journey between the two tribes, it is evident that - there cannot have been much communication between them for several - centuries.</p> - - <p>As Lopez did not know the country beyond Ocosingo, it was settled that - he should return to Comitan. I was sorry to part with him. He had - carried the luggage and provisions, and although a part of the journey - must have been extremely fatiguing to him he never complained. He - also showed the utmost zeal in obtaining forage for the mule, and was - willing and attentive. Don Remigio hired for me a guide named Bito, who - spoke Spanish and knew the paths as far as Chilon, about eleven leagues - distant. Bito brought with him a horse, and thus we were able to travel - at a fair speed. After riding through several leagues of pine forests - we reached Bachajon in the afternoon.</p> - - <p>Bachajon was a strictly Indian village, for the natives objected to any - white people or Ladinos settling amongst them. In the Plaza we found - numbers of Indians congregated together. They differed greatly from - those that I had hitherto seen both in appearance and dialect. The - men wore a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span> - white cloth folded round the head, and white frocks and - trousers. The women wore a white frock cut open and square over the - shoulders, and below this a blue skirt reaching nearly to the feet. - Their thick black hair was tied back with a strip of bright red cotton. - Many of the younger women were handsome, but their figures were spoilt - and bent by the custom of carrying large water jars on the hip. The men - were of a larger stature than the natives on the Pacific side of the - Cordilleras, and their skin was of a dark copper colour. Their faces - were broad, but the cheek bones were not so high as is usual with the - North American Indians. Their hair was long, black and very thick, and - their eyes were dark, large, round and restless. With all of them the - nostrils were very wide.</p> - - <p>The church was in ruins, the roof had entirely disappeared, and only - the porch and outer walls remained standing. I remained for several - hours in the Plaza, and my attention was directed to a remarkable - observance. The Indians, when returning from their fields upon the - completion of their day’s work, invariably, before going to their - huts, went to the front of the ruined porch. There they knelt down - and prayed for some minutes. I was deeply interested in observing the - practice of this custom. There was something that appealed strongly to - the imagination in witnessing the simple and earnest devotion of these - wild, ignorant and uncivilised people. It was impossible to conjecture - what was present in their minds, as one by one they, in their solitary - manner, knelt devoutly before these ruined walls. Possibly they - worshipped in their memory<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span> - the images that, many years before, had - been enshrined within.</p> - - <p>In the evening, as we approached Chilon, we met hundreds of Indians, - men and women, all of whom came forward by the side of my mule, and - inclined their heads saying “Tá” (Padre.) Bito told me that they - supposed that I was a priest, and that they expected me to follow the - custom of the priests and put my hand upon their foreheads. As I did - not wish to sail under false colours, I made an objection to this - proceeding, but Bito said that if I did not do it the Indians would - feel distressed, and would not understand why they were treated in an - unkind manner. He also begged me to do what they wished, or otherwise - some trouble might arise, as many of the men appeared to be in a - half-drunken condition.</p> - - <p>At Chilon I was welcomed by the Justicia, to whom I had a letter from - Don Manuel Cansino. The town was in a state of much excitement. It was - the commencement of the Carnival, an event which caused a considerable - degree of anxiety and apprehension in the minds of the officials. - Processions of Indians, dressed in appropriate costumes, were marching - through the town, and groups of wild-looking men were dancing to the - sounds of rudely shaped fifes and hollow wooden drums. In the morning - these Indians, in accordance with their annual custom, performed a - dance before the door of each house. These dancers were supposed to be - dressed like the conquerors. They wore red, slashed doublets, and loose - white trousers. They carried spears or lances with coloured pennons. - The scene was bright, gay and picturesque.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span></p> - - <p>During the day I discharged Bito, and obtained a guide to accompany me - to Yajalon. We arrived there about sunset and the Presbitero Fernando - Macal received me with much kindness and attention. At Yajalon the - Indians had assembled in great numbers and the Carnival was at its - height. Here as at Chilon, the performances chiefly consisted of - processions and dances. There were also horse races in front of the - cabildo, and one of the most curious scenes was the representation of - the Spaniards entering a captured city on horseback. The Indians were - Tzendales of the same race as those at Bachajon and were very wild - looking men. An important part of the festival consisted in eating as - great a quantity of food as possible, and drinking copious draughts of - strong spirits. In the evening there was much drunkenness.</p> - - <p>The Carnival lasted for three days, and during that time I had to - remain in Yajalon, as no Indian could be found who would willingly - leave this scene of revelry and excitement. On the second day the - President called upon me at the convent, and informed me that, in - his opinion, it would be highly dangerous for a white man who was a - stranger, to venture out into the open country before the Indians had - recovered from the effects of the carnival, as, in consequence of their - known hatred to all white people, it was impossible to say what might - happen when they were in an excited condition. In anticipation of local - troubles he had organised a small police force which was employed in - patrolling the pueblo day and night, for the purpose of preventing any - quarrels of castes. He had also a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span> - company of seventy soldiers prepared - to act in the event of any serious outbreak. As far as I could judge, - the Indians, when in a drunken state, were quiet and inoffensive, but - the President was evidently very anxious about their conduct.</p> - - <p>As I had no share in the responsibility for maintaining good order, the - strange life and the sounds of drums and fifes and marimbas afforded - me inexhaustible pleasure and amusement. The pretty dresses of the - women also added much to the charm of the scene. Many of these Tzendal - women were very handsome. Their heads were well set upon finely shaped - throats and shoulders. Their costume consisted of a long white frock - cut open round their neck, and embroidered with red and yellow squares, - which had a pleasing effect of colour. But not only was the festival - attractive from the quaint and novel character of the scene, but it was - also most enjoyable weather. The skies were blue, the sun was bright, - and the surrounding hills and valleys formed an agreeable contrast. - There was perhaps a slight, underlying sense of danger and a doubt as - to what would occur after sunset, and what might be the effect of the - subsequent orgies upon the savage natures of these Indians. Possibly - what began at daylight as a drama might end at night as a tragedy. - The conduct of the timorous half-caste population or Ladinos was - remarkable. They were conscious that they were hated by the Indians, - and consequently they remained within their houses, and kept themselves - out of sight.</p> - - <p>The dances and processions are said to have been taught by the Spanish - monks. It is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span> - evident that they usually have some connection with the - events of the wars between the Spaniards and the Moors, for the Indians - always speak of these representations under the general name of “los - Moros.” But they are also mixed up with other subjects which, not - improbably, have some relation to events that happened before Cortes - conquered Mexico.</p> - - <p>There was a peculiarity in the Indian character which was noticeable in - all their proceedings. This was the absence of all conversation amongst - the numerous spectators. The games, races and processions, the beating - of the wooden drums and the continuous sounds of the marimbas went - on incessantly, but there was no other noise and no murmur of human - voices. The gift of speech with these tribes seems almost unnecessary - for the purposes of their lives, and the language of signs would - possibly be sufficient for their requirements.</p> - - <p>The Spaniards in the sixteenth century were astonished by the - extraordinary debauchery of the Indians during their festivals. The - events which occurred upon these occasions, especially in Yucatan, - surprised the soldiers belonging to a nation remarkable for its - sobriety. The Indians in Cuba, Hayti, and the islands of the Caribbean - sea, and those inhabiting Florida, the valley of the Mississippi, and - other parts of North America, had no knowledge of an intoxicating - spirit. The origin of the excessive insobriety amongst the Mexican - Indians is clearly traceable to the indigenous growth of the Maguey - (_Agave Americana_). This aloe grows abundantly in the sterile regions - of Central America, and supplies a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span> - fluid which, after undergoing - certain preparations, is highly alcoholic.</p> - - <p>At Yajalon, as at Bachajon and Ocosingo, the church was in ruins. There - was nothing left of it except the bare walls, marks of the old altars - and parts of the chancel. Long grass was growing over the ground of - the nave. The convent was also in a ruinous condition and only one - side of the quadrangle remained. The interior was overgrown with weeds - and grass, and was used as a pasture for the horses belonging to the - convent.</p> - - <p>The Presbitero was eloquent upon the subject of the wrongs suffered by - the Catholics in Mexico, and he particularly dwelt upon the harm that - had been done to the people in consequence of the decrees which had - nationalised the possessions of the church, suppressed the convents and - abolished all religious fraternities. He thought that the withdrawal - of the monks would have an injurious effect upon the condition of - the Indians, and that they would gradually relapse into a state of - ignorance and barbarism. Thus the system begun by Bishop Las Casas, - and carried on afterwards by monks and priests would come to an end, - and all their efforts to advance and benefit the aboriginal tribes be - rendered useless and vain.</p> - - <p>It is difficult at this distance of time to estimate correctly the - value of the work done by Las Casas, and the consequences of the - enactments in favour of the Indians, obtained by his appeals to the - Spanish government. In this diocese of Chiapas his zeal led to the - establishment of numerous churches and convents. Dominicans and - brethren of other orders<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span> - came over from Europe for the purpose - of living amongst these Indians, converting them, educating them - and forming centres of local civilization. To a certain extent the - ceremonies of the church, and especially the worship of images, seemed - to obtain a powerful hold upon the devotional nature of many of the - tribes, and the monks obtained great influence over them.</p> - - <p>Thus far the work begun by Las Casas unquestionably did much good in - this and the adjoining provinces. The exhortations of the principal - authorities of the Church in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, - were also beneficial in moderating the hardships inflicted upon the - natives by the Spanish landowners. But in advocating the cause of the - Indians, Las Casas, in the fervour of his zeal, created evils the - effect of which he could not have foreseen. It was in consequence - of the measures adopted through the representations of this ardent - reformer that negro slavery was introduced into America. It was also - chiefly owing to his efforts that consecutive ordinances was decreed, - which, although issued with the intention of putting a stop to the - harsh treatment of the Indians, made it almost impossible to carry on - successfully the government of New Spain. Thus, by the abolition of - forced labour, it was found that there was an immediate danger of the - lands granted to the Spaniards becoming thrown out of cultivation and - their owners ruined. In no part of New Spain was this danger more to be - apprehended than in the neighbourhood of La Antigua Guatemala, and in - the country through which I passed on my way to - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span> Santa Cruz del Quiché. - The lands there were fertile and the farms prosperous. The Indians - performed labour upon them under fixed rules which, although strict - and exacting, were not opposed to their previous habits. When these - regulations were withdrawn the Indians ceased to work. Finally protests - were made to the government, and it was pointed out that this usage - of forced labour was not introduced by the Spaniards, but that it had - previously been practically the base of the tribal administration.</p> - - <p>There was another usage which was stopped by orders from Spain. This - was the employment of natives as carriers of merchandise. The abolition - of this system was found to be disadvantageous to the prosperity of the - country, and it was submitted to the king that it had always been the - custom amongst the Indians to transport all things by men working as - porters, for before the arrival of the Spaniards there were no horses - or other beasts of burden. The practice of personally carrying heavy - loads still forms part of the habits of all the inferior classes of - Indians in Central America.</p> - - <p>The restrictions enforced upon the Spanish landowners did not however - much affect the prosperity of the church, particularly in the more - remote districts, where the priests and friars devoted themselves to - the spiritual welfare and education of the natives. At the convents, - schools were established for boys and, in the chief towns, sisters - belonging to nunneries in Spain, came across the Atlantic to teach - the girls. The monks also endeavoured to arrange that the boys upon - completing their studies, should teach other Indians and thus spread - education <span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span> - amongst them. These exertions which, in their origin, - seemed to promise well were not subsequently attended with success, - and the authority of the brethren declined. Finally the declarations - of Independence, the revolutions, and the establishment of republics, - dealt a fatal blow to all educational work.</p> - - <p>Amongst the various consequences of the nationalisation of - ecclesiastical property, it had come to pass that in the country - parishes, there were no funds available for maintaining the churches in - repair, and they were all rapidly falling into ruins. The Presbitero - was convinced, now that the influence of the priests upon the - characters of the tribes was no longer felt, and the church services - were not maintained, that the Indians, especially the Tzendales under - his care, would return to the practice of their ancient idolatries.</p> - - <p>Upon a subject so doubtful as the effect of the teaching of the priests - upon the minds of the Indians it is difficult to form an opinion. - In the sixteenth century the Roman Catholic religion appeared to be - willingly accepted by the natives; but several of the priests that I - had met and who discussed this question, were in doubt as to whether - this readiness to conform with the ceremonies had not some vague - connection with some previous religious customs. The influence of - the friars also possibly had some relation to the system of Indian - priesthood before the conquest; for, according to the statements - of the Spaniards, there was a strange and inexplicable coincidence - between certain regulations by which they were bound, and those of the - Franciscans and Dominicans.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span></p> - - <p>It was fortunate that during my detention at Yajalon I was the guest of - a man so well informed and highly educated as the Presbitero Fernando - Macal. It was an exceptional fate for him to be thus placed in that - parish, with its numerous detached hamlets, to perform clerical duties - amongst these intractable tribes. At the convent in the evening, the - Presbitero usually discussed questions of theology, together with his - opinions upon the aboriginal and mixed races in Chiapas. The President - occasionally joined us, but his mind was preoccupied with anxiety about - the maintenance of order. All the time, both day and night, the pueblo - was disturbed by the continuous and monotonous sounds of native music.</p> - - <p>On the fourth morning the Carnival was over and a dissipated, - savage-looking Tzendal named Villafranca appeared at the convent - wall, and volunteered to act as my guide to Tumbalá and Palenque. - The necessary arrangements were made to secure the fulfilment of his - duties. The mule was brought out of the quadrangle and we were soon - ready to start. I was warned that the paths over the sierras were in a - bad condition, and that many difficulties would have to be overcome in - passing through the forests.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_XIV"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span> - <h2>CHAPTER XIV.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - An Indian steam bath.—Tumbalá.—Sierras and Forests.—San - Pedro.—Desertion of guide.—Alguazils.—Construction of Indian - huts.—Habits of Indians.—Cargadores.—Crossing a River.—Forests - beyond San Pedro.—Powers of endurance of Indians.—Arrival at - San Domingo del Palenque. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> base of the sierra whose summit we had to reach before night, was - about two leagues from Yajalon. After having ridden that distance I - expected to see some indications of Tumbalá, but not being able to make - out anything, I asked Villafranca where it was. He pointed upwards - towards the sky, and said “En el núbe, (in the cloud) Señor.” In effect - it was just possible to see the church amongst the clouds which were - sweeping over the highest ridge of the Cordilleras.</p> - - <p>The greater part of the day was passed in making the ascent, which was - a steep and continuous rise for over three leagues. In the afternoon, - when we had attained to a considerable height, we left below us the - bright and sunny daylight, and entered into the region of cloudland. - The weather became cold and gloomy, and as we approached Tumbalá it - was scarcely possible to see our way for we were moving in a dark fog. - Near the outskirts of the hamlet we passed close to a structure of an - unusual shape, not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span> - unlike an oven. I was afterwards informed that it - was used by Indians in time of sickness and was practically a steam - bath. The methods of using it were similar to those adopted by many of - the tribes in North America. The patient finds inside a supply of water - to generate steam. Heated stones are passed in from outside and these - he drops into the water. This system is said to be efficacious in the - disorders to which men living amongst the Cordilleras are subject, and - which are probably caused by exposure to sudden changes of temperature. - It was strange to see amongst these remote sierras a practice which - seemed to establish the fact that there were links connecting these - Mexican Indians with the Dakotas in North America, the natives of - Hawaii, and the Maoris in the distant islands of New Zealand.</p> - - <p>When we arrived at the walls of the convent it was evident that there - was a general state of commotion without and within. Some event had - happened, the nature of which I was unable to ascertain. The precincts - were crowded with numerous groups of Indians and Ladinos. The priest - was living in a large shed. The quadrangle was apparently used as - a farmyard and was filled with cattle, horses, mules, turkeys and - fowls, all wandering about at their own free will, and causing an - indescribable disturbance. The mists were so thick that it was quite - impossible to make anything out clearly.</p> - - <p>Inside the shed the state of affairs was equally confusing. Men, women - and children were busily engaged in preparing to pass the night under - the protection of the roof, and were choosing their sleeping - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span> places. - As it was necessary to find room without delay, I told Villafranca to - hang my hammock to the rafters as near to the fire as possible. We then - went out and tethered the mule upon a level open space beyond, which we - thought to be convenient for the purpose, but the clouds were so dense - that we could not see what we were doing. After some further trouble, - supplies of forage and water were obtained, and placed within the - mule’s reach. We then returned to the shed within which the priest was - endeavouring to find suitable quarters for his numerous visitors.</p> - - <p>Later in the evening we were joined by a young couple who had just - been married, and wanted shelter. It happened that there was an Indian - bedstead available and this together with two extemporized pillows - was placed at their disposal. When it became night, we sat round the - fire and cooked our suppers, and then sleeping mats were unrolled and - spread upon the ground. The Cura placed his mat near the fire, beneath - my hammock. Amongst the crowd were several young mothers who had - their infants with them. These little creatures were duly attended to - and their wants supplied. The mothers then proceeded to roll them up - tightly in swaddling clothes until only their heads were visible. They - were afterwards placed in a row against the wall, where they looked - like diminutive Egyptian mummies, their large round eyes staring at us - in a most unmeaning manner. When all these various arrangements were - completed the doors were closed.</p> - - <p>What happened during the night I do not know, but upon awaking in the - morning I found that I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span> - was alone and that the shed was empty. All the - numerous inmates of the previous night had departed. I turned out of - my hammock and joined the Cura who was walking in front of his ruined - convent. He said he would accompany me for a few hundred yards to the - outer edge of the sierra, to look at the world around and beneath us.</p> - - <p>The clouds had disappeared, the sun had risen brightly above the - eastern horizon, the sky was blue, the air felt pure and exhilarating, - and the view was magnificent. Not only did we command range upon - range of these Cordilleras, but there were also extensive views of - the valleys below us. Beyond, looking northwards, were the savannahs - and the tropical lowlands near Palenque; and in the far distance the - sunlight was flashing upon the calm waters of the Laguna de Terminos.</p> - - <p>Near at hand were groups of wild-looking Indians watching our - movements. The Cura said he believed they belonged to the Maya - race, and were allied to the tribes that occupied Yucatan. In their - appearance they were like the Tzendales near Bachajon. They were - strongly built men, rather low in stature, and very dark in colour; - their eyes had peculiarly rounded orbits, and their long black hair - was cut square over the forehead. They spoke a language which sounded - very rough and abrupt. The Cura observed that the Indians dwelling - amongst the mountains were daily becoming neglected, and that they - were left entirely free to follow their own beliefs and customs. In - consequence of there being no regular stipend for the clergy, it had - become impossible to maintain a sufficient number - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span> of priests to - carry out the duties. He had to superintend the parishes at Tumbalá, - San Pedro, Palenque and the districts around Las Playas, near the - river Usamacinta, and therefore he could not attend personally to the - numerous and scattered Indians placed under his charge.</p> - - <p>Upon our return to the convent, Villafranca came to me and reported - that the mule was ready and that he had got his machete sharpened - in order to clear away any branches or brushwood that we might find - to be obstructing the track. He added to his pack some part of the - weights carried by the mule, as it was necessary that she should be as - free as possible, to push her way through the woods, and we reduced - the quantities of food and other necessaries to the lowest amount - practicable. A young Mexican who was going to the seacoast came with - us as far as the entrance to the forest. He then told me that he should - not attempt to go through it with his clothes on, so he stopped and - stripped to the skin, and tied his clothes up in a bundle which he - fastened to the top of his head. He was a white man of mixed descent - and in his action he showed some elements of the nature of his remote - Indian ancestry. He ran rapidly to the front, plunged into the forest - like a lithe athletic young savage, and was soon out of sight.</p> - - <p>As it was not possible to ride I dismounted, and we began to descend - the steep sides of the mountain. It was very hard work. Villafranca - led the way. I followed close to him, holding the halter at its full - length, to prevent the mule as she slipped forward from falling upon - me. This manner of progression<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span> - was made difficult by the obstinate - conduct of the mule. She would occasionally attempt to choose her own - way and go the wrong side of a tree, and as no energy expended in - trying to get her back was of any use, I had always to yield and to - follow her round the trunk. Upon one occasion she got away into the - forest and was nearly lost. The guide at once threw off his pack and - went after her.</p> - - <p>The instincts of an Indian were apparent in his proceedings. He - carefully marked every step of his advance through the dense - undergrowth by cutting down small branches of the trees and placing - them on the line of his track. He also here and there, but always - on the left hand side, cut notches in the trees or bent some twigs - backwards. After a few minutes interval he returned triumphantly with - the mule, and after this experience I took care not to allow the halter - to leave my hands again.</p> - - <p>The fatigues of the day were beyond description. I had been prepared - to expect difficulties from the steepness of the ascents and descents - and the growth of the underwood, but there were other obstacles which - were previously unknown. Our track was constantly barred by creepers - which crossed from tree to tree in festoons like thick ropes. They hung - loosely in bends and bights in every conceivable shape, but usually - they swept the ground in semicircles. Others were hanging in graceful - loops three or four feet above the ground, so that the mule was unable - to pass under them. There were also miry, swampy places in which the - mule sometimes sank to an almost dangerous depth. But what I found - to be the most serious trial was the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span> - want of ventilation. There was - absolutely no movement in the air or any sounds of life, and there was - very little daylight, for the rays of the sun above did not penetrate - to the ground.</p> - - <p>The forest was dark and gloomy, and the atmosphere most oppressive. - The want of a proper supply of fresh air to breathe made the journey - extremely exhausting. After struggling for several hours down the - rugged slopes of the first mountain, we reached a narrow valley and - crossed a small stream. We then had to climb up another sierra so - steep that it required all my available strength to reach the summit. - From this height there remained another league to be traversed down a - steep rocky slope to a wide open savannah, upon which was situated San - Pedro. Towards sunset we arrived at the village and found shelter under - a shed, within which was installed the official who ruled over the - district, and who was called the Maestro.</p> - - <p>In the morning I discovered that during the night my guide had - deserted. Possibly some accident may have happened to him, but in my - opinion his conduct was a deliberate act of desertion. I reported the - case immediately to the Maestro, but Villafranca could not be found - and I never saw him again. It was supposed that he found the work and - fatigue of the day greater than he had expected, and was not willing to - make his way on the morrow through the equally dense forests between - San Pedro and Palenque. If this surmise was correct his view of the - situation was quite intelligible, but as I did not consider that an act - of this kind should remain unpunished, I arranged with the Maestro that - a letter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span> - from me should be dispatched to Yajalon where the man had - been hired.</p> - - <p>I wrote to the Presbitero Macal an account of the desertion and - requested him to bring the case to the notice of the alcalde, in order - that Villafranca should receive a punishment in accordance with the - custom of the country, and that he should be deprived of his wages - which had been left in the Presbitero’s charge. I also requested that - this money should be given to any of his deserving or distressed - parishioners. In justice however to this Tzendal, it should be noted - that he did not rob me. I found everything carefully piled up in - a corner of the shed; saddle, clothes, rug and the remains of the - provisions sufficient for one day. The mule was safely tethered outside - the door.</p> - - <p>I was thus placed in a very insecure position and had to rely entirely - upon my own resources. The hamlet was surrounded in all directions - by sierras and forests, and I had not the slightest knowledge of the - mountain passes. With regard to food I could manage very well as I was - able to make a fire and was prepared to make the provisions last for - more than one day if necessary, but in other respects I was entirely - dependent upon the good will of the San Pedro Indians about whom very - little was known, but who were considered to be untrustworthy.</p> - - <p>The Maestro declared that he would do all that was in his power to - assist me, and promised that he would get a guide who would go with - me to Palenque. But he said that he could not find a man at once, and - that it would be necessary that I should stop in - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span> the convent until the - following day. In some respects I was not sorry to be detained, for I - was thus enabled to have some spare time to see something of the habits - of life amongst the inhabitants of this isolated village, so singularly - placed in the heart of these remote Cordilleras. I observed that the - Maestro maintained towards those who were placed under his rule a - dignified and reserved manner. He was supported in his authority by two - alcaldes, and two alguazils who were Indians elected annually for these - posts. The alguazils wore suitable dresses and performed regular police - duties, walking at intervals about the village, carrying long wands of - office. It was also their custom to visit the Maestro occasionally, - attend to his wants, and render such personal service as he required. - In obedience to his directions, they obtained for me supplies of maize - and water for the mule, and tortillas and beans for myself, and thus I - was able to cook a tolerable breakfast.</p> - - <p>During the day I wandered amongst the huts within and near the hamlet - in order to see something of the natives who lived in them and were - said to follow the ancient customs and habits of domestic life. Near - the borders of the savannah some Indians were building a large hut and - I observed a method of construction which, although absolutely the - reverse of any system that I had previously known, was most suitable - for their wants. In the first place the roof is built. This when - completed, looks like an open thatched shed resting upon upright poles. - The eaves are brought down low, but sufficiently high to enable a man - of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span> - moderate height to pass under them without stooping. When the roof - is considered firm and secure, the four walls inclosing the room are - made. They are usually constructed of crossed laths and sticks, and - thickly plastered over with a kind of mud which has a good binding - consistence.</p> - - <p>The walls are raised until they reach within a short distance from the - slope of the roof, a sufficient space being left for the escape of - smoke. The size of the hut and the height of the walls are determined - by the width and slope of roof. A few rough cross poles are placed - across the top of the walls for the purpose of hanging up any household - goods, and sometimes at one end some of these poles are placed close - together so as to form a platform, where bags of maize and other farm - produce are kept or dried. When the roof is wide and the overhanging - eaves are low there is an agreeable and well shaded space outside the - main hut, where the Indians rest during the day.<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p> - - <p>As far as it was possible to judge from a passing observation the - Indians at San Pedro seemed to be a contented race. They cultivated - their milpas or corn fields sufficiently to get enough to supply them - with maize bread and pozole, and at most of the - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span>huts there were fowls - and a few pigs. The women laboured in some form of household work, - and much of their time was occupied in grinding the maize to make - tortillas. At this village, as in others chiefly inhabited by Indians, - there was an absence of any human sounds. In the interior of the huts, - as also outside them, all the occupations of life were performed in - silence. In the evening, when the men returned home from their work, - there was the same manner of moving about without noise. There appeared - to be also an absence of all interest in what was happening around - them, which gave an element of sadness to the scene. Their lives seem - to be passed in a state of quiet melancholy and listlessness.</p> - - <p>This condition of the Indians is practically the same throughout this - part of Central America. The problem of existence is worked out in its - lowest terms. It cannot however be said that they live in want and - poverty, because they have no wants. They exist, and are apparently - content to exist, in the state in which they find themselves placed. - The bare ground, a thatched roof, bedstead, a few mats, some firewood, - and a small store of maize suffice for the necessities of their lives. - Their submissive natures assent to these conditions and they seem to - accept their fate with passive resignation.</p> - - <p>Upon my return to the shed in the evening, I found that it was - enlivened by the arrival of a busy, loud-voiced Spaniard named Don Pepe - Ortiz. He informed me that he was travelling from Oaxaca towards the - coast of the Gulf of Campeachy with a cargo of tobacco. He had with - him a band of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span> - cargadores to carry the bales. He also employed for - his own personal use a man of great strength to carry him in places - where he could not ride a mule. The direction of his journey over the - sierras was for some distance the same as my own, and he proposed that - we should, without delay, make arrangements for crossing a river which - occasionally was difficult to pass over. I had not heard that there was - a stream of any importance in our way, and I asked Don Pepe to do what - was expedient. Accordingly he sent on an Indian to order several canoes - to be in readiness for us on the following morning.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_288f"><img src="images/i_288f.jpg" width="469" height="700" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Indian Woman Grinding Chocolate, Central America.</div> - </div> - - <p>At sunrise my new guide José arrived and we all started together. After - riding about a league we reached the bank of a river, called the San - Pedro, which we found to be a deep stream about three hundred yards - wide. The passage was not made without difficulties, chiefly caused by - the conduct of the mules, when they reached the opposite bank, which - was very steep. The canoes were in attendance, and I selected one - which seemed to be convenient for the moderate weights to be carried. - The mule was fastened by the halter to the stem of the canoe, and - swam across with ease, but she obstinately refused to go on shore at - the proper landing place, and consequently, after several unavailing - attempts, I allowed her to go free and choose for herself. She swam - down with the current for about a hundred yards, and then with much - good judgment she selected her own spot and scrambled safely up the - bank.</p> - - <p>After having successfully accomplished my crossing, - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span>I watched the - movements of Don Pepe and his men in their canoes. It was a picturesque - scene, but it was within two hours of midday before we were all - established on the northern side of the river. We then commenced the - dreaded ascent about which many warnings had been given to me. It was - a steep climb for five long leagues and it was nearly sunset when we - reached the summit. We stopped for the night in a small shed which - sheltered us from the dew.</p> - - <p>Don Pepe’s Indians arrived after us and insisted upon lighting a large - fire just outside the hut, with the object they said of keeping away - tigers, and kept it burning like a bonfire as long as it was dark. At - daylight José and myself and mule began the descent of the opposite - slope of the sierra. I had been told that we should find this part of - the journey very arduous, but it exceeded in difficulty anything that I - had imagined.</p> - - <p>The track, or opening through the trees had almost disappeared, and - we had to make our own way between detached masses of sharp, angular - rocks. Frequently it was necessary to scramble over them or to slide - down them, and it occasionally seemed to me that we were going at - random down the side of the mountain. But what made our progress more - than usually difficult was the fact that, in several places, decaying - trunks of large trees had fallen across our path, and as it was not - practicable to get the mule over them, we were obliged to diverge into - the forest to pass round them. When it was thus necessary to quit our - line of direction, José would instantly draw his machete and mark - our movements<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span> - by cutting down branches, so as to secure the means - of retreat to our starting point, in case we failed to find the path - again. I was quite aware of the importance of this action. It was - astonishing to find how in a few seconds in a dense forest and amongst - thick growth of underwood and creepers all knowledge of direction seems - to be lost.</p> - - <p>The length of this precipitous descent was a little more than five - miles, and we took four hours to accomplish the distance. During that - time I never saw a glimpse of the sky, although I knew that, above the - trees, the sun was shining brilliantly.</p> - - <p>In the forenoon we reached the banks of the Nopá, which ran at the - base of the sierra, and halted there to rest. We then passed over the - river, and pushed or cut our way through two leagues of dense forest - and thick brushwood. There were also several small streams with low but - steep and slippery banks that had to be crossed. Finally we reached and - forded the river Michol. The worst was then over, and we emerged from - the forest and saw before us a savannah where we decided to encamp. I - obtained a slight shelter under the sloping roof of a little open hut, - which had been left there by some passing Indians. Thus ended a most - fatiguing day.</p> - - <p>Don Pepe and his Indians arrived after sunset and encamped near us. The - methods adopted by these Indians when preparing to pass the night upon - an open savannah were instructive. In the first instance they placed - upon the ground a quantity of broad dry leaves to protect them from the - damp grass. They then dispersed, and in a few minutes - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span> the adjacent - forest resounded with the noise of the blows made by their machetes. - They returned bearing loads of firewood and also several strong forked - branches. These they sharpened at one end and fixed into the earth - near the camping place to form supports to carry the bales of tobacco. - In this manner the cargo was raised about three feet, and thus they - carried out the invariable rule of Indians who never leave anything - upon the ground at night. They then lighted a large fire.</p> - - <p>There were characteristics with respect to these Oaxaca Indians, which - I had already observed on the previous day, but which more particularly - came under my notice upon this occasion. They had gone through a long - day’s work of most severe labour, and yet upon settling down for - the night’s rest they neither ate any food or drank any water. My - guides, who were not, like these men, trained to carry great weights - for considerable distances, were also able to live upon very small - quantities of food and never seemed to be tired at the end of the day’s - journey.</p> - - <p>It was the custom of each Indian before leaving his home to provide - himself with a small quantity of a substance called pozole, which was - prepared for him by his wife. This was usually made in the following - manner. A sufficient quantity of maize was partly boiled, until the - grain could be easily removed from the husks. These softened grains - were then ground upon the metatl or grindstone until a thick paste was - made. This was either put into a little bag or rolled up in a green - leaf. This paste was the principal part of the food that was carried, - but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span> - sometimes the wives gave their husbands a supply of tortillas. To - make these, the grains of maize, after being slightly boiled, are put - upon the metatl, and rolled out into a very thin pancake; this is taken - off the stone and put upon a large leaf and made into a round shape. - It is then placed upon a pan and held for a few minutes over the fire, - until it is properly baked, when it becomes a tortilla. With a few of - these and his scant store of pozole an Indian always considers himself - to be amply provisioned until he returns to his village or secluded - country hut.</p> - - <p>My guides took their principal meal about noon. A portion of the paste - was taken out of the leaf and placed upon the palm of the left hand, a - small quantity of water was then mixed with it until it became slightly - fluid and then it was eaten. In the evening they usually took more - pozole and a tortilla, after which they would drink some water mixed - with enough of the pozole to make it become the colour and consistency - of thin milk. In this manner they avoided drinking pure cold water. - This was the daily food of my Indians, upon which they could go long - journeys carrying considerable weights, and they never appeared to be - tired.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p> - - <p>The cargadores are trained from boyhood to carry heavy burdens over - great distances. Don Pepe expected them to travel eight leagues a day. - But <span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span> - when carrying lighter loads they will sometimes travel for several - consecutive days at the rate of nearly forty English miles a day. When - the cargo-bearers were moving in single file with their burdens, they - looked like the Tamemes bearing tribute to Montezuma as represented - in the ancient pictures. It is probable that these men were enduring - labours similar to those that had been performed by their ancestors for - centuries before the arrival of the Spaniards.</p> - - <p>In the morning the Indians proceeded on their journey towards the - coast. We followed a path leading in another direction, through open - and wooded lowlands. Finally after a ride of four leagues we reached - the savannah upon which is situated the village of San Domingo del - Palenque.</p> - - <p>Never have I known a moment of more keen pleasure and satisfaction, - than that when José pointed out to me this beautiful spot. I had become - fatigued by the hardships of the previous days, and the buoyancy - of mind that was felt in getting at last into a region of life and - sunshine cannot be adequately expressed.</p> - - <p>We stopped to ask where Doctor Coller lived, and were shown the - position of a low, thatched cottage, at the door of which stood the - only European living in the village.<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> I was received by him with - friendly <span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span> - welcome. My hammock was placed under the shade of the - projecting thatch. The mule was set free to wander at will amongst the - plains, and I was advised to take twenty-four hours complete rest. On - the following forenoon I made arrangements for proceeding to the ruins, - and a few Indians were sent there to open the path, and to clear the - inner courts of the palace from weeds and brushwood.</p> - - <p>San Domingo del Palenque is placed upon a rising grassy slope studded - with fine trees. The church was in ruins and roofless. The population - consisted chiefly of Ladinos. The Indians lived in secluded places near - the outskirts, where they cultivated their milpas or cornfields. There - was a charm about this sunny fertile savannah and the simple habits of - life of its inhabitants, which must be attractive to men of sensitive - temperaments. The land is fertile, corn is abundant, and cattle, horses - and mules wander over the green pastures in freedom.</p> - - <p>It was an unusual series of circumstances that had caused Dr. Coller to - settle for life in this remote part of the world. He told me that he - was a native of Switzerland and was born at Zurich. He was educated in - that city but completed his studies at Berlin. Much of his early life - was passed in different countries. About ten years before my arrival, - he felt a wish to see Palenque and found his way to this region from - the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. Upon reaching the village he was - fascinated by its beautiful situation, its repose and its proximity to - the ancient ruins in which he felt the strongest interest. He found - that the life at San Domingo had an attraction for him which he did - not wish to resist,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span> - and he decided to make this place his home, and - married a native who possessed, in her own right, some land in the - neighbourhood.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p> - - <p>Dr. Coller was a man of varied and extensive information and an - excellent linguist. He had devoted much time, not only to the - investigation of the Indian antiquities, but also to the study of the - geology and botany of the district, and I was much pleased when he - proposed to accompany me to Palenque. It was of the greatest advantage - thus to have the benefit of his accurate knowledge of the positions of - the mounds and temples.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_297f"><img src="images/i_297f.jpg" width="700" height="480" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Palace or Monastery, Palenque. east front.</div> - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_XV"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span> - <h2>CHAPTER XV.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - Palenque.—The Forest.—The Palace or Monastery.—Night at - Palenque.—Brilliancy of the light of the fireflies.—Pyramidal - Mounds and Temples.—Tablet of the Cross.—Hieroglyphs.—An - Indian Statue.—Antiquity of the Buildings.—The Tower.—Stucco - Ornamentation.—Action of the tropical climate upon the - Ruins.—Note upon the decipherment of the hieroglyphic - characters. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">It</span> was a bright tropical morning when we mounted our horses and - followed the narrow path leading to Palenque. After riding for a league - through woods, savannahs, and cornfields, we reached and crossed the - river Michol.</p> - - <p>As we approached the ruins, the forest was so thick that we were not - able to see anything beyond the track which had been cleared for us by - our men. At a distance of about three Spanish leagues from San Domingo, - we came to the borders of a small running stream. Dr. Coller stopped - and said that at this point we should dismount, as we had arrived at - our destination. We then went up a steep slope, on the summit of which - I could see dimly, the pillars and ruined roof of the “Palace.”</p> - - <p>Our Indians met us at the entrance. They had already cleared the - brushwood which had overgrown the quadrangles, and had removed all that - interfered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span> - with any exploring work that they thought we might wish - to carry out. The luxuriance of the vegetation was surprising. In one - of the open courts we observed a large plant which we found to be a - species of arum. The leaves were of an extraordinary size, and averaged - four feet six inches long by three feet six inches wide; the stalks - were over seven feet high.</p> - - <p>The greater part of the day was occupied in making a survey of the - ground plans of the building, as far as it was possible to trace them - amongst the accumulations of fallen ruins. Upon the completion of this - work, and after having made an examination of the series of small - chambers below the corridors, it became evident that the building - was erected with the intention of establishing a monastery, similar - to those which were described by the historians of the conquest of - Mexico as being dedicated to the use of the priests who worshipped - and performed ceremonies at the shrines of the god Quetzalcoatl, and - who, in addition to those duties, were given the charge of educating - the children of the chiefs. They also trained those youths who were - intended to become priests.</p> - - <p>It is to be regretted that this great structure was called by its first - discoverers “The Palace,” and that its purpose was rendered perplexing - by theories connected with the dwellings of Kings or Caciques.</p> - - <p>According to the investigations of Mr. Stephens, its extreme dimensions - were two hundred and twenty-eight feet long, by one hundred and eighty - feet wide. The height of the rectangular mound upon which it is placed - has been variously estimated. It appears to have been about twenty - feet high.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span> - Upon the summit of this platform was built with stone and - mortar, the various foundations upon which the buildings and galleries - of the monastery were erected. The base upon the east front was about - ten feet high. The height of the building may be estimated to have been - nearly twenty-four feet. Thus it may be concluded that the whole height - from the ground to the roof must have been approximately fifty-four - feet. The architectural proportions seem to have been well designed.</p> - - <p>The interior gave me the impression of being Moorish in its style, - especially with respect to the open inner courts, the arrangement - of the corridors and the lavish employment of stucco ornamentation, - brilliantly coloured. A closer investigation into architectural details - left the subject in doubt, but there still remained upon the mind the - feeling that in some unintelligible manner, the construction had been - directed either by foreigners or by Indians who were partly descended - from men of foreign origin. The forms of ancient mosques and of the - inner courts and quadrangles of Arabian or Moorish and Spanish public - buildings were indistinctly recalled to the memory. It was however to - be observed, upon an examination of the methods adopted at Palenque - in supporting the weight of the roofs, that the arches (if it is - permissible for that term to be applied to straight converging slopes - covered with flat coping stones,) are absolutely exceptional and unlike - any other arch that is known. I was reminded, to a certain extent, of - the ruins of Alatri, near Mycenæ on the plains of Argos, and of an - Etruscan tomb near Perugia, but the system employed by the American - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span> - architects, in placing the cap or terminal cross stones was essentially - different.</p> - - <p>In the exploration of the ruins our attention was chiefly directed - to certain doubtful points, particularly with regard to the chambers - which are beneath the corridors, and are entered from the level of the - courts. There have been several conjectures respecting the purposes - of these cells. I think that it is probable that they were used as - dormitories. In some of the chambers there was a low, wide stone table, - placed against the wall at the end. These benches were large flat - smooth slabs of limestone supported on four stone legs. In height, - shape and dimensions they were like the wooden bedsteads used by the - Indians at the present time.</p> - - <p>There is a square tower in one of the inner courts which must be - considered as the most singular structure in Palenque. In position and - manner of construction it is abnormal in character. It was probably - intended for some special object, after the monastery had been - completed. When Captain Del Rio saw this tower, in 1787, he estimated - its height to be sixteen yards. In 1870 there were heaps of rubble - and fallen stones piled against the base, which made it difficult for - me to make exact measurements, but an approximate estimate gave the - sides of the square near the base as twenty-three feet, and the height - about forty-five feet. The peculiarity about the construction is the - fact that it consists of a tower within a tower. The inner structure - contains a steep and narrow staircase. Light is obtained through large - openings in the sides of the outer tower, and then through - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span> smaller - openings in the walls of the interior one. The steps appear to have - led up to the top. The walls are formed of rough slabs of limestone - which had been thickly coated over with cement, portions of which - still remained. It was raised to a height which commanded views of the - adjacent temples.</p> - - <p>Upon my return to the eastern front, I found that the Indians had - slung the hammocks in the outer corridor overlooking the forest. A - few minutes before sunset we heard the strange and beautiful notes of - a solitary bird singing amongst the ruins. The song resembled in its - tone that of a thrush. Dr. Coller said that the bird was a kind of - nightingale, and that it was only known to live within and around the - Palenque temples. The bird sang in a slow, deliberate manner, each of - the notes having a short interval of time between them. The song was - maintained during the twilight, and ceased as soon as it became dark - and the night had begun. It was an evening hymn to the setting sun. - The hoarse screams and movements of troops of monkeys then disturbed - the precincts. These harsh noises gradually stopped, and as the - night advanced the forest became silent. The moon was up and we knew - that it was shining brightly above the trees, but we could only see - occasionally its faint glimmer. I had expected to hear the croaking of - frogs or the sounds of cicadas, the usual accompaniment to a tropical - evening, but although there was a running stream of water at the foot - of the mound, these familiar sounds were absent.</p> - - <p>The brushwood covering the ground was made brilliant by numerous - fireflies. The light which shone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span> - from these beetles far exceeded - anything of that nature that I had seen in other regions, and I took - the opportunity of ascertaining the strength of the illuminating power. - I sent one of the men into the wood to catch the largest firefly - that he could find, and then, after having made the corridor dark by - extinguishing our candles, the insect was held about two inches from a - blank page of my note book, Dr. Coller watched the experiment. We found - that the light was steady and shed a soft clear phosphorescent glow - over the paper. The luminous power was sufficient to enable us to read - or write with ease over a surface two inches square. After writing a - few notes upon what had been done during the day we added:—</p> - - <blockquote> - <p class="hang">“Written by the light of a firefly in the Palace, in the ruins - of Palenque, the night of Wednesday, March 10th, 1870, the - candle (firefly) held by Dr. Albert Coller. The light about - equal to that of a small wax candle and very pure. The light - rather greenish.”</p> - - <p class="right">“Dr. <span class="smcap">A. J. Coller</span>.”</p> - </blockquote> - - <p>Before turning into my hammock I visited the horses tethered at the - base of the mound near the stream. They were much worried by flies, - mosquitos, and small ticks called garrapátas, which find their way - under the skin and cause great irritation. In the corridor, thirty - feet above them, we were not troubled with any of these pests, but - there were numerous bats. The Indians said that, sometimes, horses were - seriously injured by bats biting them above their hoofs.</p> - - <p>In the morning, upon the earliest indications of - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span> dawn, the solitary - nightingale again began its song, and the clear staccato, and - singularly musical note was again heard amongst the ruins until - sunrise, when it ceased. Thus this bird sang its song of praise as the - herald of the day.</p> - - <p>At sunrise Dr. Coller returned to San Domingo, leaving me alone at - Palenque to carry out the investigation of the mounds and temples, a - work which he thought would be laborious and oppressive. My guides - were however well acquainted with the ruins, and I consequently - knew that I should be spared all unnecessary exertion. But until I - began the exploration I had no idea of the difficulties that had to - be encountered. The men were employed in cutting a path through the - brushwood and it was impracticable to do more than follow a certain - line of direction and obtain ideas of distances by counting the - number of paces or by noting intervals of time. I soon ascertained - that with the means at my disposal it was hopeless to expect to do - more than obtain a general knowledge of the extent and form of the - chief structures, and the positions of the mounds. It was a serious - disappointment to find that it was impossible to make a thorough - examination without the aid of a large number of Indians to cut down - the trees and clear the ground. This would have been a work involving - much time and expenditure and was entirely beyond my power. The forest - was sombre, for the light that penetrated through the trees, was - insufficient. It was however possible to obtain a fair knowledge of the - extent of the space covered by the mounds, and their distances from the - monastery. The ground plan of the inclosure could also be approximately - understood.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span></p> - - <p>The first and, with respect to its altar, the most important building - that I saw, was that known by the name of the Temple of the Cross. - Before ascending the sides of the mound upon which it stands, I - examined the formation of an ancient causeway which covered, for some - distance, the stream near its base. I traced it for about one hundred - and fifty yards. A small portion was sufficiently preserved to enable - the system of construction to be ascertained. It appears to have been - intended for the purpose of confining the rivulet that ran beneath it, - and thus to secure a dry roadway, or crossing, during the rainy season. - It was stated by the Indians, that there still existed, in the forest, - the remains of a stone bridge. As far as I could understand their - description, it appeared that in shape it was not unlike the ancient - Chinese bridges, and rose to the centre by steep gradients.</p> - - <p>After finishing the measurements of the causeway we began to ascend - the mound. About halfway up the slope, the men stopped and pointed to - a place where, lying with its face on the ground, was the stone of - the cross. As this tablet had been the subject of much investigation, - and is undoubtedly, with respect to its meaning, the most remarkable - monument at Palenque, I was anxious to examine it with the utmost care. - I directed the Indians to turn it over and thoroughly clean it from - moss and dirt, so as to enable me to make a sketch of it. I found that, - in consequence of the action of the earth upon the face of the stone, - parts of the sculpture were difficult to trace, but the central figures - were quite distinct. I was able to make a satisfactory outline, - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span> - chiefly confining my attention to the cross, the bird surmounting it, - and the dress of the man, having in his hands what seemed to be a - child, which he was presenting as a votive offering.</p> - - <p>The bird, with its long double tail feathers, was probably the - representation of the Quetzal, the sacred bird of the Quichés, and - thus it may be assumed that the temple in which this tablet formed the - centre of the altar-piece, was dedicated to the worship of the god - Quetzalcoatl. But, judging by the peculiarities of the dress worn by - the principal worshipper, I formed the opinion that he was not, as has - previously been supposed, a priest offering sacrifice. The worshippers - and the offerings have, I believe, other significations.<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p> - - <p>The temple, placed upon the top of the mound, must have been—when it - was externally perfect—a graceful and well proportioned shrine; but - when I saw it, the outer walls were so enveloped in brushwood and - enclosed by trees, that it was not practicable to do more than obtain - a conception of its proportions. After having measured the length, - breadth and height, and made a ground plan, I examined the interior. - A corridor ran along the front; within was the chamber which had - contained the inscribed stone slabs which formed the back of the altar, - in the centre of which had been the figure of the cross. This, and the - right and left hand tablets, had been <span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span> - all closely joined together so - as to form one subject,<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> the meaning of which was probably explained - by the hieroglyphic characters. The right hand tablet, which had been - removed, I had already seen at the museum in Washington.</p> - - <p>After leaving this sanctuary, we descended the southern slope until - we reached the base, and then began to ascend the adjoining mound, on - whose summit was another temple. Thus we proceeded until we reached a - singular little structure which has been considered to be exceptional, - from the fact that the figure upon the altar had been placed upon a - base supported by what are supposed to have been two tigers. I could - only trace the remains of the feet, as everything within and without - the temple was in ruins. Following the direction of the quadrangular - precincts, we finally crossed over an unusually lofty mound, and then - arrived at the back or western face of the monastery.</p> - - <p>We had completed a slight survey of the mounds and temples on the sides - of the inclosure, having passed successively over them and examined the - altars, as far as their more or less ruined state permitted. These all - varied in their dimensions, but they were evidently built for analagous - purposes as shrines for the worship of the Indian gods.<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> There - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span>was, - however, one important exception which requires to be noticed.</p> - - <p>At the south-west angle of the monastery—and connected with it in such - a manner that it seems to have been an adjunct to the main building—are - the ruins of a structure which has been considered to have been a - temple, but which, I think, served for a different purpose. It stands - upon a mound about forty-five feet high. Its frontage was found to be - longer than that of any of the other temples. In the interior there - was no altar, but the upright slabs of stone placed upon the inner - wall were covered with hieroglyphs. When the Indians, who accompanied - Mr. Stephens, saw these groups of characters they declared that the - building was an escuela or schoolhouse. Other opinions were also given, - but the subject has not received any investigation. I think it is - probable that the opinion of the Indians was correct, and that it was - here that the boys were taught the meaning of the hieroglyphic symbols, - and were thus able to read and interpret the signs placed upon the - idols and altars.</p> - - <p>In the afternoon we re-entered the monastery. We had been for nearly - seven hours occupied in crossing over the mounds and clearing a path - through the forest, and yet at no time did I estimate that we were more - than five hundred yards from our starting point. At the end of this - part of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span> - the day’s work, I found that I was able to establish some - deductions respecting the positions and heights of the raised platforms - and the character of the stone edifices.</p> - - <p>It may be concluded that Palenque consists of a group of mounds having - buildings upon them exclusively devoted to the purposes of religion. - In the year 1840, five of the mounds had temples upon their summits - which were in a fair state of preservation. The survey of Captain - Antonio Del Rio was made in the year 1787, and, as he was an officer - of the Artillery, his Report, with respect to the general plan, and - the bearings and distances of the mounds then remaining, may be - accepted as being correct. He states that he visited the ruins called - Casas de Piedras (stone houses) on the 5th of May, and finding that - nothing could be distinctly made out in consequence of the forest, - he engaged a large number of Indians from Tumbalá, who felled the - trees and afterwards cleared the ground by fire, thus opening up a - sufficient space to enable him to observe the true positions of the - mounds and buildings. He found that they were all contained within a - rectangular area, four hundred and fifty yards long and three hundred - yards wide. In the centre was the mound upon which stood the largest - structure. This was surrounded by other edifices, “namely: five to the - northward, four to the southward, one to the south-west, and three to - the eastward.”</p> - - <p>Thus it appears that in 1787 there were thirteen mounds with buildings - upon their summits, besides the large platform earthwork upon which - was placed the “Palace.” In 1806, nearly twenty years afterwards, - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span>the - Spanish Government ordered another survey to be made. The expedition - was placed under the orders of Captain Dupaix, who had served as - an officer in the Dragoons. He reported that, at that time, eleven - temples were still standing. Thirty-four years later, Mr. Stephens - could only discover five temples not utterly ruined. It is strange that - in these short intervals of time, such changes should have happened - amongst monuments of this nature. With regard to this subject, it is - of consequence to notice the statements given by the local authorities - who made the original discoveries which led to the survey of Del Rio. - The explorations were conducted, under the orders of the Spanish - authorities at Guatemala, by one of the principal inhabitants of - the village of San Domingo, named Calderon, aided by the Government - architect, Bernasconi. In their Report, which was made only three years - before that of Del Rio, they declared that there were evidences of the - ruins of numerous houses occupying a large space of land to the west - of the temples. Nothing was known by my Indians upon this subject. It - should, however, be observed, with respect to undiscovered ruins, that - any rumours relating to what may, or may not, exist in the heart of a - tropical forest, must necessarily be doubtful, for where nothing can be - seen, except what may happen to be found in the direction of the path, - much must be unknown.</p> - - <p>On the slopes of the ground in front of one of the temples I saw a - large and rudely carved statue, which in consequence of its form - and manner of sculpture is of much importance. There is reason to - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span> - believe that it was intended to represent Quetzalcoatl, an Indian god, - a mythical or real personage, who, for many reasons connected with - Palenque, requires to have an especial consideration given to him. It - is a distinctive characteristic of this statue, that the features are - essentially different from those of the Indians whose figures are to be - seen upon the altars of the temples and within the courts and corridors - of the monastery. These have receding foreheads and sharply defined - prominent faces, quite unlike the present races in Central America, but - in a marked degree resembling the tribes of the North American Indians, - who had the custom of flattening the heads of their children.</p> - - <p>The statue by my measurement, was a few inches more than eight feet in - height, exclusive of the lower part of the stone, which tapered off in - such a manner as to show that it had been originally placed upright and - fixed in the ground. The feet stood on a base upon which was carved the - hieroglyph which probably denoted the name. The forehead was low and - straight. The face was completely different in type and expression, - from that of any known race of Indians. The head was surmounted by a - kind of high tiara. The left hand held in front of the figure a small - head, in the same position as in the little figure at Ocosingo.</p> - - <p>As, after completing the circuit of the mounds, there were still a few - hours at my disposal before leaving Palenque so as to reach the village - before nightfall, I decided to devote the time to the investigation of - certain problems regarding the age and construction of the buildings. - But in the first place,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span> - attention should be directed to the manner in - which the open courts within the monastery are disposed, and access is - obtained to the rooms beneath the corridors. Commencing from the east - front, there are two ranges of corridors which are separated throughout - their whole length by a strong wall, which receives the thrust of the - two inner slopes supporting the roof. There is only one entrance or - means of communication between them in the existing northern portion - of the ruins. The interior width of each of these galleries is about - seven feet four inches. After passing across them, the principal - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span> court - is reached and the floor of the open space is seen ten feet below. - A wide flight of large and well hewn stone steps leads down to the - bottom, which appears to have been paved with several layers of cement. - This court is twenty-eight paces wide. The rooms are entered through - doorways in the sides of the inclosing walls. Opposite to the first - flight of steps there are similar steps leading to a second series of - corridors. Passing through these, another court is reached, and beyond - is the outer gallery which runs along the western side of the building. - The total width of this cross section of the monastery is approximately - one hundred and seventy-six feet.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_311"><img src="images/i_311.jpg" width="214" height="450" alt="" /></a> - </div> - - <p>When wandering amongst these courts, and looking at the vestiges of - an unknown state of civilisation, I endeavoured to form conclusions - with regard to the purpose and antiquity of all that was seen. The - problem is difficult to solve. It has been surmised that the temples - of Palenque were erected during a period not exceeding four centuries - before the Spanish conquest. This opinion was based upon what has been - observed with respect to the condition of the ruins, and the freshness - of portions of the colouring of the stucco. This method of estimating - comparative antiquity presents some local difficulties.</p> - - <p>The square tower was originally faced with thick cement, and then - covered with washes of colour, in the same manner as the walls of the - Teocallis in the Quiché city of Utatlan upon which the faded colours - are still visible. If the existing outer coating was the only one that - had been given it would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span> - be reasonable to infer that the age of the - tower was not great. But it happens that in those places where portions - of the stucco have fallen, there have been numerous applications - of colour, and therefore admitting that the latest may look bright - and fresh, it is not possible to estimate the periods that may have - elapsed between the dates of successive layers. Although I was at first - inclined to think that the building could not be ancient, yet a more - careful examination left the subject indeterminate. Any conclusions - which may have been thought probable on account of the state of the - walls and roofs are equally uncertain. With regard to this matter it is - necessary to take into consideration certain existing conditions.</p> - - <p>Immediately behind the ruins are the slopes of the sierras which - I traversed on the way from Tumbalá. They are covered with loose - fragments of the limestones of which they are formed. These were the - building materials used by the architects of the temples. Their small - size and flat surface were suitable for the purpose, when combined with - mortar, the mixing of which the Indians well understood. The walls of - the monastery were made with layers of these flat stones bound together - with quantities of this mortar. The outer faces were carefully arranged - to receive a thick casing of cement, which was so hard and sound, that - it is evident the builders must have had an accurate knowledge of the - best proportions of the substances required for its composition. The - cement had a smooth surface and in several places it was still perfect. - The colours laid upon it are red, blue, yellow and white. - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span> They appear - to have been made more or less vivid and varied in accordance with what - was thought necessary to obtain good contrasts. The stucco figures and - scrolls were skilfully designed, and were coloured in a manner which - was harmonious and effective. The sound state of the cement where - it is sheltered from the action of the rain is extraordinary. It is - strange that in this tropical climate where, for half the year there - are continuous and heavy rainfalls, the variations from the damp, close - atmosphere in the summer to the dry season of winter should not have - had a more destructive influence upon buildings, mainly composed of - rubble and mortar.</p> - - <p>In one instance, that of the tower, the astonishing growth of tropical - vegetation has had the effect of preventing its fall. Thick creepers - have wound themselves like strong ropes around the walls and bound - them firmly together. The walls at the corners of the entrances to the - courts were remarkably uninjured. The cement was intact, and this, even - in positions where it might have been expected that, in a long course - of time, in consequence of being partly exposed and partly sheltered, - it would have broken away and fallen.</p> - - <p>It would be justifiable to conclude from these evidences of stability - that the buildings are comparatively modern. But there is a difficulty - with regard to this assumption which has to be considered. In the - year 1525, when Cortes on his march from Mexico to Honduras passed - with his expeditionary forces within a few leagues of this place, the - temples had been already abandoned. Consequently not less than four - centuries must have now elapsed since<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span> - Palenque was deserted. If then, - within the tropics, buildings made of such perishable materials have - remained for that long period in a fair state of preservation, it may - be inferred that there are some local circumstances which have caused - an exceptional power of resistance to the disintegrating action of the - climate. The forest may have afforded some protection, and therefore - the age of the monastery may be greater than might be estimated from - the condition of the ruins.</p> - - <p>There are, however, other facts which are opposed to any theories - of great antiquity. The Indians had cleared, for my inspection, the - stone steps leading from the western side of the principal court. - Upon these were carved groups of hieroglyphs which were in an almost - perfect state. The edges of the steps were unworn. It was therefore - made evident that in an open court, completely exposed to the weather - and the influence of the tropical rains, inscriptions graven upon the - surface of these flat stone slabs had remained uninjured.</p> - - <p>After looking at the sculptures, and the coloured stucco figures which - adorned the piers and inner walls, I endeavoured to establish some - standard of comparison by which I might be able to form well-founded - conjectures regarding their age. I thought of various ruins in Egypt - and Asia Minor, then of those belonging to later periods in Italy - and Great Britain, but there were such essential differences in the - materials used, and the influences of the atmosphere, that it was not - possible to establish any assured conclusions. Opinions formed upon - the results of an examination of the temples on the mounds - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span> would - be equally unsatisfactory, for some of them, especially in their - interiors, were in a comparatively good condition, others were in - ruins. But, there are proofs of a moderate antiquity. The lintels - that once supported the walls over the doorways and other openings - have completely disappeared. In only one instance, which came under - my notice, were there any signs of the thick, hard beams of zapote - wood which had been employed for that purpose. A broad lintel in the - monastery had left its impress upon the under surface of the wall which - had weighed downwards upon it. The marks of the fibre and the shape - of the lintel were clearly defined upon the mortar. Dr. Coller found - amongst the ruins a piece of this wood. It was exceedingly heavy and - close-grained, and was of the nature of what is known, in the East - Indies, by the name of iron wood. The zapote trees grow chiefly in the - forests in the valley of the Usamacinta and towards the lake of Peten.</p> - - <p>When the evening drew near, I called my Indians together and entered - the forest on the way back to the village. As I rode slowly forward - I felt that these mysterious ruins contained a secret which has yet - to be unravelled. The priests of a powerful race, having strange and - unknown forms of religion, had been for centuries worshipping at these - shrines. Within the sanctuaries were graven upon tablets of stone those - records which, when interpreted, may throw some light upon what is now - obscure.<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_XVI"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span> - <h2>CHAPTER XVI.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - Mounds in the valley of the - Usamacinta.—Lacandones.—Catasaja.—Canoe voyage.—Rivers - and Lagoons.—Alligators.—Jonuta.—Cortes’s March - to Honduras.—Cannibalism.—The Mexican Emperor - Guatimozin.—Palisada.—Laguna de Terminos.—Island of - Carmen.—Campeachy.—Yucatan.—Pyramidal Altar.—Human - sacrifices.—Tzibalché.—Maya Indians.—Arrival at Uxmal. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">At</span> San Domingo Dr. Coller showed me a chart which he had drawn of - the country around for a distance of twelve miles, exclusive of the - neighbourhood of Palenque where the forest prevented him from making a - survey. Upon this chart he had placed the positions of eleven mounds - that he had discovered. They were situated near the left bank of the - Usamacinta. On the slopes of these mounds were loose slabs of worked - limestone which he thought must have formed part of houses built on - their summits. Some excavations had been made and it was proved that - the mounds were not burial places.</p> - - <p>I met in the village the proprietor of a small hacienda near Balancan. - He told me that in one of his fields there was a large mound forty feet - high, which must have had a building upon it, for on the top there - were large blocks of squared stone. He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span> - wished to know what the mound - contained and had therefore dug through it, but he found nothing but - a curved grindstone precisely similar in shape and size to those now - used by the women in the neighbourhood. In the adjoining land he had - found near the surface numerous terra-cotta idols, but he had not seen - any human bones. It is a coincidence perhaps of some importance, with - reference to the origin of the race once occupying Palenque, that a - grindstone was also the only thing found within the mound opened by - the orders of Carrera on the plains of Mixco, in that part of Central - America which, before the conquest, had been occupied by the Quichés.</p> - - <p>San Domingo is occasionally visited by groups of the wild Indians - called Lacandones who live isolated amongst the adjacent forests. - Dr. Coller told me that during his ten years’ residence, he had seen - several of these men enter the village for the purpose of exchanging - beans, tobacco and wax for spirits and other goods. They were always - dressed in long white cotton frocks which reached nearly to their feet, - and they wore their hair loose and very long. They seemed to be of a - shy and inoffensive disposition. It is probable that they are of the - same tribe as the Indians who live scattered amongst the Cordilleras - near Comitan, a few of whom occasionally come down to that town from - the forests bringing for barter bags of cocoa beans.</p> - - <p>The journey from Palenque to the coast of the Gulf of Mexico had to - be made by rivers and lagoons. The embarkation place was at Catasaja, - where canoes were to be obtained. After riding eight leagues through - forests and savannahs we reached “Las<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span> - Playas,” where I was welcomed by - the Licenciado Vadillo. Catasaja was a flourishing village, prettily - situated on the upper waters of a branch of the Usamacinta. It was in - an unusually busy state. Preparations were in progress for holding a - fair, and celebrating the annual festival of the church. Great numbers - of Indians and Ladinos were expected to arrive from the surrounding - country, and sheds were being built as shelters for them. In the - morning, at an early hour, I found that Señor Vadillo had made all - necessary arrangements for my journey, and had secured for me a good - canoe manned by trustworthy Indians. With his assistance I was able to - sell my mule. The saddle and hammock were retained as I should want - them in Yucatan.</p> - - <p>In the forenoon the men reported that the boat was ready. After - paddling swiftly down the stream for several leagues we entered a - channel whose muddy banks were covered with alligators. The river also - swarmed with them. Upon several occasions I thought that the canoe was - in danger of being capsized by the waves made by the alligators, in - consequence, as we approached them, of their habit of slipping off the - bank into the river, and I told the Indians to be careful. They said - that the canoe was perfectly safe, but that if, by any accident, we - should be rolled over there was nothing to be feared, as the alligators - never attacked people in the water. I was doubtful about this theory, - although it may be correct. It is well known that natives in other - parts of the world have been seized by alligators when incautiously - going too near them when they were watching for their prey on the - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span> - banks. But I do not know if there is any evidence to show that they - would seize men in the same manner if they were actually floating in - the water.<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span></p> - - <p>Lower down the river we came to a place where the stream was sluggish. - The banks were flat and covered with dense vegetation. Here we saw - an extraordinary scene. The water was thick, green, and putrid with - animal matter. The surface was covered with the inflated bodies of dead - alligators.</p> - - <p>Large carrion birds were feeding upon them in the most revolting - manner. Their claws were firmly fixed upon the hard skin of the - reptiles, and they drove their beaks, like pickaxes, deep down into - their entrails and gorged themselves with the decaying flesh. The - stench was horrible, and together with the oppressive heat, the foul - state of the air and the enormous mosquitoes, made this part of the - journey very disgusting.</p> - - <p>At sunset we arrived at a place called Jonuta, near the junction of the - river Palisada with the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span> - river Usamacinta, and the canoe was hauled - up on the bank. We could not have been far from the spot where Cortes - crossed over on his march to Honduras, one of the most extraordinary - military expeditions, through an absolutely unknown country and amongst - unknown men, that has ever been successfully accomplished. This part - of the march through the forest and across the numerous streams of - the estuary of the Usamacinta was especially difficult and laborious, - and at one time, the forces were driven to great straits for want of - provisions. The events that occurred here are described by Bernal - Diaz, who accompanied the troops, and by Cortes in his despatch to the - Emperor Charles V. One of these events was so remarkable that it at - once arrests the attention.</p> - - <p>The Spaniards and their Indian allies had been for several days - suffering from famine, and the state of affairs in the camp was - becoming serious. It was then discovered that several acts of - cannibalism had taken place. “It appeared,” states Bernal Diaz, “that - certain Caciques from Mexico had captured two or three of the Indians - belonging to the villages that we had passed through, and had brought - them hidden amongst their baggage, and on account of the hunger on - the road they killed them and roasted them in ovens which were made - under the ground with stones, as was their custom in Mexico, and they - devoured them, and in the same way they had also secreted the two - guides that we had with us who had run away, and they ate them. When - Cortes knew what had happened he ordered the Mexican Caciques to be - called together and spoke angrily to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span> - them, and told them that if such - things occurred again he would punish them. The Franciscan friar, who - accompanied us, also preached to them many holy and good sayings and - after he had concluded his sermon Cortes, as a matter of justice, - ordered a Mexican Indian to be burnt on account of the murder of the - Indians that they had eaten.”</p> - - <p>Cortes in reporting this punishment to the Emperor says,—“I ordered - him to be burnt, giving the said Señor to understand the reason for - this act of justice. That it was because he had killed an Indian and - eaten him; which act was forbidden by your Majesty and that I, in your - Royal name, had notified and ordered that it should not be done, and - that therefore for having killed and eaten him I ordered him to be - burnt.”<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p> - - <p>Another strange event that took place whilst the troops were in this - region, was the tragic fate of Guatimozin, who had succeeded Montezuma - as Emperor of Mexico. It is difficult to understand what could have - been the object that Cortes had in view when he ordered this monarch - to be executed. He may have thought it expedient to destroy, as far - as possible, the whole race of caciques throughout New Spain and thus - minimise the risk of any organized rebellion. These chiefs ruled with - absolute power over the natives, and it is possible that the Spanish - authorities deemed it advisable to get rid of them. Hundreds of them - were burnt alive <span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span> - at the stake upon the slightest pretexts. After one - of the local insurrections the officer who suppressed it reported that - he had burnt forty of the rebellious caciques. In a similar manner the - leaders in Cuba and Haiti were also destroyed.</p> - - <p>In the case of Guatimozin, Cortes considered that he and his cousin, - the King of Tlacupa, had been proved guilty of conspiring with other - Indians to kill the Spaniards; and he accordingly ordered them to be - put to death. The sentence was immediately carried out, and the two - Mexican monarchs were hanged upon a tree within sight of the army as it - continued its march through the forest.</p> - - <p>The positions where these events occurred can only be approximately - determined. The wooden bridges which were constructed for the passage - of the troops have disappeared. All local records of this famous march - have passed away. The villages or pueblos mentioned by the conquerors - no longer exist, and their names are forgotten. It is only by the most - attentive study that even a presumptive knowledge of the route can be - obtained. From the accounts given in the official dispatches and the - statements of Bernal Diaz, and also from the fact that Cortes steered - a straight course by compass, it may be concluded that the forces must - have passed near Jonuta and about twenty-eight miles from the ruins of - Palenque.</p> - - <p>With respect to the acts of cannibalism it should be observed, in - justice to other tribes, that the caciques who devoured the bodies were - Mexicans, and there are reasons for believing that before the arrival - of the Aztecs cannibalism was unknown in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span> - Central America. The method - of cooking by baking in ovens which, after the holes had been dug out - of the ground, were surrounded and covered by heated stones, are the - same as those that were customary with the Maoris in New Zealand, who, - after their fights, feasted upon their captured enemies in that manner.</p> - - <p>Upon the evening of the day upon which we left Jonuta, we reached - Palisada and brought to an end our wearisome canoe voyage down the - Usamacinta. At Palisada the logwood, which is obtained in the forests - bordering upon the upper parts of the rivers, is gathered together and - shipped upon small schooners which carry their cargoes of palo tinto - (red wood) to the town of Laguna on the island of Carmen, whence the - wood is sent to Europe and other parts of the world.</p> - - <p>In one of these little fore-and-aft rigged schooners I embarked and - proceeded on my way down the river. In the afternoon we stopped in a - place where we could get some shade until sunset. I found a shelter - within a hut near the bank. Throughout the night the atmosphere was - very oppressive. We slowly made our way by the help of a small boat, - manned by our Indian crew, which took us in tow. All of us suffered - greatly from the attacks of myriads of mosquitoes. On the following day - we arrived at an open sheet of water, called the inner lagoon, where - it was perfectly calm and we had to endure on the open and exposed - deck, the full strength of the tropical sun. In the evening a strong - head wind called “el Norte” sprang up, together with heavy squalls and - showers of rain which continued all that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span> - night and the whole of the - next day. As we could not make any headway we anchored. The sun was - very powerful and it was not possible to escape from its influence. - The Indians appeared to be much affected by the weather and were in - a worn and prostrate condition. I had to endure, equally with them, - the alternate exposure to extreme heat and cold driving rain. During - the night the wind moderated, and towards the morning we weighed our - anchor and proceeded to the entrance of the outer lagoon and waited for - daylight. As the sun rose, the wind suddenly shifted, and we sailed - rapidly across the bay to the anchorage off the town, arriving there - early in the forenoon.</p> - - <p>Thus terminated the voyage “par los rios” (by the rivers). The exposure - to the sun by day, the attacks of mosquitoes by night, and the sickly - condition of the banks of the rivers and lagoons, had combined to make - that part of the journey across the continent extremely exhausting.</p> - - <p>The long narrow island of Carmen is placed like a natural breakwater, - sheltering the bay from the open sea of the Gulf of Campeachy. The - earliest notice of it occurs in the Reports of the Spanish expedition - under Grijalva in 1518. Bernal Diaz, who was one of those who took - part in it, mentions a fact that throws some light upon the religious - customs of the Indians. He observes that the fleet after having - visited the coasts of Yucatan arrived at this island and remained - for several days at anchor in the bay. Many of the officers and men - landed, he being amongst the number. After traversing the island it - was ascertained that it was not inhabited, but some - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span> small temples - (adoratorios) were seen. These were made of stone and mortar, and - contained many idols made of clay and of wood, some were like figures - of gods, others like women, and many seemed to represent serpents. At - the present time there are no remains visible of these adoratorios. - The fact, however, of their having been erected upon this island is - instructive. It tends to prove that temples were placed in positions - where there were no inhabitants, and thus, to some extent, supports the - theory that certain holy places were set apart for religious purposes, - and were not necessarily attached to centres of population.</p> - - <p>During the stay of Grijalva’s fleet, a greyhound, belonging to one of - the ships, strayed on shore and was lost. The following year, upon the - arrival of a second expedition, when the ships anchored, the dog was - seen on the beach watching them. Bernal Diaz relates how the dog knew - his own ship, and fawned upon the crew when they landed, showing the - utmost happiness and affection. How the dog had obtained food and water - through such a long period was not known.</p> - - <p>Soon after my arrival I was informed that a small schooner called the - Rosita was about to sail for Campeachy and that her skipper would take - a few passengers. I accordingly made arrangements with him and went on - board. I found that the only accommodation was the open hold under the - main hatch. Here on the top of the cargo, made smooth and level for - the purpose, were placed mats. We embarked two ladies and some Spanish - officials and left La Laguna at daylight. The wind was against us and - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span> - we had to make a long tack towards the Yucatan coast, near Champoton. - During the night the wind became more favourable and in the forenoon - we sighted the white walls of Campeachy. The cathedral and mediæval - fortifications looked very picturesque from the sea as we approached - the coast. The Rosita did not draw much water, so we were able to - anchor within half a mile of the landing place. I was glad to find in - the town a tolerable inn called the Paloma, and a worthy, attentive - landlord named Ruiz. The constant exposure and the hardships endured - latterly had seriously affected my constitution, and I felt weak and - ill. It was a comfort to get shelter and quiet, and the shade and rest - which was obtained by having a large room opening upon an inner court. - Here I remained for several days suffering from very severe headaches - and without feeling that I was, in any perceptible degree, regaining my - strength.</p> - - <p>On the morning of the fifth day I heard a gentle tap at the door, and - my landlady asked if she could come in. She looked at me with much - sympathy and said, “Señor, may I speak to you?” I replied, “Certainly.” - She then said, “Señor, you have upon you the lagoon fever, from which - strangers seldom recover, and I have come to ask you where you keep - your money and where your friends live, so that I may be able to carry - out your wishes.” I said, “My kind donna, perhaps I may get better if - I change the air. Do you know how I can get away?” The landlady looked - pleased and said that she knew that a certain Señor Escalanta was about - to start for a village called Tzibalché, and that perhaps he - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span> would - share with me the expenses of a conveyance. This arrangement was made, - and in the forenoon a covered cart, with three mules harnessed abreast, - was drawn up at the door of the inn. I took my place upon a mattress, - and before midday we were several leagues away breathing the pure and - bracing air of the open country. The change acted like magic. The fever - seemed almost immediately to leave me, but there remained a persistent - headache.</p> - - <p>We stopped at a village to get dinner, and met an intelligent man who - was employed as constructor of a new road that was being made on this - part of the coast. It had happened, that in the course of his work, he - had made several cuttings and excavations, and discovered many things - of much antiquarian importance. He told us of a large pyramidal altar - or Kue which was situated in the neighbourhood, and as I particularly - wished to see it, Señor Escalanta consented to halt whilst an - examination of it was made.</p> - - <p>We found the altar to be one of that type of structures upon the - summit of which the Mexican priests were accustomed to perform human - sacrifices. This Yucatecan Kue was more than fifty feet high and was - entirely faced with large, squared, well hewn blocks of hard limestone. - It was very steep. I estimated the angle of the slope to be about - 70°. There were two ledges, respectively one-third and two-thirds up - the pyramid and on the top was the platform, which was in a ruinous - condition.</p> - - <p>There were a number of small stone chambers built on the sides. The - existence of these singular little cells had caused the people in the - adjacent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span> - hamlets to form the opinion that the Kue had been inhabited - by dwarfs. We examined these chambers very carefully, and although it - was not possible to come to any satisfactory conclusion with regard to - their purpose, it was clear that they could not have been intended for - habitation. It seemed probable that they were either places for idols - or that they were used as vaults for burial. They were built with much - skill, and the squaring of the masonry was perfect. The inner wall of - these cells was formed by the stone casing of the pyramid. Several - small idols were found here. We were chiefly interested in examining - the method of construction followed by the Indian architects. This was - made apparent by the fact that portions of the outer casing had been - demolished. It appeared that the inner portion was a solid mass of - stones and mortar which, when completed, was covered with thick slabs - of masonry, smooth and well jointed. On the west face there were the - remains of a large chamber, but as that part of the pyramid was in a - ruinous condition, its dimensions could not be measured.</p> - - <p>It is strange that so little is known concerning the ancient rites and - ceremonies performed by the priests upon these high altars. Immediately - after the conquest these Indian customs ceased, and all the signs of - their religion and religious usages disappeared like a dream. When - Grijalva’s expedition reached the Bay of Campeachy, they saw a large - Kue which must have been similar to that we were examining. Bernal - Diaz in his history relates that they landed to get a supply of water - for the ships near a spot where there was a village. The natives came - down<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span> - to the beach in a friendly manner, and asked them if they arrived - from the spot where the sun rose. They then proposed that they should - go with them to their pueblo, and took them to a large building made - of stone and mortar. Whilst the Spaniards were looking about them - and observing the habits of the people, “Ten Indians dressed in long - white cloaks came out of another adoratorio. Their long thick hair was - clotted with blood and so twisted, that it could not have been combed - or spread without cutting it off. These men were sacerdotes of the - idols, and in New Spain they called themselves Pápas. Again I say that - in New Spain they called themselves Pápas, and thus I shall name them - henceforwards. These Pápas brought to us perfumes like a kind of resin - which they call copal, and with earthen braziers filled with fire they - commenced to incense us.” Diaz thought that the stone buildings were - altars, and he saw numerous idols, and “it appeared to us,” he says, - “that at this time they had been sacrificing to the idols certain - Indians to give them the victory over us.”</p> - - <p>On their further voyage near another part of the Mexican coast, where - is now situated the town of Vera Cruz, the fleet arrived at the Island - of Sacrificios, a name that was given to that land in consequence of - what was observed to take place there. The island was explored by the - Spaniards, and they discovered two Kues made of lime and stone, and - ascended by steps. “In these altars,” observes Diaz, “were idols of - evil figures which were their gods, and here they had sacrificed on - the previous night five Indians. Their breasts were opened and their - arms and thighs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span> - were cut off and the walls were covered with blood.” - It happened that the Chaplain-General of the Fleet wrote an itinerary - of this voyage, and he also visited these temples. He mentioned the - extraordinary fact of having noticed within one of the shrines “some - bordered stuff made of silk, similar to what was worn by the Moors and - which were called by them “Almaizales.”<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> At another temple, situated - near the coast, four Indian priests were seen, who had lately been - performing sacrifices. In this instance they had sacrificed two young - boys. Their breasts had been opened and their hearts had been taken out - and placed before the idol as an offering. The Spaniards were surprised - when they observed that these priests were dressed like Dominicans and - wore long cloaks and capes. This, together with their manner of using - incense, seemed in some inexplicable degree to resemble the observances - of their own monastic fraternities.</p> - - <p>In the various accounts that have been given by the conquerors - concerning the Indians, there is nothing mentioned about the burial - customs, and even at the present time the subject is obscure. I was - therefore interested in listening to the contractor’s remarks about - some discoveries made by his workmen when excavating along the line of - road. They found the ruins of several houses. Each of - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span>them contained - beneath the centre of the principal room a vaulted tomb, in which it - was supposed that the proprietor had been buried when he died. They - also found, when tracing the direction of the work, several small Kues - of pyramidal shapes, around the sides of which were numerous small - stone cells. The contractor told me that he had measured and surveyed - these carefully. He had come to the conclusion that they were burial - places.</p> - - <p>These discoveries were important, and corroborated in every essential - particular the statements of several Indian caciques dwelling beyond - Uxmal, in the sixteenth century. They informed the Spanish missionaries - that it had been customary, with the common people in Yucatan, to - bury their dead either inside their houses or at the back of them. - In certain cases they afterwards abandoned these dwellings and moved - elsewhere. The bodies of caciques and chiefs were burnt, and the ashes - were placed in urns. Small pyramids or temples were sometimes raised - over them.<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p> - - <p>I was sorry when it became necessary to proceed on our journey. The - road contractor was an official who took a comprehensive interest - in whatever related to the ancient inhabitants, and his practical - knowledge was invaluable.</p> - - <p>It was late when we finished the survey of the pyramid and its - chambers; we consequently travelled <span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span> - throughout the night at our best - speed. We passed through the pueblos of Tenabon and Hekelchakan and - reached Señor Escalanta’s house in Tzibalché at daylight. We were - received by the ladies of the establishment with cold and tranquil - apathy. Without saying a word, they turned out of their hammocks, and - proceeded to carry out their respective household duties. It must be - understood that the arrangements with all Ladino families are very - simple. In the <span xml:lang="es">tierras calientes</span> or hot regions every one sleeps in a - hammock. The hammocks are slung to the cross poles in the principal, - and often, only apartment. At night when the ladies wish to go to bed - they turn in, to use a sailor’s expression, all standing. The women - of all ages, young or old, wear but one dress which is always a long - cotton garment reaching from the shoulders to the feet. This is worn - day and night. The languid indifference of men and women, towards - each other and to all around them, is a marked characteristic of the - whole of the Ladino race throughout Central America. Nothing seems to - arouse their indolent natures, and although many of them are fairly - educated, they do not appear to have those qualities which form the - foundation of a good and energetic population. It cannot be considered - that the enervating influences of a tropical climate are chiefly the - cause of this inertness, for it exists in varying altitudes. It should, - however, be acknowledged that this half-caste race retains much of the - old-fashioned courtesy of their Spanish ancestors. The Ladinos have - ceased to intermarry with the Indians, and there is now no sympathy - between the two races.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span> - The Indians have almost as great a dislike to - them as they have to the Spaniards.</p> - - <p>At Tzibalché I enlisted in my service an Indian, named Anastasio, and - after some difficulty, hired a horse of doubtful merit. Anastasio - declared that we could avoid the long round to Uxmal by the main roads, - as he knew a short cut across the country which would shorten the - journey. By that path, he said, the distance to the hacienda at Uxmal - did not exceed nine or ten leagues. Accordingly we quitted the village - at sunrise and soon afterwards entered the bush.</p> - - <p>This part of Yucatan was covered with a thin light kind of brushwood - which grew to a height of about twelve feet. Our path was cut through - this bush which excluded all view to the right or left. Occasionally - we passed through a few acres of open land where the Indians were - cultivating some crops, but the soil was poor and stony. At noon we - arrived at a farm; the proprietor was inclined to be hospitable and - gave me food and shelter. I was suffering from a recurrence of what I - had endured at Campeachy and could scarcely bear the fatigue of the - journey, especially as the rays of the nearly vertical sun were very - powerful.</p> - - <p>During the afternoon, whilst resting in the shade, I listened to the - loud, discordant, and grating sounds pronounced by the Indians around - me. The language spoken was Maya, which has been ascertained to be the - parent stock of most of the languages and dialects spoken in Guatemala, - Yucatan and the bordering territories. I asked my host to give me a - specimen of their dialect. He replied that he would tell me - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span> what had - happened in the morning, and he leant forward and said:—<span xml:lang="myn">“Ti lé kin - béhilá, kuch yuayé humpel tzul ingles, bin tiar ten. Tumentin, katah - uchi y etel tin káhol ta hatchutz apockzi chalé; katin kámá tin nayle, - katin sah balu hante kati álá téné bin ku bétic Uxmal, tacthoh cásumac - tuh lú mil.”</span> “This day came here an English Señor and spoke to me. - Having questioned him and knowing him to be of a good heart, I received - him in my house and gave him to eat. Then he told me that he was going - to Uxmal, and thence to Merida and afterwards to his own land.”</p> - - <p>Towards the end of the day, when the sun was low, I ventured out of - the hut, mounted my horse, and pushed forward rapidly towards Uxmal. - After passing through several plantations of sugar-cane attached to - small Indian farms, we reached some rising ground and I saw, about four - miles distant towards the east, the great building, called the Casa - del Gobernador, with its terraces and adjacent pyramids standing out - high and distinct. The sun had disappeared below the horizon, and the - sky was brilliant with the vivid colouring of a tropical sunset. The - Casa del Gobernador was clear and well defined in the midst of this - magnificent frame of evening splendour, looking scarcely less beautiful - than a Greek temple on some lofty headland, when seen at twilight from - Ægean seas.</p> - - <p>It was getting dark when we slowly passed round the base of a Teocalli, - and it was night when we halted at the hacienda. The proprietor and - the agent were both absent, but the mayor-domo received me with much - kindness. He gave me a large<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span> - room next to one which he told me had - been occupied by the Empress Charlotte when she visited Uxmal in 1866. - The next morning, after giving Anastasio directions to join me at the - Casa del Gobernador and to bring with him my hammock and provisions, I - walked out to the ruins.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_339f"><img src="images/i_339f.jpg" width="700" height="440" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Casa del Gobernador. - - Casa de las Tortugas. - Casa de las Palomas.<br /> - UXMAL.</div> - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_XVII"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span> - <h2>CHAPTER XVII.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - Uxmal.—Extent of ground occupied by the - Ruins.—Teocallis.—Burial places at the foot of the Pyramid of - the Dwarf.—Evening Service at the chapel of the hacienda.—Casa - del Gobemador.—Sacrificial customs.—Preservation of the wooden - lintels.—The Nunnery or Casa de las Monjas.—Religious customs - of the Indians.—Emblem of the Serpent.—Sculptures.—Conjectures - respecting the possibility of Moorish, Spanish, or - Oriental influence upon architectural design.—Methods of - construction.—Note upon a fall of rain supposed to be caused by - the fires of the Indians. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">It</span> is considered that the ruins of Uxmal are, in extent and - construction, the most important in Yucatan, and therefore, excepting - in certain particulars, those at Palenque, the most remarkable in - Central America and Mexico.</p> - - <p>The ground occupied by them is in length about six hundred yards. - The width is slightly more than five hundred yards. Consequently the - area within which Uxmal is contained, may be approximately estimated - as being sixty acres. It therefore exceeds by twenty acres the space - covered by the mounds of Palenque. The buildings are irregularly - placed. The Casa del Gobernador (House of the Governor) with its - adjacent pyramids form the principal group towards the south. The - Casa de las Monjas (House of the Nuns) is situated towards the north. - These are the two great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span> - structures upon which the other temples and - mounds seem chiefly to depend. There are two smaller edifices called - respectively, the Casa de las Palomas (House of the Pigeons) and the - Casa de las Tortugas (House of the Turtles). There is also a detached - pyramid with a ruined temple upon its summit, which has been given the - name of the House of the Old Woman. Looking at these ruins as a group, - they appear to have consisted of quadrangular residences with pyramidal - mounds attached to them, raised for the purpose of obtaining lofty - sites for the altars of the Indian gods.</p> - - <p>One of the most important of these is that known as the Pyramid of - the Dwarf. I examined it with particular attention for the purpose - of studying the character of a series of small stone vaults or cells - placed round its base, which were similar in size and design to those - that I had seen on the lower slopes of the Kue near the coast above - Campeachy. Many of these cells were sufficiently perfect to enable - their dimensions and shape to be verified. It seemed evident that they - must have been made for sepulchral purposes. If this conclusion is - correct it is probable that they were the burial places for the ashes - of the caciques who ruled over this part of Yucatan.</p> - - <p>Upon an investigation of the outer parts of the pyramid, it is to be - observed that it was not only carefully constructed, but its plan must - have been accurately drawn and the relative mathematical measurements - calculated with reference to the space that was required for the - temple. The magnitude of the base could not be determined, on account - of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span> - the quantities of fallen stones and other débris. In 1841, Mr. - Stephens considered that it was two hundred and thirty-five feet long - by one hundred and fifty-five feet wide. The perpendicular height to - the platform was estimated to be eighty-eight feet.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_340f"><img src="images/i_340f.jpg" width="507" height="700" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Pyramid and Temple of the Dwarf.</div> - </div> - - <p>The steps leading up to the summit are broad, and must have formed an - imposing approach, but in consequence of the angle of the slope they - are necessarily steep, and are placed so close together that there - is barely sufficient width for the foot to rest. At the base of the - pyramid there is an open court, which I observed to be similar in shape - to one adjoining the base of an altar built by the Quichés at Utatlan, - but it was larger in extent. The court leads to the entrance of the - Casa de las Monjas.</p> - - <p>This building may be considered to be the result of the greatest powers - of sculpture and ornamentation that the Indians possessed, and judging - from the condition of many of its chambers, it is probably one of the - latest of their works. It is nearly quadrangular, and encloses an area - of over six thousand square yards.</p> - - <p>My first day at Uxmal was employed in making a rough survey of the land - occupied by the ruins.</p> - - <p>Upon my return to the hacienda, I found that an evening service, called - “el Rosario,” was being held in the chapel. A large number of Indians - were assembled. These Yucatecos had attached to the fingers of the - church images, many of their own small idols, made of metal. It was - consequently impossible to know (as the priests in the Cordilleras - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span> - said of their Indian parishioners), whether they were worshipping the - saints, or following in secret their ancient idolatries.</p> - - <p>The next morning I established myself in the “House of the Governor,” - and selected for our occupation the largest of the outer series of - apartments, opening upon the eastern courts. The size of these was - necessarily regulated by the angle of the converging slopes of the - walls, for the builders were limited in their plans in consequence - of their incomplete acquaintance with the formation of arches. In - one of the rooms there were some cross poles made of zapote wood, to - which Anastasio fastened my hammock. The architectural proportions - of the exterior are unusual. The length is about three hundred and - twenty-two feet, but the breadth is only thirty-nine feet, and the - low, narrow structure, is only twenty-five feet high. The effect, - however, of the long and elaborately carved façade, is particularly - pleasing both to the eye and the mind. In all respects, the Casa del - Gobernador is rightly given the distinction of being the grandest of - the stone structures that were built by Indians. The platform upon - which this great edifice stands, is forty feet above the level of the - ground. Sixteen feet below this is a large open court, which is about - one hundred and eighty yards long, and over eighty-two yards wide, - containing a level surface of nearly fifteen thousand square yards—or - more than three acres. There is a third outer terrace, raised a few - feet above the plain.</p> - - <p>The Casa de las Monjas is also placed upon three terraces, but they are - of smaller dimensions, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span> - the height of the base of the building - above the natural ground, is not more than seventeen feet. The terraces - were surrounded by strongly built walls. Wide stone steps gave access - to each platform. When looking at these flat spaces, pyramids and - temples, it is practicable to form reasonable conjectures regarding the - nature of the religious ceremonies that may have taken place within, or - before them.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_342fa"><img src="images/i_342fa.jpg" width="600" height="527" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Casa del Gobernador.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_342fb"><img src="images/i_342fb.jpg" width="600" height="450" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">An Angle of the Casa de las Monjas.</div> - </div> - - <p>Bishop Landa, in his work on Yucatan, which he wrote in that country - soon after the conquest, gives an account of the feasts and sacrifices - performed in the temples. His description was based upon information - which he received from the descendants of caciques, who had governed a - powerful tribe dwelling east of Uxmal. After mentioning the nature of - the offerings made to the idols during certain festivals, he observes - that, besides sacrificing animals, the priests would sometimes on - occasions of tribulation or public necessity, command that human - victims should be sacrificed. There is this statement given of what - then happened.</p> - - <p>“Every one took their part in offering contributions, in order that - slaves should be bought, and some of the more devotional would offer - their little children. Great care was taken of them that they should - not run away or commit any fault, and whilst they were conducted from - village to village with dancing, the priests fasted. Upon the arrival - of the day, they all came into the patio (court) of the temple, and if - the victim had to be sacrificed by wounds from arrows he was stripped - naked, his body was anointed with blue, and a cap like a mitre was - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span> - placed on his head.” He was then, after certain dances made by the - people in honour of the god, killed by flights of arrows.</p> - - <p>It will be remembered that a similar custom was followed by the - Pawnees in North America who, upon certain occasions, chiefly in - connection with offering a propitiation to the Manito who had power - over the harvest, also killed the victim by a flight of arrows.<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> The - coincidence of this practice is very strange.</p> - - <p>Landa, after relating the manner in which these Indians in Yucatan - conducted the ceremony of inflicting death by arrows, proceeds to - state what was done if the priests, for some special reasons, directed - that the victim should be offered to the gods in accordance with their - more appalling rites. “If it had been decided to take out the heart, - he was taken to the patio with much pomp, and was accompanied by many - people, and after being daubed over with blue, and his mitre placed on - his head, he was carried to the round step which was the place where - these sacrifices were made, and after the priest (sacerdote) and his - officials had anointed this stone with blue colour, and had cast out - the devil by purifying the temple; the unfortunate man that was to be - sacrificed was then seized, thrown suddenly backwards upon the stone, - and held there by the legs and arms kept apart from the middle. Then - came the sacrificer with a stone razor, and struck with much dexterity - and cruelty, a gash between the ribs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span> - of the left side below the - teat; he then thrust in his hand and took hold of the heart like a - furious tiger and snatched it out still palpitating, and put it upon a - dish which he gave to the priest, who took it quickly and anointed the - faces of the idols with the fresh blood.”<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_344fa"><img src="images/i_344fa.jpg" width="600" height="376" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Casa de las Monjas, Uxmal.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_344fb"><img src="images/i_344fb.jpg" width="600" height="593" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">An Angle of the Casa de las Monjas.</div> - </div> - - <p>This statement of the sacrificial customs in Yucatan is in accordance - with the Report made by Palacio<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> concerning the sacrifices of the - captives taken in war by the Pipiles, a tribe who were believed to be - of Mexican origin and were then dwelling near the Pacific coast of - Guatemala. It may also be surmised that the ceremonies performed by the - priests of the Quichés upon the altars at Utatlan were of a similar - nature. It thus seems evident that the barbarous practices that are - supposed to have been introduced by the Aztecs into Mexico, during some - period subsequent to the twelfth century, were becoming prevalent in - Central America.</p> - - <p>It is possible that the custom of offering human sacrifices, together - with subsequent acts of cannibalism, may have become grafted upon - the religious observances of an earlier and less cruel race. It is, - however, to be noticed that the plan of the pyramid of the Dwarf with - its altar, and the open court at the foot of the steps leading down - from the temple, conform with the particular purposes of the ceremonies - connected with the sacrifices to the idols. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span> - Bernal Diaz, when - describing the manner in which the Spanish captives were sacrificed and - eaten during the siege of Mexico, mentions facts which agree with the - statements made by the caciques in Yucatan, concerning the events that - occasionally happened in their sacred places.</p> - - <p>“Sometimes,” observes Landa, “the sacrifice took place on the stone - upon the highest step of the temple, and then the body was thrown down - the steps and rolled below. The officials then seized it and flayed off - the skin excepting the feet and hands, and the priest, having taken off - his garments until he was naked, covered himself with it, and danced - with the others. This was considered to be a matter of much solemnity. - It was the custom to bury those who were sacrificed in the court of the - temple, or, if not, they were eaten by the chiefs and those who were - able to obtain portions; the hands, feet and head were for the priest - and officials. Those who were thus sacrificed were held as saints - (tenian por santos). If they were slaves captured in war their owner - took the bones and kept them to show them in the dances as emblems of - victory.”</p> - - <p>The aboriginal inhabitants of Yucatan were, like those dwelling in the - neighbouring land of Guatemala, devoted to the worship of idols, and - travelled great distances to take part in the ceremonies which were - performed at the shrines of their principal gods. The Island of Cozumel - was one of the sacred sites which was held in great veneration when - the fleet of Grijalva arrived there in 1518. It was observed by the - Spaniards that there and elsewhere, the pyramidal structures or altars - were maintained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span> - in good order, and had regular priests attached to - them for the purpose of executing the various duties connected with the - superstitious usages. It was afterwards ascertained that several of the - larger sacred temples in the interior had at that time been abandoned, - although many of them looked as if they had not been long built. With - respect to Uxmal, it was considered that the ruins were comparatively - modern and belonged to a period but little anterior to the Spanish - conquest.</p> - - <p>The well preserved state of portions of the buildings is, at the - present time, nearly four centuries after the arrival of the - Spaniards, especially noticeable. I observed that the wooden lintel - over the door of my room in the Casa del Gobernador was in perfect - condition. The edges or corners were still sharp and unworn. It was - also evident that, although the great weight of the masonry above must - have exerted a heavy pressure upon the centre of the lintel, there - were no signs of the slightest deflection. The strength of the wood - seemed to be unimpaired. The preservation of many of the lintels over - the doorways of the rooms in the Casa de las Monjas was, in several - instances, equally sound. Many of the stone carvings on the exterior - were also apparently uninjured by their exposure to the weather. But, - before proceeding with this subject, it is expedient to take into - consideration some of the characteristics of this building.</p> - - <p>It is not known why it was called the Casa de las Monjas (House of the - Nuns). Possibly the Spaniards may have been surprised by its similarity - in plan with their own nunneries, but it is also not improbable - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span> that - there may have been some tradition received from the Indians which - caused the adoption of this name. It has been stated by Clavigero, and - other historians, that there were certain especial customs attending - the worship of the god Quetzalcoatl. Women served for terms of years - within his temples. They were dedicated to the performance of religious - service from an early age, lodged in a convent and instructed in - religion. They were also educated and employed in a manner suitable - to their station and sex. It was said that certain vows were made and - various religious duties were performed.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_348"><img src="images/i_348.jpg" width="600" height="483" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption">Entrance to the Casa de las Monjas.</div> - </div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">349</span></p> - - <p>The main entrance to the nunnery is through a gateway placed in the - centre of the southern part of the quadrangle. Upon each side of this - entrance there are four chambers, and it is to be noticed, as an - evidence of the conventual character of the building, that these are - the only rooms that have direct access to the outer world. All the - others are within and look into the court. They had a blank wall at the - back, which excluded all communication with the exterior. The principal - front looks towards the pyramids adjoining the Casa del Gobernador. - The architectural proportions of the archway are symmetrical. The - height and span, like all other parts of these Indian structures, are - practically determined by the angle of inclination of the converging - sides. In this case the arch is about seventeen feet high and nearly - eleven feet wide. After passing through it, a wide court is entered. It - is surrounded on four sides by long ranges of low stone buildings. The - base, or lower part of them, is built of plain square slabs of masonry. - The upper parts are covered with fanciful designs, sculptured with - great skill.</p> - - <p>The whole of these buildings are exclusively arranged for the purpose - of providing the greatest possible number of chambers or monastic - cells. I did not count them, but it has been stated that there are - altogether eighty-eight. It is perhaps important to note, with - reference to this unusual number of rooms, that they are too numerous - to admit of the theory that they were intended for the accommodation - of the priests serving the adjacent temples, for according to the - statements of Clavigero, the number of priests always corresponded with - the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span> - number of the Teocallis. It is therefore presumable that these - cells had some other purpose. The priests may have been lodged in the - Casa del Gobernador. That building contains twenty-four chambers, the - majority of which are of the same size and plan as these in the Casa de - las Monjas. It is useless to attempt to conjecture the precise purposes - of these buildings, for there has been no exact information obtained - upon the subject, but everything points to the conclusion that the - whole of the structures at Uxmal were connected with the worship of the - gods, and had no relation to the ordinary lives of the Indians.</p> - - <p>It is probable that places like Uxmal and Palenque with their temples - and monasteries, were set apart for religious purposes, and the - Indians assembled there from the adjacent country with the object of - being present at the ceremonies, in the same manner as they are now - accustomed to perform their pilgrimages when the patron saints of the - churches have their festivals. When taking into consideration the - question of the period when it may be conjectured that the temples at - Uxmal were abandoned, it is necessary to direct attention to the design - or emblem which is placed upon one of the walls of the interior of the - Casa de las Monjas.</p> - - <p>Upon an examination of the accompanying illustration, it will be - observed that the figure represented is that of a huge serpent or - rattlesnake. A serpent was also the emblem or Totem of one of the - tribes of the Mound Builders in Ohio, and there appear to be singular - resemblances between the reptile carved in stone at Uxmal and that - which is rudely made of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span> - earth and stones, and placed on high ground - overlooking a valley in North America. Both reptiles have peculiarly - large mouths, opened wide, ready to devour and swallow their prey - or their enemies. It is perhaps not unreasonable to infer that the - tribe who migrated from the north, conquered the unwarlike natives - of Yucatan, raised the great pyramids, and built the temples in that - region, were subsequently conquered by a more powerful tribe of the - same race, also migrating from higher latitudes. The former tribe were - forced to desert their buildings, and avoided slavery or extermination - by escaping into the interior. The serpent stands out in bold relief. - The whole of the façades of the nunnery are elaborately sculptured, and - the mechanical abilities of the builders are well brought into notice.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_350f"><img src="images/i_350f.jpg" width="442" height="700" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Serpent Emblem, Casa de las Monjas.</div> - </div> - - <p>As all investigations or theories respecting these architects and their - works, depend greatly upon the conclusions that may be drawn from the - evidence regarding the period when Uxmal was built, I directed my - attention to certain points bearing upon this subject. Conjectures - upon the origin and civilisation of the Indians must be influenced by - what can be ascertained with respect to the probable dates when these - religious buildings were constructed.</p> - - <p>It is to be seen in the Casa de las Monjas that there was a lavish use - of ornamentation in stone. There is, throughout, a wealth of sculpture - which is astonishing when it is remembered that the sculptors, as far - as we know, had no proper implements to work with. Stone chisels and - obsidian scrapers appear to be inadequate for the purpose.</p> - - <p>It can be understood that if the Indian masons - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">352</span> and stone cutters had - wished to show their ability, they might have adorned their buildings - with barbarous figures or rude idols, such as were carved by the - natives of Easter Island out of soft volcanic stone. But at Uxmal they - revelled in their powers. The walls of the Nunnery and the Casa del - Gobernador are covered with designs deeply cut and perfectly joined. - Thus it is proved that the sculptors had not only much capacity as - workmen, but they must have been able to chisel hard limestone with - ease and facility of execution. In the interior of the Nunnery many - of the designs are most artistic. Nothing can be more graceful than - the block of buildings on the eastern side of the quadrangle. The - lattice work, in its appearance and general effect, seems to have an - indefinable accordance with the wood and stone carvings that are to - be seen in the ancient quarters of Cairo, and the interior of the - earliest Arabian mosques. Upon the opposite side of the quadrangle, - the ornamentation upon the walls is of a different character and in - some respects resembles the designs of Hindoo or Buddhist architecture. - This confusion of styles is puzzling to the eye and embarrassing to the - judgment.</p> - - <p>At Palenque the long corridors, the courts, and the use of coloured - stucco ornamentation appeared to have some vague relation to a mixed - style of Moorish and Spanish architecture. If a corsair, with a crew - of Moors and a cargo of Spanish captives, had been driven by the trade - wind across the Atlantic, and the strangers, after landing upon the - new continent, had married the daughters of the caciques; it would be - intelligible that the descendants of the - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">353</span>mixed races might have - constructed monasteries, temples and pyramids of this strange and - complex design. Such was my impression when pacing the corridors at - Palenque.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_352f"><img src="images/i_352f.jpg" width="700" height="436" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Interior of the Casa de las Monjas and its adjoining Pyramid and Temple, Uxmal.</div> - </div> - - <p>At Uxmal there were no coloured stuccoes and no corridors. The bold and - fantastic style of the sculptures had a character more Eastern, and it - might be permissible to imagine that wandering fakirs from Hindostan, - or Buddhist pilgrims from Java, Burmah or Cambodia, had reached the - Pacific coasts, and had implanted their incomplete acquaintance with - the forms of Hindoo or Buddhist temples upon the barbaric ideas of the - Indians, and that in this manner were produced the fanciful types of - construction or symbolism that are present at Uxmal.</p> - - <p>These are only conjectures, but it cannot be supposed that this - knowledge of architecture and of sculpture arose as suddenly as it - disappeared, and sprang into existence as the outcome of the natural - capacity of the Indian mind. The problem is interesting and attractive. - It is one that is exceedingly difficult to solve.</p> - - <p>There are certain differences in the methods of construction of - Palenque and Uxmal which have to be analyzed. The walls at Palenque - are composed of compact masses of stones and mortar covered with thick - layers of cement. At Uxmal no coatings of cement are used and the walls - are faced with well-worked masonry. At Palenque there are great numbers - of human figures either formed of thick stucco, or graven upon slabs - of stone. At Uxmal there are no human figures, no delineations of - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">354</span> - caciques, priests, or captive victims. The principle of ornamentation - is different.</p> - - <p>Judging from the condition and appearance of the buildings it is clear - that Uxmal must be more modern than Palenque, and this is particularly - noticeable upon an examination of the Casa del Gobernador and the - Casa de las Monjas. The influences of the tropical climate (Uxmal is - half a degree south of the twenty-first parallel) are such as would - be expected to act injuriously upon exposed limestone sculptures, for - between May and November the rains are heavy and continuous. But the - façades of these structures seem to have been very little affected by - the weather.</p> - - <p>In forming opinions respecting the antiquity of ruins, it is perhaps - injudicious to give much weight to considerations based upon appearance - or state of dilapidation, but in the instance of Uxmal there are - circumstances which make it impossible to admit that it belongs to - a period more than very few centuries earlier than the arrival of - the Spaniards. Thus the preservation of the wooden lintels over the - doorways in the Casa de las Monjas must be taken into consideration, - when any attempts are made to estimate the age of that building. They - have had to bear considerable pressure, for there are heavy masses of - concrete and masonry to be supported.</p> - - <p>With regard to this subject, it is necessary to draw attention to the - size and construction of one of the principal rooms which I measured, - and it will be understood how the architects were limited or restricted - in their actions, and to what extent the employment of wood was found - to be requisite.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">355</span></p> - - <p>It was a narrow chamber twenty feet four inches long, twelve feet - wide, and about twenty-three feet high. The height of the entrance was - eight feet, the width six feet seven inches. The interior walls were - perpendicular up to nine feet three inches from the ground, and then - curved inwards until they approached within one foot of each other. - They were capped by broad flat stone slabs. The curvature of the walls - was correctly formed, and a considerable gain in space was thereby - obtained. It was evident that the Indians were advancing towards a - knowledge of the round arch and keystone. This form of rounding the - inner roof was not however adopted in all the rooms of the nunnery. - Many of them still retained the straight lines of converging walls, as - at Palenque. The manner in which the advance in construction had been - reached was simple and yet ingenious.</p> - - <p>I measured a room in another part of the quadrangle which had different - dimensions, and was more in accordance with the earlier system of - building. It was twenty-two feet long and ten feet five inches wide. - The height of the perpendicular portion of the walls was eight feet - three inches, and the length of the upper slope to the cap-stone was - eight feet nine inches. The total height of the room about sixteen - feet. The doorway was a little over seven feet high and the width - was five feet eight inches. The dimensions of the chambers round the - quadrangle varied, but the instances I have given represent their - average sizes. There were two lintels over each doorway, for the width - of each piece of timber was not sufficient to - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">356</span> occupy the full depth of - the wall. In the first-mentioned chamber they were each nine feet five - inches long, one foot wide and eight inches deep, and had a bearing - upon each wall of one foot five inches. In this and other openings the - inner lintel rested in its place a little lower than the outer one. - The object of this singular method of placing these supports was not - apparent. The lintels were externally in perfect condition, and were - without any signs of decay.</p> - - <p>The main mass of the Uxmal walls is composed of rubble limestones, made - into a strong compact substance, by the plentiful use of good binding - mortar. Each facing stone was made into a triangular shape, and the - point or apex seems to have been pushed or fitted into its place, and - there firmly secured by mortar. This method of applying the masonry - was adopted not only with the plain smooth blocks of square stone used - for facing the lower portions of the buildings, but also with all the - sculptured portions of the walls. The blocks fit closely together - in their places so accurately and with such careful finish that the - joints or edges can scarcely be distinguished. It is thus made evident - that the stone-masons who built Uxmal must have been men capable of - performing their work with skill. The architect must have possessed a - competent knowledge of the preparation of a plan or design, and the - masons, in separately executing their part of the sculpture, must - have been able to follow the design with an exactness that is almost - mathematical.</p> - - <p>There have been many theories respecting the methods that may have been - practised by the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">357</span> - Indians in executing their carvings upon stone, - but no knowledge has been obtained which throws sufficient light upon - the subject.<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> No attention has however been directed to the artisan - qualities of the workmen who shaped and fitted the lintels, which - however prove that the workers in wood were as skilful as the masons. - The lintels were made of wood harder than mahogany. I examined many - of them with the utmost care, and could not detect the slightest mark - or dent. It is doubtful whether a good carpenters plane could have - given them a smoother surface. The zapote trees out of which - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">358</span>they - were formed, must have been fashioned into broad baulks of timber, and - afterwards squared and divided into the required lengths. The face of - the timber was levelled and smoothed, and the corners or angles were - sharply defined. All this work had to be done, as far as is known, with - stone implements.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_356f"><img src="images/i_356f.jpg" width="700" height="447" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Quadrangle, Casa de las Monjas.</div> - </div> - - <p>Upon taking a final glance at these ruins it seems reasonable to form - the conclusion that Uxmal was built exclusively for the purposes of - religion. The pyramids and their teocallis or temples were devoted as - shrines for the gods, and monasteries were attached to them. The human - sacrifices and the ceremonies that were customary in time of war took - place in the open courts attached to the high altars of the chief idols.</p> - - <hr class="tb" /> - - <blockquote> - <p>Upon the last day of my stay at Uxmal, the morning was fine - and the sky was clear. In the forenoon I observed that there - were dense volumes of light-coloured smoke covering the fields - towards the east. As the day advanced the air became hot and - oppressive, and the sky was obscured. Upon inquiring the cause - of this smoke I was told that the Indians were burning their - weeds and stalks in accordance with their custom at that time - of the year.</p> - - <p>In the afternoon, whilst I was engaged in sketching the - south-east angle of the Casa del Gobernador, heavy drops of - rain began suddenly to fall. As it was the dry season, this - change of weather was unexpected. The rain drops soon ceased, - but after an interval there were some slight showers which - continued for about two hours. At the farmhouse I was told - that such weather was unusual, and that the rain must have - been caused by the smoke and heat rising from the fires. If - this opinion was correct the change may have been caused by - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">359</span> - the heated air rising into a cooler region above, and thus - producing an atmospherical disturbance.</p> - - <p>This fact of rain being produced or caused by human agency - supports the opinion that the efforts of the rain-makers - amongst the North American Indians were in accordance with some - vague knowledge, and were not altogether absurd, and that the - action of the Californian rain-maker, whose attempts to obtain - rain were successful, was based upon an experience which was - practical.</p> - </blockquote> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">360</span> - <h2>CHAPTER XVIII.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - Departure from Uxmal.—Indian officials at Abalá.—Indian - Ceremonies.—Worship of demons.—Baptismal customs.—Laws - of the Emperor Charles V. for the government of the - natives in Yucatan.—Superstitions.—An Indian Well.—Halt at - night.—Merida.—Convent of the Conceptionistas.—Sisal.—The - Basque brig Aguinaga.—Departure for Cuba and - Florida.—Tampa.—Cedar Keys.—Buccaneers.—Shell Mounds.—Ancient - Burial Mounds.—Florida Indians. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">At</span> sunrise on the day of our departure from Uxmal, the Indians were - hurrying along the paths on their way to the corn fields, and the women - were engaged in carrying water from the wells. It was a busy scene of - life and movement.</p> - - <p>We proceeded to Múna and then journeyed onwards to the village of Abalá - which we reached in the afternoon, having accomplished a distance of - eight leagues. We obtained shelter in a public building called the - cabildo, which was used as a travellers’ rest house, where everyone, - as in a Turkish or Syrian caravansary, selected whatever spot was - available or unoccupied. Anastasio deposited the luggage in a corner - and found a place where my hammock could be secured above the ground.</p> - - <p>Upon examining my horse I found that it was quite unfit for work, and - therefore I went at once to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">361</span> - the head man of the district, who was an - Indian holding the office of Judge, and was at the time sitting in the - Court-house. I asked him if he would give directions that I should be - supplied with another horse or mule to carry me to Merida. The Judge at - first made some objections and said that there were no horses, or that, - if there were any, they were in the fields and would have to be caught. - Finally, after a long discussion, the second or junior Judge, who - seemed inclined to help me, promised that a horse should be ready at - the cabildo on the following day as soon as the sun appeared. Trusting - in this arrangement, I discharged Anastasio and sent him back with the - old horse to Tzibalché.</p> - - <p>In the morning the sun duly appeared but no horse came, and as - Anastasio had left at daybreak, I found myself unattended, and - surrounded by strange groups of Indians passing through Abalá. It - was fortunate that, in accordance with a local regulation, an Indian - alguazil was in charge of the cabildo, for this native official - immediately informed me that he would attend to my requirements. He - was useful in carrying out my wishes, and performed his duties with - care and zeal. After waiting for an hour to see if any horse arrived, - I went again to the Court-house but found that the Judges were not - sitting, and that they were away for the day upon other occupations. On - my return to my quarters it was evident that some event had occurred. - I was told that a band of muleteers on their way from the interior had - halted there, and intended to proceed to Merida later in the day, after - their mules had been given rest and food. These men were - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">362</span> uncouth and - noisy, but I thought it would be wise to join them, if they made no - objection. It happened that they had with them a young horse that was - not laden. After overcoming some preliminary difficulties, an agreement - was made that I should hire the horse, but that he was not to carry - any weight except that of the rider; one of their mules was to convey - my luggage. As soon as all preparations were completed the leader of - the muleteers told me that they would be ready to proceed late in the - afternoon and that he would call for me at the cabildo. The men then - dispersed.</p> - - <p>Having the greater part of the day at my disposal, I walked out beyond - the village for the purpose of being present at an Indian ceremony. It - was the commemoration of a death that had taken place in the previous - year. I was informed that in this part of Yucatan it was the custom - amongst the Indians to have three services or meetings of this nature. - The first took place a week after the death; the second after an - interval of a month, and the last on the anniversary. This was the - anniversary service and was considered the most important. Very few - of the religious ceremonies of the Indians have been permitted to be - maintained, for they were so singularly connected with their worship of - demons, that it was found necessary to abolish everything that recalled - their ancient superstitions. These memorial observances are, however, - to a modified extent yet performed.</p> - - <p>Upon arriving at the hut I saw that it was crowded with Indians. I - was received in the usual manner with apparent inattention, and was - allowed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">363</span> - to take my place with the others. I noticed that my friend - the junior Judge, who had promised to send me a horse, was one of the - mourners. As he made no remark and I had made other plans the subject - was not mentioned, and my attention was directed to what was going - on around me. The Indians were engaged in making melancholy sounds - of wailing. In the centre of the room was a table upon which was a - large plain wooden cross. Before the cross were placed offerings of - flowers, fruits and baked tortillas. I waited for some time to see what - ceremonies were going to take place, but nothing happened. The wailing - continued in a dreary and monotonous manner.</p> - - <p>The scene reminded me in some respects of observances of a religious - character that I had previously witnessed when travelling amongst the - Cordilleras of Guatemala, and again at a village near Tzibalché, on - the road to Uxmal. When the Spanish priests settled in their various - parishes in these regions after the conquest, it was noticed by them - that the Indians appeared to have a peculiar dread of death. This dread - did not seem to be caused by any personal fear, but had its origin in - connection with their belief in demons. They believed that death was - an evil spirit that required to be propitiated, and whose influence - over the sick or dying person was malignant. Thus it was usual to make - offerings to this demon, who was supposed to be lying in wait somewhere - near the hut. They imagined that he might be contented with what was - given to him and not carry off his victim. When I was at Palenque, - I was told that in some of the remote parts of the province, this - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">364</span> - ancient observance still existed and that the Indians placed offerings - of food outside the door of the hut in the hope that the demon would be - appeased, and pass by without stopping to enter within.<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> In Yucatan - a similar custom prevailed, but the method of propitiation was slightly - different. Various kinds of food and jars of liquid were hung upon the - walls or thatch outside the hut to gratify the demon and cause him to - accept the offerings instead of human life.</p> - - <p>Amongst the ancient customs of the Indians none, however, are more - strange than those connected with an almost unintelligible form of - baptism. The Franciscan missionaries who endeavoured to convert the - Indians at the time of the conquest, observed with astonishment the - veneration of the natives for the Catholic rites of baptism and the - readiness of their converts to accept this part of their teaching. - In the course of their inquiries upon the subject they discovered - that a form of baptism already existed, and was considered to be one - of the most important and essential of their ceremonies.<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> Upon - an examination of the accounts of the manner in which the Indians - performed their customary <span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">365</span> - rites, it does not appear that there was - much analogy with the ceremony that was insisted upon as a duty by the - friars, except that the Indian baptism was a religious act performed by - their priests, in which the children were touched with something that - had been dipped in water.</p> - - <p>The Indians, although disinclined to adopt the new faith, showed - extraordinary ardour and devotion in this particular observance. It was - found that they would frequently bring their children to be baptised - again after they had already received baptism. Finally the conduct - of the Indians in this matter became so unsatisfactory that special - clauses upon the subject, were introduced into the laws established by - the order of the Emperor Charles V. for the government of the Indians - in Yucatan.</p> - - <p>One of these clauses ran thus—</p> - - <p>“Baptism is one of the sacraments which is not to be repeated, and - if this is done great offence is committed against the Holy Ghost - conferred upon us by baptism when it is repeated.</p> - - <p>“Many of the natives of this province say that although already - baptised, they repeat baptism deceiving the ministers of the gospel, - and furthermore they say that they baptise others and consent that - others should do so. For which reason I order that henceforth no Indian - man or woman of this province who has once received legitimately holy - baptism shall return to be baptised or consent to others doing it, or - baptise on their own authority any other person.”</p> - - <p>Since these orders were put in force many changes have taken place, - and the Indians have become, in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">366</span> - manner reconciled to the new order - of things. It is, however, stated that in remote parishes the priests - are still frequently deceived, and that children are sometimes brought - three or four times to be given baptism.</p> - - <p>The circumstances under which the cross was placed upon the table - in the hut near Abalá were peculiar. It was clear that the cross - was looked upon as an idol, and that the offerings made to it were - propitiations. In Yucatan there were instances known of several of - the principal Indians keeping a cross in their house. This was not - necessarily a Latin cross, for it was sometimes formed into a shape - varying according to the imagination of the owners. The Indians are - rapidly becoming so neglected with regard to all religious education, - that it is not improbable that they will gradually return to many of - their idolatrous practices.</p> - - <p>In the beginning of this century the Spanish authorities in Mexico - ordered an inquiry to be made regarding the condition of the Yucatan - Indians, and directions were given to ascertain whether they still - maintained any of the superstitious usages followed before the - conquest. There was a Report made by the curate of Yaxcabá which was - considered to be especially deserving of mention, because he had been - in charge of a large parish and had lived for many years among his - Indians, and was known to be well acquainted with their language and - habits. One of the superstitions that he reported is remarkable from - its having evident analogies with one of the methods adopted by the - medicine men in curing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">367</span> - the sick amongst the Dakotas in North America. - It will be seen by his account of the custom of divining through the - medium of a crystal, that ignorant human nature in Yucatan, as in many - other parts of the world, seeks to learn the future by similar methods.</p> - - <p>The curate, in his reply to one of the questions put to him, stated - as follows<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a>:—“Amongst the common masses of the Indians there are - many superstitions. In the first fifteen years that I held this curacy - they told me much, but after making examples upon the delinquents by - punishing them with floggings and penances in accordance with superior - commands, it is now fully fifteen years that all is done in silence, - and it is only from time to time that there is any sign.</p> - - <p>“The most frequent divination is by means of a piece of crystal which - they call <i>zaztun</i>. This is a clear and transparent stone, by which - they say that occult things are seen and the causes of sickness. What - I have been able to understand in this matter is that they have had - some one who, by a compact with the demon, has divined by the means - of the said <i>zaztun</i>: but the more ordinary way is that those that - use it are certain cheating impostors who by this means gain credit - amongst themselves and are consulted and are well treated so that they - have idle lives, and with their artifices and cunning make the simple - and ignorant believe that they have <span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">368</span> - divined what they have secretly - managed. I will take this example which is frequent: they make the sick - man believe that by the means of the <i>zaztun</i> they have known that - some malevolent person has bewitched him, and in order to discover the - wizard or evil doer it is necessary to watch three nights and make - preparation of ardent spirits or pitarilla, provisions and lighted - candles; during these three nights they enjoy themselves and eat and - drink till they are satisfied. When the others are not observing or - asleep they bury inside the house or near it a small figure of black - wax having a thorn run into the part corresponding to that where the - sick person feels the most pain. Finally when all are awake they - commence to make their operations with the <i>zaztun</i> and go straight to - the spot where they buried the little figure, they take it out within - sight of everybody and make them believe that this was the witchcraft. - They then apply for the cure any herbs that they can find and if - sometimes by chance the sick person gets cured they gain much credit - amongst the ignorant.”</p> - - <p>A most extraordinary account was given by the curate of Yaxcabá, of - a religious or superstitious ceremony which at a certain season of - the year was performed by the Indians of his parish in the beginning - of this century. They erected near the village a rudely constructed - table upon which was placed a turkey. When the ceremony commenced, the - Indian who acted as the priest poured into the beak of the turkey a - small quantity of pitarilla. He then killed the bird and gave it to - his assistants at the table, who carried it away to season it and - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">369</span> - prepare it for being eaten. Large tortillas were also prepared and - when everything was ready the turkey and tortillas were placed upon - the table together with several jars of pitarilla. “Then,” stated the - cura, “the sacerdote commences to incense them with copal.”... “And - then taking some of the pitarilla upon a hissop he sprinkles it towards - the four winds invoking the four <i>Pahahtunes</i> who are the gods and - custodians of the rains. Then approaching the table he raises on high - one of the jars, and offers it to the mouths of the surrounding people, - who are kneeling. The function concludes by all eating and drinking to - their satisfaction.”</p> - - <p>Near a hamlet a few leagues from Uxmal, I observed a group of Indians - performing ceremonies similar to those described by the curate of - Yaxcabá, and I then formed the opinion that they were imitating what - they had seen in the Spanish churches. It may, however, be possible - that these native observances have some relation to practices that - may have been customary amongst the natives before the conquest. Near - Jacaltenango, amongst the hills of the Sierra Madre, ceremonies and - sacrifices were still, at certain periods of the year, performed by - the Mams; turkeys were killed, and special and peculiar rites were - customary. In Yucatan it was found necessary in the sixteenth century - to enforce regulations, preventing the caciques from convening meetings - of the natives which were held for the purpose of maintaining the - ancient worship of their gods. These meetings usually took place in - secret, and the services and superstitious propitiations were - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">370</span> taught - or performed by men who were the descendants of the priests or caciques.</p> - - <p>The tendency of the Indians to have religious rites performed in their - houses or in huts set apart for the purpose, and their custom of having - these ceremonies conducted by one or more men selected from among - themselves to act as priests, or “sacerdotes,” is noticeable throughout - Guatemala, Yucatan and Chiapas.</p> - - <p>Before leaving Abalá I visited a large and deep cenote or well. It was - one of those natural caverns the Indians of Yucatan were accustomed to - use for their supply of water, and which presumably mark the sites of - the ancient centres of population. It was chiefly fed by the waters - penetrating through the surrounding calcareous limestone formation. As - it was late in the dry season of the year, the waters were low and the - natives were engaged in going up and down the steps cut into and around - the sides of the cavern. The work of filling their jars was laborious, - as the depth to which they had to descend was nearly one hundred feet.</p> - - <p>After examining this natural well, I returned to the cabildo, where I - found that everything was ready and the muleteers were waiting for me. - We started without delay. At night we stopped at what appeared to be a - farmhouse. The muleteers unloaded the mules and found places to sleep - in an outer shed. I unrolled my hammock and secured it to the rafters - outside the dwelling of the young proprietress, and found protection - from the dew under the overhanging thatch. From this exposed position I - watched for several hours the clear star-light, - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">371</span> regretting that this - was the last time that I should lead this free and wandering life; for - on the next day we were to be in Merida. At daybreak we continued our - journey and arrived in the capital of Yucatan shortly before noon and - halted in the market place.</p> - - <p>My travelling companions then left me and I remained a solitary - stranger amongst a crowd of busy Indians. I was told that there was no - hotel, but that possibly I might get a room in an old disused convent - which was being altered for the purpose of receiving guests. I rode - up to the gate and there saw a Spaniard who informed me that he had - lately bought a portion of the ruins, and was re-arranging the interior - sufficiently to enable him to keep an inn. He had a room at my disposal - and assured me that he would be pleased if I would occupy it. This room - had been a nun’s cell, the door of which opened into the quadrangle.</p> - - <p>I found that I was quartered within the Convent of the Conceptionistas, - which after the suppression of the monastic orders had been abandoned. - Thus, by a strange series of events, I had come from the ruined Indian - “nunnery” at Uxmal to the ruined Spanish nunnery at Merida. The cells - and the quadrangle of the Conceptionistas reminded me of the interior - of the “Casa de las Monjas.”</p> - - <p>During my brief sojourn in Merida I was generally occupied during the - day in observing the habits of the Indians who came into the town from - the adjacent country. In the evenings, within the convent walls where, - for many years, the nuns had led their quiet and secluded lives, I - listened to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">372</span> - the plans of my worthy and eager landlord for converting a - building, constructed for the purposes of solitude and prayer, into a - busy and prosperous inn. I frequently thought of the past of this land. - The monastic institutions of an unknown race of Indians had flourished - and had been destroyed, and were succeeded by the churches and convents - established by an enthusiastic race of devoted missionaries who came - across the Atlantic to spread their faith in the New World. Many - changes had happened, the old order of things had passed away. The - work of the Spanish priests for the education and conversion of the - Indians, maintained for centuries with such zeal and self-sacrifice, - was destined to become useless, and in their turn the monasteries of - the Spaniards are doomed to fall into the same condition of ruin as the - temples and religious structures of the Indians.</p> - - <p>One evening the landlord (Miguel Yturran) told me that a brig had - arrived and was at anchor off the port of Sisal, and was going to sail - for Cuba on the afternoon of the next day. I accordingly arranged to - leave on the following morning. A good level road led to the northern - coast, the distance was about thirty-eight miles. We changed mules at a - village called Junucuma, and reached Sisal before nine in the morning. - We had left Merida at daybreak and travelled at an average speed - exceeding twelve miles an hour. In the offing we saw the brig with her - sails loosed, preparing for sea.</p> - - <p>Upon getting on board I was told that she was the Aguinaga, belonging - to the port of San Sebastian. She was manned by a crew of Basques. - Shortly before weighing our anchor, I was leaning - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">373</span>over the port side - of the vessel looking at the long, low, line of coast stretching - far away towards the east, when my attention was called to an - animated conversation that was taking place between the Basques and - a boat’s-crew of Indians who had come alongside, bringing provisions - and fruit. It was surprising to hear a conversation carried on between - men of races so absolutely distinct, and I asked the skipper, who was - standing near me, how this power of communicating ideas between his - crew and these Yucatan Indians had been established.</p> - - <p>He said that he did not know, but as a matter of fact, his men, - speaking Basque, were able to make themselves understood by the Indians - living on these coasts, especially in the regions around Tabasco beyond - Carmen and the bay of Terminos.</p> - - <p>In the afternoon we left Sisal and were employed in beating against a - fresh N.E. wind, usually standing in towards the coast during the day - and tacking out to sea at night. It was not until the sixth day that - we weathered the parallel of Cape Catoche, the extreme eastern point - of Yucatan, and it was with no slight satisfaction that, after having - been nine tedious days at sea, I heard that Cuba was in sight. The - confinement on board the brig had been extremely irksome, and had only - been made tolerable by the novelty of being thrown amongst a race of - men that I had never met before and whose language was unintelligible.</p> - - <p>These Basques were excellent sailors, quick and handy at their work - aloft or on deck, and although incessantly employed, were willing and - obedient. My messmates in the cabin consisted of the - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">374</span>skipper, the - boatswain and the mate, and a fellow passenger who had been for the - greater part of his life a Honduras pilot. There was also a second - class passenger who usually lived under the forecastle. This man was a - wanderer upon the earth; an exile from his own land who, in the course - of his travels, had seen much of men and manners. He told me that he - was a Frenchman and had been drawn for the conscription, but he managed - to evade his duty and had got away from France, consequently he was - not able to return to his home as he was liable to be punished. He had - managed to subsist by following various trades and he was about to try - his fortune in one of the islands.</p> - - <p>Upon approaching Havannah we at last got a fair wind and were able - to find an obscure berth amongst the merchant shipping without - difficulty.<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> After leaving the brig and her Basque crew I proceeded - across the Gulf to Florida. Amongst the various places that I visited - was Tampa, situated at <span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">375</span> - the head of a bay, near the spot where Hernando - de Soto landed in 1539 and began the conquest of that part of America.</p> - - <p>About one hundred miles to the north of Tampa are numerous sand - islets. Upon one of these was situated the old settlement of Cedar - Keys. I was fortunate in meeting there a good seaman and enthusiastic - antiquary named Clarke, who had made his home at that place. He was - well acquainted with the various channels and bays of the coast, and - in consequence of the interest that he felt in all that related to - the customs of the Indian tribes, had gathered together a store of - information that was exceedingly curious. He had also made discoveries - respecting the haunts of the buccaneers, and knew of stories about - hidden treasure. Fragments of old vessels that were supposed to have - belonged to the pirates had been found, and clearings in the forest had - been noticed, where it is supposed they formed their camps when the - crews were landed. This part of the Florida coast with its tortuous - channels and land-locked bays is precisely the position that buccaneers - would have chosen for careening their vessels and for all purposes that - required concealment after their raids upon the Spaniards.</p> - - <p>Upon one of the islands near the main-land there was an ancient kitchen - midden or shell mound of unusual size. We found that it extended along - the beach for eight hundred yards. It averaged eighty yards in width - and was forty feet high. It was composed principally of large oyster - shells, but there were also the shells of clam fish and numerous - smaller shells. The mound throughout - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">376</span>its length presented on its face - a series of alternate layers of earth, about half-an-inch thick. The - thickness of these intervening deposits of shells was greater than at - Damariscotta in Maine, from which fact it may be inferred that the - tribes who came here were more numerous, or that they were capable - of extraordinary powers of consuming oysters. Upon cutting away - portions of the outer slope of the mound, we found many fish bones and - quantities of fragments of broken pottery.</p> - - <p>Not far from the shell mound was an ancient Indian burial place. - Captain Clarke had made excavations into it, and amongst the - accumulation of bones he had found some flint arrow heads and a few - rude stone axes. I examined these and noticed that they were similar - to those that had been found in several of the burial mounds of the - Iroquois. As I wished to see this mound for the purpose of ascertaining - certain points respecting the methods of burial adopted by the Florida - Indians, Captain Clarke proposed that we should make an examination of - it.</p> - - <p>The heap was irregular in shape and about four hundred yards in - circumference at the base. It consisted entirely of quantities of human - skulls and bones. We examined it sufficiently to enable certain facts - to be made clear. From the manner in which groups of skulls and thigh - bones were placed and separated, it was evident that the burials took - place at considerable intervals of time. This is in accordance with - what is known of the funeral customs of the Indians in Florida and the - southern parts of the Mississippi Valley at the time of the expedition - of De Soto.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">377</span></p> - - <p>It was then ascertained that in each of the villages there was a large - building in which were kept boxes containing human bones. Before the - bones were collected in this manner, the bodies had been placed in - the adjacent forest, exposed to the air but raised on a scaffolding - sufficiently high to prevent them from being disturbed by wild animals. - After a suitable time had elapsed the bones were separated and - cleaned, and were then deposited in the charnel-house, where religious - ceremonies were frequently performed. Upon certain occasions, when the - boxes were getting full, the bones were taken away and conveyed to the - tribal burial place.</p> - - <p>Judging from the manner in which the bones were deposited in the mound, - it is probable that they were brought in their separate cases, and that - the contents of each case were carefully kept together and finally - thrown out in separate heaps. The occasions when the bones were brought - here, may have been those when the tribes made their migrations to - the seacoast. The methods of cleaning and removing the bones of the - Indians in Florida were similar to those of the Dakotas.</p> - - <p>On the coast, a few miles north of Cedar Keys, there were other large - shell mounds, and in Tampa Bay I was shown the position of a long and - extensive range of similar heaps on its southern shores. It is evident - that before the sixteenth century there must have been a numerous - aboriginal race inhabiting these coasts. The scattered remnants of the - tribes that remained in Florida at the conclusion of the last Indian - war in this region, have been removed and placed upon lands beyond the - Mississippi.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_XIX"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">378</span> - <h2>CHAPTER XIX.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - Mounds and Earthworks in North and Central America.—Migrations - of the Toltecs and Aztecs.—The Quichés.—Aboriginal - races.—Palenque.—Hieroglyphs.—Temples.—Desertion of the - Temples and stone buildings in Yucatan.—Conquest of Yucatan - by the Aztecs.—Antiquity of Palenque and Uxmal.—Aztec custom - of imprisoning captives in cages and sacrificing them to the - gods.—Civilisation of the Toltecs.—Note upon the symbol or - Totem of the Serpent. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">In</span> the following chapters I propose to bring together the various notes - upon the Indians and their temples and earthworks which were made when - traversing Central America, and to add to them the conclusions which - have been formed subsequently.</p> - - <p>There are certain problems which particularly require to be examined. - With respect to the antiquity of the stone buildings and pyramids, - it would be difficult to attempt to do more than endeavour to form - reasonable deductions from the evidence afforded by the state of those - ruins, and the information given about them by the Indians at the time - of the conquest. The conquerors, after they had settled in Yucatan and - Guatemala, were accompanied by Spanish missionaries of great ability. - We possess in the writings of Bishop Las Casas and Bishop Landa works - of the greatest value, for both those prelates when they were engaged - in their duties of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">379</span> - converting the natives, were acquainted with the - language of the tribes amongst whom they worked.</p> - - <p>In the prosecution of researches into subjects which relate to Central - America, it is desirable as a preliminary step to consider the - comparative civilisation of the Indians, as far as that is brought - into evidence by what has been discovered with respect to mounds and - earthworks, not only in that region, but also throughout the valley of - the Mississippi. A distinction must also be made between earthworks - which are unquestionably of great antiquity, and those that possibly - may have been raised since the date of the arrival of European - settlers. Therefore the geometrically planned inclosures in Ohio should - be excluded from this inquiry. It is otherwise with great ramparts such - as those inclosing Fort Ancient on the steep promontory in the valley - of the Little Miami, which are of special importance on account of the - parallelisms with the similar fortifications made by the Quichés and - Kachiquels in Guatemala.</p> - - <p>There are exceptional circumstances connected with the mounds in North - America. It has to be remembered that they were not always burial - places. When De Soto arrived with his fleet in Florida, the chief - cacique of the tribe dwelling near the landing place, was living on the - top of a mound about fifty feet high. This mound was pointed out to me - when I was at Tampa. It appeared to be made for the purpose of placing - huts upon its summit. The platform was sufficiently large to give room - for several dwellings. There are also mounds near the western bank of - the Mississippi, between Natchez and the mouth of the - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">380</span> Arkansas. One of - them resembled that at Tampa, and had a wide level space on the summit.</p> - - <p>When the earliest Spanish expedition passed through that part of the - country, it was observed that the Indians frequently placed their - houses upon artificial earthworks raised sufficiently high to be above - the inundations. At Natchez the tribe, which, from their peculiar - customs, have been called the sun worshippers, raised mounds primarily - for the residence of their chiefs, who differed from other Indians of - that rank, in being invested with special attributes in connection with - ceremonies performed before the rising sun. But there were customs with - respect to them which require to be noticed. It was stated by Father le - Petit, who was for many years a missionary amongst the Natchez, that - when their principal chief died his hut was demolished and a new mound - was raised, upon which was built the wooden cabin of his successor in - that dignity. It can be understood that where a large tribe having - this custom dwelt for a long time in one place, it might happen that - a series of connected platform mounds, forming an inclosure, would - probably have a rectangular shape.</p> - - <p>Higher up the Mississippi, above the junction of the Ohio, are the - Cahokia earthworks. There were also several mounds placed on high - ground near the east bank of the river, not far from the borders of - Illinois and Wisconsin. One of these, which was about forty feet - high, was opened ten years before I went to St. Paul’s. A vault was - discovered beneath the level of the ground, which contained several - skeletons sitting in a circle. The earth of which it - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">381</span> was composed was - a kind of loam, not occurring in the vicinity, and it was supposed - that it must have been brought from a considerable distance by Indians - who wished to show their respect for the burial place of their chiefs, - by bringing tributes of earth taken from the ground near their - encampments. The high mounds placed around the edge of the promontory, - now called Dayton’s Bluff, and which are the most northern group in the - valley of the Mississippi, have been described in a preceding chapter.</p> - - <p>When I was in Chiapas, the Presbitero Macal told me that he was present - when two mounds were examined in 1860, near San Cristobal. They were - each ten feet high and covered vaults made of large flat slabs of - stone. Within these tombs were two skulls, but nothing else was found. - There were no weapons or fragments of pottery. In the vault under the - mound in Illinois there were several large pieces of pottery, and on - the surface, immediately above the tomb, were ashes and other evidences - of fire.</p> - - <p>But before proceeding farther with this subject, it is necessary to - bring under consideration the progress of archæological knowledge in - North America, since the date of my visit to the ancient mounds and - earthworks in Ohio. Great advances have been made in the classification - of the discoveries that have taken place in the burial mounds that - exist throughout the United States. Deductions can consequently be - established with regard to the civilisation of the Indians, and it has - become possible to establish, upon a scientific basis, their position - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">382</span> - as a race. A long series of investigations have been completed, and a - summary of the results published, under the auspices of the Smithsonian - Institution, by Professor Cyrus Thomas.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p> - - <p>“It seems desirable at the present time,” he observes, “to make a - statement explaining the plans and describing the work of the mound - exploring division of the Bureau of Ethnology.”... “The questions - relating to prehistoric America are to be determined not alone by - the study of its ancient monuments, but by the study also of the - languages, customs, art, beliefs, and folk-lore of the aborigines. - Only by such a comprehensive study can the exact relations of the - ancient archæological remains to the historic Indian tribes be made - apparent. Major J. W. Powell, the Director of the Bureau, taking this - comprehensive and scientific view of the subject, saw at the outset the - necessity of deciding as soon as possible the question ‘Were the mound - builders Indians?’”</p> - - <p>The work was carried on for several years, and Professor Thomas states - that “Over two thousand mounds have been explored, including almost - every known type as to form.... Nothing trustworthy has been discovered - to justify the theory that the mound builders belonged to a highly - civilised race, or that they were a people who had attained a higher - culture status than the Indians. It is true that - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">383</span>works and papers - on American archæology are full of statements to the contrary, which - are generally based on the theory that the mound builders belonged to - a race of much higher culture than the Indians. Yet when the facts - on which this opinion is based are examined with sober, scientific - care, the splendid fabric which has been built upon them by that - great workman, imagination, fades from sight.” Professor Thomas also - observes—“That the links discovered directly connecting the Indians and - mound builders are so numerous and well established that there should - be no longer any hesitancy in accepting the theory that the two are one - and the same people.”</p> - - <p>The origin and nature of the American mounds, and the customs of the - Indians who raised them, have also been investigated by Professor - Lucien Carr. He claims “that the mounds and inclosures of Ohio, like - those in New York and the Gulf States, were the work of the red Indians - of historic times, or of their immediate ancestors.”<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></p> - - <p>With reference to this much debated question of the formation of these - inclosures, a re-survey of several of them was made. The measurements - of Professor Thomas and his assistants appear to have established the - fact of the geometrical accuracy of the octagonal, square and circular - works near <span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">384</span> - Newark.<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> In the introduction to the memoir upon the - Ohio mounds, Professor Thomas observes that “The constantly recurring - question ‘Who constructed these works?’ has brought before the public - a number of widely different theories, though the one which has been - most generally accepted is that they originated with a people long - since extinct or driven from the country, who had attained a culture - status much in advance of that reached by the aborigines inhabiting - the country at the time of its discovery by Europeans. The opinions - advanced in this paper, in support of which evidence will be presented, - is that the ancient works of the State are due to Indians of several - different tribes, and that some at least of the typical works, were - built by the ancestors of the modern Cherokees.”<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p> - - <p>As a consequence of the examination of the Indian mounds throughout - the United States, the majority of the modern American archæologists - consider that the aboriginal inhabitants were never in a higher - state of civilisation than they were when they first became known to - Europeans. It is not however the questions of the burial mounds, and - the importance of what has been found in them which have chiefly to - be considered here. Attention should be principally - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">385</span> directed to the - difficult problem respecting the great fortified ramparts of Fort - Ancient.</p> - - <p>The traditions of the Delawares,<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> which affirmed that the defensive - earthworks of Ohio were built by the Tallegwi, have generally been - accepted as being well founded. They were stated to have been a - powerful tribe who built fortifications and entrenchments. Finally - they abandoned their lands and went southwards, down the valley of the - Mississippi and never returned. It may be conjectured, after observing - the similar works and methods of selecting their defensive positions - in Guatemala, that the Tallegwi were the same race who were afterwards - known as Toltecs. The probability of this assumption being reasonable, - becomes more evident when the group of platform and circular mounds on - the plains near Mixco are observed to be similar to those raised on the - plains of Cahokia near the banks of the Mississippi.</p> - - <p>The question of the condition of intelligence amongst the North - American Indians, has a direct bearing upon the problem of the origin - of the civilisation of the Toltecs and Aztecs, and it is satisfactory - to know that there are sound reasons for supposing that the Indians - who constructed the fortified camps in Ohio were not more advanced in - knowledge than the tribes who were dwelling in that region at the time - of the discovery of America by Columbus.</p> - - <p>Several years after the conquest of Mexico, the - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">386</span>Spaniards sent - expeditions into the southern parts of Central America, and conquered - the Quichés and the surrounding country, in which were situated - the ramparts defending Utatlan and Patinamit. It was subsequently - considered desirable that investigations should be made into the - ancient systems by which the aboriginal inhabitants had been governed - by their caciques, and orders were given to this effect by the Emperor - Charles the Fifth and by his successor Philip the Second. In the - reports of the officers who conducted these inquiries, it was stated - that an extraordinarily rigid line of caste was maintained amongst the - Quichés. There was an absolute distinction between the ruling families - descended from the caciques, and the great mass of the races who were - under their control. It was also evident, judging from the language of - several appeals made by Indian chiefs to obtain justice and to have - their rank and authority acknowledged, that they considered the working - classes of Indians as their absolute slaves.</p> - - <p>“There was no instance,” states the historian Juarros, “of any person - being appointed to a public office, high or low, who was not selected - from the nobility; for which reason, great anxiety was felt by them - to keep the purity of their lineage unsullied. To preserve this rank - untainted in blood, it was decreed by the law, that if any cacique - or noble should marry a woman who was not of noble family, he should - be degraded to the caste of mazegual or plebeian, assume the name of - his wife, and be subject to all the duties and services imposed upon - plebeians.” These services generally consisted of works - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">387</span> performed - by forced labour. The lands belonging to the ruling families were - cultivated in this manner, and, in fact, the Indians of the native - and working class were entirely at the disposal of their masters. One - of the Spanish bishops, whose diocese was in Mexico, mentions that he - had ascertained that these mazeguales could be sold or killed by their - owners. There were marked differences in the dress of the people. The - mazeguales wore, as a rule, nothing but the loin cloth, or sometimes, - as is the case now with the Lacandones, a long cotton shirt, reaching - nearly to the feet. It was a matter of observation amongst the - conquerors that the inferior classes of Indians were submissive, but - that their rulers were intractable, harsh and warlike.</p> - - <p>It is inexpedient to pursue this particular subject to any great - extent, for it is made clear by the reports of the Spanish authorities - that the relations of the governing class of the Quichés to the - other Indians under their rule were those of a race of conquerors - to a race of slaves, and the victors treated those whom they had - conquered in a manner in accordance with the habits of a savage and - barbarous tribe of North American Indians. This much may be admitted - from the consideration of the circumstances of the laws and customs - of the Quichés at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards. But if a - due estimation is also given to the evidence afforded by the strange - and otherwise inexplicable similarities in the methods of choosing - fortified positions and raising ramparts with those in Ohio, it becomes - reasonable to infer that the Quiché chiefs originally migrated from - that part of North America.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">388</span></p> - - <p>It is however necessary to note that, at whatever period their - migration may have taken place, it cannot be granted or inferred that - the Ohio tribes brought with them any knowledge of architecture, or - of any form of civilisation, for had it been otherwise, they would - have left behind them some vestiges of that civilisation or mechanical - skill. It is especially remarkable that throughout the length and - breadth of North America there is not the smallest fragment of any - hewn stone building, or of any carved stone hieroglyphic characters. - Thus the theory of migratory tribes of Indians bringing with them from - the North into Mexico, a comparatively advanced knowledge of arts - and sciences is opposed to all evidence. It is almost certain that - the state of civilisation that at one time existed in the regions of - Chiapas and Yucatan, was introduced into the country at some period - subsequent to the arrival of the invading tribe, unless it can be - established that the aboriginal races already possessed a competent - intelligence, and an architectural capacity. A proposition of this - character cannot be reasonably maintained, for it is known that in - the fifteenth century the Indians in Cuba and Haiti, the Caribs on - the coasts south of Yucatan, and the aborigines in the interior were - savages, existing in a low state of human intelligence. This subject - respecting the Indian migrations and the state of civilisation that was - existing, or had existed, in Central America, can be more definitely - considered after attention has been directed to the question of the - antiquity and purpose of the buildings at Palenque and - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">389</span> Uxmal. It is - much to be regretted that Palenque was not known to the Spaniards when - Cortes marched within a few leagues of it in 1524. Possibly, at that - time it had not been long abandoned, and perhaps some of the caciques - dwelling in that part of the valley of the Usamacinta might have been - able to explain the meaning of the hieroglyphs. Unfortunately the - ruins were not discovered until more than two centuries had elapsed, - and nothing could be ascertained from the Indians which gave the - slightest clue to their signification. It has been surmised—and there - are good reasons for thinking that the surmise may be correct—that the - characters relate to the migrations of the tribes. But in consequence - of the incomplete knowledge of these Indian hieroglyphs, it would be - impossible to attempt to form any satisfactory conjectures regarding - their meaning.</p> - - <p>There exists, however, graven on the tablet of the cross, two figures - which, if I am correct in my opinion with regard to them, are of the - greatest importance in establishing certain facts with regard to the - builders of Palenque. Upon referring to the illustration of the altar - tablet that was placed within the temple of the cross, it will be - noticed that the two standing figures offering sacrifice to the quetzal - or sacred bird of Quiché, are evidently intended to represent persons - actually living at the time that the altar was designed, for there is - nothing fantastic in the costume that is worn by them. If a careful - examination is made into the details of their dress it will, I think, - be concluded that these men were the chief caciques of the Quichés.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">390</span></p> - - <p>“The nobles,” observes Juarros, “wore a dress of white cotton dyed or - stained with different colours, the use of which was prohibited to the - other ranks. This vestment consisted of a shirt and white breeches, - decorated with fringes; over these was drawn another pair of breeches, - reaching to the knees and ornamented with a species of embroidery; - the legs were bare; the feet protected by sandals, fastened over the - instep and at the heel by thongs of leather; the sleeves of the shirt - were looped above the elbow, with a blue or red band; the hair was - worn long, and tressed behind with a cord of the colour used upon the - sleeves, and terminating in a tassel, which was a distinction peculiar - to the great captains; the waist was girded with a piece of cloth of - various colours, fastened in a knot before; over the shoulders was - thrown a white mantle, ornamented with figures of birds, lions and - other decorations of cord and fringe. The ears and lower lip were - pierced, to receive star-shaped pendants of gold or silver.”</p> - - <p>Upon an examination of the figures it will be observed that, although - their dress corresponds with what is described as being worn by the - Quiché caciques, neither of them are wearing sandals. But, on the - altar of the temple placed on an adjacent mound, the same figures are - again offering sacrifices, and the tallest of them is wearing sandals - precisely as described above. It was the custom among the Quichés - to associate with the principal cacique another chief, to whom was - intrusted the control and management of the troops and the conduct of - all hostilities, and it is stated that sometimes - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">391</span> - this chief was the - eldest son of the cacique. As the second temple appears to have been - dedicated to the god of war, it may be assumed that the shorter figure - was intended to represent a war chief. He is dressed in accordance - with that rank and wears a mantle and a heavy tassel. In this temple - the chief is drawn as standing upon a kneeling captive, but in that - dedicated to Quetzalcoatl he is placed upon a block of stone, upon - which is a hieroglyph. To Quetzalcoatl the offering appears to have - been in conformity with the attributes assigned to him, of religion - and education. Possibly the child, held in the hands of the tallest - cacique, was dedicated to serve in the temple after having been trained - for the priesthood in the monastery.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_390f"><img src="images/i_390f.jpg" width="417" height="700" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Part of the Altar-piece in a Temple at Palenque.</div> - </div> - - <p>It is satisfactory to be able to establish the conclusion that the - figures are caciques of the Quichés, for it thereby becomes possible to - advance a few steps towards the solution of a problem which presents - many difficulties with regard to the period of the construction of - Palenque, and state of civilization of the builders. In a manuscript - left in a Franciscan convent by one of the descendants of the Quichés, - an account was given of the migrations of that tribe before they - settled near Utatlan. It was stated that they reached that country - after a long journey from Mexico, and adopted the name of Quiché in - memory of one of their leaders; but before that time the people were - called Toltecs.</p> - - <p>Before endeavouring to establish conclusions with regard to Palenque, - attention should be directed to the temples and other stone buildings - in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">392</span> - adjacent regions. With respect to the numerous groups of - ruins in Yucatan, we possess the testimony of the Spanish priests who - dwelt in their parishes in that country at a period when many of the - governing class of Indians were of the same generation as those who - inhabited the land when it was conquered. One of these missionaries - was Father Landa, who was not only zealous in the performance of his - duties, but also studied the language and civilisation of the race - amongst whom he dwelt. He was present in Tihoo soon after the capture - of that Indian settlement, which was afterwards chosen for the site of - the city of Merida.</p> - - <p>He states that in that place there were several stone edifices. He made - a plan of the largest of them from which it is evident that they were - of the same character as those at Uxmal. Tihoo was occupied by the - Spanish forces in 1541, and the terraces, upon which were placed the - principal buildings, were given to the Franciscans as a site for their - convent. The friars began their work in 1547. Thus only six years had - elapsed since the Indians had left their town. Landa’s descriptions - of the state and condition of the ancient ruins are therefore of the - greatest assistance in forming conclusions with regard to them.</p> - - <p>The principal edifice was placed upon the highest of three terraces, - each of which was surrounded or faced by thick walls, and approached - by steps. There was a large interior quadrangle having ranges of - rooms or cells occupying the four sides. These were similar to those - in the “House of the Nuns” at Uxmal. In the vicinity there were - several pyramids <span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">393</span> - which had small temples on their summits. It was - observed that all these structures appeared to have been disused for a - considerable period. The Franciscans found that the Indian structures - were covered with thick brushwood. This was cleared away. The buildings - were destroyed and the materials supplied the stone required for their - church and convent.<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p> - - <p>The fact that the desertion of the temples had occurred before the - arrival of the Spaniards is important. It explains many of the - circumstances then existing in Yucatan which otherwise would be - unintelligible. When the conquerors settled in that land they were - surprised to find numerous stone buildings in various parts of the - country, all of which were unoccupied. They were informed that they had - not been abandoned in consequence of their conquest. They found that - it was impracticable to obtain from the natives any explanation of the - nature of the events which had happened and had caused this change. - Thus the problem regarding the purposes of these extensive buildings, - and the architectural skill of the constructors was as obscure to them - at that time as it is now to the present inhabitants.</p> - - <p>At Izamal, about thirty-five miles east of Tihoo, there were also - numerous temples, and it was noticed by Landa that there were evidences - of there having been a paved road between the two - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">394</span>places. A Franciscan - convent was established at Izamal, and a brief account of its temples - was written in 1663 by Father Lizana, in which he states, with respect - to the ruins in Yucatan, that the deserted edifices appeared to - have been of one style of architecture, and that some of them were - so perfect that it might be said that twenty years had not elapsed - since they were built. These edifices were however, he observes, not - inhabited by the Indians when the Spaniards arrived. The natives lived - scattered in huts amongst the woods, but they used them as temples or - sanctuaries, and occasionally performed religious ceremonies and fasts - there.<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p> - - <p>The Franciscan missionaries were not able to obtain from the natives - an intelligible explanation of the events that had occurred which had - caused the temples to be abandoned. But they were informed that an - invasion had taken place about two hundred years before their arrival, - and many of the caciques and ruling families had been driven out of the - land. The invaders did not occupy the sacred buildings, and allowed - them to fall into ruin, but they were visited occasionally by those who - still had faith in the ancient gods and wished to offer sacrifices to - them. It was ascertained that the greater part of Yucatan had become - subject to the control of chiefs belonging to the Aztec race, and that - several of them paid tribute to Montezuma.</p> - - <p>The question of the antiquity of the temples of Palenque, Uxmal and - other structures of that <span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">395</span> - character must therefore, in a great degree, - be decided by the evidence upon which are based the traditions of the - migrations of the Toltecs who preceded the Aztecs, and were the first - of the hordes who conquered the aboriginal races of Central America. - The historians who have investigated those traditions concur in - considering that the arrival of the Toltecs within Mexican territory - happened in the seventh century. After remaining some time in the - northern part of the country, they migrated southwards to Cholula, - Palenque and Yucatan.<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> If the historic evidence is accepted as - being trustworthy, it follows that all the stone edifices in these - regions must have been erected later than that date. The Aztecs arrived - at the close of the twelfth century. Therefore it may be concluded that - Palenque was built later than the eighth century, and was deserted - before the fourteenth century. Uxmal is evidently more modern than - Palenque, and it may be assumed that it was constructed after the tenth - century, and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">396</span> - abandoned not much earlier than a hundred years before - the Spaniards landed upon the shores of the New World.</p> - - <p>The Aztec chiefs introduced into Yucatan one of their barbarous - customs which was similar to what was practised by them elsewhere. - It was found by the conquerors, that in Mexico they kept slaves and - prisoners in cages, where these victims were fattened and prepared for - sacrifice.<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> After having been killed and offered as propitiations - to the gods their bodies were eaten. In 1511, it happened that a - Spanish vessel was wrecked upon some shoals fifteen leagues south of - the island of Jamaica. The crew after having - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">397</span>been thirteen days in - an open boat, landed upon the north-eastern shores of Yucatan near - Cape Catoche, and were made captives by the cacique of the district. - Valdivia, who was in command, together with four of his men, were at - once sacrificed and eaten, others were put in cages, but several of - these men escaped. When the fleet under the command of Cortes anchored - off Cozumel, in 1519, one of the captives, named Aguilar, went on board - the flagship.</p> - - <p>Bernal Diaz, who was with the expedition and saw this man when he - arrived, relates that when Aguilar came before the presence of Cortes - he cowered down according to the manner of Indian slaves. Aguilar - stated that only he and another Spaniard named Gonzalo Guerrero, were - then alive. Most of his companions had been sacrificed to the gods, - but some had died, and two women who were with them had perished from - misery and the severity of the labour of grinding maize. Guerrero had - married an Indian woman and followed the native customs. He had been - tattoed, his ears were pierced and his lips were turned down.<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> - Aguilar had become acquainted with the Maya language, and was - afterwards employed by Cortes as an interpreter. Guerrero remained in - Yucatan with the Indians.</p> - - <p>Upon a review of the facts ascertained by the conquerors in the - sixteenth century in Mexico and Guatemala, and by the Franciscan and - Dominican <span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">398</span> - missionaries in Yucatan and Chiapas, together with the - researches made since that time by archæologists and explorers, it - appears to be possible to form certain conclusions. The architectural - and mechanical knowledge, and the advance towards writing characters, - forming calendars and reckoning time by astronomical observations must - have been reached within a period of less than four centuries. It is - therefore probable that the priests of the Toltecs became acquainted - with their arts and sciences not long after they had left North America - and had migrated to the regions around Téotihuacan in the direction - of the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. In what manner and under what - circumstances their knowledge was obtained, is a problem which requires - to be given a careful investigation.</p> - - <hr class="tb" /> - - <blockquote> - <p>In an Aztec or Toltec manuscript which forms part of the - collection of ancient Mexican codices placed in the library of - the Vatican, there is a representation of a cacique making an - offering to a rattlesnake.</p> - - <p>The manner of propitiation resembles the methods of sacrificing - to this Manito which were followed by the Dakotas (see p. 170). - The head dress of the cacique which consists of plumed feathers - is similar to that worn by the chiefs of that race, and is - placed in the same position as the feathers of Rocky Bear - (illustration, chapter viii).</p> - - <p>The rattlesnake appears to have been the Totem of the Toltecs - and is the chief emblem at Uxmal and Chichen Itza.</p> - - <p>It is thought that a serpent is represented upon the central - stone of the tablet of the cross at Palenque and as the - god to whom the temple is dedicated was named Bird-Serpent - (Quetzal-Coatl), it is probable that the sculptors delineated - the symbol in a manner that was intelligible to the Quichés.</p> - - <p>Upon an examination of the illustration of the centre tablet, - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">399</span> - which is an exact reproduction from a photograph of the - original stone (see frontispiece), these symbols may perhaps - be traced. I may here venture to express the opinion that the - Toltecs may have been the tribe that once dwelt in that part of - Ohio to the west of the river Scioto, where is still to be seen - the Totem of the serpent.</p> - - <p>The illustration of the propitiation to the serpent is taken - from a part of the Mexican manuscript represented in Humboldt’s - “Vues des Cordilléres.”</p> - </blockquote> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_398f"><img src="images/i_398f.jpg" width="546" height="700" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Mexican Cacique (?) making an offering to a Rattlesnake.<br /> - <span class="small">(from an ancient toltec or aztec manuscript.)</span></div> - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_XX"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">400</span> - <h2>CHAPTER XX.<br /> - <span class="subhead"> - Conjectures respecting the descendants of the tribes who - built the Temples.—Knowledge and education of the Caciques - and Priests.—Traditions of the arrival of white strangers - from the East.—Las Casas.—Quetzal-Coatl.—Crosses found - in Yucatan.—Gomara.—Legend of the flight of Spaniards by - sea towards the West after the conquest of Spain by the - Saracens.—Fabulous island of Antilia.—Columbus on his outward - voyage steers for Antilia.—Trade-winds.—Considerations upon the - probabilities of vessels being driven across the Atlantic or - Pacific Oceans towards America. - </span> - </h2> - </div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> subject of the origin and migrations of the Toltecs has been given - much attention. It has been a matter of conjecture whether any of - the descendants of the people who built the temples of Palenque, and - inscribed upon tablets of stone their hieroglyphic records, are at - present living in Central America.</p> - - <p>The chief difficulty in attempting to form a decision upon this - question, is the uncertainty regarding the distinction to be made - between the people belonging to the conquering Quichés and the - aboriginal races whom they had reduced to slavery, and who constituted - the greater part of the population. It is known that the caciques and - other members of the governing families of Utatlan became gradually - reduced to the utmost poverty. But there were other chiefs of tribes of - Quiché origin who did<span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">401</span> - not resist the Spaniards, and who volunteered - to become their allies. Many of these were permitted to hold lands in - the neighbourhood of Lake Atitlan, and lived in a prosperous condition - until the early part of the eighteenth century, when they disappeared - from notice. Possibly, in accordance with Quiché customs, they may have - kept apart from those who were mazeguales, and intermarried amongst - Indians of the same race as themselves.</p> - - <p>The statements of the grandsons of the caciques of Utatlan, as recorded - in their manuscripts, with regard to the dates of the arrival of their - tribe, the building of the fortresses, and their system of dividing the - country they had conquered into separate governments, are undoubtedly - entitled to be considered as deserving of attention. They agree in - a remarkable manner with what has been since ascertained. It may be - inferred from the account of their migrations and the list of their - kings or chief caciques, that they had been settled in Guatemala about - three or four hundred years before Utatlan was conquered by Alvarado.</p> - - <p>During the time that I was crossing the Cordilleras in the region - which had been governed by the Quichés, I endeavoured to ascertain if - there were any marked differences in the types or characters of the - tribes then occupying the land. Near Patinamit I saw several groups of - Kachiquels who were of the same race as the Quichés, and I noticed that - in many respects they resembled the Dakotas, and in appearance were - unlike the ordinary natives. I also observed in the district adjacent - to Santa Cruz del Quiché that the Indians holding official positions - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_402">402</span> - in the villages were usually of a larger stature than the inferior men - and, in their harsh and overbearing manner and features, recalled to - mind the chiefs of the North American tribes. I found, however, that it - was not possible to form definite conclusions based upon the facts that - came within my personal observation. The Quichés are reserved in their - intercourse with strangers. Whatever may be their comparative condition - of wealth or poverty they all live in the same manner, and seem to be - satisfied with the barest necessaries. Near Jacaltenango, when amongst - the Mams, I met one of the richest and most influential of the Indians - of that tribe. He was living like the meanest of the people, although - he was the owner of a prosperous estate. This apparent equality in the - habits of life is universal amongst the Indians.</p> - - <p>In the sixteenth century, after the conquest, the caciques of the - Quichés and Mams who had submitted to the Spaniards were accustomed - to maintain a state ceremonial of considerable dignity; and at a - later period the Indians who claimed to have held high rank and who - were granted lands and privileges lived in a manner suitable to their - condition. This comparative distinction has entirely disappeared. With - respect to the migrations of the governing classes of the Quichés it is - a matter of interest to observe that several of the Indian chiefs who - accompanied the Spanish conquerors from Mexico, married the daughters - of these Quichés, and said that they did so because they had discovered - that they were of the same race as themselves.</p> - - <p>In the consideration of subjects relating to the Indians it is - necessary to discriminate between the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">403</span> - observances of the aboriginal - inhabitants and those of the races who were of foreign origin. Thus - with respect to the superstitious and extremely devotional inclinations - of the natives in Guatemala and Chiapas, it may be assumed that those - instincts belong to the race who dwelt in those lands before they were - conquered by the Toltecs and Aztecs; but the customs of sacrificing - human beings to the gods together with other acts of barbarity were - introduced from North America.</p> - - <p>The Spaniards considered that the most evident proclivities of the - masses of the natives were drunkenness and idolatry. The latter - tendency prevailed to an excessive degree. Las Casas states that - throughout New Spain the idols were so numerous that they could not - be counted. During his journeys he found them in every place and of - every kind, in their huts, in the villages, amongst the hills and in - the sacred places. The numbers of them, he relates, were infinite. - In the sixteenth century the Indians were gradually, but not without - difficulty, brought under the control of the Spanish ecclesiastics. The - idols were destroyed, and the superstitious practices, especially all - those which were connected with the worship of demons, were suppressed.</p> - - <p>The national instinct of idolatry still remains. There is in the - nature of the aboriginal races a religious fervour which apparently - forms an integral part of their character. They are also submissive - and inoffensive, and it can be understood how any invading and warlike - tribe would, without difficulty, conquer and control people having - this mild disposition. It is not surprising that a fierce tribe of - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">404</span> - North American Indians was able to reduce them into a state of servile - obedience. The Toltecs and, afterwards, the Aztecs would undoubtedly - have introduced into Mexico the barbarous usages which prevailed - amongst the tribes dwelling in the valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio, - and these usages, when grafted upon the vices which existed amongst the - natives, may have been the inciting cause of the revolting condition of - national demoralisation which was so severely described by Bernal Diaz - and other Spanish historians.</p> - - <p>The Dominican missionaries in Guatemala observed that the Indians - were passionately fond of dancing and singing. The joyousness which - originally existed in their nature or temperament has become extinct. - The usual tenour of their lives seems to be accompanied by a quiet, - subdued melancholy. It is not improbable that, as a consequence of - several centuries of Spanish domination, the aboriginal races have - sunk into a dull and apathetic state. It is however possible that - other influences acted upon the taciturn and wild natures of these - tribes.<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> The innate disposition of the natives to worship idols - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">405</span>in - Guatemala was found to be equally existing with the Mayas in Yucatan, - who also had the custom of making pilgrimages to the shrines. It is - mentioned by Landa that the pilgrims stopped when passing near any of - the deserted or ruined temples, and were accustomed to mutter prayers, - and offer incense. This custom was in accordance with the acts of - devotion which I saw practised by the Tzendal Indians in Chiapas before - the ruined walls of the church at Bachajon.</p> - - <p>There are circumstances connected with the domination of the Aztecs, - and possibly also with that of their predecessors the Quiché-Toltecs, - which require to be noticed. It is unquestionable that slavery would - have been the fate of any tribe or race conquered by North American - Indians. But the fact of slaves or captives being bought and sold for - the purpose of being killed and offered to the gods is extraordinary. - Great numbers of the natives were annually sacrificed, and astonishing - acts of cannibalism were committed. Whatever may have been the - hardships inflicted by the Spaniards upon the Mexican Indians, it is - satisfactory to be assured that the discovery of America, and the - conquests of Cortes put an end to the most horrible condition of things - that has ever been known to have existed in any part of the world.</p> - - <p>There are, however, other facts to be taken into consideration. It has - been assumed that there was a condition of comparative civilisation - amongst the ruling tribes, which seemed to be in such a progressive - state as to lead to the conclusion that there were elements of - knowledge which might have been so far - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">406</span> developed in the course of - time as to have brought these Indians into the ranks of civilised - nations. With regard to this subject it should be observed that when - the Spaniards conquered Central America, the progress that may have - been partially made had already ceased. The monasteries at Palenque and - in Yucatan had been abandoned. Even when they were flourishing, the - knowledge that was taught did not extend to the people. It was confined - to the priesthood, the caciques, and the few scholars who were trained - for the purpose of interpreting the signs and characters by which - information was spread abroad. It was by one of these interpreters that - Cortes was made acquainted with the conspiracy that was being organized - against him by Guatimozin during the march to Honduras. How or in what - manner this comparative intelligence arose suddenly in the land is a - problem of the greatest difficulty.</p> - - <p>The possibility of a previous condition of civilisation having existed - amongst the aboriginal tribes cannot be considered as being within the - limits of reasonable conjecture, for there are no vestiges of any stone - buildings, sculptures, or of hieroglyphic inscribed characters, used as - a means of recording events, except in those regions which are known - to have been occupied by the Toltecs or Aztecs. With especial regard - to the temples on the mounds at Palenque, it is evident that these and - their sculptures and hieroglyphs were the results of a certain degree - of architectural knowledge obtained by the Quiché-Toltecs after they - had migrated into Mexico.</p> - - <p>But admitting that this may have been the case, it becomes extremely - difficult to understand how<span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">407</span> - their mechanical skill could have sprung - into existence within such a limited period of time. It was found - that the Indian progress in their peculiar civilisation was very - local. Bishop Landa, writing exclusively about Yucatan, states that - all education was under the management of the priests attached to the - monasteries. Similar systems appeared to have been followed in other - regions which had been under the rule of the Toltecs.<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> The results - of the investigations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">408</span> - into the subject of the extent and methods which - were adopted for the purpose of maintaining knowledge amongst the - Indians, confirm the opinion that the literature and civilisation found - to have existed in Mexico and Yucatan was exclusively caused by the - teaching of the priests.</p> - - <p>Explanations of the circumstances under which the priests became - acquainted with their sciences were given to the Spaniards by the chief - priests attached to the temple of Quetzalcoatl at Cholula and also by - certain caciques in Yucatan.</p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_408f"><img src="images/i_408f.jpg" width="600" height="667" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">Mexican Calendar Stone.</div> - </div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">409</span></p> - - <p>Las Casas relates that when he was making a journey within his diocese, - he met one of his missionaries named Francisco Hernandez, who had been - for some years living in Yucatan, and had become acquainted with the - language. Thinking that this ecclesiastic would be useful for the work - of converting the Indians to the faith, he made him his vicar and sent - him into the interior to preach amongst the natives. After a lapse - of several months he received a letter from the vicar stating that - he had been told by one of the principal caciques, that it was known - that, anciently, there had arrived in Yucatan twenty strangers. They - were dressed in long robes, had sandals upon their feet, and taught - religion. It was also mentioned that these men wore long beards,<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> - and that they had a leader who was named Cucul-can (Quetzalcoatl).</p> - - <p>Las Casas concludes by observing that “Certainly the land and kingdom - of Yucatan gives us to understand most especial things, and of the - greatest antiquity with regard to the grand, admirable and exquisite - styles of ancient edifices, and writings of certain characters which - are in no other place. Finally, these are secrets which God only knows. - (<span xml:lang="es">Finalmente, secretos son estos que sólo Dios los sabe</span>).”<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">410</span></p> - - <p>But the most explicit statements with regard to Quetzalcoatl were - those which were given by the chief-priests of the temples raised to - his memory at Cholula.<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> They affirmed the tradition of the arrival of - strangers of a white race and foreign origin coming by sea in vessels - from the east. These strangers were said to have taught the Indians to - build monasteries, and maintain seminaries for religious - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">411</span>instruction. - According to Clavigero, they taught certain natives the methods of - arranging the divisions of time and the use of the calendar. The - priests also showed the Spaniards some ornaments which they said had - been worn by the chief of these strangers.</p> - - <p>The positive declarations about white people having landed upon the - shores of the Mexican Gulf have been carefully investigated. It has - been usually <span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">412</span> - considered that they were the result of a myth, or that - they were based upon vague traditions relating to events which, if - they had any foundation, must have happened at a period exceedingly - remote and possibly referred to early migrations from Asia. But it has - to be remembered that the facts reported by the caciques and priests - invariably related to a period when their tribes were established in - Yucatan or Mexico; and the arrival of the strangers was always said to - have taken place on the eastern seaboard of those lands. As the Toltecs - according to the Indian records were not established there before the - sixth century the event, if it occurred, must have happened after that - date.</p> - - <p>There are also other circumstances connected with this legend which - appear, to some extent, to remove it from a mythical character and to - place it within the limits of legitimate inquiry and investigation. The - Indians who described the events spoke of them in a manner which was - not vague, but was clear and decided, and as being within the personal - knowledge of their ancestors. They also always gave a description of - the monuments of the strangers or of their chief. Thus, in Yucatan, - the leader was said to have left that region for the coast of Mexico. - At Cholula, it was the tradition that Quetzalcoatl, with several of - his companions, went away to the sea shore near Goascoalco, in the - direction of Yucatan and never returned. In the regions of the interior - of Chiapas and Guatemala, it was stated that in several of the native - manuscripts accounts were given of a great leader or chief named - Votan who was believed to have arrived in that country with - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">413</span> nineteen - companions or other chiefs. Votan was supposed to have landed in - America near the Laguna de Terminos and to have established his first - settlement near Palenque.<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p> - - <p>The most singular circumstance relating to the worship of Quetzalcoatl - is the fact that a cross should have been the chief emblem in the - temple especially dedicated to him at Palenque. The fact of this symbol - being worshipped by the Indians in the New World may perhaps not be - deemed particularly strange, but it has to be taken into consideration - that there is no record of any figure in the shape of a cross having - been an object of devotion in any part of America, except in the - regions that had been occupied by the Toltecs.</p> - - <p>When the Spaniards arrived in Yucatan they reported that they saw in - the court of a temple at Cozumel a cross made of lime and stone which - was worshipped by the natives. There were some doubts about the precise - meaning assigned to this image, possibly owing to the difficulties of - understanding the Maya language, but it was afterwards ascertained that - it represented the god of rain.</p> - - <p>The cross on the altar at Palenque is of an entirely different - character, and evidently forms the principal part of the emblem - representing Quetzalcoatl. How did it come to pass that this - exceptional figure of a cross should have been sculptured upon the - tablet representing the emblems of the white - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_414">414</span>stranger who, according - to the Indian traditions, landed upon their shores, coming from the - east in a sacerdotal dress, wearing sandals upon his feet and having - red crosses embroidered upon his cape?<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p> - - <p>It is this coincidence that causes attention to be directed to an - endeavour to form some reasonable solution of the problem. It will be - observed, upon an examination of the illustration of the tablet of the - cross, that the name Quetzalcoatl is represented by the quetzal, the - emblematic bird of the Quichés, and by peculiar marks surrounding the - cross which are thought to be intended to denote a serpent (coatl) - which, as at Uxmal, was probably the Totem of the tribe.<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> But - the principal figure placed in the centre of the altar is the cross. - This by its shape and position must have been intended to have had an - especial significance.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">415</span></p> - - <p>It is related by Gomara that, upon the occasion of the discovery of - Yucatan by the expedition under the command of Francisco Hernandez - in 1517, the Spaniards observed in the country near Cape Catoche, - crosses of brass and wood placed over graves. The unexpected finding of - these crosses in an hitherto unknown land attracted the attention of - geographers in Spain and, to some extent, led to theories with regard - to the possible arrival in Yucatan of the Spanish ecclesiastics who - had, according to an ancient legend, fled from Spain when that country - was conquered by the Saracens in the eighth century, and were believed - to have reached an island in the western parts of the Atlantic ocean - called Antilia.</p> - - <p>What Gomara wrote upon this subject is as follows:—</p> - - <p>“In that place there were found crosses of brass and wood over the - dead, from whence some argue that many Spaniards had fled to this land - when the destruction of Spain was done by the Moors in the time of - the King Don Roderick: but I do not believe it; since there are not - any in the islands that we have mentioned: in some one of which it is - necessary, and also compulsory to touch at, before arriving there.”</p> - - <p>Gomara was undoubtedly correct in not believing that these crosses - were placed over the graves of Spaniards who had arrived in Yucatan - after the defeat and flight of King Roderick. It is not requisite to - go back to events that occurred in Spain in the eighth century to - account for the existence of crosses on the promontory of Cape Catoche. - When Hernandez landed there in 1517, nearly a quarter of - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">416</span> a century - had elapsed since Columbus had founded his settlements in Cuba and - Hispaniola, and during that interval many small expeditions had been - organised by Spanish adventurers for the purpose of exploring the - coasts in the direction of Honduras and Nicaragua. In pursuing these - voyages of discovery their vessels must have frequently passed at no - great distance from the eastern shores of Yucatan where, on their - return from the south, they would have been baffled by contrary winds - and currents. Under such conditions it is not improbable that one of - the vessels may have been wrecked or abandoned off Cape Catoche, and - that some of the crew perished and were buried by the survivors near - the seacoast.</p> - - <p>The Spanish legend to which Gomara refers is, with respect to America, - chiefly remarkable for its surprising concurrence in date and other - circumstances with the Toltec legend of the arrival of strangers - wearing cassocks. It is therefore necessary to ascertain if there - are sufficient reasons for placing any confidence in statements that - appear to be founded upon tradition, and whether the event that was - believed to have taken place could have been possible. The tradition - did not escape the attention of Washington Irving. In his “Life of - Columbus”<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> he states that “It was recorded in an ancient legend, - that at the time of the conquest of Spain and Portugal by the Moors, - when the inhabitants fled in every direction to escape from slavery, - seven bishops, followed by a great number of their people, - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">417</span>took - shipping, and abandoned themselves to their fate on the high seas. - After tossing about for some time, they landed upon an unknown island - in the midst of the ocean. Here the bishops burnt the ships to prevent - the desertion of their followers, and founded seven cities.”<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p> - - <p>In the principal maps published during the fifteenth century, before - the discovery of America, the island of Antilia was usually given a - position in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">418</span> - middle of the western Atlantic, south of the Azores. - In the chart of the geographer Toscanelli, which was sent to Columbus, - Antilia was placed in the direct track by sea from the Canary islands - to Cipango (Japan), the large and prosperous country supposed at that - time to be situated in the extreme west, near the eastern limits of - Asia. It is evident that Columbus firmly believed in the existence of - Antilia, for when he left the Canaries on his outward voyage, he shaped - his course for that island and steered due west for about sixteen - hundred miles.</p> - - <p>Upon reaching the latitude and longitude where he expected to see - land, the admiral conferred with his captains, but as nothing had been - observed it was thought that the ships must have passed the island. - At sunset, the captain of the Pinta hailed the admiral and reported - that land was in sight to the south-west. The course of the ships was - accordingly altered towards that direction. On the next day it was - found that what had been seen was cloudland. The ships resumed their - course and proceeded until the landfall was made upon the island of - Guanahani.</p> - - <p>The belief in the existence of the legendary island was, however, - not then dispelled and it is remarkable, as a proof of the opinions - of geographers, that in the important map of the world by Ruysch, - published in 1508, in which were placed the latest discoveries in the - west; Antilia still retained its position.<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="i_418f"><img src="images/i_418f.jpg" width="700" height="417" alt="" /></a> - <div class="caption smcap">From Ruysch’s Map of the World (1508).<br /> - <span class="small">(Nordenskiöld’s Facsimile Atlas.)</span></div> - </div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">419</span></p> - - <p>In the early part of the sixteenth century, several expeditionary - fleets were fitted out and sailed across the seas towards the New - World. Many islands were seen, but Antilia was not found. Thus when it - became known that Yucatan had been discovered and that a cross placed - within a stone temple was worshipped by the Indians, and that other - crosses had been seen placed over graves, it was surmised that the - bishops must have finally reached that distant land.</p> - - <p>Such an event may be thought to be improbable, but as, in consequence - of the trade-winds, it is not impossible, it is expedient to consider - in what manner it might have happened. It has to be assumed that the - legend, so far as it relates to Christian fugitives escaping from the - tyranny of Mahometan conquerors, may be considered as being within the - limits of reasonable historical inquiry. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">420</span> - Men deliberately leaving - their own country to seek a place of refuge where they would be free to - establish their religion, would, before embarking upon unknown seas, - take with them supplies of provisions and water, and thus, by proper - precautions, secure themselves from the risk of starvation. It is also - probable that they were informed by the pilots or other navigators - acquainted with the adjacent shores, that there were islands situated - beyond the Mauritanian coasts within a distance not too great for them - to undertake the voyage with a fair prospect of reaching land.</p> - - <p>In the eighth century the Canary Islands had not been discovered by - Europeans, but their position was known to the Arabs and Moors and - rumours concerning them and their proximity to the coast of Morocco - were doubtless familiar to the sea-faring men living near Cadiz. The - pilots would, therefore, have shaped a course for the Canaries. They - would have expected to reach those islands within eight or ten days. - But a slight error in their course would have taken the vessels into - the trade-winds and, in that case, they would have been driven across - the Atlantic in the direction of Florida, whose coasts might easily - have been reached in less than six weeks from the date of the departure - from Spain. It is also possible that they may have been chased by some - of the armed vessels which had conveyed the Saracens from Mauritania.</p> - - <p>It is not, however, necessary to pursue this investigation to any - greater length. It is sufficiently clear that if the event, as recorded - by tradition, actually happened, there is no difficulty in accepting - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">421</span> - the conclusion that several of the bishops and their companions may - have reached America in safety.<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> Thus the statements of the Indian - priests, that white strangers wearing beards and dressed in cassocks - had arrived from the East, would be confirmed.</p> - - <p>Upon an examination of the laws that govern the direction of the - trade-winds in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, it is found that there - is a strong easterly wind continuously blowing across the Atlantic - towards Florida, Mexico and Yucatan. There is also a strong westerly - wind invariably blowing across the North Pacific, over the regions - between the fortieth and fiftieth parallels of latitude, from Japan - towards the north-west coast of North America. In consequence of this - prevailing wind several junks have <span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">422</span> - been driven out of their course - and have reached the American seacoasts. In 1833 a junk was wrecked - near Vancouver island and several of the crew landed and were received - by the Indians. In the previous year a Japanese junk laden with fish - arrived at the Sandwich islands. She had been driven across the seas by - a violent storm which had caught her off Japan. Four of her men were - alive and they were taken to Honolulu.</p> - - <p>Taking therefore into consideration the prevalence of trade-winds - blowing towards America, and the peculiar conditions of architectural - and astronomical intelligence possessed by the Mexican Indians, there - are certain inferences which may be accepted. It is not improbable that - men belonging to European, Moorish, or Asiatic races arrived in Central - America during a period between the sixth and eleventh centuries. - There is not sufficient evidence to determine in what manner this may - have happened; but after giving due weight to the statements of the - Indian priests and caciques, and the traditions of the circumstances - under which their knowledge was introduced into Mexico, together with - the adoption of monastic institutions, and the systems of education, - it is reasonable to conjecture that the comparative civilisation of - the Toltecs and Aztecs was originally caused by the influence and - instruction of strangers who came to their land in vessels which had - crossed the Atlantic.</p> - - <div class="figcenter w700"> - <a id="i_422fa"><img src="images/i_422fa.jpg" width="700" height="538" alt="" /></a> - <div class="attribr"><i>London: Stanford’s Geog<sup>l</sup>. Estab<sup>t</sup>.</i></div> - <div class="caption clear">A Map to illustrate<br /> - “TRAVELS AMONGST AMERICAN INDIANS”<br /> - by Admiral Lindesay Brine.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter w700"> - <a id="i_422fb"><img src="images/i_422fb.jpg" width="700" height="597" alt="" /></a> - <div class="attribr"><i>London: Stanford’s Geog<sup>l</sup>. Estab<sup>t</sup>.</i></div> - <div class="caption clear">A Map of<br /> - THE UNITED STATES,<br /> - MEXICO &c.<br /> - to accompany “Travels amongst American Indians”</div> - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="INDEX"> - <span class="pagenum" >423</span> - <h2>INDEX.</h2> - </div> - <hr class="short" /> - - <ul> - <li><span class="smcap">Abalá</span>, village of, <a href="#Page_360">360–362</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, - <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> - <li>Abenakis Indians, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - <li>Acapulco, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - <li>Adams, Mr. Charles Francis, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - <li><i>Adoratorio</i>, an Indian, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, - <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> - <li>Agassiz, Professor, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - <li>Agua, volcano, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, - <a href="#Page_196">196–200</a>.</li> - <li>Aguilar, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> - <li>Aguinaga, brig, <a href="#Page_372">372–374</a>.</li> - <li>Albatrosses in the South Pacific, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - <li>Alcaldes, the, at San Tomas, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - <li>Algonquin tribe of Indians, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - <li>Alligator totem, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - <li>Alligators, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320–322</a>.</li> - <li>Alumni, the, of Harvard, <a href="#Page_25">25–28</a>.</li> - <li>Alvarado, Pedro de, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225–228</a>, - <a href="#Page_235">235–237</a>.</li> - <li>Amatitlan, village of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - <li>American Civil War, <a href="#Page_9">9–11</a>.</li> - <li>American politics, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - <li>Annapolis, Naval Academy at, <a href="#Page_6">6–8</a>.</li> - <li>Antilia, Island of, <a href="#Page_417">417–419</a>.</li> - <li>Apache Indians, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - <li>Ara-po-gai-sik (Day-catcher), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - <li>Atitlan, volcano of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - <li>Atwater, Mr., and the Circleville Inclosures, <a href="#Page_79">79–84</a>.</li> - <li>Aztecs, the, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, - <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404–406</a>, - <a href="#Page_422">422</a>:<br /> - sacrifices of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224–226</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>:<br /> - barbarous custom of, <a href="#Page_396">396–398</a>:<br /> - obsidian knives used by, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Bachajon</span>, village, of 267, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, - <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - <li>Baird, Dr., <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - <li>Baptismal customs, Yucatan Indians, <a href="#Page_364">364–366</a>.</li> - <li>Barrancas (ravines), <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - <li>Bartlett, Professor, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> - <li>Bartram, Mr., <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> - <li>Basques, crew of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li> - <li>Bates, Mr., <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> - <li>Beaver dams, <a href="#Page_36">36–40</a>.</li> - <li>Beech-tree, chief of the Oneidas tribe, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - <li>Bisons, herds of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> - <li>Boulders, on the Minnesota prairies, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>:<br /> - Sioux worship of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - <li>Braddock, General, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - <li>Bridgman, Laura, <a href="#Page_16">16–18</a>.</li> - <li>Burial customs; of the Dakotas, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>:<br /> - of the Sacs and Foxes, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>:<br /> - in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> - <li>Burial by the Mound Builders, manner, <a href="#Page_61">61–63</a>.</li> - <li>Burial mounds in Illinois, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>: (<i>see also</i> Ohio, &c.).</li> - <li>Burial place of Sioux, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Cabarrus</span>, M. de, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - <li>Cahokia earthworks, the, <a href="#Page_105">105–108</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, - <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> - <li>Californian Indians, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - <li>Cambridge, Indian collections at, <a href="#Page_19">19–21</a>:<br /> - Commencement Day at, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - <li>Campeachy, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>:<br /> - gulf of, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> - <li>Cannibalism, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323–325</a>, - <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - <li>Cape San Lucas, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> - <li>Cargadores, the, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - <li>Carmen, Island of, <a href="#Page_326">326–328</a>.</li> - <li>Carnival, an Indian, <a href="#Page_269">269–272</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> - <li>Carp, River, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - <li>Carr, Professor Lucien, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> - <li>Carrera, President, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, - <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - <li>Carver, Captain, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - <li>Casa de las Monjas at Uxmal, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>, - <a href="#Page_339">339–343</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347–358</a>.</li> - <li>Casa del Gobernador at Uxmal, <a href="#Page_337">337–343</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347–358</a>.</li> - <li>Castillo, Don Manuel, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> - <li>Catasaja, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - <li><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_424">424</a></span> - Catherwood, Mr., <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - <li>Cayugas, tribe, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, - <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> - <li>Cedar Keys, settlement of, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> - <li>Ceremonies of the Dakotas, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> - <li>Cerna, President Don Vincente, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - <li>Charnay, M. Desiré, <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - <li>Chase, Chief Justice, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - <li>Cherokee Indians, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> - <li>Cheyenne Indians, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - <li>Chiapas, mounds in, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> - <li>Chimaltenango, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - <li>Chilon, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> - <li>Chippewas, Indians, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, - <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, - <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, - <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - <li>Cholula, temple at, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> - <li>Chontal Indians, <a href="#Page_220">220–224</a>.</li> - <li>Circleville, inclosures at, <a href="#Page_79">79–84</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96–102</a>.</li> - <li>Civil War, troops in the American, <a href="#Page_9">9–11</a>.</li> - <li>Clarke, Capt., of Cedar Keys, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> - <li>Clavigero, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - <li>Clemens, Dr., and the Grave Creek Mound, <a href="#Page_58">58–60</a>.</li> - <li>Coller, Dr., at Palenque, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294–297</a>, - <a href="#Page_301">301–303</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316–319</a>.</li> - <li>Columbus and the island of Antilia, <a href="#Page_416">416–419</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> - <li>Commencement Day at Cambridge, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - <li>Comitan, town of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> - <li>Comolapa, village of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - <li>Conceptionistas, Convent of the, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li> - <li>Concord, shell heaps at, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - <li>Copan, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>:<br /> - idols at, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - <li>Copper mines in Michigan, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43–51</a>.</li> - <li>Corbett, Mr., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - <li>Cordilleras, the, <a href="#Page_204">204–205</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - <li>Cortes, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323–325</a>, - <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> - <li>Cozumel, island of, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>:<br /> - cross at, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - <li>Cruz, Serapio, Indian named, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, - <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> - <li>Cuba, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li> - <li>Cuoq, M., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - <li>Curing illness by steam, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - <li>Cutler, Rev. Dr., <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Dakota</span> Indians, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, - <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147–149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, - <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>:<br /> - human sacrifices of the, <a href="#Page_132">132–134</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171–173</a>, - <a href="#Page_401">401</a>:<br /> - language of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>:<br /> - and sun worship, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>:<br /> - and sickness, <a href="#Page_164">164–165</a>:<br /> - and lightning, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>:<br /> - and transmigration, <a href="#Page_167">167–168</a>:<br /> - fasts of the, <a href="#Page_168">168–169</a>:<br /> - and serpent worship, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>:<br /> - burial customs of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>:<br /> - curing illness by steam, <a href="#Page_174">174–175</a>:<br /> - burial mound, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.<br /> - (<i>see also</i> Sioux.)</li> - <li>Damariscotta, shell mounds at, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30–33</a>, - <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> - <li>Dance, Indian, at Chilon, <a href="#Page_269">269–272</a>.</li> - <li>Dancing, Indians and, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> - <li>Darwin’s coral theories, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> - <li>Dauphin, the (Williams), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - <li>Davis, Mr., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - <li>Dayton’s Bluff, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> - <li>Debauchery of the Mexican Indians, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> - <li>Demons, Indian offerings to, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li> - <li>Des Moines River, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - <li>Delaware Indians, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> - <li>Dialect at Ocosingo, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - <li>Dialects of the North American Indians, <a href="#Page_151">151–154</a>:<br /> - of Guatemala Indians, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - <li>Diaz, Bernal, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223–227</a>, - <a href="#Page_323">323–328</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331–333</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, - <a href="#Page_396">396–398</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> - <li>Digger Indians, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - <li>Dighton, rock at, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - <li>Dowding, Captain Herbert, xv.</li> - <li>Dupaix, Captain, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Earthworks</span> in Ohio, ancient Indian, <a href="#Page_54">54–103</a>, - <a href="#Page_379">379–385</a>.</li> - <li>Emerson, Mr. Ralph Waldo, <a href="#Page_22">22–26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, - <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - <li>Escalanta, Señor, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - <li>Esconauba, River, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - <li>Escuintla, town of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - <li>Esquipulas, pilgrimage to, <a href="#Page_186">186–188</a>.</li> - <li>Evans, chief Elder of the Shakers, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Faribault</span>, half-breed Indian, <a href="#Page_117">117–119</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164–169</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - <li>Fasting of the Dakotas, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - <li>Festival, Indian, at Jacaltenango, <a href="#Page_243">243–245</a>.</li> - <li>Festival of San Caralampio, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> - <li>Fire, Indian method of lighting a, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> - <li>Flathead Indians, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - <li>Florida, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Footnote_30">103</a>:<br /> - Professor Agassiz and, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>:<br /> - shell mounds in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>:<br /> - rivers in, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>:<br /> - coast of 374–377:<br /> - Indians in, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> - <li>Forests; in Michigan, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>:<br /> - near Palenque, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>:<br /> - of Aracan, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>:<br /> - between San Pedro and Palenque, <a href="#Page_282">282–284</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290–294</a>, - <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> - <li>Forster, Mr. J. H., <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - <li>Foster, Mr. J. W., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - <li><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_425">[425]</a></span> - Fort Ancient, on the Little Miami river, <a href="#Page_87">87–96</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, - <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - <li>Fort Du Quesne, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - <li>Fort Hill, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - <li>Foxes, Indian tribe, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - <li>Franciscan Missionaries in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_364">364–366</a>.</li> - <li>Franklin, Sir John and Lady, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - <li>Fuegians similar to the Ute Indians, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - <li>Fuego, volcano, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - <li>Fuentes, the historian, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> - <li>Fuller, Margaret, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Gage</span>, Thomas, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - <li>Gallatin, Mr. Albert, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - <li>Game in the Platte valley, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - <li>Garcia y Granados, Colonel, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - <li>Gavarrete, Señor, <a href="#Page_184">184–186</a>.</li> - <li>Glacial action near Ishpeming, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - <li>Godillo, Don Mariana, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - <li>Goitre, Indians suffering with, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> - <li><i>Golden City</i>, ship, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - <li>Gomara, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> - <li>Grant, President, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - <li>Grave Creek Mound, <a href="#Page_58">58–61</a>.</li> - <li>Great Britain, Daniel Webster on, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - <li>Great Salt Lake, the, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - <li>Great Star, human sacrifice to the <a href="#Page_131">131–134</a>.</li> - <li>Grey, Judge, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - <li>Grinnell, Mr. Henry, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - <li>Grijalva, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - <li>Guatemala, city of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>:<br /> - museum at, <a href="#Page_184">184–187</a>:<br /> - cathedral in, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>:<br /> - market place, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>:<br /> - foreign residents in, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - <li>Guatimozin, Emperor, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>:</li> - <li>execution of, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> - <li>Gueguetenango, <a href="#Page_233">233–237</a>.</li> - <li>Guerrero, Gonzalo, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> - <li>Guicola, Padre Andres, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> - <li>Guides, Indian; Anastasio, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231–233</a>:<br /> - Bito, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>:<br /> - Carlos, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, - <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248–252</a>:<br /> - José, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>:<br /> - Lopez, <a href="#Page_259">259–262</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>:<br /> - Villafranca, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282–285</a>.</li> - <li>Gurney, Professor, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Hague</span>, Mr., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - <li>Hardy, M., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - <li>Harris, Mr., <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - <li>Harvard, the Alumni of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - <li>Haven, Mr., <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - <li>Henry, Mr. Alexander, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> - <li>Herbert, Baron, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - <li>Hernandez, Padre, <a href="#Page_211">211–214</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> - <li>Hieroglyphs in temples at Palenque, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> - <li>Hildreth, Dr., and inclosures at Marietta, <a href="#Page_70">70–75</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - <li>Hill, Mr. of S. Pauls’ city, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - <li>Hillard, Mr., <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> - <li>Hoar, Judge, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - <li>Hockmeyer, Mr. and Mrs., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - <li>Hogs, and destruction of rattlesnakes, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - <li>Holmes, Mr. Oliver Wendell, <a href="#Page_26">26–28</a>.</li> - <li>Houghton, town of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - <li>Howe, Dr., <a href="#Page_25">25</a>:<br /> - institution in Boston, <a href="#Page_16">16–18</a>:<br /> - Mrs. Julia Ward, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - <li>How-wan-ni-yu (the Great Spirit), <a href="#Page_156">156–158</a>.</li> - <li>Huitzopotli, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - <li>Human sacrifices: of the Pawnees, <a href="#Page_131">131–134</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171–173</a>:<br /> - of the Dakotas, <a href="#Page_171">171–173</a>:<br /> - of the Pipil Indians, <a href="#Page_220">220–224</a>:<br /> - in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - <li>Humboldt and the Toltecs, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> - <li>Hunting grounds of Indians, the U.S. Government and, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - <li>Hurons, tribe of Indians, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> - <li>Huts, Indian construction of, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Idolatry</span> of Indians, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> - <li>Idols, Indian, <a href="#Page_221">221–223</a>:<br /> - in Museum at Guatemala, <a href="#Page_184">184–186</a>:<br /> - at Ocosingo, <a href="#Page_263">263–265</a>:<br /> - in Yucatan, worship of, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - <li>Illinois, burial mound in, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - <li>Illinois, Indians, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - <li>Inclosures, sacred; near Newark, <a href="#Page_64">64–70</a>:<br /> - at Marietta, <a href="#Page_70">70–76</a>:<br /> - at Circleville, <a href="#Page_79">79–84</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96–102</a>.</li> - <li>Indian, battlefield, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>:<br /> - baptismal customs, <a href="#Page_364">364–366</a>:<br /> - carnival, an, <a href="#Page_269">269–272</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>:<br /> - ceremonies in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_362">362–365</a>:<br /> - cemetery, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>:<br /> - civilisation in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_406">406–8</a>:<br /> - collections at Cambridge, <a href="#Page_19">19–21</a>:<br /> - construction of huts, <a href="#Page_286">286–287</a>:<br /> - debauchery, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>:<br /> - dialects, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>:<br /> - domestic habits, <a href="#Page_239">239–241</a>:<br /> - earthworks in Ohio, <a href="#Page_54">54–103</a>:<br /> - education, Judge Williams and, <a href="#Page_109">109–111</a>:<br /> - farmhouse, an, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>:<br /> - festival, an, <a href="#Page_243">243–245</a>:<br /> - idols, <a href="#Page_184">184–186</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245–6</a>:<br /> - inclosures, <i>see</i> Circleville, Marietta, Newark, &c.:<br /> - marriage custom in the Sierra Madre, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>:<br /> - mines round Lake Superior, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>:<br /> - officials at Abalá, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>:<br /> - mounds in Ohio, <a href="#Page_54">54–103</a>:<br /> - <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_426">[426]</a></span> - pilgrims, <a href="#Page_186">186–188</a>:<br /> - population in North America, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>:<br /> - reservations in North America, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>:<br /> - rebellion in Guatemala, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>:<br /> - religious devotion, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,<br /> - <i>see also</i> Yucatan:<br /> - skulls, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>:<br /> - statue at Ocosingo, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>:<br /> - steam bath, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>:<br /> - traditions, Ohio earthworks, <a href="#Page_94">94–103</a>:<br /> - warfare, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>:<br /> - war customs, <a href="#Page_134">134–5</a>:<br /> - well, an, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> - <li>Indians, diversity of languages, <a href="#Page_150">150–154</a>:<br /> - hunting grounds of, the U S. Government and, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>:<br /> - shell heaps of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28–33</a>.</li> - <li>Indians; <i>see</i> Abenakis, Algonquins, Apaches, Californian, Cheyennes, - Chippewas, Chontal, Dakotas, Delaware, Flathead, Florida, Foxes, - Hurons, Iroquois, Kachiquels, Lacandon, Maya, Mohawks, Natchez, - Oaxaca, Oneidas, Onondagas, Pawnees, Pipiles, Quichés, Sacs, - Senecas, Shawnees, Shoshones, Sioux, Tzendales, Utes, Winnebagoes, - Yucatan, Zambos, &c., &c.</li> - <li>Insurrections of Indians in Guatemala, <a href="#Page_183">183–4</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - <li>Iowa, prairies in, <a href="#Page_124">124–127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - <li>Iron mines in Michigan, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45–51</a>.</li> - <li>Iroquois, Indians, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>:<br /> - battle with the Chippewas, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>:<br /> - burial mounds of the, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>:<br /> - traditions and customs of, <a href="#Page_151">151–155</a>:<br /> - the Grand River, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - <li>Ishpeming, village of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, - <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - <li>Itzqueye, idol of, <a href="#Page_221">221–223</a>.</li> - <li>Izamal, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Jacaltenango</span>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243–249</a>, - <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> - <li>James, Mr. William D., <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - <li>Jesuit Mission at Sault St. Marie, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - <li>Jonuta, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> - <li>Jotána, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - <li>Juarez, President, <a href="#Page_256">256–258</a>.</li> - <li>Juarros, the historian, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, - <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Kachiquels</span> Indians, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235–237</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> - <li>Kee-wai-wona Bay, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - <li>Kue (altar) at Yucatan, <a href="#Page_330">330–334</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">La Antigua</span> Guatemala, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - <li>Lacandon Indians, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - <li>Ladinos, the, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - <li>Laguna de Terminos, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - <li>Lake Amatitlan, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - <li>Lake Atitlan, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - <li>Lake Ontario, mound near, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - <li>Lake Pepin, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - <li>Lake Simcoe, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - <li>Lake Superior, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>:<br /> - ancient Indian mines round, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - <li>La Laguna de Cuyutlan, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> - <li>Landa, Bishop, work on Yucatan, <a href="#Page_343">343–346</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, - <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, - <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> - <li>Languages, diversity of, among Indians, <a href="#Page_150">150–154</a>.</li> - <li>La Oracion, a prayer in Guatemala, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - <li>Lapidge, Captain, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - <li>Las Casas, Bishop, <a href="#Page_iii">iii</a>, <a href="#Page_iv">iv</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273–276</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - <li>Las Godinas, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - <li>La Vieja Guatemala, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - <li>Lenton, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> - <li>Licignano, Duke de, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> - <li>Licking Creek, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - <li>Little Miami River, the, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - <li>Lizana, Father, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> - <li>Locke, Professor, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - <li>Longfellow, Mr., <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - <li>Lowell, Mr., J. R., <a href="#Page_26">26–28</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Macal</span>, Presbitero Fernando, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, - <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> - <li>Madoc, Prince, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - <li>Maguey (aloe), <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - <li>Maine, shell mounds in, <a href="#Page_28">28–33</a>.</li> - <li>Mams tribe, <a href="#Page_234">234–237</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, - <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> - <li>Mandans, the, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - <li>Mankato, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - <li>Manzanillo, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - <li>Marietta, mounds at, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>:<br /> - inclosures at, <a href="#Page_70">70–76</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99–101</a>.</li> - <li>Marimba (instrument), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - <li>Maoris; curing illness by steam, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>:<br /> - method of cooking, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> - <li>Marquette in Michigan, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - <li>Martinez, Padre, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - <li>Masagua, village, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - <li>Maudslay, Mr., <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - <li>Maximilian, Emperor, execution of, <a href="#Page_257">257–258</a>.</li> - <li>Maya race of Indians, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> - <li>Mechanics, a triumph of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>,</li> - <li>Medicine man, the, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - <li>Mendota, settlement of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - <li><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_427">[427]</a></span> - Merida, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> - <li>Mestizos, the, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - <li>Metternich, Prince, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - <li>Mexican antiquities at Cambridge, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - <li>Miamisburgh mound, <a href="#Page_56">56–59</a>.</li> - <li>Michigan, beavers in, <a href="#Page_36">36–40</a>:<br /> - ancient mining pits in, <a href="#Page_42">42–51</a>:<br /> - early surveys of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - <li>Michol River, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - <li>Micla, village of, <a href="#Page_220">220–223</a>.</li> - <li>Military Academy at West Point, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - <li>Mines in Michigan, ancient Indian, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, - <a href="#Page_42">42–51</a>.</li> - <li>Minnesota, prairies in, <a href="#Page_124">124–127</a>.</li> - <li>Mississippi River, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>:<br /> - falls of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> - <li>Missouri River, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> - <li>Mitla, ruins of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - <li>Mixco, ancient mounds near, <a href="#Page_189">189–191</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, - <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> - <li>Mohawks, tribe, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - <li>Monastery at Palenque, <a href="#Page_297">297–302</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307–317</a>.</li> - <li>Monks Mound, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - <li>Montalban, Doña Aña de, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - <li>Montezuma, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - <li>Morgan, Mr. Lewis, <a href="#Footnote_30">103</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - <li>Mormons, the, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> - <li>Mounds and earthworks of Indians in Ohio, <a href="#Page_54">54–103</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379–385</a>:<br /> - near Mixco, <a href="#Page_189">189–191</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> - <li>Mounds near St. Paul, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>:<br /> - near Lake Ontario, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>,<br /> - <i>see</i> Mixco, Palenque, &c.</li> - <li>Mourning customs of the Sioux, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - <li>Múna, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - <li>Murray, Hon. C. A., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - <li>Muskinghum River, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Natchez</span> Indians, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> - <li>Nauvoo, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> - <li>Naval Academy at Annapolis, <a href="#Page_6">6–8</a>.</li> - <li>Naval power, the Atlantic seaboard, and, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - <li>Nebraska, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>:<br /> - plains in, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - <li>Negroes in the Southern States, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>:<br /> - in the American Civil War, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> - <li>Newark, town of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>:<br /> - inclosures at, <a href="#Page_64">64–70</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96–103</a>.</li> - <li>New Zealanders, burial custom of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - <li>Nightingale, a, at Palenque, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> - <li>Nopá river, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> - <li>North American Indians, <i>see</i> Indians.</li> - <li>Norwood, Dr. Joseph, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Oaxaca</span> Indians, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> - <li>Obsidian knives used by Aztecs, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - <li>Ocosingo, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263–267</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - <li>Ogallalas, tribe of Sioux, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - <li>Ohio, ancient Indian mounds and earthworks in 54–103, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> - <li>Oliphant, Mr. Laurence, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - <li>Omaha, prison at, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> - <li>Oneidas tribe, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>:<br /> - reservation of the, <a href="#Page_51">51–53</a>.</li> - <li>Onondagas, tribe, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - <li>Ontonagon, town of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - <li>Orchids in Guatemala, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - <li>Ortiz, Don Pepe, <a href="#Page_288">288–294</a>.</li> - <li>Ottawa Indians, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Pacaya</span>, volcano, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - <li>Palacio, Don Garcia de, <a href="#Page_219">219–223</a>.</li> - <li>Palenque, ruins and temples at, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, - <a href="#Page_303">303–307</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350–358</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, - <a href="#Page_391">391–395</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>:<br /> - arrival at, <a href="#Page_294">294–296</a>:<br /> - “Palace” or monastery at, <a href="#Page_297">297–302</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307–317</a>, - <a href="#Page_406">406</a>:<br /> - square tower in 300, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312–314</a>:<br /> - mounds about, <a href="#Page_318">318–320</a>.</li> - <li>Palisada, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>:<br /> - river, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> - <li>Panajachel, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - <li>Parker, Mr. Frank, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - <li>Parkman, Mr. Francis B., <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - <li>Patinamit, Indian ruins of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - <li>Pawnees, the, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129–136</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, - <a href="#Page_163">163–165</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - <li>Pedro, Padre, <a href="#Page_207">207–209</a>.</li> - <li>Pelicans, flocks of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - <li>Penance of Indians, <a href="#Page_161">161–163</a>.</li> - <li>Petz, Rear-Admiral Baron, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> - <li>Pilgrimage to Esquipulas, <a href="#Page_186">186–188</a>.</li> - <li>Pipiles, Indians, <a href="#Page_220">220–224</a>.</li> - <li>Pintos, the, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - <li>Pitcher, General, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - <li>Platte, valley of the, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - <li>Portsmouth Ohio, Indian entrenchments at, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - <li>Pozole, substance called, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - <li>Prairie-dog villages, <a href="#Page_141">141–143</a>.</li> - <li>Prairie fires, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - <li>Prairies and glacial action, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - <li>Prairies in Minnesota and Iowa, <a href="#Page_124">124–129</a>.</li> - <li>Prescott, Mr., <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - <li>Pyramid of the Dwarf, Uxmal, <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340–342</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - <li>Pyramidal altars, Yucatan, <a href="#Page_330">330–334</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Quezaltenango</span>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> - <li>Quetzalcoatl, god named, <a href="#Page_221">221–223</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - <li><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_428">[428]</a></span> - Quetzales (birds), <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> - <li>Quichés Indians, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, - <a href="#Page_214">214–5</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, - <a href="#Page_389">389–391</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400–402</a>:<br /> - religious ceremonies of the, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, - <a href="#Page_219">219</a>:<br /> - chiefs, <a href="#Page_227">227–8</a>:<br /> - traditions of, <a href="#Page_235">235–7</a>,<br /> - <i>see also</i> Utatlan.</li> - <li>Quirigua, idols at, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>:<br /> - ruins of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Rae</span>, Dr., <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - <li>Rain, a fall of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - <li>Rain-makers, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - <li>Ransonnet, Baron, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - <li>Rattlesnake totem, xiv, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> - <li>Rattlesnakes, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> - <li>Rau, Professor Charles, xv., <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Footnote_84">317</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - <li>Red Cloud, a chief of the Sioux, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - <li>Religious ceremonies in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_362">362–365</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368–369</a>.</li> - <li>Religious devotion of Indians, <a href="#Page_240">240–241</a>.</li> - <li>Reservation lands for Indians, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - <li>Rigdon (Mormon preacher), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> - <li>Rio, Captain Antonio del, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - <li>Robles, Captain, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> - <li>Robles, Padre Juan C., <a href="#Page_243">243–249</a>.</li> - <li>Rodriguez, Padre, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - <li>Rogers, Commodore, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> - <li>Romero, Señor Matias, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - <li>Roubaud, Father, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> - <li>Ruins, of Uxmal, <a href="#Page_339">339–358</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, - <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.<br /> - <i>see also</i> Palenque, &c.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Sacrificial</span> customs at Uxmal, <a href="#Page_343">343–346</a>.</li> - <li>Sacrificial rites of the Aztecs, <a href="#Page_224">224–226</a>.</li> - <li>Sacrifices of the Indians to Volcanoes and Lakes, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.<br /> - <i>see also</i> Human.</li> - <li>Sacrificios, island of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> - <li>Sacs tribe of Indians, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - <li>St. Andres, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - <li>St. Clair, Governor, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - <li>St. Louis, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - <li>St. Martin, village of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - <li>St. Paul, city of, <a href="#Page_113">113–115</a></li> - <li>Salorzano, Don Remigio, <a href="#Page_263">263–265</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - <li>Salt Lake City, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - <li>San Caralampio, festival of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> - <li>San Carlos, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> - <li>San Domingo de Palenque. <i>see</i> Palenque.</li> - <li>San José de Guatemala, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - <li>San Pedro, <a href="#Page_284">284–288</a>:<br /> - Indians, <a href="#Page_285">285–288</a>:<br /> - River, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - <li>Santa Cruz del Quiché, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> - <li>Santorin, island of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - <li>San Tomas, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - <li>Sault Ste. Marie, Jesuit Mission at, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - <li>Scherzer, Dr., <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, - <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> - <li>Scioto River, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - <li>Seal rocks, the, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> - <li>Senecas tribe, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, - <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - <li>Sequechul, Indian named, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - <li>Serpent totems, xiv, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> - <li>Serpent worship, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>:<br /> - by the Dakotas, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> - <li>Seward, Mr., <a href="#Page_257">257–258</a>.</li> - <li>Shakers, the, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - <li>Shawnee tribe, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>:<br /> - burial mounds of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - <li>Shell heaps at Concord, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - <li>Shell mounds in Florida, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>:<br /> - in Maine, <a href="#Page_28">28–33</a>.</li> - <li>Shoshone Indians, <a href="#Page_146">146–148</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - <li>Sierra Madre mountains, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - <li>Sierras between San Pedro & Palenque, <a href="#Page_282">282–284</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290–294</a>.</li> - <li>Sinigiglia, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> - <li>Sioux Indians, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>:<br /> - methods of burial with, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>:<br /> - an encampment of, <a href="#Page_114">114–116</a>:<br /> - worship of spirit rocks, <a href="#Page_117">117–119</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>:<br /> - the Ogallalas tribe of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>:<br /> - Red Cloud, chief of the, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>:<br /> - and sun worship, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>:<br /> - medicine man, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>:<br /> - mourning customs, <a href="#Page_165">165–166</a>:<br /> - and lightning, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>:<br /> - and transmigration, <a href="#Page_167">167–168</a>:<br /> - human sacrifice of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - <li>Sioux War, the, <a href="#Page_120">120–122</a>.</li> - <li>Sisal, port of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li> - <li>Sissiton tribe of Sioux, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - <li>Skulls of Indians, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - <li>Smith, Mr. James, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - <li>Smith, Joseph, founder of Mormonism, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> - <li>Snowstorm, a violent, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> - <li>Socoleo, fortress of, <a href="#Page_235">235–237</a>.</li> - <li>Solares, General, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - <li>Sololá, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - <li>Southern States of America, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - <li>Spain and Utatlan, <a href="#Page_226">226–231</a>:<br /> - and employment of natives as carriers in Mexico, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - <li>Spaniards kept in cages by Aztecs, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> - <li>Spirit rocks, Sioux worship of, <a href="#Page_117">117–119</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - <li>Squier, Mr. E. G., <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, - <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - <li>Stansfield, Captain, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - <li>Steam bath, an Indian, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - <li>Stephens, Mr., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, - <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - <li><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_429">[429]</a></span> - Stone at Dighton, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - <li>Stone hammers, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - <li><i>Stonewall</i>, S.S., <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> - <li>Succession of forest trees, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - <li>Sumner, Mr., <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - <li>Sun worship, by the Pawnees, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>:<br /> - by all the Indian tribes in Mississippi valley, <a href="#Page_161">161–164</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261–262</a>.</li> - <li>Sun worshippers, the Natchez tribe, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> - <li>Superstition, the Pawnees and, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>:<br /> - the Dakotas and, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>:<br /> - Yucatan Indians and, <a href="#Page_366">366–369</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Tacara</span>, volcano, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - <li>Tallegewi, the, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> - <li>Tampa, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> - <li>“Temblor,” a, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - <li>Téotihuacan, pyramids of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> - <li>Temples at Izamal, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>:<br /> - at Uxmal, <a href="#Page_339">339–358</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> - <li>Temple of the Cross, at Palenque, <a href="#Page_304">304–306</a>.</li> - <li>Tepan Guatemala, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - <li>Terran, Padre Juan Batista de, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> - <li>Thomas, Professor Cyrus, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382–384</a>.</li> - <li>Thornton, Mr., <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - <li>Ticknor, Mr., <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, - <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - <li>Tihoo, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> - <li>Tlacupa, King of, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> - <li>Todos Santos, <a href="#Page_238">238–241</a>.</li> - <li>Toltecs, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, - <a href="#Page_400">400–404</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>,<br /> - <i>see also</i> Aztecs, Tallegwi.</li> - <li>Totems of Indians, <a href="#Page_84">84–86</a>:<br /> - of the Toltecs, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> - <li>Trade-winds in the Atlantic, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>:<br /> - in the Pacific, <a href="#Page_421">421–422</a>.</li> - <li>Traditions, Indian, <i>re</i> Ohio earthworks, <a href="#Page_94">94–103</a>.</li> - <li>Trappists, the, at Cahokia, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - <li>Trees, marking forest, as a guide, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>:<br /> - Professor Locke and age of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>:<br /> - absence of, on the Iowa plains, <a href="#Page_137">137–138</a>:<br /> - succession of forest, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - <li>Troops in the American Civil War, <a href="#Page_9">9–11</a>.</li> - <li>Tumbalá, <a href="#Page_278">278–282</a>.</li> - <li>Tuscaroras tribe, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - <li>Tzendales, Indians, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> - <li>Tzibalché, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Usamacinta River</span>, <a href="#Page_318">318–323</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> - <li>Utatlan, ruins of, <a href="#Page_217">217–220</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>:<br /> - conquest of, <a href="#Page_226">226–9</a>.</li> - <li>Utes, the, or Digger Indians, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - <li>Uxmal, <a href="#Page_336">336–338</a>:<br /> - ruins of, <a href="#Page_339">339–358</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>:<br /> - antiquity of temple at, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - - <li><span class="smcap">Vadillo</span>, Señor, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - <li>Valdivia, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> - <li>Vestal the (frigate), <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> - <li>Viatoro, Padre, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - <li>Vogdes, General, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> - <li>Volcanoes in the American Continent, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, - <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,<br /> - <i>see also</i> Agua, Atitlan, Fuego, Pacaya, Tacara.</li> - <li>Votan, chief, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Washington</span>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - <li>Webster, Daniel, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - <li>Well, an Indian, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> - <li>Welsh speaking Indians, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - <li>West Point, Military Academy at, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - <li>Whittlesea, Mr., <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - <li>Williams, Judge, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>:<br /> - and Indian education, <a href="#Page_109">109–112</a>.</li> - <li>Williams (the Dauphin), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - <li>Wilson, Professor Daniel, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - <li>Winnebagoes, the, <a href="#Page_119">119–123</a>.</li> - <li>Winona, an Indian maiden, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - <li>Woolner, Mr., <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - <li>Wyman, Professor Jeffries, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19–21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, - <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - <li>Wynne, Dr., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Yajalon</span>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, - <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> - <li>Yaxcabá, curate of, <a href="#Page_366">366–369</a>.</li> - <li>Young, Brigham, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - <li>Yucatan, pyramidal altars at, <a href="#Page_330">330–334</a>:<br /> - Indians in, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> - <li>Yucatan, Bishop Landa’s work on, <a href="#Page_343">343–346</a>:<br /> - worship of idols in, <a href="#Page_346">346–347</a>:<br /> - religious ceremonies in, <a href="#Page_362">362–365</a>:<br /> - superstition of Indians, <a href="#Page_366">366–368</a>:<br /> - ruins in, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>:<br /> - education in, <a href="#Page_407">407–408</a>:<br /> - discovery of, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> - <li>Yule, Colonel, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - <li> </li> - - <li><span class="smcap">Zambos</span> Indians, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - <li>Zurita, Alonzo de, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - </ul> - - <hr class="full" /> - <p class="center"><b>Farmer & Sons, Printers, 295, Edgware Road, W.</b></p> - - <div class="footnotes"> - <div class="footheader">Footnotes:</div> - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> - <p>Many of those who were interested in Arctic research and the - then unknown fate of Sir John Franklin, will remember the meetings - at Lady Franklin’s house at Kensington Gore, and how greatly Mr. - Grinnell’s exertions and enterprise were appreciated.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> - <p>Mr. Laurence Oliphant, whom I had known in other parts of the - world, was then living with his community upon the Southern shores - of Lake Erie.</p> - <p>The last time that I saw him was at a Levée, held in St. James’s - extreme Palace, in the year 1880, under circumstances which were - in contrast with his daily life of labour at Brocton. I understood - that he had come over to England to arrange some business matters - connected with the affairs of his society.</p> - <p>America is the home of many groups of people endeavouring to carry - out their various schemes of communistic life. I visited several - of their settlements and found that their methods of management - were very different. The prosperity and the harmony of the men and - women, evidently depended upon their faith in their own strange - forms of religion. It was also observable that, in all cases, the - leaders were men of dogmatic character.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> - <p>The question respecting the proportion of foreigners in the - armies of the North came under consideration.</p> - <p>It had been supposed that a large number of the troops consisted - of men of foreign nationalities, but an investigation that had - been made into the subject has proved that the alien strength of - the army had been the subject of much exaggeration.</p> - <p>Upon the examination of the numbers it will be seen, however, - that the composition of the forces deserves attention. Their - classification was as follows:—</p> - - <table summary="Numbers of foreigners in the army"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">British Americans (volunteers from British possessions in N. America)</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>53,500</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">English</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>45,000</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Irish</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>144,000</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">German</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>176,800</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Men of unknown nationality</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>74,900</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Negroes (about)</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>140,000</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">National Americans</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>1,523,000</div></td> - </tr> - </table> - - <p>National Americans include all emigrants who in consequence of - having been five years in the States are entitled to become citizens.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> - <p>Mr. Ticknor preceded Mr. Longfellow at Harvard University as - Professor of Modern Languages. As an author he is well known by - his History of Spanish Literature, and the biography of his friend - Mr. Prescott, the historian.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> - <p>Then Professor of Anatomy in Harvard College, and Curator of - the Peabody Museum of Archæology and Ethnology.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> - <p>Laura Bridgman was born in 1829 so, at the time that I saw her, - she was forty years old.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> - <p>In one of the many brilliant speeches made by this orator, the - following graceful allusion to the mother-country may be mentioned - here. “Great Britain,” he said, “had dotted over the whole surface - of the globe with her possessions and military posts, whose - morning drum-beat, following the sun and keeping company with the - hours, circles the earth daily with one continuous and unbroken - strain of martial music.”</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> - <p>The geographical conditions of the Atlantic seaboard are so - favourable for the development of naval power, that it is evident - that the United States have every possible natural advantage - placed at their disposal to enable them to become a great maritime - nation.</p> - <p>There is, however, a difficulty for them to surmount. Serviceable - American-born men do not readily volunteer to join their ships - of war, and, consequently, the crews are largely composed of - foreigners, chiefly of English and German origin. The reasons - for this disinclination on the part of the Americans to accept - sea service seem to be caused by the fact that the prospects - for success in life in other directions are sufficiently good - to prevent them from seeking an employment in which they would - be subject to discipline and have to sacrifice their habits of - independence. It will probably be found expedient, ultimately, to - adopt a system of entry and training for seamen similar to that - which has been found to succeed in England. The systems followed - on the European continent, and which are based upon conscription, - could find no place amongst a people with whom all service must be - essentially voluntary.</p> - <p>If the difficulties with regard to men can be overcome, the naval - strength of the United States may be as great as Congress may - deem desirable, for, with respect to the capacities of harbours - and dockyards and the means available for the construction and - armaments of ships, there is practically no limit to the power of - fitting out and maintaining large fleets.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> - <p>In the summer of 1870 I went to the village of Dighton to look - at the inscribed stone in the river near that place.</p> - <p>Upon my arrival there it was high water and the rock was covered. - The next day, when the tide was low, I hired a boat, pulled down - the stream and stopped by its side, which was then fully exposed, - and examined it with care. It was a boulder formed of hard close - grained granite.</p> - <p>As the inscription was originally supposed by Danish and other - antiquarians to have had some relation with the history of the - arrival of the Northmen upon that coast, I traced the figures and - rude characters with particular attention.</p> - <p>I have seen rolls of birch bark scratched in the same manner by - Chippewas, for the purpose of giving information of the movements - of their hunting parties, and I think that the figures on the - Dighton stone were meant to represent similar events. As, however, - the inscriptions are deeply cut, and as it must have taken some - considerable time to execute them, it may be granted that the - Indians wished to leave, near the mouth of the river, a permanent - record which would be intelligible to others.</p> - <p>At many parts of this seaboard the New England tribes, as at - Damariscotta visited the tidal waters to obtain food.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> - <p>When afterwards passing through the forests near Palenque, - in Central America, I observed that whenever the Indians found - it necessary to quit the track, they immediately broke off small - branches from the trees, and placed them on the ground over which - they had trodden. As an additional precaution, they also made - marks on the trunks with their hatchets. It was thus easy for - them to get back to the place from which they had started. It is - however evident, that this plan is only useful in those cases - where the path is intentionally left. When the path is - accidentally missed, it is of the greatest importance not to lose - touch with the spot where you happen to be when your error is - discovered. This position will necessarily be within a short - distance by a straight line from the place from which you - wandered. It has been ascertained that it is the tendency of men - who have lost their way to unconsciously move in a circle, and - thus much time may be wasted in trusting to personal judgment. It - is a good plan to make a series of short tentative marches in - different directions, in straight lines from your starting point, - which should be considered as a central position to which you can - always return if necessary. Such straight lines of direction can - be made by marking trees, and keeping them as much as possible in - line with each other. In dense forests a watch is not serviceable, - as the sun does not penetrate them, and its bearing cannot be - seen. A compass is useful to a certain extent, but the constant - deviations that have to be made to avoid obstacles, tend to make - the line of progress a succession of broken curves, and it becomes - unsafe to rely upon the accuracy of the direction. Explorers have - found it desirable to send men occasionally to the tops of the - tallest trees to observe the nature of the country that is being - traversed. When Cortes made his celebrated expedition from Mexico - to Honduras, he maintained a straight march by the use of a ship’s - compass, but in that case there was no difficulty, for the - direction was followed by cutting down the trees that were in the - line of the advance.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> - <p>See “Report on the Geology and Topography of a portion of the - Lake Superior Land District,” by I. W. Foster and I. D. Whitney. - Washington, 1850.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> - <p>The Jesuit Mission that was placed at Sault Ste. Marie, at - the entrance of Lake Superior was, during the seventeenth and - eighteenth centuries, one of the most important and influential - of the missionary establishments in North America. Many of the - Fathers who were attached to it had received a good mathematical - education and were capable of making accurate geographical - surveys. An excellent plan of Lake Superior and its islands was - made by them in 1670, and the coast lines and bays were traced - over a distance exceeding fifteen hundred miles. Amongst the - distinguished men who worked at the mission were the Fathers - Jogues, Allouez, Mesnard (who lost his way and perished in the - forest when travelling across the Kee-wai-wona promontory), - Dablon, and the well-known and devoted missionary, Jacques - Marquette.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> - <p>At Marietta, there still exists an ancient Indian mound or - tumulus, about thirty feet high. It is situated near the - south-east limits of the inclosures. When I saw it, it was under - the care of the local authorities.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> - <p>Morton’s Crania Americana, pp. 221.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> - <p>It is known that a communication between the south-western - extremity of Lake Superior and the Mississippi Valley, existed - from an early time. When I was at Toronto, Professor Daniel - Wilson, to whom I was indebted for much information upon subjects - relating to American archæology, told me that it had been - ascertained that the copper found in these mounds, was of the same - character as that in the Lake Superior Mines: so that the question - of its origin was practically settled. It thus seems probable that - some of the small lumps of pure copper found in the forests and on - the shores of the lake, near the Kee-wai-wona promontory, were - brought into Ohio.</p> - <p>A mound that was opened near Lake Ontario, and whose contents I - examined, was stated to have been twelve feet high. Within it were - about twenty skeletons, some coarse pottery, a number of arrow - heads made of a hard flinty stone and several flat rectangular - stones, pierced with one or two holes, which had been used as - breast ornaments, possibly denoting a certain rank. There were - also stone gouges, some stone axes and many fragments of charred - wood. This was probably an Iroquois grave.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> - <p>In the valley of the Mississippi, especially in the northern - part which had been occupied by the Dakotas, I afterwards saw many - burial mounds, which, with the exception of the unusually great - mounds near Miamisburgh and Wheeling, resembled in all respects - those in Ohio. The methods of burial with the Sioux were evidently - similar to those of the Mound Builders, with respect to the custom - of conveying skeletons from considerable distances for the purpose - of placing them together in one burying heap.</p> - <p>In several of the ancient burial mounds in Ohio, thin flat plates - or slabs of mica are placed with the skeletons. This shining and - silvery looking mineral appears to have been greatly valued by - Indians. When I was on the coast of California, I happened to - be present when a shell bank was cut open and a section of it - examined. There was found, piled within it, a confused heap of - skulls and shells, together with a larger quantity of rough pieces - of mica. It is remarkable that the use of mica as an ornament - should have been prevalent over such a wide geographical area - amongst tribes dwelling so far apart.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> - <p>I have seen a re-survey of the Newark inclosures made on - behalf of the Smithsonian Institution, under the direction of - Professor Cyrus Thomas. The results of this survey are very - useful. The measurements have evidently been taken with much care. - With respect to the Octagon, Professor Thomas observes that, “The - angles at the crossings of the diagonals and diameters at the - centre O, are so nearly right angles as to be worthy of notice in - this connection. For instance, the angles at the crossings of the - diagonals BF and DH, differ but 10´ from true right angles, while - those at the crossing of the diameters AE and CG differ but 2´.”</p> - <p>As regards the Square he states, that, “This inclosure varies but - slightly from a true square, the course of the opposite sides in - one case differing but 31´, and the other but 6´. The greatest - variation at the corners from a true right angle is 57´.”</p> - <p>The large Circle D is said to have a difference of diameters of - twenty-six feet, these being respectively 1189 feet and 1163 feet.</p> - <p>The Observatory Circle, which is the inclosure connected with the - Octagon, was found to have been made with remarkable correctness. - “The widest divergence between the line of the survey and the - circumference of the true circle is four feet. It is therefore - evident that the inclosure approaches in form very nearly an - absolute circle.”</p> - <p>Professor Thomas also states with reference to the Observatory - Circle, that the radius is almost an exact multiple of the - surveyor’s chain.</p> - <p>The geometrical accuracy of the lines of embankments and of the - inclosed areas in earthworks of such great dimensions, covering - such large spaces of ground, is not the least strange fact - concerning these works.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> - <p>Archæologia Americana, Vol. I. The plan of the Marietta - Inclosures is a reduction of a part of the survey made in 1837 - by Mr. Charles Whittlesea, and published by the Smithsonian - Institution in 1848.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> - <p>Fort Du Quesne was built about the year 1752. It was - situated near the spot where is now the town of Pittsburgh. In - 1731 the Indians who then occupied the lands near Marietta formed - an alliance with the French, and obtained their assistance in - protecting them from the attacks of hostile tribes. These were - probably the Iroquois, who at that period had made a treaty with - the English, and were their allies during the wars against the - French in Canada and this part of North America.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> - <p>Archæologia Americana, Vol. I.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> - <p>See Plan.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> - <p>Upon an examination of the map it will be seen that the - Serpent is placed in the territory west of the Scioto, and that - the Alligator is east of that river.</p> - <p>The mouth of the serpent is described as being opened wide. This - peculiarity is observable with the serpent carved upon the walls - of the Casa de las Monjas at Uxmal.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> - <p>The valley below the Alligator is in the possession of a race - of Welsh colonists who emigrated from Wales about the year 1802. - At that time they did not speak English, and for many years - refrained from learning that language.</p> - <p>The church services are held in their town of Granville.</p> - <p>These colonists were prosperous and contented. The majority of - them bore the names of Griffith, Price, Lewis, and others which - are usual in the seaboard counties of Wales.</p> - <p>The adjacent high lands are called the Welsh hills.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> - <p>“Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,” pp. 19.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> - <p>Second Annual Report of the Geological Survey of the State of Ohio, 1838, pp. 269.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> - <p>The earthworks thrown up between Gallipoli and the Gulf of - Saros during the Crimean war in 1854–1855 had the appearance of - considerable antiquity when I saw them nearly a quarter of a - century afterwards in 1878.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> - <p>According to Hakluyt, Madoc “prepared certaine ships with - men and munition, and sought adventures by seas; sailing West and - leaving the coast of Ireland so farre North, that he came vnto a - land vnknowen, where he saw many strange things.</p> - <p>Of the voyage and returne of this Madoc there be many fables - fained, as the common people do vse in distance of place and - length of time, rather to augment than to diminish: but sure it is - there he was.... This Madoc arriving in that Westerne countrey, - vnto the which he came in the yere 1170, left most of his people - there, and returning backe for more of his owne nation, - acquaintance and friends to inhabit that faire and large countrey, - went thither again with ten sailes, as I find noted by Gutyn Owen.</p> - <p>I am of opinion that the land whereunto he came was some part of - the West Indies.”</p> - <p class="center">Hakluyt’s Voyages, vol. iii, p. 21.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> - <p>When examining the inclosures near Newark, I had with me - the plan of the survey of Mr. Atwater, published in 1820 in the - 1st Volume of the Archæologia Americana. The plan pp. 66 is, in - its proportions, a reduction that I made of the survey of Mr. - Whittlesea, but the inclosures are drawn according to the plan of - Mr. Atwater.</p> - <p>The survey of Mr. Whittlesea is given at pp. 67 “Ancient Monuments - of the Mississippi Valley.” Some of the smaller earthworks and - parallels no longer exist, having been probably removed by the - plough.</p> - <p>With respect to the subject of Archæology in North America, I have - to thank Dr. Baird, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, - for having placed in my hands the valuable and impartial work - written by Mr. Haven.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> - <p>See the Journal of Mr. Thaddeus Harris, pp. 54, published in Boston in 1805.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> - <p>Florida was discovered in 1512 by Ponce de Leon, the aged - governor of Porto Rico, who was then seeking for the Fountain of - Youth, which, according to the statements of the historian of the - voyage, was believed to have the power to rejuvenate old men, and - restore to them the vigour of early manhood.</p> - <p>An expedition undertaken a few years later, in 1528, by Pamphilo - de Narvaez had a disastrous termination. Many Spaniards were left - behind, the majority of whom were probably tortured and killed. - Others, in accordance with Indian customs, may have been chosen by - squaws to be their husbands, and would have consequently taken - part in the conduct of tribal affairs.</p> - <p>It is not unlikely that some of these Spanish adventurers, would - have taken advantage of any opportunity that may have occurred, to - proceed into the interior of the new continent. Due consideration - should also be given to the fact that the French may have assisted - the Indians in the construction of their forts on the plains, at - any period between the dates of their first partial occupation of - Canada in 1541, and the final abandonment of their positions in - the valley of the Ohio in 1758.</p> - <p>Amongst the various opinions that have been held with respect to - the Mound Builders, there is one which attributes their origin to - the northern part of Mexico.</p> - <p>Mr. Lewis Morgan, whose works upon the subject of the Indian races - have placed him in the position of being a high authority upon all - matters relating to them, wrote to me a letter upon the question - of their migrations, in which he observed as follows:—“Any opinion - as to who were the mound builders must be speculative. It is quite - probable that they were village Indians from New Mexico, and - having found the climate too severe for their type of village - life, retired gradually from the country.” Although it has to be - admitted that all theories as to the Mound Builders must be - necessarily indeterminate, yet nothing has been found amongst the - ornaments or weapons that were placed in their burial mounds, - which supports the hypothesis that they were different in race or - intelligence from the tribes that surrounded them.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> - <p>The school teacher, Miss Maud Osborn, requested me to accept - this spear head in memory of my visit.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> - <p>The Missouri joins the Mississippi after having pursued a - devious course from the Rocky Mountains, for a distance estimated - to be nearly three thousand miles, of which the greater part is - navigable at that season of the year when its waters are at their - highest level.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> - <p>Nauvoo was once brought into prominent notice in connection - with the Mormons, as it was here that they built their first great - temple.</p> - <p>Judge Williams had personally known Joseph Smith, the founder of - Mormonism, and Rigdon his chief colleague. Joseph Smith, he said, - was an illiterate man, but, was remarkable for a kind of - shrewdness combined with great insight into character.</p> - <p>Rigdon, who had been formerly a Baptist preacher, was well - educated, and was generally employed in obtaining converts and - explaining to them the meaning of Smith’s visions and the - doctrines of the new religion.</p> - <p>He described Brigham Young, with whom he was also acquainted, as - being a person of determined character, with a domineering manner.</p> - <p>When I was at Salt Lake City, in the following December, I had a - long interview with that able and astute leader of men.</p> - <p>Within twenty years from the time when he conducted the flight - of the Mormons across the deserts from Nauvoo to Utah, he had - succeeded in establishing a highly satisfactory condition of - good order and prosperity throughout the territories under his - government; and controlled, with unquestioned authority, a - community consisting of one hundred and forty thousand people.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> - <p>As I looked at the cliff and the reflection of its shadow in - the calm smooth waters of the lake, I recalled to mind a similar - scene viewed from the deck of H.M.S. Racer when passing at sunset - the promontory of Cape Leucate, in Santa Maura, the classical site - of Sappho’s leap. There is a special interest attached to the - fate of Winona, for it proves that Indian girls of Dakota birth - are capable of higher degrees of sentiment with regard to their - marriage, than those believed to exist among other tribes. She - was not permitted for some tribal reason to marry the man she had - chosen, and preferred death to marriage with the warrior to whom - she was assigned by the command of her parents.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> - <p>The accompanying illustration is drawn from a pencil sketch made by the author near this spot.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> - <p>“I was greatly surprised,” states Captain Carver, “at - beholding an instance of such elevated devotion in so young an - Indian, and instead of ridiculing the ceremonies attending it, as - I observed my Catholic servant tacitly did, I looked on the prince - with a greater degree of respect for these sincere proofs he gave - of his piety; and I doubt not, but that his offerings and prayers, - were as acceptable to the universal Parent of mankind, as if they - had been made with greater pomp, or in a consecrated place.” - <i>Travels in North America</i>, pp. 62.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> - <p>Archæologia Americana, Vol. II, pp. 128.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> - <p>In Chapter xvii it will be seen that the Aztecs or Toltecs in Yucatan, also, - in certain cases, killed the victim by a flight of arrows.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> - <p>One of the best authenticated instances of this custom of - torturing prisoners was witnessed by a Mr. James Smith who, during - the time that he was a captive amongst the Delawares, was present - when the English prisoners taken after General Braddock’s defeat - were brought into camp by the Indians.</p> - <p>He states that, upon that occasion, about a dozen of the prisoners - were stripped and tied to stakes, tortured with fire-brands and - burnt to death.</p> - <p>The ferocity of the Indians towards their captives after battle - was well known to the British and French commanders, and was one - of the difficulties that attended their employment as allies. - There is a subject indirectly connected with these Indian customs - in war which may here be considered. It is that of cannibalism.</p> - <p>Investigations into this question lead to the conclusion that - there is no evidence to show that any of the North American tribes - were in the habit of following this revolting custom except under - rare circumstances during the prosecution of a serious war.</p> - <p>I only know of two instances, seen and recorded, of Indians - devouring human flesh. In both cases it is evident that the acts - were committed in accordance with the usages of hostile tribes - when engaged in war.</p> - <p>The first case is mentioned in a report made to his superiors, by - the French missionary, Father Roubaud, who accompanied the Indian - allies of the French troops during the operations against the - British forces in 1757.</p> - <p>An English captive, who was believed to have been an officer, was - cooked and eaten by the Ottawas under circumstances singularly - repulsive. The Father Roubaud, who was present and witnessed part - of the proceedings, was horrified by what he saw, and finding that - he could do nothing to check the tribe in their savage feast was - forced to withdraw to his tent.</p> - <p>The other instance occurred after the capture of the garrison of - Michel Mackinac by the Chippewas. Mr. Alexander Henry, the same - person who, at another time, undertook the mining operations on - the shores of Lake Superior which are mentioned in a preceding - chapter, was a captive. He states that one of the white prisoners - was killed and divided into five parts which were cooked in five - kettles and then eaten at a special feast.</p> - <p>Mr. Henry was of opinion, from what he observed, that this food - was taken with repugnance. An Indian told him that what he saw was - done to inspire the warriors with courage.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> - <p>When I was at the village of San Domingo del Palenque in - Central America, Dr. Coller, a resident there, told me he had - carried out, during several years, a series of investigations to - ascertain the reasons for the existence of large green savannahs - in the heart of the adjacent forests. He had formed the conclusion - that those open spaces were caused by the exceptional character of - the ground which, he said, differed from that upon which the trees - grew. The similar openings amongst the forests in Ceylon called - patenas, are, I believe, also supposed to be the effect of the - nature or poverty of the land.</p> - <p>It is noticeable that the forests usually skirt or surround - savannahs in sharp well-defined outlines like an enclosing - barrier, in the same manner as the meadows, formed by the - consequences of the action of beavers, occur in Michigan.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> - <p>After my return to England I happened to discuss this subject - with Colonel Yule, who had just then completed his work of editing - the Travels of Marco Polo. He told me that when he was in Burmah, - Lord Dalhousie, who was at that time Governor-General of India, - sent him into the interior to visit the forests of Aracan.</p> - <p>He found within them several large clearings, and observed that - the new growths were of a different character from the old trees - and were invariably bamboos. He also saw amongst the mountains - many deciduous trees which were quite bare of leaves whilst their - branches were covered with brilliantly coloured flowers.</p> - <p>Upon another occasion Dr. Rae, who had passed much of his life in - the Hudson Bay Territories and became known by his discovery of - the relics of Sir John Franklin’s expedition, mentioned to me that - he had frequently seen that when trees had been uprooted, - raspberry bushes sprang up in their place thus showing that their - seeds must have been in the ground. Dr. Joseph Norwood, Assistant - Geologist, in his report of the survey of the region west of Lake - Superior, undertaken in 1847, states that from facts which had - come under his observation, he was led to believe that, “if after - the clearing of the pine forests, the annual fires cease, a growth - of oak springs up in some places and aspen in others.” (<cite>Owen’s - Geological Survey</cite>, pp. 296). In British Columbia the ancient - forest pines are often succeeded by cedars or alders.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> - <p>The subject of the destruction of snakes is mentioned by Mr. - Murray, in his “Travels in North America.”</p> - <p>When passing through a ravine in the territories of the Pawnees - he observed, “I never should have believed it possible that so - many rattlesnakes could have been assembled together as I saw in - that ravine. I think there must have been nearly enough to fatten - a drove of Missouri hogs,” and he adds in a note. “It is well - known that in the Western States where rattlesnakes are still - plentiful the hogs kill and eat them; nor is their bite formidable - to their swinish enemy, on whom its venomous fangs seem to produce - no effect. It is owing to this well-known fact that families - resident in those districts conceive that hogs-lard must be a kind - of antidote to their poison, and frequently use it (I believe - successfully) as a remedy.” (<i>Travels in North America, by Hon. - Charles Augustus Murray, Vol.</i> ii, <i>pp</i>. 42.)</p> - <p>An Englishman who had a large farm in West Virginia, told me that - the hillsides were cleared of the snakes, which had previously - infested them, by turning out pigs upon them.</p> - <p>A similar result took place in Minnesota and upon the prairies - east of the Missouri.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> - <p>“Etudes Philologiques sur quelques Langues Sauvages de L’Amérique,” Montreal, 1866.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> - <p>In the Encyclopædia Americana (1886), the total Indian - population is said to be (exclusive of Alaska) 264,369. The - Dakotas are stated to number thirty-one thousand.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> - <p>The Council building on the reservation was called the Long - House, not on account of its size or shape, but in accordance with - an ancient tradition.</p> - <p>When the separation of the Iroquois took place, it was decided by - the Council that the expression Long House was to be used as a - symbol, that the nations were theoretically under one roof, which - extended over all the lands occupied by them. In pursuance of this - theory, certain tribes were given particular duties. The Senecas - had to guard the gates looking towards the sunset, and the Mohawks - were to watch the approaches to the gates placed in the direction - of sunrise.</p> - <p>As far as it is possible to form conclusions, with respect to the - state of the Indian tribes in the sixteenth century, it appears - that the Iroquois, in consequence of their league, had attained - to a comparatively advanced state of warlike capacity, and had - organised methods of conducting a campaign.</p> - <p>They also formed regular alliances, and made treaties which they - faithfully executed.</p> - <p>In their treatment of captives they were cruel and barbarous, but - they possessed in the highest degree the qualities of courage and - endurance.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> - <p>I should here mention that, when I was at Boston, I was much - assisted in making investigations into certain characteristics of - the North American Indians by Mr. Francis Parkman, whose - researches upon all subjects relating to the condition of the - aboriginal tribes in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, have - placed him in the first rank of the historians of that period.</p> - <p>Mr. Parkman was personally well acquainted with the Dakotas, - amongst whom he had dwelt for nearly two years.</p> - <p>He, on several occasions arranged, in the kindest manner, that I - should meet those who were interested in the native races. Upon - one of these occasions I met Mr. E. G. Squier, whose original - surveys of the ancient earthworks in Ohio were published by the - Smithsonian Institution.</p> - <p>The introductions given to me by Mr. Parkman to the distinguished - archæologists, Mr. Lewis Morgan and Professor Daniel Wilson, were - also most useful.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> - <p>In the prison at Omaha I saw three Pawnees named Blue-Hawk, - Yellow-Son and Tall-Wolf, who had endeavoured to commit suicide in - order to avoid being hanged. One of them, I think it was Blue-Hawk - (Sha-to-ko), had managed to conceal a long piece of hard wood, - one end of which he had rubbed down to a sharp point. He was - employed in pushing this through his body, between the ribs, when - he was observed by the warder and prevented from completing his - purpose. Another prisoner had removed a brick from the floor and - was trying to fracture his skull with it. All of them had torn - away portions of their skin and cut themselves in many places with - small fragments of glass which they had obtained secretly. The - warder told me that he had taken every precaution to stop these - desperate attempts of the Indians to destroy themselves. They - seemed to be able to bear these self inflicted wounds without - showing signs of distress.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> - <p>The supernatural powers attributed to the “medicine men” are - not worthy of attention, except so far as they illustrate the - credulity of Indians, and show the influence of certain methods of - imposture upon them. Their tricks are usually of a kind which are - perfectly within the capacity of an ordinary juggler.</p> - <p>Their pretension of possessing the power of making rain is however - a subject of a different nature.</p> - <p>This particular act is chiefly remarkable because there is no form - of imposture which can be so readily detected. Nevertheless the - Indian tribes throughout the western parts of North America - usually have “Rain-makers,” in whose powers they appear to have - confidence.</p> - <p>I met in California a young Englishman who had been living for - several months with various tribes near the coast, between British - Columbia and New Mexico.</p> - <p>He told me that he had been present upon an occasion when a - successful attempt at rain-making occurred. The event took place - upon a promontory in the southern part of California.</p> - <p>The tribe wanted rain, and their rain-maker declared that he could - obtain what was desired. He proceeded to make upon an adjoining - hill, a large bonfire which was kept well supplied with fuel and - gave out dense volumes of smoke. The fire was kept burning for - over twenty-four hours, and then the efforts of the rain-maker - were rewarded by a good and sufficient fall of rain. Here, as - elsewhere, the Indians employed fire and smoke as agents for - producing rain.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> - <p>See Chapter VI.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> - <p>The offerings are sometimes made to appease the angry spirit dwelling in the serpent.</p> - <p>Occasionally the Dakotas sacrifice a dog to it.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> - <p>“Indian Tribes of North America.” Vol. IV. pp. 51.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> - <p>The remaining daughters were alive when I was in Minnesota. - One of them was married to a man of the tribe. The other was the - wife of a white man, who, Faribault said, was employed as a - drummer at Fort Snelling.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> - <p>With many of the Dakota and Chippewa tribes there existed a - custom of placing upon the scaffolding a wand which was painted - red, blue and white. They believed that the spirit of the Indian - had to cross a river over which was a long log of wood. Upon - reaching the opposite bank, the spirit met the spirits of his - enemies. To one of them he would show the red, to another the - blue, and finally he pointed to the white and then all enmities ceased.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> - <p>The albatrosses in the Southern ocean which, like the - pelicans, are birds of great size and weight (I have measured some - which exceeded twelve feet across the wings) maintain for hours an - equal height above the level of the sea.</p> - <p>In the high latitudes south of the Cape of Good Hope and the - Crozet Islands there is always a strong gale blowing, and - consequently by a very slight and imperceptible movement or - inclination of the wings the albatrosses obtained the necessary - pressure which enabled them to rise, descend, or maintain their - hovering position.</p> - <p>In the case of pelicans moving rapidly in a perfect calm, the - method by which they maintain their height in the air is not so - easily understood.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> - <p>The foreign residents living in Guatemala, included Mr. - Corbett, our Chargé d’affaires; M. de Cabarrus, chief of the - French legation; the Duke and Duchess de Licignano, Dr. Wynne, Mr. - and Mrs. Hague, Mr. and Mrs. Hockmeyer, and M. Hardy: to all of - whom I was indebted for much kindness and hospitality.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> - <p>Author of “A New Survey of the West Indies,” published in 1648.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> - <p>“Relation of what happened by the Will of God, on Saturday, - the 10th of September, 1541, two hours after sunset in the town of - Santiago de Guatimala.” Ternaux-Compans.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> - <p xml:lang="es">Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de la Nueva España escrita - por el Capitan Bernal Diaz del Castillo, uno de sus Conquistadores.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> - <p>The substances thrown out from craters frequently differ in - their character. Judging from the composition of the surface of - portions of the land near the Guatemala volcanoes, especially upon - the slopes of the barrancas, it is evident that large quantities - of pozzolana were ejected. One of the latest eruptions that has - occurred was at the Island of Santorin in the Grecian Archipelago - in February, 1866. I was present when the new volcano emerged from - the sea.</p> - <p>The inhabitants of Santorin, upon seeing volumes of steam and - smoke issuing from the waters of the bay, apprehended some serious - peril to be imminent. They feared the possibility of their town - being overwhelmed by an eruption of ashes, and made a request that - a ship of war should be sent to the spot to render any assistance - that might be necessary. I immediately went there in the “Racer” - and remained until all fears of danger had passed away.</p> - <p>The crater of the volcano, afterwards called Aphroessa, rose - slowly from the surface of the water, and it was possible to - observe the nature of the interior during the intervals between - the eruptions. There was no lava or pozzolana, but only large - cinders which, as they issued from the crater, were thrown into - the air, and then fell upon the outer slopes, thus gradually - forming an island.</p> - <p>It was a very remarkable scene; during the day there were heavy - volumes of smoke and constant rumbling sounds, as the pent up - forces below the mouth of the crater were gathering strength to - throw forth the mass of cinders that closed them in. At night the - glare caused by the reflection of the fire of the interior upon - the dense clouds immediately overhanging it was very vivid. The - surface of the surrounding waters was over-spread by running - tongues of brilliantly coloured flames. The island was composed of - cinders and ashes, whose porous nature could never permit any - lodgement of water upon them. I examined several of the craters of - the extinct volcanoes on the islands adjacent to Aphroessa, and - there was no instance of any small pond or collection of water - existing within them. The interior of the Volcan de Agua, possibly - contained a thick substratum of water-bearing pozzolana.</p> - <p>An account of the volcanoes of Santorin was given by Sir Charles - Lyell. “Principles of Geology.” Vol. ii, pp. 70.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> - <p> “History of the Kingdom of Guatemala,” by Don Domingo Juarros, - translated by J. Baily, Lieutenant R.M., pp. 384.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> - <p>Bernal Diaz states that “Pá-pa,” was the name given by the - Indians in Yucatan to their chief-priests. The Spaniards were much - surprised to find upon their arrival in America, that the Indian - chief-priests were called by the same name as the Pope of Rome. - “Kues” were temples or altars.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> - <p>Quetzales are birds with bright green plumage, having their - tail feathers of great length, and are found chiefly in the - highlands of Guatemala.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> - <p>Palacio’s Report was published for the first time in the - original Spanish by Mr. E. G. Squier, in 1860. As it is important - that the author’s meaning should not be misunderstood, I have - translated it literally, as far as this is possible, considering - that it is written in the Spanish of the 16th century.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> - <p>Carved and polished ornaments made of hard stone of green colour.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> - <p>Diaz observes that Guatimozin—who, after the death of - Montezuma had become the Emperor of the Mexicans—sent the hands - and feet of the Spaniards that had been sacrificed, together with - the heads of the horses that had been killed, to the Indian chiefs - who had formed a league of alliance with Cortes, and sent them - messages to the effect, that the remaining Spaniards would soon be - conquered, and that consequently those chiefs should submit to the - Aztec power and send ambassadors to him. In the meantime, human - sacrifices took place daily in the great temple, accompanied by - the dismal sound of the drum, the discordant noises of the shell - trumpets, and the horrible shouts and yells of the Mexicans. - During the night large fires were kept burning on the platform, - and on each night several Spaniards were sacrificed.</p> - <p>These ceremonies lasted for ten days, until all the captives had - been sacrificed; and during this time the Mexicans made frequent - and furious attacks upon the troops. Diaz relates, that the Indian - soldiers told them that they were wretched creatures who would - soon be all killed, and that their flesh was disagreeable to taste - and bad to eat. <span xml:lang="es">“Vuestras carnes son tan malas para comer.”</span></p> - <p>The last Spaniard who was sacrificed was Christobal de Guzman.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> - <p>Bernal Diaz, Historia Verdadera, chap. clii.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> - <p>First Report of Pedro de Alvarado to Cortes, dated Utatlan, 11th April, 1524.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> - <p>See the 5th letter of Cortes, to the Emperor Charles V.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> - <p>Small black beans.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> - <p>Juarros, Baily’s Translation, p. 457.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> - <p>In Guatemala this prayer is called La Oracion.</p> - <p>This custom is familiar to those who have travelled upon the - Italian coasts, or who have visited the western parts of Brittany - near Carnac and in the Morbihan, where the faith of the peasants - still remains strong.</p> - <p>The Indians living amongst the hills frequently assemble in - considerable numbers, and, kneeling on the ground, worship outside - the doors of their churches; and there is a singular resemblance - in the manner of their devotion to what is to be seen at the - “Pardons” of the Bretons, where the peasants come from long - distances, light their candles, and kneel before the church door, - the line of the worshippers often extending beyond the precincts - of the churchyard.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> - <p>A name given by Spanish priests to the ancient temples and shrines of the Indians.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> - <p>Las Casas, who was Bishop of the adjacent diocese of Chiapas - in the sixteenth century, mentions that it was the custom there - amongst the lower classes to give a year’s service to the - parents.—<span xml:lang="es">“Pero la gente comun tenía de costumbre de servir in sus - labores un año al padre de la que por mujer queria, de la manera - que Jacob sirvio à Laban por sus hijas Rachel y Lya.”</span> This was - also the custom in Yucatan.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> - <p>Long capes made of sackcloth.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> - <p>When I passed through Mexico, the execution of the Emperor - Maximilian and the unhappy fate of the Empress Carlotta, were - subjects of discussion. It has often been a matter of surprise, - that Juarez should have thought it necessary that the sentence of - the court-martial should be carried out. The French troops, upon - whom the stability of the empire depended, had been withdrawn, - and the success of the National party was assured. An act of - forbearance upon this occasion would have met with approval, and - have been acknowledged as a wise exercise of superior authority. - It was however otherwise determined, and the Emperor was shot - outside the walls of Querétaro.</p> - <p>In the American official book upon Mexican affairs, there is a - memorandum of the conversation between Mr. Seward, the Foreign - Secretary, and Señor Matias Romero, the Mexican Minister, at - Washington. Mr. Seward stated, that England, France and Austria, - had desired the United States to use their good offices for - Maximilian, and further observed, that “Mr. Seward does not fear - any contingency possible in virtue whereof any European power may - attempt to invade or interfere in future in Mexico, or in any - other Republican nation on this continent. For this reason he does - not think that Mexico need fear any attempt at reprisals on the - part of any European powers, as a consequence of any extreme - decision which the Mexican Government may take; but at the same - time, Mr. Seward also believes that a feeling universally - favourable, conciliatory and friendly towards the Republic of - Mexico and the other American Republics, would probably be the - result of the act of clemency and magnanimity, which the United - States have thought proper to recommend.”</p> - <p>Clemency is not a quality that naturally exists in the mind of a - North or Central American Indian.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> - <p>It recalled to my memory an old Spanish picture belonging to - Dr. Pusey, which always held the principal place upon the walls of - his library in Christ Church, Oxford.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> - <p>The method of building their huts varies amongst different - tribes, but the general principles are much the same. I have - passed many hours of the day and night within them, and noticed - their practical convenience in tropical climates; and although, - according to civilised ideas of comfort, there is much that is - wanting, yet for the purposes of the simple and solitary lives of - these shy and inoffensive Indians, it would be difficult to - contrive any shelter more suitable for their requirements.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> - <p>I had previously observed when travelling in the Cyrenaica in - the regions around Cyrene, that the Bedouins could perform a long - day’s hard work and subsist upon a few handfuls of grains of wheat - moistened with water.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> - <p>Dr. Coller was surprised to see me. It was supposed that I was - the first Englishman who had come to Palenque from the coasts of - the Pacific, Mr. Stephens, my predecessor being an American. I am - however under the impression that his companion, Mr. Catherwood, - was an Englishman.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> - <p>Dr. Coller’s hut at San Domingo del Palenque was not a Castle - of Lirias, but probably the lines quoted by Gil Blas were often in - his mind. Indeed there are many others who, if they saw that - hamlet as I saw it in the month of March, would concur with him in - saying:</p> - - <div class="center-container" xml:lang="la"> - <div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="i0">“Inveni portum. Spes et Fortuna valete.</div> - <div class="i0">Sat me lusistis: ludite nunc alios.”</div> - </div> - </div> - </div> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> - <p>In the final chapters, xix-xx, will be found the conclusions - that I have formed with regard to the temple and tablet of the cross.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> - <p>See frontispiece.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> - <p>The areas occupied by the temples differed considerably in - their extent. The largest of them which I measured was that of the - Temple of the Cross.</p> - <p>Its interior dimensions were forty-three feet seven inches long - by twenty-five feet four inches deep; the outer walls were three - feet thick. Therefore the ground space covered by the building was - nearly fifty feet in frontage and a little more than thirty-one - feet in depth. Its exterior height was about twenty feet. The - measurements of the temple on the adjoining pyramid were less.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> - <p>A clear and instructive memoir by Professor Charles Rau, upon - the subject of the interpretation of the Palenque hieroglyphs, is - to be found in one of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, - published in 1879.</p> - <p>Investigations have also been made in England, France and Germany. - I believe it has been ascertained that a dot means one, a bar - five, a bar with two dots seven, and two bars represent ten. It - has also been discovered that the hieroglyphs are to be read from - left to right, and from the top downwards. If this is correct it - is a discovery of considerable importance. Upon an examination of - the illustration in the frontispiece of the Palenque altar tablet - it will be observed, from the position of the leading groups of - figures on the left slab, that the heads are probably intended to - represent the chiefs of the Toltec tribe.</p> - <p>The numerous explorations that have latterly taken place - throughout Mexico, Guatemala and Yucatan have practically - determined the positions and extent of all the ancient Indian - ruins that still exist in those lands. Therefore it is not - expected that any more discoveries of importance will be made. It - is however possible that one or more small temples or structures - may be found hidden among the forests in the line of direction - between Ocosingo and Flores.</p> - <p>In the United States much attention is being given to the study of - the Mexican and Maya manuscripts.</p> - <p>It is to be hoped that methods of interpretation will be - established upon a sound basis, and that the characters written - upon the codices, and the hieroglyphs graven upon the idols and - stone tablets will be ultimately deciphered.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> - <p>Some years after my return to England I had a long - conversation upon the subject of alligators with Mr. Bates, who - was then our Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society, and - whose knowledge upon all matters concerning the habits of animals - in tropical lands was very extensive. In his book “The Naturalist - on the Amazons,” he mentions a case that happened at a place - called Carcara.</p> - <p>An Indian, one of the crew belonging to a trading canoe, whilst in - a half-drunken state went down to bathe in the lake and stumbled. - A pair of gaping jaws seized him round the waist and dragged him - under water; after a short lapse of time the brute came up to - breathe and was seen with one leg of the man sticking out from his - jaws.</p> - <p>Other instances of this kind have been mentioned by naturalists, - but I do not remember any cases of men being seized when actually - swimming in the water. Possibly my Indians may have known from - hearsay or experience the truth of what they stated.</p> - <p>It has been said that alligators, owing to the formation of their - throats, cannot swallow their prey in the water, but are obliged - to go to the banks for that purpose.</p> - <p>It was not, however, upon the subject of the danger to men from - approaching these reptiles that the conversation chiefly turned.</p> - <p>We discussed the question of their food supply. Mr. Bates said - that they lived upon fish. I observed, with reference to that part - of the river where I had seen them congregated in such amazing - numbers, that it was impossible that the supply of food from fish - alone could be sufficient, and also that in consequence of the - filthy state of the water no fish could live in it.</p> - <p>Mr. Bates after some consideration said that their food must be - fish, but he added, that it was probable that they could live in - an almost torpid condition for long periods.</p> - <p>Mr. Bates felt assured that fish formed the food of alligators. It - was not possible to feel quite satisfied with this solution of the - problem, especially under circumstances where alligators abound in - stagnant lagoons in which fish must necessarily be scarce.</p> - <p>In the unfrequented parts of the estuaries of rivers flowing into - the Caribbean sea, it can be understood that at certain seasons of - the year the supply of fish may be great, and we have the - authority of that careful observer Mr. Bartram, for the statement - that upon those occasions the numbers of alligators crowding the - rivers in Florida were astonishing.</p> - <p>In 1853 the “Vestal” happened to be cruising off Cuba, and I was - sent in charge of the boats to look for fresh water in Guantanomo - harbour, at a spot which was reputed to have been a favourite - haunt of pirates in the seventeenth century.</p> - <p>After some search we discovered a small stream, but the entrance - was defended by such crowds of alligators that we had great - difficulty in passing through them. If, as was possible, they were - waiting for the arrival of fish from the upper waters, it may be - inferred that a comparatively small supply of food suffices for - their sustenance.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> - <p>“Cartas de Hernan Cortes,” collected by Don Pascual de Gayangos, p. 407.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> - <p>“Almaizal, a sort of veil or head attire used by the Moorish - women, made of thin silk, striped of several colours, and shagged - at the ends, which hangs down on the back.” Baretti’s Dictionary, - 1807.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> - <p>See “Landa’s Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan,” edited and - translated by L’Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> - <p>See chapter vii.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> - <p>Landa “Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan.” p. 164.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> - <p>See chapter xi.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> - <p>The facing stones placed upon the walls of the ruins of Mitla, - in the Mexican province of Oaxaca, are fitted, or bedded, into the - mortar and rubble in the same manner as at Uxmal.</p> - <p>At one of the evening conversaziones given by the Royal Society at - Burlington House, in the spring of 1892, I happened to discuss the - subject of Palenque and Uxmal with Mr. Woolner, the sculptor. Some - experiments had previously been carried out in France which had - proved that with stone chisels it was possible to carve granite, - limestones, and hard sandstones.</p> - <p>The investigations did not, however, make it clear how it could - have happened that the Indian sculptors were able to work with - such facility that they covered their buildings with deeply - chiselled ornamentation. Mr. Woolner said that he thought it - probable that the Indians may have been acquainted with some - strong acids, and that they may have used these to soften the - stone and make it more workable.</p> - <p>We were looking at some photographs exhibited by Mr. Maudslay, - who had lately returned from Palenque, and the question of the - method of carving the outlines of the figures on the stone slabs - of the courts came under consideration. Mr. Woolner thought that - the subject was very difficult, but that it was possible that the - figures had been previously traced and then worked with acid as he - had already suggested.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> - <p>When I heard of this Indian practice my thoughts went far away - from the forests of Palenque. Memories of the Eton playing fields - were recalled and an old Eton Latin grammar, and the familiar - line, <span xml:lang="la">“Pallida mors æquo pulsat pede pauperum tabernas regumque - turres.”</span> With Indians, as with others, the fatal footstep cannot - be turned aside.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> - <p>For a description of this ceremony see Landa, chap. xxvi. - “Manner of baptism in Yucatan. How it was celebrated.”</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> - <p>See “Historia de la Guerra de Castas de Yucatan,” p. 77. Merida, 1866.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> - <p>As the little Aguinaga was timidly seeking for an anchorage, I - remembered a far different scene in which I had taken part in - 1853, seventeen years earlier.</p> - <p>The Vestal, a twenty-six gun frigate in which I was then serving, - had captured three slavers off the north coast of Cuba. One of - them was a fast sailing vessel called the Venus. She had become - notorious for her success in evading our cruisers and landing - large cargoes of slaves.</p> - <p>When we arrived off the mouth of the port of Havannah we formed - our fleet of prizes into line and passed between the castles in - triumph: our movements being watched by thousands of the Spanish - inhabitants as we took up our anchorage in the centre of the - harbour.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> - <p>“Work in Mound Exploration of the Bureau of Ethnology,” by - Cyrus Thomas, Washington, 1887.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> - <p>“The Mounds of the Mississippi Valley, Historically - Considered,” by Lucien Carr, Assistant Curator of the Peabody - Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology, Cambridge, Mass.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> - <p>See Note, chapter iv., p. 69.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> - <p>In the sixteenth century, the Cherokees occupied the lands in - that part of America where the States of North Carolina, Alabama - and Georgia border upon the State of Tennessee.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> - <p>See chapter v., p. 94.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> - <p>Merida now occupies the site of Tihoo. The stones, with which - were built the pyramids and temples, were used in the construction - of the new city.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> - <p>Relation des choses de Yucatan, p. 351.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> - <p>According to Humboldt, the Toltecs arrived in Anáhuac - (Mexico) A.D. 648, and reached Tula in 670. The pyramids of - Téotihuacan, a few leagues north of the modern city of Mexico, - were built by them. They afterwards raised the great pyramid of - Cholula, and on its platform built a temple for the worship of - Quetzalcoatl. From Cholula, colonies of the Toltecs went to - Tabasco and Yucatan.</p> - <p>The Aztecs arrived in Mexico in 1190, and found there the pyramids - which they believed to hive been the work of their predecessors - the Toltecs, who had obtained a knowledge of hieroglyphics and - of methods of computing time by calendars. The Aztecs founded - Tenochtitlan (the city of Mexico) in 1325.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> - <p>The custom of confining captives or slaves in wooden cages - for the purpose of being prepared for sacrifice, was supposed to - have been established by the Aztecs about a century after they had - settled in Mexico.</p> - <p>There is reason to believe that in consequence of their being - surrounded by enemies and engaged in constant wars, they - considered it necessary to propitiate the war god in the most - terrific manner. Thus when the great Teocalli, erected for the - worship of Huitzil-pochli, was completed, many thousands of - victims were sacrificed as propitiatory offerings. When colonies - of the Aztec race were advancing in the direction of Tabasco and - Yucatan, similar sacrificial ceremonies were performed.</p> - <p>Bernal Diaz saw, in one of the Indian towns that had been captured - by the Spaniards, three large cages full of prisoners who were - waiting to be sacrificed. They were fastened by collars to prevent - their escape. They were taken out of the cages and sent back to - their own tribes. He elsewhere observes that the Indians devoured - human flesh after the victims had been sacrificed, in the same way - as the Spaniards devoured oxen. It is evident that great numbers - of the aboriginal natives must have been kept in slavery and, in - time of war, were killed and eaten by the Aztecs.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> - <p>Bernal Diaz, chapter xxix, and Landa, p. 12.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> - <p>It was noticed soon after the Spanish conquest that the - Indians died rapidly from causes of a mental character. They died - because they did not wish to live. The conditions of slavery they - were forced to endure had such an effect upon them that they - gradually lost their strength. After submitting for a time to - the hardships imposed upon them they appeared to become resigned - to their fate. Life was a burden. They lost heart and died from - misery. This was particularly the case in Cuba and Hispaniola.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> - <p>The Indians in Yucatan, had a chief priest who had a general - control over all matters relating to the priesthood. He nominated - the priests to the villages, examined them in their sciences and - ceremonies, provided them with books and sent them to attend in - the service of the temples.</p> - <p>According to Landa “they taught the sons of other priests and the - younger sons of the chiefs that were brought to them for this - purpose when they were children, if it was observed that they were - inclined towards this office. The sciences which they taught were - the computations of the years, months, and days, the festivals and - ceremonies, the administration of their sacraments, the days and - times that were fatal, the manner of divinations and prophecies - and coming events, the remedies for sickness and things concerning - antiquities, and to read and write with their books, and - characters with which they wrote and with figures which explained - the writings.”</p> - <p>In Yucatan, as in Mexico, the calendar was carefully constructed. - The year consisted of three hundred and sixty-five days and six - hours. Landa observes that the months were of two kinds. One was - lunar and was regulated by the movements of the moon. The other - method of computation was formed by dividing the year into - eighteen divisions or months, each consisting of twenty days and - there were five days and six hours over. Of these six hours one - day was made every four years. For these three hundred and - sixty-six days they had twenty letters or characters by which they - were named. (Relacion de las cosas de Yucatan, pp. 42; 202).</p> - <p>Las Casas observes in his Apologética Historia, chapter cxxi, that - “the year of the Mexican people consisted of three hundred and - sixty-five days divided into eighteen months and five days. Each - month was twenty days, and the week was thirteen days of which - they had constituted a calendar, and for each day of the week, of - the month and of the year they had its idol with its own name, and - these names were of men, or of women which they held or had held - as gods; and thus all the days were filled up with these idols - and names and figures in the same manner as our breviaries and - calendars have for each day its saint.”</p> - <p>The illustration of the calendar stone is from a photograph - taken from the original stone in the city of Mexico. This great - astronomical record was discovered in the year 1790, buried - several feet below the surface, in the spot where stood the chief - pyramid and temple of the Aztecs. It is made from a large mass of - basalt, and the circular part has a circumference of more than - thirty-eight feet. It is probably one of the earliest and one of - the most elaborate of the sculptured works of the Toltecs. It will - be observed that the points have a singular resemblance to those - of the mariner’s compass. The head placed in the centre has been - supposed to represent the Mexican god of the sun. It is possible - that it may have been intended to represent Quetzalcoatl, the - traditional teacher and originator of the Mexican knowledge of - astronomy.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> - <p>The fact of men wearing beards would be considered - extraordinary by the American Indians. Landa states that - “Cucul-can raised several temples, established regulations for the - maintenance of good order, and then left Yucatan and proceeded - towards Mexico.”</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> - <p>Apologética Historia, chapter cxxiii.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> - <p>With respect to the ancient Indian structures it is expedient - to give a brief consideration to those that were raised at - Copan and Quirigua. The earliest account of the sculptures - existing at Copan was given by Palacio in 1576. In his Report - to the King of Spain he mentions that within the ruins was a - stone cross three palms high, and beyond it “There was a statue - more than four yards high, sculptured like a bishop in his - pontifical robes with his mitre well worked and with rings in - his hands.”</p> - <p>After describing other large statues and the ruins overlooking - the river, Palacio observes, “I enquired with all possible - attention for any traditions from the ancient people as to - what people lived here, and if anything was known of their - ancestors, and whether there were any books concerning these - antiquities ... They say that anciently there came there a - great chief of the province of Yucatan who made these edifices, - and after several years he went back to his country, and left - them solitary and unpeopled.... It also appears that the style - of the said edifices is like what was found in other places by - the Spaniards who first discovered Yucatan and Tabasco, where - figures of bishops were seen and armed men and crosses, and - since such things have not been found in other regions it can - be believed that those that made them were probably of one - nation.” (Report of the Licentiate Dr. Don Diego Garcia de - Palacio to the King of Spain, 1576.)</p> - <p>It is recorded by Juarros that in the year 1700, Fuentes, who - wrote the Chronicles of Guatemala, stated with respect to - Copan, that the figures, “both male and female were of very - excellent sculpture, which then retained the colours they had - been enamelled with; and what was not less remarkable, the - whole of them were habited in the Castilian costume.” The same - author relates that at “a short distance, there was a portal - constructed of stone, on the columns of which were the figures - of men likewise represented in Spanish habits, with hose, ruff - round the neck, sword, cap, and short cloak”....</p> - <p>“All the circumstances,” observes Juarros, “lead to a belief - that there must have been some intercourse between the - inhabitants of the old and new world at very remote periods.”</p> - <p>The information given traditionally by the Indians living at - Copan, is singularly in accordance with the traditions of the - priests and caciques in Mexico and Yucatan with respect to the - arrival of a stranger who commanded temples and pyramids to be - built and then went away and never returned.</p> - <p>It is remarkable that, in the first interview between Montezuma - and Cortes, a singular tradition was mentioned by that Emperor. - Cortes in his second letter (Segunda carta-relacion) dated - 30th October, 1520, relates that Montezuma spoke to him as - follows:—“We know from our writings that we received from our - ancestors, that I and all those who live in this land are not - the natives of it. We are strangers and came into it from very - distant regions. We also know that our nation was led here by - a chief whose vassals all were. He afterwards went back to his - native country. Afterwards he returned and found that those he - had left had married the native women (<span xml:lang="es">mujeres naturales</span>) and - had many children, and had built villages where they lived, and - when he wished them to proceed with him they did not want to - go, or even receive him as their chief and therefore he went - away.”</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> - <p>The author of the Popol Vuh, does not mention the tradition about Votan.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> - <p>Las Casas in commenting upon the subject of the Cozumel - cross, mentions that it was ten palms high. In the course of - the extensive explorations carried out by M. Desiré Charnay, in - 1880–82, a similar stone was discovered at Téotihuacan. It is - considered to be the emblem of Tlaloc, the god of rain.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> - <p>Professor Rau in his memoir upon the Palenque tablet, states - that it is his belief that the Maya language, or a kindred - dialect, was spoken by the builders of Palenque.</p> - <p>With regard to this subject it has to be observed that when the - Toltec tribes, or the tribe that built the temples, settled at - Palenque they had possibly forgotten their own original language, - which may have been a Pawnee or Dakota dialect.</p> - <p>It would naturally happen after their wives had been taken from - among the aboriginal race, that the children would speak the - dialects of their mothers. It has been mentioned by an early - Spanish writer that the Aztecs, when they settled in Mexico, - endeavoured to establish their own language, but without success.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> - <p>Vol. iv., p. 333.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> - <p>According to Gibbon, the Goths under the command of King - Roderick, were defeated by the Saracens on the plains of Xeres in - the neighbourhood of Cadiz, upon July 19–26, A.D. 711. This great - battle decided the fate of Spain. It was supposed that Roderick - was drowned in the river but it was not known with certainty what - became of him as his body was never found.</p> - <p class="center">Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap. li.</p> - <p>The subject of the flight of the bishops, was afterwards brought - into notice by a report of the discovery of the island where they - had settled. This fabulous report was believed, in the fifteenth - century, to be true. An historian states that:—</p> - <p>“In this yeare also, 1447, it happened that there came a Portugal - ship through the Streight of Gibraltar; and being taken with a - great tempest, was forced to runne westward more than willingly - the men would, and at last they fell vpon an island which had - seuen cities, and the people spake the Portugall toong, and they - demanded if the Moores did yet trouble Spaine, whence they had - fled for the loss which they had received by the death of the King - of Spain, Don Roderigo.</p> - <p>The boatswaine of the ship brought home a little of the sand, and - sold it unto a goldsmith of Lisbon, out of the which he had a good - quantitie of gold.</p> - <p>Don Pedro, understanding this, being then gouernor of the realme, - caused all the things thus brought home, and made knowne, to be - recorded in the house of Justice.”</p> - <p class="center">The Discoveries of the World, by Antonio Galvano.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> - <p>Antilia appears as a large island in the Atlantic in the rare - maps of Andreas Bianco (1436) and Bartolomeo Pareto (1454). On - Martin Behaim’s globe (1492) it is placed about eighteen hundred - miles west of the Canaries. In the earliest maps published after - the return of Columbus to Spain, Antilia is placed near the newly - discovered islands of the West Indies.</p> - <p>The legend upon the accompanying map may be rendered as follows:—</p> - <p>“The island of Antilia was, at some period, discovered by the - Lusitanians, but the exact time is not known. There have been - found there in it families who speak Spanish as it was spoken in - the days of Roderick, who was the last King of Spain in the time - of the Goths, and they are supposed to have fled to this island - from the face of the Barbarians who had then invaded Spain. They - have here one Archbishop with six other Bishops, each of whom has - his own proper city, hence it is called by many the island of the - seven cities. The population are strict Christians and abound in - all this world’s wealth.”</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> - <p>In the first voyage of Columbus the vessels left the Canaries - on the 6th of September and arrived off Guanahani on the night - of the 11th of October, having been thirty days at sea. They had - traversed a distance, according to the Admiral’s journal, of 1,092 - leagues or 3,276 miles. On the second voyage from the Canaries to - Dominica they left on the 3rd of October and arrived on the 3rd of - November. Upon the last voyage, Columbus left Ferro (one of the - Canary islands) on the 26th of May and reached St. Lucia in the - West Indies on the 15th of June. This was a quick passage and only - occupied twenty days.</p> - <p>In the Vestal, a sailing frigate of 26 guns, we left the island - of Gran Canaria in the year 1852, on the morning of the 27th of - September, and passed between Antigua and Guadeloupe at noon on - the 16th of October after a voyage of nineteen days, having sailed - over a distance of 2,800 miles. During the whole of this time we - were running before the wind with our studding sails set, steering - West. A favourable N.E. wind prevails from Florida to Yucatan and - the Mexican coast. With respect to Columbus’s first voyage it - should be observed that his landfall at Guanahani was four or five - days’ sail further west than the islands of Dominica and St. Lucia.</p> - </div> - </div> - - <div class="transnote mt10"> - <p class="large"><b>Transcriber’s Notes:</b></p> - <p>Redundant title page has been removed.</p> - <p>Blank pages have been removed.</p> - <p>Silently corrected typographical errors.</p> - <p>Spelling and hyphenation variations made consistent.</p> - <p>Page 416: Nicuaragua corrected to Nicaragua.</p> - <p>Anchor added for footnote 111.</p> - </div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Travels Amongst American Indians, by Lindesay Brine - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRAVELS AMONGST AMERICAN INDIANS *** - -***** This file should be named 60170-h.htm or 60170-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/1/7/60170/ - -Produced by MFR, Robert Tonsing, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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