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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Culinary Chemistry, Exhibiting the Scientific Principles of Cookery, etc., by FREDRICK ACCUM.
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<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 60163 ***</div>
<div class="tnbox">
<p class="center">Please see the <a href="#TN">Transcriber’s Notes</a> at the end of this text.</p>
</div>
<div class="scr">
<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/cover_sm.jpg" alt="Cover image" width="386" height="600" />
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
</div><!--scr-->
<div class="front">
<p class="caption"><i>To Face Title.</i></p>
<p class="caption" id="Fig1"><i>Fig. 1.</i></p>
<div class="figcenter nomargin">
<img src="images/illo1.jpg" alt="Dutch oven" width="332" height="221" />
</div>
<p class="caption" id="Fig2"><i>2</i></p>
<div class="figcenter nomargin">
<img src="images/illo2.jpg" alt="Kitchen range" width="600" height="268" />
</div>
<div class="split5050">
<div class="left5050">
<p class="caption" id="Fig3"><i>3</i></p>
<div class="figcenter nomargin">
<img src="images/illo3.jpg" alt="Preserving pan" width="301" height="203" />
</div>
</div><!--left5050-->
<div class="right5050">
<p class="caption" id="Fig4"><i>4</i></p>
<div class="figcenter nomargin">
<img src="images/illo4.jpg" alt="Coffee pot" width="300" height="203" />
</div>
</div><!--right5050-->
<p class="thinline allclear"> </p>
</div><!--split5050-->
</div><!--front-->
<div class="front">
<h1><span class="oldtype fsize300">Culinary Chemistry,</span><br />
<span class="fsize150">EXHIBITING</span><br />
<span class="fsize80">THE</span><br />
<span class="fsize150"><i>SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES</i></span><br />
<span class="fsize80">OF</span><br />
<span class="fsize300"><b>COOKERY,</b></span><br />
<span class="fsize90">WITH CONCISE INSTRUCTIONS FOR PREPARING GOOD AND WHOLESOME<br />
PICKLES, VINEGAR, CONSERVES, FRUIT JELLIES,<br />
MARMALADES,</span><br />
<span class="fsize80">AND VARIOUS OTHER ALIMENTARY SUBSTANCES EMPLOYED<br />
IN</span><br />
<span class="fsize250 oldtype">Domestic Economy,</span><br />
<span class="fsize80">WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION AND NUTRITIVE<br />
QUALITIES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD.</span></h1>
<p class="center fsize110"><i>WITH COPPER PLATES.</i></p>
<div class="figcenter nomargin">
<img src="images/illo5.jpg" alt="Kitchen range" width="550" height="389" class="bordered" />
</div>
<p class="center fsize125"><span class="smcap">By</span> FREDRICK ACCUM,</p>
<p class="noindent padl1 padr1">Operative Chemist, Lecturer on Practical Chemistry, on Mineralogy, and on Chemistry applied
to the Arts and Manufactures; Member of the Royal Irish Academy; Fellow of the Linnæan Society;
Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, and of the Royal Society of Arts Berlin, &c. &c.</p>
<p class="center blankbefore1"><span class="oldtype fsize125">London:</span><br />
<span class="smcap">Published by R. ACKERMANN, 101, Strand</span>;<br />
<span class="fsize125"><b>1821.</b></span></p>
</div><!--front-->
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagei">[i]</span></p>
<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2>
<hr class="ornament" />
<p class="lineheight90">The publications which I have presented
to the world, having been almost exclusively
confined to subjects connected with
the Fine Arts, I feel it in some measure
incumbent on me to explain the cause of
my having undertaken to be the publisher
of this volume. It has arisen from a
distressing event, in which its very ingenious,
useful, and elaborate Author, happened
to be involved. The work was in
some degree of advancement, when the
sudden and most unexpected misfortune
to which I have alluded, threw him at once
into a state of discouragement, that gave a
check to all his exertions. I, who had
known him long, and had every reason,
from a most intimate acquaintance, to think
well of him, both in his private as well as
professional character, co-operated with
many of his friends, some of whom are
in the superior ranks of life, to encourage
him in the renewal of his former
energy—but I could succeed no further
than in prevailing upon him to complete<span class="pagenum" id="Pageii">[ii]</span>
this little work on Culinary Philosophy,
which promised to be highly useful in
some of the leading objects of Domestic
Economy. When it was ready for publication,
the prejudice which had been excited
against him, rendered his former publishers
averse from presenting it to the public. I
therefore felt myself under a kind of indispensable
engagement—nor am I ashamed
of it, as the work was brought to a state of
publication by my interference, though out
of my usual line of business, to become its
publisher. I accordingly, under these circumstances,
made it my own by purchasing
the copy-right. Nor, from its scientific
novelty, and promised utility, have I the
least hesitation in presenting Mr. <span class="smcap">Accum’s</span>
Work to the Public.</p>
<p class="right highline3 padr4">R. ACKERMANN.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pageiii">[iii]</span></p>
<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
<hr class="ornament" />
<div class="rightblock">
<p>LONDON,<br />
<span class="fsize80">COMPTON STREET, SOHO.</span></p>
</div><!--rightblock-->
<p class="blankbefore2">The following pages are intended to exhibit a
popular view of the philosophy of cookery, to enable
the reader to understand the chemical principles, by
means of which alimentary substances are rendered
palatable and nutritious. The subject may appear
frivolous; but let it be remembered that it is by the
application of the principles of philosophy to the
ordinary affairs of life, that science diffuses her
benefits, and perfects her claim to the gratitude of
mankind.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pageiv">[iv]</span></p>
<p class="blankbefore1">The art of preparing good and wholesome food is,
undoubtedly, a branch of chemistry; the kitchen is a
chemical laboratory; all the processes employed
for rendering alimentary substances fit for human
sustenance, are chemical processes; and much waste
of the materials, as well as labour to the parties,
might often be spared, were those who practise this
art, made acquainted with some simple chemical
truths which invariably would lead to certain results.</p>
<p class="blankbefore1">I have, in the first place, premised, as introductory
to what follows, some general observations on the
various kinds of alimentary substances commonly
used for food; in which I have noticed their chemical
constitution, and comparative nutritive qualities.</p>
<p class="blankbefore1">After these preliminary statements, I have proceeded
to explain the summary processes of the<span class="pagenum" id="Pagev">[v]</span>
culinary art, as practised in the English kitchen, to
render obvious the chemical effects produced by the
operations of roasting, boiling, stewing, broiling, frying,
and other means employed for dressing food.</p>
<p class="blankbefore1">I have given concise, but accurate directions for
preparing good and wholesome pickles, and other
condiments employed in domestic economy.</p>
<p class="blankbefore1">I have pointed out the rules to be attended to in
the art of conserving recent fruits, and other vegetable
substances, in the state of what are called preserves,
marmalades, fruit jams, and jellies, to enable the
reader to prepare those kinds of comfitures with
economy and success.</p>
<p class="blankbefore1">I have given concise directions for preserving butcher’s
meat, fish, and fowl, after being cooked, to<span class="pagenum" id="Pagevi">[vi]</span>
render them fit for sea store, or domestic use, at a
future time.</p>
<p class="blankbefore1">I have stated the most approved processes for
curing bacon, hams, smoked beef, and salted fish;
to which I have added instructions for the choice of
butcher’s meat, and the best methods of constructing
pantries, larders, and meat safes.</p>
<p class="blankbefore1">I have pointed out the loss of weight which different
kinds of meat suffers in the usual operations of
cooking.</p>
<p class="blankbefore1">I have described the most approved methods for preserving
recently gathered fruits in their natural state,
as nearly as possible, with directions for constructing
fruit rooms, and the circumstances to be attended to
in storing esculent roots and other vegetables.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagevii">[vii]</span></p>
<p class="blankbefore1">I have animadverted on certain material errors,
sometimes committed through ignorance or negligence,
in the preparation of food, and various delicacies
of the table; and I have also given hints
that will be found useful, with regard to the practice
of making tea and coffee. And lastly, I have
made some remarks on the construction of kitchen
fire-places, to which I have added designs, exhibiting
the most approved cooking apparatus,
calculated for the use of private families or public
establishments.</p>
<p class="blankbefore1">In resuming the whole, I have endeavoured (and
I hope with some degree of success,) to communicate
to those to whom the superintendance of a family
is entrusted, such useful culinary information as may
lead to beneficial consequences.</p>
<p class="right blankbefore2 padr2">FREDRICK ACCUM.</p>
<p>1821.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pageviii"><a id="Pageix"></a>[viii-<br />ix]</span></p>
<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
<hr class="ornament" />
<table class="toc" summary="Table of Contents">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="chapter"><span class="oldtype">Cookery.</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="right fsize60">Page</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Preface</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Pageiii">iii</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Contents</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Pageix">ix</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Cookery is a branch of chemical science</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page1">1</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Observations on the Food of Man</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page6">6</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Nations living wholly upon Vegetable Food</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page9">9</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Nations living wholly upon Animal Food</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page10">10</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Singular kind of Aliments of various Nations</i><span class="pagenum" id="Pagex">[x]</span></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page12">12</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Difference between an Epicure and a Glutton</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page17">17</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Importance of the Art of Cookery</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page20">20</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Dietetical remarks on the choice and quantity of Food</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page38">38</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Extraordinary great Eaters, and observations on Abstinence</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page43">43</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Remarks on the origin of the custom of Eating Flesh</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page49">49</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Comparative Alimentary Effects of Animal and Vegetable Food</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page53">53</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Observations on the various kinds of Animal Substances commonly used for food</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page59">59</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Observations on the various kinds of Vegetable Substances commonly used for
food</i><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexi">[xi]</span></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page76">76</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>General Operations of Cookery</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page79">79</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Roasting on a spit</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page80">80</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Roasting on a string</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page86">86</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Roasting in an open oven</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page88">88</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Roasting in a closed oven</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page89">89</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Broiling</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page93">93</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Frying</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page99">99</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Stewing</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page106">106</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Boiling</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page111">111</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Comparison of the Chemical Changes produced on Animal and Vegetable Food, in the different processes of
cookery</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page117">117</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Comparative Diminution of the Weight of Meat in Cooking</i><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexii">[xii]</span></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page128">128</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Primary, or chief Dishes of the English table</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page132">132</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Broth</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page133">133</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Soup</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page137">137</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Pies</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page141">141</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Puddings</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page145">145</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Made Dishes</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page146">146</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Observations on Made Dishes</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page148">148</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Gravy</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page154">154</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Sauces</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page157">157</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Thickening Paste for broth, soup, gravy, and made dishes</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page166">166</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Colouring for broth, soup, gravy, and made dishes</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page162">162</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Stock, for making extemporaneous broth, soup, or gravy</i><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexiii">[xiii]</span></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page163">163</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Observations on the Choice of Meat</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page166">166</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Keeping of Meat, and best construction of Larders, Pantries and Meat Safes</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page176">176</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Preservation of Animal Substances in a recent state</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page182">182</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Pickling and Dry Salting of Meat</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page183">183</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Method of Preparing Bacon, Hams, and Hung Beef</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page193">193</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Smoke-drying, or Curing of Bacon, Hams, and Beef, as practised in Westphalia</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page195">195</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Method of Curing Hams, Beef, and Fish, by means of Pyro-ligneous acid</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page197">197</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Pickling of Fish</i><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexiv">[xiv]</span></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page204">204</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Mackerel</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page207">207</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Salmon</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page208">208</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Collared Eels</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page209">209</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Best method of Preserving Cooked Butcher’s Meat, Fish, or Poultry</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page210">210</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Preservation of Meat by Potting</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page218">218</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Potted Beef, Game, or Poultry</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page219">219</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Potted Ham</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page220">220</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Potted Lobster</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page221">221</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Preservation of Eggs</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page222">222</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Preservative Effect of Frost, on Butcher’s Meat, Fish, and Fowl</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page223">223</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="chapter"><span class="oldtype">Pickles.</span><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexv">[xv]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Red Cabbage</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page234">234</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Onions</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page235">235</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Walnuts</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page236">236</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Cucumbers</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page237">237</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Red Beet-root</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page239">239</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Mushrooms</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page239">239</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Artichoke</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page240">240</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Sour Kraut</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page241">241</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Mushroom Catsup</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page244">244</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Tomata Catsup</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page246">246</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Walnut Catsup</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page247">247</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="chapter"><span class="oldtype">Conserved Fruits</span><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexvi">[xvi]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conservation of Recent Fruits without Sugar</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page249">249</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Gooseberries</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page249">249</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Orlean Plums</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page249">249</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Green Gages</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page249">249</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Damsons</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page249">249</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Peaches</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page249">249</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Nectarines</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page249">249</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Bullaces</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page249">249</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conservation of Recent Fruits, by means of Sugar, in a liquid state</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page252">252</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Apricots, by means of Sugar</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page252">252</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Plums</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page252">252</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Damsons</i><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexvii">[xvii]</span></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page252">252</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Green Gages</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page252">252</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Peaches</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page252">252</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Nectarines</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page252">252</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Pine Apples</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page254">254</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Pears</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page255">255</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Conservation of Recent Fruits, by means of Sugar, in a solid form</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page256">256</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Candied Orange, or Lemon Peel</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page256">256</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="chapter"><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexviii">[xviii]</span><span class="oldtype">Marmalades,
Jams,</span><br /><span class="fsize60">AND</span><br /><span class="oldtype">Fruit Pastes.</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Black Currant Paste</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page260">260</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Apricot Paste</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page261">261</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Peach Paste</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page261">261</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Plum Paste</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page261">261</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Cherry Paste</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page261">261</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Quince Paste</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page261">261</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Raspberry Paste</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page262">262</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Orange and Lemon Paste</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page262">262</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Raspberry Jam</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page263">263</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Strawberry Jam</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page263">263</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Currant Jam</i><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexix">[xix]</span></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page263">263</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Gooseberry Jam</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page263">263</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Mulberry Jam</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page263">263</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Apricot Jam</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page264">264</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Orange Marmalade</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page265">265</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Peach Marmalade</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page266">266</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Pine Apple Marmalade</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page267">267</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Apricot Marmalade</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page267">267</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Fruit Jellies</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page268">268</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Currant Jelly</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page269">269</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Raspberry Jelly</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page270">270</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Barberry Jelly</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page270">270</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Gooseberry Jelly</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page271">271</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Apple Jelly</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page271">271</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Quince and Apricot Jelly</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page272">272</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Fruit Syrups</i><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexx">[xx]</span></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page272">272</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Lemon Syrup</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page274">274</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Orange Syrup</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page274">274</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Mulberry Syrup</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page275">275</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Raspberry and Currant Syrup</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page275">275</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Preservation and Storing of Fruit, and Principal requisites of a good Fruit Room</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page276">276</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Preservation of recent esculent roots, pot-herbs, and other culinary vegetables</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page280">280</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="chapter"><span class="oldtype">Vinegar.</span><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexxi">[xxi]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Method of Making Gooseberry Vinegar</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page289">289</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Raspberry Vinegar</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page291">291</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Chilli Vinegar</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page292">292</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Tarragon Vinegar</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page292">292</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Mint Vinegar</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page292">292</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Eschallot Vinegar</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page292">292</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Burnet Vinegar</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page292">292</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="chapter"><span class="oldtype">Tea.</span><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexxii">[xxii]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Natural History of the Tea Tree</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page295">295</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Observations on the art of Making Tea, and singular effects of different kinds of Tea Pots on the Infusion
of Tea</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page299">299</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Japanese Method of Making Tea</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page301">301</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="chapter"><span class="oldtype">Coffee.</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Natural History of the Coffee Tree</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page305">305</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Best Method of Making Coffee</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page308">308</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="chapter"><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexxiii">[xxiii]</span><span class="oldtype">Kitchen
Fire-places,</span><br /><span class="fsize60">AND</span><br /><span class="oldtype">Cooking Utensils.</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Saucepans and Stew Pans</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page329">329</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Preserving Pans</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page330">330</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Copper Cooking Utensils</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page331">331</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="subject"><i>Wooden Tubs</i></td>
<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page336">336</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page1">[1]</span></p>
<h2 class="blacklet">Cookery.</h2>
<hr class="ornament" />
<h3>COOKERY IS A BRANCH OF CHEMICAL SCIENCE.</h3>
<p>Cookery, or the art of preparing good
and wholesome food, and of preserving all
sorts of alimentary substances in a state fit
for human sustenance, of rendering that
agreeable to the taste which is essential to
the support of life, and of pleasing the
palate without injury to the system, is,
strictly speaking, a branch of chemistry;
but, important as it is both to our enjoyments
and our health, it is also one of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page2">[2]</span>
least cultivated branches of that science.
The culinary processes of roasting, boiling,
baking, stewing, frying, broiling, the art of
preserving meats, bacon, and hams; the
preparations of sauces, pickles, and other
condiments; the conserving of fruits; the
care and keeping of vegetables; the making
of jellies, jams, and marmalades, are
all founded upon the principles of this
science, and much waste of the material, as
well as labour to the parties might often be
spared, were those to whom the performance
of such tasks is committed, made acquainted
with simple chemical truths which
would invariably lead to certain results.
And, besides, the same knowledge would
enable them to attain a much greater degree
of perfection in curing and preserving all
kinds of animal and vegetable aliments, and
in combining the three grand requisites of<span class="pagenum" id="Page3">[3]</span>
taste, nutriment, and salubrity, in whatever
manner they may be prepared. And,
though this art is at present in rude hands,
as all branches of chemistry were originally,
there is no reason that it should
remain so. A kitchen is, in fact, a chemical
laboratory; the boilers, stew-pans,
and cradle spit of the cook, correspond
to the digestors, the evaporating basins,
and the crucibles of the chemist. And
numerous as the receipts of cookery are,
the general operations (like the general
process of chemistry) are but few. In
some the object aimed at is, to extract the
constituent parts of the food, so as to exhibit
them in a separate state, or to combine
them with other substances, to produce
new compounds which differ widely
from those from which they originated. In
others, the qualities of the substances are<span class="pagenum" id="Page4">[4]</span>
simply altered by the action of fire, to render
them more palatable and nutritious.</p>
<p>From the multiplicity of circumstances
to be attended to in this art, the whole of
which is founded upon the principles of
chemistry, we may easily see that it must
be a very precarious one; and, there is
reason to believe, that among the variety of
circumstances which produce diseases, the
improper modes of cooking food, are often the
primary cause. Will it be believed, that in
the cookery books which form the prevailing
oracles of the kitchens in this part of
the island, there are express injunctions to
“<i>boil greens with halfpence, or verdigrise</i>,
in order to improve their <i>colour</i>!”<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a
href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> That
our puddings are frequently seasoned with
laurel leaves, and our sweatmeats almost<span class="pagenum" id="Page5">[5]</span>
uniformly prepared in copper vessels?<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
Why are we thus compelled to swallow a
supererogatory quantity of poison which
may so easily be avoided? And why are we
constantly made to run the risk of our lives
by participating in custards, trifles, and
blancmanges, seasoned by a most deadly
poison extracted from the <i>prunus lourocerasus</i>?<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a
href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
Verily, where such detestable
systems of cookery are practised, we may
exclaim with the sacred historian, that there
is “Death in the Pot.”</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
The Ladies Library, vol. ii. p. 203; and also
Modern Cookery, 2nd Edition, p. 94.</p>
<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
Literary Chronicle, No. xxii. p. 348, 1819.</p>
<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
Philosophical Magazine, No. cclviii. vol. 54,
p. 317.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>Food badly cooked is wasted to no purpose.
It seems to have been a complaint
familiar in the mouth of our ancestors, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page6">[6]</span>
which we have too often seen reason to
re-echo in the present day—“<i>That God
sends good meat, but the devil sends cooks</i>.”</p>
<h3>OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOOD OF MAN.</h3>
<p>No animal eats such variety of food as
man; he claims, more justly than any other
creature, the title of <i>omnivorous!</i> for since
he is distinguished beyond all animals, but
the capability of living in the most distant
parts of the globe, under every variety of
climate which the earth affords, his food
could not be confined exclusively to either
the vegetable or animal kingdom, because
he inhabits regions that afford aliments
widely different from each other. Cattle
content themselves with green vegetables;<span class="pagenum" id="Page7">[7]</span>
rapacious animals live on the flesh of other
creatures.</p>
<p>Those of the Linnæan order, <i>glires</i>,<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
live on grain and fruits; each order of
birds, keeps, in the same manner, to one sort
of food, animal or vegetable. Fishes, reptiles,
and insects, also have each their peculiar
and exclusive bill of fare, beyond which
even hunger will scarcely force them to
wander. But however various each class,
and order, and species of animated nature
may be in the choice of food, man—all-devouring
man, will embrace the whole range
of the creation, “scarce a berry or a mushroom
can escape him.”</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
The hare, rabbit, guinea-pig, &c.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>With the lion and the wolf he will eat
of fresh slain animals; with the dogs and
the vulture he will feed on putrid flesh;<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a
href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page8">[8]</span>
with the ox and the guinea-pig he will devour
raw vegetables, under the name of salads;
with the squirrel and the mouse he will feast
on nuts and grain; with birds of prey he
feeds on fowl of almost every species;
with fishes he feeds on fish; and with insects
and reptiles he sometimes lives on
insects and reptiles. Nor is he satisfied
even with this abundant variety, but must
go to the mineral kingdom for salt, as a
condiment before he can furnish out his
meal.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
Every person knows in what a putrid state game
is often eaten.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page9">[9]</span></p>
<h3>NATIONS LIVING WHOLLY UPON VEGETABLE
FOOD.</h3>
<p>The variety of alimentary substances
used not only by individuals, but among
whole nations, are prodigiously diversified,
and climate seems to have some
effect in producing the diversity of taste,
though it must in a great measure depend
upon the natural productions of particular
countries, their religion, and their commercial
intercourse.</p>
<p>A vegetable diet seems suitable to the
hot countries under the Equator, and we
accordingly find nations there, who have
completely adopted it, and who abstain so
much the more from all animal food, in as
much as it is an article of their religious faith.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page10">[10]</span></p>
<p>Potatoes, chesnuts, and the leguminous
and cereal seeds, satisfy the want of the
Alpine peasant, and numerous tribes solely
feed on vegetables and water. In the most
remote antiquity, we read of whole nations
in Africa, and of the Indian priests, who
lived entirely on vegetable substances.
Some wandering Moors subsist almost
entirely on gum senegal.</p>
<h3>NATIONS LIVING WHOLLY ON ANIMAL FOOD.</h3>
<p>The nations which live on animal food
are very numerous.</p>
<p>The Ethiopeans, Scythians, and Arabians,
ate nothing but flesh.</p>
<p>The miserable inhabitants of New Holland
lived wholly on fish when that country
was first discovered, and other tribes on
the Arabian and Persian gulph.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page11">[11]</span></p>
<p>In the Faro islands, in Iceland and Greenland,
the food arises from the same source.</p>
<p>The shepherds in the province of Caracas,
on the Oronoko, live wholly on flesh. The
Tartars in Asia, and some savage nations
in North America, live on raw and half
putrid flesh, and some barbarous tribes eat
their meat raw.</p>
<p>It appears to be the effect of climate and
religion that makes the Hindoo adopt vegetable
rather than animal food; it is the effect
of natural production that makes the Greenlander
relish whale-blubber and train-oil. It
is to one or other of these causes that we must
refer all such diversity of national tastes,
though it would be difficult in many cases to
separate the influence of each. We see the
Englishman enjoying his under-done roast
beef and his plum-pudding; the Scotsman
his hodge-podge and his haggis; the<span class="pagenum" id="Page12">[12]</span>
Frenchman his ragouts, omlets, and fricandeaus;
the German his sour-crout, sausages,
and smoaked hams, the Italian his
maccaroni; and the Tartar his horse-flesh.<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>
“<i>De gustibus non est disputandum.</i>”—There
is no disputing about tastes. They
are too many, and too various, to be
objects of rational discussion.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
An article of food which has lately been seriously
recommended by Mr. Grey to Europeans as a most
advantageous measure of political economy.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<h3>SINGULAR KIND OF ALIMENTS OF VARIOUS
NATIONS.</h3>
<p>Besides the before-mentioned diversities
of national and individual taste for different
kinds of substances, used as aliments, there
are other kinds of food which we at least
think more singular. Some of the tribes of<span class="pagenum" id="Page13">[13]</span>
Arabs, Moors, the Californians, and Ethiopians,
eat tad-poles, locusts, and spiders.</p>
<p>In some places the flesh of serpents, that
of the <i>coluber natrix</i> for example, is eaten;
and the viper is made into broth. Several
other reptiles are used as food by the
European settlers in America, such as the
<i>rana bombina</i> and <i>rana taurina</i>, two species
of toads.</p>
<p>In the East, the <i>lacerta scincus</i> is considered
a great luxury, and also an approdisiac.
Even the rattle snake has been
eaten, and the head boiled along with the
rest of the body of the animal.</p>
<p>The horse, ass, and camel, are eaten in
several regions of the earth, and the seal,
walruss, and Arctic bear, have often yielded
a supply to sailors.</p>
<p>On the singular taste of epicures it is
not necessary to speak. Mæcenas, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page14">[14]</span>
prime minister of Augustus, and refined
patron of Horace, had young asses served
upon his table when he treated his friends;
and, according to Pliny,<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> the Romans
delighted in the flavour of young and well
fattened puppies. This strange practice
subsists still in China, and among the
Esquimaux. Plump, and well roasted
bats, laid upon a bed of olives, are eaten
in the Levant as a dainty.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> 2 Book 29, c. 4.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>The Roman luxury, <i>garum</i>, which bore
so high a price, consisted of the putrid
entrails of fishes, (first of the <i>garum</i>,)
stewed in wine, and a similar dish is still
considered as a great luxury, in some parts of
the East. Some modern epicures delight in
the trail of the woodcock, and even collect
with care the contents of the intestines<span class="pagenum" id="Page15">[15]</span>
which distill from it in the process of
roasting.</p>
<div class="poem">
<div class="stanza">
<span class="i0">“<i>The Irishman</i> loves usquebah,<br /></span>
<span class="i2"><i>The Scot</i> loves ale called blue cap,<br /></span>
<span class="i0"><i>The Welshman</i>, he loves toasted cheese,<br /></span>
<span class="i2">And makes his mouth like a mouse trap.”<br /></span>
</div><!--stanza-->
</div><!--poem-->
<p><span class="smcap">Apicius</span>,<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8"
class="fnanchor">[8]</a> among other whimsical personages
of ancient Rome, presented to his guests
ragouts, exclusively composed of tongues
of peacocks and nightingales. This celebrated
epicure, who instituted a gormandizing
academy at Rome, having heard that
shrimps and prawns of a superior flavour
were to be met with on the coasts of Africa
than on the Italian shore, freighted a
ship, and sailed in search of these far<span class="pagenum" id="Page16">[16]</span>
famed marine insects. This person spent
more than £.60,000 merely to vary the
taste of culinary sauces.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>
Three brothers of that name were celebrated at
Rome, on account of their unparallelled love of good
eating.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>Vitellus was treated by his brother with
a dinner, consisting of 2,000 dishes of fish,
and 7,000 of poultry—surely this is not
doing things by halves.</p>
<p>A Mr. Verditch de Bourbonne<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> is said to
have bought 3,000 carps for the mere sake
of their tongues, which were brought, well
seasoned and <i>learnedly</i> dressed, to his table,
in one dish.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Cours Gastronomique.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page17">[17]</span></p>
<h3>DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN EPICURE AND
A GLUTTON.</h3>
<p>However extravagant and whimsical the
rational pleasures of the table may appear
to a <i>sober</i> and sensible mind, we must, in
justice to epicures, cursorily observe, that
there exists a material difference between a
<i>gormand</i> or epicure, and a <i>glutton</i>.<a name="FNanchor_10"
id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> The
first seeks for peculiar delicacy and distinct
flavour in the various dishes presented to
the judgment and enjoyment of his discerning
palate; while the other lays aside
nearly all that relates to the rational pleasures<span class="pagenum" id="Page18">[18]</span>
of creating or stimulating an appetite
of the cates, and looks merely to quantity;
this, has his stomach in view, and tries
how heavy it may be laden, without endangering
his health.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>
<i>Tabella Cibaria</i>, a latin poem, relating to the
pleasures of Gastronomy, and the mysterious art of
Cooking, page 15.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>“The <i>gormand</i> never loses sight of the
exquisite organs of taste, so admirably
disposed by Providence in the crimson
chamber, where sits the discriminating
judge, the human tongue.</p>
<p>“The <i>glutton</i> is anathematised in the
Scripture with those brutes <i>quorum deus
venter est</i>. The other appears guilty of no
other sin than of too great, and too minute,
an attention to refinement in commercial
sensuality.”</p>
<p>Our neighbours on the other side of the
channel, so famous for indulging in the
worship of Comus, consider the epicure
again under two distinct views, namely:<span class="pagenum" id="Page19">[19]</span>
as a <i>gormand</i>, or a <i>gourmet</i>. The epicure
or <i>gormand</i> is defined—a man having
accidentally been able to study the different
tastes of eatables, does accordingly
select the best food and the most pleasing
to his palate. His character is that of a
<i>practioner</i>. The <i>gourmet</i> speculates more
than he practises, and eminently prides
himself in discerning the nicest degrees,
and most evanescent shades of goodness
and perfection in the different subjects proposed
to him. He may be designated a
man, who, by sipping a few drops out of
the silver cup of the vintner, can instantly
tell from what country the wine comes, and
its age.</p>
<p>The <i>glutton</i> practices without any regard
to theory.</p>
<p>The <i>gormand</i>, or epicure, unites theory
with practice.</p>
<p>The <i>gourmet</i> is merely theoretical.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page20">[20]</span></p>
<h3>IMPORTANCE OF THE ART OF COOKERY.</h3>
<p>As man differs from the inferior animals
in the variety of articles he feeds upon, so
he differs from them no less in the preparation
of these substances. Some animals, besides
man, prepare their food in a particular
manner. The racoon (<i>ursus lutor</i>)
is said to wash his roots before he eats them;
and the beaver stores his green boughs
under water that their bark and young
twigs may remain juicy and palatable.</p>
<p>The action of fire, however, has never
been applied to use by any animal except
man; not even monkies, with all their
knacks of imitation, and all their fondness
for the comforts of a fire, have ever been<span class="pagenum" id="Page21">[21]</span>
observed to put on a single billet of wood
to keep up the fuel.</p>
<p>Domesticated animals, indeed, are
brought to eat, and even to relish, food
which has been cooked by the action of
heat.</p>
<p>The variety of productions introduced by
our different modes of preparing and preserving
food is almost endless; and it appears
particularly so when we compare the
usages, in this respect, of various countries.</p>
<p>The savage of New South Wales is
scarcely more knowing in the preparation
of food, by means of fire, than his neighbour,
the kangaroo, if the anecdote told by
Turnbull be true, that one of these savages
plunged his hand into boiling water to
take out a fish.</p>
<p>Some writers have humorously designated
man to be “<i>a cooking animal</i>,” and<span class="pagenum" id="Page22">[22]</span>
he really is so. It is one of the leading
distinctions which Providence has seen meet
for wise purposes to establish, when it was
said that he might eat of the fruit of every
tree, and the flesh of every clean beast.</p>
<p>When we contemplate the aliments used
by men in a civilized state of existence,
we soon become convinced that only a
small part of our daily food can be eaten
in its natural state. Many of the substances
used as aliments, are disagreeable,
and some even poisonous until they have
been cooked. Few of them are to be had
at all seasons, although produced at others
in greater abundance than can be consumed.</p>
<p>The importance of a proper and competent
knowledge of the true and rational
principles of cookery, must be obvious,
when it is considered that there is scarcely<span class="pagenum" id="Page23">[23]</span>
an individual, young or old, in any civilized
country, who has not some time or other
suffered severely from errors committed
in the practice of this art.</p>
<p>“A skilful and well directed cookery
abounds in chemical preparations highly
salutary. There exists a salubrity of aliments
suited to every age. Infancy, youth,
maturity, and old age, each has its peculiar
adapted food, and that not merely applicable
to the powers in full vigour, but to
stomachs feeble by nature, and to those
debilitated by excess.”<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>
Ude’s Cookery, p. 25.—Ibid, 23.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>Without abetting the unnatural and injurious
appetites of the epicure, or the
blameable indulgences of the glutton, we
shall not perhaps be far out in our reckoning,
if we assert, that almost every person
is an epicure in his own way.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page24">[24]</span></p>
<p>There are amateurs in boiling potatoes,
as particular in the details, as others in
dressing beaf-stakes to the utmost nicety
of a single turn. Lord Blainey, still more
nice, informs us, that hams are not fit to be
eaten unless boiled in Champaign. <i>Helluos</i>
are not confined to salmon’s bellies, but are
to be found among the rudest peasants who
love porridge or <span class="nowrap">frumenty—</span></p>
<div class="poem">
<div class="stanza">
<span class="i2">A salmon’s belly, <i>Helluo</i>, was thy fate;<br /></span>
<span class="i0">The doctor call’d, declares all help too late;<br /></span>
<span class="i0">“Mercy!” cries <i>Helluo</i>, “mercy, on my soul!<br /></span>
<span class="i0">Is there no hope?—Alas! then bring the jowl.”<br /></span>
</div>
<p class="poemcredit"><i>Pope’s Moral Essays.</i></p>
</div><!--poem-->
<p>Precision in mixing ingredients is as often
and as closely laid down for the coarsest
dish of the peasant as for the most guarded
receipe of the Lady Bountiful of the village.
The pleasures of the table have always been
highly appreciated and sedulously cultivated<span class="pagenum" id="Page25">[25]</span>
among civilized people of every age and
nation; and, in spite of the Stoic, it must
be admitted, that they are the first which
we enjoy, the last we abandon, and those of
which we most frequently partake.</p>
<p>“Cookery is the soul of every pleasure,
at all times and to all ages. How many
marriages have been the consequence of a
meeting at dinner; how much good fortune
has been the result of a good supper, at
what moment of our existence are we happier
than at table? there hatred and animosity
are lulled to sleep, and pleasure
alone reigns.”</p>
<p>Pythagoras, in his golden verses, gives
complete proof, that he was particularly nice
in the choice of food, and carefully points
out what will occasion indigestion and flatulency.
He is precise in commanding
his disciples to “<i>abstain from beans</i>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page26">[26]</span>”
Apicius, declares that he never knew a
philosopher who refused to partake of a feast.</p>
<p>In later times, Dr. Johnson is well
known to have been exceedingly fond of
good dinners, considering them as the
highest enjoyment of human life. The
sentiments of our great moralist are a good
answer to those who think the pleasures
of the table incompatible with intellectual
pursuits or mental superiority. “Some
people,” says the Doctor, “have a foolish
way of not minding, or pretending not to
mind, what they eat; for my part, I mind
my belly very studiously, and very carefully,
and I look upon it that he who does
not mind his belly will hardly mind any
thing else.” Boswell, his biographer, says
of him, “I never knew a man who relished
good eating more than he did: and when
at table, he was wholly absorbed in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page27">[27]</span>
business of the moment.” It was one of
the objects which displeased him so much
in his Northern tour, that the Scots were
rather ignorant of the more refined arts
of cookery. A lady in the Isle of Mull,
anxious to gratify him for once in a dinner,
had an excellent plum-pudding prepared,
at some expense, and with the utmost care;
but, to her great mortification, the doctor
would not taste it, because, he said, “it is
totally impossible to make a plum-pudding
at all fit to eat in the Isle of Mull.”</p>
<p>Another instance of this philosopher’s
illiberal prejudice against Scotch cookery,
may also be mentioned. A lady, at whose
table the Doctor was dining, enquired how
he liked their national dish, the <i>hotch
potch</i>, of which he was then partaking.
“<i>Good enough for hogs</i>,” said the surly<span class="pagenum" id="Page28">[28]</span>
philosopher. “Shall I help <i>you</i> to a little
more of it?” retorted the lady. To Dr. Johnson
we can add the names of two distinguished
physicians, Darwin, and Beddoes, both of
whom were most outrageous in their published
works against the pleasures of good
living; they followed however a very different
practice, from what they prescribed to
others, as none were more fond of good
dinners than these guardians of health.</p>
<p>Cardinal Wolsey, we should have thought,
would have had something else to mind
than cooking and good eating. But no
person was more anxious than he, even in
the whirl of the immense public business
which he had to transact, to have the most
skilful cooks; for all Europe was ransacked,
and no expense spared, to procure culinary
operators, thoroughly acquainted with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page29">[29]</span>
multifarious operations of the spit, the
stew-pan, and the rolling-pin.</p>
<p>Sir Walter Scott, has been most happy
in the illustration of our ancient manners
with respect to good eating, in the character
of Athelstan, in the Romance of Ivanhoe.</p>
<p>Count Rumford has not considered the
pleasure of eating, and the means that may
be employed for increasing it, as unworthy
the attention of a philosopher, for he
says, “the enjoyments which fall to
the bulk of mankind, are not so numerous
as to render an attempt to increase
them superfluous. And even in
regard to those who have it in their power
to gratify their appetites to the utmost extent
of their wishes, it is surely rendering
them a very important service to shew
them how they may increase their pleasures
without destroying their health.”</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page30">[30]</span></p>
<p>In the olden time, every man of consequence
had his <i>magister coquorum</i>, or
<i>master cook</i>, without whom he would not
think of making a day’s journey; and it
was often no easy matter to procure <i>master
cooks</i> of talent.</p>
<p>By a passage of Cicero<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> we are led to
understand, that among other miseries of
life, which constantly attended this consular
personage and eloquent orator, he laboured
under the disappointment of not having an
excellent cook of his own; for, he says,
“<i>coquus meus, præter jus fervens, nihil
potest imitari</i>.” <i>Except hot broth, my cook
can do nothing cleverly.</i></p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <i>Fam.</i> ix. 20.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>The salary of the Roman cooks was
nearly £1000.<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> Mark Antony, hearing<span class="pagenum" id="Page31">[31]</span>
Cleopatra, whom he had invited to a
splendid supper, (and who was as great a
<i>gormand</i> as she was handsome,) loudly
praise the elegance and delicacy of the
dishes, sent for the cook, and presented him
with the unexpected gift of a corporate
town.—<i>Municipium.</i></p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a>
Tabella Cibaria, ps. 19 and 20.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>Even in our own times great skill in
cookery is so highly praised by many, that
a very skilful cook can often command, in
this metropolis, a higher salary than a
learned and pious curate.</p>
<p>His Majesty’s first and second cooks are
esquires, by their office, from a period to
which, in the lawyer’s phrase, the memory
of man is not to the contrary. We are told
by Dr. Pegge, that when Cardinal Otto,
the Pope’s Legate, was at Oxford, in the
year 1248, his brother officiated as <i>magister
coquinæ</i>, an office which has always<span class="pagenum" id="Page32">[32]</span>
been held as a situation of high trust and
confidence.</p>
<p>We might defend the art of cookery on
another principle, namely—on the axiom
recognized in the Malthusian Political Economy,
that he who causes two blades of
grass to grow where only one grew before,
is a benefactor to his country and to human
nature. Whether or not Malthus is
quite right in this, we are not competent to
decide; we leave that to Say, Godwin,
Ricardo, and<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Drummond. But certainly it
must in many cases be of the utmost consequence,
for families in particular, when
embarrassed in circumstances, to make food
go twice as far as without the art and aid
of rational cookery it could do. We would
particularly press this remark, as it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page33">[33]</span>
founded on numerous facts, and places the
art of cookery in a more interesting point of
view than any of the other circumstances
which we have been considering.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a>
Principles of Currency, and Elements of Political
Economy—1820.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>Cookery has often drawn down on itself
the animadversions of both moralists, physicians,
and wits, who have made it a
subject for their vituperations and their
ridicule.</p>
<p>So early as the time of the patriarch
Isaac, the sacred historian casts blame
upon Esau for being epicurean enough to
transfer his birth-right for a mess of pottage.</p>
<p>Jacob is blamed for making savoury meat
with a kid for his father, with a view to
rob Esau of the paternal blessing.</p>
<p>Diogenes, the Cynic, meeting a young
man who was going to a feast, took him up
in the street and carried him home to his
friends, as one who was running into evident<span class="pagenum" id="Page34">[34]</span>
danger had he not prevented him. The
whole tribe, indeed, of the Stoics and Cynics,
laughed at cookery, pretending, in their
vanity and pride, to be above the desire of
eating niceties. Lucian, with his inexhaustible
satire, most effectually and humourously
exposed these their pretences.</p>
<p>In our own times, we have had writers of
eminence who have attacked the use of a
variety of food as a dreadful evil. “Should
we not think a man mad,” says Addison,
“who at one meal will devour fowl, flesh,
and fish; swallow oil, and vinegar, salt,
wines, and spices; throw down sallads of
twenty different herbs, sauces of an hundred
ingredients, confections, and fruits of
numberless sweets and flavours? What
unnatural effects must such a medley
produce in the body? For my part,
when I behold a table set out in all its<span class="pagenum" id="Page35">[35]</span>
magnificence, I fancy, that I see gouts
and dropsies, fevers and lethargies, and other
innumerable distempers, lying in ambuscade
among the dishes.”</p>
<p>All this, and the like is, no doubt, very
plausible, and very fine, and, like many
other fine speeches of modern reformers,
it is more fine than just. It is indeed as
good a theory as may be, that cookery
is the source of most, or all, of our distempers;
but withal it is <i>a mere theory</i>,
and only true in a very limited degree.
The truth is, that it is not cookery which
is to blame, if we surfeit ourselves with its
good dishes; but our own sensual and
insatiable appetite, and gluttony, which
prompt us to seek their gratification at the
expense even of our health.</p>
<p>Savages, whose cookery is in the rudest
state, are more apt to over-eat themselves<span class="pagenum" id="Page36">[36]</span>
than the veriest glutton of a luxurious and
refined people; a fact, which of itself, is
sufficient to prove, that it is not cookery
which is the cause of gluttony and surfeiting.
The savage, indeed, suffers less
from his gluttony than the sedentary and
refined gormand; for, after sleeping, sometimes
for a whole day, after gorging himself
with food, hunger again drives him
forth to the chace, in which he soon gets
rid of the ill-effects of his overloaded
stomach. Surely cookery is not to blame
for the effects of gluttony, indolence, and
sedentary occupations; yet it does appear,
that all its ill effects are erroneously charged
to the account of the refined art of cooking.</p>
<p>The defence of cookery, however, which
we thus bring forward to repel misrepresentation,
applies only to the art of preparing
good, nutritious, and wholesome food.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page37">[37]</span></p>
<p>We cannot say one word in defence of
the wretched and injurious methods but
too often practised, under the name of
cookery, and the highly criminal practices
of adulterating food with substances deleterious
to health. On this subject we
have spoken elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a>
A treatise on adulterations of food, and culinary
poisons, exhibiting the fraudulent sophistications of
bread, beer, wine, spirituous liquors, tea, coffee,
cream, confectionary, vinegar, mustard, pepper,
cheese, olive oil, pickles, and other articles employed
in domestic economy, and methods of detecting
them.—Third edition, 1821.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>“A good dinner<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> is one of the greatest
enjoyments of human life; but the practice
of cookery is attended with not only so
many disgusting and disagreeable circumstances,
and even dangers, that we ought
to have some regard for those who encounter
them for our pleasure.”</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a>
The Cook’s Oracle.—Preface, p. xxxv.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page38">[38]</span></p>
<h3>DIETETICAL REMARKS ON THE CHOICE AND
QUANTITY OF FOOD.</h3>
<p>Almost every person who can afford it,
eats more than is requisite for promoting
the growth, and renewing the strength and
waste of his body. It would be ridiculous
to speak concerning the precise quantity of
food necessary to support the body of different
individuals. Such rules do not exist
in nature. The particular state or condition
of the individual, the variety of constitution,
and other circumstances, must be taken into
account. If, after dinner, we feel ourselves
as cheerful as before, we may be assured
that we have made a dietetical meal.</p>
<p>Much has been said of temperance. The
fact is, that there is an absolute determined
standard of <i>temperance</i>, the point of which<span class="pagenum" id="Page39">[39]</span>
must be fixed by every man’s natural and
unprovoked appetite, while he continues
<i>in a state of health</i>. As long as a person
who pursues a right habit of life, eats and
drinks no more than his stomach calls for
and will bear, without occasioning uneasiness
of any kind to himself, he may be
said to live temperate. The stomach revolts
against the reverse of it; indeed, the
stomach is the grand organ of the human
system, it is the <i>conscience</i> of the <i>body</i>, and
like that, will become uneasy if all is not
right within; it speaks pretty plainly to
those who lead an intemperate life.</p>
<p>“We may compare,” says Doctor
Kitchener, “the human frame to a watch, of
which the heart is the main <i>spring</i>, the
stomach the <i>regulator</i>, and what we put
into it, the <i>key</i>, by which the machine is
set a-going; according to the quantity,<span class="pagenum" id="Page40">[40]</span>
quality, and proper digestion of what we
eat and drink will be the action of the
system: and when a due proportion is
preserved between the quantum of exercise
and that of excitement, all goes well. If
the machine be disordered, the same expedients
are employed for its re-adjustment,
as are used by the watch-maker; it
must be carefully cleaned and then judiciously
oiled. To affirm that such a thing is
wholesome, or unwholesome, without considering
the subject in all the circumstances
to which it bears relation, and the unaccountable
idiosyncrasies of particular
constitutions is, with submission, talking
nonsense. Every man must consult his
stomach; whatever agrees with that perfectly
well, is wholesome for him, whilst it
continues to do so whenever natural appetite
calls for food.”</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page41">[41]</span></p>
<p>Celsus spoke very right when he said
that a healthy man ought not to tie himself
up by strict rules, nor to abstain from any
sort of food; that he ought sometimes to
fast, and sometimes to feast. When applied
to eating, nothing is more true than the
<span class="nowrap">proverb—</span></p>
<div class="poem">
<div class="stanza">
<span class="i0">“<i>Bonarum rerum consuetudo pessima est.</i>—<span class="smcap">Syrus.</span><br /></span>
</div>
<div class="stanza">
<span class="i0">“<i>The too constant use, even of good things, is hurtful.</i>”<br /></span>
</div><!--stanza-->
</div><!--poem-->
<p>It is certainly better to restrain ourselves,
so as to <i>use</i>, but not to <i>abuse</i>, our enjoyments;
and to this we may add the opinion
of doctor Fothergil, which the experience
of every individual confirms, namely, that
“the food we fancy most, sits easiest on the
stomach.”</p>
<p>What has been so far stated on the choice
and quantity of food to be taken at a time,
of course, relates only to persons in a state<span class="pagenum" id="Page42">[42]</span>
of health; the diet of the delicate, the sickly,
and the infirm, must be regulated by the
physician, and even the aged require particular
kinds of food.</p>
<p>“Experience<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> has fully convinced me,
(says an eminent Physiologist), that the
latter stages of human life, are often
abridged by unsuitable diet.”</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a>
Carlisle on the disorders of Old Age, ps. 2 and 27.
This book exhibits an excellent view of the most
suitable diet for aged, weak, and sickly people.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>“The most numerous tribe of disorders
incident to advanced life, spring from the
failure or errors of the stomach, and its
dependancies, and perhaps the first sources
of all the infirmities of inability, may be
traced to effects arising from imperfectly
digested food.”</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page43">[43]</span></p>
<h3>EXTRAORDINARY GREAT EATERS, AND
OBSERVATIONS ON ABSTINENCE.</h3>
<p>In some persons, an extraordinary great
appetite seems to be constitutional.</p>
<p><i>Charles Domery</i>, aged 21 years, when a
prisoner of war, at Liverpool, consumed in
one day</p>
<table class="dontwrap leftalign fsize90" summary="Daily consumption">
<tr>
<td rowspan="3"> </td>
<td class="right padr1">4lbs.</td>
<td rowspan="4" class="padr1 top">of</td>
<td class="left">Raw Cow’s Udder.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="right padr1">10lbs.</td>
<td class="left">Raw Beef.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="right padr1">2lbs.</td>
<td class="left">Tallow Candles.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="left padr1">Total</td>
<td class="right padr1"><span class="bt">16lbs.</span></td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class="noindent">and five bottles of porter; and although
allowed the daily rations of ten men, he
was not satisfied.</p>
<p>Another extraordinary instance has been
recorded by Baron Percy:—A soldier of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page44">[44]</span>
name of <i>Tarare</i>, who, at the age of 17,
could devour in the course of 24 hours, a
leg of beef weighing 24lbs. and thought
nothing of swallowing the dinner dressed
for fifteen German peasants. But those men
were remarkable not only for the quantity
of food they consumed, but also for its
quality, giving a preference to raw meat,
and even living flesh and blood.</p>
<p><i>Domery</i>, in one year, eat 174 cats, dead
and alive; and <i>Tarare</i> was strongly suspected
of having eaten an infant.</p>
<p>Man can sustain the privation of food for
several days, more or fewer in number,
according to circumstances—the old better
than the young, and the fat better than the
lean. The absolute want of drink can be
suffered only a short time, they have been
strikingly described by Mungo Park and
Ali Bey, as experienced in their own persons.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page45">[45]</span></p>
<p>The narratives of ship-wrecked mariners
also prove, with how very little food life
may be supported for a considerable length
of time; and the history of those impostors
who pretend to live altogether without
food or drink, display this adaptation of
the wants of the body to its means of supply
in a still more striking manner; for, even
after the deception, in such cases as that of
Ann Moore, is exposed, it will be found
that the quantity of aliment actually taken
was incredibly small.</p>
<p>Captain Woodard has added to his interesting
narrative many instances of the
power of the human body to resist the effects
of severe abstinence. He himself
and his five companions rowed their boat
for seven days without any sustenance but
a bottle of brandy, and then wandered
about the shores of Celebes six more, without<span class="pagenum" id="Page46">[46]</span>
any other food than a little water and
a few berries. Robert Scotney lived seventy-five
days alone in a boat with three
pounds and a half of meat, three pounds
of flour, two hogsheads of water, some
whale oil, and a small quantity of salt.
He also used an amazing quantity of tobacco.
Six soldiers deserted from St. Helena
in a boat, on the 10th of June 1799,
with twenty-five pounds of bread and about
thirteen gallons of water. On the 18th,
they reduced their allowance to one ounce
of bread and two mouthfuls of water, on
which they subsisted till the 26th, when
their store was expended. Captain Inglefield,
with eleven others, after five days of
scanty diet, were obliged to restrict it to a
biscuit divided into twelve morsels for
breakfast, and the same for dinner, with an
ounce or two of water daily. In ten days,<span class="pagenum" id="Page47">[47]</span>
a very stout man died, unable to swallow,
and delirious. Lieutenant Bligh and his
crew lived forty-two days upon five day’s
provisions.</p>
<p>In the tenth volume of Hufland’s <i>Journal</i>,
is related a very remarkable, and well-authenticated
case of voluntary starvation.
A recruit, to avoid serving, had cut off
the fore-finger of his right hand. When
in hospital for the cure of the wound,
dreading the punishment which awaited
him, he resolved to starve himself; and on
the 2nd of August began obstinately to refuse
all food or drink, and persisted in this
resolution to the 24th of August. During
these twenty-two days he had absolutely taken
neither food, drink, nor medicine, and
had no evacuation from his bowels. He had
now become very much emaciated, his belly
somewhat distended, he had a violent pain<span class="pagenum" id="Page48">[48]</span>
in his loins, his thirst was excessive, and
his febrile heat burning. His behaviour
had also become timid. Having been promised
his discharge, unpunished, he was
prevailed upon to take some sustenance,
but could not, at first, bear even weak soup
and luke-warm drinks. Under proper
treatment, he continued to mend for eight
days, and his strength was returning, when,
on the 1st of September, he again refused
food and got a wild look. He took a little
barley-water every four or five days to the
8th; from that day to the 11th, he took a
little biscuit with wine; but again from the
11th September to the 9th October, a period
of twenty-eight days, he neither took food,
drink, nor had any natural evacuation. From
the 9th to the 11th he again took a little nourishment,
and began to recruit; but, on the
11th, he finally renewed his resolution to<span class="pagenum" id="Page49">[49]</span>
starve himself, and persevered until his
death, which took place on the 21st November,
after a total abstinence of 42 days.</p>
<h3>REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN OF THE CUSTOM OF
EATING FLESH.</h3>
<p>We are told, that in the first ages of the
world, men lived upon acorns, berries, and
such fruits as the earth spontaneously produced,
and that in the Shepherd state of
society, milk, obtained from flocks and herds,
came into use. Soon afterwards the flesh
of wild animals was added to the food, and
the juice of grape to the drink of the
human species. Hogs were the first animals,
of the domestic kind, that were eaten by
men, for they held it ungrateful to eat the
animals that assisted them in their labour.
“We are happy to find, (says the author of<span class="pagenum" id="Page50">[50]</span>
an elegant poem<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>) that it was not on account
of the solidity, wholesomeness, delicacy, and
other excellent qualities of his flesh, that
the ox was worshipped on the banks of the
Nile, and in the gorgeous temples of Memphis;
for, although professedly friends to
gastronomy, moderated by a decided aversion
to any thing like sensuality, we are of
opinion that man is less fit to feed upon
<i>carnal</i> than vegetable substance.”</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Tabella Cibaria, p. 33.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>“The noble horse, fierce and unsubdued,
was still roaming with all the roughness
and intractability of original freedom,
in his native groves, who already domesticated,
the honest steer had willingly lent
the strength of his powerful shoulders to
the laborious strife of the plough. This
had not only raised altars to him under the<span class="pagenum" id="Page51">[51]</span>
name of <span class="smcap">Apis</span>, but even placed him among
the first constellations of the Zodiac above
the watchful eyes of the Chaldeans. In
the reign of Erichtonius, fourth king of
Athens, Diomus was offering to Jupiter
the first fruits of the earth. Whilst the
priests were busied apart in preparing some
necessaries to the solemnity, an ox, passing
by, browsed of all that had been gathered
on the altar for the sacrifice. Diomus, in
his disappointment and passion, slew him
on the spot. The Gods, instead of countenancing
his religious zeal, sent forth immediately
all the horrors of a pestilence
upon the Athenians, which did not cease
until they had instituted a festival called
“<i>The Death of the Ox</i>.”<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Nonius de re Cibaria.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>“Porphyrius traces the custom of eating<span class="pagenum" id="Page52">[52]</span>
meat to <i>Pygmalion</i>, king of Tyre, in Phœnicia.
Although the Jews were allowed
to eat the flesh of the immolated beasts, in
the golden age, man had not found courage
and appetite enough to eat the flesh of an
innocent animal; but soon after, this
cruelty extended to nearly all quadrupeds,
except those who were carnivorous. Tradition
states, that <i>Prometheus</i> was the
first who killed a bullock, <i>Ceres</i> a pig, and
<i>Bacchus</i> a goat, for the uses of their tables.
It is obvious that pigs, by turning up the
new-sown fields for the sake of the grain,
and goats browzing the tender sprouts of
the vine-tree, were respectively inimical to
<i>Ceres</i> and <i>Bacchus</i>. As for the killing of
the first bullock by <i>Prometheus</i>, we leave
to other commentators to explain.”</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page53">[53]</span></p>
<h3>COMPARATIVE ALIMENTARY EFFECTS OF ANIMAL
AND VEGETABLE FOOD.</h3>
<p>Animal food alone is ill adapted to form
the whole of our aliment. The inquiries of
physiologists have determined, that animal
food is highly stimulant, and like all other
stimulants, after the excitement has been
brought to its acmé, debility must by necessity
succeed. This, however, is not so
much the case where fresh meat is used
as when the meat is salted; but this may
be, because our examples, with regard to
fresh meat, are less marked than in the
case of salted provision. For few instances
occur in which fresh meat forms
the whole food, exclusive altogether of
fruits or other vegetable aliment. Salted<span class="pagenum" id="Page54">[54]</span>
meat often constitutes a great proportion of
the food in long sea voyages, in the long
dreary winters in Lapland, and amongst
the inhabitants of besieged towns.</p>
<p>When this practice is continued for any
length of time, oppression and langour begin
to be felt, indigestion is brought on, and
hurried breathing and a quick pulse on taking
the slightest exercise, the gums become soft
and spongy, the breath becomes fœtid, and
the limbs swoln. Such are the dreadful
effects produced by salted provisions, when
a proper proportion of vegetable food is
not used along with them.</p>
<p>The fact is, that nations, whose food is
entirely vegetable, are less active and energetic
than those whose diet is more nutritive.
The inhabitants of Ireland, in the
most humble walks of life, for example,
who live almost exclusively on potatoes, are<span class="pagenum" id="Page55">[55]</span>
said to be more indolent and sluggish, when
compared with their neighbours in England,
who would think such diet to be no better
than a prison allowance of bread and
water.</p>
<p>In the East, where rice forms the great
article of food with some tribes, the people
are far from being robust or able to undergo
much fatigue in labour or in war. The
striking fact, that the English soldiers
and sailors surpass all those of other nations
in bravery and hardihood, is sufficient, we
think, to demonstrate the effect of a considerable
proportion of animal food.—For,
though it be said, that a great number
of our soldiers are Irishmen, yet our
argument holds good, since, all these when
in the army, or navy, live exactly in the same
manner as the English themselves. The
change of diet, indeed, is in these brave men<span class="pagenum" id="Page56">[56]</span>
very obvious; for the Irish and Scots
soldiers are often more hardy than the
English; not as it is supposed because
they have been innured to greater hardships
in their youth, but because their diet being
more generous than it was at that period,
its effects become more obvious than in
those who have always had animal food.</p>
<p>When we examine the structure of the
digestive organs of the inferior animals
which live wholly on vegetable food, we
find that they are very differently constituted
from man, and much more so from
the animals of prey. If the organs
for digestion of the ruminant animals
are more complicated, it should seem to
follow, that vegetable aliment is more
difficult to digest; otherwise, nature, who
never works in vain, would not have provided
for them such a series of stomachs.<span class="pagenum" id="Page57">[57]</span>
Hence we infer, that since man has not this
apparatus peculiar to ruminant animals, it
must be plain that nature did not intend
him to live exclusively on vegetables. If
we consider the human teeth, we shall be
led to the same conclusion, for they are not
either like the teeth of ruminant animals or
those of beasts of prey, but intermediate
between the two. We have <i>incisor</i> teeth
like animals of the order glires: such as
the hare, the rabbit, and the guinea-pig;
<i>canin</i> teeth like those of the order feræ:
such as the dog, the tiger, and the lion;
and <i>grinders</i>, like herbivorous quadrupeds:
such as the horse, the sheep, and the cow.</p>
<p>Food, then, composed of animal and
vegetable substances, seems to be the best
adapted for our organs of mastication and
digestion, though it would not be easy to
say precisely what proportions of these are<span class="pagenum" id="Page58">[58]</span>
most agreeable to the intentions of nature.
We may safely conclude, however, that the
vegetable food ought to exceed the animal
in quantity. The direction given by Dr.
Fothergill is the most judicious we have
met with. “I have only” says he “one
short caution to give. Those who think it
necessary to pay any attention to their
health at table, should take care that the
quantity of bread, of meat, of pudding, and
of greens, should not compose each of them
a meal, as if some were only thrown in to
make weight; but they should carefully observe,
that the sum of all together do not
exceed due bounds, or encroach upon the
first feeling of satiety.”</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page59">[59]</span></p>
<h3>OBSERVATIONS ON THE VARIOUS KINDS OF
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES COMMONLY USED FOR
FOOD.</h3>
<p>Of the different classes of animals used
for food, quadrupeds compose the greatest
proportion, and there is no part of their
bodies which does not contain nutritive
parts, and that has not been used as food
in some way or other. Even bones affords
an alimentary jelly fit for human food.</p>
<p>The largest portion of our aliment, however,
is derived from the voluntary muscles
of animals, or what is more strictly called,
the flesh, consisting of all the red fibrous
substance which covers the bones. It
should seem that this is both the most
nourishing and the most easily digested of<span class="pagenum" id="Page60">[60]</span>
animal substances. The red colour arises
from the blood of minute vessels which run
in every direction among the fibres; but
whether this is the cause of the red muscle
being more nutritious is not well ascertained.
Thence the flesh of quadrupeds is
more largely consumed than of any other
class of animals; and, indeed, those in
common use in most parts of Europe possesses
all the alimentary properties in the
highest perfection. All animal flesh seems
more or less stimulating; and, in general,
the more so the darker its colour is—but it
does not absolutely follow that it is also
more nutritious.</p>
<p>There is a considerable difference in the
qualities of muscular flesh, according to
the size of the animal, and also according
to its activity. The small mountain
sheep, for example, which has to encounter<span class="pagenum" id="Page61">[61]</span>
fatigue to procure its food, has flesh of a
different quality and flavour from the large
and lazy creature, which feeds luxuriously
and fattens rapidly, in the rich pastures of
the plain country. The beef of the western
islands also, is more esteemed, on account
of the same circumstance, than that of the
fat and brawny oxen which we see in the
London market. It is for this reason, we
have no doubt, that the flesh of the horse,
the rhinocerus, and elephant, is not used as
food except in cases when other food is not
to be procured. In the circumstance of
activity altering the qualities of flesh, we
may be allowed to instance the superiority
of venison to beef, in flavour and tenderness,
and easiness of digestion.</p>
<p>The age of animals is another circumstance
which has great influence on the
qualities of their flesh. The flesh of young<span class="pagenum" id="Page62">[62]</span>
animals is composed of less rigid fibres, and
has fewer vessels which carry red blood
running through it, and besides, it has less
of the peculiar flavour of its particular
species than the flesh of older animals.
Gelatine is more abundant in the young,
and fibrin in the old; hence the former is
more bland and tender. Veal and lamb, for
example, are more tender and gelatinous
than beef or mutton; sucking pigs, chickens,
and ducklings, are also much more delicate
than the grown animals. The beef of an old
cow, however well fed, is quite tough and
unpalatable, while that of a very young
heifer is much relished. Although, however,
very young animals be so much more
tender, yet they are insipid and flabby.</p>
<p>In the case of pork, age is not required,
as in other sorts of butcher meat, to mellow
the fibre. It is an aliment containing much<span class="pagenum" id="Page63">[63]</span>
nourishment; but to some palates its
flavour is disagreeable, though by most
people it is relished. It was much used by
the ancient athletæ, as half raw beef steaks
are now by our men of the fancy.</p>
<p>Sucking pigs are killed when three weeks
old; and for pork, pigs are killed from six
to twelve months old. It requires them to
be older for making brawn. The flesh of
young venison is not so good as when four
years old or more; though that of the fawn
is very tender and succulent.</p>
<p>But even in the fœtal state, the flesh of
animals, if recently taken from a healthy
mother, may be used. In the London
market the fœtus of the cow is regularly
sold to the pastry-cooks for the purpose of
making mock turtle soup, of which it often
forms the principal portion.</p>
<p>Veal, however, is reckoned not so good<span class="pagenum" id="Page64">[64]</span>
when killed before it be eight or ten weeks
old. The most remarkable quality of flesh
of this kind is, its almost wholly dissolving
in boiling water, forming in the warm state
a bland and gelatinous soup, and when
cold, concreting into a tremulous transparent
jelly. It is less animalized, or more properly
speaking, contains less animal fibre
than almost any other flesh; hence its
tendency to become ascescent when made
into broth and jelly, which is not the case
with beef or mutton broth. The parts of
older animals, which contain a larger portion
of gelatine, are in this respect similar to
young flesh. Cow-heel and sheep’s-head
are well known instances. It may be
remarked that such food is less nutritious,
and unless very much boiled, is less digestible
than muscular flesh; but as it is also
more light and less stimulating, it is frequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page65">[65]</span>
given to delicate people who cannot
take any thing stronger.</p>
<p>Tripe is intermediate between what we
have just described and the muscular flesh
of grown animals, insomuch as there is in
the stomach of ruminant animals a considerable
proportion of vessels, transmitting
red blood, and of muscular fibres, and
accordingly it is to be inferred that tripe is
more nutritive; it is certain it is more
palatable and savory.</p>
<p>As to other parts of animals, which are
abundantly furnished with red blood, though
destitute of muscle, we cannot speak so
decidedly. Some of the glands are coarse
and rank flavoured, from the peculiar
secretions which they produce, and are
only used by poor persons; others are
esteemed as delicacies, and seem not to be
unwholesome. As examples of the latter,<span class="pagenum" id="Page66">[66]</span>
we may mention <i>sweet bread</i> or <i>pancreas</i>,
one of the glands belonging to the digestive
organs; and the liver of some species of
birds, and of young quadrupeds.</p>
<p>The liver of the goose reckoned a great
delicacy in Sicily, and they have there a
a method of enlarging this organ while the
bird is alive, but it is so cruel, that Brydon,
who mentions it, declines giving the particulars,
lest our epicures in England
should have the inhumanity to give it a
trial. The spleen is an instance of the
former case, being strongly ill flavoured.</p>
<p>Another circumstance which produces
difference of quality in flesh, is the sex of
the animal, the genital organs having in
this respect a very remarkable influence,
as appears from the effect of destroying
these by castration. This renders the flesh
of the male similar, and in some cases, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page67">[67]</span>
in mutton, superior to that of the female,
which is always more tender, and of finer
fibre than that of the uncastrated male.
By destroying also the ovaries of the
females, their flesh is rendered more
delicate, though this operation is not often
practised. The sow is the animal which is
most usually operated upon with this view;
the flesh of the uncastrated boar is very
coarse and bad. Even in calves the difference
is observable, and veal is greatly
improved by castrating the males. The
same practice greatly improves fowl, as in
capons. Venison is rank, tough, lean,
and ill flavoured, and not fit to be eaten
when killed during the rutting season, in
September and October; and salmon, when
about to spawn, are also bad, and prohibited,
we believe, by our laws, to be
caught or sold.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page68">[68]</span></p>
<p>The mode of feeding animals, designed
for the table, has also great influence on
the quality of the flesh, so much so, that
nice judges can distinguish whether mutton,
if from the same breed of sheep, has been
fed on grass or on turnips; and can tell,
still more accurately, on tasting the fat of
pork, whether the pigs have been fed on
sour skimmed milk, brewers grains, or
pease flour. It was the practice sometime
ago, but now almost laid aside, to feed
calves and oxen on oil cake. This did
certainly fatten them, but the fat was rather
rancid in most cases, and never of good
flavour. The truth seems to be, that,
though generally, the lean of fat animals is
the most tender and palatable, yet that
this is not so much the case when the fat
is rapidly produced by artificial management
in the feeding.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page69">[69]</span></p>
<p>Sheep become very rapidly fat in the
first stage of the rot, in consequence,
perhaps, of their desire for food being
greatly increased by the disease; and,
taking advantage of this, it is said that
some butchers are in the practice of producing
rot artificially, which is certainly
very blameable. Some amateurs of mutton
are fond of such as has died of a sort of
colic, called in the North <i>braxy</i>, that produces
a very peculiar flavour in the meat,
which is always, however, roasted, and
never stewed or boiled. Such tastes are,
to say the least of them, surely unnatural.</p>
<p>It is, perhaps, owing to the different
quality and quantity of food, as much as
any thing, that the season of the year has
an effect upon the flesh of animals; the
heat or cold of the weather, and in some
cases, the periodical return of sexual<span class="pagenum" id="Page70">[70]</span>
attachment, must also be taken int to be out of
seasono account.
In the instances of veal and lamb, the
words, <i>in season, and out of season</i>, refer,
perhaps, more to plenty and scarceness
than to any quality in the meat; for as
soon as any thing is so plentiful in the
market as to cause a fall in the price, and
bring it within reach of the poor, then the
wealthy classes pronounce it to be <i>out of
season</i>.</p>
<p>This is the case with some sorts of birds
which migrate at certain times of the year,
the woodcock for example, and are on that
account to be valued when they can be procured.
Such as breed here, the solan goose
for example, can be procured in the young
state before they take their flight to their
unknown retreat.</p>
<p>It has been roundly asserted, that there
is no bird, and no part of any birds, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page71">[71]</span>
may not be safely used as food. Many
species, however, are very oily, tough, or
bad flavoured, and it is not at least very
desirable to eat any animal which feeds on
prey or carrion; even though this did not,
as it does, taint their flesh. The qualities
of the flesh of birds differ very much, both
in the several species, and in particular parts
of the same bird.</p>
<p>The flesh of birds which live on grain, is
for the most part preferred to those which
feed on insects or fish.</p>
<p>The pheasant, the turkey, as well as
partridge, and moor game, are more esteemed
than goose, duck, or woodcock.</p>
<p>Many of the water birds, however, are
preferred, though from the nature of their
food, they are apt to taste strongly of fish,
and to become too fat and oily: to remedy
these defects, skilful cooks sometimes bury<span class="pagenum" id="Page72">[72]</span>
them under ground for some days, and
carefully remove all the skin, and as much
as possible of the fat and oil from the inside,
before dressing them.</p>
<p>Of the several sorts of birds, those of
larger size are coarser and more tough than
the smaller sorts; bustards, and larks, and
ortolans, for example, than swans, or turkeys,
and geese. This difference is also
rendered greater in proportion to their age.</p>
<p>With regard to the particular parts of the
same birds, the flesh of the wing, and the
part of the breast nearest the wing, consisting
of the muscles exerted in flying, are
more dry, tender, and of a whiter colour
than the muscles of the leg. This, however,
is not the case with black game, in which
the more superficial of these muscles are
dark-coloured, while those deeper seated
are pale; and the same is sometimes seen<span class="pagenum" id="Page73">[73]</span>
in other birds. The belly and the muscles of
the thigh, when young enough, or when
long kept and properly cooked, are both
palatable, juicy, and sufficiently tender.
The tendons of these muscles, however, are
very tough, and at a certain age become
cartilaginous and even bony.</p>
<p>Birds in a domestic state do not readily
become fat, if allowed to go at large; for
this purpose, they should be confined in
coops, and supplied with as much wholesome
food as they can eat. Poulterers
even cram them with food. Domestic
water fowls, must, while fattening, be kept
from the water, otherwise they will acquire
a strong fishy taste, and besides, will always
remain lean. In general, over fatness may
be considered as a sort of oleagenous dropsy,
and seldom or never is met with in a state
of nature.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page74">[74]</span></p>
<p>All the soft parts of fish contain gelatine
and fibrous substance, and are, consequently,
in the edible sorts, nutritious. The
fibrous portions are not, except in a few
species, red, like the muscular flesh of land
animals, but white and opake when dressed.
If cooked fish looks bluish and semi-transparent,
it is not in season. It is fortunate
for us, that few if any poisonous fish are
found in our seas, being chiefly confined to
the tropics.</p>
<p>The roe of the greater number of fishes
is eaten: caviar is the roe of the sturgeon.</p>
<p>Cods sounds, or the swim bladder of the
larger cod, are reckoned a great delicacy
when properly preserved. It is not usual
for the skin of any animal to be eaten,
though the skin of some sorts of fish which
are pulpy and gelatinous are relished—as
the skin of calves head is used for mock<span class="pagenum" id="Page75">[75]</span>
turtle soup. The flavour of fish depends
greatly on their food, which, it is supposed,
is the main cause of the difference between
fresh and salt water fish, and between the
same sorts of fish taken in different lakes
and rivers, and on different parts of the coast.</p>
<p>Some shell fish, such as muscles and
cockles, are occasionally found to disagree
with some particular constitutions, but it
is not true that this arises from their feeding
on copper banks; some say, that it is
from the persons eating the beard or fibres,
by which the muscles attach themselves to
the rocks, which is not, we think, probable.</p>
<p>The limpet (<i>Patella vulgata</i>), the periwinkle
(<i>turbo littoreus</i>) and whilk (<i>murex
antiquus</i>), are used as food, boiled by the
common people in various districts of this
country.</p>
<p>The crustaceous shellfish of sufficient<span class="pagenum" id="Page76">[76]</span>
size, are very generally esculent. These
chiefly belong to the family of <i>Cancer</i>.
Hence, several species of crabs, both short
and long tailed, are eaten. The lobster,
the crawfish, the shrimp, and the prawn
belong to this class.</p>
<h3>OBSERVATIONS ON THE VARIOUS KINDS OF
VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES COMMONLY USED
FOR FOOD.</h3>
<p>The vegetable substances used for food
are, if we include fruits, much more numerous
than those derived from the animal
kingdom. The chief of these, however,
are the different sorts of grain and pulse,
the <i>farina</i> or flour of which, contains a
large proportion of starch, gluten, and
mucilage, and but little woody fibre, and is
consequently highly nutritious, and easily<span class="pagenum" id="Page77">[77]</span>
digested. To this class of plants we are
also indebted for the food of the animals
whose flesh is most generally used.
In pulse, as well as in rye and oats, there
is, besides the principles just mentioned, a
considerable portion of sugar, which adds
to their nutritive qualities.</p>
<p>We would class the different sorts of
nuts, next to grain and pulse, in the proportion
of nutriment which they afford;
starch and mucilage are their chief elements,
but these are combined with a kind of oil
which is not of easy digestion, and makes
them disagree with most people when too
liberally used. Almonds, filberts, walnuts,
and cocoa, are the nuts in most request.
Chocolate is a preparation of this kind,
which is very nutritious to those with whom
it agrees.</p>
<p>Next to grain, pulse, and nuts, we may<span class="pagenum" id="Page78">[78]</span>
place the farinaceous roots, potatoes,
carrots, parsnips, and Jerusalem artichokes.
Of these, the first, contains the most
nourishment, which depends on the great
proportion of starch with which it abounds.
Other pot-herbs possess little nourishment.
Cabbage and greens, for example, are
chiefly composed of fibre, mucilage, and
water, and the same is true of onions, leeks,
celery, lettuce, and broccoli.</p>
<p>Of fruits, those which are most farinaceous
and mucilaginous, and which are
sweet from the sugar contained in them,
are the most nutritious. The pear should
seem to answer this description the nearest,
but experience proves that this fruit is
of less easy digestion than the apple, whose
greater acidity corrects the heavy quality
of the saccharine matter with which the
pear abounds.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page79">[79]</span></p>
<h3>GENERAL OPERATIONS OF COOKERY.</h3>
<p>Few of the substances which we use for
food are consumed in the state in which they
are originally produced by nature. With
the exception of some fruits and salads, all
of them undergo some preparation. In
most cases, indeed, this is indispensable;
for, otherwise, they would not only be less
wholesome and nutritive, but less digestible.
The preceding observations, therefore,
are only applicable to the materials
when cooked, and not to the crude vegetables
and raw flesh in the undressed state.</p>
<p>The general processes of cookery resolve
themselves into the various modes of applying
heat under different circumstances.
They are the following—roasting, frying,<span class="pagenum" id="Page80">[80]</span>
broiling, baking, stewing, and boiling.
These operations not only soften the raw
materials, and render them alimentary, but
the chemical constitution of the cooked
substance suffers also such alterations, that
its constituent parts can often no longer
be recognised.</p>
<h3>ROASTING ON A SPIT</h3>
<p>Appears to be the most ancient process
of rendering animal food eatable by means
of the action of heat.</p>
<p>Spits were used very anciently in all
parts of the world, and perhaps, before the
plain practice of hanging the meat to a
string before the fire. Ere the iron age
had taught men the use of metals, these
roasting instruments were made of wood;<span class="pagenum" id="Page81">[81]</span>
and as we find it in Virgil,<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> slender branches
of the hazel tree were particularly <span class="nowrap">chosen—</span></p>
<div class="poem">
<div class="stanza">
<span class="i0">————“<i>Stabit sacer hircus ad aram</i><br /></span>
<span class="i0"><i>“Pinguiaque in verubus torrebimus extra colurnis.</i>”<br /></span>
<span class="i0">The altar let the guilty goat approach,<br /></span>
<span class="i0">And roast his fat limbs on the hazel broach.”<br /></span>
</div><!--stanza-->
</div><!--poem-->
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Georgics II. 545.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>Roasting is the most simple and
direct application of heat in the preparation
of food. The process is, for the most part,
confined to animal substances, though several
fruits, such as apples, chesnuts, and
some roots, are in this manner directly subjected
to fire.</p>
<p>But in dressing animal food, butcher’s
meat, venison, fowl, and fish, roasting is
one of the most usual processes, and it is,
we believe, the best for rendering food
nutritive and wholesome. The chemical<span class="pagenum" id="Page82">[82]</span>
changes also which roasting induces, are
sufficiently slight, as a careful analysis
will procure from meat, properly roasted,
nearly all the elements which are to be
found in it in the raw state. Slight
as the change is however in a chemical,
it is considerable in a culinary, point
of view. The texture of the meat is
more relaxed and consequently it is more
tender; it is also more sapid and high
flavoured. It is absolutely essential that
the meat intended for roasting, has been
kept long enough for the fibres to become
flaccid, without which precaution the best
meat does not become tender. If the meat
be frozen, it should be thawed, by putting
it into cold water, before it is put on the
spit.</p>
<p>The process of roasting requires some
care to conduct it properly. The meat<span class="pagenum" id="Page83">[83]</span>
should be gradually turned before the fire,
in order to effect its uniform exposure to
the rays of heat. A covering of paper
prevents the fat from taking fire, and frequently
<i>basting</i> the meat with gravy or
melted fat, prevents it from being scorched
or becoming dry, bitter, and unpalatable.
It is necessary to be very careful in placing
the meat to be roasted at a proper distance
from the fire. If it is put too near, the
surface will be scorched and burnt to a
cinder, while the inner portion will be quite
raw; and, if it be too distant, it will never
have either the tenderness or the flavour
it would have had by proper care. At first,
it should be placed at some distance, and
afterwards be gradually brought nearer the
fire, to give the heat time to penetrate the
whole piece equally; and, the larger the
joint is, the more gradually should this be<span class="pagenum" id="Page84">[84]</span>
done. Poultry, in particular, should be
heated very gradually.</p>
<p>When the joint is of an unequal thickness,
the spit must be placed slanting, so
that the thinnest part is further removed
from the fire.</p>
<p>The less the spit is made to pass through
the prime part of the meat, the better.
Thus, in a shoulder of mutton, the spit is
made to enter close to the shank-bone,
and passed along the blade-bone of the
joint.</p>
<p>When the meat is nearly sufficiently roasted,
it is dusted over with a coating of flour;
this, uniting with the fat and other juices
exuded on the surface, covers the joint
with a brown crust, glazed and frothy,
which gives to the eye a prelude of the
palatable substance it encrusts.</p>
<p>The process, as just described, is very<span class="pagenum" id="Page85">[85]</span>
similar, whatever may be the sort of meat
roasted, whether joints, and the several
species of fowl, or game. Fish is
not usually dressed in this way, though
the larger sorts are sometimes roasted.
Those who relish eels and pike prefer them
roasted to any other mode of dressing
them.</p>
<p>It is a general practice to move the spit
back when the meat is half done, in order
to clear the bottom part of the grate, and
to give the fire a good stirring, that it may
burn bright during the remainder of
the process. The meat is deemed sufficiently
roasted when the steam puffs out
of the joint in jets towards the fire.</p>
<p>To facilitate the process of roasting, a
metal screen, consisting of a shallow concave
reflector, is placed behind the meat,
in order to reflect the rays of heat of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page86">[86]</span>
fire back again upon the meat. This
greatly hastens the process. The screen
is usually made of wood, lined with tin.
It should be kept bright, otherwise, it will
not reflect the rays of heat.</p>
<h3>ROASTING ON A STRING</h3>
<p>Is usually performed by means of the
useful contrivance called a <i>bottle jack</i>, a
well-known machine, so named from its
form. It only serves for small joints, but
does that better than the spit. It is cheap
and simple, and the turning motion is produced
by the twisting and untwisting of a
string. The sort of roasting machine,
called the <i>Poor Man’s Spit</i>, is something
of the same nature, but still more
simple. The meat is suspended by a
skein of worsted, a twirling motion being<span class="pagenum" id="Page87">[87]</span>
given to the meat, the thread is twisted,
and when the force is spent, the string untwists
itself two or three times alternately,
till the action being discontinued, the meat
must again get a twirl round. When the
meat is half done, the lower extremity of
the joint is turned uppermost, and affixed
to the string, so that the gravy flows over
the joint the reverse way it did before.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page88">[88]</span></p>
<h3>ROASTING IN AN OPEN OVEN.</h3>
<p>A Dutch or open oven is a machine for
roasting small joints, such as fowls, &c. It
consists of an arched box of tin open on
one side, which side is placed against the
fire. The joint being either suspended in
the machine on a spit, or by a hook, or put
on a low trevet placed on the bottom of the
oven, which is moveable. The inside of the
oven should be kept bright that it may reflect
the heat of the fire. This is the most
economical and most expeditious method
of roasting in the small way.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page89">[89]</span></p>
<h3>ROASTING IN A CLOSED OVEN.</h3>
<p>Roasting in a closed oven, or <i>baking</i>, consists
in exposing substances to be roasted
to the action of heat in a confined space,
or closed oven, which does not permit the
free access of air, to cause the vapour
arising from the roasted substance to escape
as fast as it is formed, and this circumstance
materially alters the flavour of roasted
animal substances.</p>
<p><i>Roasters</i> and ovens of the common construction
are apt to give the meat a disagreeable
flavour, arising from the empyreumatic
oil, which is formed by the
decomposition of the fat, exposed to the
bottom of the oven. This inconvenience has
been completely remedied in two ways, by
providing against the evil of allowing the<span class="pagenum" id="Page90">[90]</span>
fat to burn; and secondly, by carrying out
of the oven by a strong current of heated
air, the empyreumatic vapours, as fast as
they are formed.</p>
<p>Such are the different processes of
roasting meat.</p>
<p><i>Rationale.</i>—The first effect of the fire is
to rarify the watery juices within its influence
which make their escape in the form
of steam. The albuminous portion then coagulates
in the same manner as the white of an
egg does, the gelatine and the osmazome<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
become detached from the fibrine, and
unite with a portion of the fat, which
also is liquified by the expansive property
of heat. The union of these form a
compound fluid not to be found in the
meat previously. This is retained in the
interstices of the fibres where it is formed<span class="pagenum" id="Page91">[91]</span>
by the brown frothy crust, but flows
abundantly from every pore when a cut is
made into the meat with a knife. In consequence
of the dissipation of the watery
juices, the fibrous portion becomes gradually
corrugated, and, if not attentively watched,
its texture is destroyed, and it becomes
rigid. Chemists prove that the peculiar
odour and taste of roasted meat depends
on the development of the principle which
has been called <i>osmazome</i>, or the <i>animal
extractive matter</i> of the old chemist, a
substance which differs very much from
every other constituent part of animal
matter <i>chemically</i>, in being soluble in alcohol—and
to the <i>senses</i>, in being extremely
savoury or sapid. It is upon this principle,
which seems to admit of considerable varieties,
that the peculiar grateful flavour of
animal food, (whether in the form of broth
or roasted,) and of each of its kinds,<span class="pagenum" id="Page92">[92]</span>
depends. Osmazome exists in the largest
quantity in the fibrous organs, or combined
with fibrine in the muscles, while the tendons
and other gelatinous organs appear to be
destitute of it. The flesh of game, and old
animals, contains it in greater quantity than
that of young animals abounding in gelatine.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a>
Derived from οσμη, <i>smell</i>, and ζωμος, <i>broth</i>.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>The tenderness produced by roasting,
we account for, from the expansion of the
watery juices into steam, loosening and
dissevering the fibres one from another, in
forcing a passage through the pores to
make their escape by. This violence, also,
must rupture all the finer network of the
cellular membranes, besides the smaller
nerves and blood vessels which ramify so
numerously through every hair’s-breadth
of animal substance. This dissolution of
all the minute parts of the meat, which
must take place before a particle of steam<span class="pagenum" id="Page93">[93]</span>
can escape, will most clearly account both
for the tenderness and the altered colour
of roasted meat. The action of heat, also,
upon the more solid parts of the bundles of
fibres, will, independent of the expansion
of the juices, cause them to enlarge their
volume, and consequently make the smaller
fibres less firmly adhesive.</p>
<h3>BROILING.</h3>
<p>Another process in which meat is subjected
to the immediate action of fire is
broiling, which at first sight seems not to
differ from roasting. The effect on the
meat is, however, considerably different.
The process consists in laying chops or
slices of meat on clear burning coals, or a
gridiron placed over a clear fire. It is indispensable
that the chops or slices be moderately<span class="pagenum" id="Page94">[94]</span>
thin, otherwise the outside will be
scorched to a cinder before they are cooked
within; from one fourth to three fourths
of an inch is a proper thickness.<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> It is
also necessary that the fire be moderately
brisk, without smoke or flame, lest the
meat should acquire a smoky taste. When a
gridiron is used it ought to be thoroughly
heated before the slices or chops are laid
on it, to prevent them from sticking to the
bars. In order to broil them equally, they
must be turned from time to time till the
cook can easily pierce them with a fork or
sharp skewer, which is the test of them
being sufficiently cooked. It is improper,
however, to cut into the chops to ascertain
whether they are broiled enough, because
it lets out the gravy.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a>
It is recommended by cooks to previously beat
the raw slices with a mallet, but this practice is a
bad one.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page95">[95]</span></p>
<p>Coke is the best fuel for broiling, for
it does not emit any smoke, and gives a
clear and moderate heat; a mixture of
coke and charcoal is exceedingly well calculated
for the broiling process.</p>
<p>Those gridirons of the usual appearance
and form, that have the bars fluted or
hollowed on the upper side, by which
means, the fat that comes from the meat
that is cooked on them, is prevented from
falling into the fire, and causing flame
and smoke are the best; for all the grease
that runs down the bars is received into a
small trough, which prevents it from being
wasted or lost. The upright gridiron is
a still better invention, as the meat cooked
on it, is entirely free from smoke, and the
melted fat is still more easily saved, and
kept more clean.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page96">[96]</span></p>
<p><i>Rationale.</i>—The heat being very quickly
and directly applied, not gradually as in
roasting and baking, the surface of the
meat is speedily freed from its watery
juices, and the fibres become corrugated,
forming a firm and crisp incrustation of
fibre and fat. This crust effectually prevents
the escape of the juices from within;
namely, the gelatine, and the osmazome,
which are more rapidly expanded by the
heat than in roasting, and consequently
must more violently dissever the small
fibres among which they are lodged, the
effect, however, is more mechanical than
chemical, for it does not appear that any
new combination is formed, nor much disorganization
produced. Accordingly, it is
found that broiled meat is more sapid, and
contains more liquid albumen, gelatine,
and free osmazome, than the same meat<span class="pagenum" id="Page97">[97]</span>
would do if boiled or roasted. It is this
greater degree of juicyness, sapidity, and
tenderness, that constitutes the peculiarity
and perfection of this mode of cooking, compared
with roasting, baking, or frying in a
pan.</p>
<p>Every sort of meat, however, is not fit
for broiling. The chemistry of the process
will point out the sorts best adapted
for it. The flesh, for example, of old animals,
which is deficient in gelatine and
albumen, would be too much dried by
roasting. The larger muscles, also, which
abound in fibrous substance, such as the
rump of beef, are well fitted for broiling.
The flesh of game is likewise less juicy
and gelatinous, and forms a very savoury
dish when broiled. The process is peculiarly
fit for most sorts of fish, which roasting
or baking would render dry and<span class="pagenum" id="Page98">[98]</span>
shrivelled, and in many cases boiling would
make it too soft and pulpy. Fresh caught
char, and trout,<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> are in the highest perfection
when dressed in this way.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a>
The best way of eating mackerel, is to broil it in
buttered paper upon the gridiron; and, when properly
done, to put fresh butter in the inside, with
chopped parsley, pepper, and salt, which melts, and
adds an exceedingly good flavour to the fish.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>On the other hand, the flesh which
abounds in watery juices and gelatine is
not well adapted for broiling. The flesh
of all young animals is of this kind; and
accordingly lamb, veal, and sucking pig;
the flesh of the fawn and kid do not answer
to be broiled but roasted. The same is
true of all the parts of an animal, whatever
be its age, which abound more in gelatine,
albumen, and fat, than in red muscular
fibre.</p>
<p>Broiled beaf steaks were the established
breakfast of the Maids of Honour of Queen<span class="pagenum" id="Page99">[99]</span>
Elizabeth. At an earlier period they gave
strength and vigour to those who</p>
<div class="poem">
<div class="stanza">
<span class="i0">“———————————————drew,<br /></span>
<span class="i0">“<i>And almost joined the horns</i> of the tough yew.”<br /></span>
</div><!--stanza-->
</div><!--poem-->
<h3>FRYING.</h3>
<p>Frying is a process somewhat intermediate
between roasting and boiling. Indeed,
in one sense, it may be termed boiling,
as it is the application of heat to the substance
to be cooked, through the medium
of melted fat, raised to the boiling temperature.
The effect on the meat is very peculiar,
and easily distinguished from every
other mode of cooking. The meat is prepared
in the same way as in broiling, by
cutting it into chops, or slices, of not more
than half an inch or three quarters in thickness.
A sufficient quantity of mutton or<span class="pagenum" id="Page100">[100]</span>
beef suet, butter, lard, or oil, being melted
in a pan, and made boiling-hot, the
meat is laid in it. It is not necessary that
the meat be <i>wholly</i> immersed in the boiling
fat; if it be immersed in part, it will be quite
sufficient. When flesh is the substance to
be fried, the pieces, previously to their being
put into the pan, are sometimes brushed
over with eggs and crumbs of stale bread,
flour, or any other farinaceous substance.
This application may also be made when
the meat is nearly cooked. The intention
of it is to cover the meat with a thin brown
crust, the savour of which increases the
relish of the dish. Fish are, for the most
part, treated in this manner when fried.
It answers well with trout, whitings, flounders,
and soles. When this application is
made to the meat previously to its being
put into the pan, the peculiar flavour of<span class="pagenum" id="Page101">[101]</span>
the meat is more effectually retained.
One of the best preparations for this purpose
is oatmeal, flour, or crumbs of stale
bread, made into a liquid paste with the
yolk and white of eggs.</p>
<p>Vegetable, as well as animal substances,
are subjected to this process, though it is
always at the expense of their wholesome
and nutritive qualities; and not always to
the improvement of their taste and flavour.</p>
<p>As in the case of animal substances, all
the juices are, by frying, extracted from
the vegetables; with this difference, however,
that their place is not supplied by
the melted fat; for the starch of the vegetables
(potatoes for example) is rendered
insoluble in water by the fat, and exhibits a
corneous appearance and texture. Fried
potatoes are the most familiar instance
of the process. When cut into thin slices and<span class="pagenum" id="Page102">[102]</span>
fried in oil, butter, or lard, they are rendered
semi-transparent. Cabbage, or the stalks,
leaves, and fruits of other vegetable substances,
previously boiled and then fried,
shrink, and become more easy to break, in
proportion as the water is driven off from
them, as this, during their previous boiling,
dissolves the saccharine and amylaceous
matter which rendered them supple
and juicy. These principles are much
better prepared and improved by boiling;
they are very much deteriorated by the
boiling fat in the frying pan.</p>
<p>The melted fat, or oil, should always be
brought to the boiling point, or nearly so.
The proper temperature is ascertained by
putting into the fat a few sprigs of parsley,
a thin slice of turnip, or a piece of bread,
and if any of these substances become crisp
without acquiring a black colour, the fat is<span class="pagenum" id="Page103">[103]</span>
hot enough for frying; if it be made hotter,
it becomes blackened, and the meat acquires
a burnt and unpleasant flavour. Any sort
of hard fat, such as beef suet, is the best
fitted for frying meat; because, fat of this
description can be brought to a higher
temperature, without suffering decomposition,
than either lard, butter, or oil. There
are, however, particular kinds of meat
which answer better with some one or other
of these than with any of the rest. Fish,
for example, is best fried in oil.</p>
<p>A rich brown colour is communicated to
the fried substance, by pressing it, when
nearly cooked, against the bottom of the pan.</p>
<p>The fire for frying should be kept sharp
and clear, to keep the melted fat at a sufficient
high temperature, and without this
precaution the fried substance cannot be
browned. If the temperature of the fat<span class="pagenum" id="Page104">[104]</span>
is not hot enough, the fried meat will be
sodden. Fish cannot be fried of a good
colour, and crisp, and firm texture, unless
the fat is boiling hot.</p>
<p>Frying, though one of the most common
culinary occupations, is one of those that is
least commonly performed.</p>
<p>Eggs are often fryed.</p>
<p>“Fresh butter, hissing in the pan, receives
the yolk and white together in its burning
bosom. One minute or two and all the
noise is over; and, sprinkled with pepper,
salt, and a few drops of vinegar, they appear
perfectly fit for the table. The <i>salamander</i>
is often held over them, and accelerates the
culinary process.”</p>
<p><i>Rationale.</i>—The process of frying is
considerably different from those which we
have formerly been examining. In frying,
the high temperature of the melted fat has<span class="pagenum" id="Page105">[105]</span>
the effect of extracting (at least from the
outer surface) all the gelatine, osmazome
and albumen, the place of which is, in part,
supplied by the melted fat entering between
the fibres, and gradually filling up the interstices.
It is this circumstance which
prevents the fibres of fried meat from becoming
hard and dry, and preserves them
in a tender and supple state. Meat which
has been fried, shrinks more in bulk than
when boiled or roasted, in consequence of
the melted fat having a stronger influence
in dislodging the animal juices. It is this
also which gives the meat the structure
which has not unaptly been compared to
leather.</p>
<p>Taste informs us, independently of our
<i>rationale</i>, that fried meat is less gelatinous
and less savoury than when simply boiled
or roasted. It is also less tender. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page106">[106]</span>
gelatine and other juices of the animal
fibre, which are extracted during the process
may be discovered, after the melted
matter in the pan is suffered to settle, in
the form of a rich, brown, savoury jelly,
which separates spontaneously from the
rest of the substance.</p>
<h3>STEWING.</h3>
<p>Stewing differs from roasting and broiling,
in the heat being applied to the substance
through a small portion of a liquid medium;
and, from boiling and frying, in the process
being conducted by means of an <i>aqueous</i>, and
not by means of an oily fluid. It is necessary
that the fire be moderate; for a strong heat
suddenly applied would be very injurious.
The liquids employed as the medium for applying<span class="pagenum" id="Page107">[107]</span>
the heat are usually water, gravy, or
broth, the quantity of which must be such as
shall prevent the meat from burning and adhering
to the pan. It is not requisite that
the liquid be made to boil in stewing. It
should only be raised nearly to a simmering
heat, which will retard the fluid being
evaporated too quickly. The closeness of
the vessel will also prevent the waste of the
liquid. If it diminish too quickly, it must,
from time to time, be replenished.</p>
<p>The management of the fire in cooking,
is, in all cases, a matter of importance, but
in no case is it so necessary to be attended
to as in preparing stews or made dishes;
not only the palatableness, but even the
strength or richness of all made dishes,
seems to depend very much upon the
management of the heat employed in
cooking them.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page108">[108]</span></p>
<p>The most proper sorts of animal food for
stewing, are such as abound in fibrine, and
which are too dry or too tough for roasting.
When beef or mutton is rather old and too
coarse flavoured, and not tender enough
for the spit or the gridiron, it may, by stewing,
be not only rendered tolerably palatable,
but even sometimes savoury and
good. But the stewing process is not confined
to flesh of this sort; for veal and other
young flesh which abounds in gelatine,
when properly stewed, is much relished.</p>
<p>The vegetables most usually stewed are
carrots, turnips, potatoes, pease, beans,
and other leguminous seeds. Some fruits
are also cooked in this way.</p>
<p><i>Rationale.</i>—Stewing is nothing else than
boiling by means of a small quantity of an
aqueous fluid, and continuing the operation
for a long time to render the substance tender,<span class="pagenum" id="Page109">[109]</span>
to loosen its texture, to render it more
sapid, and to retain and concentrate the most
essential parts of animal or vegetable food.</p>
<p>If the stew-pan be close shut, it is evident
that none of the nutritive principles can
escape, and must either be found in the meat
itself or in the liquid. The water or gravy
in which the meat is stewed, being capable of
dissolving the gelatine and albumen, the
greater part of them become separated during
the simmering process. Now, since the
firm texture of the bundles of fibres of the
meat is owing to the solid gelatine and albumen
glueing them, as it were, together,
when they are dissolved and disengaged,
the meat must become greatly disorganized.
These principles, as well as the fat and
osmazome, are partly disengaged from the
meat, and become united with the gravy.
It is to these, indeed, that the gravy owes<span class="pagenum" id="Page110">[110]</span>
all its richness and excellence. The muscular
fibres and the tendons acquire a gluey
appearance and texture, and the whole
forms a savoury gelatinous <i>stew</i>, <i>gravy</i>, or
<i>soup</i>.</p>
<p>No scorching or browning of the meat
takes place if the process is properly conducted;
for the temperature to which it is
exposed does not exceed the boiling point
of water.</p>
<p>In the stewing of vegetables, saccharine
matter is formed, the starch and
mucilage are rendered soluble, and of
course, set free the woody fibre, which
either floats through the liquid or adheres
together very slightly. It accordingly constitutes
either a pasty fluid, or converts
the vegetables to a soft pulp; sometimes
their original shape being preserved entire,
and at other times not.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page111">[111]</span></p>
<h3>BOILING.</h3>
<p>Boiling is a much more common operation
than any of those we have considered,
with the exception perhaps of roasting.
It consists, as every body knows, in subjecting
the materials of food to the influence
of heat, through the medium of boiling
water, or of steam.</p>
<p>The water employed for boiling meat or
pulse should be soft, and the joint should
be put on the fire immersed in cold water, in
order that the heat may gradually cause
the whole mass to become boiled equally.</p>
<p>If the piece of meat is of an unequal
thickness, the thinner parts will be over-done
before the more massy portion is
sufficiently acted on by the boiling water.</p>
<p>Salted meat requires to be very slowly<span class="pagenum" id="Page112">[112]</span>
boiled, or simmered only, for a quick and
rapid ebullition renders salted provisions
extremely hard.</p>
<p>Frozen substances should be thoroughly
thawed, and this is best effected by immersing
them in cold water.</p>
<p>Count Rumford has taken much pains
to impress on the minds of those who
exercise the culinary art, the following
simple but pratical, important fact, namely,
that when water begins only to be agitated
by the heat of the fire, it is incapable of
being made hotter, and that the violent
ebullition is nothing more than an unprofitable
dissipation of the water, in the form
of steam, and a considerable waste of fuel.</p>
<p>From the beginning of the process to
the end of it the boiling should be as gentle
as possible. Causing any thing to boil
violently in any culinary process, is very<span class="pagenum" id="Page113">[113]</span>
ill-judged; for it not only does not expedite,
in the smallest degree, the process
of cooking, but it occasions a most enormous
waste of fuel, and by driving away
with the steam many of the more volatile
and more savoury particles of the ingredients,
renders the victuals less good and
less palatable: it is not by the bubbling up,
or <i>violent boiling</i>, as it is called, of the water
that culinary operations are expedited.</p>
<p>One of the most essential conditions to
be attended to in the boiling of meat is, to
skim the pot well, and keep it really boiling,
the slower the better. If the skimming be
neglected, the coagulated albuminous matter
will attach itself to the meat, and spoil
the good appearance of it.</p>
<p>It is not necessary to wrap meat or
poultry in a cloth, if the pot be carefully
skimmed. The general rule of the best
cooks is to allow from 20 to 30 minutes<span class="pagenum" id="Page114">[114]</span>
slow simmering to a pound of meat, reckoning
from the time the pot begins to boil.</p>
<p>The cover of the boiling pot should fit
close, to prevent the unnecessary evaporation
of the water, and the smoke insinuating
itself under the edge of the cover, and
communicating to the boiled substance a
smoky taste.</p>
<p>Cooks often put a trevet, or plate, on
the bottom of the boiling pot, to prevent
the boiled substance sticking to the pot.</p>
<p><i>Rationale.</i>—When flesh or fish is boiled
in an open vessel, or one not closely
covered, the fibrous texture is rendered
more tender: at the same time its nutritive
quality is not much diminished.
For the temperature of the water or steam,
never exceeding 212°, is insufficient to produce
the partial charring, which roasting
and broiling effect. But, as in stewing, the
gelatine, albumen, osmazome, and fat, are<span class="pagenum" id="Page115">[115]</span>
developed and disengaged, and becoming
united with the liquid in the vessel, form a
soup, or broth. The paler colour of boiled
meat is owing to the blood being separated
and diffused in the water. In frying,
the boiling fat or oil enters into the interstices
of the fibres, which the disengaged
animal juices have left empty. In boiling,
in a similar way, the hot water takes the
place of the blood, gelatine, fat, and albumen,
which have been dissolved and separated
from the fibres. The fibres are in
this manner soaked and washed, first by
the boiling water, and afterwards by the
soup or broth which is formed, till the
whole texture assume a softened consistence,
and pale appearance. It is this,
rather than any softening of the fibres
themselves, which seems to be the real
effect produced, unless, with some, we
consider the fibres as nothing more than<span class="pagenum" id="Page116">[116]</span>
minute and close-set bundles of blood vessels.
This doctrine, however, the experience
of every cook will disprove; for if
the boiling be long continued, the fibres of
the meat will alone remain, and so far
from becoming more soft and pulpy, they
will become dry and juiceless. If indeed
the boiling point of the water be artificially
increased above 212°, by pressure applied
to the surface of the liquid, the fibres may
be reduced to a pulp, quite homogeneous.
When this is done by Papin’s digester, or
by any other apparatus of the same kind,
and when the process under such circumstances
is long continued, the hardest
bones may be converted into jelly.</p>
<p>It is only by boiling that the more gelatinous
parts of flesh can be completely
extracted unaltered from such parts as are
cartilaginous, ligamentous, or tendinous.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page117">[117]</span></p>
<h3>COMPARISON OF THE CHEMICAL CHANGES PRODUCED
ON ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE FOOD, IN
THE DIFFERENT PROCESSES OF COOKERY.</h3>
<p>The principal operations of cookery
which we have just examined and explained,
all agree in this, that they effect
some chemical change on the materials
operated upon, by which they are rendered
more digestible, more wholesome, and consequently
more nutritive.</p>
<p>In such of the operations as are
performed by the direct application of
heat to the flesh of animals, namely,
roasting, baking, frying, and broiling,
the meat loses the vapid and nauseous
taste and odour which it possesses in a raw<span class="pagenum" id="Page118">[118]</span>
state, and becomes savoury, juicy, and
grateful to the taste. These effects arise
from the development of the gelatine and
osmazome from the smaller vessels, and
their being rendered soluble; while, at the
same time a portion of the fat is liquified,
and combines with them after they are disengaged.</p>
<p>The fibres again, on the surface of the
meat, are partly scorched, and form a
crust, which, except in the interstices of
the corrugations, is impermeable, and consequently
prevents the savoury gravy that
is disengaged from the fibres from oozing
out or becoming evaporated. It is thus
only disengaged from its chemical union
with the fibres, and remains mechanically
united with them in the meat, after it is
cooked, as we see upon cutting into the
fibrous portion.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page119">[119]</span></p>
<p>The effect produced on the fat is
somewhat different. The direct application
of fire to this portion of the meat
soon melts part of the substance, and
raises it to the boiling point, or nearly so;
the water which it contains is consequently
given off in the form of steam, and it
carries with it a quantity of osmazome.
It is this which occasions the peculiar
odour that arises from meat while roasting.</p>
<p>The vapid taste is also corrected by the
empyreuma, combined with a minute quantity
of ammonia, which is soon developed
on the surface of the fat, by the partial
charring—not of the fat itself, but of the
cellular membrane in which it is enveloped.
This structure may easily be perceived on
a slight examination of a piece of recent
fat; all the membranous or skinny portions
being only the receptacles or nests for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page120">[120]</span>
fat itself. And since these membranes are
for the most part exceedingly thin and
easily ruptured, and since heat increases the
volume of the fat which they contain, the
application of heat in roasting or broiling
will soon make all the membranes burst
which are within its influence, and thus give
a free passage for the juices to unite with
each other.</p>
<p>There is, according to these statements,
but little loss of the substance of meat
when roasted or broiled, and the chemical
changes produced are so slight, that nearly
all its nutritive elements must be preserved
and concentrated in the cooked meat.</p>
<p>When there is a watery medium used,
through which heat is applied to animal
food, as for example, in the process of
stewing or boiling, a portion of the fat,
gelatine, and osmazome, is dissolved, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page121">[121]</span>
mixes with the water. Nutritive matter is
consequently lost, or, at least, it is transferred
from the meat to the broth or soup.</p>
<p>In the operation of <i>stewing</i> there is less
of this transfer made; and, besides, as the
medium is scarcely kept at a boiling heat,
less of the nutritive juices are dissolved.
When, however, the broth or gravy in
which meat is <i>boiled</i> is made use of, as
well as the meat itself, boiling is the most
economical practice; for though nothing
be added except the water, this itself, if it
contains no nourishment, at least fills the
stomach, and serves to diffuse more widely
the nutritive juices of the meat which it
holds in solution or in mixture.</p>
<p>But though boiling be thus the most
economical practice, it is not always
to the taste of individuals, or even of
whole nations to use the broth or soup.<span class="pagenum" id="Page122">[122]</span>
The English and Irish, for example, rarely
follow this practice, while the Scots,
French, and Germans, prefer it to all other
modes of cooking. In general, then, it
should seem, that roasting as it is the simplest,
is also the best mode of rendering
the flesh of animals fit for human food.
Roasted meat is wholesome and highly
nourishing; and when there is not too
much of the empyreumatic crust formed,
it is for the most part easily digested. In
these respects, broiled meat differs little
from such as is roasted. What is fried is
always less tender. It is often found that
roasted or broiled meat sits more easily
on the stomach, and is sooner digested
by those whose digestive organs are feeble
or diseased, than fried or boiled meat, or
broths and stews.</p>
<p>The effects of the processes of cookery<span class="pagenum" id="Page123">[123]</span>
on vegetable substances, though usually
very slight and simple, are in some instances
both striking and unexpected.
For example, some sorts of vegetables are
extremely acrid and even poisonous in their
crude state, and altogether unfit for human
food; yet, by simply boiling them in water,
they become bland, sweet, and wholesome.
Several species of <i>arum</i> (cuckoo-pint),
which are very acrid, and would be dangerous
to use raw, become quite palatable
pot-herbs when boiled. Their acrimony
must reside in a very volatile principle,
which, during the boiling, makes its escape,
or is chemically altered; but the nature of
this principle has not yet been accurately
investigated by chemists. A more familiar
example than this is found in onions, leeks,
and garlick, whose acrimony and strong
odour can be almost destroyed, or rather<span class="pagenum" id="Page124">[124]</span>
driven off by a sufficiently long application
of heat, either directly, or through the
medium of water. Many other instances
could be given, but we shall content
ourselves with one more.</p>
<p>Every body knows that potatoes, in a
raw state, are nauseous and unpalatable.
It is not, perhaps, so generally known that
the potatoe, (<i>solanum tuberosum</i>,) belongs
to the night-shade genus of plants, which
are all more or less poisonous. If potatoes
were used raw, in any quantity, they
would be deleterious to man; nor does it
disprove this that cattle eat them with
impunity, as sheep and goats eat plants
much more strongly poisonous to man,
such as hemlockdropwort, [<i>oenanthe crocata</i>;]
and waterhemlock, [<i>phelandrium
aquaticum</i>].</p>
<p>By boiling or roasting, however, all the<span class="pagenum" id="Page125">[125]</span>
unpalatable and all the unwholesome qualities
of the potatoe are changed, and it becomes
farinaceous, wholesome, digestible,
and highly nutritious. Yet, although this
change is remarkable, and could scarcely
have been anticipated, very little is lost
and nothing is added to the potatoe by
either roasting or boiling, yet its immediate
constituent parts have evidently suffered
a very great chemical alteration,
chiefly, in consequence it should seem, from
the farinaceous substance being acted on
by water.</p>
<p>Vegetables, when used as food, are
most commonly boiled, and seldom baked
or roasted. Salads, indeed, are eaten
raw, without any application of heat. The
chemical action of heat on pot-herbs, on
esculent roots, and leguminous seeds, does
not appear to be confined to the mere softening<span class="pagenum" id="Page126">[126]</span>
of their fibres, or to the solution or
coagulation of some of their juices and
component parts; for we have just now
seen that their flavour, and other sensible
qualities, as well as their texture, suffer a
remarkable chemical change, which greatly
improves their alimentary properties.</p>
<p>In the cooking of vegetables, saccharine
matter is often formed, or mucilage and
jelly extracted; and the whole substance
is on that account rendered more palatable,
wholesome, and nourishing. These effects
are very well exemplified in the changes
which take place in flour when converted
into bread;<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24"
class="fnanchor">[24]</a> which differs materially from<span class="pagenum" id="Page127">[127]</span>
flour paste, insomuch that the constituent
parts of the unbaked dough can no longer
be separated by the processes employed
in chemical analysis.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a>
A treatise on the <i>art</i> of making good and <i>wholesome</i>
bread of wheat, oats, rye, barley, and other
farinaceous grain, exhibiting the alimentary properties
and chemical constitution of different kinds
of bread corn, and of the various substitutes used
for bread, in different parts of the world, p. 58, 1821.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>Vegetable substances are most commonly
boiled or baked; or, if occasionly fried or
roasted, there is always much water present,
which prevents the greater action of
the fire from penetrating below the surface.
The universal effect of cookery by boiling
upon vegetable substances, is to dissolve in
the water some of their constituents, such
as the mucilage and starch, and to render
those that are not properly soluble, as the
gluten and fibre, softer and more pulpy.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page128">[128]</span></p>
<h3>COMPARATIVE DIMINUTION OF THE WEIGHT OF
MEAT IN COOKING.</h3>
<p>It is evident, that whether the heat be
applied directly or indirectly for cooking
animal food, there must be a considerable
diminution of weight. In the cooking of
animal substances in public institutions,
where the allowance of meat is generally
weighed out in its raw state, and includes
bones, and is served out cooked, and sometimes
without bone, it is a matter of importance
to ascertain nearly their relative
proportions. Much, no doubt, depends
upon the piece of the meat cooked, and
the degree of cookery, and the attention
bestowed on it. Persons who salt rounds<span class="pagenum" id="Page129">[129]</span>
of beef to sell by retail, after it is
boiled, get 19 lbs. of cold boiled beef from
25 lbs. raw; but the meat is always rather
underdone.</p>
<p>Messrs. Donkin and Gamble boiled in
steam 56 lbs. of captain’s salt beef; the
meat, when cold, without the bones, which
amounted to 5 lbs. 6 oz. weighed only 35 lbs.</p>
<p>In another experiment, 113 lbs. of prime
mess beef, gave 9 lbs. 10 oz. of bones, and
47 lbs. 8 oz. meat; and in a third, 213 lbs.
mess beef gave 13 lbs. 8 oz. bones, and
103 lbs. 10 oz. meat; or, taken in the aggregate,
372 lbs. of salt beef, including bones,
furnish, when boiled, 186 lbs. 2 oz., without
bone, being about 50 <i>per cent.</i>; or, disregarding
the bone altogether, salt meat
loses, by boiling, about 44.2 per cwt. or
nearly half.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page130">[130]</span></p>
<p>We are indebted to Professor Wallace
(of Edinburgh) for the detail of a very
accurate and extensive experiment in a
public establishment, of which the results
were, that, in pieces of 10 lbs. weight, each
100 lbs. of <span class="smcapall">BEEF</span> lost, on an average, by
<i>boiling</i>, 26.4; <i>baking</i>, 30.2; and <i>roasting</i>,
32.2: <span class="smcapall">MUTTON</span>, the leg, by <i>boiling</i>, 21.4;
by <i>roasting</i> the shoulder, 31.1; the neck,
32.4; the loin, 35.9. Hence, generally
speaking, <i>mutton</i> loses, by boiling, about
one-fifth of its original weight, and <i>beef</i>
about one-fourth; again, <i>mutton</i> and <i>beef</i>
lose, by <i>roasting</i>, about one-third of their
original weight.</p>
<p>The loss arises, in roasting, from the
melting out of the fat and the evaporation
of the watery part of the juices, but the
nutritious matters remain condensed in the
solid meat when cooked; but in boiling,<span class="pagenum" id="Page131">[131]</span>
the loss arises partly from fat melted out,
but chiefly from gelatine and osmazome
becoming dissolved in the water in which
the meat is boiled; there is, therefore, a
real loss of nutritive matter in boiling, unless
the broth be used, when this mode of
cooking becomes the most economical.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page132">[132]</span></p>
<h3>PRIMARY OR CHIEF DISHES OF THE ENGLISH
TABLE.</h3>
<p>The principal or chief dishes that are
prepared for the English table, what the
scientific cooks for the marshals and generals
of France would term <i>dishes of the
first order</i>, are few in number. <i>Flesh</i>,
<i>fowl</i> and <i>fish</i>, roasted, boiled or fried,
accompanied by some simple and easy
made puddings and pies, are the primary
dishes of an English table. Soups and
broths are less generally made use of; and
the flesh, fowl and fish, served up in
made dishes, are, like the lord mayor in
his state coach, generally less noticed than
the attendants.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page133">[133]</span></p>
<h3>BROTH</h3>
<p>May be defined a weak decoction of
meat, slightly seasoned with the addition
of aromatic herbs, roots or spices, in
which the flavour of the meat greatly predominates.</p>
<p>To produce a high flavoured broth, it is
essential that the boiling of the meat be
moderate, and continued for some time;
the simmering should be done in a vessel
nearly closed. Cooks consider it essential
that the broth be clear; the scum, or albumen
of the meat, which becomes coagulated
and rises to the surface during the
boiling, must therefore be removed from
time to time.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page134">[134]</span></p>
<p>The meat employed for broth (and also
for soup and gravy), should be fresh, for
if in the slightest degree tainted or musty,
it infallibly communicates a very disagreeable
taste to the broth; besides, fresh meat
gives a more savoury broth than meat that
has been kept for two or three days. It is
also advisable to score the meat and to cut
it into slices, or to bruise it with a mallet
or cleaver.</p>
<p>Two pounds of muscular beef scored and
cut into slices, affords a stronger and far
more savoury broth, than 3 lbs. of the same
beef when boiled in one piece. Cooks usually
allow for good broth, one pound of
muscular meat, to two quarts of water, and
they suffer the fluid to simmer till reduced,
by evaporation, to one pint, or one pint and
a half. A second decoction may be made
by again covering the meat with a less quantity<span class="pagenum" id="Page135">[135]</span>
of water, and suffering it to boil, taking
care to supply the water from time to time
as it becomes evaporated.</p>
<p>This reminds us of Rabelais, the humorous
vicar of Meudon, who distinguishes,
in his jocose way, two sorts of
broths. (<i>Bouillon de Prime</i>,) prime-broth;
and broth good for hounds; (<i>Bouillon
de levriers</i>,) the meaning of which stands
as follows.<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> The first designates that premature
delibation of broth which the young
monks in the convent used to steal, when
they could, from the kitchen, in their way
to the choir at the hour of “<i>Prime</i>,” a service
which was performed at about seven
or eight in the morning, when the porridge-pot,
with all its ingredients, had been boiling
for the space of one or two hours, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page136">[136]</span>
when the broth, full of eyes swimming
gently on the golden surface, had already
obtained an interesting appearance and taste.
On the contrary, greyhound’s broth, (<i>Bouillon
de levriers</i>,) means that portion of
the porridge which was served to the novices
after an ample <i>presumption</i> in favour
of the <i>Magnates</i> of the monastery. This
was good for nothing, and monks of inferior
ranks were ready to throw it to the dogs.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Tabella Cibaria, p. 23.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>The flavouring ingredients, which are
usually the domestic pot-herbs and indigenous
roots, such as cellery, carrots, &c.
should be added at the end of the process,
to prevent their aromatic substances becoming
dissipated by long simmering.</p>
<p>Dr. Kitchener<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> says, “meat from which
broth has been made, is excellently well<span class="pagenum" id="Page137">[137]</span>
prepared for <i>potting</i>, and is quite as good,
or better than that which has been boiled,
till it is dry.”</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a>
The Cook’s Oracle, p. 103.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<h3>SOUP.</h3>
<p>Soups are decoctions of meat which differ
from broth, in being more concentrated,
and usually also more complex in their composition.
They are in fact strong broths,
containing either farinaceous roots and
seeds, or other parts of vegetable substances.</p>
<p>The erudite editor of the “<i>Almanach
des Gourmands</i>”<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27"
class="fnanchor">[27]</a> tells us, that ten folio
volumes would not contain the receipts of
all the soups that have been invented in
that grand school of good eating, the Parisian
kitchen. The author of <i>Apicius<span class="pagenum" id="Page138">[138]</span>
Redivivus</i><a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>
says “the general fault of our
English soups seems to be the employment
of an excess of spice, and too small
a portion of roots and herbs.” “<i>Point
des Legumes, point de Cuisiniere</i>,” is deservedly
the common adage of the French
kitchen. A better soup may be made
with a couple of pounds of meat, and
plenty of vegetables, than our common
cooks will make with four times that quantity
of meat. The great art of composing
a rich soup consists in so proportioning
the several flavouring ingredients,
that no particular taste predominates.”—One
pound and a half of meat at least ought
to be allowed for making a quart of soup.
The full flavour can only be obtained by long
and slow simmering the meat, during which<span class="pagenum" id="Page139">[139]</span>
time the vessel should be kept covered to
prevent the evaporation of the fluid as much
as possible.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Vol. II. page 30.</p>
<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a>
Or the Cook’s Oracle, 2d edit. Vol. 97.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>The flavouring ingredients should not be
added till ten or fifteen minutes before the
soup is finished. Clear soups should be
perfectly transparent, and thickened soups,
should be of the consistence of cream.</p>
<p>The soup, says a writer, on Cookery,
might be called the portal of the edifice
of a French dinner, either plain or sumptuous.
It is a <i>sine qua non</i> article. It
leads to the several courses constituting
the essence of the repast, and lays the unsophisticated
foundation upon which the
whole is to rest, as upon a solid basis, in
the stomach. It is, perhaps, the most
wholesome food that can be used; and the
gaunt, yet strong frame of the French
soldiery, has long experienced the benefit<span class="pagenum" id="Page140">[140]</span>
of it. They vulgarly say, “<i>C’est la soupe
qui fait le Soldat.</i>” ‘It is the soup that
makes the soldier.’ Partial to this mess, they
have it daily in barracks, in their marches,
and in the camp; and they often swallow a
large bowl of broth and bread, in the
morning a few minutes before the trumpets
calls them to the field of battle.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page141">[141]</span></p>
<h3>PIES</h3>
<p>Are those dishes which consist either of
meat, or of fruit, covered with a farinaceous
crust, enriched with butter or other
fat, and rendered fit for eating by baking.</p>
<p>The crust of the pie is usually made of
two parts by weight of wheaten flour, and
one part of butter, lard, or other fat.</p>
<p>The flour is made into a stiff paste with
cold water, and rolled out on a board with
a paste pin to the thickness of about one
quarter of an inch, the board being previously
sprinkled over with flour to prevent
the dough from sticking to the board.
About one-sixth part of the butter, in
pieces of the size of a nutmeg, is put
over the extended paste, and the whole<span class="pagenum" id="Page142">[142]</span>
again dusted with flour; the paste is then
doubled up and rolled out as before. A
like portion of butter is again distributed
over the paste, which, after being doubled
up, is rolled out, and the same operation
is repeated till the whole quantity of butter
is thus incorporated with the flour.</p>
<p>Part of the paste is then laid, one quarter
or half an inch in thickness, over the
inside of a deep dish in which the pie is to
be baked, and the meat, cut in chops or
slices, is put into the dish, together with the
seasonings, and a portion of water or gravy,
about one tea cup full, to one pound of
meat. The contents of the basin are then
covered with a lid, made of the remainder
of the paste, rolled out rather thicker than
the inside lining of the dish, and the lid is
made to adhere to the inside sheeting, which
should extend over the rim of the dish,<span class="pagenum" id="Page143">[143]</span>
by pressing the top paste close upon the
margin. A few small holes are then made
in the top crust, and the pie is put in the
oven.</p>
<p>The baking should be slow. If the pie
be put into a hot oven, the crust becomes
hard, and many a cook is blamed for
making bad pies, when the fault really lies
with the baker. A light and flaky pie crust
can only be produced by the judicious
application in the manner stated, of the
butter, or fatty matter. By this means the
butter is distributed, in distinct layers,
through the mass of the pie crust. The
flour dusted over each layer prevents the
paste forming one mass, or, as it is called,
becoming heavy. The more frequently,
therefore, the paste is rolled out with butter,
lard, or other fat, interposed between
each layer, provided the layers are dusted<span class="pagenum" id="Page144">[144]</span>
over with flour, the more flaky will be the
pie; and hence, also, by increasing the
quantity of butter, to a certain limit, the
flakeness of the pie crust becomes increased.</p>
<p>Pastry cooks usually allow from ten to
twelve ounces of butter to one pound of
flour for making a light puff paste, such as
they use for tarts and patties.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page145">[145]</span></p>
<h3>PUDDINGS</h3>
<p>Are of two kinds; the first consists of a
farinaceous dough, containing a portion of
butter or other fat, inclosing any kind
of meat or fruit, and rendered eatable by
boiling; it may be termed <i>a boiled pie</i>.</p>
<p>The paste for a meat pudding is usually
made with beef suet, or marrow, one part
of it chopped as fine as possible, and intimately
mixed with four parts by weight of
flour, is made into a paste with water or
milk. With this paste, a pudding mould
or basin, previously rubbed with butter
within, is lined, and the meat is added to
fill up the vacancy. A lid of paste is now
put over the meat, and made to adhere to
the margin of the dish. The whole is then<span class="pagenum" id="Page146">[146]</span>
tied over with a wetted cloth, dusted with
flour to prevent the dough sticking to it,
and then boiled in water till the pudding is
sufficiently cooked.</p>
<p>The other kind of pudding is a batter composed
of eggs, butter and flour, or any other
farinaceous substance, occasionally enriched
with the admixture of fruit, sugar, and
spices, and rendered eatable either by boiling
in the manner stated, or by baking in
an oven.</p>
<h3>MADE DISHES,</h3>
<p>So called to distinguish them from plain,
roasted, boiled, or fried meat; are usually
composed of flesh, fish, poultry, or vegetables,
stewed with gravy, butter, cream,
or other savoury sauces. The composition<span class="pagenum" id="Page147">[147]</span>
of made dishes is generally from
printed or written receipts, except when
done by what are termed professed cooks,
who, understanding completely their business,
follow their own judgment, in aid of
the receipt. There is a mistake very common
in supposing that there is a great difficulty
in cooking such dishes, though there
is indeed much trouble; but if a mistake
is made, it can in general be remedied,
which is not the case in the mere simple
operations of roasting and boiling, where a
mistake is very often irreparable.</p>
<p>When we take a view of the chemical
composition of made dishes, we soon perceive
that they are all compounds of animal
and vegetable substances, rendered sapid
or agreeable to the palate by strong decoctions
of meat, gravy, and spices, of various
descriptions; all of them abound in animal<span class="pagenum" id="Page148">[148]</span>
gelatine and vegetable mucilage, or farinaceous
matter, rendered soluble in water.
The quantity of spices is generally small,
“<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>their presence should be rather supposed
than perceived, they are the invisible spirit
of good cookery.”</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a>
Dr. Kitchiner’s Cook’s Oracle, p. 493.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<h3>OBSERVATIONS ON MADE DISHES.</h3>
<p>Made dishes are sometimes very expensive,
and sometimes very economical, for
ragouts and fricassees are often much less
expensive than the plain dishes made of
the same material, that is, a given weight
of meat will go farther than if plainly
roasted or boiled. French cookery consists
nearly altogether of made dishes, both
with the rich and poor. The rich have
them to gratify the palate, and the poor,<span class="pagenum" id="Page149">[149]</span>
for the sake of economy. Many circumstances
combine to prevent made dishes
from becoming of very general or frequent
use in England. The care, attention, and
length of time necessary for preparing
them, are incompatible with the domestic
affairs and usages of life in this country,
where time is far more precious than in any
other country; it is for that reason, most
probably, that all the operations of English
cookery are such as can be performed
expeditiously.</p>
<p>The English cooks, both in the middling
and lower ranks, are generally in a hurry
to get a dinner dressed. The French cooks,
on the contrary, begin in the morning
early, and even in the house of the simple
<i>Bourgois</i>, the dinner begins to be cooked
immediately after breakfast.</p>
<p>The superior expedition, and inferior degree
of skill which distinguish English from<span class="pagenum" id="Page150">[150]</span>
French cookery, would be sufficient alone
to give the former the preference in this
country; but there are a number of other
circumstances that have the same tendency.</p>
<p>A good table is a study in France: it is
with the master a grand object in life, and
with the cooks a constant employment, like
our journeymen in a manufactory. With
us, again, the dinner is readily prepared,
and expeditiously eaten. It is despatched
like a piece of business in this country;
but in France, and more or less all over
the Continent, people dine as if they had a
pleasure in dining; they converse more
during the repast than almost at any other
time, and they never hurry it over as if
they were in haste to be done, and as if
they had business always on their mind,
and were reflecting on the saying, so
common and so true, that “<i>time is money</i>.”</p>
<p>It is curious enough, however, to remark,<span class="pagenum" id="Page151">[151]</span>
that the French, who sit so long, and enjoy
themselves so leisurely at dinner, rise, immediately
after the dessert, from the table,
and are ready for business; and that the
English, who hurry the dinner over, pass
whole hours over the bottle as if time were
of no value. Such are the inconsistencies
of mankind, arising from different tastes
and different circumstances.</p>
<p>The construction of our kitchen grates
and fire places, and the nature of the fuel
we burn, are unfavourable to the slow and
regular simmering with which made dishes
are prepared; and, at the same time, that
they are unfavourable for made dishes, they
are exactly what is wanted for English cookery.
The construction of the grates, together
with the nature of the fuel, produce
a fierce scorching fire, so that the direct rays
of heat may be made to impinge on the
substance to be cooked.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page152">[152]</span></p>
<p>In France, roasting large joints is almost
impracticable with the form and nature of
the fire; so that it does not appear that
taste or will has been the only guide in the
mode of cooking in either country; but
that the practices most suitable to circumstances
have been a chief cause of the great
difference of the manner of dressing victuals.</p>
<p>English medical men have always been
at great pains to condemn made dishes
as injurious to health; but the French
physicians have been of a different opinion,
and if <i>experientia docet</i> is a true proverb,
they ought to be the best judges: but those
who have been used to both, will allow that
they are less heavy, and the stomach seems
to be less encumbered after the French
dinner on made dishes, than the English
one on single joints.</p>
<p>In made dishes, where butcher’s meat
enters, as although the chief ingredient is<span class="pagenum" id="Page153">[153]</span>
generally <i>much more</i> done, to use the
common phrase, none of its nutritive substances
are lost; but as the arguments
for and against the real things of one or
the other is not to be determined by reason,
and has not been determined by experience,
it would be absurd to give an opinion on
the subject.</p>
<p>It may be well enough, however, to
observe, that the dispute about what are the
most healthy dishes, probably arises from
difference of tastes, and from those things to
which the stomach has not been accustomed,
not agreeing with it at first; so that most
people on finding it so, if they can avoid
doing it, never repeat the experiment.</p>
<p>The case is the same with Foreigners as
with Englishmen, for their stomachs do
not at first find our dishes agree with them.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page154">[154]</span></p>
<h3>GRAVY.</h3>
<p>When the muscular part of meat is gradually
exposed to a very moderate heat,
sufficient to brown the outer fibres, the gelatine,
osmazome, and other animal juices of
it, become disengaged, and separated in a
liquid state, and constitute a fluid of a
brown colour, possessing a highly savoury
and grateful taste. Hence gravy is
the soluble constituent or liquid part of
meat, which, spontaneously, exudes from
flesh, when gradually exposed to a continued
heat sufficient to corrugate the
animal fibre. Flavouring vegetables are
often added, and fried with the meat, such
as sliced onions, carrots or cellery, till they<span class="pagenum" id="Page155">[155]</span>
are tender, together with some spices and
the usual condiments.</p>
<p>To extract gravy, the meat is cut into
thin slices, or it is scored, and the fibres are
bruised with a mallet. It is then usually
seasoned, with pepper and salt, and exposed
in a pan containing a small quantity of
butter, or other fat, (or without any fat,) to
the action of a gradual heat, just sufficient
to brown the outer fibre strongly. The
juices of the meat, which are thus during the
frying process, copiously disengaged, are
suffered to remain exposed to the action of
heat till they have assumed the consistence
of a thin cream, and a brown colour. A small
portion of water is then added to re-dissolve
the extracted mass, and after the whole has
been suffered to simmer with the spices and
roots for a short time, together with an
additional quantity of water, the liquid is<span class="pagenum" id="Page156">[156]</span>
strained off through a sieve. If the gravy be
intended for made dishes, it is customary
to give it the consistence of cream, by means
of <i>thickening paste</i>. (See <a href="#Page160">p. 160</a>.) The
meat is capable of furnishing an additional
quantity of gravy. It is therefore covered
with water and suffered to simmer for
about one hour, or till the fluid is reduced
to one half its bulk.</p>
<p>One pound and a quarter of lean beef,
or one pound and a half of veal, will afford
one pint of strong gravy.</p>
<p>When broth, soups, or gravy, are preserved
from day to day, in hot weather,
they should be warmed up every day, and
put into fresh scalded pans, this renders
them less liable to spoil.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page157">[157]</span></p>
<h3>SAUCES.</h3>
<div class="poem">
<div class="stanza">
<span class="i0">“The fundamental principle of all,<br /></span>
<span class="i0">Is what ingenious cooks, the <i>relish</i> call;<br /></span>
<span class="i0">For when the markets send in loads of food,<br /></span>
<span class="i0">They all are tasteless till that makes them good.”<br /></span>
</div>
<p class="poemcredit"><i>Dr. King’s Art of Cookery.</i></p>
</div><!--poem-->
<p>Sauces are intended to heighten the
taste and give a savoury flavour to a dish,
flesh, fish, fowl, or vegetables.</p>
<p>In England there is little variety in those
kind of relishes, and it was observed by a
foreigner, with a good deal of wit, and a
great deal of truth, “that the English had
a great variety of forms of religion and
no variety in their sauces; whereas, in
France they had uniformity in the former,
and an infinite variety in the latter.”</p>
<p>Melted butter is the grand and chief<span class="pagenum" id="Page158">[158]</span>
basis of most English sauces. Melted
butter and oysters, melted butter and
parsley, melted butter and anchovies, melted
butter and eggs, melted butter and shrimps,
melted butter and lobsters, melted butter
and capers, are nearly all the sauces used in
England. Besides these, the following flavouring
substances are in common use: <i>viz.</i>
mushrooms, onions, spices, sweet herbs,
wine, soy, and the usual condiments, but
melted butter, gravy, or some farinaceous
mucilage, form the basis of all sauces.
These substances combined in different
proportions are quite sufficient to make
an endless variety of picquant sauces, as
pleasant to the palate and stomach, as the
most compound foreign sauces in which
every thing has the same taste, and none its
own taste. The aim of the English cooks, as
far as it regards sauces, appears to be to let<span class="pagenum" id="Page159">[159]</span>
every sauce display a decided character, so
as to taste only of the material from which
it derives its name. <i>Compound sauces</i> are
seldom employed, but in the <i>learned</i> foreign
dishes.</p>
<p>What has been observed, relative to time
used in the article, of <i>made dishes</i>, namely,
that it was in this country too valuable to
be bestowed on eating, or on preparing to
eat, applies also in the case of making
sauces.</p>
<p>Nothing can be made more easily than
the English sauces, but the variety of
French sauces are great, and much skill
and time are necessary for preparing most
of them.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page160">[160]</span></p>
<h3>THICKENING PASTE FOR BROTH, SOUP, GRAVY,
AND MADE DISHES.</h3>
<p>It is customary to thicken some dishes with
a compound of two parts of flour and one of
butter, first made into a paste by heating
slowly the ingredients in a pan, till the mass
acquires a yellow gold colour, the flour and
butter being stirred all the time to prevent
the mass from burning to the bottom of the
pan. The substance thus obtained is called
<i>thickening</i>, or <i>thickening paste</i>, for it is
the basis employed by cooks for thickening
soups, gravies, stews, sauces, and other
dishes. The mass readily combines with
water; a large table spoonful is sufficient
to thicken a quart of meat broth. Besides
this <i>thickening paste</i>, other farinaceous substances<span class="pagenum" id="Page161">[161]</span>
are employed for that purpose, such
as bread raspings, crumbs of stale bread,
biscuit powder, potatoe mucilage, oatmeal,
sago powder, rice powder, &c. A cow-heel,
on account of the vast quantity of
gelatine with which it abounds, is excellently
well calculated for giving <i>body</i> to
soups: the cow-heel, after being cracked,
is boiled with the broth or soup.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page162">[162]</span></p>
<h3>COLOURING FOR BROTH, SOUP, GRAVIES, AND
MADE DISHES.</h3>
<p>The substance employed for colouring
soups, gravies, broths, and other dishes,
requiring a brown colour, is burnt sugar.
This imparts to the dish a fine yellowish
brown tinge, without giving any sensible
flavour to the dish. Eight ounces of powdered
lump sugar, and two or three table
spoonfuls of water, are suffered to boil
gently in an iron pan, till the mass has
assumed a dark brown colour, which takes
place when all the water is evaporated, and
the sugar begins to be partly charred by
the action of the heat. The mass is then
removed from the fire, and about a quarter
of a pint of water is gradually added to<span class="pagenum" id="Page163">[163]</span>
effect a solution. The fluid thus obtained
is of a syrupy consistence, and of a fine
dark brown colour; a small quantity gives
to broth, soup, or gravy, a bright orange
colour, without altering sensibly the flavour
of the dish. Some cooks add to it mushroom
catsup and port wine.</p>
<h3>STOCK FOR MAKING EXTEMPORANEOUS BROTH,
SOUP, OR GRAVY.</h3>
<p>The name of <i>stock</i> is given to meat jelly
produced from a decoction of meat, so
highly concentrated that the fluid, when
cold, exhibits an elastic tremulous consistence.</p>
<p>The meat is slowly boiled in water, with
the customary seasonings, as pot herbs, or
esculent roots, and the decoction skimmed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page164">[164]</span>
and continued to simmer till it is charged
with a sufficient quantity of animal matter
to form a jelly when cold; this degree of
concentration is known by removing, from
time to time, a portion of the fluid, and suffering
it to cool. When the decoction has
been so far concentrated, it is strained off
through a sieve and suffered to repose, that
the insoluble part, if any, may subside.
When this has been effected, the clear fluid is
suffered to cool, which causes the fatty matter
it contains to become collected at the surface,
where it forms a cake or crust, which is
to be removed. The substance underneath
is a tremulous jelly; it is called first
stock, or long broth, (<i>Le grand bouillon</i>
of the French kitchen). If the jelly be not
transparent it is re-melted by a gentle
heat, and clarified by the addition of the
white of eggs added to it, as soon as it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page165">[165]</span>
liquified. This substance becoming coagulated
at the boiling heat, entangles
with it the parts mechanically diffused
through the jelly, and rises to the top
as a dense scum. It may then be removed
by a skimmer. The name of <i>second-stock</i>
(<i>Jus de bœuf</i> of the French) is given
to a more concentrate jelly of meat made
in a similar manner. It is chiefly employed
as the basis of all savoury made
dishes and rich sauces, whilst the former
serves for making extemporaneous soups.
<i>Second stock</i> is usually prepared in the
following manner:—Put into a stew-pan
about half a pound of lean bacon or ham, a
few carrots and onions, two or three cloves,
about six or eight pounds of lean beef,
and a shin of beef of about the same weight,
break the bone, and having scored the
meat, suffer it to simmer over a very gentle<span class="pagenum" id="Page166">[166]</span>
fire, with about two quarts of <i>first stock</i>,
or better put it into an oven, and suffer it
to stew, till the liquid assumes a light brown
colour. When this has taken place, add to
the mass six quarts of boiling water, suffer
it to boil up gently, and remove the scum
as it rises; and suffer it to evaporate till
reduced to about three quarts, then strain
it through a sieve, and clarify it as before
directed.</p>
<h3>OBSERVATIONS ON THE CHOICE OF MEAT.</h3>
<p>The flesh of animals which are suddenly
killed when in high health, so far as the
palate is concerned, is not yet fit for the
table, although fully nutritious and in perfection
for making soup; because sometime
after the death, the muscular parts suffer<span class="pagenum" id="Page167">[167]</span>
contraction—their fibres become rigid.
When this has taken place, the flesh is not
long in experiencing the commencement
of those chemical changes which terminate
in putrefaction; and it is of the utmost
importance, in domestic economy, to take
care that all large joints of meat be in this
intermediate state when they are cooked:
for no skill in the culinary art will compensate
for negligence in this point, as every
one must have often experienced to his
great disappointment.</p>
<p>The degree of inteneration may be known
by the flesh yielding readily to the pressure
of the finger, and by its opposing little resistance
to an attempt to bend the joint.
Poultry also thus part readily with their
feathers; and it would be advisable to
leave a few when the bird is plucked, in
order to assist in determining their state.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page168">[168]</span></p>
<p>The following wholesome advice on this
subject we copy from Doctor Kitchiner:<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a
href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>—“<i>When
you order meat, poultry, or fish,
tell the tradesman when you intend to dress
it</i>, and he will then have it in his power to
serve you with provision that will do him
credit, which the finest meat, &c. in the
world, will never do, unless it has been
kept a proper time to be ripe and tender.
If you have a well-ventilated larder, in a
shady, dry situation, you may make still
surer, by ordering in your meat and poultry,
such a time before you want it as will
render it tender, which the finest meat
cannot be, unless hung a proper time, according
to the season and nature of the
meat, &c. but always till it has made some
very slight advance towards putrefaction.”</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> The Cook’s Oracle.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page169">[169]</span></p>
<h4 class="inline"><i>Ox-beef</i></h4>
<p class="hinline nospace">—when of a young animal, has
a shining oily smoothness, a fine open
grain, and dark florid red colour. The fat
is splendish yellowish white. If the animal
has been fed upon oil cakes, the fat has a
golden yellow colour.</p>
<h4 class="inline"><i>Cow-Beef</i></h4>
<p class="hinline nospace">—is closer in the grain than ox-beef,
but the muscular parts are not of so
bright a red colour. In old meat there is a
streak of cartilage or bone in the ribs, called
by butchers, <i>the crush-bone</i>; the harder this
is, the older has been the animal.</p>
<h4 class="inline"><i>Veal.</i></h4>
<p class="hinline nospace">—The flesh of a bull calf is firmer,
but not in general so white as that of a cow
calf. Exposures to the air for some time
reddens the colour of the flesh. Veal is best
of which the kidney is well covered with
thick white hard fat.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page170">[170]</span></p>
<h4 class="inline"><i>Mutton.</i></h4>
<p class="hinline nospace">—A <i>wether</i>, five years old, affords
the most delicate meat. The grain of the
meat should be fine, and the fat white and
firm. The leg of a <i>wether mutton</i> is known
by a round lump of fat on the insides of the
thigh, the leg of an <i>ewe</i> by the udder.</p>
<h4 class="inline"><i>Lamb.</i></h4>
<p class="hinline nospace">—The flesh of fine lamb looks of
a delicate pale red colour; the fat is
splendid white, but it does not possess a
great solidity. <i>Grass Lamb</i> is in season
from Easter to Michaelmas. <i>House Lamb</i>
from Christmas to Lady-day.</p>
<h4 class="inline"><i>Pork.</i></h4>
<p class="hinline nospace">—This species of meat of the best
fed animals is particularly fine grained, and
may be bruised by forcibly pressing it between
the fingers. The skin of the young
animal is thin; the flesh of old pigs is
hard and tough, and the skin very thick.
The prime season for pork is from Michaelmas
to March. The western pigs, chiefly<span class="pagenum" id="Page171">[171]</span>
those of Berks, Oxford, and Bucks, possess
a decided superiority over the eastern of
Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk.</p>
<h4 class="inline"><i>Hare.</i></h4>
<p class="hinline nospace">—To ascertain its age, examine
the first joint of the fore foot; you will find
a small knob, if it is a <i>leveret</i>, which disappears
as the hare grows older; then examine
the ears; if they tear easily, the animal
is young. When newly killed, the body
is stiff; as it grows stale, it becomes
flaccid.</p>
<h4 class="inline"><i>Venison</i></h4>
<p class="hinline nospace">—is of a darker colour than mutton.
If the fat be clear, bright and thick, and
the cleft of the hoof smooth and close, it is
young, but if the cleft is wide and tough,
it is old. By pushing a skewer or knife
under the bone which sticks out of a haunch
or shoulder, the odour of the skewer will
tell whether the meat be fresh or tainted.
Venison is best flavoured in the month of<span class="pagenum" id="Page172">[172]</span>
August, the animal should not be killed till
he is about four years old.</p>
<h4 class="inline"><i>Fowls</i></h4>
<p class="hinline nospace">—for boiling should be chosen as
white as possible, those which have black
legs had better be roasted. The season of
perfection in poultry is just before they
have quite come to their full growth.
Chickens three months old are very delicate.
Age makes a striking difference in the
flesh of fowls, since after the age of twelve
months it becomes tougher. The cock
indeed, at that age, is only used for making
soup.</p>
<h4 class="inline"><i>Pigeons</i></h4>
<p class="hinline nospace">—are in their greatest perfection
in September, there is then the most
plentiful and best food for them; their
finest growth is just when they are full
feathered. When they are in the pen-feathers,
they are flabby; when they are
full grown, and have flown some time, they
are hard.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page173">[173]</span></p>
<h4 class="inline"><i>Pheasants</i></h4>
<p class="hinline nospace">—may be distinguished by the
<i>length</i> and <i>sharpness</i> of their <i>spurs</i>, which
in the younger ones are <i>short</i> and <i>blunt</i>.</p>
<h4 class="inline"><i>Partridges</i></h4>
<p class="hinline nospace">—if old are always to be known
during the early part of the season, by their
legs being of a pale blue, instead of a
yellowish brown colour: “so that when a
Londoner receives his brace of blue legged
birds in September, he should immediately
snap their legs and draw out the sinews, by
means of pulling off the feet, instead of
leaving them to torment him, like so many
strings, when he would be wishing to enjoy
his repast.” This remedy to make the legs
tender, removes the objection to old birds,
provided the weather will admit of their
being sufficiently long kept. If birds are
overkept, their eyes will be much sunk,
and the trail becomes soft, and somewhat
discoloured. The first place to ascertain<span class="pagenum" id="Page174">[174]</span>
if they are beginning to be tainted, is the
inside of the bill.</p>
<h4 class="inline"><i>Fish</i>, and <i>Crimping of Fish</i>.</h4>
<p class="hinline nospace">—Both sea
and river fish cannot be eaten too fresh.
The gills should be of a fine red colour,
the eyes glistening, the scales brilliant,
and the whole fish should feel stiff and firm,
if soft or flabby the fish is old.</p>
<p>To improve the quality of fish, they are
sometimes subject to the process called
<i>crimping</i>. The operation has been examined
by Mr. Carlisle, to whom we are indebted
for the following particulars:</p>
<p>“Whenever the rigid contractions of
death have not taken place, this process
may be practised with success. The sea
fish destined for crimping, are usually
struck on the head when caught, which it
is said protracts the term of the contractibility
and the muscles which retain the property
longest are those about the head. Many<span class="pagenum" id="Page175">[175]</span>
transverse sections of the muscles being
made, and the fish immersed in cold water,
the contractions called crimping takes place
in about five minutes, but if the mass be
large, it often requires 30 minutes to complete
the process. The crimping of fresh
water fish is said to require hard water,
and the London fishmongers usually employ
it.”</p>
<p>Mr. Carlisle found, that by crimping,
the muscles subjected to the process
have both their absolute weight, and their
specific gravity increased, so that it appears,
that water is absorbed and condensation
takes place. It was also observed that
the effect was greater in proportion to the
vivaciousness of the fish.</p>
<p>From these observations, it appears, that
the object of crimping is first to retard the
natural stiffening of the muscles, and then
by the sudden application of cold water, to<span class="pagenum" id="Page176">[176]</span>
excite it in the greatest possible degree,
by which means the flesh both acquires the
desired firmness and keeps longer.</p>
<h3>ON KEEPING OF MEAT, AND BEST CONSTRUCTION
OF LARDERS, PANTRIES AND MEAT SAFES.</h3>
<p>Larders, pantries and safes, for keeping
meat, should be sheltered from the direct
rays of the sun, and otherwise guarded
against the influence of warmth. All
places where provisions are kept should be
so constructed that a brisk current of cool
air can be made to pass through them at
command. With this view it would be
advisable to have openings on all sides
of larders, or meat safes, which might be
closed or opened according to the way
from which the wind blows, the time of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page177">[177]</span>
day, or season of the year; they should
be kept, too, with the greatest attention to
cleanliness. It will be better also if the
sides or walls of meat safes are occasionally
scoured with soap, or soap and slacked
quicklime.</p>
<p>Warm weather is the worst for keeping
meat; the south wind has long been noted
as being hostile to keeping provisions.
Juvenal, in his 4th Satire, says:</p>
<div class="poem">
<div class="stanza">
<span class="i0">“Now sickly autumn to dry frost give way,<br /></span>
<span class="i0">Cold winter rag’d and fresh preserved the prey;<br /></span>
<span class="i0">Yet with such haste the busy fisher flew,<br /></span>
<span class="i0">As if hot south-wind corruption blew.”<br /></span>
</div><!--stanza-->
</div><!--poem-->
<p>A joint of meat may be preserved for several
days in the midst of summer by wrapping
it in a clean linen cloth, previously moistened
with strong vinegar, and sprinkled
over with salt, and then placing it in an<span class="pagenum" id="Page178">[178]</span>
earthenware pan, or hanging it up, and
changing the cloth, or ringing it out a-fresh,
and again steeping it in vinegar once a day,
if the weather be very hot.</p>
<p>The best meat for keeping is <i>mutton</i>,
and the leg keeps best, and may with care,
if the temperature be only moderate, be
preserved without becoming tainted for
about a week; during frost a leg of mutton
will keep a fortnight.</p>
<p>A shoulder of <i>mutton</i> is next to the leg
the joint best calculated for keeping in
warm weather.</p>
<p>The scrag end of a neck is very liable
to become tainted; it cannot be kept with
safety during hot weather for more than
two days.</p>
<p>The kernels, or glands, in the thick part
of the leg should be dissected out, because
the mucous matter in which they abound<span class="pagenum" id="Page179">[179]</span>
speedily becomes putrid, and then tends very
much to infect the adjoining part.</p>
<p>The chine and rib-bones should be wiped,
and sprinkled over with salt and pepper,
and the bloody part of the neck should be
removed. In the brisket, the commencement
of the putrefactive process takes place
in the breast, and if this part is to be kept,
it is advisable to guard against it becoming
tainted, by sprinkling a little salt and
pepper over it: the vein, or pipe near the
bone of the inside of a chine of mutton
should be cut out, and if the meat is to be
kept for some time, the part close round
the tail should be sprinkled with salt, after
having first cut out the gland or kernel.</p>
<p>In <i>beef</i> the ribs are less liable to become
tainted than any other joint; they may be
kept in a cool pantry in the summer months
for six days, and ten days in winter.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page180">[180]</span></p>
<p>The round of beef will not keep long,
unless sprinkled over with salt. All the
glands or kernels which it contains should
be dissected out.</p>
<p>The brisket is still more liable to become
tainted by keeping, it cannot be kept
sweet with safety more than three days in
summer, and about a week in winter.</p>
<p><i>Lamb</i> is the next in order for keeping,
though it is considered best to eat it soon,
or even the day after it is killed. If it is
not very young the leg will keep four or
five days, with care, in a cool place in summer.</p>
<p><i>Veal</i> and <i>Pork</i>—a leg will keep very well
in summer for three or four days, and a
week in winter:—but the scrag end of veal
or pork will not keep well above a day in
summer, and two or three days in winter.</p>
<p>The part that becomes tainted first of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page181">[181]</span>
leg of veal is where the udder is skewered
back. The skewer should be taken out,
and both that and the part beneath it wiped
dry every day, by which means it will keep
good three or four days in warm weather.
The vein or <i>pipe</i> that runs along the chine
of a loin of veal should be cut out, as is
usually done in mutton and beef. The skirt of
a breast of veal should likewise be taken off,
and the inside of the breast wiped, scraped,
and sprinkled with salt.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page182">[182]</span></p>
<h3>PRESERVATION OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES IN A
RECENT STATE.</h3>
<p>As the supply of food is always subject
to irregularities, the preservation of the
excess, obtained at one time, to meet the
deficiency of another, would soon engage
the attention of mankind. At first this
method would be simple and natural, and
derived from a very limited observation,
but in the progress of society, the wants
and occupations of mankind would lead
them to invent means, by which the more
perishable alimentary substances of one season,
might be reserved for the consumption
of another, or the superfluous productions
of distant countries might be transported
to others where they are more needed.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page183">[183]</span></p>
<h3>PICKLING AND DRY SALTING OF MEAT.</h3>
<p>Common salt is advantageously employed
as an antiseptic, to preserve aliments
from spontaneous decomposition, and particularly
to prevent the putrefaction of
animal food. In general, however, the
large quantity of salt which is necessarily
employed in this way, deteriorates the
alimentary properties of the meat, and the
longer it has been preserved, the less wholesome
and digestible does it become.</p>
<p>Meat, however, which has not been too
long preserved, simply pickled, or <i>corned</i>
meat as it is called, is but little injured or
decomposed, it is still succulent and tender,
easily digested, nourishing and wholesome
enough.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page184">[184]</span></p>
<p>The property of salt to preserve animal
substances from putrefaction is of the most
essential importance to the empire in general,
and to the remote grazing districts in
particular. It enables the latter to dispose
of their live stock, and distant navigation
is wholly dependant upon it. All kinds of
animal substances may be preserved by
salt, but beef and pork are the only staple
articles of this kind. In general, the pieces
of the animal best fitted for being salted
are those which contain fewest large
blood vessels, and are most solid. Some
recommend all the glands to be cut out,
they say, that without this precaution meat
cannot be preserved; but this is a mistake,
a dry salter of eminence, informs me, that
it is not essential, provided the glands or
kernels are properly covered with salt.</p>
<p>The salting may be performed either by<span class="pagenum" id="Page185">[185]</span>
dry rubbing, or better by immersing the
meat in a salt pickle. Cured in the former
way the meat will keep longer, but it is
more altered in its valuable properties; in
the latter way it is more delicate and
nutritious. Eight pounds of salt, one pound
of sugar, and four ounces of saltpetre,
boiled for a few minutes with four gallons of
water, skimmed and allowed to cool, forms
a strong pickle, which will preserve meat
completely immersed in it. To effect this,
which is essential, either a heavy board, or
flat stone, must be laid upon the meat. The
same pickle may be used repeatedly, provided
it be boiled up occasionally with
additional salt to restore its strength,
diminished by the combination of part of the
salt with the meat, and by the dilution of
the pickle by the juices of the meat
extracted. By boiling, the albumen, which
would cause the pickle to spoil, is coagulated,<span class="pagenum" id="Page186">[186]</span>
and rises in the form of scum, which
must be carefully removed.</p>
<p>Beef and pork, although properly salted
with salt alone, acquire a green colour;
but if an ounce of saltpetre be added
to each five pounds of salt employed,
the muscular fibre acquires a fine red
tinge; but this improvement in appearance
is more than compensated by its
becoming harder and harsher to the taste;
to correct which, a proportion of sugar or
molasses is often added. But the red colour
may be given if desired, without hardening
the meat, by the addition of a little cochineal.</p>
<p>Meat kept immersed in pickle rather
gains weight. In one experiment by
Messrs. Donkin and Gamble, there was a
gain of three per cent. and in another of two
and a half; but in the common way of
salting, when the meat is not immersed in<span class="pagenum" id="Page187">[187]</span>
pickle there is a loss of about one pound,
or one and a half in sixteen.</p>
<p>Dry salting is performed by rubbing the
surface of the meat all over with salt; and
it is generally believed that the process of
salting is promoted if the salt be rubbed in
with a heavy hand. However this may be,
it is almost certain that very little salt
penetrates, except through the cut surfaces,
to which it should therefore be chiefly
applied; and all holes, whether natural or
artificial, should be particularly attended
to. For each twenty-five pounds of meat,
about two pounds of coarse grained salt
should be allowed, and the whole, previously
heated, rubbed in at once. When laid in
the pickling tub, a brine is soon formed by
the salt dissolved in the juice of the meat
which it extracts, and with this the meat
should be wetted every day, and a different<span class="pagenum" id="Page188">[188]</span>
side turned down. In ten or twelve
days it will be sufficiently cured.</p>
<p>For domestic use the meat should not be
salted as soon as it comes from the market,
but kept until its fibre has become short
and tender, as these changes do not take
place after it has been acted upon by the
salt. But in the provision trade, “the expedition
with which the animals are
slaughtered, the meat cut up and salted,
and afterwards packed, is astonishing.”<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a
href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a>
Wakefield’s Ireland, vol. I. p. 750.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>By salting the meat while still warm, and
before the fluids are coagulated, the salt
penetrates immediately, by means of the
vessels, through the whole substance of the
meat; and hence meat is admirably cured
at Tunis, even in the hottest season, so
that Mr. Jackson, in his <i>Reflections on the
Trade in the Mediterranean</i>, recommends<span class="pagenum" id="Page189">[189]</span>
ships being supplied there with their provisions.</p>
<p>The following mixture of condiments is
exceedingly well calculated for dry salting.</p>
<p>Take a pound of black pepper, a quarter
of a pound of Cayenne pepper, and
a pound of saltpetre, all ground very fine;
mix these three well together, and blend
them alternately with about three <i>quarts</i>
of very fine salt: this mixture is sufficient
for eight hundred weight of beef. As
the pieces are brought from the person
cutting up, first sprinkle the pieces with
the spice, and introduce a little into all the
thickest parts; if it cannot be done otherwise,
make a small incision with a knife.
The first salter, after rubbing salt and spice
well into the meat, should take and mould
the piece, the same as washing a shirt upon
a board; this may be very easily done, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page190">[190]</span>
the meat being lately killed, is soft and
pliable; this moulding opens the grain of
the meat, which will make it imbibe the
spice and salt much quicker than the common
method of salting. The first salter
hands his piece over to the second salter,
who moulds and rubs the salt well into the
meat, and if he observes occasion, introduces
the spice; when the second salter
has finished his piece, he folds it up as close
as possible, and hands it to the packer at
the <i>harness</i> or salting tubs, who must be
stationed near him: the packer must be careful
to pack his <i>harness</i> tubs as close as
possible.</p>
<p>All the work must be carried on in the
shade, but where there is a strong current
of air, the <i>harness</i> tubs in particular; this
being a very material point in curing the
meat in a hot climate. Meat may be cured
in this manner with the greatest safety,<span class="pagenum" id="Page191">[191]</span>
when the thermometer, in the shade, is at
110°, the extreme heat assisting the
curing.</p>
<p>A good sized bullock, of six or seven
hundred weight, may be killed and salted
within the hour.</p>
<p>The person who attends with the spice
near the first salter, has the greatest trust
imposed upon him; besides the spice, he
should be well satisfied that the piece is
sufficiently salted, before he permits the
first salter to hand the piece over to the
second salter.</p>
<p>All the salt should be very fine, and the
packer, besides sprinkling the bottom of
his <i>harness</i> tubs, should be careful to put
plenty of salt between each tier of meat,
which is very soon turned into the finest
pickle. The pickle will nearly cover the
meat, as fast as the packer can stow it
away. It is always a good sign that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page192">[192]</span>
meat is very safe when the packer begins
to complain that his hands are aching with
cold.</p>
<p>By this method there is no doubt but
that the meat is perfectly cured in three
hours from the time of killing the bullock:
the saltpetre in a very little time strikes
through the meat; however, it is always
better to let it lie in the <i>harness</i> tubs till
the following morning, when it will have
an exceeding pleasant smell on opening the
<i>harness</i> tubs; then take it out and pack it
in tight barrels, with its own pickle.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page193">[193]</span></p>
<h3>METHOD OF PREPARING BACON, HAMS, AND
HUNG BEEF.</h3>
<p>Meat, when salted, is sometimes dried,
when it gets the name of bacon, ham, or
hung beef.</p>
<p>The drying of salt meat is effected either
by hanging it in a dry and well-aired
place, or by exposing it at the same time
to wood smoke, which gives it a peculiar
flavour, much admired in Westphalia hams
and Hamburgh beef, and also tends to
preserve it, by the antiseptic action of the
pyrolignic acid. When meat is to be hung,
it need not be so highly salted.</p>
<p>The method of preparing bacon is peculiar
to certain districts. The following
is the method of making bacon in Hampshire
and <span class="nowrap">Somersetshire:—</span></p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page194">[194]</span></p>
<p>The season for killing hogs for bacon is
between October and March. The articles
to be salted are sprinkled over with bay-salt,
and put for twenty-four hours in the salting
trough, to allow the adhering blood to
drain away. After this they take them
out, wipe them very dry, and throw away
the draining. They then take some fresh
bay-salt, and heating it well in a frying-pan,
rub the meat very well with it, repeating
this every day for four days, turning the
sides every other day.</p>
<p>If the hog be very large, they keep the
sides in brine, turning them occasionally
for three weeks; after which they take
them out, and let them be thoroughly dried
in the usual manner.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page195">[195]</span></p>
<h3>SMOKE-DRYING, OR CURING OF BACON, HAMS,
AND BEEF, AS PRACTISED IN WESTPHALIA.</h3>
<p>The custom of fumigating hams with
wood smoke is of a very ancient date, it
was well known to the Romans, and Horace
mentions it.<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
<div class="poem">
<div class="stanza">
<span class="i0">“<i>Fumosæ cum pede pernæ.</i>”<br /></span>
</div><!--stanza-->
</div><!--poem-->
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Sat. II. 2-117.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>Several places on the Continent are
famous for the delicacy and flavour of their
hams; Westphalia, however, is at the head
of the list.</p>
<p>The method of curing bacon and hams
in Westphalia (in Germany) is as follows:
Families that kill one or more hogs a year,
which is a common practice in private
houses, have a closet in the garret, joining
to the chimney, made tight, to retain smoke,<span class="pagenum" id="Page196">[196]</span>
in which they hang their hams and bacon
to dry; and out of the effect of the fire,
that they may be gradually dried by the
wood smoke, and not by heat.</p>
<p>The smoke of the fuel is conveyed into
the closet by a hole in the chimney, near
the floor, and a place is made for an iron
stopper to be thrust into the funnel of
the chimney, to force the smoke through
the hole into the closet. The smoke is
carried off again by another hole in the
funnel of the chimney, above the said
stopper, almost at the ceiling, where it
escapes. The upper hole must not be
too big, because the closet must be always
full of smoke, and that from wood fires.
Or the bacon and hams are simply placed
in the vicinity of an open fire-place, where
wood is burned, so as to be exposed to the
smoke of the wood.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page197">[197]</span></p>
<h3>METHOD OF CURING HAMS, BEEF, AND FISH, BY
MEANS OF PYRO-LIGNEOUS ACID.</h3>
<p>The following account of the preservative
quality of pyro-ligneous<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> acid, exhibited
in a memoir by Dr. Wilkinson to the Bath
Society, is highly <span class="nowrap">important:—</span></p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a>
Philosophical Magazine, 1821, No. 273, p. 12.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>“Mr. Sockett having directed his attention
to the smoking of hams with wood
smoke, either in a building erected for that
purpose, or in a chimney where wood alone
is burned, in addition to its considerable
increase of flavour, he considered it more
effectually preserved from putrefaction by
being, what is commonly called, smoke-dried.
Mr. Sockett having ascertained
by experiments, that meat thus cured required
less salt, he was induced to suppose<span class="pagenum" id="Page198">[198]</span>
some antiseptic quality in the same, and not
attributable to the mere application of heat.
A neighbouring manufactory of pyro-ligneous
acid afforded him an opportunity
of trying a variety of experiments, which
convinced him of the correctness of the
supposition of the antiseptic quality of
wood smoke, as the same effects as to
flavour and preservation were produced
in a superior degree without the aid of any
increase of temperature, which, by drying,
diminishes the nutritious quality of meat
thus exposed.”</p>
<p>“Mr. Sockett ascertained, that if a ham
had the reduced quantity of salt usually
employed for smoke-dried hams, and was
then exposed to smoke, putrefaction soon
took place when pyro-ligneous acid was not
used; even one half this reduced portion
of salt is sufficient when it is used, being<span class="pagenum" id="Page199">[199]</span>
applied cold, and the ham is thus effectually
cured without any loss of weight, and retaining
more animal juices.”</p>
<p>“The mode adopted was by adding
about two table-spoonfuls of pyro-ligneous
acid to the pickle for a ham of 10
or 12 lbs.; and when taken out of the
pickle, previous to being hung up, painted
over with the acid, by means of a brush.
In many instances, Mr. Sockett has succeeded
by brushing the ham over with the
acid, without adding any to the pickle.
The same mode answers equally well with
tongues, requiring a little more acid, on
account of the thickness and hardness of
the integuments.”</p>
<p>“Upon dried salmon it answers admirably;
brushing it over once or twice had a better
effect than two months smoking in the
usual way, and without the same loss from<span class="pagenum" id="Page200">[200]</span>
rancidity. From the result of a few experiments
on herrings, he is persuaded that
this mode of curing might be most advantageously
introduced in our fisheries, so
that herrings might be cured here superior
to those imported from Holland.”</p>
<p>“These experiments so satisfactorily demonstrating
the antiseptic qualities of this
acid, where only small portions of salt
were employed, Mr. Sockett was then induced
to try the results of the application
of this acid when no salt was employed:
he placed some beef steaks upon a plate,
and covered the bottom with the acid, the
steaks being daily turned; and at the time
of recording the experiment, he noticed
that they kept above six weeks without the
least tendency to putrefaction: this experiment
was made in the middle of July 1815.”</p>
<p>“Not only Mr. Sockett, but many families<span class="pagenum" id="Page201">[201]</span>
in Swansea, and its vicinity, practise, with
the greatest success, this mode of curing
hams, tongues, beef, fish, &c.”</p>
<p>“This acid is very easily and cheaply prepared:
the first distilled product of the
wood, in that state denominated black acid,
answers the best when separated from its
tar and naphtha. More than 70 gallons of
acid, sufficiently strong, are procured from
a ton of wood; a gallon is quite sufficient
for 2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> cwt. of pork, beef, and most animal
substances, with the addition of a comparatively
small portion of salt, not only affording
a considerable saving in this article, but
also materially contributing to the increase
of flavour and nutritive quality. Hams or
beef cured this way require no previous
soaking in water to being boiled, and when
boiled swell in size and are extremely succulent.”</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page202">[202]</span></p>
<p>“Herrings Mr. Sockett cures with very
little salt. Being well dried, as early after
being caught as can be effected, they are
then dipped into a vat of the acid, and when
dry, the same process repeated a few times,
suspending them like the manufacture of
candles. Mr. Sockett entertains no doubt,
from the result of his experiments with
herrings, that the same process would
answer for other kinds of fish, as salmon,
cod, &c.; and hence, when cooked, may
be salted according to each individual’s
taste.”</p>
<p>“I presume this acid would be found very
useful on board any vessel fitted out for
long voyages; it appears from calculations
on a small scale, that one hogshead of this
acid would suffice to cure six tons of fish,
in such a manner as to retain their nutritious
quality; and they could be cured on<span class="pagenum" id="Page203">[203]</span>
board when opportunities occurred of procuring
them, independent of its being an
excellent substitute for common vinegar
in many culinary purposes on board.”</p>
<p>“Mr. Sockett recommends that fish, as
soon as practicable after taken, should be
a little rubbed with salt, and laid upon a
sloping board to drain, and when dry, to
be dipped in the acid as before stated.”</p>
<p>“One great advantage attending this mode
of curing hams or beef is, that when hung
up they are never attacked by the flies.”</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page204">[204]</span></p>
<h3>PICKLING OF FISH.</h3>
<p>Fish may be preserved either by dry
salting or in a liquid pickle. The former
method is employed to a great extent on
the banks of Newfoundland, and in Shetland.
When a liquid pickle is used, the
fish, as fresh as possible, are to be gutted,
or not, and without delay plunged into the
brine in quantity so as nearly to fill the
reservoir, and after remaining <i>covered</i> with
the pickle five or six days, they will be
so completely impregnated with salt as to
be perfectly fit to be re-packed in barrels,
with large-grained solid salt, for the hottest
climates and longest voyages.</p>
<p>The brine becomes frequently somewhat
weaker at the top; to remedy this, some
of the salt may be suspended in bags or<span class="pagenum" id="Page205">[205]</span>
otherwise, just under the surface, which
will saturate whatever moisture may exude
from the fish, and thus the whole of the
brine will continue fully saturated and of
the most strength.</p>
<p>Such brine, although repeatedly used,
will not putrify, nor the fish, if kept under
the surface, become rancid.</p>
<p>By this process great quantities of herrings
may be salted when salt or casks
are not on the spot, and the fish may remain
for a great length of time immersed
in this brine without the least injury.</p>
<p>From Mr. London’s statement, it appears
that the brine ought always to contain
a redundancy of salt; and in such case
there is not the least danger of the fish
putrifying or growing rancid, as the extra
lumps of solid salt in the brine immediately
act upon any watery or other liquors which<span class="pagenum" id="Page206">[206]</span>
proceed from the fish when inclosed in the
cask.</p>
<p>For judging of the relative strength of
different solutions of common salt, Mr.
London recommends a glass bottle, with a
ground-glass stopper, to be filled with
brine made from a solution of solid salt in
water; within this bottle are three glass
bubbles, of different specific gravities, so
graduated, that supposing the temperature
of the air to be at sixty degrees of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer, and only one bubble
floats on the surface, and that it indicates
the specific gravity of the brine to be 1.155,
containing about 20 parts salt, and 80 of
water, which is insufficient to cure animal
matters with certainty by immersion in it.</p>
<p>When the second bubble floats, it indicates
the specific gravity of the brine to be
1.180, or about 24 parts salt, and 76 parts<span class="pagenum" id="Page207">[207]</span>
water, which may be used for the purpose
of immersion.</p>
<p>This brine will fully answer the purpose
in the hottest weather in most climates,
provided the meat or fish is always completely
covered with the brine.</p>
<h3>PICKLED MACKEREL.</h3>
<p>After splitting the fish, and having taken
off their heads and part of the skin of the
belly, let them be laid in brine about three
or four hours; then put them in jars with
the following pickle:—two pounds common
salt, two ounces saltpetre, one ounce of
sugar, half ounce white pepper, one drachm
corriander seed, pounded all well together;
sprinkle with this mixture the bottom of
the jar; then put on a layer of mackerel,
with the back downwards; then a layer<span class="pagenum" id="Page208">[208]</span>
of the spices, and then another of mackerel,
alternately, till the jar is full; press them
down, and cover them close. In six months
they will be ready for use.</p>
<h3>PICKLED SALMON.</h3>
<p>Split the fish down the middle, and divide
each half into six pieces. Make a brine of
salt sufficient in quantity to cover the fish
when placed in a saucepan. Season with
bruised pepper, mace, and allspice, and
simmer the whole till the fish is done,
taking care not to boil the fish more than
is barely sufficient. Then take out the
pieces to cool, and put them into a jar.
Strain off the spice from the liquor in which
the fish was boiled, and add to it a like
quantity, by measure, of vinegar, and pour
it over the fish. When cold, tie it over<span class="pagenum" id="Page209">[209]</span>
with paper, and keep the fish submersed
under the liquor, by placing a weight on it.</p>
<h3>COLLARED EELS.</h3>
<p>Skin and bone the eels; season them
with mace, chopped eschalots, pepper, salt
and pimento. Roll up the whole, and tie
it firmly with tape; put it in a stew-pan
with a pint of veal <i>stock</i>, half pint of white
wine, and half as much vinegar; and let
them simmer till done. Then put them
into a dish; skim off the fat, and season
with salt. Clear the liquor by simmering
it a few minutes, with the white of two
eggs, and pass it through a cloth: after
which boil it till it becomes a thick jelly
when cold. Then take the tape from the
eels, and pour the liquid transparent jelly
over the fish.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page210">[210]</span></p>
<h3>BEST METHOD OF PRESERVING ALL KINDS OF
COOKED BUTCHER’S MEAT, FISH, OR POULTRY.</h3>
<p>Of all the methods of preserving animal
substances for domestic purposes, or sea
store, the process found out by Mr. Appert,
and pursued in this metropolis upon a large
scale by Messrs. Donkin and Gamble, is
unquestionably the best. It is as follows:</p>
<p>Let the substance to be preserved be
first par-boiled, or rather somewhat more,
the bones of the meat being previously removed.
Put the meat into a tin cylinder,
fill up the vessel with the broth, and then
solder on the lid, furnished with a small
hole. When this has been done, let the
tin vessel, thus prepared, be placed in
water and heated to the boiling point to<span class="pagenum" id="Page211">[211]</span>
complete the remainder of the cooking of
the meat. The hole in the lid is now
closed perfectly, by soldering, whilst the
air is rushing out.</p>
<p>The vessel is then allowed to cool, and
from the diminution of volume in the contents,
in consequence of the reduction of
temperature, both ends of the cylinder are
pressed inwards and become concave. The
tin cases, thus hermetically sealed, are exposed
in a <i>test-chamber</i> for at least a month,
to a temperature above what they are ever
likely to encounter; from 90° to 110°
Fahrenheit. If the process has failed,
putrefaction takes place, and gas is evolved,
which in process of time will bulge out
both ends of the case, so as to render them
convex instead of concave. But the contents
of whatever cases stand this test, will
infallibly keep perfectly sweet and good in<span class="pagenum" id="Page212">[212]</span>
any climate, and for any length of time.
If there was any taint about the meat when
put up, it inevitably ferments, and is detected
in the <i>proving</i> process.</p>
<p>All kinds of animal food may be preserved
in this way—beef, mutton, veal, and
poultry, either boiled or roasted. The
testimonies in favour of the success of the
process are of the most unexceptionable
kind. At Messrs. Donkin and Gamble’s
establishment the meat is put up in canisters
of from 4 lbs. to 20 lbs. weight each.
It is charged from 1s. 8d. to 3s. a pound;
roast higher than boiled, and veal dearer
than mutton or beef. The weight of the
canister is deducted, and nothing is
charged for the canisters; and it should
be observed, that these provisions being
cooked, and without bone, render them
equivalent to double the weight of meat in<span class="pagenum" id="Page213">[213]</span>
the raw state; for it is certain, that the
waste in cooking, together with the weight
of bone, are about one half.</p>
<p>Captain Neish took a quantity of provision,
thus prepared, to India, not one
canister spoiled; and one which he brought
home contained beef in the highest state of
preservation after two years, and having
been carried upwards of 35,000 miles in
the warmest climates.</p>
<p>The commissioners for victualling the
navy also examined some, nearly four years
old, which had been in the Mediterranean
and Quebec, and found it as sound, sweet,
and fresh, as if it had been only yesterday
boiled. We are enabled to add the testimony
of that distinguished navigator, captain
Basil Hall, who has liberally communicated
to us the result of his personal
experience and observation, which is as<span class="pagenum" id="Page214">[214]</span>
follows:—“I can answer for the perfect
preservation of a great number of cases
which were in my possession during the
voyage to China. I had 88<i>l.</i> worth, and
not one failure. At that time milk was
preserved in bottles corked; but tin cases
have been substituted with very great
effect, as I have myself tried. It is really
astonishing how excellent the milk is;
and, indeed, every thing preserved in this
way is good.”</p>
<p>“You must, on examining the list of prices,
bear in mind, that meat thus preserved <i>eats</i>
nothing, nor <i>drinks</i>—is not apt to get the
rot, or to die—does not <i>tumble</i> over-board,
nor get its legs broken, or its flesh wore off
its bones, by knocking about the decks of
a ship in bad weather—it takes no care in
the keeping—it is always ready—may be
eat cold or hot—and thus enables you to<span class="pagenum" id="Page215">[215]</span>
toss into a boat in a minute, as many days’
<i>cooked</i> provisions as you choose—it is not
exposed to the vicissitudes of markets, nor
is it scourged up to a monstrous price (as
at St. Helena), because there is no alternative.
Besides these advantages, it enables
one to indulge in a number of luxuries,
which no care or expence <i>could</i> procure.”</p>
<p>In this preservative process is displayed
a singular and important fact with regard
to the agency of oxygen in putrefaction.
The tin canisters being closed during the
exposure to heat, must necessarily contain
with the included matter some portion of air;
and if heat were not applied, or even if applied
imperfectly, putrefaction would take
place. This proves that the effect of the
high temperature is to produce some kind
of combination of the oxygen of the air
with the animal or included matter, not<span class="pagenum" id="Page216">[216]</span>
leading to putrefaction, or even counter-acting
it, while by this combination it is
effectually removed. The air accordingly,
where the process is successful, is deprived
of oxygen; but if the heat were not sufficiently
prolonged, and by far the greatest
part of the air in the vessel not exhausted,
putrefaction soon comes on. From experiments
that have been made on this mode of
preserving alimentary substances, it has
been proved, that if the vessels were opened
only for a short time and again closed, without
heat being applied, the inclosed substances
soon putrefied: as they did also from
mere exposure to the air. But if, after having
been exposed even for an hour or two, they
were re-placed, the vessels again treated as
before, and then the due degree of heat applied,
they could be preserved as at first.
And this repeated exposure to the air, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page217">[217]</span>
removal of its operation by heating, it
appears from Gay Lussac’s experiments,
can be renewed a number of times. Nay,
by occasional exposure to the heat of boiling
water, without the exclusion of the air,
he found the exemption from putrefaction
to be attained.</p>
<p>The theory of these effects is not very
apparent. Gay Lussac supposes, that the
oxygen may combine with that principle
analogous to gluten, which excites fermentation,
and which may equally excite
putrefaction; that this by a kind of coagulation
is separated by heat, and thus rendered
inert; and that it is only that part
of it which has suffered oxygenation which
is capable of this coagulation; it is thus
removed, while the exclusion of oxygen
prevents the putrefaction from taking place,
which would otherwise be excited by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page218">[218]</span>
remainder. But this is rather hypothetical
and unsatisfactory.</p>
<h3>PRESERVATION OF MEAT BY POTTING.</h3>
<p>The process of potting consists in reducing
cooked animal substances to a pulp, by
beating the meat in a mortar, and incorporating
the mass with a portion of salt and
spices. The pulp is then put into a jar,
and covered with a thick coat of melted
butter or lard, to prevent the contact of
air; and the surface is further protected
with a bladder-skin tied over the mouth of
the jar. The muscular part of meat is
best suited for potting, and the quantity
of salt and spices ought to be rather liberal.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page219">[219]</span></p>
<h3>POTTED BEEF, GAME, OR POULTRY.</h3>
<p>Take three pounds of lean beef, salt it
twelve hours with half a pound of common
salt, and half an ounce of saltpetre; divide
it into pound pieces, and put it into an
earthen pan, that will just hold it; pour
in half a pint of water; cover it close with
paste, and set it in a very slow oven for four
hours; when it comes from the oven, pour
the gravy from it into a basin, shred the
meat fine, moisten it with the gravy poured
from the meat, and pound it thoroughly
in a marble mortar with fresh butter, till
it is as fine a paste as possible, season it
with black pepper and allspice, or cloves
pounded, or grated nutmeg; put it in
pots, press it down as close as possible;
put a weight on it, and let it stand all<span class="pagenum" id="Page220">[220]</span>
night; next day, when it is quite cold,
cover it a quarter of an inch thick with
clarified butter, and tie it over with paper.</p>
<h3>POTTED HAM.</h3>
<p>Cut a pound of the lean of boiled ham
into pieces, pound it in a mortar with fresh
butter, in the proportion of about two ounces
to a pound of the ham, till it is a fine paste,
season it by degrees with pounded mace,
pepper, and allspice; put it close down in
pots, and cover it with clarified butter a
quarter of an inch thick; let it stand one
night in a cool place, and tie it over with
paper.</p>
<p>Veal may be potted in a similar manner.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page221">[221]</span></p>
<h3>POTTED LOBSTER.</h3>
<p>Take the meat and eggs from the shell;
season it with powdered mace, cloves, nutmeg,
pepper, salt, and anchovy liquor.
Pound the meat in a marble mortar, and
reduce the liquor, by evaporation, to a thick
jelly; then put it and the meat together,
with about one quarter of its weight of
butter. Mix all together, and press it into
a small pot; cover it with melted butter.
When it is cold, put paper over the pots,
and set them in a dry place.</p>
<p>Craw fish, crabs, shrimps, and prawns,
may be potted in the same way.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page222">[222]</span></p>
<h3>PRESERVATION OF EGGS.</h3>
<p>Eggs may be kept for three or four
months, or more, if the pores of the shell
be closed, and rendered impervious to
air by some unctuous application. We
generally anoint them with mutton-suet,
melted, and set them on end, wedged close
together, in bran, <i>stratum super stratum</i>,
the containing box being closely covered.</p>
<p>Another method of preserving eggs is,
to place them into a vessel containing lime
water, or more properly slacked quicklime
diluted with water, to the consistence
of a thin cream, taking care that the eggs
are completely covered with this liquid.
The first mentioned process is, however,
preferable, and answers exceedingly well.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page223">[223]</span></p>
<h3>PRESERVATIVE EFFECT OF FROST, ON BUTCHER’S
MEAT, FISH, AND FOWL.</h3>
<p>The preservative effect of frost on dead
animal matter are of the utmost importance
to the northern nations, by enabling them
to store up a sufficient stock of all manner
of animal provisions for their winter supply,
and to receive stores from a great distance.</p>
<p>There is annually held at St. Petersburg
and Moscow what is called the frozen, or
winter market, for the sale of provisions
solidified by frost. In a vast open square,
the bodies of many thousand animals are
seen on all sides, piled in pyramidal and
quadrangular masses: fish, fowl, butter,
eggs, hogs, sheep, deer, oxen, all rendered
solid by frost. The different species of
fish are strikingly beautiful; they possess<span class="pagenum" id="Page224">[224]</span>
the lustre and brilliancy of colour which
characterises the different species in a
living state.</p>
<p>Most of the larger kinds of quadrupeds
are skinned, and classed according to their
species; groups of many hundreds are piled
upon their hind-legs, one against another,
as if each were making an effort to climb
over the back of his neighbour. The
motionless, yet apparent animation of their
seemingly struggling attitudes (as if they
had died a sudden death), gives a horrid
life to this singular scene of death. The
solidity of the frozen creatures, is such,
that the natives chop and saw them up, for
the accommodation of the purchasers, like
wood. These frozen provisions are the
produce of countries very remote from each
other. Siberia, Archangel, and still more
distant provinces, furnish the merchandize<span class="pagenum" id="Page225">[225]</span>
which, during the severity of the frost, is
conveyed hither on sledges.</p>
<p>In consequence of the multitude of these
commodities, and the short period allowed
to the existence of the market, they are
cheaper than at any other time of the year,
and are, therefore, purchased in larger
quantities, to be stored, as a winter stock.</p>
<p>When disposed in cellars, they will keep,
with care, for a considerable time during
the cold season. All the provisions which
remain, and are exposed to the temperate
atmosphere, speedily putrify; but as the
desertion of the frost is generally pretty
well calculated, almost to a day, but little
loss is suffered in this respect. The same
advantage is taken of the cold in Canada,
and all other countries, when the frost is
sufficiently steady.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page226">[226]</span></p>
<p>Substances, so long as they are hard
frozen, probably undergo no chemical
change, of which the most striking proof
was afforded by the body of an animal,
probably antediluvian, being found imbedded
in a mass of ice at the mouth of the
Lena; but in the act of freezing, or of the
subsequent thawing, some alteration is
produced, which affects the nature of the
substance. This may be either merely mechanical,
from the particles of ice during
their formation, tearing asunder and separating
the fibres, or chemical, by destroying
the intimate union of the constituents of
the fluids, as in wine injured by having
been frozen; or by causing new combinations,
of which we have an example in the
sweetness acquired by the potatoe.</p>
<p>Captain Scoresby, contrary to popular<span class="pagenum" id="Page227">[227]</span>
belief, states, that “the most surprising
action of the frost, on fresh provision, is
in preserving it a long time from putrefaction,
even after it is thawed and returns
into a warm climate.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> I have,” says he,
“eaten unsalted mutton and beef nearly
five months old, which has been constantly
exposed to a temperature above the freezing
point for four or five weeks in the outset,
and occasionally assailed by the septical
influences of rain, fog, heat, and electricity,
and yet it has proved perfectly sweet. It
may be remarked, that unsalted meat that
has been preserved four or five months
in a cold climate, and then brought back
to the British coasts during the warmth of
summer, must be consumed very speedily<span class="pagenum" id="Page228">[228]</span>
after it is cut into, or it will fail in a day
or two. It will seldom, indeed, keep sweet
after being cooked above twenty or thirty
hours.”</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a>
Account of the Arctic Regions, with a History
and Description of the Northern Whale Fishery.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>In freezing animal substances, for the
purpose of preserving them, no other precaution
is necessary than exposing them to
a sufficient degree of cold. “Animal substances,”
says Captain Scoresby, “requisite
as food, of all descriptions (fish excepted),
may be taken to Greenland and
there preserved any length of time, without
being smoked, dried, or salted. No preparation
of any kind is necessary for their
preservation; nor is any other precaution
requisite, excepting suspending them in
the air when taken on shipboard, shielding
them a little from the sun and wet, and
immersing them occasionally in sea-water,
or throwing sea-water over them after<span class="pagenum" id="Page229">[229]</span>
heavy rains, which will effectually prevent
putrescency on the outward passage; and,
in Greenland, the cold becomes a sufficient
preservation, by freezing them as hard as
blocks of wood. The moisture is well
preserved by freezing, a little from the surface
only evaporating; so that if cooked
when three, four, or five months old, meat
will frequently appear as profuse of gravy,
as if it had been but recently killed.”
Captain Scoresby has not informed us why
fish cannot be taken to Greenland in a
frozen state, though this is a mode of preservation
much used in Russia and Germany,
and even in this country.</p>
<p>Some attention is necessary for thawing
provisions which have been frozen.
“When used, the beef cannot be divided
but by an axe or saw; the latter instrument
is preferred. It is then put into cold water,<span class="pagenum" id="Page230">[230]</span>
from which it derives heat by the formation
of ice around it, and soon thaws;
but if put into hot water, much of the gravy
is extracted, and the meat is injured without
being thawed more readily. If an attempt
be made to cook it before it is thawed, it
may be burnt on the outside, while the
centre remains raw, or actually in a frozen
state.” These observations, which we
have transcribed from Captain Scoresby,
an excellent observer, agree with the directions
of earlier writers. Thus Krünitz
says,<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> “when fish taken under the ice are
frozen, lay them in cold water, which thus
draws the ice out of the fish, so that it can
be scraped off their scales. They taste
much better afterwards than when they
are allowed to thaw in a warm room.”</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Encyclop. Vol. X. p. 586.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page231">[231]</span></p>
<h2 class="blacklet">Pickles.</h2>
<p>The antiseptic power of vinegar is employed
with advantage in domestic economy
for preserving from decay a variety of
fruits, roots, leaves, and other parts of vegetables,
which by a species of refinement
and luxury, are often considered as condiments
to improve the relish of several
kinds of food. Their qualities, no doubt,
depends almost entirely on the vinegar,
spice, or salt imbibed by them.</p>
<p>The art of preparing vinegar pickles
consists in impregnating the vegetable substances
with the strongest vinegar, to
which are usually added a portion of common
salt, and the most heating spices. To
effect this object, the substance to be pickled<span class="pagenum" id="Page232">[232]</span>
is usually suffered to macerate, or slightly
boiled with the acid, and afterwards kept
infused in it, together with spices and salt.</p>
<p>It is customary to impregnate the article
to be pickled first in a strong brine of
common salt; but this is not absolutely
necessary for the preservation of the pickled
substance. To facilitate the action of the
vinegar or salt, the articles to be pickled,
especially such as walnuts, cucumbers,
&c. should be punctured with a large
needle or fork. To assist their preservation,
and to improve their flavour, a variety
of pungent and aromatic spices are added,
which vary according to the fancy of the
cook; pepper, pimento, cloves, mace,
ginger, capsicum, and mustard, are the
spices usually employed.</p>
<p>For the preparation of acid pickles, the
vinegar prepared from wood, as in itself<span class="pagenum" id="Page233">[233]</span>
containing no substance liable to a spontaneous
decay, is preferable to common
malt vinegar, although the contrary has
been asserted, because it is free from mucilage,
which promotes the spoiling of common
vinegar, and therefore the former is a
better antiseptic than vinegar abounding in
mucilage. We prepare our home-made
pickles with this acid, and we are authorised
to state that, although kept for years, they
are inferior to none met with in commerce.</p>
<p>All pickles should be preserved in unglazed
earthenware jars, carefully corked, and tied
over with a bladder to exclude air. The
vinegar used for preparing them should
always be heated in an unglazed earthenware
pan, it should never be suffered to
boil, but poured over the substance to be
pickled, just when it begins to simmer. The
spices may be simmered with the vinegar.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page234">[234]</span></p>
<h3>PICKLED RED CABBAGE.</h3>
<p>Put sliced red cabbage into a stone
jar, and strew amongst it common salt;
then heat vinegar nearly to a boiling
point, and pour it over the cabbage, in a
sufficient quantity to cover the sliced leaves.
It is customary to add long pepper, allspice,
and ginger, to the vinegar, which impart
to the pickle a pungent taste. A small
quantity of powdered cochineal is also frequently
added, with an intent to give to
the cabbage a beautiful red colour; the
cochineal should be strewed amongst the
sliced leaves previous to the infusion of the
vinegar; two drachms are sufficient to one
pound of cabbage. Red beet root is employed
for a similar purpose, but the former
pigment, which is perfectly harmless, is<span class="pagenum" id="Page235">[235]</span>
preferable. When the pickle is cold, it
should be tied over with a bladder skin to
exclude the air.</p>
<h3>PICKLED ONIONS.</h3>
<p>For this pickle the small white round
onions, of the size of a child’s playing
marble, are usually chosen. Having peeled
off the exterior brown coat of the onions,
simmer them in water, till their outer layers
have acquired a semi-transparency, (not
longer), then strain off the water, and suffer
the onions to dry; put them into an unglazed
earthen jar and pour over them so
much colourless vinegar, previously heated
nearly to the boiling point, as will cover
them. The seasoning spices usually added
are white pepper, ginger root, white mustard
seed, mace, and salt.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page236">[236]</span></p>
<h3>PICKLED WALNUTS.</h3>
<p>Take unripe walnuts; run a large needle
through each in several places; suffer
them to macerate for ten or twelve days,
in a strong brine of common salt. When
this has been done, decant the brine,
transfer the walnuts into a stone jar, and
pour vinegar, previously heated nearly to
the boiling point, over them, in a sufficient
quantity to cover them.</p>
<p>They may be seasoned with long pepper,
capsicum, ginger, mustard seed, mace,
and pimento. These substances should
be simmered with the vinegar for a few
minutes.</p>
<p>The walnuts will not be fit for use till
when about six months old.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page237">[237]</span></p>
<h3>PICKLED CUCUMBERS.</h3>
<p>Perforate fresh gathered cucumbers, with
a needle, or fork, put them into a stone jar,
and pour over them boiling hot vinegar.
Season with salt, pimento, long pepper,
and ginger. These substances should be
simmered with the vinegar for a few
minutes.</p>
<p>To this pickle is sometimes intentionally
given a lively green colour, by copper, and
numerous fatal consequences are known to
have ensued from the use of such a practice.<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a>
Treatise on the Adulteration of Food and Culinary
Poisons, 1821.—“Poisonous Pickles.”</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>If pickled cucumber, or any other kind
of vegetable pickle, be wanted of a lively
green colour, it may readily be effected
by soaking them when ready prepared,
for a few minutes, first in tincture of turmeric,<span class="pagenum" id="Page238">[238]</span>
and then in a diluted solution of the
colouring matter of indigo, dissolved in
water.<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> This method of straining the
pickle is perfectly harmless.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a>
This substance is called, at the colour-shops,
intense (not liquid blue, which is quite a different
preparation of Indigo,) blue.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>Samphire, French beans, tomatoes, capsicum
pods, nasturtium and raddish pods,
may be pickled in the same manner.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page239">[239]</span></p>
<h3>PICKLED RED BEET-ROOT.</h3>
<p>Boil the root till sufficiently done; peel
it and cut it into thin slices. Put it into a
stone jar, and pour over it white vinegar,
seasoned with long pepper, horse-raddish,
cut into small slices, allspice, cloves, and
salt.</p>
<h3>PICKLED MUSHROOMS.</h3>
<p>Having peeled small button mushrooms,
put them in a strong brine of salt for three
or four days; strain off the brine, and pour
over them boiling hot vinegar: season
with long pepper, ginger, and mace.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page240">[240]</span></p>
<h3>PICKLED ARTICHOKE.</h3>
<p>Take large fresh gathered artichokes,
boil and simmer them till they are nearly
tender, remove the leaves and choke, and
put the bottom part of the artichoke in a
salt brine for about forty-eight hours;
then strain off the brine, put the artichoke
into a jar, and cover it with vinegar,
previously heated to the boiling point, and
seasoned with pepper, salt, eschalots, and
mace.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page241">[241]</span></p>
<h3>SOUR KRAUT.</h3>
<p>M. Parmentier has given a minute description
of a process of making sour
kraut on the large scale. The heads of
white winter cabbages, after removing the
outer leaves, are to be cut into fine shreds,
by means of a knife, or with a plane, and
spread out to dry upon a cloth in the shade.
A cask is to be set on end, with the head
taken out. If it formerly contained vinegar
or wine, so much the better, as it will
promote the fermentation, and give the
cabbage a more vinous taste; if not, the
inside may be rubbed over with sour kraut
liquor. Caraway seeds are to be mixed
with the shreds of cabbage, a good layer of
salt is placed at the bottom of the cask, and
then cabbage shreds evenly packed, to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page242">[242]</span>
depth of four or six inches. The layers
are regularly stamped down with a wooden
stamper, to half their original bulk. The
same process is to be repeated, with additional
layers of salt, and shreds, till the
whole be packed. They are then to be
covered with a layer of salt, or till the barrel
be filled within two inches of the top, over
which the outside leaves of the cabbages
are to be spread. About two pounds of
salt are required for twenty middling sized
cabbages.</p>
<p>The head of the barrel, which should
have been previously well fastened together,
is lastly to be put within the barrel
above the leaves, and loaded with stones,
to prevent the mixture from rising during
the fermentation. The mass thus compressed
subsides, and the cabbage gives
out its juice, which rises to the surface,<span class="pagenum" id="Page243">[243]</span>
it is green, muddy, and fætid. It is to be
drawn off by a spigot placed two or three
inches from the bottom, and re-placed by
fresh brine.</p>
<hr class="tb" />
<p>The following notice may serve to remind
the reader of the time when the various
articles for preparing pickles are in season.</p>
<ul class="nostyle">
<li><i>Nasturtium pods</i> fit for pickling, are in season in
the middle of July.</li>
<li><i>Onions</i>, by the middle and end of July.</li>
<li><i>Cucumbers</i>, the latter part of July and August.</li>
<li><i>Capsicum pods</i>, the end of July and beginning of
August.</li>
<li><i>Tomatas, or Love Apples</i>, the end of July and
August.</li>
<li><i>Cauliflower</i>, in July and August.</li>
<li><i>Artichokes</i>, in July and August.</li>
<li><i>Radish pods</i>, in July.</li>
<li><i>French Beans</i>, in July.</li>
<li><i>Mushrooms</i>, in September.</li>
<li><i>Red Cabbage</i>, in August.</li>
<li><i>Samphire</i>, in August.</li>
</ul>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page244">[244]</span></p>
<h3>MUSHROOM CATSUP.</h3>
<p>The name of catsup is given to several
kinds of liquid pickles, made of savoury vegetable
substances, such as mushrooms,
walnuts, &c. The following method of
preparing mushroom catsup is copied from
the Cook’s <span class="nowrap">Oracle:—</span></p>
<p>Take full grown mushrooms; put a layer
of them at the bottom of a deep earthen
pan, and sprinkle them with salt, then
another layer of mushrooms, put some
more salt on them, and so on, alternately,
salt and mushrooms; let them remain two
or three hours, by which time the salt will
have penetrated the mushrooms, and rendered
them easy to break; mash them
well and let them remain for a couple of
days, stirring them up, and mashing them<span class="pagenum" id="Page245">[245]</span>
well each day; then pour them into a stone
jar, and to each quart add half an ounce
of whole black pepper; stop the jar very
close, set it in a stew-pan of boiling
water, and keep it simmering for two hours
at least. Take out the jar, and pour off
the juice clear from the sediment through
a hair sieve into a stewpan (without
squeezing the mushrooms); let it boil up,
skim it, and pour it into a dry jar; let
it stand till next day, then pour it off as
gently as possible, through a tammis, or
flannel bag, (so as not to disturb the sediment
at the bottom of the jar.) Bottle it in
pints or half pints; for it is best to keep it in
such quantities as are soon used: in each
pint, put a dozen berries of black pepper,
the same of allspice, and a table-spoonful
of brandy.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page246">[246]</span></p>
<h3>TOMATA CATSUP.</h3>
<p>Mash a gallon of ripe tomatas; add to
it one pound of salt, press out the juice,
and to each quart add a quarter of a
pound of anchovies, two ounces of eshallots,
and an ounce of ground black pepper;
simmer the mixture for a quarter of an
hour; then strain it through a sieve, and
put to it a quarter of an ounce of pounded
mace, the same quantity of allspice, ginger,
and nutmeg, and half a drachm of cochineal;
let the whole simmer for twenty minutes,
and strain it through a bag: when cold,
bottle it:</p>
<p>Or, put tomatas into an earthen pan, and
bake them very slowly in an oven. Rub
the pulp through a hair sieve, to separate
the seeds and skins. To every pound, by<span class="pagenum" id="Page247">[247]</span>
weight, of the pulp, add a pint and a
quarter of vinegar, with a drachm of mace,
ginger, cloves, allspice, and one ounce each
of white pepper, and minced eshallot.
Simmer them for half an hour, and strain
off the liquid.</p>
<h3>WALNUT CATSUP.</h3>
<p>Take 28 lbs. of unripe walnuts when quite
tender, reduce them to a pulp in a marble
mortar; add to the mass two gallons of
vinegar; let it stand three or four days;
to each gallon of liquor, put a quarter of a
pound of minced eshallots, half an ounce of
bruised cloves, the same of mace and black
pepper, one tea-spoonful of Cayenne pepper,
and a quarter of a pound of salt: give
it a boil up, and strain it through a flannel.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page248">[248]</span></p>
<h2 class="blacklet">Conserved Fruits.</h2>
<p>The preserving of the pulpy fruits employed
in housekeeping for making fruit
pies, tarts and puddings, so as to render
them fit for that purpose, when they cannot
be procured in their recent state, is an
object of considerable importance in every
well regulated family.</p>
<p>The expence of sugar is frequently urged
as a reason for not conserving fruits in
housekeeping, and to this may be added
the uncertainty of success from the strong
fermentable quality of many fruits, if the
sugar has not been very liberally added.
They may indeed be conserved for a length
of time without sugar, by baking them
in an oven, and then closely stopping them
up; but if the cork becomes dry, the atmospheric<span class="pagenum" id="Page249">[249]</span>
air exchanges place with what is
impregnated by the fruit, which then soon
becomes mouldy; some pulpy fruits may
be conserved in good condition by the
following method, for years, or even it is
probable for a longer period, in hot climates.</p>
<h3>CONSERVATION OF RECENT FRUITS WITHOUT
SUGAR.</h3>
<p>The following fruits may be conserved
without sugar. The more juicy fruits of
the berry kind, such as currants, mulberries,
strawberries, raspberries, are not well calculated
for this process.</p>
<p class="listheader">METHOD OF CONSERVING GOOSEBERRIES,</p>
<div class="splitlist">
<div class="leftlist">
<p class="list right">Orlean Plums<br />
Green Gages<br />
Damsons</p>
</div><!--leftlist-->
<div class="rightlist">
<p class="list left">Peaches<br />
Nectarines<br />
Bullaces.</p>
</div><!--rightlist-->
<p class="thinline allclear"> </p>
</div><!--splitlist-->
<p>Let the fruit be clean picked, and not<span class="pagenum" id="Page250">[250]</span>
too ripe, put it into wide-mouthed, or what
are called gooseberry bottles, let the bottles
be filled as full as they can be packed, and
stick the corks lightly into them; then
place them upright in a saucepan of water,
heated gradually to about 100 or 170° F.
that is, until the water feels very hot to
the finger, but does not scald. Let this
degree of heat be kept up for half an hour,
then remove the bottles one by one, and
fill them up to within half an inch of the
cork with boiling water; when cold let
the cork be fitted very close, and lay the
bottles on their sides, that the cork may be
kept moist by the water. To prevent fermentation
and mould, the bottles must be
turned once or twice a week for the first
month or two, and once or twice a month
afterwards. When applied to use, some of
the liquor first poured off may serve to be
put into the pie, or pudding, instead of<span class="pagenum" id="Page251">[251]</span>
water, and the remainder being boiled up
with a little sugar, makes a rich and agreeable
syrup.</p>
<p>The fruit ought not be cracked by the
heat; some trials were made by keeping
the bottles in a heat of 190° for three quarters
of an hour, but the fruit was reduced
nearly to a pulp. It is also advisable
that the fruit be not quite ripe, nor should
it be bruised.</p>
<p>Some fruits may be preserved in a succulent
state by being kept in water, without
boiling. This is practised in regard to
the cranberry: it also succeeds with the
smaller kinds of apples. All pulpy fruits,
such as damsons, plums, &c., if gathered
when not quite ripe, and not wounded,
may likewise be preserved, by putting them
into dry bottles, so as to exclude the air, by
sealing over the cork, and then burying
them in a trench, with the cork downwards.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page252">[252]</span></p>
<h3>CONSERVATION OF RECENT FRUITS, BY MEANS OF
SUGAR, IN A LIQUID STATE.</h3>
<p>A great number of fruits in their natural
state may be conserved in a fluid, transparent
syrup, of such a consistence as will prevent
them from spoiling. This method of conserving
fruits requires some care; for if
they are too little impregnated with sugar,
they do not keep, and if the syrup is too
concentrated, the sugar crystallizes, and
thus spoils the conserved fruit.</p>
<p class="listheader">METHOD OF CONSERVING APRICOTS BY MEANS
OF SUGAR.</p>
<div class="splitlist">
<div class="leftlist">
<p class="list right">Plums<br />
Damsons<br />
Green Gages</p>
</div><!--leftlist-->
<div class="rightlist">
<p class="list left">Peaches<br />
Nectarines.<br />
</p>
</div><!--rightlist-->
<p class="thinline allclear"> </p>
</div><!--splitlist-->
<p>Take apricots, not too ripe, cut a small
slit near the stem end of the fruit, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page253">[253]</span>
push out the stone; simmer them in water
till nearly half done, then peel them, and
simmer them again for about twenty
minutes in a syrup, made of two parts by
measure of water, and one part by weight of
loaf sugar. When this has been done, put
them aside for about twelve hours; strain
off the syrup, and to one pint of it add four
ounces of lump sugar, simmer the fruit
again for about ten minutes in this concentrated
syrup; skim off the impurities that
rise to the surface, and repeat the simmering
of the fruit in the syrup three or four
times; and, lastly, put the apricots into
pots, and cover them with a syrup made of
seven ounces, by measure, of water, and
one pound of loaf sugar. Tie over or
cork the jar to exclude the air.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page254">[254]</span></p>
<h3>CONSERVED PINE APPLES.</h3>
<p>Break off the top and stalk of the pine
apple, cut the fruit into slices, about one-fifth
of an inch in thickness; put the slices
into an earthenware jar, at the bottom of
which has been previously put a layer of
powdered lump sugar, about one-eighth
of an inch in thickness. Place on this
stratum of sugar, a layer of the slices of
the fruit, then put another layer of sugar,
and so on; lastly, put the jar up to the
neck into a saucepan of boiling water,
and keep the water boiling for about half
an hour, or till the sugar is completely
dissolved, taking care to remove the scum
that rises on the surface. Tie over the
mouth of the jar with a wet bladder, or
keep it well corked.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page255">[255]</span></p>
<h3>CONSERVED PEARS.</h3>
<p>Put peeled pears in a stone pan with
water, let them simmer till they are soft,
skim them, and when cold simmer them for
about ten minutes in a syrup made of three
parts by measure, of water, and one by
weight of loaf sugar, let them remain in the
syrup till the next day; then pour off the
syrup from the pears, simmer them again for
about ten minutes, and repeat the simmering
in the syrup three or four times successively.
They are usually coloured red by powdered
cochineal, a small portion of which is added
during the boiling process. Some persons
add cinnamon, and other spices, and a
portion of port wine. If the pears be not
intended to keep, they may be simmered
till done in a syrup, composed of one pound
of sugar and three pints and a half of water.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page256">[256]</span></p>
<h3>CONSERVATION OF RECENT FRUITS, BY MEANS OF
SUGAR, IN A SOLID FORM.</h3>
<p>The name of <i>candied fruits</i>, or <i>comfits</i>, is
given to such substances as are preserved
by means of sugar in a solid state, so that
the whole substance is impregnated and
covered with sugar, in a crystalline, or
solid state.</p>
<h3>CANDIED ORANGE, OR LEMON PEEL.</h3>
<p>Soak Seville orange peel, well cleaned
from the pulp in several waters, till it
loses its bitterness; cut it into thin slips,
simmer them in a syrup composed of two
parts, by weight, of lump sugar, and one of
water, and continue the simmering till they
are become tender, and nearly transparent.<span class="pagenum" id="Page257">[257]</span>
Then take them out, put them aside for
about twenty-four hours; and simmer
them again in a sufficient quantity of a
syrup composed of six ounces, by measure,
of water, and one pound of loaf sugar, and
continue the simmering till the sugar candies
about the pan and peel. Now lay
them separately on a wire sieve to drain;
sift finely powdered sugar over them,
whilst still hot, and put them to dry in a
warm stove.</p>
<p>Candied lemon peel may be prepared in
the same manner.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page258">[258]</span></p>
<h2><span class="oldtype">Marmalades, Jams,</span><br />
<span class="fsize60">AND</span><br />
<span class="oldtype fsize80">Fruit Pastes.</span></h2>
<p>Marmalades, Fruit Jams, and Pastes,
are compositions of the pulpy matter of
recent Fruits, or other vegetable substances,
so combined into a mass with
sugar, as will cause them to suffer as little
alteration as possible in their native qualities.
These comfitures are therefore in
reality solid extracts of the pulpy matter
of fruit conserved by means of sugar.</p>
<p>The evaporation of the mass is most conveniently
performed in broad hollow vessels;
the larger the surface of the vessel,
the sooner will the aqueous parts exhale.
When the pulpy matter begins to grow
thick, great care is necessary to prevent its<span class="pagenum" id="Page259">[259]</span>
burning. This accident is almost unavoidable
if the quantity be large, and the
fire applied, as usual, under the pan; it
may be effectually prevented, by pouring
the mass, when it has acquired the consistence
of syrup, into shallow earthen
pans, and placing those in an oven with
its door open, moderately heated; which,
acting uniformly on every part of the liquid,
will soon reduce it to any degree of consistence
required. This may likewise be
done, and more securely, by setting the
evaporating vessels in boiling water; but
the evaporation is in this way very tedious.
The application of steam by means of what
is called a <i>preserving pan</i>, is the best contrivance
for preparing jams, fruit pastes,
and all other culinary preparations, which
are liable to become injured by a degree of
heat exceeding that of boiling water.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page260">[260]</span></p>
<h3>BLACK CURRANT PASTE.</h3>
<p>Mash the currants in a bowl or marble
mortar, so as to break all the berries without
materially bruising the seeds; put the
mass into a saucepan, and heat it nearly
to the boiling point; then rub it through a
sieve to separate the seeds. To one pint
measure of the pulpy juice, add one pound
and a half of loaf sugar, let the mixture
simmer gently over the fire, and keep
stirring it to prevent it burning at the
bottom of the pan. Continue the simmering
till the mass, when cold, assumes
the consistence of a stiff, or almost solid
paste, which may be readily known by
placing from time to time a tea spoonful
of it on a cold plate. When the mass
has acquired the proper consistence, pour<span class="pagenum" id="Page261">[261]</span>
it out on a marble slab, or earthenware
plate, and continue the further exsiccation
by putting it in a stove, or on a hot hearth.</p>
<p class="listheader">APRICOT PASTE,</p>
<div class="splitlist">
<div class="leftlist">
<p class="right list">Peach Paste<br />
Plum Paste</p>
</div><!--leftlist-->
<div class="rightlist">
<p class="left list">Cherry Paste<br />
Quince Paste.</p>
</div><!--rightlist-->
<p class="thinline allclear"> </p>
</div><!--splitlist-->
<p>Take ripe apricots, boil them till quite
soft, mash them, and rub the mass through
a splinter sieve, put the pulp into a pan, and
to every pound put half a pound of powdered
loaf sugar; put it again on the fire
to simmer till the paste drops off easily
from the spoon, then take it from the fire
and pour it on a slab.</p>
<p>Peach, quince, plum, and cherry paste,
may be prepared in the same manner.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page262">[262]</span></p>
<h3>RASPBERRY PASTE.</h3>
<p>Mash the raspberries, and having heated
the mass in a saucepan, pass it through a
splinter sieve; simmer the mass gently to
the consistence of a paste, and to every
pound and a quarter of the pulp, add one
pound and a half of powdered loaf sugar,
and proceed as before directed.—<i>See black
currant paste.</i></p>
<h3>ORANGE AND LEMON PASTE.</h3>
<p>Squeeze out the juice of Seville oranges,
and boil the rinds in water till they are tender
enough to be crushed between the finger;
scoop out the pulp of the fruit, and
put it aside; pound the rind, in a mortar,
to form a smooth mass, pass it through a
splinter sieve; add to it the juice, and keep
it on the fire till the mass acquires the consistence<span class="pagenum" id="Page263">[263]</span>
of a paste; then take it off, weigh
it, and to every pound and a quarter add
two pounds of powdered loaf sugar; mix
and finish it like black currant paste. <i>See
<a href="#Page260">page 260</a>.</i></p>
<p>Lemon paste is made in a like manner.</p>
<p class="listheader">RASPBERRY JAM.</p>
<div class="splitlist">
<div class="leftlist">
<p class="list right">Strawberry Jam<br />
Currant Jam</p>
</div><!--leftlist-->
<div class="rightlist">
<p class="list left">Gooseberry Jam<br />
Mulberry Jam.</p>
</div><!--rightlist-->
<p class="thinline allclear"> </p>
</div><!--splitlist-->
<p>Having mashed the raspberries, put them
into a saucepan, and make them boiling
hot; rub the pulp through a coarse splinter
sieve, and to a pint, by measure, add one
pound of powdered loaf sugar; simmer
the mixture with a gentle heat till the mass
has acquired the consistence of a stiff
paste, and comes off from the bottom of the
pan, taking care to stir the mixture continually
with a wooden spatula when it<span class="pagenum" id="Page264">[264]</span>
begins to thicken. Put the jam into pots,
which should be perfectly dry, for the
least damp spoils it. When quite cold,
tie it over.</p>
<p>Strawberry, currant, gooseberry, and
mulberry jam, may be prepared in a like
manner.</p>
<h3>APRICOT JAM.</h3>
<p>Take ripe apricots, cut them into pieces,
and remove the stones; mash the fruit in
a marble mortar, to form it into a smooth
pulp; heat it over the fire, and when nearly
boiling hot, rub it through a splinter sieve;
add to one pint, by measure, of the pulp,
one pound of powdered sugar; stir the
mixture together, and suffer it to simmer
over the fire till it comes clear from the
bottom of the pan, taking care to stir the
mixture all the time.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page265">[265]</span></p>
<h3>ORANGE MARMALADE.</h3>
<p>Marmalades scarcely differ from jams.
This name is applied to those comfitures
which are composed of the firmer fruits,
such as quinces, pine-apples, &c.; whereas
jams are made of the more juicy, esculent
berries, such as strawberries, currants,
mulberries, &c.</p>
<p>Cut the oranges into pieces, remove
the pulp, squeeze it through a sieve, and
measure it. Boil the rind in water till it is
quite soft, then clear it from the interior
side of the white pulpy mass, so that
nothing but the thin outer yellow rind is
left. To every pint of the pulpy juice add
three-quarters of a pound of coarsely powdered
loaf sugar, and add also the rind
of the yellow orange, cut into thin slips.<span class="pagenum" id="Page266">[266]</span>
Let the whole simmer, till a sample, when
taken out of the saucepan, and suffered to
cool on a plate, exhibits the consistence of
a semi-fluid mass.</p>
<h3>PEACH MARMALADE.</h3>
<p>Peel the peaches and take out the stones,
simmer them till half done, then drain them,
reduce them to a pulp, and squeeze the
mass through a coarse splinter sieve. Weigh
the pulp, and to every pound add twelve
ounces of powdered loaf sugar; simmer the
mass till it has acquired a stiff pasty consistence.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page267">[267]</span></p>
<h3>PINE APPLE MARMALADE.</h3>
<p>Cut the fruit into small pieces, pound it
in a mortar, and pass the mass through a
coarse splinter sieve; weigh the pulp, and
add to every pound three-quarters of a
pound of powdered loaf sugar, and six
ounces of water, and simmer it as before
described.</p>
<h3>APRICOT MARMALADE.</h3>
<p>Boil ripe apricots in water till they can
be crushed between the fingers, then take
them out, extract the stones, reduce the
fruit to a pulp, and pass the mass through
a sieve; weigh the pulp, and to every
pound take three-quarters of a pound of
loaf sugar; simmer it till it hangs on the
spoon, like a stiff jelly. Quince marmalade
may be prepared in a like manner.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page268">[268]</span></p>
<h3>FRUIT JELLIES</h3>
<p>Are compounds of the juices of fruits
combined with sugar, concentrated by
boiling to such a consistence, that the
liquid, upon cooling, assumes the form of
a tremulous glue.</p>
<p>In the preparation of jellies, care must
be taken not to boil it too long, as it looses
by this means the property of gelatinising,
and assumes the form of mucilage, the
danger of this is greatest when the quantity
of sugar is too small to absorb the water of
the juice.</p>
<p>Fruit jellies should not be kept in glazed
earthenware pots, because they act, or dissolve
a portion of the glaze. They should
(and all other comfitures) be covered with
paper dipped in brandy, and the pots
should be tied over with paper.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page269">[269]</span></p>
<h3>CURRANT JELLY.</h3>
<p>Mash the currants, and pass them
through a splinter sieve, put the pulp on
the fire, stir it with a spoon till it begins
to boil, then strain the mass through a
flannel bag to render the juice clear;
measure it, and to a pint put one pound
and a half of loaf sugar, and let it simmer
very gently, till you see, by dipping a spoon
or skimmer in the jelly, and again raising
it, the jelly forms a web upon it, which,
if simmered enough, will remain on the
skimmer. Then take it off the fire, let it
stand a few minutes till the scum has collected
on the surface, remove it and put
the clear fluid into pots. When quite cold,
cut pieces of writing paper to the size of
the brim of the pots, steep the paper in
brandy and place it on the jelly.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page270">[270]</span></p>
<h3>RASPBERRY JELLY.</h3>
<p>The juice of this fruit does not gelatinize
readily on account of the quantity of mucilage
which it contains; hence, for preparing
a jelly by means of this fruit, it is
necessary to add to one part of raspberries
at least two parts of red or white currant
juice. The jelly may then be obtained by
following the directions stated for making
currant jelly.</p>
<h3>BARBERRY JELLY.</h3>
<p>Pick the barberries from the stalks, mash
them, and having heated the mass in a saucepan
throw it into a flannel bag, to strain
off the juice. To one pint of the clear
juice add one pound and a half of loaf
sugar, simmer it with a gentle heat till it
gelatinizes.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page271">[271]</span></p>
<h3>GOOSEBERRY JELLY.</h3>
<p>Take two quarts of bruised gooseberries,
simmer the mass with one pint and a half
of water for about a quarter of an hour,
then put it into a flannel bag to strain off
the juice, and to one pint add one pound
and a half of lump sugar; simmer it, as
stated under the article currant jelly.</p>
<h3>APPLE JELLY.</h3>
<p>Pare four pounds of russettins or any
other sub-acid apples, cut them into small
pieces, and boil them in two quarts of
water, till they become quite soft, then put
them into a sieve, strain off the liquid, and
run it through a flannel bag to render it
clear; measure it, and to one pint of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page272">[272]</span>
liquid add one pound and a half of sugar,
and finish the jelly as before directed.
<i>See Currant Jelly.</i></p>
<h3>QUINCE AND APRICOT JELLY</h3>
<p>May be prepared in a similar manner.</p>
<h3>FRUIT SYRUPS.</h3>
<p>A weak syrup has a tendency to ferment
and quickly become sour if kept in a temperate
degree of heat; it is therefore not
calculated to prevent the natural fermentation
of vegetable juices, which always increase
its tendency to corrupt. Pharmaceutists
have ascertained that a solution,
prepared by dissolving two parts of double
refined sugar in one of water, or any
watery fluid, and boiling the solution a
little, forms a syrup, which neither ferments
nor crystallizes; and this proportion may<span class="pagenum" id="Page273">[273]</span>
be considered as the basis of all syrups,
and seems to be the degree of boiling syrup
called <i>smooth</i> by the confectioners.</p>
<p>After having squeezed the fruit for the
syrup, leave the mass for several days
undisturbed: a slight fermentation takes
place, this will separate the mucilage
and thick parenchyma which rendered the
juice viscid. By degrees these matters
subside, and very often the liquor appears
perfectly clear. This liquor may be separated
by decantation: put the remaining
matter under the press, and by these means
a juice not so clear as the preceding is obtained,
but which easily becomes clear
spontaneously, especially if put into bottles
immediately on its being expressed,
and suffered to ferment during some days;
by this means a transparent juice of the
fruit is obtained.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page274">[274]</span></p>
<h3>LEMON SYRUP.</h3>
<p>Take a pint of fresh lemon juice, add to
it two pounds of lump sugar; simmer it for
a few minutes, and remove the scum till the
surface is quite clean, then add an ounce of
thin cut lemon-peel; let them all simmer
very gently for a few minutes, and strain it
through a flannel. When cool, bottle, and
keep it in a cool place.</p>
<h3>ORANGE SYRUP.</h3>
<p>Squeeze the oranges, and strain the juice
from the pulp; to a pint of the juice, add
two pounds of sugar; give it a boil, skim
it well, strain it through a flannel, and let
it stand till cold, and then bottle it.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page275">[275]</span></p>
<h3>MULBERRY SYRUP.</h3>
<p>Take Mulberry juice strained, rendered
clear by having suffered it to ferment, as
directed <a href="#Page273">page 273</a>, one pint; add to it
refined sugar, two pounds; simmer the
sugar in the juice, and proceed as directed.—<i>See
Currant Syrup.</i></p>
<h3>RASPBERRY AND CURRANT SYRUP</h3>
<p>May be prepared in a like manner.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page276">[276]</span></p>
<h3>PRESERVATION AND STORING OF FRUIT,—PRINCIPAL
REQUISITES OF A GOOD FRUIT ROOM.</h3>
<p>In storing fruits, care should be taken not
to bruise them. Pears, apples, and all
other summer fruit should be placed on
shelves singly in a dry and well aired room,
and not on moss, hay, or straw, as is often
done, because they thereby contract a very
disagreeable flavour. It is better to lay
the fruit on a clean shelf, covered with a
sheet of common writing paper; brown
paper gives them a flavour of pitch.</p>
<p>The finer large kinds of pears should
not be allowed to touch one another, but
should be laid single and distinct. Apples,
and all kinds of pears, should be laid
thin; never tier above tier, which causes
them to sweat, and undergo a kind of fermentation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page277">[277]</span>
which renders them mealy. A
great deal of the preservation of summer
fruit depends on the manner of gathering
them. After having prepared the fruit-room,
a fine day is to be chosen, and, if
possible, after two or three preceding days
of dry weather, and about two in the afternoon
the fruit is to be gathered, and deposited
in baskets of a moderate size, taking
care that none of it receive any bruise or
blemish, for the injured part soon rots and
spoils the sound fruit in contact with it.
As the summer fruits ripen more quickly
after they are pulled, only a few days’
consumption should be gathered at once.
Autumn apples and pears should be
gathered about eight days before they are
ripe, and indeed some kinds never become
fit for eating on the tree. If they have been
necessarily gathered in wet weather, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page278">[278]</span>
early in the morning, they should be exposed
a day to the sun to dry, and they
should on no account be wiped, which rubs
off the <i>bloom</i>, as it is called, which, when
allowed to dry, on some fruits, constitutes
a natural varnish, closing up the pores, and
preventing the evaporation of the juices.</p>
<p>Fine pears may be preserved by passing
a thread through the stack, and having
sealed up the end of the stack with a drop
of sealing wax, to hang them up separately
in a cone of paper, suspended by the thread.</p>
<p><i>Grapes</i> keep much better when hanging
than when laid upon a table, and it is
advisable also to seal the cut end with a
drop of sealing wax; or they may be hung
by the stack, or by the point of the bunch,
as the grapes are thus less pressed against
each other; but it is in both cases necessary
to visit them from time to time, and to<span class="pagenum" id="Page279">[279]</span>
cut off with a pair of scissors every berry
that is mouldy or spoiled.</p>
<p>More artificial modes of preserving
grapes in a succulent state are sometimes
used, and become necessary for their transportation
to distant countries. They are
often packed with bran and saw dust. If
intended for transportation they should not
be quite ripe.</p>
<p>The principal requisites of a good fruit
room are great dryness and equality of
temperature, and the power of excluding
light. It should be furnished with a number
of shallow trays, supported on a rack or
stand one above another. It should have
openings to admit fresh air during fine
weather. It should be warmed during
frost.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page280">[280]</span></p>
<h3>PRESERVATION OF RECENT ESCULENT ROOTS,
POT-HERBS, AND OTHER CULINARY VEGETABLES.</h3>
<p>When it is necessary to keep vegetables
a few days before they are made use of,
care should be taken that they receive as
little injury as possible from keeping. The
rules are simple and easy:—vegetables
of different sorts should not be left in the
same bundle, or basket; they should
not be washed till they are about to be
used; but if they have got flaccid, or dry-shrivelled,
and wrinkly, (not otherwise,)
they should be immersed in water: but to
prevent them becoming so, the best method
is not to expose them to the sun or air, but
to keep them in a cool, dark, damp place,
not scattered about, but close together,
though not in great quantities, lest they<span class="pagenum" id="Page281">[281]</span>
heat, and a sort of fermentation begins,
which destroys the quality altogether.—Strong
scented vegetables should be kept
apart from those that are inodorous.</p>
<p>Leeks or cellery will quickly spoil a
whole basketful of cauliflower, sallads, or
the finer vegetables.</p>
<p>Another general rule, as already stated,
is, that they should not be kept in water
when fresh, or refreshed by sprinkling
them with water, (as is often practised,)
till they are to be used, for the flavour is
thereby greatly injured. It is only when
they have become flaccid that they should
be immersed in water to restore their crispness
before they are cooked, otherwise they
will be tough and unpalatable; this is to
be done, when the size of the vegetable
admits of it, as cauliflower, sallad, cellery,
&c., by cutting off a piece of the stalk and<span class="pagenum" id="Page282">[282]</span>
setting the fresh surface, thus exposed, in
water, which will be absorbed; in other
cases the whole vegetable must be immersed
in water.</p>
<p>Most vegetable substances being more
or less succulent, their full proportion of
fluids is necessary for their retaining that
state of crispness or plumpness which they
have when growing. On being cut or
gathered the exhalation from their surface
continues, while, from the open vessels of
the cut surface, there is often great exudation
or evaporation, and thus their natural
moisture is diminished, and the tender
leaves become flaccid, and the thicker
masses or roots lose their plumpness. This
is not only less pleasant to the eye, but is
a real injury to the nutritious powers of
the vegetable; for in this flaccid and shrivelled
state its fibres are less easily divided<span class="pagenum" id="Page283">[283]</span>
in chewing, and the water which exists in
vegetable substances, in the form of their
respective natural juices, is directly nutritious.
The first care in the preservation
of succulent vegetables, therefore, is to
prevent them from losing their natural
moisture. In regard to the tender succulent
vegetables this is not altogether possible;
because there is a constant exhalation
from their surface, while the supply of
moisture is cut off. The principle of preserving
them, then, is to retard and diminish
the exhalation. Even growing vegetables
become flaccid in a hot sun, because the
exhalation is then greater than the supply;
and exposure to the sun is absolutely ruinous
to all the more delicate vegetables.—The
operation of heat and air is slower but
similar. Succulent vegetables should,<span class="pagenum" id="Page284">[284]</span>
therefore, be kept in a cool, shady, and
damp place.</p>
<p>Common sense will suggest what is best,
when it is known that to keep vegetables
fresh for a short time, the best way is to
hinder them from becoming too dry, and
therefore to keep them from heat and air,
and to avoid crushing or bruising them.</p>
<p>If they become frozen in the cold of winter,
they should be immersed in cold water
for an hour or two, and the water should
be changed once or twice.</p>
<p>The earthy mould should never be washed
from potatoes, or any other sort of roots,
till they are to be dressed.</p>
<p>When potatoes, turnips, carrots, or any
other roots are to be preserved for a length
of time, they should be covered with earth,
or straw and mats, to preserve them both<span class="pagenum" id="Page285">[285]</span>
from the air and the action of frost, which
is peculiarly hurtful to all vegetable substances.</p>
<p>Sweet herbs, or savoury pot-herbs should
be gathered in a dry day. Cleanse them
well from dirt and dust, cut off the roots,
separate the bunches into smaller ones, and
hang them across a line in the kitchen,
where there is a moderate heat, which will
dry them in an excellent manner: when
perfectly dry, put them in bags, and lay
them by on a shelf in the kitchen, they will
keep good for twelve months, and be ready
in the moment when wanted: or rub off the
stalks, put them through a coarse hair sieve,
and put the powder into stopped bottles; by
this means their flavour is still better preserved.—They
are in the highest state of
perfection just before they begin to flower;
the first and last crop have neither the fine<span class="pagenum" id="Page286">[286]</span>
flavour nor the perfume of those which are
gathered in the height of the season; that
is when the greater part of the crop of each
species is ripe at the same period.</p>
<hr class="tb" />
<ul class="nostyle">
<li><i>Basil</i> is in the best state for drying from the middle
and end of August.</li>
<li><i>Knotted Marjoram</i>, from the beginning of July,
and during the whole month.</li>
<li><i>Winter Savory</i>, the latter end of July, and throughout
August.</li>
<li><i>Summer Savory</i>, the latter end of July, and throughout
August.</li>
<li><i>Thyme</i>, <i>Lemon-Thyme</i>, and <i>Orange-Thyme</i>, during
June and July.</li>
<li><i>Mint</i>, the latter part of June, and during July.</li>
<li><i>Sage</i>, in August and September.</li>
<li><i>Tarragon</i>, in June, July, August.</li>
</ul>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page287">[287]</span></p>
<h2 class="blacklet">Vinegar.</h2>
<p>Vinegar may be made in the small way
from grapes, gooseberries, or other sub-acid
fruits, with the addition of a portion
of Muscovado sugar, honey, or malt wort.</p>
<p>In this country vinegar is prepared from
a wort obtained by the infusion of malted
grain; the fermentation being excited by
yeast. This vinegar is inferior in strength
and purity to that from wine, and is more
liable to become mouldy, or suffer the putrefactive
fermentation. And this appears
to be owing to the presence of a large portion
of glutinous matter.</p>
<p>To make vinegar for domestic use,
fit for keeping, it is essential that the fluid
employed for that purpose should contain<span class="pagenum" id="Page288">[288]</span>
in every gallon at least three pounds of
sugar; to allow some access of air to the
vessel in which it is kept, and to keep
it in a temperature rather higher than that
of the atmosphere in this climate, that
is about 75° to 80° Fahr. It is also
essential, where a liquor already fermented
is employed, to add a portion of yeast;
for though any fermented liquor, if kept in
a moderate temperature in an open vessel,
will spontaneously run sour, or become
changed to vinegar, this change is too
gradual to produce this acid in perfection,
and the first acetified portion turns mouldy
before the last has become sour: but
where the substance employed has not yet
undergone fermentation, the whole process
of the vinous and subsequent acetous fermentation
will go on uninterruptedly with
the same ferment which at first set it in<span class="pagenum" id="Page289">[289]</span>
action, which happens, for example, in the
making vinegar from malt, or from fruit,
sugar, and water.</p>
<h3>METHOD OF MAKING GOOSEBERRY VINEGAR.</h3>
<p>Take gooseberries, when full ripe, mash
them in a tub or marble mortar, and
to every quart of the mashed fruit, put
three quarts of water, stir the pulp well
together, let it stand 24 hours, and press it
through a coarse bag. To every gallon of
the strained liquor add four pounds of
brown sugar, or four pounds and a half of
honey, the latter is preferable; put the
mixture into a barrel, which it should fill
about three fourths, and add to eight or
nine gallons of it one pint of good ale
yeast; cover the bung hole of the cask
with a slate, to exclude dust, and place<span class="pagenum" id="Page290">[290]</span>
the barrel in the sun in summer, or
a little away from a fire in winter. The
mixture will soon begin to ferment; keep
up the fermentation by keeping the liquor
at the same temperature, till the taste and
odour indicate that the vinegar is complete.
When the liquor has become perfectly
clear, draw it off into bottles. It will keep
much better if it be heated nearly to the
boiling point, which is best accomplished
by putting the bottles containing it in a
saucepan with water, and causing the
water to boil for about one quarter of an
hour. When this has been done, remove
the bottles, and when quite cold cork
them. Earthenware bottles are much less
liable to crack, during this process, than
glass bottles.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page291">[291]</span></p>
<h3>RASPBERRY VINEGAR.</h3>
<p>Take a pound of fine gathered red raspberries,
mash them in a wooden bowl, or
earthenware pan, add to the pulp a pint
and a half of vinegar; make the mixture
boiling hot, and strain it through a flannel
bag. To every pint of liquor add a pound
of lump sugar, suffer it to simmer in an
earthen pipkin for about five minutes, and
remove the scum as it rises. When cold
put it into dry bottles.</p>
<p>Or, better mash the raspberries, suffer
them to ferment till the juice separates
from the pulpy matter; then add to a pint
of the mass a pint and a half of vinegar,
let it simmer for a few minutes, and strain
it through a flannel.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page292">[292]</span></p>
<h3>CHILLI VINEGAR.</h3>
<div class="splitlist">
<div class="leftlist">
<h3 class="right list">Tarragon Vinegar</h3>
<h3 class="right list">Mint Vinegar</h3>
</div><!--leftlist-->
<div class="rightlist">
<h3 class="left list">Eschallot Vinegar</h3>
<h3 class="left list">Burnet Vinegar</h3>
</div><!--rightlist-->
<p class="thinline allclear"> </p>
</div><!--splitlist-->
<p>Put an ounce of red chillies, (capsicum)
cut into small pieces, into a bottle containing
a pint of vinegar, stop the bottle close,
and suffer the chillies to macerate for
eight or ten days, and then strain off the
clear infusion. Tarragon, mint, or burnet
vinegar may be made in a similar way, by
suffering four ounces of fresh gathered
tarragon, mint, or burnet, (or three ounces)
eschallots, to macerate for eight or ten days
in a quart of vinegar.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page293">[293]</span></p>
<h2 class="blacklet">Tea.</h2>
<p>The dried leaves of the tea plant, a commodity
with which we are so well acquainted,
and which affords a beverage so generally
used in this country, must excite
curiosity to know something of its natural
history, or the nature of the plant from
which it is obtained.</p>
<p>The precise period when tea was first
made known in Europe cannot be ascertained;
it is said that some Dutch adventurers,
seeking for such objects as might
fetch a high price in China, and hearing
of the general use there of a beverage
from a plant of that country, made
them fall upon the idea of trying whether
not an European plant might be relished by<span class="pagenum" id="Page294">[294]</span>
the Chinese, and become an article of commerce
among them, and accordingly they
introduced to them the herb <i>Sage</i>, the adventurers
accepting in return the Chinese
tea, which they brought to Europe. The
European herb did not continue long in use
in China, but the consumption of tea has
been amazingly increasing in Europe ever
since. It is generally said, that it was
first imported from Holland into England,
about 1666, by lord Arlington and lord
Ossory, who brought it into fashion among
people of quality. But it was used in coffee-houses
before this period, as it appears by an
act of parliament made in 1660, in which a
duty of 8<i>d.</i> was laid on every gallon of the
infusion sold in these places. In 1666 it
was sold in London for 60<i>s.</i> per pound,
though it did not cost more than 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> or
3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> at Batavia. It continued at this<span class="pagenum" id="Page295">[295]</span>
price till 1700. In 1715 green tea began
to be used; and as great quantities were
then imported, the price was lessened, and
the practice of drinking tea descended to
the lower ranks. In 1720, the French
began to send tea to us by a clandestine
commerce. Since that period the demand
has been increasing yearly, and it has become
almost a necessary of life in several
parts of Europe, even among the lowest as
well as the highest ranks.</p>
<h3>NATURAL HISTORY OF THE TEA TREE.</h3>
<p>The tea tree (Polyandria Monogynia)
is a native of China, Japan, and Tonquin,
it has never been found growing wild in
any other country. Linnæus says, that
there are two species of this plant, the
Bohe´a, or black, and the Vir´idis, or green<span class="pagenum" id="Page296">[296]</span>
tea. The green has much longer leaves
than the black, it is a more hardy plant;
and, with very little protection, bears the
severity of our winters. The tea is planted
in China round borders of fields, without
regard to the soil.</p>
<p>The tree attains the height of ten or
twelve feet, and is an evergreen: the leaves,
which are the only valuable part of it, are
about an inch and a half long, and resemble
those of sweet brier. The flowers are
something like the wild white-rose; the
seeds are round, and blackish, about the
size of a large pea.</p>
<p>As tea is a most important article of
commerce to the Chinese, they bestow the
greatest possible care upon its cultivation.</p>
<p>The people of China and Japan take as
much pains to procure tea, of excellent
quality, as the Europeans do to obtain good<span class="pagenum" id="Page297">[297]</span>
wine; they generally keep it a year before
they use it.</p>
<p>Tea is propagated by seeds, which are
put into holes about five inches deep, at regular
distances from each other; from six to
twelve being sown together, as it is supposed
that only a small number grow.</p>
<p>When the tree is three years old, the
leaves are fit to be gathered; and the men
who collect them wear gloves that the
flavour may not be injured. They do not
pull them by handfuls, but pick them off one
by one, taking great care not to break the
leaves, and although this appears to be a
very tedious process, each person gathers
from ten to fifteen pounds a day. The
tea leaves are collected at three different
seasons: what are first procured, while the
leaves are very young, are called imperial
tea, being generally reserved for the court<span class="pagenum" id="Page298">[298]</span>
and people of rank, because they are considered
as of the finest quality. The last
gathering, when the leaves have attained
their full growth, is the coarsest tea of all,
and is used by the common people.</p>
<p>The leaves are first exposed to the steam
of boiling water, after which they are put
on <i>plates of copper</i>, and held over a fire
until they become dry and shriveled; they
are then taken off the plates with a shovel,
and spread upon mats, some of the labourers
taking a small quantity at a time in their
hands, which they roll in one direction,
while others are continually employed in
stirring those on the mats, in order that
they may cool the sooner, and retain their
shriveled appearance. The adulteration
of tea<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> has been practised in this country
to an enormous extent.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a>
Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons, and
Methods of Detecting them.—<i>See article Tea.</i>—1821.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page299">[299]</span></p>
<h3>OBSERVATIONS ON THE ART OF MAKING TEA,
AND SINGULAR EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS
OF TEA POTS, ON THE INFUSION OF TEA.</h3>
<p>It has been long observed, that the infusion
of tea, made in silver or polished metal
tea-pots, is stronger than that which is produced
in black, or other kinds of earthenware
pots. This remark is explained on
the principles, that polished surfaces retain
heat much better than dark rough surfaces,
and that, consequently, the caloric being
confined in the former case, must act more
powerfully than in the latter. It is further
certain, that the silver or metal pot, when
filled a second time, produces worse tea
than the earthenware vessel; and that it is
advisable to use the earthenware pot, unless
a silver or metal one can be procured sufficiently
large to contain, at once, all that
may be required. These facts are readily<span class="pagenum" id="Page300">[300]</span>
explained, by considering that the action
of heat, retained by the silver vessel, so far
exhausts the herb, as to leave very little
soluble substance for a second infusion;
whereas, the reduced temperature of the
water in the earthenware pot, by extracting
only a small portion at first, leaves some
soluble matter for the action of a subsequent
infusion.</p>
<p>The reason for pouring boiling water
into the teapot, before the infusion of the
tea is made, is, that the vessel, being previously
warm, may abstract less heat from
the mixture, and thus admit a more powerful
action. Neither is it difficult to explain
the fact, why the infusion of tea is stronger
if only a small quantity of boiling water be
first used, and more be added some time
afterwards, for if we consider that only the
water immediately in contact with the herb<span class="pagenum" id="Page301">[301]</span>
can act upon it, and that it cools very rapidly,
especially in earthenware vessels, it
is clear that the effect will be greater where
the heat is kept up by additions of boiling
water, than where the vessel is filled at
once, and the fluid suffered gradually to cool.
When the infusion has once been completed,
it is found that any further addition
of the herb only affords a very small increase
in the strength, the water having
cooled much below the boiling point, and
consequently acting very slightly.</p>
<h3>JAPANESE METHOD OF MAKING TEA.</h3>
<p>The people of Japan reduce their tea
to a fine powder, which they dilute with
warm water until it has acquired the consistence
of a thin soup. Their manner of<span class="pagenum" id="Page302">[302]</span>
serving tea is as follows:—They place
before the company the tea-equipage, and
the caddy in which this powder is contained;
they fill the cups with warm water, and
taking from the caddy as much powder as
the point of a knife can contain, throw it
into each of the cups, and stir it, until the
liquor begins to foam; it is then presented
to the company, who sip it while it is
warm. According to Du Halde, this method
is not peculiar to the Japanese; it
is also used in some of the provinces of
China.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page303">[303]</span></p>
<h2 class="blacklet">Coffee.</h2>
<p>The beverage which we call coffee, is said
to have been drank in Ethiopia from time
immemorial. The Galla, a wandering
nation of Africa, in their excursions on
Abyssinia, being obliged to traverse immense
deserts, and being also desirous of
falling on the Abyssinians, without warning,
that they may be incumbered as little
as possible with baggage, carry nothing
with them to eat, but coffee roasted, till it
can be pulverised, and then mixed with
butter into balls; one of these, about the
size of a billiard ball, is said to keep them
during a whole day’s fatigue.<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Bruce’s Abyss. II. 226.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>The liquor, called coffee, was introduced<span class="pagenum" id="Page304">[304]</span>
into Adea, in Arabia, from Persia, about the
middle of the 15th century. Not long after
it reached Mecca, Medina, &c. and Grand
Cairo. Hence it continued its progress
to Damascus and Aleppo, and in 1554 became
known at Constantinople.</p>
<p>It is not certain at what time the use of
coffee passed from Constantinople to the
Western part of Europe. Thevenot, a
French traveller into the East, at his return
in 1657, brought with him coffee to Paris.
In the year 1671, a coffee-house was opened
at Marseilles. Soon after coffee-rooms
were opened at Paris.</p>
<p>The first mention of coffee in our statute
books was 1660. In the year 1688, Mr.
Ray affirms, that London might rival
Grand Cairo in the number of its coffee-houses.<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a
href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a>
Miller’s Gardener’s Dictionary.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page305">[305]</span></p>
<h3>NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COFFEE TREE.</h3>
<p>The tree which produces coffee contains
ten species, chiefly natives of the East Indies,
South America, and the Polynesian
isles. The only species, however, that we
have to notice in the present work is the coffee
Arabica, of which there are two varieties,
though both are sold in our shops as Turkey
coffee, and possess similar qualities.</p>
<p>The tree seldom rises more than 16
or 18 feet high, with an erect main stem,
covered with a lightish brown bark: the
leaves are oblong-ovate, and pointed;
the flowers are set in clusters; they are
of a pure white, and possess a very pleasant
odour, but their duration is very
transient. The fruit resembles a cherry,<span class="pagenum" id="Page306">[306]</span>
and grows in clusters, ranged along the
branches under the axillæ of the leaves,
which are of a laurel hue, but rather longer
than a laurel leaf. It is an ever-green, and
makes a beautiful appearance at every
season in the year, but particularly when
it is in flower.</p>
<p>The coffee tree has of late years been
much cultivated in America, but the coffee
which has been thence brought to Europe
has been very little esteemed. This great
difference in the goodness many have attributed
to the soil in which it grows, and
therefore have supposed it impossible for
the inhabitants of the British islands ever
to cultivate this commodity to any real advantage;
but this is certainly a mistake, as
is affirmed by several persons of credit,
who have resided abroad, who say, that the
berries which they have gathered from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page307">[307]</span>
trees and roasted themselves, were as well
flavoured as any of the coffee brought from
Mocha; so that the fault is in the drying,
and bringing over; for if in the drying of
the berries they be laid in rooms near the
sugar-works, or near the house where
rum is distilled, the berries soon imbibe
the surrounding effluvia, which will
greatly alter their flavour. In like manner
the coffee brought in the same ships with
rum and sugar, were the coffee ever so
good, would hereby be entirely altered.</p>
<p>Raw coffee materially becomes ameliorated
by age. It should be kept in bags,
or vessels permeable to air, and in a dry,
or rather warm place.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page308">[308]</span></p>
<h3>BEST METHOD OF MAKING COFFEE.</h3>
<p>The general use of tea among us, has
caused the inhabitants of Great Britain to
be in general far inferior than their neighbours
on the continent in the art of preparing
the beverage called coffee. The
coloured water commonly drank in England
under this name, is as much the object
of derision to foreigners, as their <i>soup
maigre</i> is to us; hence a lively French
writer says, “The English do not care
about the quality of coffee, if they can but
get enough of it.” Coffee certainly is
almost universally made stronger on the
other side of the channel than it is here.</p>
<p>Count Rumford, in the eighteenth of his
Essays has entered into a minute, elaborate,<span class="pagenum" id="Page309">[309]</span>
and useful analysis of the powers of coffee,
and the best means of infusing it for dietetic
purposes. He remarks, that among the
numerous luxuries of the table, unknown
to our forefathers, coffee may be considered
as one of the most valuable. Its taste is
very agreeable, and its flavour uncommonly
so; but its principal excellence depends on
its salubrity, and on its exhilarating quality.
It excites cheerfulness, without intoxication;
and the pleasing flow of spirits
which it occasions, lasts many hours, and is
never followed by sadness, languor, or
debility. It diffuses over the whole frame
a glow of health, and a sense of ease and
well-being which is extremely delightful:
existence is felt to be a positive enjoyment,
and the mental powers are awakened, and
rendered uncommonly active. After some
other judicious observations on the valuable<span class="pagenum" id="Page310">[310]</span>
properties of coffee, and the uncertainty of
the result in the common methods of preparing
it, the Count proceeds with his
subject.</p>
<p>Different methods have been employed
in making coffee; but the preparation of
the grain is nearly the same in all of them.
It is first roasted in an iron pan, or in a
hollow cylinder made of sheet-iron, over a
brisk fire; and when, from the colour of the
grain, and the peculiar fragrance which it
acquires in this process, it is judged to be
sufficiently roasted, it is taken from the fire,
and suffered to cool. When cold, it is
ground in a mill to a coarse powder, and
preserved for use.</p>
<p>Great care must be taken in roasting
coffee, not to roast it too much; as soon as
it has acquired a deep cinnamon colour, it
should be taken from the fire, and cooled;<span class="pagenum" id="Page311">[311]</span>
otherwise, much of its aromatic flavour will
be dissipated, and its taste becomes disagreeably
bitter.</p>
<p>In order that coffee may be perfectly
good, and very high flavoured, not more
than half a pound of the grain should be
roasted at once; for when the quantity is
greater, it becomes impossible to regulate
the heat in such a manner as to be quite
certain of a good result.</p>
<p>The progress of the operation, and the
moment most proper to put an end to it,
may be judged and determined with great
certainty, not only by the changes which
take place in the colour of the grain, but
also by the peculiar fragrance which will
first begin to be diffused by it when it is
nearly roasted enough.</p>
<p>If the coffee in powder is not well defended
from the air, it soon loses its flavour, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page312">[312]</span>
becomes of little value; and the liquor is
never in so high perfection as when the
coffee is made immediately after the grain
has been roasted.</p>
<p>Boiling-hot water extracts from coffee,
which has been properly roasted and ground,
an aromatic substance of an exquisite
flavour, together with a considerable quantity
of astringent matter, of a bitter but
very agreeable taste; but this aromatic
substance, which is supposed to be an oil,
is extremely volatile, and is so feebly united
to the water that it escapes from it into the
air with great facility. If a cup of the very
best coffee, prepared in the highest perfection,
and boiling hot, be placed on a
table, in the middle of a large room, and
suffered to cool, it will in cooling fill the
room with its fragrance; but the coffee,
after having become cold, will be found to<span class="pagenum" id="Page313">[313]</span>
have lost a great deal of its flavour. If it
be again heated, its taste and flavour will
be still further impaired; and after it has
been heated and cooled two or three times,
it will be found to be quite vapid and disgusting.
The fragrance diffused through
the air is a sure indication that the coffee
has lost some of its volatile parts; and as
that liquor is found to have lost its peculiar
flavour, and also its exhilarating quality,
there can be no doubt but that both these
depend on the preservation of those volatile
particles which escape into the air with such
facility.</p>
<p>In order that coffee may retain all
those aromatic particles which give to that
beverage its excellent qualities, nothing
more is necessary than to prevent all internal
motions among the particles of that
liquid; by preventing its being exposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page314">[314]</span>
to any change of temperature, either during
the time employed in preparing it or afterwards,
till it is served up.</p>
<p>This may be done by pouring boiling
water on the coffee in powder; and as
all kinds of agitation is very detrimental
to coffee, not only when made, but also
while it is making, it is evident that
the method formerly practised, that of
putting the ground coffee into a coffee-pot
with water, and boiling them together,
must be very defective, and must occasion
a very great loss. But that is not all,
for the coffee which is prepared in that
manner can never be good, whatever may
be the quantity of ground coffee that is employed.
The liquor may no doubt be very
bitter, and it commonly is so; and it may
possibly contain something that may irritate
the nerves,—but the exquisite flavour and<span class="pagenum" id="Page315">[315]</span>
exhilarating qualities of good coffee will be
wanting.</p>
<p>Coffee may easily be too bitter, but it is
impossible that it should ever be too
fragrant. The very smell of it is reviving,
and has often been found to be useful to
sick persons, and especially to those who
are afflicted with violent head-aches. In
short, every thing proves that the volatile
aromatic matter, whatever it may be, that
gives flavour to coffee, is what is most
valuable in it, and should be preserved with
the greatest care, and that in estimating
the strength or richness of that beverage,
its fragrance should be much more attended
to than either its bitterness or its astringency.</p>
<p>One pound avoirdupois, of good Mocha
coffee, which, when properly roasted and
ground, weighs only thirteen ounces,<span class="pagenum" id="Page316">[316]</span>
serves for making fifty-six full cups of very
excellent coffee.</p>
<p>The quantity of ground coffee for one full
cup, should not be less than 108 grains troy,
which is rather less than a quarter of an
ounce. This coffee, when made, fills a
coffee-cup of the common size quite full.</p>
<p>In making coffee, several circumstances
must be carefully attended to: in the first
place, the coffee must be ground fine, otherwise
the hot water will not have time to
penetrate to the centres of the particles; it
will merely soften them at their surfaces,
and passing rapidly between them, will
carry away but a small part of those aromatic
and astringent substances on which
the goodness of the liquor entirely depends.
In this case the grounds of the coffee are
more valuable than the insipid wash which
has been hurried through them, and afterwards<span class="pagenum" id="Page317">[317]</span>
served up under the name of
coffee.</p>
<p>Formerly, the ground coffee being put
into a coffee-pot, with a sufficient quantity
of water, the coffee-pot was put over the
fire, and after the water had been made to
boil a certain time, the pot was removed
from the fire, and the grounds having had
time to settle, or having been fined down
with isinglass, the clear liquor was poured
off, and immediately served up in cups.
This was a bad practice of making coffee.</p>
<p>From the results of several experiments
made by Count Rumford, to ascertain what
proportion of the aromatic and volatile particles
in the coffee escape, and are left in
this process, he found that it amounted to
considerably more than half.</p>
<p>When coffee is made in the most advantageous
manner, the ground coffee is pressed<span class="pagenum" id="Page318">[318]</span>
down in a cylindrical vessel <i>a</i>, (<a href="#Fig4">fig. 4</a>, plate
facing the title page), which has its bottom
pierced with many small holes, so as to
form a metal strainer; a proper quantity
of boiling hot water being poured cautiously
on this layer of coffee in powder,
the water penetrates it by degrees, and
after a certain time begins to filter through
it. This gradual percolation brings continually
a succession of fresh particles of
hot water into contact with the ground
coffee; and when the last portion of the
water has passed through it, every thing
capable of being dissolved by the water will
be found to be so completely washed out of
it, that what remains will be of no kind of
value.</p>
<p>It is, however, necessary to the complete
success of this operation, that the coffee
should be ground to a powder sufficiently<span class="pagenum" id="Page319">[319]</span>
fine. In order that the coffee may be perfectly
good, the stratum of ground coffee,
on which the boiling water is poured, must
be of a certain thickness, and it must be
pressed together with a certain degree of
force, by means of the presses <i>b</i>, (<a href="#Fig4">fig. 4</a>.)
If it be too thin, or not sufficiently pressed
together, the water will pass through it too
rapidly; and if the layer of ground coffee
be too thick, or if it be too much pressed
together, the water will be too long in
passing through it, and the taste of the
coffee will be injured.</p>
<p>Count Rumford recommends, as of importance,
that the surface of the coffee be
rendered quite level after it is put into the
strainer before any attempt is made to
press it together, that the water, in percolating,
may act equally on every part.</p>
<p>When the coffee is made, the strainer, or
cylindrical vessel <i>a</i> is removed, and the lid<span class="pagenum" id="Page320">[320]</span>
of it is made to serve as the lid for the
coffee pot.</p>
<p>The following table shews the diameters
and heights of the cylindrical vessels, or
strainers, to be used in making the following
quantities of <span class="nowrap">coffee:—</span></p>
<table summary="Coffee">
<tr>
<th>Quantity of Coffee<br />to be made<br />at once.</th>
<th colspan="2">Diameter<br />of the<br />Strainer.</th>
<th colspan="2">Height<br />of the<br />Strainer.</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th> </th>
<th colspan="2" class="padl2 padr2"><i>In Inches.</i></th>
<th colspan="2" class="padl2 padr2"><i>In Inches.</i></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="left padr3">1 cup</td>
<td class="right padr0">1</td>
<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub></td>
<td class="right padr0">5</td>
<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="left padr3">2 cups</td>
<td class="right padr0">2</td>
<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub></td>
<td class="right padr0">5</td>
<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="left padr3">3 or 4 cups</td>
<td class="right padr0">2</td>
<td class="left padl0"><sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></td>
<td class="right padr0">5</td>
<td class="left padl0"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="left padr3">5 or 6 cups</td>
<td class="right padr0">3</td>
<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub></td>
<td class="right padr0">5</td>
<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="left padr3">7 or 8 cups</td>
<td class="right padr0">4</td>
<td class="left padl0"> </td>
<td class="right padr0">5</td>
<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="left padr3">9 or 10 cups</td>
<td class="right padr0">4</td>
<td class="left padl0"><sup>5</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub></td>
<td class="right padr0">5</td>
<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="left padr3">11 or 12 cups</td>
<td class="right padr0">5</td>
<td class="left padl0"> </td>
<td class="right padr0">5</td>
<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Metal coffee pots should be kept as bright
as possible; for, when the external surface
is kept clean and bright, the pot will be
less cooled by the surrounding cold bodies
than when its metallic splendour is impaired
by neglecting to clean it; pots for making
coffee in the manner stated in the preceding
pages, may now be had in most of the
tinmen’s shops of this metropolis.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page321">[321]</span></p>
<h2><span class="oldtype">Kitchen Fire-places,</span><br />
<span class="fsize60">AND</span><br />
<span class="oldtype fsize80">Cooking Utensils.</span></h2>
<p>The judicious use and proper application
of fuel are objects of particular moment
in domestic economy, especially in
the culinary art. Coal is an article of
primary necessity among all ranks of
people, and as it cannot be procured without
great expense, the consumption of it
in cookery with the smallest possible waste
is an object deserving the attention of
every family. So numerous are the varieties
of kitchen fire-places which have
been invented to save fuel, that there is
hardly an ironmonger in this metropolis
who does not claim the merit of possessing<span class="pagenum" id="Page322">[322]</span>
a patent for an apparatus of this description.
The pretended improvements of a great
many patent kitchen fire-places for cooking,
unfortunately consist in increasing
the quantity of iron work, to their evident
defect. The bare inspection of others
again, will at once convince the impartial
observer, that they cannot answer the intended
purpose; most of them are furnished
with numerous doors and apertures, solely
introduced to facilitate the cleaning of the
flues; and the reader may rest assured,
that whenever recourse is had to such expedients,
it is a sure sign that the construction
of the fire-place or apparatus is extremely
defective. When the combustion
of the fuel is perfect, there is little soot
produced—for a rapid accumulation of it,
indicates an imperfect combustion, and
consequently a waste of fuel. The evil in<span class="pagenum" id="Page323">[323]</span>
the cases which we have observed, originates
in the circuitous direction and awkward
angular distortions of the flues for
heating the baking closets, or the vessels
for boiling. The fire grate is indeed comparatively
small in all of them, and this
their apparent recommendation is what
misleads the purchaser, who on inspecting
the apparatus is told, that he will be enabled
to roast, bake, boil or stew, with a
small quantity of fuel. But if we consider
the mass of iron-work requiring to be
heated by the small fire-place, the saving
of coals will prove wholly imaginary, and
the purchaser (we speak from experience)
will soon become convinced that the simplest
and most economical employment of
fuel, for the purpose of cooking in a family
not exceeding eight or ten persons, unquestionably
consists of a common fire-grate<span class="pagenum" id="Page324">[324]</span>
fitted with a boiler placed either at the back
or at one side of the grate, for supplying hot
water, or for generating steam, having at the
other side a hollow chest or oven, (forming
the other hob of the grate,) to be heated by
the ignited coals lying laterally against it,
in the grate; such an apparatus appears to
be one of the most eligible contrivances of
a cooking grate for a moderate sized family,
where economy of coal is an object. Kitchen
ranges of this kind may be seen in most
of the ironmongers shops of this metropolis.</p>
<p>The figure on the title page exhibits a
kitchen grate of this kind. The fire-place
for roasting is, as usual, in the middle of
the grate. At the right side of it, is a
boiler, furnished with a cock; on the left
hand side, is the baking closet, as shewn in
the design. The cast-iron hearth, upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page325">[325]</span>
which the stew-pans and kettles are put,
is furnished with a moveable plate, directly
over the fire-place. This contrivance is
convenient for causing (when the plate is
removed) the fire to act in a direct manner
upon a vessel placed over the opening
as occasion may require. The small door
in front, above the fire bars, serves for
throwing on the fuel. The door shown
under the bars of the fire-place is furnished
with a register, for regulating the heat.
The door under the boiler, on the right
hand side, and that under the baking
closet, on the left hand, serve to keep in
the heat. For cleaning the flues, a moveable
cast iron slider is fitted in front,
below the boiler, and another below the
baking closet, as shown in the design.—The
upper part of the flues are cleaned in
the usual manner, above the iron hearth.<span class="pagenum" id="Page326">[326]</span>
where a small door is provided for that
purpose to get admission to the flues.</p>
<p>For larger families, where the operations
of cooking are multifarious, an horizontal
iron plate or hearth, (See <a href="#Fig2">fig. 2</a>, plate facing
the title page,) at one end heated by a fire-place,
so that the flame may traverse in a
serpentine direction underneath the hearth,
before it reaches the throat of the chimney,
is very convenient and economical. Upon
this hearth or iron plate, which is provided
with holes, fitted with stoppers, (and which
in fact resembles the sand bath of the
chemists), the cooking utensils for boiling
and stewing are placed; and as the different
parts of the plate become unequally
heated, the hottest part being of course
over the fire-grate, and the least heated
at the farthest extremity of the flue, near
its communication with the chimney, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page327">[327]</span>
cook has the advantage of placing the pans
and kettles, which require a strong and
lasting heat, at the precise spot where they
will be soonest heated; and those farthest
from the source of heat, which require only
a moderate degree of warmth.</p>
<p>To economise the heat of the iron plate,
a small oven is sometimes placed at the extremity
of the flue of the fire-place, which
heats the plate. It is convenient for a
variety of culinary purposes requiring a
very gentle heat, or if it be wanted for
baking meat, or bread, a small fire-grate
fixed underneath it, will render it extremely
fit for those purposes.</p>
<p>The front wall which supports the iron
plate or hearth, should be constructed of
brick-work, not of iron, as the former retains
the heat very effectually, whereas the<span class="pagenum" id="Page328">[328]</span>
latter enables it to pass into the kitchen,
to the great annoyance of the cook.</p>
<p>The open fire-place, connected with this
cooking hearth, is furnished at the left
hand side with a baking closet, and at the
right hand side is a steam boiler for heating
the vessels <i>a a</i>. Underneath of these is
another hot closet, likewise heated by
steam.</p>
<p>Mr. Marriott, an ingenious ironmonger
in Fleet-street, has greatly improved the
construction of kitchen ranges; the design
exhibited, on the title page of this Treatise,
is copied from an apparatus of his construction.</p>
<p><a href="#Fig1">Fig. 1</a>, is a Dutch oven; a description
of it has been given, <a href="#Page88">page 88</a>.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page329">[329]</span></p>
<h3>STEWPANS AND SAUCEPANS</h3>
<p>Should not be made with flat bottoms, but
rounded a little at the edges—they must
by no means be made with corners that
are square like tin vessels, for such can
never be completely cleaned, and do not
wear near so long—that is the sides should
not be soldered to the bottom with a square
joint, as sand and grease that lodge there
can never be completely got out.</p>
<p>These utensils should be scoured on the
outside round the rim, and a little way
down the sides, but not low on the sides or
on the bottom, as that only wears them
without any sort of advantage. For small
families, we recommend tin saucepans, as
being lightest and safest; and if proper
care is taken of them, and they are well<span class="pagenum" id="Page330">[330]</span>
dried after they are cleaned, are by far
the cheapest, for the cost of a new tin
saucepan is little more than the expense
of tinning a copper one. The covers of
the boiling pots should fit close, not only
to prevent unnecessary evaporation of the
water, but to guard against the smoke of
the fire insinuating itself under the edge of
the lid.</p>
<h3>PRESERVING PANS.</h3>
<p>The best sort are those which are heated
by means of steam, the temperature of
which can never be such as to burn, or
cause adherence to the bottom of the pan.—<a href="#Fig3">Fig.
3</a>, exhibits a steam preserving-pan;
the steam enters from a common steam-boiler,
at the extremity <i>a</i>, and passes between
the pan, which is double, as shown<span class="pagenum" id="Page331">[331]</span>
in the design. The condensed water may,
from time to time, be drawn off by the
cock and pipe <i>b</i>.</p>
<h3>COPPER COOKING UTENSILS.</h3>
<p>Copper cooking utensils are attended
with so much danger, that the use of them
ought to be laid entirely aside. They have
not only occasioned many fatal accidents,
(which have been made public), but they have
injured the health of great numbers, where
the slower, but not less dangerous effect has
not been observed. If not kept very clean
and bright, they become covered with verdigris,
for all fat, oily, or buttery substances
corrode copper; and if they are kept clean
and bright, the rubbing or scraping that
takes place when making stews, or cooking
dishes that require stirring, and remaining<span class="pagenum" id="Page332">[332]</span>
a considerable time on the fire, always
wears off some of the metal which impregnates
the food, and has a deleterious effect.</p>
<p>The inexcusable negligence of persons
who make use of copper vessels has been
productive of mortality, so much more terrible,
as they have exerted their action
on a great number of persons at once.</p>
<p>Though, after all, a single dose be not
mortal, yet a quantity of poison, however
small, when taken at every meal, must produce
more fatal effects than are generally
apprehended; and different constitutions
are differently affected by minute quantities
of substances that act powerfully on the
system.</p>
<p>Some years ago, the death of several
persons was occasioned, at Salt-hill, by the
cook sending a ragout to the table which
she had kept from the preceding day in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page333">[333]</span>
copper vessel, badly tinned. Another instance
of death occasioned by the eating
of pickles, prepared in copper vessels, is
mentioned by Dr. Percival.<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a>
See a Treatise on the Adulteration of Food and
Culinary Poisons, and Methods of Detecting them,
p. 249.</p>
</div><!--footnote-->
<p>Dr. Johnson gives an account of the
melancholy catastrophe of three men being
poisoned, after excruciating sufferings, in
consequence of eating food cooked in an
unclean copper vessel, on board the Cyclops
frigate; and, besides these, thirty-three
men became ill from the same cause.</p>
<p>If, however, copper utensils are to be
used, they should be employed with the
precautions as used in France, where the
tinning of the vessels on the inside is done
as regularly as the shoeing of horses in a
farm-yard.—If the least occasion is thought<span class="pagenum" id="Page334">[334]</span>
to exist, the vessel is immediately tinned;
but to prevent all risk, it is generally done
<i>once a month</i> with stew-pans that are in
daily use. Moreover, the victuals are
never stirred with any thing of metal, but
with a wooden spoon, or flat stick made
for the purpose.</p>
<p>The following wholesome advice on this
subject is given to cooks by Dr. Kitchiner.</p>
<p>“Stewpans and soup-kettles should be
examined every time they are used; these,
and their covers, must be kept perfectly
clean and well tinned, not only on the
inside, but about a couple of inches on the
outside; so much mischief arises from their
getting out of repair; and, if not kept
nicely tinned, all your work will be in vain;
the broths and soups will look green and
dirty, and taste bitter and poisonous, and
will be spoiled both for the eye and palate,<span class="pagenum" id="Page335">[335]</span>
and your credit will be lost; and, as the
health, and even the life, of the family
depends upon this, the cook may be sure
her employer had rather pay the tinman’s
bill than the doctor’s.”</p>
<p>Various kinds of food used in domestic
economy are liable to become impregnated
with lead.</p>
<p>The glazing of the common cream-coloured
earthen ware, which is composed of
an oxyd of lead, readily yields to the action
of vinegar and saline compounds; and therefore
the jars and pots of this kind of stoneware,
should not be used for marmalades
and other conserves. Pickles should in no
case be deposited in cream-coloured glazed
earthenware pots.</p>
<p>The baking of fruit tarts in cream-coloured
earthenware is no less objectionable
All kinds of food which contain free<span class="pagenum" id="Page336">[336]</span>
vegetable acids, or saline preparations, attack
utensils covered with a glaze, in the
composition of which lead enters as a component
part.</p>
<p><i>Wooden Tubs</i> lined with lead, should
not, as they often are, be used for salting
meat, as the salt brine corrodes the lead,
and all compounds of this metal are dangerous
to health.</p>
<p class="center highline4 fsize80">FINIS.</p>
<hr class="full" />
<p class="center fsize60">C. GREEN, 15, LEICESTER STREET, LEICESTER SQUARE.</p>
<hr class="full" />
<div class="tnbot" id="TN">
<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2>
<p>The language from the source document, including inconsistencies and unusual spellings, has been retained, except as listed below.</p>
<p>Missing accents in French words and phrases have not been added.</p>
<p>Page 140, Before the trumpets calls ...: as printed in the source document.</p>
<p>Page 304, ... in Adea, in Arabia, ...: possibly an error for ... in Aden, in Arabia, ....</p>
<p class="blankbefore1">Changes made</p>
<p>Footnotes have been moved to immediately underneath the text element to which they belong.</p>
<p>Some minor obvious punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected silently.</p>
<p>Page xiii: page number 356 changed to 336</p>
<p>Page 7: rabit changed to rabbit</p>
<p>Page 16: Gastronomque changed to Gastronomique</p>
<p>Page 24: The pleasure of the table changed to The pleasures of the table</p>
<p>Page 138: “ added before <i>Point des Legumes ...</i></p>
<p>Page 140: qui fail le Soldat changed to qui fait le Soldat</p>
<p>Page 156: page number corrected (was 176)</p>
<p>Page 158: parsly changed to parsley</p>
<p>Page 161: gelantine changed to gelatine</p>
<p>Page 200-204: several opening and closing quote marks inserted</p>
<p>Page 202: vogages changed to voyages</p>
<p>Page 261: Chery Paste changed to Cherry Paste</p>
<p>Page 262: ORANGE AND LEMOM PASTE changed to ORANGE AND LEMON PASTE</p>
<p>Page 325: covenient changed to convenient</p>
<p>Page 336: page number corrected (was 356)</p>
</div><!--tnbot-->
<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 60163 ***</div>
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