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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..607ff4d --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #60163 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60163) diff --git a/old/60163-0.txt b/old/60163-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f53c554..0000000 --- a/old/60163-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5608 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Culinary Chemistry, by Frederick Accum - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: Culinary Chemistry - The Scientific Principles of Cookery, with Concise - Instructions for Preparing Good and Wholesome Pickles, - Vinegar, Conserves, Fruit Jellies, Marmalades, and Various - Other Alimentary Substances Employed in Domestic Economy, - with Observations on the Chemical Constitution and Nutritive - Qualities of Different Kinds of Food. - -Author: Frederick Accum - -Release Date: August 24, 2019 [EBook #60163] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CULINARY CHEMISTRY *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - Text printed in italics has been transcribed between _underscores_, - small capitals have been changed to ALL CAPITALS. - - More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text. - - - - -[Illustration: _To Face Title._ - -_Fig. 1._] - -[Illustration: _2_] - -[Illustration: _3_] - -[Illustration: _4_] - - - - - Culinary Chemistry, - EXHIBITING - THE - _SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES_ - OF - COOKERY, - - WITH CONCISE INSTRUCTIONS FOR PREPARING GOOD AND WHOLESOME - PICKLES, VINEGAR, CONSERVES, FRUIT JELLIES, - MARMALADES, - AND VARIOUS OTHER ALIMENTARY SUBSTANCES EMPLOYED - IN - - Domestic Economy, - - WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION AND NUTRITIVE - QUALITIES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD. - - _WITH COPPER PLATES._ - - [Illustration] - - BY FREDRICK ACCUM, - - Operative Chemist, Lecturer on Practical Chemistry, on Mineralogy, and - on Chemistry applied to the Arts and Manufactures; Member of the Royal - Irish Academy; Fellow of the Linnæan Society; Member of the Royal - Academy of Sciences, and of the Royal Society of Arts Berlin, &c. &c. - - London: - PUBLISHED BY R. ACKERMANN, 101, STRAND; - 1821. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -The publications which I have presented to the world, having been almost -exclusively confined to subjects connected with the Fine Arts, I feel it -in some measure incumbent on me to explain the cause of my having -undertaken to be the publisher of this volume. It has arisen from a -distressing event, in which its very ingenious, useful, and elaborate -Author, happened to be involved. The work was in some degree of -advancement, when the sudden and most unexpected misfortune to which I -have alluded, threw him at once into a state of discouragement, that -gave a check to all his exertions. I, who had known him long, and had -every reason, from a most intimate acquaintance, to think well of him, -both in his private as well as professional character, co-operated with -many of his friends, some of whom are in the superior ranks of life, to -encourage him in the renewal of his former energy--but I could succeed -no further than in prevailing upon him to complete this little work on -Culinary Philosophy, which promised to be highly useful in some of the -leading objects of Domestic Economy. When it was ready for publication, -the prejudice which had been excited against him, rendered his former -publishers averse from presenting it to the public. I therefore felt -myself under a kind of indispensable engagement--nor am I ashamed of it, -as the work was brought to a state of publication by my interference, -though out of my usual line of business, to become its publisher. I -accordingly, under these circumstances, made it my own by purchasing the -copy-right. Nor, from its scientific novelty, and promised utility, have -I the least hesitation in presenting Mr. ACCUM’S Work to the Public. - - R. ACKERMANN. - - - - -PREFACE. - - - LONDON, - COMPTON STREET, SOHO. - -The following pages are intended to exhibit a popular view of the -philosophy of cookery, to enable the reader to understand the chemical -principles, by means of which alimentary substances are rendered -palatable and nutritious. The subject may appear frivolous; but let it -be remembered that it is by the application of the principles of -philosophy to the ordinary affairs of life, that science diffuses her -benefits, and perfects her claim to the gratitude of mankind. - -The art of preparing good and wholesome food is, undoubtedly, a branch -of chemistry; the kitchen is a chemical laboratory; all the processes -employed for rendering alimentary substances fit for human sustenance, -are chemical processes; and much waste of the materials, as well as -labour to the parties, might often be spared, were those who practise -this art, made acquainted with some simple chemical truths which -invariably would lead to certain results. - -I have, in the first place, premised, as introductory to what follows, -some general observations on the various kinds of alimentary substances -commonly used for food; in which I have noticed their chemical -constitution, and comparative nutritive qualities. - -After these preliminary statements, I have proceeded to explain the -summary processes of the culinary art, as practised in the English -kitchen, to render obvious the chemical effects produced by the -operations of roasting, boiling, stewing, broiling, frying, and other -means employed for dressing food. - -I have given concise, but accurate directions for preparing good and -wholesome pickles, and other condiments employed in domestic economy. - -I have pointed out the rules to be attended to in the art of conserving -recent fruits, and other vegetable substances, in the state of what are -called preserves, marmalades, fruit jams, and jellies, to enable the -reader to prepare those kinds of comfitures with economy and success. - -I have given concise directions for preserving butcher’s meat, fish, and -fowl, after being cooked, to render them fit for sea store, or domestic -use, at a future time. - -I have stated the most approved processes for curing bacon, hams, smoked -beef, and salted fish; to which I have added instructions for the choice -of butcher’s meat, and the best methods of constructing pantries, -larders, and meat safes. - -I have pointed out the loss of weight which different kinds of meat -suffers in the usual operations of cooking. - -I have described the most approved methods for preserving recently -gathered fruits in their natural state, as nearly as possible, with -directions for constructing fruit rooms, and the circumstances to be -attended to in storing esculent roots and other vegetables. - -I have animadverted on certain material errors, sometimes committed -through ignorance or negligence, in the preparation of food, and various -delicacies of the table; and I have also given hints that will be found -useful, with regard to the practice of making tea and coffee. And -lastly, I have made some remarks on the construction of kitchen -fire-places, to which I have added designs, exhibiting the most approved -cooking apparatus, calculated for the use of private families or public -establishments. - -In resuming the whole, I have endeavoured (and I hope with some degree -of success,) to communicate to those to whom the superintendance of a -family is entrusted, such useful culinary information as may lead to -beneficial consequences. - - FREDRICK ACCUM. - -1821. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - Cookery. - - Page - - _Preface_ iii - - _Contents_ ix - - _Cookery is a branch of chemical science_ 1 - _Observations on the Food of Man_ 6 - _Nations living wholly upon Vegetable Food_ 9 - _Nations living wholly upon Animal Food_ 10 - _Singular kind of Aliments of various Nations_ 12 - _Difference between an Epicure and a Glutton_ 17 - _Importance of the Art of Cookery_ 20 - _Dietetical remarks on the choice and quantity of Food_ 38 - _Extraordinary great Eaters, and observations on Abstinence_ 43 - _Remarks on the origin of the custom of Eating Flesh_ 49 - _Comparative Alimentary Effects of Animal and Vegetable Food_ 53 - _Observations on the various kinds of Animal Substances commonly - used for food_ 59 - _Observations on the various kinds of Vegetable Substances - commonly used for food_ 76 - _General Operations of Cookery_ 79 - _Roasting on a spit_ 80 - _Roasting on a string_ 86 - _Roasting in an open oven_ 88 - _Roasting in a closed oven_ 89 - _Broiling_ 93 - _Frying_ 99 - _Stewing_ 106 - _Boiling_ 111 - _Comparison of the Chemical Changes produced on Animal and - Vegetable Food, in the different processes of cookery_ 117 - _Comparative Diminution of the Weight of Meat in Cooking_ 128 - _Primary, or chief Dishes of the English table_ 132 - _Broth_ 133 - _Soup_ 137 - _Pies_ 141 - _Puddings_ 145 - _Made Dishes_ 146 - _Observations on Made Dishes_ 148 - _Gravy_ 154 - _Sauces_ 157 - _Thickening Paste for broth, soup, gravy, and made dishes_ 166 - _Colouring for broth, soup, gravy, and made dishes_ 162 - _Stock, for making extemporaneous broth, soup, or gravy_ 163 - _Observations on the Choice of Meat_ 166 - _Keeping of Meat, and best construction of Larders, Pantries and - Meat Safes_ 176 - _Preservation of Animal Substances in a recent state_ 182 - _Pickling and Dry Salting of Meat_ 183 - _Method of Preparing Bacon, Hams, and Hung Beef_ 193 - _Smoke-drying, or Curing of Bacon, Hams, and Beef, as practised - in Westphalia_ 195 - _Method of Curing Hams, Beef, and Fish, by means of Pyro-ligneous - acid_ 197 - _Pickling of Fish_ 204 - _Pickled Mackerel_ 207 - _Pickled Salmon_ 208 - _Collared Eels_ 209 - _Best method of Preserving Cooked Butcher’s Meat, Fish, or - Poultry_ 210 - _Preservation of Meat by Potting_ 218 - _Potted Beef, Game, or Poultry_ 219 - _Potted Ham_ 220 - _Potted Lobster_ 221 - _Preservation of Eggs_ 222 - _Preservative Effect of Frost, on Butcher’s Meat, Fish, and Fowl_ 223 - - Pickles. - - _Pickled Red Cabbage_ 234 - _Pickled Onions_ 235 - _Pickled Walnuts_ 236 - _Pickled Cucumbers_ 237 - _Pickled Red Beet-root_ 239 - _Pickled Mushrooms_ 239 - _Pickled Artichoke_ 240 - _Sour Kraut_ 241 - _Mushroom Catsup_ 244 - _Tomata Catsup_ 246 - _Walnut Catsup_ 247 - - Conserved Fruits - - _Conservation of Recent Fruits without Sugar_ 249 - _Conserved Gooseberries_ 249 - _Conserved Orlean Plums_ 249 - _Conserved Green Gages_ 249 - _Conserved Damsons_ 249 - _Conserved Peaches_ 249 - _Conserved Nectarines_ 249 - _Conserved Bullaces_ 249 - _Conservation of Recent Fruits, by means of Sugar, in a liquid - state_ 252 - _Conserved Apricots, by means of Sugar_ 252 - _Conserved Plums_ 252 - _Conserved Damsons_ 252 - _Conserved Green Gages_ 252 - _Conserved Peaches_ 252 - _Conserved Nectarines_ 252 - _Conserved Pine Apples_ 254 - _Conserved Pears_ 255 - _Conservation of Recent Fruits, by means of Sugar, in a solid - form_ 256 - _Candied Orange, or Lemon Peel_ 256 - - Marmalades, Jams, AND Fruit Pastes. - - _Black Currant Paste_ 260 - _Apricot Paste_ 261 - _Peach Paste_ 261 - _Plum Paste_ 261 - _Cherry Paste_ 261 - _Quince Paste_ 261 - _Raspberry Paste_ 262 - _Orange and Lemon Paste_ 262 - _Raspberry Jam_ 263 - _Strawberry Jam_ 263 - _Currant Jam_ 263 - _Gooseberry Jam_ 263 - _Mulberry Jam_ 263 - _Apricot Jam_ 264 - _Orange Marmalade_ 265 - _Peach Marmalade_ 266 - _Pine Apple Marmalade_ 267 - _Apricot Marmalade_ 267 - _Fruit Jellies_ 268 - _Currant Jelly_ 269 - _Raspberry Jelly_ 270 - _Barberry Jelly_ 270 - _Gooseberry Jelly_ 271 - _Apple Jelly_ 271 - _Quince and Apricot Jelly_ 272 - _Fruit Syrups_ 272 - _Lemon Syrup_ 274 - _Orange Syrup_ 274 - _Mulberry Syrup_ 275 - _Raspberry and Currant Syrup_ 275 - _Preservation and Storing of Fruit, and Principal requisites of - a good Fruit Room_ 276 - _Preservation of recent esculent roots, pot-herbs, and other - culinary vegetables_ 280 - - Vinegar. - - _Method of Making Gooseberry Vinegar_ 289 - _Raspberry Vinegar_ 291 - _Chilli Vinegar_ 292 - _Tarragon Vinegar_ 292 - _Mint Vinegar_ 292 - _Eschallot Vinegar_ 292 - _Burnet Vinegar_ 292 - - Tea. - - _Natural History of the Tea Tree_ 295 - _Observations on the art of Making Tea, and singular effects of - different kinds of Tea Pots on the Infusion of Tea_ 299 - _Japanese Method of Making Tea_ 301 - - Coffee. - - _Natural History of the Coffee Tree_ 305 - _Best Method of Making Coffee_ 308 - - Kitchen Fire-places, AND Cooking Utensils. - - _Saucepans and Stew Pans_ 329 - _Preserving Pans_ 330 - _Copper Cooking Utensils_ 331 - _Wooden Tubs_ 336 - - - - -Cookery. - - -COOKERY IS A BRANCH OF CHEMICAL SCIENCE. - -Cookery, or the art of preparing good and wholesome food, and of -preserving all sorts of alimentary substances in a state fit for human -sustenance, of rendering that agreeable to the taste which is essential -to the support of life, and of pleasing the palate without injury to the -system, is, strictly speaking, a branch of chemistry; but, important as -it is both to our enjoyments and our health, it is also one of the -least cultivated branches of that science. The culinary processes of -roasting, boiling, baking, stewing, frying, broiling, the art of -preserving meats, bacon, and hams; the preparations of sauces, pickles, -and other condiments; the conserving of fruits; the care and keeping of -vegetables; the making of jellies, jams, and marmalades, are all founded -upon the principles of this science, and much waste of the material, as -well as labour to the parties might often be spared, were those to whom -the performance of such tasks is committed, made acquainted with simple -chemical truths which would invariably lead to certain results. And, -besides, the same knowledge would enable them to attain a much greater -degree of perfection in curing and preserving all kinds of animal and -vegetable aliments, and in combining the three grand requisites of -taste, nutriment, and salubrity, in whatever manner they may be -prepared. And, though this art is at present in rude hands, as all -branches of chemistry were originally, there is no reason that it should -remain so. A kitchen is, in fact, a chemical laboratory; the boilers, -stew-pans, and cradle spit of the cook, correspond to the digestors, the -evaporating basins, and the crucibles of the chemist. And numerous as -the receipts of cookery are, the general operations (like the general -process of chemistry) are but few. In some the object aimed at is, to -extract the constituent parts of the food, so as to exhibit them in a -separate state, or to combine them with other substances, to produce new -compounds which differ widely from those from which they originated. In -others, the qualities of the substances are simply altered by the -action of fire, to render them more palatable and nutritious. - -From the multiplicity of circumstances to be attended to in this art, -the whole of which is founded upon the principles of chemistry, we may -easily see that it must be a very precarious one; and, there is reason -to believe, that among the variety of circumstances which produce -diseases, the improper modes of cooking food, are often the primary -cause. Will it be believed, that in the cookery books which form the -prevailing oracles of the kitchens in this part of the island, there are -express injunctions to “_boil greens with halfpence, or verdigrise_, in -order to improve their _colour_!”[1] That our puddings are frequently -seasoned with laurel leaves, and our sweatmeats almost uniformly -prepared in copper vessels?[2] Why are we thus compelled to swallow a -supererogatory quantity of poison which may so easily be avoided? And -why are we constantly made to run the risk of our lives by participating -in custards, trifles, and blancmanges, seasoned by a most deadly poison -extracted from the _prunus lourocerasus_?[3] Verily, where such -detestable systems of cookery are practised, we may exclaim with the -sacred historian, that there is “Death in the Pot.” - - [1] The Ladies Library, vol. ii. p. 203; and also Modern Cookery, 2nd - Edition, p. 94. - - [2] Literary Chronicle, No. xxii. p. 348, 1819. - - [3] Philosophical Magazine, No. cclviii. vol. 54, p. 317. - -Food badly cooked is wasted to no purpose. It seems to have been a -complaint familiar in the mouth of our ancestors, and which we have too -often seen reason to re-echo in the present day--“_That God sends good -meat, but the devil sends cooks_.” - - -OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOOD OF MAN. - -No animal eats such variety of food as man; he claims, more justly than -any other creature, the title of _omnivorous!_ for since he is -distinguished beyond all animals, but the capability of living in the -most distant parts of the globe, under every variety of climate which -the earth affords, his food could not be confined exclusively to either -the vegetable or animal kingdom, because he inhabits regions that afford -aliments widely different from each other. Cattle content themselves -with green vegetables; rapacious animals live on the flesh of other -creatures. - -Those of the Linnæan order, _glires_,[4] live on grain and fruits; each -order of birds, keeps, in the same manner, to one sort of food, animal -or vegetable. Fishes, reptiles, and insects, also have each their -peculiar and exclusive bill of fare, beyond which even hunger will -scarcely force them to wander. But however various each class, and -order, and species of animated nature may be in the choice of food, -man--all-devouring man, will embrace the whole range of the creation, -“scarce a berry or a mushroom can escape him.” - - [4] The hare, rabbit, guinea-pig, &c. - -With the lion and the wolf he will eat of fresh slain animals; with the -dogs and the vulture he will feed on putrid flesh;[5] with the ox and -the guinea-pig he will devour raw vegetables, under the name of salads; -with the squirrel and the mouse he will feast on nuts and grain; with -birds of prey he feeds on fowl of almost every species; with fishes he -feeds on fish; and with insects and reptiles he sometimes lives on -insects and reptiles. Nor is he satisfied even with this abundant -variety, but must go to the mineral kingdom for salt, as a condiment -before he can furnish out his meal. - - [5] Every person knows in what a putrid state game is often eaten. - - -NATIONS LIVING WHOLLY UPON VEGETABLE FOOD. - -The variety of alimentary substances used not only by individuals, but -among whole nations, are prodigiously diversified, and climate seems to -have some effect in producing the diversity of taste, though it must in -a great measure depend upon the natural productions of particular -countries, their religion, and their commercial intercourse. - -A vegetable diet seems suitable to the hot countries under the Equator, -and we accordingly find nations there, who have completely adopted it, -and who abstain so much the more from all animal food, in as much as it -is an article of their religious faith. - -Potatoes, chesnuts, and the leguminous and cereal seeds, satisfy the -want of the Alpine peasant, and numerous tribes solely feed on -vegetables and water. In the most remote antiquity, we read of whole -nations in Africa, and of the Indian priests, who lived entirely on -vegetable substances. Some wandering Moors subsist almost entirely on -gum senegal. - - -NATIONS LIVING WHOLLY ON ANIMAL FOOD. - -The nations which live on animal food are very numerous. - -The Ethiopeans, Scythians, and Arabians, ate nothing but flesh. - -The miserable inhabitants of New Holland lived wholly on fish when that -country was first discovered, and other tribes on the Arabian and -Persian gulph. - -In the Faro islands, in Iceland and Greenland, the food arises from the -same source. - -The shepherds in the province of Caracas, on the Oronoko, live wholly on -flesh. The Tartars in Asia, and some savage nations in North America, -live on raw and half putrid flesh, and some barbarous tribes eat their -meat raw. - -It appears to be the effect of climate and religion that makes the -Hindoo adopt vegetable rather than animal food; it is the effect of -natural production that makes the Greenlander relish whale-blubber and -train-oil. It is to one or other of these causes that we must refer all -such diversity of national tastes, though it would be difficult in many -cases to separate the influence of each. We see the Englishman enjoying -his under-done roast beef and his plum-pudding; the Scotsman his -hodge-podge and his haggis; the Frenchman his ragouts, omlets, and -fricandeaus; the German his sour-crout, sausages, and smoaked hams, the -Italian his maccaroni; and the Tartar his horse-flesh.[6] “_De gustibus -non est disputandum._”--There is no disputing about tastes. They are too -many, and too various, to be objects of rational discussion. - - [6] An article of food which has lately been seriously recommended by - Mr. Grey to Europeans as a most advantageous measure of political - economy. - - -SINGULAR KIND OF ALIMENTS OF VARIOUS NATIONS. - -Besides the before-mentioned diversities of national and individual -taste for different kinds of substances, used as aliments, there are -other kinds of food which we at least think more singular. Some of the -tribes of Arabs, Moors, the Californians, and Ethiopians, eat -tad-poles, locusts, and spiders. - -In some places the flesh of serpents, that of the _coluber natrix_ for -example, is eaten; and the viper is made into broth. Several other -reptiles are used as food by the European settlers in America, such as -the _rana bombina_ and _rana taurina_, two species of toads. - -In the East, the _lacerta scincus_ is considered a great luxury, and -also an approdisiac. Even the rattle snake has been eaten, and the head -boiled along with the rest of the body of the animal. - -The horse, ass, and camel, are eaten in several regions of the earth, -and the seal, walruss, and Arctic bear, have often yielded a supply to -sailors. - -On the singular taste of epicures it is not necessary to speak. Mæcenas, -the prime minister of Augustus, and refined patron of Horace, had young -asses served upon his table when he treated his friends; and, according -to Pliny,[7] the Romans delighted in the flavour of young and well -fattened puppies. This strange practice subsists still in China, and -among the Esquimaux. Plump, and well roasted bats, laid upon a bed of -olives, are eaten in the Levant as a dainty. - - [7] 2 Book 29, c. 4. - -The Roman luxury, _garum_, which bore so high a price, consisted of the -putrid entrails of fishes, (first of the _garum_,) stewed in wine, and a -similar dish is still considered as a great luxury, in some parts of the -East. Some modern epicures delight in the trail of the woodcock, and -even collect with care the contents of the intestines which distill -from it in the process of roasting. - - “_The Irishman_ loves usquebah, - _The Scot_ loves ale called blue cap, - _The Welshman_, he loves toasted cheese, - And makes his mouth like a mouse trap.” - -APICIUS,[8] among other whimsical personages of ancient Rome, presented -to his guests ragouts, exclusively composed of tongues of peacocks and -nightingales. This celebrated epicure, who instituted a gormandizing -academy at Rome, having heard that shrimps and prawns of a superior -flavour were to be met with on the coasts of Africa than on the Italian -shore, freighted a ship, and sailed in search of these far famed marine -insects. This person spent more than £.60,000 merely to vary the taste -of culinary sauces. - - [8] Three brothers of that name were celebrated at Rome, on account of - their unparallelled love of good eating. - -Vitellus was treated by his brother with a dinner, consisting of 2,000 -dishes of fish, and 7,000 of poultry--surely this is not doing things by -halves. - -A Mr. Verditch de Bourbonne[9] is said to have bought 3,000 carps for -the mere sake of their tongues, which were brought, well seasoned and -_learnedly_ dressed, to his table, in one dish. - - [9] Cours Gastronomique. - - -DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN EPICURE AND A GLUTTON. - -However extravagant and whimsical the rational pleasures of the table -may appear to a _sober_ and sensible mind, we must, in justice to -epicures, cursorily observe, that there exists a material difference -between a _gormand_ or epicure, and a _glutton_.[10] The first seeks for -peculiar delicacy and distinct flavour in the various dishes presented -to the judgment and enjoyment of his discerning palate; while the other -lays aside nearly all that relates to the rational pleasures of -creating or stimulating an appetite of the cates, and looks merely to -quantity; this, has his stomach in view, and tries how heavy it may be -laden, without endangering his health. - - [10] _Tabella Cibaria_, a latin poem, relating to the pleasures of - Gastronomy, and the mysterious art of Cooking, page 15. - -“The _gormand_ never loses sight of the exquisite organs of taste, so -admirably disposed by Providence in the crimson chamber, where sits the -discriminating judge, the human tongue. - -“The _glutton_ is anathematised in the Scripture with those brutes -_quorum deus venter est_. The other appears guilty of no other sin than -of too great, and too minute, an attention to refinement in commercial -sensuality.” - -Our neighbours on the other side of the channel, so famous for indulging -in the worship of Comus, consider the epicure again under two distinct -views, namely: as a _gormand_, or a _gourmet_. The epicure or _gormand_ -is defined--a man having accidentally been able to study the different -tastes of eatables, does accordingly select the best food and the most -pleasing to his palate. His character is that of a _practioner_. The -_gourmet_ speculates more than he practises, and eminently prides -himself in discerning the nicest degrees, and most evanescent shades of -goodness and perfection in the different subjects proposed to him. He -may be designated a man, who, by sipping a few drops out of the silver -cup of the vintner, can instantly tell from what country the wine comes, -and its age. - -The _glutton_ practices without any regard to theory. - -The _gormand_, or epicure, unites theory with practice. - -The _gourmet_ is merely theoretical. - - -IMPORTANCE OF THE ART OF COOKERY. - -As man differs from the inferior animals in the variety of articles he -feeds upon, so he differs from them no less in the preparation of these -substances. Some animals, besides man, prepare their food in a -particular manner. The racoon (_ursus lutor_) is said to wash his roots -before he eats them; and the beaver stores his green boughs under water -that their bark and young twigs may remain juicy and palatable. - -The action of fire, however, has never been applied to use by any animal -except man; not even monkies, with all their knacks of imitation, and -all their fondness for the comforts of a fire, have ever been observed -to put on a single billet of wood to keep up the fuel. - -Domesticated animals, indeed, are brought to eat, and even to relish, -food which has been cooked by the action of heat. - -The variety of productions introduced by our different modes of -preparing and preserving food is almost endless; and it appears -particularly so when we compare the usages, in this respect, of various -countries. - -The savage of New South Wales is scarcely more knowing in the -preparation of food, by means of fire, than his neighbour, the kangaroo, -if the anecdote told by Turnbull be true, that one of these savages -plunged his hand into boiling water to take out a fish. - -Some writers have humorously designated man to be “_a cooking animal_,” -and he really is so. It is one of the leading distinctions which -Providence has seen meet for wise purposes to establish, when it was -said that he might eat of the fruit of every tree, and the flesh of -every clean beast. - -When we contemplate the aliments used by men in a civilized state of -existence, we soon become convinced that only a small part of our daily -food can be eaten in its natural state. Many of the substances used as -aliments, are disagreeable, and some even poisonous until they have been -cooked. Few of them are to be had at all seasons, although produced at -others in greater abundance than can be consumed. - -The importance of a proper and competent knowledge of the true and -rational principles of cookery, must be obvious, when it is considered -that there is scarcely an individual, young or old, in any civilized -country, who has not some time or other suffered severely from errors -committed in the practice of this art. - -“A skilful and well directed cookery abounds in chemical preparations -highly salutary. There exists a salubrity of aliments suited to every -age. Infancy, youth, maturity, and old age, each has its peculiar -adapted food, and that not merely applicable to the powers in full -vigour, but to stomachs feeble by nature, and to those debilitated by -excess.”[11] - - [11] Ude’s Cookery, p. 25.--Ibid, 23. - -Without abetting the unnatural and injurious appetites of the epicure, -or the blameable indulgences of the glutton, we shall not perhaps be far -out in our reckoning, if we assert, that almost every person is an -epicure in his own way. - -There are amateurs in boiling potatoes, as particular in the details, as -others in dressing beaf-stakes to the utmost nicety of a single turn. -Lord Blainey, still more nice, informs us, that hams are not fit to be -eaten unless boiled in Champaign. _Helluos_ are not confined to salmon’s -bellies, but are to be found among the rudest peasants who love porridge -or frumenty-- - - A salmon’s belly, _Helluo_, was thy fate; - The doctor call’d, declares all help too late; - “Mercy!” cries _Helluo_, “mercy, on my soul! - Is there no hope?--Alas! then bring the jowl.” - - _Pope’s Moral Essays._ - -Precision in mixing ingredients is as often and as closely laid down for -the coarsest dish of the peasant as for the most guarded receipe of the -Lady Bountiful of the village. The pleasures of the table have always -been highly appreciated and sedulously cultivated among civilized -people of every age and nation; and, in spite of the Stoic, it must be -admitted, that they are the first which we enjoy, the last we abandon, -and those of which we most frequently partake. - -“Cookery is the soul of every pleasure, at all times and to all ages. -How many marriages have been the consequence of a meeting at dinner; how -much good fortune has been the result of a good supper, at what moment -of our existence are we happier than at table? there hatred and -animosity are lulled to sleep, and pleasure alone reigns.” - -Pythagoras, in his golden verses, gives complete proof, that he was -particularly nice in the choice of food, and carefully points out what -will occasion indigestion and flatulency. He is precise in commanding -his disciples to “_abstain from beans_.” Apicius, declares that he -never knew a philosopher who refused to partake of a feast. - -In later times, Dr. Johnson is well known to have been exceedingly fond -of good dinners, considering them as the highest enjoyment of human -life. The sentiments of our great moralist are a good answer to those -who think the pleasures of the table incompatible with intellectual -pursuits or mental superiority. “Some people,” says the Doctor, “have a -foolish way of not minding, or pretending not to mind, what they eat; -for my part, I mind my belly very studiously, and very carefully, and I -look upon it that he who does not mind his belly will hardly mind any -thing else.” Boswell, his biographer, says of him, “I never knew a man -who relished good eating more than he did: and when at table, he was -wholly absorbed in the business of the moment.” It was one of the -objects which displeased him so much in his Northern tour, that the -Scots were rather ignorant of the more refined arts of cookery. A lady -in the Isle of Mull, anxious to gratify him for once in a dinner, had an -excellent plum-pudding prepared, at some expense, and with the utmost -care; but, to her great mortification, the doctor would not taste it, -because, he said, “it is totally impossible to make a plum-pudding at -all fit to eat in the Isle of Mull.” - -Another instance of this philosopher’s illiberal prejudice against -Scotch cookery, may also be mentioned. A lady, at whose table the Doctor -was dining, enquired how he liked their national dish, the _hotch -potch_, of which he was then partaking. “_Good enough for hogs_,” said -the surly philosopher. “Shall I help _you_ to a little more of it?” -retorted the lady. To Dr. Johnson we can add the names of two -distinguished physicians, Darwin, and Beddoes, both of whom were most -outrageous in their published works against the pleasures of good -living; they followed however a very different practice, from what they -prescribed to others, as none were more fond of good dinners than these -guardians of health. - -Cardinal Wolsey, we should have thought, would have had something else -to mind than cooking and good eating. But no person was more anxious -than he, even in the whirl of the immense public business which he had -to transact, to have the most skilful cooks; for all Europe was -ransacked, and no expense spared, to procure culinary operators, -thoroughly acquainted with the multifarious operations of the spit, the -stew-pan, and the rolling-pin. - -Sir Walter Scott, has been most happy in the illustration of our ancient -manners with respect to good eating, in the character of Athelstan, in -the Romance of Ivanhoe. - -Count Rumford has not considered the pleasure of eating, and the means -that may be employed for increasing it, as unworthy the attention of a -philosopher, for he says, “the enjoyments which fall to the bulk of -mankind, are not so numerous as to render an attempt to increase them -superfluous. And even in regard to those who have it in their power to -gratify their appetites to the utmost extent of their wishes, it is -surely rendering them a very important service to shew them how they may -increase their pleasures without destroying their health.” - -In the olden time, every man of consequence had his _magister coquorum_, -or _master cook_, without whom he would not think of making a day’s -journey; and it was often no easy matter to procure _master cooks_ of -talent. - -By a passage of Cicero[12] we are led to understand, that among other -miseries of life, which constantly attended this consular personage and -eloquent orator, he laboured under the disappointment of not having an -excellent cook of his own; for, he says, “_coquus meus, præter jus -fervens, nihil potest imitari_.” _Except hot broth, my cook can do -nothing cleverly._ - - [12] _Fam._ ix. 20. - -The salary of the Roman cooks was nearly £1000.[13] Mark Antony, -hearing Cleopatra, whom he had invited to a splendid supper, (and who -was as great a _gormand_ as she was handsome,) loudly praise the -elegance and delicacy of the dishes, sent for the cook, and presented -him with the unexpected gift of a corporate town.--_Municipium._ - - [13] Tabella Cibaria, ps. 19 and 20. - -Even in our own times great skill in cookery is so highly praised by -many, that a very skilful cook can often command, in this metropolis, a -higher salary than a learned and pious curate. - -His Majesty’s first and second cooks are esquires, by their office, from -a period to which, in the lawyer’s phrase, the memory of man is not to -the contrary. We are told by Dr. Pegge, that when Cardinal Otto, the -Pope’s Legate, was at Oxford, in the year 1248, his brother officiated -as _magister coquinæ_, an office which has always been held as a -situation of high trust and confidence. - -We might defend the art of cookery on another principle, namely--on the -axiom recognized in the Malthusian Political Economy, that he who causes -two blades of grass to grow where only one grew before, is a benefactor -to his country and to human nature. Whether or not Malthus is quite -right in this, we are not competent to decide; we leave that to Say, -Godwin, Ricardo, and[14] Drummond. But certainly it must in many cases -be of the utmost consequence, for families in particular, when -embarrassed in circumstances, to make food go twice as far as without -the art and aid of rational cookery it could do. We would particularly -press this remark, as it is founded on numerous facts, and places the -art of cookery in a more interesting point of view than any of the other -circumstances which we have been considering. - - [14] Principles of Currency, and Elements of Political - Economy--1820. - -Cookery has often drawn down on itself the animadversions of both -moralists, physicians, and wits, who have made it a subject for their -vituperations and their ridicule. - -So early as the time of the patriarch Isaac, the sacred historian casts -blame upon Esau for being epicurean enough to transfer his birth-right -for a mess of pottage. - -Jacob is blamed for making savoury meat with a kid for his father, with -a view to rob Esau of the paternal blessing. - -Diogenes, the Cynic, meeting a young man who was going to a feast, took -him up in the street and carried him home to his friends, as one who was -running into evident danger had he not prevented him. The whole tribe, -indeed, of the Stoics and Cynics, laughed at cookery, pretending, in -their vanity and pride, to be above the desire of eating niceties. -Lucian, with his inexhaustible satire, most effectually and humourously -exposed these their pretences. - -In our own times, we have had writers of eminence who have attacked the -use of a variety of food as a dreadful evil. “Should we not think a man -mad,” says Addison, “who at one meal will devour fowl, flesh, and fish; -swallow oil, and vinegar, salt, wines, and spices; throw down sallads of -twenty different herbs, sauces of an hundred ingredients, confections, -and fruits of numberless sweets and flavours? What unnatural effects -must such a medley produce in the body? For my part, when I behold a -table set out in all its magnificence, I fancy, that I see gouts and -dropsies, fevers and lethargies, and other innumerable distempers, lying -in ambuscade among the dishes.” - -All this, and the like is, no doubt, very plausible, and very fine, and, -like many other fine speeches of modern reformers, it is more fine than -just. It is indeed as good a theory as may be, that cookery is the -source of most, or all, of our distempers; but withal it is _a mere -theory_, and only true in a very limited degree. The truth is, that it -is not cookery which is to blame, if we surfeit ourselves with its good -dishes; but our own sensual and insatiable appetite, and gluttony, which -prompt us to seek their gratification at the expense even of our health. - -Savages, whose cookery is in the rudest state, are more apt to over-eat -themselves than the veriest glutton of a luxurious and refined people; -a fact, which of itself, is sufficient to prove, that it is not cookery -which is the cause of gluttony and surfeiting. The savage, indeed, -suffers less from his gluttony than the sedentary and refined gormand; -for, after sleeping, sometimes for a whole day, after gorging himself -with food, hunger again drives him forth to the chace, in which he soon -gets rid of the ill-effects of his overloaded stomach. Surely cookery is -not to blame for the effects of gluttony, indolence, and sedentary -occupations; yet it does appear, that all its ill effects are -erroneously charged to the account of the refined art of cooking. - -The defence of cookery, however, which we thus bring forward to repel -misrepresentation, applies only to the art of preparing good, -nutritious, and wholesome food. - -We cannot say one word in defence of the wretched and injurious methods -but too often practised, under the name of cookery, and the highly -criminal practices of adulterating food with substances deleterious to -health. On this subject we have spoken elsewhere.[15] - - [15] A treatise on adulterations of food, and culinary poisons, - exhibiting the fraudulent sophistications of bread, beer, wine, - spirituous liquors, tea, coffee, cream, confectionary, vinegar, - mustard, pepper, cheese, olive oil, pickles, and other articles - employed in domestic economy, and methods of detecting them.--Third - edition, 1821. - -“A good dinner[16] is one of the greatest enjoyments of human life; but -the practice of cookery is attended with not only so many disgusting and -disagreeable circumstances, and even dangers, that we ought to have some -regard for those who encounter them for our pleasure.” - - [16] The Cook’s Oracle.--Preface, p. xxxv. - - -DIETETICAL REMARKS ON THE CHOICE AND QUANTITY OF FOOD. - -Almost every person who can afford it, eats more than is requisite for -promoting the growth, and renewing the strength and waste of his body. -It would be ridiculous to speak concerning the precise quantity of food -necessary to support the body of different individuals. Such rules do -not exist in nature. The particular state or condition of the -individual, the variety of constitution, and other circumstances, must -be taken into account. If, after dinner, we feel ourselves as cheerful -as before, we may be assured that we have made a dietetical meal. - -Much has been said of temperance. The fact is, that there is an absolute -determined standard of _temperance_, the point of which must be fixed -by every man’s natural and unprovoked appetite, while he continues _in a -state of health_. As long as a person who pursues a right habit of life, -eats and drinks no more than his stomach calls for and will bear, -without occasioning uneasiness of any kind to himself, he may be said to -live temperate. The stomach revolts against the reverse of it; indeed, -the stomach is the grand organ of the human system, it is the -_conscience_ of the _body_, and like that, will become uneasy if all is -not right within; it speaks pretty plainly to those who lead an -intemperate life. - -“We may compare,” says Doctor Kitchener, “the human frame to a watch, of -which the heart is the main _spring_, the stomach the _regulator_, and -what we put into it, the _key_, by which the machine is set a-going; -according to the quantity, quality, and proper digestion of what we eat -and drink will be the action of the system: and when a due proportion is -preserved between the quantum of exercise and that of excitement, all -goes well. If the machine be disordered, the same expedients are -employed for its re-adjustment, as are used by the watch-maker; it must -be carefully cleaned and then judiciously oiled. To affirm that such a -thing is wholesome, or unwholesome, without considering the subject in -all the circumstances to which it bears relation, and the unaccountable -idiosyncrasies of particular constitutions is, with submission, talking -nonsense. Every man must consult his stomach; whatever agrees with that -perfectly well, is wholesome for him, whilst it continues to do so -whenever natural appetite calls for food.” - -Celsus spoke very right when he said that a healthy man ought not to tie -himself up by strict rules, nor to abstain from any sort of food; that -he ought sometimes to fast, and sometimes to feast. When applied to -eating, nothing is more true than the proverb-- - - “_Bonarum rerum consuetudo pessima est._--SYRUS. - - “_The too constant use, even of good things, is hurtful._” - -It is certainly better to restrain ourselves, so as to _use_, but not to -_abuse_, our enjoyments; and to this we may add the opinion of doctor -Fothergil, which the experience of every individual confirms, namely, -that “the food we fancy most, sits easiest on the stomach.” - -What has been so far stated on the choice and quantity of food to be -taken at a time, of course, relates only to persons in a state of -health; the diet of the delicate, the sickly, and the infirm, must be -regulated by the physician, and even the aged require particular kinds -of food. - -“Experience[17] has fully convinced me, (says an eminent Physiologist), -that the latter stages of human life, are often abridged by unsuitable -diet.” - - [17] Carlisle on the disorders of Old Age, ps. 2 and 27. This - book exhibits an excellent view of the most suitable diet for aged, - weak, and sickly people. - -“The most numerous tribe of disorders incident to advanced life, spring -from the failure or errors of the stomach, and its dependancies, and -perhaps the first sources of all the infirmities of inability, may be -traced to effects arising from imperfectly digested food.” - - -EXTRAORDINARY GREAT EATERS, AND OBSERVATIONS ON ABSTINENCE. - -In some persons, an extraordinary great appetite seems to be -constitutional. - -_Charles Domery_, aged 21 years, when a prisoner of war, at Liverpool, -consumed in one day - - 4lbs. of Raw Cow’s Udder. - 10lbs. Raw Beef. - 2lbs. Tallow Candles. - ------ - Total 16lbs. - -and five bottles of porter; and although allowed the daily rations of -ten men, he was not satisfied. - -Another extraordinary instance has been recorded by Baron Percy:--A -soldier of the name of _Tarare_, who, at the age of 17, could devour in -the course of 24 hours, a leg of beef weighing 24lbs. and thought -nothing of swallowing the dinner dressed for fifteen German peasants. -But those men were remarkable not only for the quantity of food they -consumed, but also for its quality, giving a preference to raw meat, and -even living flesh and blood. - -_Domery_, in one year, eat 174 cats, dead and alive; and _Tarare_ was -strongly suspected of having eaten an infant. - -Man can sustain the privation of food for several days, more or fewer in -number, according to circumstances--the old better than the young, and -the fat better than the lean. The absolute want of drink can be suffered -only a short time, they have been strikingly described by Mungo Park and -Ali Bey, as experienced in their own persons. - -The narratives of ship-wrecked mariners also prove, with how very little -food life may be supported for a considerable length of time; and the -history of those impostors who pretend to live altogether without food -or drink, display this adaptation of the wants of the body to its means -of supply in a still more striking manner; for, even after the -deception, in such cases as that of Ann Moore, is exposed, it will be -found that the quantity of aliment actually taken was incredibly small. - -Captain Woodard has added to his interesting narrative many instances of -the power of the human body to resist the effects of severe abstinence. -He himself and his five companions rowed their boat for seven days -without any sustenance but a bottle of brandy, and then wandered about -the shores of Celebes six more, without any other food than a little -water and a few berries. Robert Scotney lived seventy-five days alone in -a boat with three pounds and a half of meat, three pounds of flour, two -hogsheads of water, some whale oil, and a small quantity of salt. He -also used an amazing quantity of tobacco. Six soldiers deserted from St. -Helena in a boat, on the 10th of June 1799, with twenty-five pounds of -bread and about thirteen gallons of water. On the 18th, they reduced -their allowance to one ounce of bread and two mouthfuls of water, on -which they subsisted till the 26th, when their store was expended. -Captain Inglefield, with eleven others, after five days of scanty diet, -were obliged to restrict it to a biscuit divided into twelve morsels for -breakfast, and the same for dinner, with an ounce or two of water daily. -In ten days, a very stout man died, unable to swallow, and delirious. -Lieutenant Bligh and his crew lived forty-two days upon five day’s -provisions. - -In the tenth volume of Hufland’s _Journal_, is related a very -remarkable, and well-authenticated case of voluntary starvation. A -recruit, to avoid serving, had cut off the fore-finger of his right -hand. When in hospital for the cure of the wound, dreading the -punishment which awaited him, he resolved to starve himself; and on the -2nd of August began obstinately to refuse all food or drink, and -persisted in this resolution to the 24th of August. During these -twenty-two days he had absolutely taken neither food, drink, nor -medicine, and had no evacuation from his bowels. He had now become very -much emaciated, his belly somewhat distended, he had a violent pain in -his loins, his thirst was excessive, and his febrile heat burning. His -behaviour had also become timid. Having been promised his discharge, -unpunished, he was prevailed upon to take some sustenance, but could -not, at first, bear even weak soup and luke-warm drinks. Under proper -treatment, he continued to mend for eight days, and his strength was -returning, when, on the 1st of September, he again refused food and got -a wild look. He took a little barley-water every four or five days to -the 8th; from that day to the 11th, he took a little biscuit with wine; -but again from the 11th September to the 9th October, a period of -twenty-eight days, he neither took food, drink, nor had any natural -evacuation. From the 9th to the 11th he again took a little nourishment, -and began to recruit; but, on the 11th, he finally renewed his -resolution to starve himself, and persevered until his death, which -took place on the 21st November, after a total abstinence of 42 days. - - -REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN OF THE CUSTOM OF EATING FLESH. - -We are told, that in the first ages of the world, men lived upon acorns, -berries, and such fruits as the earth spontaneously produced, and that -in the Shepherd state of society, milk, obtained from flocks and herds, -came into use. Soon afterwards the flesh of wild animals was added to -the food, and the juice of grape to the drink of the human species. Hogs -were the first animals, of the domestic kind, that were eaten by men, -for they held it ungrateful to eat the animals that assisted them in -their labour. “We are happy to find, (says the author of an elegant -poem[18]) that it was not on account of the solidity, wholesomeness, -delicacy, and other excellent qualities of his flesh, that the ox was -worshipped on the banks of the Nile, and in the gorgeous temples of -Memphis; for, although professedly friends to gastronomy, moderated by a -decided aversion to any thing like sensuality, we are of opinion that -man is less fit to feed upon _carnal_ than vegetable substance.” - - [18] Tabella Cibaria, p. 33. - -“The noble horse, fierce and unsubdued, was still roaming with all the -roughness and intractability of original freedom, in his native groves, -who already domesticated, the honest steer had willingly lent the -strength of his powerful shoulders to the laborious strife of the -plough. This had not only raised altars to him under the name of APIS, -but even placed him among the first constellations of the Zodiac above -the watchful eyes of the Chaldeans. In the reign of Erichtonius, fourth -king of Athens, Diomus was offering to Jupiter the first fruits of the -earth. Whilst the priests were busied apart in preparing some -necessaries to the solemnity, an ox, passing by, browsed of all that had -been gathered on the altar for the sacrifice. Diomus, in his -disappointment and passion, slew him on the spot. The Gods, instead of -countenancing his religious zeal, sent forth immediately all the horrors -of a pestilence upon the Athenians, which did not cease until they had -instituted a festival called “_The Death of the Ox_.”[19] - - [19] Nonius de re Cibaria. - -“Porphyrius traces the custom of eating meat to _Pygmalion_, king of -Tyre, in Phœnicia. Although the Jews were allowed to eat the flesh of -the immolated beasts, in the golden age, man had not found courage and -appetite enough to eat the flesh of an innocent animal; but soon after, -this cruelty extended to nearly all quadrupeds, except those who were -carnivorous. Tradition states, that _Prometheus_ was the first who -killed a bullock, _Ceres_ a pig, and _Bacchus_ a goat, for the uses of -their tables. It is obvious that pigs, by turning up the new-sown fields -for the sake of the grain, and goats browzing the tender sprouts of the -vine-tree, were respectively inimical to _Ceres_ and _Bacchus_. As for -the killing of the first bullock by _Prometheus_, we leave to other -commentators to explain.” - - -COMPARATIVE ALIMENTARY EFFECTS OF ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE FOOD. - -Animal food alone is ill adapted to form the whole of our aliment. The -inquiries of physiologists have determined, that animal food is highly -stimulant, and like all other stimulants, after the excitement has been -brought to its acmé, debility must by necessity succeed. This, however, -is not so much the case where fresh meat is used as when the meat is -salted; but this may be, because our examples, with regard to fresh -meat, are less marked than in the case of salted provision. For few -instances occur in which fresh meat forms the whole food, exclusive -altogether of fruits or other vegetable aliment. Salted meat often -constitutes a great proportion of the food in long sea voyages, in the -long dreary winters in Lapland, and amongst the inhabitants of besieged -towns. - -When this practice is continued for any length of time, oppression and -langour begin to be felt, indigestion is brought on, and hurried -breathing and a quick pulse on taking the slightest exercise, the gums -become soft and spongy, the breath becomes fœtid, and the limbs swoln. -Such are the dreadful effects produced by salted provisions, when a -proper proportion of vegetable food is not used along with them. - -The fact is, that nations, whose food is entirely vegetable, are less -active and energetic than those whose diet is more nutritive. The -inhabitants of Ireland, in the most humble walks of life, for example, -who live almost exclusively on potatoes, are said to be more indolent -and sluggish, when compared with their neighbours in England, who would -think such diet to be no better than a prison allowance of bread and -water. - -In the East, where rice forms the great article of food with some -tribes, the people are far from being robust or able to undergo much -fatigue in labour or in war. The striking fact, that the English -soldiers and sailors surpass all those of other nations in bravery and -hardihood, is sufficient, we think, to demonstrate the effect of a -considerable proportion of animal food.--For, though it be said, that a -great number of our soldiers are Irishmen, yet our argument holds good, -since, all these when in the army, or navy, live exactly in the same -manner as the English themselves. The change of diet, indeed, is in -these brave men very obvious; for the Irish and Scots soldiers are -often more hardy than the English; not as it is supposed because they -have been innured to greater hardships in their youth, but because their -diet being more generous than it was at that period, its effects become -more obvious than in those who have always had animal food. - -When we examine the structure of the digestive organs of the inferior -animals which live wholly on vegetable food, we find that they are very -differently constituted from man, and much more so from the animals of -prey. If the organs for digestion of the ruminant animals are more -complicated, it should seem to follow, that vegetable aliment is more -difficult to digest; otherwise, nature, who never works in vain, would -not have provided for them such a series of stomachs. Hence we infer, -that since man has not this apparatus peculiar to ruminant animals, it -must be plain that nature did not intend him to live exclusively on -vegetables. If we consider the human teeth, we shall be led to the same -conclusion, for they are not either like the teeth of ruminant animals -or those of beasts of prey, but intermediate between the two. We have -_incisor_ teeth like animals of the order glires: such as the hare, the -rabbit, and the guinea-pig; _canin_ teeth like those of the order feræ: -such as the dog, the tiger, and the lion; and _grinders_, like -herbivorous quadrupeds: such as the horse, the sheep, and the cow. - -Food, then, composed of animal and vegetable substances, seems to be the -best adapted for our organs of mastication and digestion, though it -would not be easy to say precisely what proportions of these are most -agreeable to the intentions of nature. We may safely conclude, however, -that the vegetable food ought to exceed the animal in quantity. The -direction given by Dr. Fothergill is the most judicious we have met -with. “I have only” says he “one short caution to give. Those who think -it necessary to pay any attention to their health at table, should take -care that the quantity of bread, of meat, of pudding, and of greens, -should not compose each of them a meal, as if some were only thrown in -to make weight; but they should carefully observe, that the sum of all -together do not exceed due bounds, or encroach upon the first feeling of -satiety.” - - -OBSERVATIONS ON THE VARIOUS KINDS OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES COMMONLY USED FOR -FOOD. - -Of the different classes of animals used for food, quadrupeds compose -the greatest proportion, and there is no part of their bodies which does -not contain nutritive parts, and that has not been used as food in some -way or other. Even bones affords an alimentary jelly fit for human food. - -The largest portion of our aliment, however, is derived from the -voluntary muscles of animals, or what is more strictly called, the -flesh, consisting of all the red fibrous substance which covers the -bones. It should seem that this is both the most nourishing and the most -easily digested of animal substances. The red colour arises from the -blood of minute vessels which run in every direction among the fibres; -but whether this is the cause of the red muscle being more nutritious is -not well ascertained. Thence the flesh of quadrupeds is more largely -consumed than of any other class of animals; and, indeed, those in -common use in most parts of Europe possesses all the alimentary -properties in the highest perfection. All animal flesh seems more or -less stimulating; and, in general, the more so the darker its colour -is--but it does not absolutely follow that it is also more nutritious. - -There is a considerable difference in the qualities of muscular flesh, -according to the size of the animal, and also according to its activity. -The small mountain sheep, for example, which has to encounter fatigue -to procure its food, has flesh of a different quality and flavour from -the large and lazy creature, which feeds luxuriously and fattens -rapidly, in the rich pastures of the plain country. The beef of the -western islands also, is more esteemed, on account of the same -circumstance, than that of the fat and brawny oxen which we see in the -London market. It is for this reason, we have no doubt, that the flesh -of the horse, the rhinocerus, and elephant, is not used as food except -in cases when other food is not to be procured. In the circumstance of -activity altering the qualities of flesh, we may be allowed to instance -the superiority of venison to beef, in flavour and tenderness, and -easiness of digestion. - -The age of animals is another circumstance which has great influence on -the qualities of their flesh. The flesh of young animals is composed of -less rigid fibres, and has fewer vessels which carry red blood running -through it, and besides, it has less of the peculiar flavour of its -particular species than the flesh of older animals. Gelatine is more -abundant in the young, and fibrin in the old; hence the former is more -bland and tender. Veal and lamb, for example, are more tender and -gelatinous than beef or mutton; sucking pigs, chickens, and ducklings, -are also much more delicate than the grown animals. The beef of an old -cow, however well fed, is quite tough and unpalatable, while that of a -very young heifer is much relished. Although, however, very young -animals be so much more tender, yet they are insipid and flabby. - -In the case of pork, age is not required, as in other sorts of butcher -meat, to mellow the fibre. It is an aliment containing much -nourishment; but to some palates its flavour is disagreeable, though by -most people it is relished. It was much used by the ancient athletæ, as -half raw beef steaks are now by our men of the fancy. - -Sucking pigs are killed when three weeks old; and for pork, pigs are -killed from six to twelve months old. It requires them to be older for -making brawn. The flesh of young venison is not so good as when four -years old or more; though that of the fawn is very tender and succulent. - -But even in the fœtal state, the flesh of animals, if recently taken -from a healthy mother, may be used. In the London market the fœtus of -the cow is regularly sold to the pastry-cooks for the purpose of making -mock turtle soup, of which it often forms the principal portion. - -Veal, however, is reckoned not so good when killed before it be eight -or ten weeks old. The most remarkable quality of flesh of this kind is, -its almost wholly dissolving in boiling water, forming in the warm state -a bland and gelatinous soup, and when cold, concreting into a tremulous -transparent jelly. It is less animalized, or more properly speaking, -contains less animal fibre than almost any other flesh; hence its -tendency to become ascescent when made into broth and jelly, which is -not the case with beef or mutton broth. The parts of older animals, -which contain a larger portion of gelatine, are in this respect similar -to young flesh. Cow-heel and sheep’s-head are well known instances. It -may be remarked that such food is less nutritious, and unless very much -boiled, is less digestible than muscular flesh; but as it is also more -light and less stimulating, it is frequently given to delicate people -who cannot take any thing stronger. - -Tripe is intermediate between what we have just described and the -muscular flesh of grown animals, insomuch as there is in the stomach of -ruminant animals a considerable proportion of vessels, transmitting red -blood, and of muscular fibres, and accordingly it is to be inferred that -tripe is more nutritive; it is certain it is more palatable and savory. - -As to other parts of animals, which are abundantly furnished with red -blood, though destitute of muscle, we cannot speak so decidedly. Some of -the glands are coarse and rank flavoured, from the peculiar secretions -which they produce, and are only used by poor persons; others are -esteemed as delicacies, and seem not to be unwholesome. As examples of -the latter, we may mention _sweet bread_ or _pancreas_, one of the -glands belonging to the digestive organs; and the liver of some species -of birds, and of young quadrupeds. - -The liver of the goose reckoned a great delicacy in Sicily, and they -have there a a method of enlarging this organ while the bird is alive, -but it is so cruel, that Brydon, who mentions it, declines giving the -particulars, lest our epicures in England should have the inhumanity to -give it a trial. The spleen is an instance of the former case, being -strongly ill flavoured. - -Another circumstance which produces difference of quality in flesh, is -the sex of the animal, the genital organs having in this respect a very -remarkable influence, as appears from the effect of destroying these by -castration. This renders the flesh of the male similar, and in some -cases, as in mutton, superior to that of the female, which is always -more tender, and of finer fibre than that of the uncastrated male. By -destroying also the ovaries of the females, their flesh is rendered more -delicate, though this operation is not often practised. The sow is the -animal which is most usually operated upon with this view; the flesh of -the uncastrated boar is very coarse and bad. Even in calves the -difference is observable, and veal is greatly improved by castrating the -males. The same practice greatly improves fowl, as in capons. Venison is -rank, tough, lean, and ill flavoured, and not fit to be eaten when -killed during the rutting season, in September and October; and salmon, -when about to spawn, are also bad, and prohibited, we believe, by our -laws, to be caught or sold. - -The mode of feeding animals, designed for the table, has also great -influence on the quality of the flesh, so much so, that nice judges can -distinguish whether mutton, if from the same breed of sheep, has been -fed on grass or on turnips; and can tell, still more accurately, on -tasting the fat of pork, whether the pigs have been fed on sour skimmed -milk, brewers grains, or pease flour. It was the practice sometime ago, -but now almost laid aside, to feed calves and oxen on oil cake. This did -certainly fatten them, but the fat was rather rancid in most cases, and -never of good flavour. The truth seems to be, that, though generally, -the lean of fat animals is the most tender and palatable, yet that this -is not so much the case when the fat is rapidly produced by artificial -management in the feeding. - -Sheep become very rapidly fat in the first stage of the rot, in -consequence, perhaps, of their desire for food being greatly increased -by the disease; and, taking advantage of this, it is said that some -butchers are in the practice of producing rot artificially, which is -certainly very blameable. Some amateurs of mutton are fond of such as -has died of a sort of colic, called in the North _braxy_, that produces -a very peculiar flavour in the meat, which is always, however, roasted, -and never stewed or boiled. Such tastes are, to say the least of them, -surely unnatural. - -It is, perhaps, owing to the different quality and quantity of food, as -much as any thing, that the season of the year has an effect upon the -flesh of animals; the heat or cold of the weather, and in some cases, -the periodical return of sexual attachment, must also be taken int to -be out of seasono account. In the instances of veal and lamb, the words, -_in season, and out of season_, refer, perhaps, more to plenty and -scarceness than to any quality in the meat; for as soon as any thing is -so plentiful in the market as to cause a fall in the price, and bring it -within reach of the poor, then the wealthy classes pronounce it to be -_out of season_. - -This is the case with some sorts of birds which migrate at certain times -of the year, the woodcock for example, and are on that account to be -valued when they can be procured. Such as breed here, the solan goose -for example, can be procured in the young state before they take their -flight to their unknown retreat. - -It has been roundly asserted, that there is no bird, and no part of any -birds, which may not be safely used as food. Many species, however, are -very oily, tough, or bad flavoured, and it is not at least very -desirable to eat any animal which feeds on prey or carrion; even though -this did not, as it does, taint their flesh. The qualities of the flesh -of birds differ very much, both in the several species, and in -particular parts of the same bird. - -The flesh of birds which live on grain, is for the most part preferred -to those which feed on insects or fish. - -The pheasant, the turkey, as well as partridge, and moor game, are more -esteemed than goose, duck, or woodcock. - -Many of the water birds, however, are preferred, though from the nature -of their food, they are apt to taste strongly of fish, and to become too -fat and oily: to remedy these defects, skilful cooks sometimes bury -them under ground for some days, and carefully remove all the skin, and -as much as possible of the fat and oil from the inside, before dressing -them. - -Of the several sorts of birds, those of larger size are coarser and more -tough than the smaller sorts; bustards, and larks, and ortolans, for -example, than swans, or turkeys, and geese. This difference is also -rendered greater in proportion to their age. - -With regard to the particular parts of the same birds, the flesh of the -wing, and the part of the breast nearest the wing, consisting of the -muscles exerted in flying, are more dry, tender, and of a whiter colour -than the muscles of the leg. This, however, is not the case with black -game, in which the more superficial of these muscles are dark-coloured, -while those deeper seated are pale; and the same is sometimes seen in -other birds. The belly and the muscles of the thigh, when young enough, -or when long kept and properly cooked, are both palatable, juicy, and -sufficiently tender. The tendons of these muscles, however, are very -tough, and at a certain age become cartilaginous and even bony. - -Birds in a domestic state do not readily become fat, if allowed to go at -large; for this purpose, they should be confined in coops, and supplied -with as much wholesome food as they can eat. Poulterers even cram them -with food. Domestic water fowls, must, while fattening, be kept from the -water, otherwise they will acquire a strong fishy taste, and besides, -will always remain lean. In general, over fatness may be considered as a -sort of oleagenous dropsy, and seldom or never is met with in a state of -nature. - -All the soft parts of fish contain gelatine and fibrous substance, and -are, consequently, in the edible sorts, nutritious. The fibrous portions -are not, except in a few species, red, like the muscular flesh of land -animals, but white and opake when dressed. If cooked fish looks bluish -and semi-transparent, it is not in season. It is fortunate for us, that -few if any poisonous fish are found in our seas, being chiefly confined -to the tropics. - -The roe of the greater number of fishes is eaten: caviar is the roe of -the sturgeon. - -Cods sounds, or the swim bladder of the larger cod, are reckoned a great -delicacy when properly preserved. It is not usual for the skin of any -animal to be eaten, though the skin of some sorts of fish which are -pulpy and gelatinous are relished--as the skin of calves head is used -for mock turtle soup. The flavour of fish depends greatly on their -food, which, it is supposed, is the main cause of the difference between -fresh and salt water fish, and between the same sorts of fish taken in -different lakes and rivers, and on different parts of the coast. - -Some shell fish, such as muscles and cockles, are occasionally found to -disagree with some particular constitutions, but it is not true that -this arises from their feeding on copper banks; some say, that it is -from the persons eating the beard or fibres, by which the muscles attach -themselves to the rocks, which is not, we think, probable. - -The limpet (_Patella vulgata_), the periwinkle (_turbo littoreus_) and -whilk (_murex antiquus_), are used as food, boiled by the common people -in various districts of this country. - -The crustaceous shellfish of sufficient size, are very generally -esculent. These chiefly belong to the family of _Cancer_. Hence, several -species of crabs, both short and long tailed, are eaten. The lobster, -the crawfish, the shrimp, and the prawn belong to this class. - - -OBSERVATIONS ON THE VARIOUS KINDS OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES COMMONLY USED -FOR FOOD. - -The vegetable substances used for food are, if we include fruits, much -more numerous than those derived from the animal kingdom. The chief of -these, however, are the different sorts of grain and pulse, the _farina_ -or flour of which, contains a large proportion of starch, gluten, and -mucilage, and but little woody fibre, and is consequently highly -nutritious, and easily digested. To this class of plants we are also -indebted for the food of the animals whose flesh is most generally used. -In pulse, as well as in rye and oats, there is, besides the principles -just mentioned, a considerable portion of sugar, which adds to their -nutritive qualities. - -We would class the different sorts of nuts, next to grain and pulse, in -the proportion of nutriment which they afford; starch and mucilage are -their chief elements, but these are combined with a kind of oil which is -not of easy digestion, and makes them disagree with most people when too -liberally used. Almonds, filberts, walnuts, and cocoa, are the nuts in -most request. Chocolate is a preparation of this kind, which is very -nutritious to those with whom it agrees. - -Next to grain, pulse, and nuts, we may place the farinaceous roots, -potatoes, carrots, parsnips, and Jerusalem artichokes. Of these, the -first, contains the most nourishment, which depends on the great -proportion of starch with which it abounds. Other pot-herbs possess -little nourishment. Cabbage and greens, for example, are chiefly -composed of fibre, mucilage, and water, and the same is true of onions, -leeks, celery, lettuce, and broccoli. - -Of fruits, those which are most farinaceous and mucilaginous, and which -are sweet from the sugar contained in them, are the most nutritious. The -pear should seem to answer this description the nearest, but experience -proves that this fruit is of less easy digestion than the apple, whose -greater acidity corrects the heavy quality of the saccharine matter with -which the pear abounds. - - -GENERAL OPERATIONS OF COOKERY. - -Few of the substances which we use for food are consumed in the state in -which they are originally produced by nature. With the exception of some -fruits and salads, all of them undergo some preparation. In most cases, -indeed, this is indispensable; for, otherwise, they would not only be -less wholesome and nutritive, but less digestible. The preceding -observations, therefore, are only applicable to the materials when -cooked, and not to the crude vegetables and raw flesh in the undressed -state. - -The general processes of cookery resolve themselves into the various -modes of applying heat under different circumstances. They are the -following--roasting, frying, broiling, baking, stewing, and boiling. -These operations not only soften the raw materials, and render them -alimentary, but the chemical constitution of the cooked substance -suffers also such alterations, that its constituent parts can often no -longer be recognised. - - -ROASTING ON A SPIT - -Appears to be the most ancient process of rendering animal food eatable -by means of the action of heat. - -Spits were used very anciently in all parts of the world, and perhaps, -before the plain practice of hanging the meat to a string before the -fire. Ere the iron age had taught men the use of metals, these roasting -instruments were made of wood; and as we find it in Virgil,[20] slender -branches of the hazel tree were particularly chosen-- - - --------“_Stabit sacer hircus ad aram - “Pinguiaque in verubus torrebimus extra colurnis._” - The altar let the guilty goat approach, - And roast his fat limbs on the hazel broach.” - - [20] Georgics II. 545. - -Roasting is the most simple and direct application of heat in the -preparation of food. The process is, for the most part, confined to -animal substances, though several fruits, such as apples, chesnuts, and -some roots, are in this manner directly subjected to fire. - -But in dressing animal food, butcher’s meat, venison, fowl, and fish, -roasting is one of the most usual processes, and it is, we believe, the -best for rendering food nutritive and wholesome. The chemical changes -also which roasting induces, are sufficiently slight, as a careful -analysis will procure from meat, properly roasted, nearly all the -elements which are to be found in it in the raw state. Slight as the -change is however in a chemical, it is considerable in a culinary, point -of view. The texture of the meat is more relaxed and consequently it is -more tender; it is also more sapid and high flavoured. It is absolutely -essential that the meat intended for roasting, has been kept long enough -for the fibres to become flaccid, without which precaution the best meat -does not become tender. If the meat be frozen, it should be thawed, by -putting it into cold water, before it is put on the spit. - -The process of roasting requires some care to conduct it properly. The -meat should be gradually turned before the fire, in order to effect its -uniform exposure to the rays of heat. A covering of paper prevents the -fat from taking fire, and frequently _basting_ the meat with gravy or -melted fat, prevents it from being scorched or becoming dry, bitter, and -unpalatable. It is necessary to be very careful in placing the meat to -be roasted at a proper distance from the fire. If it is put too near, -the surface will be scorched and burnt to a cinder, while the inner -portion will be quite raw; and, if it be too distant, it will never have -either the tenderness or the flavour it would have had by proper care. -At first, it should be placed at some distance, and afterwards be -gradually brought nearer the fire, to give the heat time to penetrate -the whole piece equally; and, the larger the joint is, the more -gradually should this be done. Poultry, in particular, should be heated -very gradually. - -When the joint is of an unequal thickness, the spit must be placed -slanting, so that the thinnest part is further removed from the fire. - -The less the spit is made to pass through the prime part of the meat, -the better. Thus, in a shoulder of mutton, the spit is made to enter -close to the shank-bone, and passed along the blade-bone of the joint. - -When the meat is nearly sufficiently roasted, it is dusted over with a -coating of flour; this, uniting with the fat and other juices exuded on -the surface, covers the joint with a brown crust, glazed and frothy, -which gives to the eye a prelude of the palatable substance it encrusts. - -The process, as just described, is very similar, whatever may be the -sort of meat roasted, whether joints, and the several species of fowl, -or game. Fish is not usually dressed in this way, though the larger -sorts are sometimes roasted. Those who relish eels and pike prefer them -roasted to any other mode of dressing them. - -It is a general practice to move the spit back when the meat is half -done, in order to clear the bottom part of the grate, and to give the -fire a good stirring, that it may burn bright during the remainder of -the process. The meat is deemed sufficiently roasted when the steam -puffs out of the joint in jets towards the fire. - -To facilitate the process of roasting, a metal screen, consisting of a -shallow concave reflector, is placed behind the meat, in order to -reflect the rays of heat of the fire back again upon the meat. This -greatly hastens the process. The screen is usually made of wood, lined -with tin. It should be kept bright, otherwise, it will not reflect the -rays of heat. - - -ROASTING ON A STRING - -Is usually performed by means of the useful contrivance called a _bottle -jack_, a well-known machine, so named from its form. It only serves for -small joints, but does that better than the spit. It is cheap and -simple, and the turning motion is produced by the twisting and -untwisting of a string. The sort of roasting machine, called the _Poor -Man’s Spit_, is something of the same nature, but still more simple. The -meat is suspended by a skein of worsted, a twirling motion being given -to the meat, the thread is twisted, and when the force is spent, the -string untwists itself two or three times alternately, till the action -being discontinued, the meat must again get a twirl round. When the meat -is half done, the lower extremity of the joint is turned uppermost, and -affixed to the string, so that the gravy flows over the joint the -reverse way it did before. - - -ROASTING IN AN OPEN OVEN. - -A Dutch or open oven is a machine for roasting small joints, such as -fowls, &c. It consists of an arched box of tin open on one side, which -side is placed against the fire. The joint being either suspended in the -machine on a spit, or by a hook, or put on a low trevet placed on the -bottom of the oven, which is moveable. The inside of the oven should be -kept bright that it may reflect the heat of the fire. This is the most -economical and most expeditious method of roasting in the small way. - - -ROASTING IN A CLOSED OVEN. - -Roasting in a closed oven, or _baking_, consists in exposing substances -to be roasted to the action of heat in a confined space, or closed oven, -which does not permit the free access of air, to cause the vapour -arising from the roasted substance to escape as fast as it is formed, -and this circumstance materially alters the flavour of roasted animal -substances. - -_Roasters_ and ovens of the common construction are apt to give the meat -a disagreeable flavour, arising from the empyreumatic oil, which is -formed by the decomposition of the fat, exposed to the bottom of the -oven. This inconvenience has been completely remedied in two ways, by -providing against the evil of allowing the fat to burn; and secondly, -by carrying out of the oven by a strong current of heated air, the -empyreumatic vapours, as fast as they are formed. - -Such are the different processes of roasting meat. - -_Rationale._--The first effect of the fire is to rarify the watery -juices within its influence which make their escape in the form of -steam. The albuminous portion then coagulates in the same manner as the -white of an egg does, the gelatine and the osmazome[21] become detached -from the fibrine, and unite with a portion of the fat, which also is -liquified by the expansive property of heat. The union of these form a -compound fluid not to be found in the meat previously. This is retained -in the interstices of the fibres where it is formed by the brown frothy -crust, but flows abundantly from every pore when a cut is made into the -meat with a knife. In consequence of the dissipation of the watery -juices, the fibrous portion becomes gradually corrugated, and, if not -attentively watched, its texture is destroyed, and it becomes rigid. -Chemists prove that the peculiar odour and taste of roasted meat depends -on the development of the principle which has been called _osmazome_, or -the _animal extractive matter_ of the old chemist, a substance which -differs very much from every other constituent part of animal matter -_chemically_, in being soluble in alcohol--and to the _senses_, in being -extremely savoury or sapid. It is upon this principle, which seems to -admit of considerable varieties, that the peculiar grateful flavour of -animal food, (whether in the form of broth or roasted,) and of each of -its kinds, depends. Osmazome exists in the largest quantity in the -fibrous organs, or combined with fibrine in the muscles, while the -tendons and other gelatinous organs appear to be destitute of it. The -flesh of game, and old animals, contains it in greater quantity than -that of young animals abounding in gelatine. - - [21] Derived from οσμη, _smell_, and ζωμος, _broth_. - -The tenderness produced by roasting, we account for, from the expansion -of the watery juices into steam, loosening and dissevering the fibres -one from another, in forcing a passage through the pores to make their -escape by. This violence, also, must rupture all the finer network of -the cellular membranes, besides the smaller nerves and blood vessels -which ramify so numerously through every hair’s-breadth of animal -substance. This dissolution of all the minute parts of the meat, which -must take place before a particle of steam can escape, will most -clearly account both for the tenderness and the altered colour of -roasted meat. The action of heat, also, upon the more solid parts of the -bundles of fibres, will, independent of the expansion of the juices, -cause them to enlarge their volume, and consequently make the smaller -fibres less firmly adhesive. - - -BROILING. - -Another process in which meat is subjected to the immediate action of -fire is broiling, which at first sight seems not to differ from -roasting. The effect on the meat is, however, considerably different. -The process consists in laying chops or slices of meat on clear burning -coals, or a gridiron placed over a clear fire. It is indispensable that -the chops or slices be moderately thin, otherwise the outside will be -scorched to a cinder before they are cooked within; from one fourth to -three fourths of an inch is a proper thickness.[22] It is also necessary -that the fire be moderately brisk, without smoke or flame, lest the meat -should acquire a smoky taste. When a gridiron is used it ought to be -thoroughly heated before the slices or chops are laid on it, to prevent -them from sticking to the bars. In order to broil them equally, they -must be turned from time to time till the cook can easily pierce them -with a fork or sharp skewer, which is the test of them being -sufficiently cooked. It is improper, however, to cut into the chops to -ascertain whether they are broiled enough, because it lets out the -gravy. - - [22] It is recommended by cooks to previously beat the raw slices with - a mallet, but this practice is a bad one. - -Coke is the best fuel for broiling, for it does not emit any smoke, and -gives a clear and moderate heat; a mixture of coke and charcoal is -exceedingly well calculated for the broiling process. - -Those gridirons of the usual appearance and form, that have the bars -fluted or hollowed on the upper side, by which means, the fat that comes -from the meat that is cooked on them, is prevented from falling into the -fire, and causing flame and smoke are the best; for all the grease that -runs down the bars is received into a small trough, which prevents it -from being wasted or lost. The upright gridiron is a still better -invention, as the meat cooked on it, is entirely free from smoke, and -the melted fat is still more easily saved, and kept more clean. - -_Rationale._--The heat being very quickly and directly applied, not -gradually as in roasting and baking, the surface of the meat is speedily -freed from its watery juices, and the fibres become corrugated, forming -a firm and crisp incrustation of fibre and fat. This crust effectually -prevents the escape of the juices from within; namely, the gelatine, and -the osmazome, which are more rapidly expanded by the heat than in -roasting, and consequently must more violently dissever the small fibres -among which they are lodged, the effect, however, is more mechanical -than chemical, for it does not appear that any new combination is -formed, nor much disorganization produced. Accordingly, it is found that -broiled meat is more sapid, and contains more liquid albumen, gelatine, -and free osmazome, than the same meat would do if boiled or roasted. It -is this greater degree of juicyness, sapidity, and tenderness, that -constitutes the peculiarity and perfection of this mode of cooking, -compared with roasting, baking, or frying in a pan. - -Every sort of meat, however, is not fit for broiling. The chemistry of -the process will point out the sorts best adapted for it. The flesh, for -example, of old animals, which is deficient in gelatine and albumen, -would be too much dried by roasting. The larger muscles, also, which -abound in fibrous substance, such as the rump of beef, are well fitted -for broiling. The flesh of game is likewise less juicy and gelatinous, -and forms a very savoury dish when broiled. The process is peculiarly -fit for most sorts of fish, which roasting or baking would render dry -and shrivelled, and in many cases boiling would make it too soft and -pulpy. Fresh caught char, and trout,[23] are in the highest perfection -when dressed in this way. - - [23] The best way of eating mackerel, is to broil it in buttered paper - upon the gridiron; and, when properly done, to put fresh butter in the - inside, with chopped parsley, pepper, and salt, which melts, and adds - an exceedingly good flavour to the fish. - -On the other hand, the flesh which abounds in watery juices and gelatine -is not well adapted for broiling. The flesh of all young animals is of -this kind; and accordingly lamb, veal, and sucking pig; the flesh of the -fawn and kid do not answer to be broiled but roasted. The same is true -of all the parts of an animal, whatever be its age, which abound more in -gelatine, albumen, and fat, than in red muscular fibre. - -Broiled beaf steaks were the established breakfast of the Maids of -Honour of Queen Elizabeth. At an earlier period they gave strength and -vigour to those who - - “-----------------------------------drew, - “_And almost joined the horns_ of the tough yew.” - - -FRYING. - -Frying is a process somewhat intermediate between roasting and boiling. -Indeed, in one sense, it may be termed boiling, as it is the application -of heat to the substance to be cooked, through the medium of melted fat, -raised to the boiling temperature. The effect on the meat is very -peculiar, and easily distinguished from every other mode of cooking. The -meat is prepared in the same way as in broiling, by cutting it into -chops, or slices, of not more than half an inch or three quarters in -thickness. A sufficient quantity of mutton or beef suet, butter, lard, -or oil, being melted in a pan, and made boiling-hot, the meat is laid in -it. It is not necessary that the meat be _wholly_ immersed in the -boiling fat; if it be immersed in part, it will be quite sufficient. -When flesh is the substance to be fried, the pieces, previously to their -being put into the pan, are sometimes brushed over with eggs and crumbs -of stale bread, flour, or any other farinaceous substance. This -application may also be made when the meat is nearly cooked. The -intention of it is to cover the meat with a thin brown crust, the savour -of which increases the relish of the dish. Fish are, for the most part, -treated in this manner when fried. It answers well with trout, whitings, -flounders, and soles. When this application is made to the meat -previously to its being put into the pan, the peculiar flavour of the -meat is more effectually retained. One of the best preparations for this -purpose is oatmeal, flour, or crumbs of stale bread, made into a liquid -paste with the yolk and white of eggs. - -Vegetable, as well as animal substances, are subjected to this process, -though it is always at the expense of their wholesome and nutritive -qualities; and not always to the improvement of their taste and flavour. - -As in the case of animal substances, all the juices are, by frying, -extracted from the vegetables; with this difference, however, that their -place is not supplied by the melted fat; for the starch of the -vegetables (potatoes for example) is rendered insoluble in water by the -fat, and exhibits a corneous appearance and texture. Fried potatoes are -the most familiar instance of the process. When cut into thin slices -and fried in oil, butter, or lard, they are rendered semi-transparent. -Cabbage, or the stalks, leaves, and fruits of other vegetable -substances, previously boiled and then fried, shrink, and become more -easy to break, in proportion as the water is driven off from them, as -this, during their previous boiling, dissolves the saccharine and -amylaceous matter which rendered them supple and juicy. These principles -are much better prepared and improved by boiling; they are very much -deteriorated by the boiling fat in the frying pan. - -The melted fat, or oil, should always be brought to the boiling point, -or nearly so. The proper temperature is ascertained by putting into the -fat a few sprigs of parsley, a thin slice of turnip, or a piece of -bread, and if any of these substances become crisp without acquiring a -black colour, the fat is hot enough for frying; if it be made hotter, -it becomes blackened, and the meat acquires a burnt and unpleasant -flavour. Any sort of hard fat, such as beef suet, is the best fitted for -frying meat; because, fat of this description can be brought to a higher -temperature, without suffering decomposition, than either lard, butter, -or oil. There are, however, particular kinds of meat which answer better -with some one or other of these than with any of the rest. Fish, for -example, is best fried in oil. - -A rich brown colour is communicated to the fried substance, by pressing -it, when nearly cooked, against the bottom of the pan. - -The fire for frying should be kept sharp and clear, to keep the melted -fat at a sufficient high temperature, and without this precaution the -fried substance cannot be browned. If the temperature of the fat is not -hot enough, the fried meat will be sodden. Fish cannot be fried of a -good colour, and crisp, and firm texture, unless the fat is boiling hot. - -Frying, though one of the most common culinary occupations, is one of -those that is least commonly performed. - -Eggs are often fryed. - -“Fresh butter, hissing in the pan, receives the yolk and white together -in its burning bosom. One minute or two and all the noise is over; and, -sprinkled with pepper, salt, and a few drops of vinegar, they appear -perfectly fit for the table. The _salamander_ is often held over them, -and accelerates the culinary process.” - -_Rationale._--The process of frying is considerably different from those -which we have formerly been examining. In frying, the high temperature -of the melted fat has the effect of extracting (at least from the outer -surface) all the gelatine, osmazome and albumen, the place of which is, -in part, supplied by the melted fat entering between the fibres, and -gradually filling up the interstices. It is this circumstance which -prevents the fibres of fried meat from becoming hard and dry, and -preserves them in a tender and supple state. Meat which has been fried, -shrinks more in bulk than when boiled or roasted, in consequence of the -melted fat having a stronger influence in dislodging the animal juices. -It is this also which gives the meat the structure which has not unaptly -been compared to leather. - -Taste informs us, independently of our _rationale_, that fried meat is -less gelatinous and less savoury than when simply boiled or roasted. It -is also less tender. The gelatine and other juices of the animal fibre, -which are extracted during the process may be discovered, after the -melted matter in the pan is suffered to settle, in the form of a rich, -brown, savoury jelly, which separates spontaneously from the rest of the -substance. - - -STEWING. - -Stewing differs from roasting and broiling, in the heat being applied to -the substance through a small portion of a liquid medium; and, from -boiling and frying, in the process being conducted by means of an -_aqueous_, and not by means of an oily fluid. It is necessary that the -fire be moderate; for a strong heat suddenly applied would be very -injurious. The liquids employed as the medium for applying the heat are -usually water, gravy, or broth, the quantity of which must be such as -shall prevent the meat from burning and adhering to the pan. It is not -requisite that the liquid be made to boil in stewing. It should only be -raised nearly to a simmering heat, which will retard the fluid being -evaporated too quickly. The closeness of the vessel will also prevent -the waste of the liquid. If it diminish too quickly, it must, from time -to time, be replenished. - -The management of the fire in cooking, is, in all cases, a matter of -importance, but in no case is it so necessary to be attended to as in -preparing stews or made dishes; not only the palatableness, but even the -strength or richness of all made dishes, seems to depend very much upon -the management of the heat employed in cooking them. - -The most proper sorts of animal food for stewing, are such as abound in -fibrine, and which are too dry or too tough for roasting. When beef or -mutton is rather old and too coarse flavoured, and not tender enough for -the spit or the gridiron, it may, by stewing, be not only rendered -tolerably palatable, but even sometimes savoury and good. But the -stewing process is not confined to flesh of this sort; for veal and -other young flesh which abounds in gelatine, when properly stewed, is -much relished. - -The vegetables most usually stewed are carrots, turnips, potatoes, -pease, beans, and other leguminous seeds. Some fruits are also cooked in -this way. - -_Rationale._--Stewing is nothing else than boiling by means of a small -quantity of an aqueous fluid, and continuing the operation for a long -time to render the substance tender, to loosen its texture, to render -it more sapid, and to retain and concentrate the most essential parts of -animal or vegetable food. - -If the stew-pan be close shut, it is evident that none of the nutritive -principles can escape, and must either be found in the meat itself or in -the liquid. The water or gravy in which the meat is stewed, being -capable of dissolving the gelatine and albumen, the greater part of them -become separated during the simmering process. Now, since the firm -texture of the bundles of fibres of the meat is owing to the solid -gelatine and albumen glueing them, as it were, together, when they are -dissolved and disengaged, the meat must become greatly disorganized. -These principles, as well as the fat and osmazome, are partly disengaged -from the meat, and become united with the gravy. It is to these, indeed, -that the gravy owes all its richness and excellence. The muscular -fibres and the tendons acquire a gluey appearance and texture, and the -whole forms a savoury gelatinous _stew_, _gravy_, or _soup_. - -No scorching or browning of the meat takes place if the process is -properly conducted; for the temperature to which it is exposed does not -exceed the boiling point of water. - -In the stewing of vegetables, saccharine matter is formed, the starch -and mucilage are rendered soluble, and of course, set free the woody -fibre, which either floats through the liquid or adheres together very -slightly. It accordingly constitutes either a pasty fluid, or converts -the vegetables to a soft pulp; sometimes their original shape being -preserved entire, and at other times not. - - -BOILING. - -Boiling is a much more common operation than any of those we have -considered, with the exception perhaps of roasting. It consists, as -every body knows, in subjecting the materials of food to the influence -of heat, through the medium of boiling water, or of steam. - -The water employed for boiling meat or pulse should be soft, and the -joint should be put on the fire immersed in cold water, in order that -the heat may gradually cause the whole mass to become boiled equally. - -If the piece of meat is of an unequal thickness, the thinner parts will -be over-done before the more massy portion is sufficiently acted on by -the boiling water. - -Salted meat requires to be very slowly boiled, or simmered only, for a -quick and rapid ebullition renders salted provisions extremely hard. - -Frozen substances should be thoroughly thawed, and this is best effected -by immersing them in cold water. - -Count Rumford has taken much pains to impress on the minds of those who -exercise the culinary art, the following simple but pratical, important -fact, namely, that when water begins only to be agitated by the heat of -the fire, it is incapable of being made hotter, and that the violent -ebullition is nothing more than an unprofitable dissipation of the -water, in the form of steam, and a considerable waste of fuel. - -From the beginning of the process to the end of it the boiling should be -as gentle as possible. Causing any thing to boil violently in any -culinary process, is very ill-judged; for it not only does not -expedite, in the smallest degree, the process of cooking, but it -occasions a most enormous waste of fuel, and by driving away with the -steam many of the more volatile and more savoury particles of the -ingredients, renders the victuals less good and less palatable: it is -not by the bubbling up, or _violent boiling_, as it is called, of the -water that culinary operations are expedited. - -One of the most essential conditions to be attended to in the boiling of -meat is, to skim the pot well, and keep it really boiling, the slower -the better. If the skimming be neglected, the coagulated albuminous -matter will attach itself to the meat, and spoil the good appearance of -it. - -It is not necessary to wrap meat or poultry in a cloth, if the pot be -carefully skimmed. The general rule of the best cooks is to allow from -20 to 30 minutes slow simmering to a pound of meat, reckoning from the -time the pot begins to boil. - -The cover of the boiling pot should fit close, to prevent the -unnecessary evaporation of the water, and the smoke insinuating itself -under the edge of the cover, and communicating to the boiled substance a -smoky taste. - -Cooks often put a trevet, or plate, on the bottom of the boiling pot, to -prevent the boiled substance sticking to the pot. - -_Rationale._--When flesh or fish is boiled in an open vessel, or one not -closely covered, the fibrous texture is rendered more tender: at the -same time its nutritive quality is not much diminished. For the -temperature of the water or steam, never exceeding 212°, is insufficient -to produce the partial charring, which roasting and broiling effect. -But, as in stewing, the gelatine, albumen, osmazome, and fat, are -developed and disengaged, and becoming united with the liquid in the -vessel, form a soup, or broth. The paler colour of boiled meat is owing -to the blood being separated and diffused in the water. In frying, the -boiling fat or oil enters into the interstices of the fibres, which the -disengaged animal juices have left empty. In boiling, in a similar way, -the hot water takes the place of the blood, gelatine, fat, and albumen, -which have been dissolved and separated from the fibres. The fibres are -in this manner soaked and washed, first by the boiling water, and -afterwards by the soup or broth which is formed, till the whole texture -assume a softened consistence, and pale appearance. It is this, rather -than any softening of the fibres themselves, which seems to be the real -effect produced, unless, with some, we consider the fibres as nothing -more than minute and close-set bundles of blood vessels. This doctrine, -however, the experience of every cook will disprove; for if the boiling -be long continued, the fibres of the meat will alone remain, and so far -from becoming more soft and pulpy, they will become dry and juiceless. -If indeed the boiling point of the water be artificially increased above -212°, by pressure applied to the surface of the liquid, the fibres may -be reduced to a pulp, quite homogeneous. When this is done by Papin’s -digester, or by any other apparatus of the same kind, and when the -process under such circumstances is long continued, the hardest bones -may be converted into jelly. - -It is only by boiling that the more gelatinous parts of flesh can be -completely extracted unaltered from such parts as are cartilaginous, -ligamentous, or tendinous. - - -COMPARISON OF THE CHEMICAL CHANGES PRODUCED ON ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE -FOOD, IN THE DIFFERENT PROCESSES OF COOKERY. - -The principal operations of cookery which we have just examined and -explained, all agree in this, that they effect some chemical change on -the materials operated upon, by which they are rendered more digestible, -more wholesome, and consequently more nutritive. - -In such of the operations as are performed by the direct application of -heat to the flesh of animals, namely, roasting, baking, frying, and -broiling, the meat loses the vapid and nauseous taste and odour which it -possesses in a raw state, and becomes savoury, juicy, and grateful to -the taste. These effects arise from the development of the gelatine and -osmazome from the smaller vessels, and their being rendered soluble; -while, at the same time a portion of the fat is liquified, and combines -with them after they are disengaged. - -The fibres again, on the surface of the meat, are partly scorched, and -form a crust, which, except in the interstices of the corrugations, is -impermeable, and consequently prevents the savoury gravy that is -disengaged from the fibres from oozing out or becoming evaporated. It is -thus only disengaged from its chemical union with the fibres, and -remains mechanically united with them in the meat, after it is cooked, -as we see upon cutting into the fibrous portion. - -The effect produced on the fat is somewhat different. The direct -application of fire to this portion of the meat soon melts part of the -substance, and raises it to the boiling point, or nearly so; the water -which it contains is consequently given off in the form of steam, and it -carries with it a quantity of osmazome. It is this which occasions the -peculiar odour that arises from meat while roasting. - -The vapid taste is also corrected by the empyreuma, combined with a -minute quantity of ammonia, which is soon developed on the surface of -the fat, by the partial charring--not of the fat itself, but of the -cellular membrane in which it is enveloped. This structure may easily be -perceived on a slight examination of a piece of recent fat; all the -membranous or skinny portions being only the receptacles or nests for -the fat itself. And since these membranes are for the most part -exceedingly thin and easily ruptured, and since heat increases the -volume of the fat which they contain, the application of heat in -roasting or broiling will soon make all the membranes burst which are -within its influence, and thus give a free passage for the juices to -unite with each other. - -There is, according to these statements, but little loss of the -substance of meat when roasted or broiled, and the chemical changes -produced are so slight, that nearly all its nutritive elements must be -preserved and concentrated in the cooked meat. - -When there is a watery medium used, through which heat is applied to -animal food, as for example, in the process of stewing or boiling, a -portion of the fat, gelatine, and osmazome, is dissolved, and mixes -with the water. Nutritive matter is consequently lost, or, at least, it -is transferred from the meat to the broth or soup. - -In the operation of _stewing_ there is less of this transfer made; and, -besides, as the medium is scarcely kept at a boiling heat, less of the -nutritive juices are dissolved. When, however, the broth or gravy in -which meat is _boiled_ is made use of, as well as the meat itself, -boiling is the most economical practice; for though nothing be added -except the water, this itself, if it contains no nourishment, at least -fills the stomach, and serves to diffuse more widely the nutritive -juices of the meat which it holds in solution or in mixture. - -But though boiling be thus the most economical practice, it is not -always to the taste of individuals, or even of whole nations to use the -broth or soup. The English and Irish, for example, rarely follow this -practice, while the Scots, French, and Germans, prefer it to all other -modes of cooking. In general, then, it should seem, that roasting as it -is the simplest, is also the best mode of rendering the flesh of animals -fit for human food. Roasted meat is wholesome and highly nourishing; and -when there is not too much of the empyreumatic crust formed, it is for -the most part easily digested. In these respects, broiled meat differs -little from such as is roasted. What is fried is always less tender. It -is often found that roasted or broiled meat sits more easily on the -stomach, and is sooner digested by those whose digestive organs are -feeble or diseased, than fried or boiled meat, or broths and stews. - -The effects of the processes of cookery on vegetable substances, though -usually very slight and simple, are in some instances both striking and -unexpected. For example, some sorts of vegetables are extremely acrid -and even poisonous in their crude state, and altogether unfit for human -food; yet, by simply boiling them in water, they become bland, sweet, -and wholesome. Several species of _arum_ (cuckoo-pint), which are very -acrid, and would be dangerous to use raw, become quite palatable -pot-herbs when boiled. Their acrimony must reside in a very volatile -principle, which, during the boiling, makes its escape, or is chemically -altered; but the nature of this principle has not yet been accurately -investigated by chemists. A more familiar example than this is found in -onions, leeks, and garlick, whose acrimony and strong odour can be -almost destroyed, or rather driven off by a sufficiently long -application of heat, either directly, or through the medium of water. -Many other instances could be given, but we shall content ourselves with -one more. - -Every body knows that potatoes, in a raw state, are nauseous and -unpalatable. It is not, perhaps, so generally known that the potatoe, -(_solanum tuberosum_,) belongs to the night-shade genus of plants, which -are all more or less poisonous. If potatoes were used raw, in any -quantity, they would be deleterious to man; nor does it disprove this -that cattle eat them with impunity, as sheep and goats eat plants much -more strongly poisonous to man, such as hemlockdropwort, [_oenanthe -crocata_;] and waterhemlock, [_phelandrium aquaticum_]. - -By boiling or roasting, however, all the unpalatable and all the -unwholesome qualities of the potatoe are changed, and it becomes -farinaceous, wholesome, digestible, and highly nutritious. Yet, although -this change is remarkable, and could scarcely have been anticipated, -very little is lost and nothing is added to the potatoe by either -roasting or boiling, yet its immediate constituent parts have evidently -suffered a very great chemical alteration, chiefly, in consequence it -should seem, from the farinaceous substance being acted on by water. - -Vegetables, when used as food, are most commonly boiled, and seldom -baked or roasted. Salads, indeed, are eaten raw, without any application -of heat. The chemical action of heat on pot-herbs, on esculent roots, -and leguminous seeds, does not appear to be confined to the mere -softening of their fibres, or to the solution or coagulation of some of -their juices and component parts; for we have just now seen that their -flavour, and other sensible qualities, as well as their texture, suffer -a remarkable chemical change, which greatly improves their alimentary -properties. - -In the cooking of vegetables, saccharine matter is often formed, or -mucilage and jelly extracted; and the whole substance is on that account -rendered more palatable, wholesome, and nourishing. These effects are -very well exemplified in the changes which take place in flour when -converted into bread;[24] which differs materially from flour paste, -insomuch that the constituent parts of the unbaked dough can no longer -be separated by the processes employed in chemical analysis. - - [24] A treatise on the _art_ of making good and _wholesome_ bread of - wheat, oats, rye, barley, and other farinaceous grain, exhibiting the - alimentary properties and chemical constitution of different kinds of - bread corn, and of the various substitutes used for bread, in - different parts of the world, p. 58, 1821. - -Vegetable substances are most commonly boiled or baked; or, if -occasionly fried or roasted, there is always much water present, which -prevents the greater action of the fire from penetrating below the -surface. The universal effect of cookery by boiling upon vegetable -substances, is to dissolve in the water some of their constituents, such -as the mucilage and starch, and to render those that are not properly -soluble, as the gluten and fibre, softer and more pulpy. - - -COMPARATIVE DIMINUTION OF THE WEIGHT OF MEAT IN COOKING. - -It is evident, that whether the heat be applied directly or indirectly -for cooking animal food, there must be a considerable diminution of -weight. In the cooking of animal substances in public institutions, -where the allowance of meat is generally weighed out in its raw state, -and includes bones, and is served out cooked, and sometimes without -bone, it is a matter of importance to ascertain nearly their relative -proportions. Much, no doubt, depends upon the piece of the meat cooked, -and the degree of cookery, and the attention bestowed on it. Persons who -salt rounds of beef to sell by retail, after it is boiled, get 19 lbs. -of cold boiled beef from 25 lbs. raw; but the meat is always rather -underdone. - -Messrs. Donkin and Gamble boiled in steam 56 lbs. of captain’s salt -beef; the meat, when cold, without the bones, which amounted to 5 lbs. 6 -oz. weighed only 35 lbs. - -In another experiment, 113 lbs. of prime mess beef, gave 9 lbs. 10 oz. -of bones, and 47 lbs. 8 oz. meat; and in a third, 213 lbs. mess beef -gave 13 lbs. 8 oz. bones, and 103 lbs. 10 oz. meat; or, taken in the -aggregate, 372 lbs. of salt beef, including bones, furnish, when boiled, -186 lbs. 2 oz., without bone, being about 50 _per cent._; or, -disregarding the bone altogether, salt meat loses, by boiling, about -44.2 per cwt. or nearly half. - -We are indebted to Professor Wallace (of Edinburgh) for the detail of a -very accurate and extensive experiment in a public establishment, of -which the results were, that, in pieces of 10 lbs. weight, each 100 lbs. -of BEEF lost, on an average, by _boiling_, 26.4; _baking_, 30.2; and -_roasting_, 32.2: MUTTON, the leg, by _boiling_, 21.4; by _roasting_ the -shoulder, 31.1; the neck, 32.4; the loin, 35.9. Hence, generally -speaking, _mutton_ loses, by boiling, about one-fifth of its original -weight, and _beef_ about one-fourth; again, _mutton_ and _beef_ lose, by -_roasting_, about one-third of their original weight. - -The loss arises, in roasting, from the melting out of the fat and the -evaporation of the watery part of the juices, but the nutritious matters -remain condensed in the solid meat when cooked; but in boiling, the -loss arises partly from fat melted out, but chiefly from gelatine and -osmazome becoming dissolved in the water in which the meat is boiled; -there is, therefore, a real loss of nutritive matter in boiling, unless -the broth be used, when this mode of cooking becomes the most -economical. - - -PRIMARY OR CHIEF DISHES OF THE ENGLISH TABLE. - -The principal or chief dishes that are prepared for the English table, -what the scientific cooks for the marshals and generals of France would -term _dishes of the first order_, are few in number. _Flesh_, _fowl_ and -_fish_, roasted, boiled or fried, accompanied by some simple and easy -made puddings and pies, are the primary dishes of an English table. -Soups and broths are less generally made use of; and the flesh, fowl and -fish, served up in made dishes, are, like the lord mayor in his state -coach, generally less noticed than the attendants. - - -BROTH - -May be defined a weak decoction of meat, slightly seasoned with the -addition of aromatic herbs, roots or spices, in which the flavour of the -meat greatly predominates. - -To produce a high flavoured broth, it is essential that the boiling of -the meat be moderate, and continued for some time; the simmering should -be done in a vessel nearly closed. Cooks consider it essential that the -broth be clear; the scum, or albumen of the meat, which becomes -coagulated and rises to the surface during the boiling, must therefore -be removed from time to time. - -The meat employed for broth (and also for soup and gravy), should be -fresh, for if in the slightest degree tainted or musty, it infallibly -communicates a very disagreeable taste to the broth; besides, fresh meat -gives a more savoury broth than meat that has been kept for two or three -days. It is also advisable to score the meat and to cut it into slices, -or to bruise it with a mallet or cleaver. - -Two pounds of muscular beef scored and cut into slices, affords a -stronger and far more savoury broth, than 3 lbs. of the same beef when -boiled in one piece. Cooks usually allow for good broth, one pound of -muscular meat, to two quarts of water, and they suffer the fluid to -simmer till reduced, by evaporation, to one pint, or one pint and a -half. A second decoction may be made by again covering the meat with a -less quantity of water, and suffering it to boil, taking care to supply -the water from time to time as it becomes evaporated. - -This reminds us of Rabelais, the humorous vicar of Meudon, who -distinguishes, in his jocose way, two sorts of broths. (_Bouillon de -Prime_,) prime-broth; and broth good for hounds; (_Bouillon de -levriers_,) the meaning of which stands as follows.[25] The first -designates that premature delibation of broth which the young monks in -the convent used to steal, when they could, from the kitchen, in their -way to the choir at the hour of “_Prime_,” a service which was performed -at about seven or eight in the morning, when the porridge-pot, with all -its ingredients, had been boiling for the space of one or two hours, -and when the broth, full of eyes swimming gently on the golden surface, -had already obtained an interesting appearance and taste. On the -contrary, greyhound’s broth, (_Bouillon de levriers_,) means that -portion of the porridge which was served to the novices after an ample -_presumption_ in favour of the _Magnates_ of the monastery. This was -good for nothing, and monks of inferior ranks were ready to throw it to -the dogs. - - [25] Tabella Cibaria, p. 23. - -The flavouring ingredients, which are usually the domestic pot-herbs and -indigenous roots, such as cellery, carrots, &c. should be added at the -end of the process, to prevent their aromatic substances becoming -dissipated by long simmering. - -Dr. Kitchener[26] says, “meat from which broth has been made, is -excellently well prepared for _potting_, and is quite as good, or -better than that which has been boiled, till it is dry.” - - [26] The Cook’s Oracle, p. 103. - - -SOUP. - -Soups are decoctions of meat which differ from broth, in being more -concentrated, and usually also more complex in their composition. They -are in fact strong broths, containing either farinaceous roots and -seeds, or other parts of vegetable substances. - -The erudite editor of the “_Almanach des Gourmands_”[27] tells us, that -ten folio volumes would not contain the receipts of all the soups that -have been invented in that grand school of good eating, the Parisian -kitchen. The author of _Apicius Redivivus_[28] says “the general fault -of our English soups seems to be the employment of an excess of spice, -and too small a portion of roots and herbs.” “_Point des Legumes, point -de Cuisiniere_,” is deservedly the common adage of the French kitchen. A -better soup may be made with a couple of pounds of meat, and plenty of -vegetables, than our common cooks will make with four times that -quantity of meat. The great art of composing a rich soup consists in so -proportioning the several flavouring ingredients, that no particular -taste predominates.”--One pound and a half of meat at least ought to be -allowed for making a quart of soup. The full flavour can only be -obtained by long and slow simmering the meat, during which time the -vessel should be kept covered to prevent the evaporation of the fluid as -much as possible. - - [27] Vol. II. page 30. - - [28] Or the Cook’s Oracle, 2d edit. Vol. 97. - -The flavouring ingredients should not be added till ten or fifteen -minutes before the soup is finished. Clear soups should be perfectly -transparent, and thickened soups, should be of the consistence of cream. - -The soup, says a writer, on Cookery, might be called the portal of the -edifice of a French dinner, either plain or sumptuous. It is a _sine qua -non_ article. It leads to the several courses constituting the essence -of the repast, and lays the unsophisticated foundation upon which the -whole is to rest, as upon a solid basis, in the stomach. It is, perhaps, -the most wholesome food that can be used; and the gaunt, yet strong -frame of the French soldiery, has long experienced the benefit of it. -They vulgarly say, “_C’est la soupe qui fait le Soldat._” ‘It is the -soup that makes the soldier.’ Partial to this mess, they have it daily -in barracks, in their marches, and in the camp; and they often swallow a -large bowl of broth and bread, in the morning a few minutes before the -trumpets calls them to the field of battle. - - -PIES - -Are those dishes which consist either of meat, or of fruit, covered with -a farinaceous crust, enriched with butter or other fat, and rendered fit -for eating by baking. - -The crust of the pie is usually made of two parts by weight of wheaten -flour, and one part of butter, lard, or other fat. - -The flour is made into a stiff paste with cold water, and rolled out on -a board with a paste pin to the thickness of about one quarter of an -inch, the board being previously sprinkled over with flour to prevent -the dough from sticking to the board. About one-sixth part of the -butter, in pieces of the size of a nutmeg, is put over the extended -paste, and the whole again dusted with flour; the paste is then doubled -up and rolled out as before. A like portion of butter is again -distributed over the paste, which, after being doubled up, is rolled -out, and the same operation is repeated till the whole quantity of -butter is thus incorporated with the flour. - -Part of the paste is then laid, one quarter or half an inch in -thickness, over the inside of a deep dish in which the pie is to be -baked, and the meat, cut in chops or slices, is put into the dish, -together with the seasonings, and a portion of water or gravy, about one -tea cup full, to one pound of meat. The contents of the basin are then -covered with a lid, made of the remainder of the paste, rolled out -rather thicker than the inside lining of the dish, and the lid is made -to adhere to the inside sheeting, which should extend over the rim of -the dish, by pressing the top paste close upon the margin. A few small -holes are then made in the top crust, and the pie is put in the oven. - -The baking should be slow. If the pie be put into a hot oven, the crust -becomes hard, and many a cook is blamed for making bad pies, when the -fault really lies with the baker. A light and flaky pie crust can only -be produced by the judicious application in the manner stated, of the -butter, or fatty matter. By this means the butter is distributed, in -distinct layers, through the mass of the pie crust. The flour dusted -over each layer prevents the paste forming one mass, or, as it is -called, becoming heavy. The more frequently, therefore, the paste is -rolled out with butter, lard, or other fat, interposed between each -layer, provided the layers are dusted over with flour, the more flaky -will be the pie; and hence, also, by increasing the quantity of butter, -to a certain limit, the flakeness of the pie crust becomes increased. - -Pastry cooks usually allow from ten to twelve ounces of butter to one -pound of flour for making a light puff paste, such as they use for tarts -and patties. - - -PUDDINGS - -Are of two kinds; the first consists of a farinaceous dough, containing -a portion of butter or other fat, inclosing any kind of meat or fruit, -and rendered eatable by boiling; it may be termed _a boiled pie_. - -The paste for a meat pudding is usually made with beef suet, or marrow, -one part of it chopped as fine as possible, and intimately mixed with -four parts by weight of flour, is made into a paste with water or milk. -With this paste, a pudding mould or basin, previously rubbed with butter -within, is lined, and the meat is added to fill up the vacancy. A lid of -paste is now put over the meat, and made to adhere to the margin of the -dish. The whole is then tied over with a wetted cloth, dusted with -flour to prevent the dough sticking to it, and then boiled in water till -the pudding is sufficiently cooked. - -The other kind of pudding is a batter composed of eggs, butter and -flour, or any other farinaceous substance, occasionally enriched with -the admixture of fruit, sugar, and spices, and rendered eatable either -by boiling in the manner stated, or by baking in an oven. - - -MADE DISHES, - -So called to distinguish them from plain, roasted, boiled, or fried -meat; are usually composed of flesh, fish, poultry, or vegetables, -stewed with gravy, butter, cream, or other savoury sauces. The -composition of made dishes is generally from printed or written -receipts, except when done by what are termed professed cooks, who, -understanding completely their business, follow their own judgment, in -aid of the receipt. There is a mistake very common in supposing that -there is a great difficulty in cooking such dishes, though there is -indeed much trouble; but if a mistake is made, it can in general be -remedied, which is not the case in the mere simple operations of -roasting and boiling, where a mistake is very often irreparable. - -When we take a view of the chemical composition of made dishes, we soon -perceive that they are all compounds of animal and vegetable substances, -rendered sapid or agreeable to the palate by strong decoctions of meat, -gravy, and spices, of various descriptions; all of them abound in -animal gelatine and vegetable mucilage, or farinaceous matter, rendered -soluble in water. The quantity of spices is generally small, “[29]their -presence should be rather supposed than perceived, they are the -invisible spirit of good cookery.” - - [29] Dr. Kitchiner’s Cook’s Oracle, p. 493. - - -OBSERVATIONS ON MADE DISHES. - -Made dishes are sometimes very expensive, and sometimes very economical, -for ragouts and fricassees are often much less expensive than the plain -dishes made of the same material, that is, a given weight of meat will -go farther than if plainly roasted or boiled. French cookery consists -nearly altogether of made dishes, both with the rich and poor. The rich -have them to gratify the palate, and the poor, for the sake of economy. -Many circumstances combine to prevent made dishes from becoming of very -general or frequent use in England. The care, attention, and length of -time necessary for preparing them, are incompatible with the domestic -affairs and usages of life in this country, where time is far more -precious than in any other country; it is for that reason, most -probably, that all the operations of English cookery are such as can be -performed expeditiously. - -The English cooks, both in the middling and lower ranks, are generally -in a hurry to get a dinner dressed. The French cooks, on the contrary, -begin in the morning early, and even in the house of the simple -_Bourgois_, the dinner begins to be cooked immediately after breakfast. - -The superior expedition, and inferior degree of skill which distinguish -English from French cookery, would be sufficient alone to give the -former the preference in this country; but there are a number of other -circumstances that have the same tendency. - -A good table is a study in France: it is with the master a grand object -in life, and with the cooks a constant employment, like our journeymen -in a manufactory. With us, again, the dinner is readily prepared, and -expeditiously eaten. It is despatched like a piece of business in this -country; but in France, and more or less all over the Continent, people -dine as if they had a pleasure in dining; they converse more during the -repast than almost at any other time, and they never hurry it over as if -they were in haste to be done, and as if they had business always on -their mind, and were reflecting on the saying, so common and so true, -that “_time is money_.” - -It is curious enough, however, to remark, that the French, who sit so -long, and enjoy themselves so leisurely at dinner, rise, immediately -after the dessert, from the table, and are ready for business; and that -the English, who hurry the dinner over, pass whole hours over the bottle -as if time were of no value. Such are the inconsistencies of mankind, -arising from different tastes and different circumstances. - -The construction of our kitchen grates and fire places, and the nature -of the fuel we burn, are unfavourable to the slow and regular simmering -with which made dishes are prepared; and, at the same time, that they -are unfavourable for made dishes, they are exactly what is wanted for -English cookery. The construction of the grates, together with the -nature of the fuel, produce a fierce scorching fire, so that the direct -rays of heat may be made to impinge on the substance to be cooked. - -In France, roasting large joints is almost impracticable with the form -and nature of the fire; so that it does not appear that taste or will -has been the only guide in the mode of cooking in either country; but -that the practices most suitable to circumstances have been a chief -cause of the great difference of the manner of dressing victuals. - -English medical men have always been at great pains to condemn made -dishes as injurious to health; but the French physicians have been of a -different opinion, and if _experientia docet_ is a true proverb, they -ought to be the best judges: but those who have been used to both, will -allow that they are less heavy, and the stomach seems to be less -encumbered after the French dinner on made dishes, than the English one -on single joints. - -In made dishes, where butcher’s meat enters, as although the chief -ingredient is generally _much more_ done, to use the common phrase, -none of its nutritive substances are lost; but as the arguments for and -against the real things of one or the other is not to be determined by -reason, and has not been determined by experience, it would be absurd to -give an opinion on the subject. - -It may be well enough, however, to observe, that the dispute about what -are the most healthy dishes, probably arises from difference of tastes, -and from those things to which the stomach has not been accustomed, not -agreeing with it at first; so that most people on finding it so, if they -can avoid doing it, never repeat the experiment. - -The case is the same with Foreigners as with Englishmen, for their -stomachs do not at first find our dishes agree with them. - - -GRAVY. - -When the muscular part of meat is gradually exposed to a very moderate -heat, sufficient to brown the outer fibres, the gelatine, osmazome, and -other animal juices of it, become disengaged, and separated in a liquid -state, and constitute a fluid of a brown colour, possessing a highly -savoury and grateful taste. Hence gravy is the soluble constituent or -liquid part of meat, which, spontaneously, exudes from flesh, when -gradually exposed to a continued heat sufficient to corrugate the animal -fibre. Flavouring vegetables are often added, and fried with the meat, -such as sliced onions, carrots or cellery, till they are tender, -together with some spices and the usual condiments. - -To extract gravy, the meat is cut into thin slices, or it is scored, and -the fibres are bruised with a mallet. It is then usually seasoned, with -pepper and salt, and exposed in a pan containing a small quantity of -butter, or other fat, (or without any fat,) to the action of a gradual -heat, just sufficient to brown the outer fibre strongly. The juices of -the meat, which are thus during the frying process, copiously -disengaged, are suffered to remain exposed to the action of heat till -they have assumed the consistence of a thin cream, and a brown colour. A -small portion of water is then added to re-dissolve the extracted mass, -and after the whole has been suffered to simmer with the spices and -roots for a short time, together with an additional quantity of water, -the liquid is strained off through a sieve. If the gravy be intended -for made dishes, it is customary to give it the consistence of cream, by -means of _thickening paste_. (See p. 160.) The meat is capable of -furnishing an additional quantity of gravy. It is therefore covered with -water and suffered to simmer for about one hour, or till the fluid is -reduced to one half its bulk. - -One pound and a quarter of lean beef, or one pound and a half of veal, -will afford one pint of strong gravy. - -When broth, soups, or gravy, are preserved from day to day, in hot -weather, they should be warmed up every day, and put into fresh scalded -pans, this renders them less liable to spoil. - - -SAUCES. - - “The fundamental principle of all, - Is what ingenious cooks, the _relish_ call; - For when the markets send in loads of food, - They all are tasteless till that makes them good.” - - _Dr. King’s Art of Cookery._ - -Sauces are intended to heighten the taste and give a savoury flavour to -a dish, flesh, fish, fowl, or vegetables. - -In England there is little variety in those kind of relishes, and it was -observed by a foreigner, with a good deal of wit, and a great deal of -truth, “that the English had a great variety of forms of religion and no -variety in their sauces; whereas, in France they had uniformity in the -former, and an infinite variety in the latter.” - -Melted butter is the grand and chief basis of most English sauces. -Melted butter and oysters, melted butter and parsley, melted butter and -anchovies, melted butter and eggs, melted butter and shrimps, melted -butter and lobsters, melted butter and capers, are nearly all the sauces -used in England. Besides these, the following flavouring substances are -in common use: _viz._ mushrooms, onions, spices, sweet herbs, wine, soy, -and the usual condiments, but melted butter, gravy, or some farinaceous -mucilage, form the basis of all sauces. These substances combined in -different proportions are quite sufficient to make an endless variety of -picquant sauces, as pleasant to the palate and stomach, as the most -compound foreign sauces in which every thing has the same taste, and -none its own taste. The aim of the English cooks, as far as it regards -sauces, appears to be to let every sauce display a decided character, -so as to taste only of the material from which it derives its name. -_Compound sauces_ are seldom employed, but in the _learned_ foreign -dishes. - -What has been observed, relative to time used in the article, of _made -dishes_, namely, that it was in this country too valuable to be bestowed -on eating, or on preparing to eat, applies also in the case of making -sauces. - -Nothing can be made more easily than the English sauces, but the variety -of French sauces are great, and much skill and time are necessary for -preparing most of them. - - -THICKENING PASTE FOR BROTH, SOUP, GRAVY, AND MADE DISHES. - -It is customary to thicken some dishes with a compound of two parts of -flour and one of butter, first made into a paste by heating slowly the -ingredients in a pan, till the mass acquires a yellow gold colour, the -flour and butter being stirred all the time to prevent the mass from -burning to the bottom of the pan. The substance thus obtained is called -_thickening_, or _thickening paste_, for it is the basis employed by -cooks for thickening soups, gravies, stews, sauces, and other dishes. -The mass readily combines with water; a large table spoonful is -sufficient to thicken a quart of meat broth. Besides this _thickening -paste_, other farinaceous substances are employed for that purpose, -such as bread raspings, crumbs of stale bread, biscuit powder, potatoe -mucilage, oatmeal, sago powder, rice powder, &c. A cow-heel, on account -of the vast quantity of gelatine with which it abounds, is excellently -well calculated for giving _body_ to soups: the cow-heel, after being -cracked, is boiled with the broth or soup. - - -COLOURING FOR BROTH, SOUP, GRAVIES, AND MADE DISHES. - -The substance employed for colouring soups, gravies, broths, and other -dishes, requiring a brown colour, is burnt sugar. This imparts to the -dish a fine yellowish brown tinge, without giving any sensible flavour -to the dish. Eight ounces of powdered lump sugar, and two or three table -spoonfuls of water, are suffered to boil gently in an iron pan, till the -mass has assumed a dark brown colour, which takes place when all the -water is evaporated, and the sugar begins to be partly charred by the -action of the heat. The mass is then removed from the fire, and about a -quarter of a pint of water is gradually added to effect a solution. The -fluid thus obtained is of a syrupy consistence, and of a fine dark brown -colour; a small quantity gives to broth, soup, or gravy, a bright orange -colour, without altering sensibly the flavour of the dish. Some cooks -add to it mushroom catsup and port wine. - - -STOCK FOR MAKING EXTEMPORANEOUS BROTH, SOUP, OR GRAVY. - -The name of _stock_ is given to meat jelly produced from a decoction of -meat, so highly concentrated that the fluid, when cold, exhibits an -elastic tremulous consistence. - -The meat is slowly boiled in water, with the customary seasonings, as -pot herbs, or esculent roots, and the decoction skimmed, and continued -to simmer till it is charged with a sufficient quantity of animal matter -to form a jelly when cold; this degree of concentration is known by -removing, from time to time, a portion of the fluid, and suffering it to -cool. When the decoction has been so far concentrated, it is strained -off through a sieve and suffered to repose, that the insoluble part, if -any, may subside. When this has been effected, the clear fluid is -suffered to cool, which causes the fatty matter it contains to become -collected at the surface, where it forms a cake or crust, which is to be -removed. The substance underneath is a tremulous jelly; it is called -first stock, or long broth, (_Le grand bouillon_ of the French kitchen). -If the jelly be not transparent it is re-melted by a gentle heat, and -clarified by the addition of the white of eggs added to it, as soon as -it is liquified. This substance becoming coagulated at the boiling -heat, entangles with it the parts mechanically diffused through the -jelly, and rises to the top as a dense scum. It may then be removed by a -skimmer. The name of _second-stock_ (_Jus de bœuf_ of the French) is -given to a more concentrate jelly of meat made in a similar manner. It -is chiefly employed as the basis of all savoury made dishes and rich -sauces, whilst the former serves for making extemporaneous soups. -_Second stock_ is usually prepared in the following manner:--Put into a -stew-pan about half a pound of lean bacon or ham, a few carrots and -onions, two or three cloves, about six or eight pounds of lean beef, and -a shin of beef of about the same weight, break the bone, and having -scored the meat, suffer it to simmer over a very gentle fire, with -about two quarts of _first stock_, or better put it into an oven, and -suffer it to stew, till the liquid assumes a light brown colour. When -this has taken place, add to the mass six quarts of boiling water, -suffer it to boil up gently, and remove the scum as it rises; and suffer -it to evaporate till reduced to about three quarts, then strain it -through a sieve, and clarify it as before directed. - - -OBSERVATIONS ON THE CHOICE OF MEAT. - -The flesh of animals which are suddenly killed when in high health, so -far as the palate is concerned, is not yet fit for the table, although -fully nutritious and in perfection for making soup; because sometime -after the death, the muscular parts suffer contraction--their fibres -become rigid. When this has taken place, the flesh is not long in -experiencing the commencement of those chemical changes which terminate -in putrefaction; and it is of the utmost importance, in domestic -economy, to take care that all large joints of meat be in this -intermediate state when they are cooked: for no skill in the culinary -art will compensate for negligence in this point, as every one must have -often experienced to his great disappointment. - -The degree of inteneration may be known by the flesh yielding readily to -the pressure of the finger, and by its opposing little resistance to an -attempt to bend the joint. Poultry also thus part readily with their -feathers; and it would be advisable to leave a few when the bird is -plucked, in order to assist in determining their state. - -The following wholesome advice on this subject we copy from Doctor -Kitchiner:[30]--“_When you order meat, poultry, or fish, tell the -tradesman when you intend to dress it_, and he will then have it in his -power to serve you with provision that will do him credit, which the -finest meat, &c. in the world, will never do, unless it has been kept a -proper time to be ripe and tender. If you have a well-ventilated larder, -in a shady, dry situation, you may make still surer, by ordering in your -meat and poultry, such a time before you want it as will render it -tender, which the finest meat cannot be, unless hung a proper time, -according to the season and nature of the meat, &c. but always till it -has made some very slight advance towards putrefaction.” - - [30] The Cook’s Oracle. - -_Ox-beef_--when of a young animal, has a shining oily smoothness, a fine -open grain, and dark florid red colour. The fat is splendish yellowish -white. If the animal has been fed upon oil cakes, the fat has a golden -yellow colour. - -_Cow-Beef_--is closer in the grain than ox-beef, but the muscular parts -are not of so bright a red colour. In old meat there is a streak of -cartilage or bone in the ribs, called by butchers, _the crush-bone_; the -harder this is, the older has been the animal. - -_Veal._--The flesh of a bull calf is firmer, but not in general so white -as that of a cow calf. Exposures to the air for some time reddens the -colour of the flesh. Veal is best of which the kidney is well covered -with thick white hard fat. - -_Mutton._--A _wether_, five years old, affords the most delicate meat. -The grain of the meat should be fine, and the fat white and firm. The -leg of a _wether mutton_ is known by a round lump of fat on the insides -of the thigh, the leg of an _ewe_ by the udder. - -_Lamb._--The flesh of fine lamb looks of a delicate pale red colour; the -fat is splendid white, but it does not possess a great solidity. _Grass -Lamb_ is in season from Easter to Michaelmas. _House Lamb_ from -Christmas to Lady-day. - -_Pork._--This species of meat of the best fed animals is particularly -fine grained, and may be bruised by forcibly pressing it between the -fingers. The skin of the young animal is thin; the flesh of old pigs is -hard and tough, and the skin very thick. The prime season for pork is -from Michaelmas to March. The western pigs, chiefly those of Berks, -Oxford, and Bucks, possess a decided superiority over the eastern of -Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk. - -_Hare._--To ascertain its age, examine the first joint of the fore foot; -you will find a small knob, if it is a _leveret_, which disappears as -the hare grows older; then examine the ears; if they tear easily, the -animal is young. When newly killed, the body is stiff; as it grows -stale, it becomes flaccid. - -_Venison_--is of a darker colour than mutton. If the fat be clear, -bright and thick, and the cleft of the hoof smooth and close, it is -young, but if the cleft is wide and tough, it is old. By pushing a -skewer or knife under the bone which sticks out of a haunch or shoulder, -the odour of the skewer will tell whether the meat be fresh or tainted. -Venison is best flavoured in the month of August, the animal should not -be killed till he is about four years old. - -_Fowls_--for boiling should be chosen as white as possible, those which -have black legs had better be roasted. The season of perfection in -poultry is just before they have quite come to their full growth. -Chickens three months old are very delicate. Age makes a striking -difference in the flesh of fowls, since after the age of twelve months -it becomes tougher. The cock indeed, at that age, is only used for -making soup. - -_Pigeons_--are in their greatest perfection in September, there is then -the most plentiful and best food for them; their finest growth is just -when they are full feathered. When they are in the pen-feathers, they -are flabby; when they are full grown, and have flown some time, they are -hard. - -_Pheasants_--may be distinguished by the _length_ and _sharpness_ of -their _spurs_, which in the younger ones are _short_ and _blunt_. - -_Partridges_--if old are always to be known during the early part of the -season, by their legs being of a pale blue, instead of a yellowish brown -colour: “so that when a Londoner receives his brace of blue legged birds -in September, he should immediately snap their legs and draw out the -sinews, by means of pulling off the feet, instead of leaving them to -torment him, like so many strings, when he would be wishing to enjoy his -repast.” This remedy to make the legs tender, removes the objection to -old birds, provided the weather will admit of their being sufficiently -long kept. If birds are overkept, their eyes will be much sunk, and the -trail becomes soft, and somewhat discoloured. The first place to -ascertain if they are beginning to be tainted, is the inside of the -bill. - -_Fish_, and _Crimping of Fish_.--Both sea and river fish cannot be eaten -too fresh. The gills should be of a fine red colour, the eyes -glistening, the scales brilliant, and the whole fish should feel stiff -and firm, if soft or flabby the fish is old. - -To improve the quality of fish, they are sometimes subject to the -process called _crimping_. The operation has been examined by Mr. -Carlisle, to whom we are indebted for the following particulars: - -“Whenever the rigid contractions of death have not taken place, this -process may be practised with success. The sea fish destined for -crimping, are usually struck on the head when caught, which it is said -protracts the term of the contractibility and the muscles which retain -the property longest are those about the head. Many transverse sections -of the muscles being made, and the fish immersed in cold water, the -contractions called crimping takes place in about five minutes, but if -the mass be large, it often requires 30 minutes to complete the process. -The crimping of fresh water fish is said to require hard water, and the -London fishmongers usually employ it.” - -Mr. Carlisle found, that by crimping, the muscles subjected to the -process have both their absolute weight, and their specific gravity -increased, so that it appears, that water is absorbed and condensation -takes place. It was also observed that the effect was greater in -proportion to the vivaciousness of the fish. - -From these observations, it appears, that the object of crimping is -first to retard the natural stiffening of the muscles, and then by the -sudden application of cold water, to excite it in the greatest possible -degree, by which means the flesh both acquires the desired firmness and -keeps longer. - - -ON KEEPING OF MEAT, AND BEST CONSTRUCTION OF LARDERS, PANTRIES AND MEAT -SAFES. - -Larders, pantries and safes, for keeping meat, should be sheltered from -the direct rays of the sun, and otherwise guarded against the influence -of warmth. All places where provisions are kept should be so constructed -that a brisk current of cool air can be made to pass through them at -command. With this view it would be advisable to have openings on all -sides of larders, or meat safes, which might be closed or opened -according to the way from which the wind blows, the time of the day, or -season of the year; they should be kept, too, with the greatest -attention to cleanliness. It will be better also if the sides or walls -of meat safes are occasionally scoured with soap, or soap and slacked -quicklime. - -Warm weather is the worst for keeping meat; the south wind has long been -noted as being hostile to keeping provisions. Juvenal, in his 4th -Satire, says: - - “Now sickly autumn to dry frost give way, - Cold winter rag’d and fresh preserved the prey; - Yet with such haste the busy fisher flew, - As if hot south-wind corruption blew.” - -A joint of meat may be preserved for several days in the midst of summer -by wrapping it in a clean linen cloth, previously moistened with strong -vinegar, and sprinkled over with salt, and then placing it in an -earthenware pan, or hanging it up, and changing the cloth, or ringing it -out a-fresh, and again steeping it in vinegar once a day, if the weather -be very hot. - -The best meat for keeping is _mutton_, and the leg keeps best, and may -with care, if the temperature be only moderate, be preserved without -becoming tainted for about a week; during frost a leg of mutton will -keep a fortnight. - -A shoulder of _mutton_ is next to the leg the joint best calculated for -keeping in warm weather. - -The scrag end of a neck is very liable to become tainted; it cannot be -kept with safety during hot weather for more than two days. - -The kernels, or glands, in the thick part of the leg should be dissected -out, because the mucous matter in which they abound speedily becomes -putrid, and then tends very much to infect the adjoining part. - -The chine and rib-bones should be wiped, and sprinkled over with salt -and pepper, and the bloody part of the neck should be removed. In the -brisket, the commencement of the putrefactive process takes place in the -breast, and if this part is to be kept, it is advisable to guard against -it becoming tainted, by sprinkling a little salt and pepper over it: the -vein, or pipe near the bone of the inside of a chine of mutton should be -cut out, and if the meat is to be kept for some time, the part close -round the tail should be sprinkled with salt, after having first cut out -the gland or kernel. - -In _beef_ the ribs are less liable to become tainted than any other -joint; they may be kept in a cool pantry in the summer months for six -days, and ten days in winter. - -The round of beef will not keep long, unless sprinkled over with salt. -All the glands or kernels which it contains should be dissected out. - -The brisket is still more liable to become tainted by keeping, it cannot -be kept sweet with safety more than three days in summer, and about a -week in winter. - -_Lamb_ is the next in order for keeping, though it is considered best to -eat it soon, or even the day after it is killed. If it is not very young -the leg will keep four or five days, with care, in a cool place in -summer. - -_Veal_ and _Pork_--a leg will keep very well in summer for three or four -days, and a week in winter:--but the scrag end of veal or pork will not -keep well above a day in summer, and two or three days in winter. - -The part that becomes tainted first of a leg of veal is where the udder -is skewered back. The skewer should be taken out, and both that and the -part beneath it wiped dry every day, by which means it will keep good -three or four days in warm weather. The vein or _pipe_ that runs along -the chine of a loin of veal should be cut out, as is usually done in -mutton and beef. The skirt of a breast of veal should likewise be taken -off, and the inside of the breast wiped, scraped, and sprinkled with -salt. - - -PRESERVATION OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES IN A RECENT STATE. - -As the supply of food is always subject to irregularities, the -preservation of the excess, obtained at one time, to meet the deficiency -of another, would soon engage the attention of mankind. At first this -method would be simple and natural, and derived from a very limited -observation, but in the progress of society, the wants and occupations -of mankind would lead them to invent means, by which the more perishable -alimentary substances of one season, might be reserved for the -consumption of another, or the superfluous productions of distant -countries might be transported to others where they are more needed. - - -PICKLING AND DRY SALTING OF MEAT. - -Common salt is advantageously employed as an antiseptic, to preserve -aliments from spontaneous decomposition, and particularly to prevent the -putrefaction of animal food. In general, however, the large quantity of -salt which is necessarily employed in this way, deteriorates the -alimentary properties of the meat, and the longer it has been preserved, -the less wholesome and digestible does it become. - -Meat, however, which has not been too long preserved, simply pickled, or -_corned_ meat as it is called, is but little injured or decomposed, it -is still succulent and tender, easily digested, nourishing and wholesome -enough. - -The property of salt to preserve animal substances from putrefaction is -of the most essential importance to the empire in general, and to the -remote grazing districts in particular. It enables the latter to dispose -of their live stock, and distant navigation is wholly dependant upon it. -All kinds of animal substances may be preserved by salt, but beef and -pork are the only staple articles of this kind. In general, the pieces -of the animal best fitted for being salted are those which contain -fewest large blood vessels, and are most solid. Some recommend all the -glands to be cut out, they say, that without this precaution meat cannot -be preserved; but this is a mistake, a dry salter of eminence, informs -me, that it is not essential, provided the glands or kernels are -properly covered with salt. - -The salting may be performed either by dry rubbing, or better by -immersing the meat in a salt pickle. Cured in the former way the meat -will keep longer, but it is more altered in its valuable properties; in -the latter way it is more delicate and nutritious. Eight pounds of salt, -one pound of sugar, and four ounces of saltpetre, boiled for a few -minutes with four gallons of water, skimmed and allowed to cool, forms a -strong pickle, which will preserve meat completely immersed in it. To -effect this, which is essential, either a heavy board, or flat stone, -must be laid upon the meat. The same pickle may be used repeatedly, -provided it be boiled up occasionally with additional salt to restore -its strength, diminished by the combination of part of the salt with the -meat, and by the dilution of the pickle by the juices of the meat -extracted. By boiling, the albumen, which would cause the pickle to -spoil, is coagulated, and rises in the form of scum, which must be -carefully removed. - -Beef and pork, although properly salted with salt alone, acquire a green -colour; but if an ounce of saltpetre be added to each five pounds of -salt employed, the muscular fibre acquires a fine red tinge; but this -improvement in appearance is more than compensated by its becoming -harder and harsher to the taste; to correct which, a proportion of sugar -or molasses is often added. But the red colour may be given if desired, -without hardening the meat, by the addition of a little cochineal. - -Meat kept immersed in pickle rather gains weight. In one experiment by -Messrs. Donkin and Gamble, there was a gain of three per cent. and in -another of two and a half; but in the common way of salting, when the -meat is not immersed in pickle there is a loss of about one pound, or -one and a half in sixteen. - -Dry salting is performed by rubbing the surface of the meat all over -with salt; and it is generally believed that the process of salting is -promoted if the salt be rubbed in with a heavy hand. However this may -be, it is almost certain that very little salt penetrates, except -through the cut surfaces, to which it should therefore be chiefly -applied; and all holes, whether natural or artificial, should be -particularly attended to. For each twenty-five pounds of meat, about two -pounds of coarse grained salt should be allowed, and the whole, -previously heated, rubbed in at once. When laid in the pickling tub, a -brine is soon formed by the salt dissolved in the juice of the meat -which it extracts, and with this the meat should be wetted every day, -and a different side turned down. In ten or twelve days it will be -sufficiently cured. - -For domestic use the meat should not be salted as soon as it comes from -the market, but kept until its fibre has become short and tender, as -these changes do not take place after it has been acted upon by the -salt. But in the provision trade, “the expedition with which the animals -are slaughtered, the meat cut up and salted, and afterwards packed, is -astonishing.”[31] - - [31] Wakefield’s Ireland, vol. I. p. 750. - -By salting the meat while still warm, and before the fluids are -coagulated, the salt penetrates immediately, by means of the vessels, -through the whole substance of the meat; and hence meat is admirably -cured at Tunis, even in the hottest season, so that Mr. Jackson, in his -_Reflections on the Trade in the Mediterranean_, recommends ships being -supplied there with their provisions. - -The following mixture of condiments is exceedingly well calculated for -dry salting. - -Take a pound of black pepper, a quarter of a pound of Cayenne pepper, -and a pound of saltpetre, all ground very fine; mix these three well -together, and blend them alternately with about three _quarts_ of very -fine salt: this mixture is sufficient for eight hundred weight of beef. -As the pieces are brought from the person cutting up, first sprinkle the -pieces with the spice, and introduce a little into all the thickest -parts; if it cannot be done otherwise, make a small incision with a -knife. The first salter, after rubbing salt and spice well into the -meat, should take and mould the piece, the same as washing a shirt upon -a board; this may be very easily done, and the meat being lately -killed, is soft and pliable; this moulding opens the grain of the meat, -which will make it imbibe the spice and salt much quicker than the -common method of salting. The first salter hands his piece over to the -second salter, who moulds and rubs the salt well into the meat, and if -he observes occasion, introduces the spice; when the second salter has -finished his piece, he folds it up as close as possible, and hands it to -the packer at the _harness_ or salting tubs, who must be stationed near -him: the packer must be careful to pack his _harness_ tubs as close as -possible. - -All the work must be carried on in the shade, but where there is a -strong current of air, the _harness_ tubs in particular; this being a -very material point in curing the meat in a hot climate. Meat may be -cured in this manner with the greatest safety, when the thermometer, in -the shade, is at 110°, the extreme heat assisting the curing. - -A good sized bullock, of six or seven hundred weight, may be killed and -salted within the hour. - -The person who attends with the spice near the first salter, has the -greatest trust imposed upon him; besides the spice, he should be well -satisfied that the piece is sufficiently salted, before he permits the -first salter to hand the piece over to the second salter. - -All the salt should be very fine, and the packer, besides sprinkling the -bottom of his _harness_ tubs, should be careful to put plenty of salt -between each tier of meat, which is very soon turned into the finest -pickle. The pickle will nearly cover the meat, as fast as the packer can -stow it away. It is always a good sign that the meat is very safe when -the packer begins to complain that his hands are aching with cold. - -By this method there is no doubt but that the meat is perfectly cured in -three hours from the time of killing the bullock: the saltpetre in a -very little time strikes through the meat; however, it is always better -to let it lie in the _harness_ tubs till the following morning, when it -will have an exceeding pleasant smell on opening the _harness_ tubs; -then take it out and pack it in tight barrels, with its own pickle. - - -METHOD OF PREPARING BACON, HAMS, AND HUNG BEEF. - -Meat, when salted, is sometimes dried, when it gets the name of bacon, -ham, or hung beef. - -The drying of salt meat is effected either by hanging it in a dry and -well-aired place, or by exposing it at the same time to wood smoke, -which gives it a peculiar flavour, much admired in Westphalia hams and -Hamburgh beef, and also tends to preserve it, by the antiseptic action -of the pyrolignic acid. When meat is to be hung, it need not be so -highly salted. - -The method of preparing bacon is peculiar to certain districts. The -following is the method of making bacon in Hampshire and -Somersetshire:-- - -The season for killing hogs for bacon is between October and March. The -articles to be salted are sprinkled over with bay-salt, and put for -twenty-four hours in the salting trough, to allow the adhering blood to -drain away. After this they take them out, wipe them very dry, and throw -away the draining. They then take some fresh bay-salt, and heating it -well in a frying-pan, rub the meat very well with it, repeating this -every day for four days, turning the sides every other day. - -If the hog be very large, they keep the sides in brine, turning them -occasionally for three weeks; after which they take them out, and let -them be thoroughly dried in the usual manner. - - -SMOKE-DRYING, OR CURING OF BACON, HAMS, AND BEEF, AS PRACTISED IN -WESTPHALIA. - -The custom of fumigating hams with wood smoke is of a very ancient date, -it was well known to the Romans, and Horace mentions it.[32] - - “_Fumosæ cum pede pernæ._” - - [32] Sat. II. 2-117. - -Several places on the Continent are famous for the delicacy and flavour -of their hams; Westphalia, however, is at the head of the list. - -The method of curing bacon and hams in Westphalia (in Germany) is as -follows: Families that kill one or more hogs a year, which is a common -practice in private houses, have a closet in the garret, joining to the -chimney, made tight, to retain smoke, in which they hang their hams and -bacon to dry; and out of the effect of the fire, that they may be -gradually dried by the wood smoke, and not by heat. - -The smoke of the fuel is conveyed into the closet by a hole in the -chimney, near the floor, and a place is made for an iron stopper to be -thrust into the funnel of the chimney, to force the smoke through the -hole into the closet. The smoke is carried off again by another hole in -the funnel of the chimney, above the said stopper, almost at the -ceiling, where it escapes. The upper hole must not be too big, because -the closet must be always full of smoke, and that from wood fires. Or -the bacon and hams are simply placed in the vicinity of an open -fire-place, where wood is burned, so as to be exposed to the smoke of -the wood. - - -METHOD OF CURING HAMS, BEEF, AND FISH, BY MEANS OF PYRO-LIGNEOUS ACID. - -The following account of the preservative quality of pyro-ligneous[33] -acid, exhibited in a memoir by Dr. Wilkinson to the Bath Society, is -highly important:-- - - [33] Philosophical Magazine, 1821, No. 273, p. 12. - -“Mr. Sockett having directed his attention to the smoking of hams with -wood smoke, either in a building erected for that purpose, or in a -chimney where wood alone is burned, in addition to its considerable -increase of flavour, he considered it more effectually preserved from -putrefaction by being, what is commonly called, smoke-dried. Mr. Sockett -having ascertained by experiments, that meat thus cured required less -salt, he was induced to suppose some antiseptic quality in the same, -and not attributable to the mere application of heat. A neighbouring -manufactory of pyro-ligneous acid afforded him an opportunity of trying -a variety of experiments, which convinced him of the correctness of the -supposition of the antiseptic quality of wood smoke, as the same effects -as to flavour and preservation were produced in a superior degree -without the aid of any increase of temperature, which, by drying, -diminishes the nutritious quality of meat thus exposed.” - -“Mr. Sockett ascertained, that if a ham had the reduced quantity of salt -usually employed for smoke-dried hams, and was then exposed to smoke, -putrefaction soon took place when pyro-ligneous acid was not used; even -one half this reduced portion of salt is sufficient when it is used, -being applied cold, and the ham is thus effectually cured without any -loss of weight, and retaining more animal juices.” - -“The mode adopted was by adding about two table-spoonfuls of -pyro-ligneous acid to the pickle for a ham of 10 or 12 lbs.; and when -taken out of the pickle, previous to being hung up, painted over with -the acid, by means of a brush. In many instances, Mr. Sockett has -succeeded by brushing the ham over with the acid, without adding any to -the pickle. The same mode answers equally well with tongues, requiring a -little more acid, on account of the thickness and hardness of the -integuments.” - -“Upon dried salmon it answers admirably; brushing it over once or twice -had a better effect than two months smoking in the usual way, and -without the same loss from rancidity. From the result of a few -experiments on herrings, he is persuaded that this mode of curing might -be most advantageously introduced in our fisheries, so that herrings -might be cured here superior to those imported from Holland.” - -“These experiments so satisfactorily demonstrating the antiseptic -qualities of this acid, where only small portions of salt were employed, -Mr. Sockett was then induced to try the results of the application of -this acid when no salt was employed: he placed some beef steaks upon a -plate, and covered the bottom with the acid, the steaks being daily -turned; and at the time of recording the experiment, he noticed that -they kept above six weeks without the least tendency to putrefaction: -this experiment was made in the middle of July 1815.” - -“Not only Mr. Sockett, but many families in Swansea, and its vicinity, -practise, with the greatest success, this mode of curing hams, tongues, -beef, fish, &c.” - -“This acid is very easily and cheaply prepared: the first distilled -product of the wood, in that state denominated black acid, answers the -best when separated from its tar and naphtha. More than 70 gallons of -acid, sufficiently strong, are procured from a ton of wood; a gallon is -quite sufficient for 2¹⁄₂ cwt. of pork, beef, and most animal -substances, with the addition of a comparatively small portion of salt, -not only affording a considerable saving in this article, but also -materially contributing to the increase of flavour and nutritive -quality. Hams or beef cured this way require no previous soaking in -water to being boiled, and when boiled swell in size and are extremely -succulent.” - -“Herrings Mr. Sockett cures with very little salt. Being well dried, as -early after being caught as can be effected, they are then dipped into a -vat of the acid, and when dry, the same process repeated a few times, -suspending them like the manufacture of candles. Mr. Sockett entertains -no doubt, from the result of his experiments with herrings, that the -same process would answer for other kinds of fish, as salmon, cod, &c.; -and hence, when cooked, may be salted according to each individual’s -taste.” - -“I presume this acid would be found very useful on board any vessel -fitted out for long voyages; it appears from calculations on a small -scale, that one hogshead of this acid would suffice to cure six tons of -fish, in such a manner as to retain their nutritious quality; and they -could be cured on board when opportunities occurred of procuring them, -independent of its being an excellent substitute for common vinegar in -many culinary purposes on board.” - -“Mr. Sockett recommends that fish, as soon as practicable after taken, -should be a little rubbed with salt, and laid upon a sloping board to -drain, and when dry, to be dipped in the acid as before stated.” - -“One great advantage attending this mode of curing hams or beef is, that -when hung up they are never attacked by the flies.” - - -PICKLING OF FISH. - -Fish may be preserved either by dry salting or in a liquid pickle. The -former method is employed to a great extent on the banks of -Newfoundland, and in Shetland. When a liquid pickle is used, the fish, -as fresh as possible, are to be gutted, or not, and without delay -plunged into the brine in quantity so as nearly to fill the reservoir, -and after remaining _covered_ with the pickle five or six days, they -will be so completely impregnated with salt as to be perfectly fit to be -re-packed in barrels, with large-grained solid salt, for the hottest -climates and longest voyages. - -The brine becomes frequently somewhat weaker at the top; to remedy this, -some of the salt may be suspended in bags or otherwise, just under the -surface, which will saturate whatever moisture may exude from the fish, -and thus the whole of the brine will continue fully saturated and of the -most strength. - -Such brine, although repeatedly used, will not putrify, nor the fish, if -kept under the surface, become rancid. - -By this process great quantities of herrings may be salted when salt or -casks are not on the spot, and the fish may remain for a great length of -time immersed in this brine without the least injury. - -From Mr. London’s statement, it appears that the brine ought always to -contain a redundancy of salt; and in such case there is not the least -danger of the fish putrifying or growing rancid, as the extra lumps of -solid salt in the brine immediately act upon any watery or other liquors -which proceed from the fish when inclosed in the cask. - -For judging of the relative strength of different solutions of common -salt, Mr. London recommends a glass bottle, with a ground-glass stopper, -to be filled with brine made from a solution of solid salt in water; -within this bottle are three glass bubbles, of different specific -gravities, so graduated, that supposing the temperature of the air to be -at sixty degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and only one bubble floats -on the surface, and that it indicates the specific gravity of the brine -to be 1.155, containing about 20 parts salt, and 80 of water, which is -insufficient to cure animal matters with certainty by immersion in it. - -When the second bubble floats, it indicates the specific gravity of the -brine to be 1.180, or about 24 parts salt, and 76 parts water, which -may be used for the purpose of immersion. - -This brine will fully answer the purpose in the hottest weather in most -climates, provided the meat or fish is always completely covered with -the brine. - - -PICKLED MACKEREL. - -After splitting the fish, and having taken off their heads and part of -the skin of the belly, let them be laid in brine about three or four -hours; then put them in jars with the following pickle:--two pounds -common salt, two ounces saltpetre, one ounce of sugar, half ounce white -pepper, one drachm corriander seed, pounded all well together; sprinkle -with this mixture the bottom of the jar; then put on a layer of -mackerel, with the back downwards; then a layer of the spices, and then -another of mackerel, alternately, till the jar is full; press them down, -and cover them close. In six months they will be ready for use. - - -PICKLED SALMON. - -Split the fish down the middle, and divide each half into six pieces. -Make a brine of salt sufficient in quantity to cover the fish when -placed in a saucepan. Season with bruised pepper, mace, and allspice, -and simmer the whole till the fish is done, taking care not to boil the -fish more than is barely sufficient. Then take out the pieces to cool, -and put them into a jar. Strain off the spice from the liquor in which -the fish was boiled, and add to it a like quantity, by measure, of -vinegar, and pour it over the fish. When cold, tie it over with paper, -and keep the fish submersed under the liquor, by placing a weight on it. - - -COLLARED EELS. - -Skin and bone the eels; season them with mace, chopped eschalots, -pepper, salt and pimento. Roll up the whole, and tie it firmly with -tape; put it in a stew-pan with a pint of veal _stock_, half pint of -white wine, and half as much vinegar; and let them simmer till done. -Then put them into a dish; skim off the fat, and season with salt. Clear -the liquor by simmering it a few minutes, with the white of two eggs, -and pass it through a cloth: after which boil it till it becomes a thick -jelly when cold. Then take the tape from the eels, and pour the liquid -transparent jelly over the fish. - - -BEST METHOD OF PRESERVING ALL KINDS OF COOKED BUTCHER’S MEAT, FISH, OR -POULTRY. - -Of all the methods of preserving animal substances for domestic -purposes, or sea store, the process found out by Mr. Appert, and pursued -in this metropolis upon a large scale by Messrs. Donkin and Gamble, is -unquestionably the best. It is as follows: - -Let the substance to be preserved be first par-boiled, or rather -somewhat more, the bones of the meat being previously removed. Put the -meat into a tin cylinder, fill up the vessel with the broth, and then -solder on the lid, furnished with a small hole. When this has been done, -let the tin vessel, thus prepared, be placed in water and heated to the -boiling point to complete the remainder of the cooking of the meat. The -hole in the lid is now closed perfectly, by soldering, whilst the air is -rushing out. - -The vessel is then allowed to cool, and from the diminution of volume in -the contents, in consequence of the reduction of temperature, both ends -of the cylinder are pressed inwards and become concave. The tin cases, -thus hermetically sealed, are exposed in a _test-chamber_ for at least a -month, to a temperature above what they are ever likely to encounter; -from 90° to 110° Fahrenheit. If the process has failed, putrefaction -takes place, and gas is evolved, which in process of time will bulge out -both ends of the case, so as to render them convex instead of concave. -But the contents of whatever cases stand this test, will infallibly keep -perfectly sweet and good in any climate, and for any length of time. If -there was any taint about the meat when put up, it inevitably ferments, -and is detected in the _proving_ process. - -All kinds of animal food may be preserved in this way--beef, mutton, -veal, and poultry, either boiled or roasted. The testimonies in favour -of the success of the process are of the most unexceptionable kind. At -Messrs. Donkin and Gamble’s establishment the meat is put up in -canisters of from 4 lbs. to 20 lbs. weight each. It is charged from 1s. -8d. to 3s. a pound; roast higher than boiled, and veal dearer than -mutton or beef. The weight of the canister is deducted, and nothing is -charged for the canisters; and it should be observed, that these -provisions being cooked, and without bone, render them equivalent to -double the weight of meat in the raw state; for it is certain, that the -waste in cooking, together with the weight of bone, are about one half. - -Captain Neish took a quantity of provision, thus prepared, to India, not -one canister spoiled; and one which he brought home contained beef in -the highest state of preservation after two years, and having been -carried upwards of 35,000 miles in the warmest climates. - -The commissioners for victualling the navy also examined some, nearly -four years old, which had been in the Mediterranean and Quebec, and -found it as sound, sweet, and fresh, as if it had been only yesterday -boiled. We are enabled to add the testimony of that distinguished -navigator, captain Basil Hall, who has liberally communicated to us the -result of his personal experience and observation, which is as -follows:--“I can answer for the perfect preservation of a great number -of cases which were in my possession during the voyage to China. I had -88_l._ worth, and not one failure. At that time milk was preserved in -bottles corked; but tin cases have been substituted with very great -effect, as I have myself tried. It is really astonishing how excellent -the milk is; and, indeed, every thing preserved in this way is good.” - -“You must, on examining the list of prices, bear in mind, that meat thus -preserved _eats_ nothing, nor _drinks_--is not apt to get the rot, or to -die--does not _tumble_ over-board, nor get its legs broken, or its flesh -wore off its bones, by knocking about the decks of a ship in bad -weather--it takes no care in the keeping--it is always ready--may be eat -cold or hot--and thus enables you to toss into a boat in a minute, as -many days’ _cooked_ provisions as you choose--it is not exposed to the -vicissitudes of markets, nor is it scourged up to a monstrous price (as -at St. Helena), because there is no alternative. Besides these -advantages, it enables one to indulge in a number of luxuries, which no -care or expence _could_ procure.” - -In this preservative process is displayed a singular and important fact -with regard to the agency of oxygen in putrefaction. The tin canisters -being closed during the exposure to heat, must necessarily contain with -the included matter some portion of air; and if heat were not applied, -or even if applied imperfectly, putrefaction would take place. This -proves that the effect of the high temperature is to produce some kind -of combination of the oxygen of the air with the animal or included -matter, not leading to putrefaction, or even counter-acting it, while -by this combination it is effectually removed. The air accordingly, -where the process is successful, is deprived of oxygen; but if the heat -were not sufficiently prolonged, and by far the greatest part of the air -in the vessel not exhausted, putrefaction soon comes on. From -experiments that have been made on this mode of preserving alimentary -substances, it has been proved, that if the vessels were opened only for -a short time and again closed, without heat being applied, the inclosed -substances soon putrefied: as they did also from mere exposure to the -air. But if, after having been exposed even for an hour or two, they -were re-placed, the vessels again treated as before, and then the due -degree of heat applied, they could be preserved as at first. And this -repeated exposure to the air, and removal of its operation by heating, -it appears from Gay Lussac’s experiments, can be renewed a number of -times. Nay, by occasional exposure to the heat of boiling water, without -the exclusion of the air, he found the exemption from putrefaction to be -attained. - -The theory of these effects is not very apparent. Gay Lussac supposes, -that the oxygen may combine with that principle analogous to gluten, -which excites fermentation, and which may equally excite putrefaction; -that this by a kind of coagulation is separated by heat, and thus -rendered inert; and that it is only that part of it which has suffered -oxygenation which is capable of this coagulation; it is thus removed, -while the exclusion of oxygen prevents the putrefaction from taking -place, which would otherwise be excited by the remainder. But this is -rather hypothetical and unsatisfactory. - - -PRESERVATION OF MEAT BY POTTING. - -The process of potting consists in reducing cooked animal substances to -a pulp, by beating the meat in a mortar, and incorporating the mass with -a portion of salt and spices. The pulp is then put into a jar, and -covered with a thick coat of melted butter or lard, to prevent the -contact of air; and the surface is further protected with a bladder-skin -tied over the mouth of the jar. The muscular part of meat is best suited -for potting, and the quantity of salt and spices ought to be rather -liberal. - - -POTTED BEEF, GAME, OR POULTRY. - -Take three pounds of lean beef, salt it twelve hours with half a pound -of common salt, and half an ounce of saltpetre; divide it into pound -pieces, and put it into an earthen pan, that will just hold it; pour in -half a pint of water; cover it close with paste, and set it in a very -slow oven for four hours; when it comes from the oven, pour the gravy -from it into a basin, shred the meat fine, moisten it with the gravy -poured from the meat, and pound it thoroughly in a marble mortar with -fresh butter, till it is as fine a paste as possible, season it with -black pepper and allspice, or cloves pounded, or grated nutmeg; put it -in pots, press it down as close as possible; put a weight on it, and let -it stand all night; next day, when it is quite cold, cover it a quarter -of an inch thick with clarified butter, and tie it over with paper. - - -POTTED HAM. - -Cut a pound of the lean of boiled ham into pieces, pound it in a mortar -with fresh butter, in the proportion of about two ounces to a pound of -the ham, till it is a fine paste, season it by degrees with pounded -mace, pepper, and allspice; put it close down in pots, and cover it with -clarified butter a quarter of an inch thick; let it stand one night in a -cool place, and tie it over with paper. - -Veal may be potted in a similar manner. - - -POTTED LOBSTER. - -Take the meat and eggs from the shell; season it with powdered mace, -cloves, nutmeg, pepper, salt, and anchovy liquor. Pound the meat in a -marble mortar, and reduce the liquor, by evaporation, to a thick jelly; -then put it and the meat together, with about one quarter of its weight -of butter. Mix all together, and press it into a small pot; cover it -with melted butter. When it is cold, put paper over the pots, and set -them in a dry place. - -Craw fish, crabs, shrimps, and prawns, may be potted in the same way. - - -PRESERVATION OF EGGS. - -Eggs may be kept for three or four months, or more, if the pores of the -shell be closed, and rendered impervious to air by some unctuous -application. We generally anoint them with mutton-suet, melted, and set -them on end, wedged close together, in bran, _stratum super stratum_, -the containing box being closely covered. - -Another method of preserving eggs is, to place them into a vessel -containing lime water, or more properly slacked quicklime diluted with -water, to the consistence of a thin cream, taking care that the eggs are -completely covered with this liquid. The first mentioned process is, -however, preferable, and answers exceedingly well. - - -PRESERVATIVE EFFECT OF FROST, ON BUTCHER’S MEAT, FISH, AND FOWL. - -The preservative effect of frost on dead animal matter are of the utmost -importance to the northern nations, by enabling them to store up a -sufficient stock of all manner of animal provisions for their winter -supply, and to receive stores from a great distance. - -There is annually held at St. Petersburg and Moscow what is called the -frozen, or winter market, for the sale of provisions solidified by -frost. In a vast open square, the bodies of many thousand animals are -seen on all sides, piled in pyramidal and quadrangular masses: fish, -fowl, butter, eggs, hogs, sheep, deer, oxen, all rendered solid by -frost. The different species of fish are strikingly beautiful; they -possess the lustre and brilliancy of colour which characterises the -different species in a living state. - -Most of the larger kinds of quadrupeds are skinned, and classed -according to their species; groups of many hundreds are piled upon their -hind-legs, one against another, as if each were making an effort to -climb over the back of his neighbour. The motionless, yet apparent -animation of their seemingly struggling attitudes (as if they had died a -sudden death), gives a horrid life to this singular scene of death. The -solidity of the frozen creatures, is such, that the natives chop and saw -them up, for the accommodation of the purchasers, like wood. These -frozen provisions are the produce of countries very remote from each -other. Siberia, Archangel, and still more distant provinces, furnish the -merchandize which, during the severity of the frost, is conveyed hither -on sledges. - -In consequence of the multitude of these commodities, and the short -period allowed to the existence of the market, they are cheaper than at -any other time of the year, and are, therefore, purchased in larger -quantities, to be stored, as a winter stock. - -When disposed in cellars, they will keep, with care, for a considerable -time during the cold season. All the provisions which remain, and are -exposed to the temperate atmosphere, speedily putrify; but as the -desertion of the frost is generally pretty well calculated, almost to a -day, but little loss is suffered in this respect. The same advantage is -taken of the cold in Canada, and all other countries, when the frost is -sufficiently steady. - -Substances, so long as they are hard frozen, probably undergo no -chemical change, of which the most striking proof was afforded by the -body of an animal, probably antediluvian, being found imbedded in a mass -of ice at the mouth of the Lena; but in the act of freezing, or of the -subsequent thawing, some alteration is produced, which affects the -nature of the substance. This may be either merely mechanical, from the -particles of ice during their formation, tearing asunder and separating -the fibres, or chemical, by destroying the intimate union of the -constituents of the fluids, as in wine injured by having been frozen; or -by causing new combinations, of which we have an example in the -sweetness acquired by the potatoe. - -Captain Scoresby, contrary to popular belief, states, that “the most -surprising action of the frost, on fresh provision, is in preserving it -a long time from putrefaction, even after it is thawed and returns into -a warm climate.[34] I have,” says he, “eaten unsalted mutton and beef -nearly five months old, which has been constantly exposed to a -temperature above the freezing point for four or five weeks in the -outset, and occasionally assailed by the septical influences of rain, -fog, heat, and electricity, and yet it has proved perfectly sweet. It -may be remarked, that unsalted meat that has been preserved four or five -months in a cold climate, and then brought back to the British coasts -during the warmth of summer, must be consumed very speedily after it is -cut into, or it will fail in a day or two. It will seldom, indeed, keep -sweet after being cooked above twenty or thirty hours.” - - [34] Account of the Arctic Regions, with a History and Description of - the Northern Whale Fishery. - -In freezing animal substances, for the purpose of preserving them, no -other precaution is necessary than exposing them to a sufficient degree -of cold. “Animal substances,” says Captain Scoresby, “requisite as food, -of all descriptions (fish excepted), may be taken to Greenland and there -preserved any length of time, without being smoked, dried, or salted. No -preparation of any kind is necessary for their preservation; nor is any -other precaution requisite, excepting suspending them in the air when -taken on shipboard, shielding them a little from the sun and wet, and -immersing them occasionally in sea-water, or throwing sea-water over -them after heavy rains, which will effectually prevent putrescency on -the outward passage; and, in Greenland, the cold becomes a sufficient -preservation, by freezing them as hard as blocks of wood. The moisture -is well preserved by freezing, a little from the surface only -evaporating; so that if cooked when three, four, or five months old, -meat will frequently appear as profuse of gravy, as if it had been but -recently killed.” Captain Scoresby has not informed us why fish cannot -be taken to Greenland in a frozen state, though this is a mode of -preservation much used in Russia and Germany, and even in this country. - -Some attention is necessary for thawing provisions which have been -frozen. “When used, the beef cannot be divided but by an axe or saw; the -latter instrument is preferred. It is then put into cold water, from -which it derives heat by the formation of ice around it, and soon thaws; -but if put into hot water, much of the gravy is extracted, and the meat -is injured without being thawed more readily. If an attempt be made to -cook it before it is thawed, it may be burnt on the outside, while the -centre remains raw, or actually in a frozen state.” These observations, -which we have transcribed from Captain Scoresby, an excellent observer, -agree with the directions of earlier writers. Thus Krünitz says,[35] -“when fish taken under the ice are frozen, lay them in cold water, which -thus draws the ice out of the fish, so that it can be scraped off their -scales. They taste much better afterwards than when they are allowed to -thaw in a warm room.” - - [35] Encyclop. Vol. X. p. 586. - - - - -Pickles. - - -The antiseptic power of vinegar is employed with advantage in domestic -economy for preserving from decay a variety of fruits, roots, leaves, -and other parts of vegetables, which by a species of refinement and -luxury, are often considered as condiments to improve the relish of -several kinds of food. Their qualities, no doubt, depends almost -entirely on the vinegar, spice, or salt imbibed by them. - -The art of preparing vinegar pickles consists in impregnating the -vegetable substances with the strongest vinegar, to which are usually -added a portion of common salt, and the most heating spices. To effect -this object, the substance to be pickled is usually suffered to -macerate, or slightly boiled with the acid, and afterwards kept infused -in it, together with spices and salt. - -It is customary to impregnate the article to be pickled first in a -strong brine of common salt; but this is not absolutely necessary for -the preservation of the pickled substance. To facilitate the action of -the vinegar or salt, the articles to be pickled, especially such as -walnuts, cucumbers, &c. should be punctured with a large needle or fork. -To assist their preservation, and to improve their flavour, a variety of -pungent and aromatic spices are added, which vary according to the fancy -of the cook; pepper, pimento, cloves, mace, ginger, capsicum, and -mustard, are the spices usually employed. - -For the preparation of acid pickles, the vinegar prepared from wood, as -in itself containing no substance liable to a spontaneous decay, is -preferable to common malt vinegar, although the contrary has been -asserted, because it is free from mucilage, which promotes the spoiling -of common vinegar, and therefore the former is a better antiseptic than -vinegar abounding in mucilage. We prepare our home-made pickles with -this acid, and we are authorised to state that, although kept for years, -they are inferior to none met with in commerce. - -All pickles should be preserved in unglazed earthenware jars, carefully -corked, and tied over with a bladder to exclude air. The vinegar used -for preparing them should always be heated in an unglazed earthenware -pan, it should never be suffered to boil, but poured over the substance -to be pickled, just when it begins to simmer. The spices may be simmered -with the vinegar. - - -PICKLED RED CABBAGE. - -Put sliced red cabbage into a stone jar, and strew amongst it common -salt; then heat vinegar nearly to a boiling point, and pour it over the -cabbage, in a sufficient quantity to cover the sliced leaves. It is -customary to add long pepper, allspice, and ginger, to the vinegar, -which impart to the pickle a pungent taste. A small quantity of powdered -cochineal is also frequently added, with an intent to give to the -cabbage a beautiful red colour; the cochineal should be strewed amongst -the sliced leaves previous to the infusion of the vinegar; two drachms -are sufficient to one pound of cabbage. Red beet root is employed for a -similar purpose, but the former pigment, which is perfectly harmless, -is preferable. When the pickle is cold, it should be tied over with a -bladder skin to exclude the air. - - -PICKLED ONIONS. - -For this pickle the small white round onions, of the size of a child’s -playing marble, are usually chosen. Having peeled off the exterior brown -coat of the onions, simmer them in water, till their outer layers have -acquired a semi-transparency, (not longer), then strain off the water, -and suffer the onions to dry; put them into an unglazed earthen jar and -pour over them so much colourless vinegar, previously heated nearly to -the boiling point, as will cover them. The seasoning spices usually -added are white pepper, ginger root, white mustard seed, mace, and -salt. - - -PICKLED WALNUTS. - -Take unripe walnuts; run a large needle through each in several places; -suffer them to macerate for ten or twelve days, in a strong brine of -common salt. When this has been done, decant the brine, transfer the -walnuts into a stone jar, and pour vinegar, previously heated nearly to -the boiling point, over them, in a sufficient quantity to cover them. - -They may be seasoned with long pepper, capsicum, ginger, mustard seed, -mace, and pimento. These substances should be simmered with the vinegar -for a few minutes. - -The walnuts will not be fit for use till when about six months old. - - -PICKLED CUCUMBERS. - -Perforate fresh gathered cucumbers, with a needle, or fork, put them -into a stone jar, and pour over them boiling hot vinegar. Season with -salt, pimento, long pepper, and ginger. These substances should be -simmered with the vinegar for a few minutes. - -To this pickle is sometimes intentionally given a lively green colour, -by copper, and numerous fatal consequences are known to have ensued from -the use of such a practice.[36] - - [36] Treatise on the Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons, - 1821.--“Poisonous Pickles.” - -If pickled cucumber, or any other kind of vegetable pickle, be wanted of -a lively green colour, it may readily be effected by soaking them when -ready prepared, for a few minutes, first in tincture of turmeric, and -then in a diluted solution of the colouring matter of indigo, dissolved -in water.[37] This method of straining the pickle is perfectly harmless. - - [37] This substance is called, at the colour-shops, intense (not - liquid blue, which is quite a different preparation of Indigo,) blue. - -Samphire, French beans, tomatoes, capsicum pods, nasturtium and raddish -pods, may be pickled in the same manner. - - -PICKLED RED BEET-ROOT. - -Boil the root till sufficiently done; peel it and cut it into thin -slices. Put it into a stone jar, and pour over it white vinegar, -seasoned with long pepper, horse-raddish, cut into small slices, -allspice, cloves, and salt. - - -PICKLED MUSHROOMS. - -Having peeled small button mushrooms, put them in a strong brine of salt -for three or four days; strain off the brine, and pour over them boiling -hot vinegar: season with long pepper, ginger, and mace. - - -PICKLED ARTICHOKE. - -Take large fresh gathered artichokes, boil and simmer them till they are -nearly tender, remove the leaves and choke, and put the bottom part of -the artichoke in a salt brine for about forty-eight hours; then strain -off the brine, put the artichoke into a jar, and cover it with vinegar, -previously heated to the boiling point, and seasoned with pepper, salt, -eschalots, and mace. - - -SOUR KRAUT. - -M. Parmentier has given a minute description of a process of making sour -kraut on the large scale. The heads of white winter cabbages, after -removing the outer leaves, are to be cut into fine shreds, by means of a -knife, or with a plane, and spread out to dry upon a cloth in the shade. -A cask is to be set on end, with the head taken out. If it formerly -contained vinegar or wine, so much the better, as it will promote the -fermentation, and give the cabbage a more vinous taste; if not, the -inside may be rubbed over with sour kraut liquor. Caraway seeds are to -be mixed with the shreds of cabbage, a good layer of salt is placed at -the bottom of the cask, and then cabbage shreds evenly packed, to the -depth of four or six inches. The layers are regularly stamped down with -a wooden stamper, to half their original bulk. The same process is to be -repeated, with additional layers of salt, and shreds, till the whole be -packed. They are then to be covered with a layer of salt, or till the -barrel be filled within two inches of the top, over which the outside -leaves of the cabbages are to be spread. About two pounds of salt are -required for twenty middling sized cabbages. - -The head of the barrel, which should have been previously well fastened -together, is lastly to be put within the barrel above the leaves, and -loaded with stones, to prevent the mixture from rising during the -fermentation. The mass thus compressed subsides, and the cabbage gives -out its juice, which rises to the surface, it is green, muddy, and -fætid. It is to be drawn off by a spigot placed two or three inches from -the bottom, and re-placed by fresh brine. - - * * * * * - -The following notice may serve to remind the reader of the time when the -various articles for preparing pickles are in season. - - _Nasturtium pods_ fit for pickling, are in season in the middle of - July. - - _Onions_, by the middle and end of July. - - _Cucumbers_, the latter part of July and August. - - _Capsicum pods_, the end of July and beginning of August. - - _Tomatas, or Love Apples_, the end of July and August. - - _Cauliflower_, in July and August. - - _Artichokes_, in July and August. - - _Radish pods_, in July. - - _French Beans_, in July. - - _Mushrooms_, in September. - - _Red Cabbage_, in August. - - _Samphire_, in August. - - -MUSHROOM CATSUP. - -The name of catsup is given to several kinds of liquid pickles, made of -savoury vegetable substances, such as mushrooms, walnuts, &c. The -following method of preparing mushroom catsup is copied from the Cook’s -Oracle:-- - -Take full grown mushrooms; put a layer of them at the bottom of a deep -earthen pan, and sprinkle them with salt, then another layer of -mushrooms, put some more salt on them, and so on, alternately, salt and -mushrooms; let them remain two or three hours, by which time the salt -will have penetrated the mushrooms, and rendered them easy to break; -mash them well and let them remain for a couple of days, stirring them -up, and mashing them well each day; then pour them into a stone jar, -and to each quart add half an ounce of whole black pepper; stop the jar -very close, set it in a stew-pan of boiling water, and keep it simmering -for two hours at least. Take out the jar, and pour off the juice clear -from the sediment through a hair sieve into a stewpan (without squeezing -the mushrooms); let it boil up, skim it, and pour it into a dry jar; let -it stand till next day, then pour it off as gently as possible, through -a tammis, or flannel bag, (so as not to disturb the sediment at the -bottom of the jar.) Bottle it in pints or half pints; for it is best to -keep it in such quantities as are soon used: in each pint, put a dozen -berries of black pepper, the same of allspice, and a table-spoonful of -brandy. - - -TOMATA CATSUP. - -Mash a gallon of ripe tomatas; add to it one pound of salt, press out -the juice, and to each quart add a quarter of a pound of anchovies, two -ounces of eshallots, and an ounce of ground black pepper; simmer the -mixture for a quarter of an hour; then strain it through a sieve, and -put to it a quarter of an ounce of pounded mace, the same quantity of -allspice, ginger, and nutmeg, and half a drachm of cochineal; let the -whole simmer for twenty minutes, and strain it through a bag: when cold, -bottle it: - -Or, put tomatas into an earthen pan, and bake them very slowly in an -oven. Rub the pulp through a hair sieve, to separate the seeds and -skins. To every pound, by weight, of the pulp, add a pint and a quarter -of vinegar, with a drachm of mace, ginger, cloves, allspice, and one -ounce each of white pepper, and minced eshallot. Simmer them for half an -hour, and strain off the liquid. - - -WALNUT CATSUP. - -Take 28 lbs. of unripe walnuts when quite tender, reduce them to a pulp -in a marble mortar; add to the mass two gallons of vinegar; let it stand -three or four days; to each gallon of liquor, put a quarter of a pound -of minced eshallots, half an ounce of bruised cloves, the same of mace -and black pepper, one tea-spoonful of Cayenne pepper, and a quarter of a -pound of salt: give it a boil up, and strain it through a flannel. - - - - -Conserved Fruits. - - -The preserving of the pulpy fruits employed in housekeeping for making -fruit pies, tarts and puddings, so as to render them fit for that -purpose, when they cannot be procured in their recent state, is an -object of considerable importance in every well regulated family. - -The expence of sugar is frequently urged as a reason for not conserving -fruits in housekeeping, and to this may be added the uncertainty of -success from the strong fermentable quality of many fruits, if the sugar -has not been very liberally added. They may indeed be conserved for a -length of time without sugar, by baking them in an oven, and then -closely stopping them up; but if the cork becomes dry, the atmospheric -air exchanges place with what is impregnated by the fruit, which then -soon becomes mouldy; some pulpy fruits may be conserved in good -condition by the following method, for years, or even it is probable for -a longer period, in hot climates. - - -CONSERVATION OF RECENT FRUITS WITHOUT SUGAR. - -The following fruits may be conserved without sugar. The more juicy -fruits of the berry kind, such as currants, mulberries, strawberries, -raspberries, are not well calculated for this process. - - METHOD OF CONSERVING GOOSEBERRIES, - - Orlean Plums - Green Gages - Damsons - Peaches - Nectarines - Bullaces. - -Let the fruit be clean picked, and not too ripe, put it into -wide-mouthed, or what are called gooseberry bottles, let the bottles be -filled as full as they can be packed, and stick the corks lightly into -them; then place them upright in a saucepan of water, heated gradually -to about 100 or 170° F. that is, until the water feels very hot to the -finger, but does not scald. Let this degree of heat be kept up for half -an hour, then remove the bottles one by one, and fill them up to within -half an inch of the cork with boiling water; when cold let the cork be -fitted very close, and lay the bottles on their sides, that the cork may -be kept moist by the water. To prevent fermentation and mould, the -bottles must be turned once or twice a week for the first month or two, -and once or twice a month afterwards. When applied to use, some of the -liquor first poured off may serve to be put into the pie, or pudding, -instead of water, and the remainder being boiled up with a little -sugar, makes a rich and agreeable syrup. - -The fruit ought not be cracked by the heat; some trials were made by -keeping the bottles in a heat of 190° for three quarters of an hour, but -the fruit was reduced nearly to a pulp. It is also advisable that the -fruit be not quite ripe, nor should it be bruised. - -Some fruits may be preserved in a succulent state by being kept in -water, without boiling. This is practised in regard to the cranberry: it -also succeeds with the smaller kinds of apples. All pulpy fruits, such -as damsons, plums, &c., if gathered when not quite ripe, and not -wounded, may likewise be preserved, by putting them into dry bottles, so -as to exclude the air, by sealing over the cork, and then burying them -in a trench, with the cork downwards. - - -CONSERVATION OF RECENT FRUITS, BY MEANS OF SUGAR, IN A LIQUID STATE. - -A great number of fruits in their natural state may be conserved in a -fluid, transparent syrup, of such a consistence as will prevent them -from spoiling. This method of conserving fruits requires some care; for -if they are too little impregnated with sugar, they do not keep, and if -the syrup is too concentrated, the sugar crystallizes, and thus spoils -the conserved fruit. - - METHOD OF CONSERVING APRICOTS BY MEANS - OF SUGAR. - - Plums - Damsons - Green Gages - Peaches - Nectarines. - -Take apricots, not too ripe, cut a small slit near the stem end of the -fruit, and push out the stone; simmer them in water till nearly half -done, then peel them, and simmer them again for about twenty minutes in -a syrup, made of two parts by measure of water, and one part by weight -of loaf sugar. When this has been done, put them aside for about twelve -hours; strain off the syrup, and to one pint of it add four ounces of -lump sugar, simmer the fruit again for about ten minutes in this -concentrated syrup; skim off the impurities that rise to the surface, -and repeat the simmering of the fruit in the syrup three or four times; -and, lastly, put the apricots into pots, and cover them with a syrup -made of seven ounces, by measure, of water, and one pound of loaf sugar. -Tie over or cork the jar to exclude the air. - - -CONSERVED PINE APPLES. - -Break off the top and stalk of the pine apple, cut the fruit into -slices, about one-fifth of an inch in thickness; put the slices into an -earthenware jar, at the bottom of which has been previously put a layer -of powdered lump sugar, about one-eighth of an inch in thickness. Place -on this stratum of sugar, a layer of the slices of the fruit, then put -another layer of sugar, and so on; lastly, put the jar up to the neck -into a saucepan of boiling water, and keep the water boiling for about -half an hour, or till the sugar is completely dissolved, taking care to -remove the scum that rises on the surface. Tie over the mouth of the jar -with a wet bladder, or keep it well corked. - - -CONSERVED PEARS. - -Put peeled pears in a stone pan with water, let them simmer till they -are soft, skim them, and when cold simmer them for about ten minutes in -a syrup made of three parts by measure, of water, and one by weight of -loaf sugar, let them remain in the syrup till the next day; then pour -off the syrup from the pears, simmer them again for about ten minutes, -and repeat the simmering in the syrup three or four times successively. -They are usually coloured red by powdered cochineal, a small portion of -which is added during the boiling process. Some persons add cinnamon, -and other spices, and a portion of port wine. If the pears be not -intended to keep, they may be simmered till done in a syrup, composed of -one pound of sugar and three pints and a half of water. - - -CONSERVATION OF RECENT FRUITS, BY MEANS OF SUGAR, IN A SOLID FORM. - -The name of _candied fruits_, or _comfits_, is given to such substances -as are preserved by means of sugar in a solid state, so that the whole -substance is impregnated and covered with sugar, in a crystalline, or -solid state. - - -CANDIED ORANGE, OR LEMON PEEL. - -Soak Seville orange peel, well cleaned from the pulp in several waters, -till it loses its bitterness; cut it into thin slips, simmer them in a -syrup composed of two parts, by weight, of lump sugar, and one of water, -and continue the simmering till they are become tender, and nearly -transparent. Then take them out, put them aside for about twenty-four -hours; and simmer them again in a sufficient quantity of a syrup -composed of six ounces, by measure, of water, and one pound of loaf -sugar, and continue the simmering till the sugar candies about the pan -and peel. Now lay them separately on a wire sieve to drain; sift finely -powdered sugar over them, whilst still hot, and put them to dry in a -warm stove. - -Candied lemon peel may be prepared in the same manner. - - - - -Marmalades, Jams, - -AND - -Fruit Pastes. - - -Marmalades, Fruit Jams, and Pastes, are compositions of the pulpy matter -of recent Fruits, or other vegetable substances, so combined into a mass -with sugar, as will cause them to suffer as little alteration as -possible in their native qualities. These comfitures are therefore in -reality solid extracts of the pulpy matter of fruit conserved by means -of sugar. - -The evaporation of the mass is most conveniently performed in broad -hollow vessels; the larger the surface of the vessel, the sooner will -the aqueous parts exhale. When the pulpy matter begins to grow thick, -great care is necessary to prevent its burning. This accident is almost -unavoidable if the quantity be large, and the fire applied, as usual, -under the pan; it may be effectually prevented, by pouring the mass, -when it has acquired the consistence of syrup, into shallow earthen -pans, and placing those in an oven with its door open, moderately -heated; which, acting uniformly on every part of the liquid, will soon -reduce it to any degree of consistence required. This may likewise be -done, and more securely, by setting the evaporating vessels in boiling -water; but the evaporation is in this way very tedious. The application -of steam by means of what is called a _preserving pan_, is the best -contrivance for preparing jams, fruit pastes, and all other culinary -preparations, which are liable to become injured by a degree of heat -exceeding that of boiling water. - - -BLACK CURRANT PASTE. - -Mash the currants in a bowl or marble mortar, so as to break all the -berries without materially bruising the seeds; put the mass into a -saucepan, and heat it nearly to the boiling point; then rub it through a -sieve to separate the seeds. To one pint measure of the pulpy juice, add -one pound and a half of loaf sugar, let the mixture simmer gently over -the fire, and keep stirring it to prevent it burning at the bottom of -the pan. Continue the simmering till the mass, when cold, assumes the -consistence of a stiff, or almost solid paste, which may be readily -known by placing from time to time a tea spoonful of it on a cold plate. -When the mass has acquired the proper consistence, pour it out on a -marble slab, or earthenware plate, and continue the further exsiccation -by putting it in a stove, or on a hot hearth. - - -APRICOT PASTE, - - Peach Paste - Plum Paste - Cherry Paste - Quince Paste. - -Take ripe apricots, boil them till quite soft, mash them, and rub the -mass through a splinter sieve, put the pulp into a pan, and to every -pound put half a pound of powdered loaf sugar; put it again on the fire -to simmer till the paste drops off easily from the spoon, then take it -from the fire and pour it on a slab. - -Peach, quince, plum, and cherry paste, may be prepared in the same -manner. - - -RASPBERRY PASTE. - -Mash the raspberries, and having heated the mass in a saucepan, pass it -through a splinter sieve; simmer the mass gently to the consistence of a -paste, and to every pound and a quarter of the pulp, add one pound and a -half of powdered loaf sugar, and proceed as before directed.--_See black -currant paste._ - - -ORANGE AND LEMON PASTE. - -Squeeze out the juice of Seville oranges, and boil the rinds in water -till they are tender enough to be crushed between the finger; scoop out -the pulp of the fruit, and put it aside; pound the rind, in a mortar, to -form a smooth mass, pass it through a splinter sieve; add to it the -juice, and keep it on the fire till the mass acquires the consistence -of a paste; then take it off, weigh it, and to every pound and a quarter -add two pounds of powdered loaf sugar; mix and finish it like black -currant paste. _See page 260._ - -Lemon paste is made in a like manner. - - -RASPBERRY JAM. - - Strawberry Jam - Currant Jam - Gooseberry Jam - Mulberry Jam. - -Having mashed the raspberries, put them into a saucepan, and make them -boiling hot; rub the pulp through a coarse splinter sieve, and to a -pint, by measure, add one pound of powdered loaf sugar; simmer the -mixture with a gentle heat till the mass has acquired the consistence of -a stiff paste, and comes off from the bottom of the pan, taking care to -stir the mixture continually with a wooden spatula when it begins to -thicken. Put the jam into pots, which should be perfectly dry, for the -least damp spoils it. When quite cold, tie it over. - -Strawberry, currant, gooseberry, and mulberry jam, may be prepared in a -like manner. - - -APRICOT JAM. - -Take ripe apricots, cut them into pieces, and remove the stones; mash -the fruit in a marble mortar, to form it into a smooth pulp; heat it -over the fire, and when nearly boiling hot, rub it through a splinter -sieve; add to one pint, by measure, of the pulp, one pound of powdered -sugar; stir the mixture together, and suffer it to simmer over the fire -till it comes clear from the bottom of the pan, taking care to stir the -mixture all the time. - - -ORANGE MARMALADE. - -Marmalades scarcely differ from jams. This name is applied to those -comfitures which are composed of the firmer fruits, such as quinces, -pine-apples, &c.; whereas jams are made of the more juicy, esculent -berries, such as strawberries, currants, mulberries, &c. - -Cut the oranges into pieces, remove the pulp, squeeze it through a -sieve, and measure it. Boil the rind in water till it is quite soft, -then clear it from the interior side of the white pulpy mass, so that -nothing but the thin outer yellow rind is left. To every pint of the -pulpy juice add three-quarters of a pound of coarsely powdered loaf -sugar, and add also the rind of the yellow orange, cut into thin slips. -Let the whole simmer, till a sample, when taken out of the saucepan, and -suffered to cool on a plate, exhibits the consistence of a semi-fluid -mass. - - -PEACH MARMALADE. - -Peel the peaches and take out the stones, simmer them till half done, -then drain them, reduce them to a pulp, and squeeze the mass through a -coarse splinter sieve. Weigh the pulp, and to every pound add twelve -ounces of powdered loaf sugar; simmer the mass till it has acquired a -stiff pasty consistence. - - -PINE APPLE MARMALADE. - -Cut the fruit into small pieces, pound it in a mortar, and pass the mass -through a coarse splinter sieve; weigh the pulp, and add to every pound -three-quarters of a pound of powdered loaf sugar, and six ounces of -water, and simmer it as before described. - - -APRICOT MARMALADE. - -Boil ripe apricots in water till they can be crushed between the -fingers, then take them out, extract the stones, reduce the fruit to a -pulp, and pass the mass through a sieve; weigh the pulp, and to every -pound take three-quarters of a pound of loaf sugar; simmer it till it -hangs on the spoon, like a stiff jelly. Quince marmalade may be prepared -in a like manner. - - -FRUIT JELLIES - -Are compounds of the juices of fruits combined with sugar, concentrated -by boiling to such a consistence, that the liquid, upon cooling, assumes -the form of a tremulous glue. - -In the preparation of jellies, care must be taken not to boil it too -long, as it looses by this means the property of gelatinising, and -assumes the form of mucilage, the danger of this is greatest when the -quantity of sugar is too small to absorb the water of the juice. - -Fruit jellies should not be kept in glazed earthenware pots, because -they act, or dissolve a portion of the glaze. They should (and all other -comfitures) be covered with paper dipped in brandy, and the pots should -be tied over with paper. - - -CURRANT JELLY. - -Mash the currants, and pass them through a splinter sieve, put the pulp -on the fire, stir it with a spoon till it begins to boil, then strain -the mass through a flannel bag to render the juice clear; measure it, -and to a pint put one pound and a half of loaf sugar, and let it simmer -very gently, till you see, by dipping a spoon or skimmer in the jelly, -and again raising it, the jelly forms a web upon it, which, if simmered -enough, will remain on the skimmer. Then take it off the fire, let it -stand a few minutes till the scum has collected on the surface, remove -it and put the clear fluid into pots. When quite cold, cut pieces of -writing paper to the size of the brim of the pots, steep the paper in -brandy and place it on the jelly. - - -RASPBERRY JELLY. - -The juice of this fruit does not gelatinize readily on account of the -quantity of mucilage which it contains; hence, for preparing a jelly by -means of this fruit, it is necessary to add to one part of raspberries -at least two parts of red or white currant juice. The jelly may then be -obtained by following the directions stated for making currant jelly. - - -BARBERRY JELLY. - -Pick the barberries from the stalks, mash them, and having heated the -mass in a saucepan throw it into a flannel bag, to strain off the juice. -To one pint of the clear juice add one pound and a half of loaf sugar, -simmer it with a gentle heat till it gelatinizes. - - -GOOSEBERRY JELLY. - -Take two quarts of bruised gooseberries, simmer the mass with one pint -and a half of water for about a quarter of an hour, then put it into a -flannel bag to strain off the juice, and to one pint add one pound and a -half of lump sugar; simmer it, as stated under the article currant -jelly. - - -APPLE JELLY. - -Pare four pounds of russettins or any other sub-acid apples, cut them -into small pieces, and boil them in two quarts of water, till they -become quite soft, then put them into a sieve, strain off the liquid, -and run it through a flannel bag to render it clear; measure it, and to -one pint of the liquid add one pound and a half of sugar, and finish -the jelly as before directed. _See Currant Jelly._ - - -QUINCE AND APRICOT JELLY - -May be prepared in a similar manner. - - -FRUIT SYRUPS. - -A weak syrup has a tendency to ferment and quickly become sour if kept -in a temperate degree of heat; it is therefore not calculated to prevent -the natural fermentation of vegetable juices, which always increase its -tendency to corrupt. Pharmaceutists have ascertained that a solution, -prepared by dissolving two parts of double refined sugar in one of -water, or any watery fluid, and boiling the solution a little, forms a -syrup, which neither ferments nor crystallizes; and this proportion may -be considered as the basis of all syrups, and seems to be the degree of -boiling syrup called _smooth_ by the confectioners. - -After having squeezed the fruit for the syrup, leave the mass for -several days undisturbed: a slight fermentation takes place, this will -separate the mucilage and thick parenchyma which rendered the juice -viscid. By degrees these matters subside, and very often the liquor -appears perfectly clear. This liquor may be separated by decantation: -put the remaining matter under the press, and by these means a juice not -so clear as the preceding is obtained, but which easily becomes clear -spontaneously, especially if put into bottles immediately on its being -expressed, and suffered to ferment during some days; by this means a -transparent juice of the fruit is obtained. - - -LEMON SYRUP. - -Take a pint of fresh lemon juice, add to it two pounds of lump sugar; -simmer it for a few minutes, and remove the scum till the surface is -quite clean, then add an ounce of thin cut lemon-peel; let them all -simmer very gently for a few minutes, and strain it through a flannel. -When cool, bottle, and keep it in a cool place. - - -ORANGE SYRUP. - -Squeeze the oranges, and strain the juice from the pulp; to a pint of -the juice, add two pounds of sugar; give it a boil, skim it well, strain -it through a flannel, and let it stand till cold, and then bottle it. - - -MULBERRY SYRUP. - -Take Mulberry juice strained, rendered clear by having suffered it to -ferment, as directed page 273, one pint; add to it refined sugar, two -pounds; simmer the sugar in the juice, and proceed as directed.--_See -Currant Syrup._ - - -RASPBERRY AND CURRANT SYRUP - -May be prepared in a like manner. - - -PRESERVATION AND STORING OF FRUIT,--PRINCIPAL REQUISITES OF A GOOD FRUIT -ROOM. - -In storing fruits, care should be taken not to bruise them. Pears, -apples, and all other summer fruit should be placed on shelves singly in -a dry and well aired room, and not on moss, hay, or straw, as is often -done, because they thereby contract a very disagreeable flavour. It is -better to lay the fruit on a clean shelf, covered with a sheet of common -writing paper; brown paper gives them a flavour of pitch. - -The finer large kinds of pears should not be allowed to touch one -another, but should be laid single and distinct. Apples, and all kinds -of pears, should be laid thin; never tier above tier, which causes them -to sweat, and undergo a kind of fermentation, which renders them mealy. -A great deal of the preservation of summer fruit depends on the manner -of gathering them. After having prepared the fruit-room, a fine day is -to be chosen, and, if possible, after two or three preceding days of dry -weather, and about two in the afternoon the fruit is to be gathered, and -deposited in baskets of a moderate size, taking care that none of it -receive any bruise or blemish, for the injured part soon rots and spoils -the sound fruit in contact with it. As the summer fruits ripen more -quickly after they are pulled, only a few days’ consumption should be -gathered at once. Autumn apples and pears should be gathered about eight -days before they are ripe, and indeed some kinds never become fit for -eating on the tree. If they have been necessarily gathered in wet -weather, or early in the morning, they should be exposed a day to the -sun to dry, and they should on no account be wiped, which rubs off the -_bloom_, as it is called, which, when allowed to dry, on some fruits, -constitutes a natural varnish, closing up the pores, and preventing the -evaporation of the juices. - -Fine pears may be preserved by passing a thread through the stack, and -having sealed up the end of the stack with a drop of sealing wax, to -hang them up separately in a cone of paper, suspended by the thread. - -_Grapes_ keep much better when hanging than when laid upon a table, and -it is advisable also to seal the cut end with a drop of sealing wax; or -they may be hung by the stack, or by the point of the bunch, as the -grapes are thus less pressed against each other; but it is in both cases -necessary to visit them from time to time, and to cut off with a pair -of scissors every berry that is mouldy or spoiled. - -More artificial modes of preserving grapes in a succulent state are -sometimes used, and become necessary for their transportation to distant -countries. They are often packed with bran and saw dust. If intended for -transportation they should not be quite ripe. - -The principal requisites of a good fruit room are great dryness and -equality of temperature, and the power of excluding light. It should be -furnished with a number of shallow trays, supported on a rack or stand -one above another. It should have openings to admit fresh air during -fine weather. It should be warmed during frost. - - -PRESERVATION OF RECENT ESCULENT ROOTS, POT-HERBS, AND OTHER CULINARY -VEGETABLES. - -When it is necessary to keep vegetables a few days before they are made -use of, care should be taken that they receive as little injury as -possible from keeping. The rules are simple and easy:--vegetables of -different sorts should not be left in the same bundle, or basket; they -should not be washed till they are about to be used; but if they have -got flaccid, or dry-shrivelled, and wrinkly, (not otherwise,) they -should be immersed in water: but to prevent them becoming so, the best -method is not to expose them to the sun or air, but to keep them in a -cool, dark, damp place, not scattered about, but close together, though -not in great quantities, lest they heat, and a sort of fermentation -begins, which destroys the quality altogether.--Strong scented -vegetables should be kept apart from those that are inodorous. - -Leeks or cellery will quickly spoil a whole basketful of cauliflower, -sallads, or the finer vegetables. - -Another general rule, as already stated, is, that they should not be -kept in water when fresh, or refreshed by sprinkling them with water, -(as is often practised,) till they are to be used, for the flavour is -thereby greatly injured. It is only when they have become flaccid that -they should be immersed in water to restore their crispness before they -are cooked, otherwise they will be tough and unpalatable; this is to be -done, when the size of the vegetable admits of it, as cauliflower, -sallad, cellery, &c., by cutting off a piece of the stalk and setting -the fresh surface, thus exposed, in water, which will be absorbed; in -other cases the whole vegetable must be immersed in water. - -Most vegetable substances being more or less succulent, their full -proportion of fluids is necessary for their retaining that state of -crispness or plumpness which they have when growing. On being cut or -gathered the exhalation from their surface continues, while, from the -open vessels of the cut surface, there is often great exudation or -evaporation, and thus their natural moisture is diminished, and the -tender leaves become flaccid, and the thicker masses or roots lose their -plumpness. This is not only less pleasant to the eye, but is a real -injury to the nutritious powers of the vegetable; for in this flaccid -and shrivelled state its fibres are less easily divided in chewing, and -the water which exists in vegetable substances, in the form of their -respective natural juices, is directly nutritious. The first care in the -preservation of succulent vegetables, therefore, is to prevent them from -losing their natural moisture. In regard to the tender succulent -vegetables this is not altogether possible; because there is a constant -exhalation from their surface, while the supply of moisture is cut off. -The principle of preserving them, then, is to retard and diminish the -exhalation. Even growing vegetables become flaccid in a hot sun, because -the exhalation is then greater than the supply; and exposure to the sun -is absolutely ruinous to all the more delicate vegetables.--The -operation of heat and air is slower but similar. Succulent vegetables -should, therefore, be kept in a cool, shady, and damp place. - -Common sense will suggest what is best, when it is known that to keep -vegetables fresh for a short time, the best way is to hinder them from -becoming too dry, and therefore to keep them from heat and air, and to -avoid crushing or bruising them. - -If they become frozen in the cold of winter, they should be immersed in -cold water for an hour or two, and the water should be changed once or -twice. - -The earthy mould should never be washed from potatoes, or any other sort -of roots, till they are to be dressed. - -When potatoes, turnips, carrots, or any other roots are to be preserved -for a length of time, they should be covered with earth, or straw and -mats, to preserve them both from the air and the action of frost, which -is peculiarly hurtful to all vegetable substances. - -Sweet herbs, or savoury pot-herbs should be gathered in a dry day. -Cleanse them well from dirt and dust, cut off the roots, separate the -bunches into smaller ones, and hang them across a line in the kitchen, -where there is a moderate heat, which will dry them in an excellent -manner: when perfectly dry, put them in bags, and lay them by on a shelf -in the kitchen, they will keep good for twelve months, and be ready in -the moment when wanted: or rub off the stalks, put them through a coarse -hair sieve, and put the powder into stopped bottles; by this means their -flavour is still better preserved.--They are in the highest state of -perfection just before they begin to flower; the first and last crop -have neither the fine flavour nor the perfume of those which are -gathered in the height of the season; that is when the greater part of -the crop of each species is ripe at the same period. - - * * * * * - - _Basil_ is in the best state for drying from the middle and end of - August. - - _Knotted Marjoram_, from the beginning of July, and during the whole - month. - - _Winter Savory_, the latter end of July, and throughout August. - - _Summer Savory_, the latter end of July, and throughout August. - - _Thyme_, _Lemon-Thyme_, and _Orange-Thyme_, during June and July. - - _Mint_, the latter part of June, and during July. - - _Sage_, in August and September. - - _Tarragon_, in June, July, August. - - - - -Vinegar. - - -Vinegar may be made in the small way from grapes, gooseberries, or other -sub-acid fruits, with the addition of a portion of Muscovado sugar, -honey, or malt wort. - -In this country vinegar is prepared from a wort obtained by the infusion -of malted grain; the fermentation being excited by yeast. This vinegar -is inferior in strength and purity to that from wine, and is more liable -to become mouldy, or suffer the putrefactive fermentation. And this -appears to be owing to the presence of a large portion of glutinous -matter. - -To make vinegar for domestic use, fit for keeping, it is essential that -the fluid employed for that purpose should contain in every gallon at -least three pounds of sugar; to allow some access of air to the vessel -in which it is kept, and to keep it in a temperature rather higher than -that of the atmosphere in this climate, that is about 75° to 80° Fahr. -It is also essential, where a liquor already fermented is employed, to -add a portion of yeast; for though any fermented liquor, if kept in a -moderate temperature in an open vessel, will spontaneously run sour, or -become changed to vinegar, this change is too gradual to produce this -acid in perfection, and the first acetified portion turns mouldy before -the last has become sour: but where the substance employed has not yet -undergone fermentation, the whole process of the vinous and subsequent -acetous fermentation will go on uninterruptedly with the same ferment -which at first set it in action, which happens, for example, in the -making vinegar from malt, or from fruit, sugar, and water. - - -METHOD OF MAKING GOOSEBERRY VINEGAR. - -Take gooseberries, when full ripe, mash them in a tub or marble mortar, -and to every quart of the mashed fruit, put three quarts of water, stir -the pulp well together, let it stand 24 hours, and press it through a -coarse bag. To every gallon of the strained liquor add four pounds of -brown sugar, or four pounds and a half of honey, the latter is -preferable; put the mixture into a barrel, which it should fill about -three fourths, and add to eight or nine gallons of it one pint of good -ale yeast; cover the bung hole of the cask with a slate, to exclude -dust, and place the barrel in the sun in summer, or a little away from -a fire in winter. The mixture will soon begin to ferment; keep up the -fermentation by keeping the liquor at the same temperature, till the -taste and odour indicate that the vinegar is complete. When the liquor -has become perfectly clear, draw it off into bottles. It will keep much -better if it be heated nearly to the boiling point, which is best -accomplished by putting the bottles containing it in a saucepan with -water, and causing the water to boil for about one quarter of an hour. -When this has been done, remove the bottles, and when quite cold cork -them. Earthenware bottles are much less liable to crack, during this -process, than glass bottles. - - -RASPBERRY VINEGAR. - -Take a pound of fine gathered red raspberries, mash them in a wooden -bowl, or earthenware pan, add to the pulp a pint and a half of vinegar; -make the mixture boiling hot, and strain it through a flannel bag. To -every pint of liquor add a pound of lump sugar, suffer it to simmer in -an earthen pipkin for about five minutes, and remove the scum as it -rises. When cold put it into dry bottles. - -Or, better mash the raspberries, suffer them to ferment till the juice -separates from the pulpy matter; then add to a pint of the mass a pint -and a half of vinegar, let it simmer for a few minutes, and strain it -through a flannel. - - -CHILLI VINEGAR. - - Tarragon Vinegar - Mint Vinegar - Eschallot Vinegar - Burnet Vinegar - -Put an ounce of red chillies, (capsicum) cut into small pieces, into a -bottle containing a pint of vinegar, stop the bottle close, and suffer -the chillies to macerate for eight or ten days, and then strain off the -clear infusion. Tarragon, mint, or burnet vinegar may be made in a -similar way, by suffering four ounces of fresh gathered tarragon, mint, -or burnet, (or three ounces) eschallots, to macerate for eight or ten -days in a quart of vinegar. - - - - -Tea. - - -The dried leaves of the tea plant, a commodity with which we are so well -acquainted, and which affords a beverage so generally used in this -country, must excite curiosity to know something of its natural history, -or the nature of the plant from which it is obtained. - -The precise period when tea was first made known in Europe cannot be -ascertained; it is said that some Dutch adventurers, seeking for such -objects as might fetch a high price in China, and hearing of the general -use there of a beverage from a plant of that country, made them fall -upon the idea of trying whether not an European plant might be relished -by the Chinese, and become an article of commerce among them, and -accordingly they introduced to them the herb _Sage_, the adventurers -accepting in return the Chinese tea, which they brought to Europe. The -European herb did not continue long in use in China, but the consumption -of tea has been amazingly increasing in Europe ever since. It is -generally said, that it was first imported from Holland into England, -about 1666, by lord Arlington and lord Ossory, who brought it into -fashion among people of quality. But it was used in coffee-houses before -this period, as it appears by an act of parliament made in 1660, in -which a duty of 8_d._ was laid on every gallon of the infusion sold in -these places. In 1666 it was sold in London for 60_s._ per pound, though -it did not cost more than 2_s._ 6_d._ or 3_s._ 6_d._ at Batavia. It -continued at this price till 1700. In 1715 green tea began to be used; -and as great quantities were then imported, the price was lessened, and -the practice of drinking tea descended to the lower ranks. In 1720, the -French began to send tea to us by a clandestine commerce. Since that -period the demand has been increasing yearly, and it has become almost a -necessary of life in several parts of Europe, even among the lowest as -well as the highest ranks. - - -NATURAL HISTORY OF THE TEA TREE. - -The tea tree (Polyandria Monogynia) is a native of China, Japan, and -Tonquin, it has never been found growing wild in any other country. -Linnæus says, that there are two species of this plant, the Bohe´a, or -black, and the Vir´idis, or green tea. The green has much longer leaves -than the black, it is a more hardy plant; and, with very little -protection, bears the severity of our winters. The tea is planted in -China round borders of fields, without regard to the soil. - -The tree attains the height of ten or twelve feet, and is an evergreen: -the leaves, which are the only valuable part of it, are about an inch -and a half long, and resemble those of sweet brier. The flowers are -something like the wild white-rose; the seeds are round, and blackish, -about the size of a large pea. - -As tea is a most important article of commerce to the Chinese, they -bestow the greatest possible care upon its cultivation. - -The people of China and Japan take as much pains to procure tea, of -excellent quality, as the Europeans do to obtain good wine; they -generally keep it a year before they use it. - -Tea is propagated by seeds, which are put into holes about five inches -deep, at regular distances from each other; from six to twelve being -sown together, as it is supposed that only a small number grow. - -When the tree is three years old, the leaves are fit to be gathered; and -the men who collect them wear gloves that the flavour may not be -injured. They do not pull them by handfuls, but pick them off one by -one, taking great care not to break the leaves, and although this -appears to be a very tedious process, each person gathers from ten to -fifteen pounds a day. The tea leaves are collected at three different -seasons: what are first procured, while the leaves are very young, are -called imperial tea, being generally reserved for the court and people -of rank, because they are considered as of the finest quality. The last -gathering, when the leaves have attained their full growth, is the -coarsest tea of all, and is used by the common people. - -The leaves are first exposed to the steam of boiling water, after which -they are put on _plates of copper_, and held over a fire until they -become dry and shriveled; they are then taken off the plates with a -shovel, and spread upon mats, some of the labourers taking a small -quantity at a time in their hands, which they roll in one direction, -while others are continually employed in stirring those on the mats, in -order that they may cool the sooner, and retain their shriveled -appearance. The adulteration of tea[38] has been practised in this -country to an enormous extent. - - [38] Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons, and Methods of - Detecting them.--_See article Tea._--1821. - - -OBSERVATIONS ON THE ART OF MAKING TEA, AND SINGULAR EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT -KINDS OF TEA POTS, ON THE INFUSION OF TEA. - -It has been long observed, that the infusion of tea, made in silver or -polished metal tea-pots, is stronger than that which is produced in -black, or other kinds of earthenware pots. This remark is explained on -the principles, that polished surfaces retain heat much better than dark -rough surfaces, and that, consequently, the caloric being confined in -the former case, must act more powerfully than in the latter. It is -further certain, that the silver or metal pot, when filled a second -time, produces worse tea than the earthenware vessel; and that it is -advisable to use the earthenware pot, unless a silver or metal one can -be procured sufficiently large to contain, at once, all that may be -required. These facts are readily explained, by considering that the -action of heat, retained by the silver vessel, so far exhausts the herb, -as to leave very little soluble substance for a second infusion; -whereas, the reduced temperature of the water in the earthenware pot, by -extracting only a small portion at first, leaves some soluble matter for -the action of a subsequent infusion. - -The reason for pouring boiling water into the teapot, before the -infusion of the tea is made, is, that the vessel, being previously warm, -may abstract less heat from the mixture, and thus admit a more powerful -action. Neither is it difficult to explain the fact, why the infusion of -tea is stronger if only a small quantity of boiling water be first used, -and more be added some time afterwards, for if we consider that only the -water immediately in contact with the herb can act upon it, and that it -cools very rapidly, especially in earthenware vessels, it is clear that -the effect will be greater where the heat is kept up by additions of -boiling water, than where the vessel is filled at once, and the fluid -suffered gradually to cool. When the infusion has once been completed, -it is found that any further addition of the herb only affords a very -small increase in the strength, the water having cooled much below the -boiling point, and consequently acting very slightly. - - -JAPANESE METHOD OF MAKING TEA. - -The people of Japan reduce their tea to a fine powder, which they dilute -with warm water until it has acquired the consistence of a thin soup. -Their manner of serving tea is as follows:--They place before the -company the tea-equipage, and the caddy in which this powder is -contained; they fill the cups with warm water, and taking from the caddy -as much powder as the point of a knife can contain, throw it into each -of the cups, and stir it, until the liquor begins to foam; it is then -presented to the company, who sip it while it is warm. According to Du -Halde, this method is not peculiar to the Japanese; it is also used in -some of the provinces of China. - - - - -Coffee. - - -The beverage which we call coffee, is said to have been drank in -Ethiopia from time immemorial. The Galla, a wandering nation of Africa, -in their excursions on Abyssinia, being obliged to traverse immense -deserts, and being also desirous of falling on the Abyssinians, without -warning, that they may be incumbered as little as possible with baggage, -carry nothing with them to eat, but coffee roasted, till it can be -pulverised, and then mixed with butter into balls; one of these, about -the size of a billiard ball, is said to keep them during a whole day’s -fatigue.[39] - - [39] Bruce’s Abyss. II. 226. - -The liquor, called coffee, was introduced into Adea, in Arabia, from -Persia, about the middle of the 15th century. Not long after it reached -Mecca, Medina, &c. and Grand Cairo. Hence it continued its progress to -Damascus and Aleppo, and in 1554 became known at Constantinople. - -It is not certain at what time the use of coffee passed from -Constantinople to the Western part of Europe. Thevenot, a French -traveller into the East, at his return in 1657, brought with him coffee -to Paris. In the year 1671, a coffee-house was opened at Marseilles. -Soon after coffee-rooms were opened at Paris. - -The first mention of coffee in our statute books was 1660. In the year -1688, Mr. Ray affirms, that London might rival Grand Cairo in the number -of its coffee-houses.[40] - - [40] Miller’s Gardener’s Dictionary. - - -NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COFFEE TREE. - -The tree which produces coffee contains ten species, chiefly natives of -the East Indies, South America, and the Polynesian isles. The only -species, however, that we have to notice in the present work is the -coffee Arabica, of which there are two varieties, though both are sold -in our shops as Turkey coffee, and possess similar qualities. - -The tree seldom rises more than 16 or 18 feet high, with an erect main -stem, covered with a lightish brown bark: the leaves are oblong-ovate, -and pointed; the flowers are set in clusters; they are of a pure white, -and possess a very pleasant odour, but their duration is very transient. -The fruit resembles a cherry, and grows in clusters, ranged along the -branches under the axillæ of the leaves, which are of a laurel hue, but -rather longer than a laurel leaf. It is an ever-green, and makes a -beautiful appearance at every season in the year, but particularly when -it is in flower. - -The coffee tree has of late years been much cultivated in America, but -the coffee which has been thence brought to Europe has been very little -esteemed. This great difference in the goodness many have attributed to -the soil in which it grows, and therefore have supposed it impossible -for the inhabitants of the British islands ever to cultivate this -commodity to any real advantage; but this is certainly a mistake, as is -affirmed by several persons of credit, who have resided abroad, who say, -that the berries which they have gathered from the trees and roasted -themselves, were as well flavoured as any of the coffee brought from -Mocha; so that the fault is in the drying, and bringing over; for if in -the drying of the berries they be laid in rooms near the sugar-works, or -near the house where rum is distilled, the berries soon imbibe the -surrounding effluvia, which will greatly alter their flavour. In like -manner the coffee brought in the same ships with rum and sugar, were the -coffee ever so good, would hereby be entirely altered. - -Raw coffee materially becomes ameliorated by age. It should be kept in -bags, or vessels permeable to air, and in a dry, or rather warm place. - - -BEST METHOD OF MAKING COFFEE. - -The general use of tea among us, has caused the inhabitants of Great -Britain to be in general far inferior than their neighbours on the -continent in the art of preparing the beverage called coffee. The -coloured water commonly drank in England under this name, is as much the -object of derision to foreigners, as their _soup maigre_ is to us; hence -a lively French writer says, “The English do not care about the quality -of coffee, if they can but get enough of it.” Coffee certainly is almost -universally made stronger on the other side of the channel than it is -here. - -Count Rumford, in the eighteenth of his Essays has entered into a -minute, elaborate, and useful analysis of the powers of coffee, and the -best means of infusing it for dietetic purposes. He remarks, that among -the numerous luxuries of the table, unknown to our forefathers, coffee -may be considered as one of the most valuable. Its taste is very -agreeable, and its flavour uncommonly so; but its principal excellence -depends on its salubrity, and on its exhilarating quality. It excites -cheerfulness, without intoxication; and the pleasing flow of spirits -which it occasions, lasts many hours, and is never followed by sadness, -languor, or debility. It diffuses over the whole frame a glow of health, -and a sense of ease and well-being which is extremely delightful: -existence is felt to be a positive enjoyment, and the mental powers are -awakened, and rendered uncommonly active. After some other judicious -observations on the valuable properties of coffee, and the uncertainty -of the result in the common methods of preparing it, the Count proceeds -with his subject. - -Different methods have been employed in making coffee; but the -preparation of the grain is nearly the same in all of them. It is first -roasted in an iron pan, or in a hollow cylinder made of sheet-iron, over -a brisk fire; and when, from the colour of the grain, and the peculiar -fragrance which it acquires in this process, it is judged to be -sufficiently roasted, it is taken from the fire, and suffered to cool. -When cold, it is ground in a mill to a coarse powder, and preserved for -use. - -Great care must be taken in roasting coffee, not to roast it too much; -as soon as it has acquired a deep cinnamon colour, it should be taken -from the fire, and cooled; otherwise, much of its aromatic flavour will -be dissipated, and its taste becomes disagreeably bitter. - -In order that coffee may be perfectly good, and very high flavoured, not -more than half a pound of the grain should be roasted at once; for when -the quantity is greater, it becomes impossible to regulate the heat in -such a manner as to be quite certain of a good result. - -The progress of the operation, and the moment most proper to put an end -to it, may be judged and determined with great certainty, not only by -the changes which take place in the colour of the grain, but also by the -peculiar fragrance which will first begin to be diffused by it when it -is nearly roasted enough. - -If the coffee in powder is not well defended from the air, it soon loses -its flavour, and becomes of little value; and the liquor is never in so -high perfection as when the coffee is made immediately after the grain -has been roasted. - -Boiling-hot water extracts from coffee, which has been properly roasted -and ground, an aromatic substance of an exquisite flavour, together with -a considerable quantity of astringent matter, of a bitter but very -agreeable taste; but this aromatic substance, which is supposed to be an -oil, is extremely volatile, and is so feebly united to the water that it -escapes from it into the air with great facility. If a cup of the very -best coffee, prepared in the highest perfection, and boiling hot, be -placed on a table, in the middle of a large room, and suffered to cool, -it will in cooling fill the room with its fragrance; but the coffee, -after having become cold, will be found to have lost a great deal of -its flavour. If it be again heated, its taste and flavour will be still -further impaired; and after it has been heated and cooled two or three -times, it will be found to be quite vapid and disgusting. The fragrance -diffused through the air is a sure indication that the coffee has lost -some of its volatile parts; and as that liquor is found to have lost its -peculiar flavour, and also its exhilarating quality, there can be no -doubt but that both these depend on the preservation of those volatile -particles which escape into the air with such facility. - -In order that coffee may retain all those aromatic particles which give -to that beverage its excellent qualities, nothing more is necessary than -to prevent all internal motions among the particles of that liquid; by -preventing its being exposed to any change of temperature, either -during the time employed in preparing it or afterwards, till it is -served up. - -This may be done by pouring boiling water on the coffee in powder; and -as all kinds of agitation is very detrimental to coffee, not only when -made, but also while it is making, it is evident that the method -formerly practised, that of putting the ground coffee into a coffee-pot -with water, and boiling them together, must be very defective, and must -occasion a very great loss. But that is not all, for the coffee which is -prepared in that manner can never be good, whatever may be the quantity -of ground coffee that is employed. The liquor may no doubt be very -bitter, and it commonly is so; and it may possibly contain something -that may irritate the nerves,--but the exquisite flavour and -exhilarating qualities of good coffee will be wanting. - -Coffee may easily be too bitter, but it is impossible that it should -ever be too fragrant. The very smell of it is reviving, and has often -been found to be useful to sick persons, and especially to those who are -afflicted with violent head-aches. In short, every thing proves that the -volatile aromatic matter, whatever it may be, that gives flavour to -coffee, is what is most valuable in it, and should be preserved with the -greatest care, and that in estimating the strength or richness of that -beverage, its fragrance should be much more attended to than either its -bitterness or its astringency. - -One pound avoirdupois, of good Mocha coffee, which, when properly -roasted and ground, weighs only thirteen ounces, serves for making -fifty-six full cups of very excellent coffee. - -The quantity of ground coffee for one full cup, should not be less than -108 grains troy, which is rather less than a quarter of an ounce. This -coffee, when made, fills a coffee-cup of the common size quite full. - -In making coffee, several circumstances must be carefully attended to: -in the first place, the coffee must be ground fine, otherwise the hot -water will not have time to penetrate to the centres of the particles; -it will merely soften them at their surfaces, and passing rapidly -between them, will carry away but a small part of those aromatic and -astringent substances on which the goodness of the liquor entirely -depends. In this case the grounds of the coffee are more valuable than -the insipid wash which has been hurried through them, and afterwards -served up under the name of coffee. - -Formerly, the ground coffee being put into a coffee-pot, with a -sufficient quantity of water, the coffee-pot was put over the fire, and -after the water had been made to boil a certain time, the pot was -removed from the fire, and the grounds having had time to settle, or -having been fined down with isinglass, the clear liquor was poured off, -and immediately served up in cups. This was a bad practice of making -coffee. - -From the results of several experiments made by Count Rumford, to -ascertain what proportion of the aromatic and volatile particles in the -coffee escape, and are left in this process, he found that it amounted -to considerably more than half. - -When coffee is made in the most advantageous manner, the ground coffee -is pressed down in a cylindrical vessel _a_, (fig. 4, plate facing the -title page), which has its bottom pierced with many small holes, so as -to form a metal strainer; a proper quantity of boiling hot water being -poured cautiously on this layer of coffee in powder, the water -penetrates it by degrees, and after a certain time begins to filter -through it. This gradual percolation brings continually a succession of -fresh particles of hot water into contact with the ground coffee; and -when the last portion of the water has passed through it, every thing -capable of being dissolved by the water will be found to be so -completely washed out of it, that what remains will be of no kind of -value. - -It is, however, necessary to the complete success of this operation, -that the coffee should be ground to a powder sufficiently fine. In -order that the coffee may be perfectly good, the stratum of ground -coffee, on which the boiling water is poured, must be of a certain -thickness, and it must be pressed together with a certain degree of -force, by means of the presses _b_, (fig. 4.) If it be too thin, or not -sufficiently pressed together, the water will pass through it too -rapidly; and if the layer of ground coffee be too thick, or if it be too -much pressed together, the water will be too long in passing through it, -and the taste of the coffee will be injured. - -Count Rumford recommends, as of importance, that the surface of the -coffee be rendered quite level after it is put into the strainer before -any attempt is made to press it together, that the water, in -percolating, may act equally on every part. - -When the coffee is made, the strainer, or cylindrical vessel _a_ is -removed, and the lid of it is made to serve as the lid for the coffee -pot. - -The following table shews the diameters and heights of the cylindrical -vessels, or strainers, to be used in making the following quantities of -coffee:-- - - Quantity of Coffee to Diameter of Height of - be made at once. the Strainer. the Strainer. - _In Inches._ _In Inches._ - - 1 cup 1¹⁄₂ 5¹⁄₄ - 2 cups 2¹⁄₈ 5¹⁄₄ - 3 or 4 cups 2³⁄₄ 5 - 5 or 6 cups 3¹⁄₂ 5¹⁄₈ - 7 or 8 cups 4 5¹⁄₄ - 9 or 10 cups 4⁵⁄₈ 5¹⁄₃ - 11 or 12 cups 5 5¹⁄₂ - -Metal coffee pots should be kept as bright as possible; for, when the -external surface is kept clean and bright, the pot will be less cooled -by the surrounding cold bodies than when its metallic splendour is -impaired by neglecting to clean it; pots for making coffee in the manner -stated in the preceding pages, may now be had in most of the tinmen’s -shops of this metropolis. - - - - -Kitchen Fire-places, - -AND - -Cooking Utensils. - - -The judicious use and proper application of fuel are objects of -particular moment in domestic economy, especially in the culinary art. -Coal is an article of primary necessity among all ranks of people, and -as it cannot be procured without great expense, the consumption of it in -cookery with the smallest possible waste is an object deserving the -attention of every family. So numerous are the varieties of kitchen -fire-places which have been invented to save fuel, that there is hardly -an ironmonger in this metropolis who does not claim the merit of -possessing a patent for an apparatus of this description. The pretended -improvements of a great many patent kitchen fire-places for cooking, -unfortunately consist in increasing the quantity of iron work, to their -evident defect. The bare inspection of others again, will at once -convince the impartial observer, that they cannot answer the intended -purpose; most of them are furnished with numerous doors and apertures, -solely introduced to facilitate the cleaning of the flues; and the -reader may rest assured, that whenever recourse is had to such -expedients, it is a sure sign that the construction of the fire-place or -apparatus is extremely defective. When the combustion of the fuel is -perfect, there is little soot produced--for a rapid accumulation of it, -indicates an imperfect combustion, and consequently a waste of fuel. The -evil in the cases which we have observed, originates in the circuitous -direction and awkward angular distortions of the flues for heating the -baking closets, or the vessels for boiling. The fire grate is indeed -comparatively small in all of them, and this their apparent -recommendation is what misleads the purchaser, who on inspecting the -apparatus is told, that he will be enabled to roast, bake, boil or stew, -with a small quantity of fuel. But if we consider the mass of iron-work -requiring to be heated by the small fire-place, the saving of coals will -prove wholly imaginary, and the purchaser (we speak from experience) -will soon become convinced that the simplest and most economical -employment of fuel, for the purpose of cooking in a family not exceeding -eight or ten persons, unquestionably consists of a common fire-grate -fitted with a boiler placed either at the back or at one side of the -grate, for supplying hot water, or for generating steam, having at the -other side a hollow chest or oven, (forming the other hob of the grate,) -to be heated by the ignited coals lying laterally against it, in the -grate; such an apparatus appears to be one of the most eligible -contrivances of a cooking grate for a moderate sized family, where -economy of coal is an object. Kitchen ranges of this kind may be seen in -most of the ironmongers shops of this metropolis. - -The figure on the title page exhibits a kitchen grate of this kind. The -fire-place for roasting is, as usual, in the middle of the grate. At the -right side of it, is a boiler, furnished with a cock; on the left hand -side, is the baking closet, as shewn in the design. The cast-iron -hearth, upon which the stew-pans and kettles are put, is furnished with -a moveable plate, directly over the fire-place. This contrivance is -convenient for causing (when the plate is removed) the fire to act in a -direct manner upon a vessel placed over the opening as occasion may -require. The small door in front, above the fire bars, serves for -throwing on the fuel. The door shown under the bars of the fire-place is -furnished with a register, for regulating the heat. The door under the -boiler, on the right hand side, and that under the baking closet, on the -left hand, serve to keep in the heat. For cleaning the flues, a moveable -cast iron slider is fitted in front, below the boiler, and another below -the baking closet, as shown in the design.--The upper part of the flues -are cleaned in the usual manner, above the iron hearth. where a small -door is provided for that purpose to get admission to the flues. - -For larger families, where the operations of cooking are multifarious, -an horizontal iron plate or hearth, (See fig. 2, plate facing the title -page,) at one end heated by a fire-place, so that the flame may traverse -in a serpentine direction underneath the hearth, before it reaches the -throat of the chimney, is very convenient and economical. Upon this -hearth or iron plate, which is provided with holes, fitted with -stoppers, (and which in fact resembles the sand bath of the chemists), -the cooking utensils for boiling and stewing are placed; and as the -different parts of the plate become unequally heated, the hottest part -being of course over the fire-grate, and the least heated at the -farthest extremity of the flue, near its communication with the chimney, -the cook has the advantage of placing the pans and kettles, which -require a strong and lasting heat, at the precise spot where they will -be soonest heated; and those farthest from the source of heat, which -require only a moderate degree of warmth. - -To economise the heat of the iron plate, a small oven is sometimes -placed at the extremity of the flue of the fire-place, which heats the -plate. It is convenient for a variety of culinary purposes requiring a -very gentle heat, or if it be wanted for baking meat, or bread, a small -fire-grate fixed underneath it, will render it extremely fit for those -purposes. - -The front wall which supports the iron plate or hearth, should be -constructed of brick-work, not of iron, as the former retains the heat -very effectually, whereas the latter enables it to pass into the -kitchen, to the great annoyance of the cook. - -The open fire-place, connected with this cooking hearth, is furnished at -the left hand side with a baking closet, and at the right hand side is a -steam boiler for heating the vessels _a a_. Underneath of these is -another hot closet, likewise heated by steam. - -Mr. Marriott, an ingenious ironmonger in Fleet-street, has greatly -improved the construction of kitchen ranges; the design exhibited, on -the title page of this Treatise, is copied from an apparatus of his -construction. - -Fig. 1, is a Dutch oven; a description of it has been given, page 88. - - -STEWPANS AND SAUCEPANS - -Should not be made with flat bottoms, but rounded a little at the -edges--they must by no means be made with corners that are square like -tin vessels, for such can never be completely cleaned, and do not wear -near so long--that is the sides should not be soldered to the bottom -with a square joint, as sand and grease that lodge there can never be -completely got out. - -These utensils should be scoured on the outside round the rim, and a -little way down the sides, but not low on the sides or on the bottom, as -that only wears them without any sort of advantage. For small families, -we recommend tin saucepans, as being lightest and safest; and if proper -care is taken of them, and they are well dried after they are cleaned, -are by far the cheapest, for the cost of a new tin saucepan is little -more than the expense of tinning a copper one. The covers of the boiling -pots should fit close, not only to prevent unnecessary evaporation of -the water, but to guard against the smoke of the fire insinuating itself -under the edge of the lid. - - -PRESERVING PANS. - -The best sort are those which are heated by means of steam, the -temperature of which can never be such as to burn, or cause adherence to -the bottom of the pan.--Fig. 3, exhibits a steam preserving-pan; the -steam enters from a common steam-boiler, at the extremity _a_, and -passes between the pan, which is double, as shown in the design. The -condensed water may, from time to time, be drawn off by the cock and -pipe _b_. - - -COPPER COOKING UTENSILS. - -Copper cooking utensils are attended with so much danger, that the use -of them ought to be laid entirely aside. They have not only occasioned -many fatal accidents, (which have been made public), but they have -injured the health of great numbers, where the slower, but not less -dangerous effect has not been observed. If not kept very clean and -bright, they become covered with verdigris, for all fat, oily, or -buttery substances corrode copper; and if they are kept clean and -bright, the rubbing or scraping that takes place when making stews, or -cooking dishes that require stirring, and remaining a considerable time -on the fire, always wears off some of the metal which impregnates the -food, and has a deleterious effect. - -The inexcusable negligence of persons who make use of copper vessels has -been productive of mortality, so much more terrible, as they have -exerted their action on a great number of persons at once. - -Though, after all, a single dose be not mortal, yet a quantity of -poison, however small, when taken at every meal, must produce more fatal -effects than are generally apprehended; and different constitutions are -differently affected by minute quantities of substances that act -powerfully on the system. - -Some years ago, the death of several persons was occasioned, at -Salt-hill, by the cook sending a ragout to the table which she had kept -from the preceding day in a copper vessel, badly tinned. Another -instance of death occasioned by the eating of pickles, prepared in -copper vessels, is mentioned by Dr. Percival.[41] - - [41] See a Treatise on the Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons, - and Methods of Detecting them, p. 249. - -Dr. Johnson gives an account of the melancholy catastrophe of three men -being poisoned, after excruciating sufferings, in consequence of eating -food cooked in an unclean copper vessel, on board the Cyclops frigate; -and, besides these, thirty-three men became ill from the same cause. - -If, however, copper utensils are to be used, they should be employed -with the precautions as used in France, where the tinning of the vessels -on the inside is done as regularly as the shoeing of horses in a -farm-yard.--If the least occasion is thought to exist, the vessel is -immediately tinned; but to prevent all risk, it is generally done _once -a month_ with stew-pans that are in daily use. Moreover, the victuals -are never stirred with any thing of metal, but with a wooden spoon, or -flat stick made for the purpose. - -The following wholesome advice on this subject is given to cooks by Dr. -Kitchiner. - -“Stewpans and soup-kettles should be examined every time they are used; -these, and their covers, must be kept perfectly clean and well tinned, -not only on the inside, but about a couple of inches on the outside; so -much mischief arises from their getting out of repair; and, if not kept -nicely tinned, all your work will be in vain; the broths and soups will -look green and dirty, and taste bitter and poisonous, and will be -spoiled both for the eye and palate, and your credit will be lost; and, -as the health, and even the life, of the family depends upon this, the -cook may be sure her employer had rather pay the tinman’s bill than the -doctor’s.” - -Various kinds of food used in domestic economy are liable to become -impregnated with lead. - -The glazing of the common cream-coloured earthen ware, which is composed -of an oxyd of lead, readily yields to the action of vinegar and saline -compounds; and therefore the jars and pots of this kind of stoneware, -should not be used for marmalades and other conserves. Pickles should in -no case be deposited in cream-coloured glazed earthenware pots. - -The baking of fruit tarts in cream-coloured earthenware is no less -objectionable All kinds of food which contain free vegetable acids, or -saline preparations, attack utensils covered with a glaze, in the -composition of which lead enters as a component part. - -_Wooden Tubs_ lined with lead, should not, as they often are, be used -for salting meat, as the salt brine corrodes the lead, and all compounds -of this metal are dangerous to health. - - -FINIS. - - -C. GREEN, 15, LEICESTER STREET, LEICESTER SQUARE. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - - The language from the source document, including inconsistencies and - unusual spellings, has been retained, except as listed below. - - Missing accents in French words and phrases have not been added. - - Page 140, Before the trumpets calls ...: as printed in the source - document. - - Page 304, ... in Adea, in Arabia, ...: possibly an error for ... in - Aden, in Arabia, .... - - - Changes made - - Footnotes have been moved to immediately underneath the text element - to which they belong. - - Some minor obvious punctuation and typographical errors have been - corrected silently. - - Page xiii: page number 356 changed to 336 - - Page 7: rabit changed to rabbit - - Page 16: Gastronomque changed to Gastronomique - - Page 24: The pleasure of the table changed to The pleasures of the - table - - Page 138: “ added before _Point des Legumes ..._ - - Page 140: qui fail le Soldat changed to qui fait le Soldat - - Page 158: parsly changed to parsley - - Page 161: gelantine changed to gelatine - - Page 200-204: several opening and closing quote marks inserted - - Page 202: vogages changed to voyages - - Page 261: Chery Paste changed to Cherry Paste - - Page 262: ORANGE AND LEMOM PASTE changed to ORANGE AND LEMON PASTE - - Page 325: covenient changed to convenient - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Culinary Chemistry, by Frederick Accum - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CULINARY CHEMISTRY *** - -***** This file should be named 60163-0.txt or 60163-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/1/6/60163/ - -Produced by deaurider, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: Culinary Chemistry - The Scientific Principles of Cookery, with Concise - Instructions for Preparing Good and Wholesome Pickles, - Vinegar, Conserves, Fruit Jellies, Marmalades, and Various - Other Alimentary Substances Employed in Domestic Economy, - with Observations on the Chemical Constitution and Nutritive - Qualities of Different Kinds of Food. - -Author: Frederick Accum - -Release Date: August 24, 2019 [EBook #60163] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CULINARY CHEMISTRY *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Harry Lam and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="tnbox"> - -<p class="center">Please see the <a href="#TN">Transcriber’s Notes</a> at the end of this text.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="scr"> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/cover_sm.jpg" alt="Cover image" width="386" height="600" /> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div><!--scr--> - -<div class="front"> - -<p class="caption"><i>To Face Title.</i></p> - -<p class="caption" id="Fig1"><i>Fig. 1.</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter nomargin"> -<img src="images/illo1.jpg" alt="Dutch oven" width="332" height="221" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption" id="Fig2"><i>2</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter nomargin"> -<img src="images/illo2.jpg" alt="Kitchen range" width="600" height="268" /> -</div> - -<div class="split5050"> - -<div class="left5050"> - -<p class="caption" id="Fig3"><i>3</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter nomargin"> -<img src="images/illo3.jpg" alt="Preserving pan" width="301" height="203" /> -</div> - -</div><!--left5050--> - -<div class="right5050"> - -<p class="caption" id="Fig4"><i>4</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter nomargin"> -<img src="images/illo4.jpg" alt="Coffee pot" width="300" height="203" /> -</div> - -</div><!--right5050--> - -<p class="thinline allclear"> </p> - -</div><!--split5050--> - -</div><!--front--> - -<div class="front"> - -<h1><span class="oldtype fsize300">Culinary Chemistry,</span><br /> -<span class="fsize150">EXHIBITING</span><br /> -<span class="fsize80">THE</span><br /> -<span class="fsize150"><i>SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES</i></span><br /> -<span class="fsize80">OF</span><br /> -<span class="fsize300"><b>COOKERY,</b></span><br /> -<span class="fsize90">WITH CONCISE INSTRUCTIONS FOR PREPARING GOOD AND WHOLESOME<br /> -PICKLES, VINEGAR, CONSERVES, FRUIT JELLIES,<br /> -MARMALADES,</span><br /> -<span class="fsize80">AND VARIOUS OTHER ALIMENTARY SUBSTANCES EMPLOYED<br /> -IN</span><br /> -<span class="fsize250 oldtype">Domestic Economy,</span><br /> -<span class="fsize80">WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION AND NUTRITIVE<br /> -QUALITIES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD.</span></h1> - -<p class="center fsize110"><i>WITH COPPER PLATES.</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter nomargin"> -<img src="images/illo5.jpg" alt="Kitchen range" width="550" height="389" class="bordered" /> -</div> - -<p class="center fsize125"><span class="smcap">By</span> FREDRICK ACCUM,</p> - -<p class="noindent padl1 padr1">Operative Chemist, Lecturer on Practical Chemistry, on Mineralogy, and on Chemistry applied -to the Arts and Manufactures; Member of the Royal Irish Academy; Fellow of the Linnæan Society; -Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, and of the Royal Society of Arts Berlin, &c. &c.</p> - -<p class="center blankbefore1"><span class="oldtype fsize125">London:</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">Published by R. ACKERMANN, 101, Strand</span>;<br /> -<span class="fsize125"><b>1821.</b></span></p> - -</div><!--front--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagei">[i]</span></p> - -<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2> - -<hr class="ornament" /> - -<p class="lineheight90">The publications which I have presented -to the world, having been almost exclusively -confined to subjects connected with -the Fine Arts, I feel it in some measure -incumbent on me to explain the cause of -my having undertaken to be the publisher -of this volume. It has arisen from a -distressing event, in which its very ingenious, -useful, and elaborate Author, happened -to be involved. The work was in -some degree of advancement, when the -sudden and most unexpected misfortune -to which I have alluded, threw him at once -into a state of discouragement, that gave a -check to all his exertions. I, who had -known him long, and had every reason, -from a most intimate acquaintance, to think -well of him, both in his private as well as -professional character, co-operated with -many of his friends, some of whom are -in the superior ranks of life, to encourage -him in the renewal of his former -energy—but I could succeed no further -than in prevailing upon him to complete<span class="pagenum" id="Pageii">[ii]</span> -this little work on Culinary Philosophy, -which promised to be highly useful in -some of the leading objects of Domestic -Economy. When it was ready for publication, -the prejudice which had been excited -against him, rendered his former publishers -averse from presenting it to the public. I -therefore felt myself under a kind of indispensable -engagement—nor am I ashamed -of it, as the work was brought to a state of -publication by my interference, though out -of my usual line of business, to become its -publisher. I accordingly, under these circumstances, -made it my own by purchasing -the copy-right. Nor, from its scientific -novelty, and promised utility, have I the -least hesitation in presenting Mr. <span class="smcap">Accum’s</span> -Work to the Public.</p> - -<p class="right highline3 padr4">R. ACKERMANN.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pageiii">[iii]</span></p> - -<h2>PREFACE.</h2> - -<hr class="ornament" /> - -<div class="rightblock"> - -<p>LONDON,<br /> -<span class="fsize80">COMPTON STREET, SOHO.</span></p> - -</div><!--rightblock--> - -<p class="blankbefore2">The following pages are intended to exhibit a -popular view of the philosophy of cookery, to enable -the reader to understand the chemical principles, by -means of which alimentary substances are rendered -palatable and nutritious. The subject may appear -frivolous; but let it be remembered that it is by the -application of the principles of philosophy to the -ordinary affairs of life, that science diffuses her -benefits, and perfects her claim to the gratitude of -mankind.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pageiv">[iv]</span></p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">The art of preparing good and wholesome food is, -undoubtedly, a branch of chemistry; the kitchen is a -chemical laboratory; all the processes employed -for rendering alimentary substances fit for human -sustenance, are chemical processes; and much waste -of the materials, as well as labour to the parties, -might often be spared, were those who practise this -art, made acquainted with some simple chemical -truths which invariably would lead to certain results.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">I have, in the first place, premised, as introductory -to what follows, some general observations on the -various kinds of alimentary substances commonly -used for food; in which I have noticed their chemical -constitution, and comparative nutritive qualities.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">After these preliminary statements, I have proceeded -to explain the summary processes of the<span class="pagenum" id="Pagev">[v]</span> -culinary art, as practised in the English kitchen, to -render obvious the chemical effects produced by the -operations of roasting, boiling, stewing, broiling, frying, -and other means employed for dressing food.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">I have given concise, but accurate directions for -preparing good and wholesome pickles, and other -condiments employed in domestic economy.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">I have pointed out the rules to be attended to in -the art of conserving recent fruits, and other vegetable -substances, in the state of what are called preserves, -marmalades, fruit jams, and jellies, to enable the -reader to prepare those kinds of comfitures with -economy and success.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">I have given concise directions for preserving butcher’s -meat, fish, and fowl, after being cooked, to<span class="pagenum" id="Pagevi">[vi]</span> -render them fit for sea store, or domestic use, at a -future time.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">I have stated the most approved processes for -curing bacon, hams, smoked beef, and salted fish; -to which I have added instructions for the choice of -butcher’s meat, and the best methods of constructing -pantries, larders, and meat safes.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">I have pointed out the loss of weight which different -kinds of meat suffers in the usual operations of -cooking.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">I have described the most approved methods for preserving -recently gathered fruits in their natural state, -as nearly as possible, with directions for constructing -fruit rooms, and the circumstances to be attended to -in storing esculent roots and other vegetables.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagevii">[vii]</span></p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">I have animadverted on certain material errors, -sometimes committed through ignorance or negligence, -in the preparation of food, and various delicacies -of the table; and I have also given hints -that will be found useful, with regard to the practice -of making tea and coffee. And lastly, I have -made some remarks on the construction of kitchen -fire-places, to which I have added designs, exhibiting -the most approved cooking apparatus, -calculated for the use of private families or public -establishments.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">In resuming the whole, I have endeavoured (and -I hope with some degree of success,) to communicate -to those to whom the superintendance of a family -is entrusted, such useful culinary information as may -lead to beneficial consequences.</p> - -<p class="right blankbefore2 padr2">FREDRICK ACCUM.</p> - -<p>1821.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pageviii"><a id="Pageix"></a>[viii-<br />ix]</span></p> - -<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> - -<hr class="ornament" /> - -<table class="toc" summary="Table of Contents"> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapter"><span class="oldtype">Cookery.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="right fsize60">Page</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Preface</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Pageiii">iii</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Contents</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Pageix">ix</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Cookery is a branch of chemical science</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page1">1</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Observations on the Food of Man</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page6">6</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Nations living wholly upon Vegetable Food</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page9">9</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Nations living wholly upon Animal Food</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page10">10</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Singular kind of Aliments of various Nations</i><span class="pagenum" id="Pagex">[x]</span></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page12">12</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Difference between an Epicure and a Glutton</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page17">17</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Importance of the Art of Cookery</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page20">20</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Dietetical remarks on the choice and quantity of Food</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page38">38</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Extraordinary great Eaters, and observations on Abstinence</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page43">43</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Remarks on the origin of the custom of Eating Flesh</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page49">49</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Comparative Alimentary Effects of Animal and Vegetable Food</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page53">53</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Observations on the various kinds of Animal Substances commonly used for food</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page59">59</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Observations on the various kinds of Vegetable Substances commonly used for -food</i><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexi">[xi]</span></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page76">76</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>General Operations of Cookery</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page79">79</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Roasting on a spit</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page80">80</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Roasting on a string</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page86">86</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Roasting in an open oven</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page88">88</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Roasting in a closed oven</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page89">89</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Broiling</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page93">93</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Frying</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page99">99</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Stewing</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page106">106</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Boiling</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page111">111</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Comparison of the Chemical Changes produced on Animal and Vegetable Food, in the different processes of -cookery</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page117">117</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Comparative Diminution of the Weight of Meat in Cooking</i><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexii">[xii]</span></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page128">128</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Primary, or chief Dishes of the English table</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page132">132</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Broth</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page133">133</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Soup</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page137">137</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Pies</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page141">141</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Puddings</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page145">145</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Made Dishes</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page146">146</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Observations on Made Dishes</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page148">148</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Gravy</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page154">154</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Sauces</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page157">157</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Thickening Paste for broth, soup, gravy, and made dishes</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page166">166</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Colouring for broth, soup, gravy, and made dishes</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page162">162</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Stock, for making extemporaneous broth, soup, or gravy</i><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexiii">[xiii]</span></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page163">163</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Observations on the Choice of Meat</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page166">166</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Keeping of Meat, and best construction of Larders, Pantries and Meat Safes</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page176">176</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Preservation of Animal Substances in a recent state</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page182">182</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Pickling and Dry Salting of Meat</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page183">183</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Method of Preparing Bacon, Hams, and Hung Beef</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page193">193</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Smoke-drying, or Curing of Bacon, Hams, and Beef, as practised in Westphalia</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page195">195</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Method of Curing Hams, Beef, and Fish, by means of Pyro-ligneous acid</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page197">197</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Pickling of Fish</i><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexiv">[xiv]</span></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page204">204</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Mackerel</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page207">207</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Salmon</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page208">208</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Collared Eels</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page209">209</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Best method of Preserving Cooked Butcher’s Meat, Fish, or Poultry</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page210">210</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Preservation of Meat by Potting</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page218">218</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Potted Beef, Game, or Poultry</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page219">219</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Potted Ham</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page220">220</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Potted Lobster</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page221">221</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Preservation of Eggs</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page222">222</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Preservative Effect of Frost, on Butcher’s Meat, Fish, and Fowl</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page223">223</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapter"><span class="oldtype">Pickles.</span><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexv">[xv]</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Red Cabbage</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page234">234</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Onions</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page235">235</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Walnuts</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page236">236</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Cucumbers</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page237">237</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Red Beet-root</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page239">239</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Mushrooms</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page239">239</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Pickled Artichoke</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page240">240</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Sour Kraut</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page241">241</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Mushroom Catsup</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page244">244</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Tomata Catsup</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page246">246</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Walnut Catsup</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page247">247</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapter"><span class="oldtype">Conserved Fruits</span><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexvi">[xvi]</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conservation of Recent Fruits without Sugar</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page249">249</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Gooseberries</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page249">249</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Orlean Plums</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page249">249</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Green Gages</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page249">249</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Damsons</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page249">249</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Peaches</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page249">249</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Nectarines</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page249">249</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Bullaces</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page249">249</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conservation of Recent Fruits, by means of Sugar, in a liquid state</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page252">252</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Apricots, by means of Sugar</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page252">252</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Plums</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page252">252</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Damsons</i><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexvii">[xvii]</span></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page252">252</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Green Gages</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page252">252</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Peaches</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page252">252</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Nectarines</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page252">252</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Pine Apples</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page254">254</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conserved Pears</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page255">255</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Conservation of Recent Fruits, by means of Sugar, in a solid form</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page256">256</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Candied Orange, or Lemon Peel</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page256">256</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapter"><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexviii">[xviii]</span><span class="oldtype">Marmalades, -Jams,</span><br /><span class="fsize60">AND</span><br /><span class="oldtype">Fruit Pastes.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Black Currant Paste</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page260">260</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Apricot Paste</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page261">261</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Peach Paste</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page261">261</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Plum Paste</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page261">261</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Cherry Paste</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page261">261</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Quince Paste</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page261">261</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Raspberry Paste</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page262">262</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Orange and Lemon Paste</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page262">262</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Raspberry Jam</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page263">263</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Strawberry Jam</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page263">263</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Currant Jam</i><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexix">[xix]</span></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page263">263</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Gooseberry Jam</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page263">263</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Mulberry Jam</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page263">263</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Apricot Jam</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page264">264</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Orange Marmalade</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page265">265</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Peach Marmalade</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page266">266</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Pine Apple Marmalade</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page267">267</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Apricot Marmalade</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page267">267</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Fruit Jellies</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page268">268</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Currant Jelly</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page269">269</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Raspberry Jelly</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page270">270</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Barberry Jelly</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page270">270</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Gooseberry Jelly</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page271">271</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Apple Jelly</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page271">271</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Quince and Apricot Jelly</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page272">272</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Fruit Syrups</i><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexx">[xx]</span></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page272">272</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Lemon Syrup</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page274">274</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Orange Syrup</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page274">274</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Mulberry Syrup</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page275">275</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Raspberry and Currant Syrup</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page275">275</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Preservation and Storing of Fruit, and Principal requisites of a good Fruit Room</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page276">276</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Preservation of recent esculent roots, pot-herbs, and other culinary vegetables</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page280">280</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapter"><span class="oldtype">Vinegar.</span><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexxi">[xxi]</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Method of Making Gooseberry Vinegar</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page289">289</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Raspberry Vinegar</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page291">291</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Chilli Vinegar</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page292">292</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Tarragon Vinegar</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page292">292</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Mint Vinegar</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page292">292</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Eschallot Vinegar</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page292">292</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Burnet Vinegar</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page292">292</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapter"><span class="oldtype">Tea.</span><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexxii">[xxii]</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Natural History of the Tea Tree</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page295">295</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Observations on the art of Making Tea, and singular effects of different kinds of Tea Pots on the Infusion -of Tea</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page299">299</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Japanese Method of Making Tea</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page301">301</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapter"><span class="oldtype">Coffee.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Natural History of the Coffee Tree</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page305">305</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Best Method of Making Coffee</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page308">308</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapter"><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexxiii">[xxiii]</span><span class="oldtype">Kitchen -Fire-places,</span><br /><span class="fsize60">AND</span><br /><span class="oldtype">Cooking Utensils.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Saucepans and Stew Pans</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page329">329</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Preserving Pans</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page330">330</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Copper Cooking Utensils</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page331">331</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject"><i>Wooden Tubs</i></td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page336">336</a></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page1">[1]</span></p> - -<h2 class="blacklet">Cookery.</h2> - -<hr class="ornament" /> - -<h3>COOKERY IS A BRANCH OF CHEMICAL SCIENCE.</h3> - -<p>Cookery, or the art of preparing good -and wholesome food, and of preserving all -sorts of alimentary substances in a state fit -for human sustenance, of rendering that -agreeable to the taste which is essential to -the support of life, and of pleasing the -palate without injury to the system, is, -strictly speaking, a branch of chemistry; -but, important as it is both to our enjoyments -and our health, it is also one of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page2">[2]</span> -least cultivated branches of that science. -The culinary processes of roasting, boiling, -baking, stewing, frying, broiling, the art of -preserving meats, bacon, and hams; the -preparations of sauces, pickles, and other -condiments; the conserving of fruits; the -care and keeping of vegetables; the making -of jellies, jams, and marmalades, are -all founded upon the principles of this -science, and much waste of the material, as -well as labour to the parties might often be -spared, were those to whom the performance -of such tasks is committed, made acquainted -with simple chemical truths which -would invariably lead to certain results. -And, besides, the same knowledge would -enable them to attain a much greater degree -of perfection in curing and preserving all -kinds of animal and vegetable aliments, and -in combining the three grand requisites of<span class="pagenum" id="Page3">[3]</span> -taste, nutriment, and salubrity, in whatever -manner they may be prepared. And, -though this art is at present in rude hands, -as all branches of chemistry were originally, -there is no reason that it should -remain so. A kitchen is, in fact, a chemical -laboratory; the boilers, stew-pans, -and cradle spit of the cook, correspond -to the digestors, the evaporating basins, -and the crucibles of the chemist. And -numerous as the receipts of cookery are, -the general operations (like the general -process of chemistry) are but few. In -some the object aimed at is, to extract the -constituent parts of the food, so as to exhibit -them in a separate state, or to combine -them with other substances, to produce -new compounds which differ widely -from those from which they originated. In -others, the qualities of the substances are<span class="pagenum" id="Page4">[4]</span> -simply altered by the action of fire, to render -them more palatable and nutritious.</p> - -<p>From the multiplicity of circumstances -to be attended to in this art, the whole of -which is founded upon the principles of -chemistry, we may easily see that it must -be a very precarious one; and, there is -reason to believe, that among the variety of -circumstances which produce diseases, the -improper modes of cooking food, are often the -primary cause. Will it be believed, that in -the cookery books which form the prevailing -oracles of the kitchens in this part of -the island, there are express injunctions to -“<i>boil greens with halfpence, or verdigrise</i>, -in order to improve their <i>colour</i>!”<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a -href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> That -our puddings are frequently seasoned with -laurel leaves, and our sweatmeats almost<span class="pagenum" id="Page5">[5]</span> -uniformly prepared in copper vessels?<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> -Why are we thus compelled to swallow a -supererogatory quantity of poison which -may so easily be avoided? And why are we -constantly made to run the risk of our lives -by participating in custards, trifles, and -blancmanges, seasoned by a most deadly -poison extracted from the <i>prunus lourocerasus</i>?<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a -href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> -Verily, where such detestable -systems of cookery are practised, we may -exclaim with the sacred historian, that there -is “Death in the Pot.”</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> -The Ladies Library, vol. ii. p. 203; and also -Modern Cookery, 2nd Edition, p. 94.</p> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> -Literary Chronicle, No. xxii. p. 348, 1819.</p> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> -Philosophical Magazine, No. cclviii. vol. 54, -p. 317.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Food badly cooked is wasted to no purpose. -It seems to have been a complaint -familiar in the mouth of our ancestors, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page6">[6]</span> -which we have too often seen reason to -re-echo in the present day—“<i>That God -sends good meat, but the devil sends cooks</i>.”</p> - -<h3>OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOOD OF MAN.</h3> - -<p>No animal eats such variety of food as -man; he claims, more justly than any other -creature, the title of <i>omnivorous!</i> for since -he is distinguished beyond all animals, but -the capability of living in the most distant -parts of the globe, under every variety of -climate which the earth affords, his food -could not be confined exclusively to either -the vegetable or animal kingdom, because -he inhabits regions that afford aliments -widely different from each other. Cattle -content themselves with green vegetables;<span class="pagenum" id="Page7">[7]</span> -rapacious animals live on the flesh of other -creatures.</p> - -<p>Those of the Linnæan order, <i>glires</i>,<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> -live on grain and fruits; each order of -birds, keeps, in the same manner, to one sort -of food, animal or vegetable. Fishes, reptiles, -and insects, also have each their peculiar -and exclusive bill of fare, beyond which -even hunger will scarcely force them to -wander. But however various each class, -and order, and species of animated nature -may be in the choice of food, man—all-devouring -man, will embrace the whole range -of the creation, “scarce a berry or a mushroom -can escape him.”</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> -The hare, rabbit, guinea-pig, &c.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>With the lion and the wolf he will eat -of fresh slain animals; with the dogs and -the vulture he will feed on putrid flesh;<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a -href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page8">[8]</span> -with the ox and the guinea-pig he will devour -raw vegetables, under the name of salads; -with the squirrel and the mouse he will feast -on nuts and grain; with birds of prey he -feeds on fowl of almost every species; -with fishes he feeds on fish; and with insects -and reptiles he sometimes lives on -insects and reptiles. Nor is he satisfied -even with this abundant variety, but must -go to the mineral kingdom for salt, as a -condiment before he can furnish out his -meal.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> -Every person knows in what a putrid state game -is often eaten.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page9">[9]</span></p> - -<h3>NATIONS LIVING WHOLLY UPON VEGETABLE -FOOD.</h3> - -<p>The variety of alimentary substances -used not only by individuals, but among -whole nations, are prodigiously diversified, -and climate seems to have some -effect in producing the diversity of taste, -though it must in a great measure depend -upon the natural productions of particular -countries, their religion, and their commercial -intercourse.</p> - -<p>A vegetable diet seems suitable to the -hot countries under the Equator, and we -accordingly find nations there, who have -completely adopted it, and who abstain so -much the more from all animal food, in as -much as it is an article of their religious faith.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page10">[10]</span></p> - -<p>Potatoes, chesnuts, and the leguminous -and cereal seeds, satisfy the want of the -Alpine peasant, and numerous tribes solely -feed on vegetables and water. In the most -remote antiquity, we read of whole nations -in Africa, and of the Indian priests, who -lived entirely on vegetable substances. -Some wandering Moors subsist almost -entirely on gum senegal.</p> - -<h3>NATIONS LIVING WHOLLY ON ANIMAL FOOD.</h3> - -<p>The nations which live on animal food -are very numerous.</p> - -<p>The Ethiopeans, Scythians, and Arabians, -ate nothing but flesh.</p> - -<p>The miserable inhabitants of New Holland -lived wholly on fish when that country -was first discovered, and other tribes on -the Arabian and Persian gulph.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page11">[11]</span></p> - -<p>In the Faro islands, in Iceland and Greenland, -the food arises from the same source.</p> - -<p>The shepherds in the province of Caracas, -on the Oronoko, live wholly on flesh. The -Tartars in Asia, and some savage nations -in North America, live on raw and half -putrid flesh, and some barbarous tribes eat -their meat raw.</p> - -<p>It appears to be the effect of climate and -religion that makes the Hindoo adopt vegetable -rather than animal food; it is the effect -of natural production that makes the Greenlander -relish whale-blubber and train-oil. It -is to one or other of these causes that we must -refer all such diversity of national tastes, -though it would be difficult in many cases to -separate the influence of each. We see the -Englishman enjoying his under-done roast -beef and his plum-pudding; the Scotsman -his hodge-podge and his haggis; the<span class="pagenum" id="Page12">[12]</span> -Frenchman his ragouts, omlets, and fricandeaus; -the German his sour-crout, sausages, -and smoaked hams, the Italian his -maccaroni; and the Tartar his horse-flesh.<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> -“<i>De gustibus non est disputandum.</i>”—There -is no disputing about tastes. They -are too many, and too various, to be -objects of rational discussion.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> -An article of food which has lately been seriously -recommended by Mr. Grey to Europeans as a most -advantageous measure of political economy.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<h3>SINGULAR KIND OF ALIMENTS OF VARIOUS -NATIONS.</h3> - -<p>Besides the before-mentioned diversities -of national and individual taste for different -kinds of substances, used as aliments, there -are other kinds of food which we at least -think more singular. Some of the tribes of<span class="pagenum" id="Page13">[13]</span> -Arabs, Moors, the Californians, and Ethiopians, -eat tad-poles, locusts, and spiders.</p> - -<p>In some places the flesh of serpents, that -of the <i>coluber natrix</i> for example, is eaten; -and the viper is made into broth. Several -other reptiles are used as food by the -European settlers in America, such as the -<i>rana bombina</i> and <i>rana taurina</i>, two species -of toads.</p> - -<p>In the East, the <i>lacerta scincus</i> is considered -a great luxury, and also an approdisiac. -Even the rattle snake has been -eaten, and the head boiled along with the -rest of the body of the animal.</p> - -<p>The horse, ass, and camel, are eaten in -several regions of the earth, and the seal, -walruss, and Arctic bear, have often yielded -a supply to sailors.</p> - -<p>On the singular taste of epicures it is -not necessary to speak. Mæcenas, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page14">[14]</span> -prime minister of Augustus, and refined -patron of Horace, had young asses served -upon his table when he treated his friends; -and, according to Pliny,<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> the Romans -delighted in the flavour of young and well -fattened puppies. This strange practice -subsists still in China, and among the -Esquimaux. Plump, and well roasted -bats, laid upon a bed of olives, are eaten -in the Levant as a dainty.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> 2 Book 29, c. 4.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>The Roman luxury, <i>garum</i>, which bore -so high a price, consisted of the putrid -entrails of fishes, (first of the <i>garum</i>,) -stewed in wine, and a similar dish is still -considered as a great luxury, in some parts of -the East. Some modern epicures delight in -the trail of the woodcock, and even collect -with care the contents of the intestines<span class="pagenum" id="Page15">[15]</span> -which distill from it in the process of -roasting.</p> - -<div class="poem"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“<i>The Irishman</i> loves usquebah,<br /></span> -<span class="i2"><i>The Scot</i> loves ale called blue cap,<br /></span> -<span class="i0"><i>The Welshman</i>, he loves toasted cheese,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And makes his mouth like a mouse trap.”<br /></span> -</div><!--stanza--> - -</div><!--poem--> - -<p><span class="smcap">Apicius</span>,<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" -class="fnanchor">[8]</a> among other whimsical personages -of ancient Rome, presented to his guests -ragouts, exclusively composed of tongues -of peacocks and nightingales. This celebrated -epicure, who instituted a gormandizing -academy at Rome, having heard that -shrimps and prawns of a superior flavour -were to be met with on the coasts of Africa -than on the Italian shore, freighted a -ship, and sailed in search of these far<span class="pagenum" id="Page16">[16]</span> -famed marine insects. This person spent -more than £.60,000 merely to vary the -taste of culinary sauces.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> -Three brothers of that name were celebrated at -Rome, on account of their unparallelled love of good -eating.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Vitellus was treated by his brother with -a dinner, consisting of 2,000 dishes of fish, -and 7,000 of poultry—surely this is not -doing things by halves.</p> - -<p>A Mr. Verditch de Bourbonne<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> is said to -have bought 3,000 carps for the mere sake -of their tongues, which were brought, well -seasoned and <i>learnedly</i> dressed, to his table, -in one dish.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Cours Gastronomique.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page17">[17]</span></p> - -<h3>DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN EPICURE AND -A GLUTTON.</h3> - -<p>However extravagant and whimsical the -rational pleasures of the table may appear -to a <i>sober</i> and sensible mind, we must, in -justice to epicures, cursorily observe, that -there exists a material difference between a -<i>gormand</i> or epicure, and a <i>glutton</i>.<a name="FNanchor_10" -id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> The -first seeks for peculiar delicacy and distinct -flavour in the various dishes presented to -the judgment and enjoyment of his discerning -palate; while the other lays aside -nearly all that relates to the rational pleasures<span class="pagenum" id="Page18">[18]</span> -of creating or stimulating an appetite -of the cates, and looks merely to quantity; -this, has his stomach in view, and tries -how heavy it may be laden, without endangering -his health.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> -<i>Tabella Cibaria</i>, a latin poem, relating to the -pleasures of Gastronomy, and the mysterious art of -Cooking, page 15.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>“The <i>gormand</i> never loses sight of the -exquisite organs of taste, so admirably -disposed by Providence in the crimson -chamber, where sits the discriminating -judge, the human tongue.</p> - -<p>“The <i>glutton</i> is anathematised in the -Scripture with those brutes <i>quorum deus -venter est</i>. The other appears guilty of no -other sin than of too great, and too minute, -an attention to refinement in commercial -sensuality.”</p> - -<p>Our neighbours on the other side of the -channel, so famous for indulging in the -worship of Comus, consider the epicure -again under two distinct views, namely:<span class="pagenum" id="Page19">[19]</span> -as a <i>gormand</i>, or a <i>gourmet</i>. The epicure -or <i>gormand</i> is defined—a man having -accidentally been able to study the different -tastes of eatables, does accordingly -select the best food and the most pleasing -to his palate. His character is that of a -<i>practioner</i>. The <i>gourmet</i> speculates more -than he practises, and eminently prides -himself in discerning the nicest degrees, -and most evanescent shades of goodness -and perfection in the different subjects proposed -to him. He may be designated a -man, who, by sipping a few drops out of -the silver cup of the vintner, can instantly -tell from what country the wine comes, and -its age.</p> - -<p>The <i>glutton</i> practices without any regard -to theory.</p> - -<p>The <i>gormand</i>, or epicure, unites theory -with practice.</p> - -<p>The <i>gourmet</i> is merely theoretical.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page20">[20]</span></p> - -<h3>IMPORTANCE OF THE ART OF COOKERY.</h3> - -<p>As man differs from the inferior animals -in the variety of articles he feeds upon, so -he differs from them no less in the preparation -of these substances. Some animals, besides -man, prepare their food in a particular -manner. The racoon (<i>ursus lutor</i>) -is said to wash his roots before he eats them; -and the beaver stores his green boughs -under water that their bark and young -twigs may remain juicy and palatable.</p> - -<p>The action of fire, however, has never -been applied to use by any animal except -man; not even monkies, with all their -knacks of imitation, and all their fondness -for the comforts of a fire, have ever been<span class="pagenum" id="Page21">[21]</span> -observed to put on a single billet of wood -to keep up the fuel.</p> - -<p>Domesticated animals, indeed, are -brought to eat, and even to relish, food -which has been cooked by the action of -heat.</p> - -<p>The variety of productions introduced by -our different modes of preparing and preserving -food is almost endless; and it appears -particularly so when we compare the -usages, in this respect, of various countries.</p> - -<p>The savage of New South Wales is -scarcely more knowing in the preparation -of food, by means of fire, than his neighbour, -the kangaroo, if the anecdote told by -Turnbull be true, that one of these savages -plunged his hand into boiling water to -take out a fish.</p> - -<p>Some writers have humorously designated -man to be “<i>a cooking animal</i>,” and<span class="pagenum" id="Page22">[22]</span> -he really is so. It is one of the leading -distinctions which Providence has seen meet -for wise purposes to establish, when it was -said that he might eat of the fruit of every -tree, and the flesh of every clean beast.</p> - -<p>When we contemplate the aliments used -by men in a civilized state of existence, -we soon become convinced that only a -small part of our daily food can be eaten -in its natural state. Many of the substances -used as aliments, are disagreeable, -and some even poisonous until they have -been cooked. Few of them are to be had -at all seasons, although produced at others -in greater abundance than can be consumed.</p> - -<p>The importance of a proper and competent -knowledge of the true and rational -principles of cookery, must be obvious, -when it is considered that there is scarcely<span class="pagenum" id="Page23">[23]</span> -an individual, young or old, in any civilized -country, who has not some time or other -suffered severely from errors committed -in the practice of this art.</p> - -<p>“A skilful and well directed cookery -abounds in chemical preparations highly -salutary. There exists a salubrity of aliments -suited to every age. Infancy, youth, -maturity, and old age, each has its peculiar -adapted food, and that not merely applicable -to the powers in full vigour, but to -stomachs feeble by nature, and to those -debilitated by excess.”<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> -Ude’s Cookery, p. 25.—Ibid, 23.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Without abetting the unnatural and injurious -appetites of the epicure, or the -blameable indulgences of the glutton, we -shall not perhaps be far out in our reckoning, -if we assert, that almost every person -is an epicure in his own way.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page24">[24]</span></p> - -<p>There are amateurs in boiling potatoes, -as particular in the details, as others in -dressing beaf-stakes to the utmost nicety -of a single turn. Lord Blainey, still more -nice, informs us, that hams are not fit to be -eaten unless boiled in Champaign. <i>Helluos</i> -are not confined to salmon’s bellies, but are -to be found among the rudest peasants who -love porridge or <span class="nowrap">frumenty—</span></p> - -<div class="poem"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">A salmon’s belly, <i>Helluo</i>, was thy fate;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The doctor call’d, declares all help too late;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">“Mercy!” cries <i>Helluo</i>, “mercy, on my soul!<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Is there no hope?—Alas! then bring the jowl.”<br /></span> -</div> - -<p class="poemcredit"><i>Pope’s Moral Essays.</i></p> - -</div><!--poem--> - -<p>Precision in mixing ingredients is as often -and as closely laid down for the coarsest -dish of the peasant as for the most guarded -receipe of the Lady Bountiful of the village. -The pleasures of the table have always been -highly appreciated and sedulously cultivated<span class="pagenum" id="Page25">[25]</span> -among civilized people of every age and -nation; and, in spite of the Stoic, it must -be admitted, that they are the first which -we enjoy, the last we abandon, and those of -which we most frequently partake.</p> - -<p>“Cookery is the soul of every pleasure, -at all times and to all ages. How many -marriages have been the consequence of a -meeting at dinner; how much good fortune -has been the result of a good supper, at -what moment of our existence are we happier -than at table? there hatred and animosity -are lulled to sleep, and pleasure -alone reigns.”</p> - -<p>Pythagoras, in his golden verses, gives -complete proof, that he was particularly nice -in the choice of food, and carefully points -out what will occasion indigestion and flatulency. -He is precise in commanding -his disciples to “<i>abstain from beans</i>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page26">[26]</span>” -Apicius, declares that he never knew a -philosopher who refused to partake of a feast.</p> - -<p>In later times, Dr. Johnson is well -known to have been exceedingly fond of -good dinners, considering them as the -highest enjoyment of human life. The -sentiments of our great moralist are a good -answer to those who think the pleasures -of the table incompatible with intellectual -pursuits or mental superiority. “Some -people,” says the Doctor, “have a foolish -way of not minding, or pretending not to -mind, what they eat; for my part, I mind -my belly very studiously, and very carefully, -and I look upon it that he who does -not mind his belly will hardly mind any -thing else.” Boswell, his biographer, says -of him, “I never knew a man who relished -good eating more than he did: and when -at table, he was wholly absorbed in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page27">[27]</span> -business of the moment.” It was one of -the objects which displeased him so much -in his Northern tour, that the Scots were -rather ignorant of the more refined arts -of cookery. A lady in the Isle of Mull, -anxious to gratify him for once in a dinner, -had an excellent plum-pudding prepared, -at some expense, and with the utmost care; -but, to her great mortification, the doctor -would not taste it, because, he said, “it is -totally impossible to make a plum-pudding -at all fit to eat in the Isle of Mull.”</p> - -<p>Another instance of this philosopher’s -illiberal prejudice against Scotch cookery, -may also be mentioned. A lady, at whose -table the Doctor was dining, enquired how -he liked their national dish, the <i>hotch -potch</i>, of which he was then partaking. -“<i>Good enough for hogs</i>,” said the surly<span class="pagenum" id="Page28">[28]</span> -philosopher. “Shall I help <i>you</i> to a little -more of it?” retorted the lady. To Dr. Johnson -we can add the names of two distinguished -physicians, Darwin, and Beddoes, both of -whom were most outrageous in their published -works against the pleasures of good -living; they followed however a very different -practice, from what they prescribed to -others, as none were more fond of good -dinners than these guardians of health.</p> - -<p>Cardinal Wolsey, we should have thought, -would have had something else to mind -than cooking and good eating. But no -person was more anxious than he, even in -the whirl of the immense public business -which he had to transact, to have the most -skilful cooks; for all Europe was ransacked, -and no expense spared, to procure culinary -operators, thoroughly acquainted with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page29">[29]</span> -multifarious operations of the spit, the -stew-pan, and the rolling-pin.</p> - -<p>Sir Walter Scott, has been most happy -in the illustration of our ancient manners -with respect to good eating, in the character -of Athelstan, in the Romance of Ivanhoe.</p> - -<p>Count Rumford has not considered the -pleasure of eating, and the means that may -be employed for increasing it, as unworthy -the attention of a philosopher, for he -says, “the enjoyments which fall to -the bulk of mankind, are not so numerous -as to render an attempt to increase -them superfluous. And even in -regard to those who have it in their power -to gratify their appetites to the utmost extent -of their wishes, it is surely rendering -them a very important service to shew -them how they may increase their pleasures -without destroying their health.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page30">[30]</span></p> - -<p>In the olden time, every man of consequence -had his <i>magister coquorum</i>, or -<i>master cook</i>, without whom he would not -think of making a day’s journey; and it -was often no easy matter to procure <i>master -cooks</i> of talent.</p> - -<p>By a passage of Cicero<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> we are led to -understand, that among other miseries of -life, which constantly attended this consular -personage and eloquent orator, he laboured -under the disappointment of not having an -excellent cook of his own; for, he says, -“<i>coquus meus, præter jus fervens, nihil -potest imitari</i>.” <i>Except hot broth, my cook -can do nothing cleverly.</i></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <i>Fam.</i> ix. 20.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>The salary of the Roman cooks was -nearly £1000.<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> Mark Antony, hearing<span class="pagenum" id="Page31">[31]</span> -Cleopatra, whom he had invited to a -splendid supper, (and who was as great a -<i>gormand</i> as she was handsome,) loudly -praise the elegance and delicacy of the -dishes, sent for the cook, and presented him -with the unexpected gift of a corporate -town.—<i>Municipium.</i></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> -Tabella Cibaria, ps. 19 and 20.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Even in our own times great skill in -cookery is so highly praised by many, that -a very skilful cook can often command, in -this metropolis, a higher salary than a -learned and pious curate.</p> - -<p>His Majesty’s first and second cooks are -esquires, by their office, from a period to -which, in the lawyer’s phrase, the memory -of man is not to the contrary. We are told -by Dr. Pegge, that when Cardinal Otto, -the Pope’s Legate, was at Oxford, in the -year 1248, his brother officiated as <i>magister -coquinæ</i>, an office which has always<span class="pagenum" id="Page32">[32]</span> -been held as a situation of high trust and -confidence.</p> - -<p>We might defend the art of cookery on -another principle, namely—on the axiom -recognized in the Malthusian Political Economy, -that he who causes two blades of -grass to grow where only one grew before, -is a benefactor to his country and to human -nature. Whether or not Malthus is -quite right in this, we are not competent to -decide; we leave that to Say, Godwin, -Ricardo, and<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Drummond. But certainly it -must in many cases be of the utmost consequence, -for families in particular, when -embarrassed in circumstances, to make food -go twice as far as without the art and aid -of rational cookery it could do. We would -particularly press this remark, as it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page33">[33]</span> -founded on numerous facts, and places the -art of cookery in a more interesting point of -view than any of the other circumstances -which we have been considering.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> -Principles of Currency, and Elements of Political -Economy—1820.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Cookery has often drawn down on itself -the animadversions of both moralists, physicians, -and wits, who have made it a -subject for their vituperations and their -ridicule.</p> - -<p>So early as the time of the patriarch -Isaac, the sacred historian casts blame -upon Esau for being epicurean enough to -transfer his birth-right for a mess of pottage.</p> - -<p>Jacob is blamed for making savoury meat -with a kid for his father, with a view to -rob Esau of the paternal blessing.</p> - -<p>Diogenes, the Cynic, meeting a young -man who was going to a feast, took him up -in the street and carried him home to his -friends, as one who was running into evident<span class="pagenum" id="Page34">[34]</span> -danger had he not prevented him. The -whole tribe, indeed, of the Stoics and Cynics, -laughed at cookery, pretending, in their -vanity and pride, to be above the desire of -eating niceties. Lucian, with his inexhaustible -satire, most effectually and humourously -exposed these their pretences.</p> - -<p>In our own times, we have had writers of -eminence who have attacked the use of a -variety of food as a dreadful evil. “Should -we not think a man mad,” says Addison, -“who at one meal will devour fowl, flesh, -and fish; swallow oil, and vinegar, salt, -wines, and spices; throw down sallads of -twenty different herbs, sauces of an hundred -ingredients, confections, and fruits of -numberless sweets and flavours? What -unnatural effects must such a medley -produce in the body? For my part, -when I behold a table set out in all its<span class="pagenum" id="Page35">[35]</span> -magnificence, I fancy, that I see gouts -and dropsies, fevers and lethargies, and other -innumerable distempers, lying in ambuscade -among the dishes.”</p> - -<p>All this, and the like is, no doubt, very -plausible, and very fine, and, like many -other fine speeches of modern reformers, -it is more fine than just. It is indeed as -good a theory as may be, that cookery -is the source of most, or all, of our distempers; -but withal it is <i>a mere theory</i>, -and only true in a very limited degree. -The truth is, that it is not cookery which -is to blame, if we surfeit ourselves with its -good dishes; but our own sensual and -insatiable appetite, and gluttony, which -prompt us to seek their gratification at the -expense even of our health.</p> - -<p>Savages, whose cookery is in the rudest -state, are more apt to over-eat themselves<span class="pagenum" id="Page36">[36]</span> -than the veriest glutton of a luxurious and -refined people; a fact, which of itself, is -sufficient to prove, that it is not cookery -which is the cause of gluttony and surfeiting. -The savage, indeed, suffers less -from his gluttony than the sedentary and -refined gormand; for, after sleeping, sometimes -for a whole day, after gorging himself -with food, hunger again drives him -forth to the chace, in which he soon gets -rid of the ill-effects of his overloaded -stomach. Surely cookery is not to blame -for the effects of gluttony, indolence, and -sedentary occupations; yet it does appear, -that all its ill effects are erroneously charged -to the account of the refined art of cooking.</p> - -<p>The defence of cookery, however, which -we thus bring forward to repel misrepresentation, -applies only to the art of preparing -good, nutritious, and wholesome food.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page37">[37]</span></p> - -<p>We cannot say one word in defence of -the wretched and injurious methods but -too often practised, under the name of -cookery, and the highly criminal practices -of adulterating food with substances deleterious -to health. On this subject we -have spoken elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> -A treatise on adulterations of food, and culinary -poisons, exhibiting the fraudulent sophistications of -bread, beer, wine, spirituous liquors, tea, coffee, -cream, confectionary, vinegar, mustard, pepper, -cheese, olive oil, pickles, and other articles employed -in domestic economy, and methods of detecting -them.—Third edition, 1821.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>“A good dinner<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> is one of the greatest -enjoyments of human life; but the practice -of cookery is attended with not only so -many disgusting and disagreeable circumstances, -and even dangers, that we ought -to have some regard for those who encounter -them for our pleasure.”</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> -The Cook’s Oracle.—Preface, p. xxxv.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page38">[38]</span></p> - -<h3>DIETETICAL REMARKS ON THE CHOICE AND -QUANTITY OF FOOD.</h3> - -<p>Almost every person who can afford it, -eats more than is requisite for promoting -the growth, and renewing the strength and -waste of his body. It would be ridiculous -to speak concerning the precise quantity of -food necessary to support the body of different -individuals. Such rules do not exist -in nature. The particular state or condition -of the individual, the variety of constitution, -and other circumstances, must be taken into -account. If, after dinner, we feel ourselves -as cheerful as before, we may be assured -that we have made a dietetical meal.</p> - -<p>Much has been said of temperance. The -fact is, that there is an absolute determined -standard of <i>temperance</i>, the point of which<span class="pagenum" id="Page39">[39]</span> -must be fixed by every man’s natural and -unprovoked appetite, while he continues -<i>in a state of health</i>. As long as a person -who pursues a right habit of life, eats and -drinks no more than his stomach calls for -and will bear, without occasioning uneasiness -of any kind to himself, he may be -said to live temperate. The stomach revolts -against the reverse of it; indeed, the -stomach is the grand organ of the human -system, it is the <i>conscience</i> of the <i>body</i>, and -like that, will become uneasy if all is not -right within; it speaks pretty plainly to -those who lead an intemperate life.</p> - -<p>“We may compare,” says Doctor -Kitchener, “the human frame to a watch, of -which the heart is the main <i>spring</i>, the -stomach the <i>regulator</i>, and what we put -into it, the <i>key</i>, by which the machine is -set a-going; according to the quantity,<span class="pagenum" id="Page40">[40]</span> -quality, and proper digestion of what we -eat and drink will be the action of the -system: and when a due proportion is -preserved between the quantum of exercise -and that of excitement, all goes well. If -the machine be disordered, the same expedients -are employed for its re-adjustment, -as are used by the watch-maker; it -must be carefully cleaned and then judiciously -oiled. To affirm that such a thing is -wholesome, or unwholesome, without considering -the subject in all the circumstances -to which it bears relation, and the unaccountable -idiosyncrasies of particular -constitutions is, with submission, talking -nonsense. Every man must consult his -stomach; whatever agrees with that perfectly -well, is wholesome for him, whilst it -continues to do so whenever natural appetite -calls for food.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page41">[41]</span></p> - -<p>Celsus spoke very right when he said -that a healthy man ought not to tie himself -up by strict rules, nor to abstain from any -sort of food; that he ought sometimes to -fast, and sometimes to feast. When applied -to eating, nothing is more true than the -<span class="nowrap">proverb—</span></p> - -<div class="poem"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“<i>Bonarum rerum consuetudo pessima est.</i>—<span class="smcap">Syrus.</span><br /></span> -</div> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“<i>The too constant use, even of good things, is hurtful.</i>”<br /></span> -</div><!--stanza--> - -</div><!--poem--> - -<p>It is certainly better to restrain ourselves, -so as to <i>use</i>, but not to <i>abuse</i>, our enjoyments; -and to this we may add the opinion -of doctor Fothergil, which the experience -of every individual confirms, namely, that -“the food we fancy most, sits easiest on the -stomach.”</p> - -<p>What has been so far stated on the choice -and quantity of food to be taken at a time, -of course, relates only to persons in a state<span class="pagenum" id="Page42">[42]</span> -of health; the diet of the delicate, the sickly, -and the infirm, must be regulated by the -physician, and even the aged require particular -kinds of food.</p> - -<p>“Experience<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> has fully convinced me, -(says an eminent Physiologist), that the -latter stages of human life, are often -abridged by unsuitable diet.”</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> -Carlisle on the disorders of Old Age, ps. 2 and 27. -This book exhibits an excellent view of the most -suitable diet for aged, weak, and sickly people.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>“The most numerous tribe of disorders -incident to advanced life, spring from the -failure or errors of the stomach, and its -dependancies, and perhaps the first sources -of all the infirmities of inability, may be -traced to effects arising from imperfectly -digested food.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page43">[43]</span></p> - -<h3>EXTRAORDINARY GREAT EATERS, AND -OBSERVATIONS ON ABSTINENCE.</h3> - -<p>In some persons, an extraordinary great -appetite seems to be constitutional.</p> - -<p><i>Charles Domery</i>, aged 21 years, when a -prisoner of war, at Liverpool, consumed in -one day</p> - -<table class="dontwrap leftalign fsize90" summary="Daily consumption"> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right padr1">4lbs.</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="padr1 top">of</td> -<td class="left">Raw Cow’s Udder.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1">10lbs.</td> -<td class="left">Raw Beef.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1">2lbs.</td> -<td class="left">Tallow Candles.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr1">Total</td> -<td class="right padr1"><span class="bt">16lbs.</span></td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="noindent">and five bottles of porter; and although -allowed the daily rations of ten men, he -was not satisfied.</p> - -<p>Another extraordinary instance has been -recorded by Baron Percy:—A soldier of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page44">[44]</span> -name of <i>Tarare</i>, who, at the age of 17, -could devour in the course of 24 hours, a -leg of beef weighing 24lbs. and thought -nothing of swallowing the dinner dressed -for fifteen German peasants. But those men -were remarkable not only for the quantity -of food they consumed, but also for its -quality, giving a preference to raw meat, -and even living flesh and blood.</p> - -<p><i>Domery</i>, in one year, eat 174 cats, dead -and alive; and <i>Tarare</i> was strongly suspected -of having eaten an infant.</p> - -<p>Man can sustain the privation of food for -several days, more or fewer in number, -according to circumstances—the old better -than the young, and the fat better than the -lean. The absolute want of drink can be -suffered only a short time, they have been -strikingly described by Mungo Park and -Ali Bey, as experienced in their own persons.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page45">[45]</span></p> - -<p>The narratives of ship-wrecked mariners -also prove, with how very little food life -may be supported for a considerable length -of time; and the history of those impostors -who pretend to live altogether without -food or drink, display this adaptation of -the wants of the body to its means of supply -in a still more striking manner; for, even -after the deception, in such cases as that of -Ann Moore, is exposed, it will be found -that the quantity of aliment actually taken -was incredibly small.</p> - -<p>Captain Woodard has added to his interesting -narrative many instances of the -power of the human body to resist the effects -of severe abstinence. He himself -and his five companions rowed their boat -for seven days without any sustenance but -a bottle of brandy, and then wandered -about the shores of Celebes six more, without<span class="pagenum" id="Page46">[46]</span> -any other food than a little water and -a few berries. Robert Scotney lived seventy-five -days alone in a boat with three -pounds and a half of meat, three pounds -of flour, two hogsheads of water, some -whale oil, and a small quantity of salt. -He also used an amazing quantity of tobacco. -Six soldiers deserted from St. Helena -in a boat, on the 10th of June 1799, -with twenty-five pounds of bread and about -thirteen gallons of water. On the 18th, -they reduced their allowance to one ounce -of bread and two mouthfuls of water, on -which they subsisted till the 26th, when -their store was expended. Captain Inglefield, -with eleven others, after five days of -scanty diet, were obliged to restrict it to a -biscuit divided into twelve morsels for -breakfast, and the same for dinner, with an -ounce or two of water daily. In ten days,<span class="pagenum" id="Page47">[47]</span> -a very stout man died, unable to swallow, -and delirious. Lieutenant Bligh and his -crew lived forty-two days upon five day’s -provisions.</p> - -<p>In the tenth volume of Hufland’s <i>Journal</i>, -is related a very remarkable, and well-authenticated -case of voluntary starvation. -A recruit, to avoid serving, had cut off -the fore-finger of his right hand. When -in hospital for the cure of the wound, -dreading the punishment which awaited -him, he resolved to starve himself; and on -the 2nd of August began obstinately to refuse -all food or drink, and persisted in this -resolution to the 24th of August. During -these twenty-two days he had absolutely taken -neither food, drink, nor medicine, and -had no evacuation from his bowels. He had -now become very much emaciated, his belly -somewhat distended, he had a violent pain<span class="pagenum" id="Page48">[48]</span> -in his loins, his thirst was excessive, and -his febrile heat burning. His behaviour -had also become timid. Having been promised -his discharge, unpunished, he was -prevailed upon to take some sustenance, -but could not, at first, bear even weak soup -and luke-warm drinks. Under proper -treatment, he continued to mend for eight -days, and his strength was returning, when, -on the 1st of September, he again refused -food and got a wild look. He took a little -barley-water every four or five days to the -8th; from that day to the 11th, he took a -little biscuit with wine; but again from the -11th September to the 9th October, a period -of twenty-eight days, he neither took food, -drink, nor had any natural evacuation. From -the 9th to the 11th he again took a little nourishment, -and began to recruit; but, on the -11th, he finally renewed his resolution to<span class="pagenum" id="Page49">[49]</span> -starve himself, and persevered until his -death, which took place on the 21st November, -after a total abstinence of 42 days.</p> - -<h3>REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN OF THE CUSTOM OF -EATING FLESH.</h3> - -<p>We are told, that in the first ages of the -world, men lived upon acorns, berries, and -such fruits as the earth spontaneously produced, -and that in the Shepherd state of -society, milk, obtained from flocks and herds, -came into use. Soon afterwards the flesh -of wild animals was added to the food, and -the juice of grape to the drink of the -human species. Hogs were the first animals, -of the domestic kind, that were eaten by -men, for they held it ungrateful to eat the -animals that assisted them in their labour. -“We are happy to find, (says the author of<span class="pagenum" id="Page50">[50]</span> -an elegant poem<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>) that it was not on account -of the solidity, wholesomeness, delicacy, and -other excellent qualities of his flesh, that -the ox was worshipped on the banks of the -Nile, and in the gorgeous temples of Memphis; -for, although professedly friends to -gastronomy, moderated by a decided aversion -to any thing like sensuality, we are of -opinion that man is less fit to feed upon -<i>carnal</i> than vegetable substance.”</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Tabella Cibaria, p. 33.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>“The noble horse, fierce and unsubdued, -was still roaming with all the roughness -and intractability of original freedom, -in his native groves, who already domesticated, -the honest steer had willingly lent -the strength of his powerful shoulders to -the laborious strife of the plough. This -had not only raised altars to him under the<span class="pagenum" id="Page51">[51]</span> -name of <span class="smcap">Apis</span>, but even placed him among -the first constellations of the Zodiac above -the watchful eyes of the Chaldeans. In -the reign of Erichtonius, fourth king of -Athens, Diomus was offering to Jupiter -the first fruits of the earth. Whilst the -priests were busied apart in preparing some -necessaries to the solemnity, an ox, passing -by, browsed of all that had been gathered -on the altar for the sacrifice. Diomus, in -his disappointment and passion, slew him -on the spot. The Gods, instead of countenancing -his religious zeal, sent forth immediately -all the horrors of a pestilence -upon the Athenians, which did not cease -until they had instituted a festival called -“<i>The Death of the Ox</i>.”<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Nonius de re Cibaria.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>“Porphyrius traces the custom of eating<span class="pagenum" id="Page52">[52]</span> -meat to <i>Pygmalion</i>, king of Tyre, in Phœnicia. -Although the Jews were allowed -to eat the flesh of the immolated beasts, in -the golden age, man had not found courage -and appetite enough to eat the flesh of an -innocent animal; but soon after, this -cruelty extended to nearly all quadrupeds, -except those who were carnivorous. Tradition -states, that <i>Prometheus</i> was the -first who killed a bullock, <i>Ceres</i> a pig, and -<i>Bacchus</i> a goat, for the uses of their tables. -It is obvious that pigs, by turning up the -new-sown fields for the sake of the grain, -and goats browzing the tender sprouts of -the vine-tree, were respectively inimical to -<i>Ceres</i> and <i>Bacchus</i>. As for the killing of -the first bullock by <i>Prometheus</i>, we leave -to other commentators to explain.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page53">[53]</span></p> - -<h3>COMPARATIVE ALIMENTARY EFFECTS OF ANIMAL -AND VEGETABLE FOOD.</h3> - -<p>Animal food alone is ill adapted to form -the whole of our aliment. The inquiries of -physiologists have determined, that animal -food is highly stimulant, and like all other -stimulants, after the excitement has been -brought to its acmé, debility must by necessity -succeed. This, however, is not so -much the case where fresh meat is used -as when the meat is salted; but this may -be, because our examples, with regard to -fresh meat, are less marked than in the -case of salted provision. For few instances -occur in which fresh meat forms -the whole food, exclusive altogether of -fruits or other vegetable aliment. Salted<span class="pagenum" id="Page54">[54]</span> -meat often constitutes a great proportion of -the food in long sea voyages, in the long -dreary winters in Lapland, and amongst -the inhabitants of besieged towns.</p> - -<p>When this practice is continued for any -length of time, oppression and langour begin -to be felt, indigestion is brought on, and -hurried breathing and a quick pulse on taking -the slightest exercise, the gums become soft -and spongy, the breath becomes fœtid, and -the limbs swoln. Such are the dreadful -effects produced by salted provisions, when -a proper proportion of vegetable food is -not used along with them.</p> - -<p>The fact is, that nations, whose food is -entirely vegetable, are less active and energetic -than those whose diet is more nutritive. -The inhabitants of Ireland, in the -most humble walks of life, for example, -who live almost exclusively on potatoes, are<span class="pagenum" id="Page55">[55]</span> -said to be more indolent and sluggish, when -compared with their neighbours in England, -who would think such diet to be no better -than a prison allowance of bread and -water.</p> - -<p>In the East, where rice forms the great -article of food with some tribes, the people -are far from being robust or able to undergo -much fatigue in labour or in war. The -striking fact, that the English soldiers -and sailors surpass all those of other nations -in bravery and hardihood, is sufficient, we -think, to demonstrate the effect of a considerable -proportion of animal food.—For, -though it be said, that a great number -of our soldiers are Irishmen, yet our -argument holds good, since, all these when -in the army, or navy, live exactly in the same -manner as the English themselves. The -change of diet, indeed, is in these brave men<span class="pagenum" id="Page56">[56]</span> -very obvious; for the Irish and Scots -soldiers are often more hardy than the -English; not as it is supposed because -they have been innured to greater hardships -in their youth, but because their diet being -more generous than it was at that period, -its effects become more obvious than in -those who have always had animal food.</p> - -<p>When we examine the structure of the -digestive organs of the inferior animals -which live wholly on vegetable food, we -find that they are very differently constituted -from man, and much more so from -the animals of prey. If the organs -for digestion of the ruminant animals -are more complicated, it should seem to -follow, that vegetable aliment is more -difficult to digest; otherwise, nature, who -never works in vain, would not have provided -for them such a series of stomachs.<span class="pagenum" id="Page57">[57]</span> -Hence we infer, that since man has not this -apparatus peculiar to ruminant animals, it -must be plain that nature did not intend -him to live exclusively on vegetables. If -we consider the human teeth, we shall be -led to the same conclusion, for they are not -either like the teeth of ruminant animals or -those of beasts of prey, but intermediate -between the two. We have <i>incisor</i> teeth -like animals of the order glires: such as -the hare, the rabbit, and the guinea-pig; -<i>canin</i> teeth like those of the order feræ: -such as the dog, the tiger, and the lion; -and <i>grinders</i>, like herbivorous quadrupeds: -such as the horse, the sheep, and the cow.</p> - -<p>Food, then, composed of animal and -vegetable substances, seems to be the best -adapted for our organs of mastication and -digestion, though it would not be easy to -say precisely what proportions of these are<span class="pagenum" id="Page58">[58]</span> -most agreeable to the intentions of nature. -We may safely conclude, however, that the -vegetable food ought to exceed the animal -in quantity. The direction given by Dr. -Fothergill is the most judicious we have -met with. “I have only” says he “one -short caution to give. Those who think it -necessary to pay any attention to their -health at table, should take care that the -quantity of bread, of meat, of pudding, and -of greens, should not compose each of them -a meal, as if some were only thrown in to -make weight; but they should carefully observe, -that the sum of all together do not -exceed due bounds, or encroach upon the -first feeling of satiety.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page59">[59]</span></p> - -<h3>OBSERVATIONS ON THE VARIOUS KINDS OF -ANIMAL SUBSTANCES COMMONLY USED FOR -FOOD.</h3> - -<p>Of the different classes of animals used -for food, quadrupeds compose the greatest -proportion, and there is no part of their -bodies which does not contain nutritive -parts, and that has not been used as food -in some way or other. Even bones affords -an alimentary jelly fit for human food.</p> - -<p>The largest portion of our aliment, however, -is derived from the voluntary muscles -of animals, or what is more strictly called, -the flesh, consisting of all the red fibrous -substance which covers the bones. It -should seem that this is both the most -nourishing and the most easily digested of<span class="pagenum" id="Page60">[60]</span> -animal substances. The red colour arises -from the blood of minute vessels which run -in every direction among the fibres; but -whether this is the cause of the red muscle -being more nutritious is not well ascertained. -Thence the flesh of quadrupeds is -more largely consumed than of any other -class of animals; and, indeed, those in -common use in most parts of Europe possesses -all the alimentary properties in the -highest perfection. All animal flesh seems -more or less stimulating; and, in general, -the more so the darker its colour is—but it -does not absolutely follow that it is also -more nutritious.</p> - -<p>There is a considerable difference in the -qualities of muscular flesh, according to -the size of the animal, and also according -to its activity. The small mountain -sheep, for example, which has to encounter<span class="pagenum" id="Page61">[61]</span> -fatigue to procure its food, has flesh of a -different quality and flavour from the large -and lazy creature, which feeds luxuriously -and fattens rapidly, in the rich pastures of -the plain country. The beef of the western -islands also, is more esteemed, on account -of the same circumstance, than that of the -fat and brawny oxen which we see in the -London market. It is for this reason, we -have no doubt, that the flesh of the horse, -the rhinocerus, and elephant, is not used as -food except in cases when other food is not -to be procured. In the circumstance of -activity altering the qualities of flesh, we -may be allowed to instance the superiority -of venison to beef, in flavour and tenderness, -and easiness of digestion.</p> - -<p>The age of animals is another circumstance -which has great influence on the -qualities of their flesh. The flesh of young<span class="pagenum" id="Page62">[62]</span> -animals is composed of less rigid fibres, and -has fewer vessels which carry red blood -running through it, and besides, it has less -of the peculiar flavour of its particular -species than the flesh of older animals. -Gelatine is more abundant in the young, -and fibrin in the old; hence the former is -more bland and tender. Veal and lamb, for -example, are more tender and gelatinous -than beef or mutton; sucking pigs, chickens, -and ducklings, are also much more delicate -than the grown animals. The beef of an old -cow, however well fed, is quite tough and -unpalatable, while that of a very young -heifer is much relished. Although, however, -very young animals be so much more -tender, yet they are insipid and flabby.</p> - -<p>In the case of pork, age is not required, -as in other sorts of butcher meat, to mellow -the fibre. It is an aliment containing much<span class="pagenum" id="Page63">[63]</span> -nourishment; but to some palates its -flavour is disagreeable, though by most -people it is relished. It was much used by -the ancient athletæ, as half raw beef steaks -are now by our men of the fancy.</p> - -<p>Sucking pigs are killed when three weeks -old; and for pork, pigs are killed from six -to twelve months old. It requires them to -be older for making brawn. The flesh of -young venison is not so good as when four -years old or more; though that of the fawn -is very tender and succulent.</p> - -<p>But even in the fœtal state, the flesh of -animals, if recently taken from a healthy -mother, may be used. In the London -market the fœtus of the cow is regularly -sold to the pastry-cooks for the purpose of -making mock turtle soup, of which it often -forms the principal portion.</p> - -<p>Veal, however, is reckoned not so good<span class="pagenum" id="Page64">[64]</span> -when killed before it be eight or ten weeks -old. The most remarkable quality of flesh -of this kind is, its almost wholly dissolving -in boiling water, forming in the warm state -a bland and gelatinous soup, and when -cold, concreting into a tremulous transparent -jelly. It is less animalized, or more properly -speaking, contains less animal fibre -than almost any other flesh; hence its -tendency to become ascescent when made -into broth and jelly, which is not the case -with beef or mutton broth. The parts of -older animals, which contain a larger portion -of gelatine, are in this respect similar to -young flesh. Cow-heel and sheep’s-head -are well known instances. It may be -remarked that such food is less nutritious, -and unless very much boiled, is less digestible -than muscular flesh; but as it is also -more light and less stimulating, it is frequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page65">[65]</span> -given to delicate people who cannot -take any thing stronger.</p> - -<p>Tripe is intermediate between what we -have just described and the muscular flesh -of grown animals, insomuch as there is in -the stomach of ruminant animals a considerable -proportion of vessels, transmitting -red blood, and of muscular fibres, and -accordingly it is to be inferred that tripe is -more nutritive; it is certain it is more -palatable and savory.</p> - -<p>As to other parts of animals, which are -abundantly furnished with red blood, though -destitute of muscle, we cannot speak so -decidedly. Some of the glands are coarse -and rank flavoured, from the peculiar -secretions which they produce, and are -only used by poor persons; others are -esteemed as delicacies, and seem not to be -unwholesome. As examples of the latter,<span class="pagenum" id="Page66">[66]</span> -we may mention <i>sweet bread</i> or <i>pancreas</i>, -one of the glands belonging to the digestive -organs; and the liver of some species of -birds, and of young quadrupeds.</p> - -<p>The liver of the goose reckoned a great -delicacy in Sicily, and they have there a -a method of enlarging this organ while the -bird is alive, but it is so cruel, that Brydon, -who mentions it, declines giving the particulars, -lest our epicures in England -should have the inhumanity to give it a -trial. The spleen is an instance of the -former case, being strongly ill flavoured.</p> - -<p>Another circumstance which produces -difference of quality in flesh, is the sex of -the animal, the genital organs having in -this respect a very remarkable influence, -as appears from the effect of destroying -these by castration. This renders the flesh -of the male similar, and in some cases, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page67">[67]</span> -in mutton, superior to that of the female, -which is always more tender, and of finer -fibre than that of the uncastrated male. -By destroying also the ovaries of the -females, their flesh is rendered more -delicate, though this operation is not often -practised. The sow is the animal which is -most usually operated upon with this view; -the flesh of the uncastrated boar is very -coarse and bad. Even in calves the difference -is observable, and veal is greatly -improved by castrating the males. The -same practice greatly improves fowl, as in -capons. Venison is rank, tough, lean, -and ill flavoured, and not fit to be eaten -when killed during the rutting season, in -September and October; and salmon, when -about to spawn, are also bad, and prohibited, -we believe, by our laws, to be -caught or sold.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page68">[68]</span></p> - -<p>The mode of feeding animals, designed -for the table, has also great influence on -the quality of the flesh, so much so, that -nice judges can distinguish whether mutton, -if from the same breed of sheep, has been -fed on grass or on turnips; and can tell, -still more accurately, on tasting the fat of -pork, whether the pigs have been fed on -sour skimmed milk, brewers grains, or -pease flour. It was the practice sometime -ago, but now almost laid aside, to feed -calves and oxen on oil cake. This did -certainly fatten them, but the fat was rather -rancid in most cases, and never of good -flavour. The truth seems to be, that, -though generally, the lean of fat animals is -the most tender and palatable, yet that -this is not so much the case when the fat -is rapidly produced by artificial management -in the feeding.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page69">[69]</span></p> - -<p>Sheep become very rapidly fat in the -first stage of the rot, in consequence, -perhaps, of their desire for food being -greatly increased by the disease; and, -taking advantage of this, it is said that -some butchers are in the practice of producing -rot artificially, which is certainly -very blameable. Some amateurs of mutton -are fond of such as has died of a sort of -colic, called in the North <i>braxy</i>, that produces -a very peculiar flavour in the meat, -which is always, however, roasted, and -never stewed or boiled. Such tastes are, -to say the least of them, surely unnatural.</p> - -<p>It is, perhaps, owing to the different -quality and quantity of food, as much as -any thing, that the season of the year has -an effect upon the flesh of animals; the -heat or cold of the weather, and in some -cases, the periodical return of sexual<span class="pagenum" id="Page70">[70]</span> -attachment, must also be taken int to be out of -seasono account. -In the instances of veal and lamb, the -words, <i>in season, and out of season</i>, refer, -perhaps, more to plenty and scarceness -than to any quality in the meat; for as -soon as any thing is so plentiful in the -market as to cause a fall in the price, and -bring it within reach of the poor, then the -wealthy classes pronounce it to be <i>out of -season</i>.</p> - -<p>This is the case with some sorts of birds -which migrate at certain times of the year, -the woodcock for example, and are on that -account to be valued when they can be procured. -Such as breed here, the solan goose -for example, can be procured in the young -state before they take their flight to their -unknown retreat.</p> - -<p>It has been roundly asserted, that there -is no bird, and no part of any birds, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page71">[71]</span> -may not be safely used as food. Many -species, however, are very oily, tough, or -bad flavoured, and it is not at least very -desirable to eat any animal which feeds on -prey or carrion; even though this did not, -as it does, taint their flesh. The qualities -of the flesh of birds differ very much, both -in the several species, and in particular parts -of the same bird.</p> - -<p>The flesh of birds which live on grain, is -for the most part preferred to those which -feed on insects or fish.</p> - -<p>The pheasant, the turkey, as well as -partridge, and moor game, are more esteemed -than goose, duck, or woodcock.</p> - -<p>Many of the water birds, however, are -preferred, though from the nature of their -food, they are apt to taste strongly of fish, -and to become too fat and oily: to remedy -these defects, skilful cooks sometimes bury<span class="pagenum" id="Page72">[72]</span> -them under ground for some days, and -carefully remove all the skin, and as much -as possible of the fat and oil from the inside, -before dressing them.</p> - -<p>Of the several sorts of birds, those of -larger size are coarser and more tough than -the smaller sorts; bustards, and larks, and -ortolans, for example, than swans, or turkeys, -and geese. This difference is also -rendered greater in proportion to their age.</p> - -<p>With regard to the particular parts of the -same birds, the flesh of the wing, and the -part of the breast nearest the wing, consisting -of the muscles exerted in flying, are -more dry, tender, and of a whiter colour -than the muscles of the leg. This, however, -is not the case with black game, in which -the more superficial of these muscles are -dark-coloured, while those deeper seated -are pale; and the same is sometimes seen<span class="pagenum" id="Page73">[73]</span> -in other birds. The belly and the muscles of -the thigh, when young enough, or when -long kept and properly cooked, are both -palatable, juicy, and sufficiently tender. -The tendons of these muscles, however, are -very tough, and at a certain age become -cartilaginous and even bony.</p> - -<p>Birds in a domestic state do not readily -become fat, if allowed to go at large; for -this purpose, they should be confined in -coops, and supplied with as much wholesome -food as they can eat. Poulterers -even cram them with food. Domestic -water fowls, must, while fattening, be kept -from the water, otherwise they will acquire -a strong fishy taste, and besides, will always -remain lean. In general, over fatness may -be considered as a sort of oleagenous dropsy, -and seldom or never is met with in a state -of nature.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page74">[74]</span></p> - -<p>All the soft parts of fish contain gelatine -and fibrous substance, and are, consequently, -in the edible sorts, nutritious. The -fibrous portions are not, except in a few -species, red, like the muscular flesh of land -animals, but white and opake when dressed. -If cooked fish looks bluish and semi-transparent, -it is not in season. It is fortunate -for us, that few if any poisonous fish are -found in our seas, being chiefly confined to -the tropics.</p> - -<p>The roe of the greater number of fishes -is eaten: caviar is the roe of the sturgeon.</p> - -<p>Cods sounds, or the swim bladder of the -larger cod, are reckoned a great delicacy -when properly preserved. It is not usual -for the skin of any animal to be eaten, -though the skin of some sorts of fish which -are pulpy and gelatinous are relished—as -the skin of calves head is used for mock<span class="pagenum" id="Page75">[75]</span> -turtle soup. The flavour of fish depends -greatly on their food, which, it is supposed, -is the main cause of the difference between -fresh and salt water fish, and between the -same sorts of fish taken in different lakes -and rivers, and on different parts of the coast.</p> - -<p>Some shell fish, such as muscles and -cockles, are occasionally found to disagree -with some particular constitutions, but it -is not true that this arises from their feeding -on copper banks; some say, that it is -from the persons eating the beard or fibres, -by which the muscles attach themselves to -the rocks, which is not, we think, probable.</p> - -<p>The limpet (<i>Patella vulgata</i>), the periwinkle -(<i>turbo littoreus</i>) and whilk (<i>murex -antiquus</i>), are used as food, boiled by the -common people in various districts of this -country.</p> - -<p>The crustaceous shellfish of sufficient<span class="pagenum" id="Page76">[76]</span> -size, are very generally esculent. These -chiefly belong to the family of <i>Cancer</i>. -Hence, several species of crabs, both short -and long tailed, are eaten. The lobster, -the crawfish, the shrimp, and the prawn -belong to this class.</p> - -<h3>OBSERVATIONS ON THE VARIOUS KINDS OF -VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES COMMONLY USED -FOR FOOD.</h3> - -<p>The vegetable substances used for food -are, if we include fruits, much more numerous -than those derived from the animal -kingdom. The chief of these, however, -are the different sorts of grain and pulse, -the <i>farina</i> or flour of which, contains a -large proportion of starch, gluten, and -mucilage, and but little woody fibre, and is -consequently highly nutritious, and easily<span class="pagenum" id="Page77">[77]</span> -digested. To this class of plants we are -also indebted for the food of the animals -whose flesh is most generally used. -In pulse, as well as in rye and oats, there -is, besides the principles just mentioned, a -considerable portion of sugar, which adds -to their nutritive qualities.</p> - -<p>We would class the different sorts of -nuts, next to grain and pulse, in the proportion -of nutriment which they afford; -starch and mucilage are their chief elements, -but these are combined with a kind of oil -which is not of easy digestion, and makes -them disagree with most people when too -liberally used. Almonds, filberts, walnuts, -and cocoa, are the nuts in most request. -Chocolate is a preparation of this kind, -which is very nutritious to those with whom -it agrees.</p> - -<p>Next to grain, pulse, and nuts, we may<span class="pagenum" id="Page78">[78]</span> -place the farinaceous roots, potatoes, -carrots, parsnips, and Jerusalem artichokes. -Of these, the first, contains the most -nourishment, which depends on the great -proportion of starch with which it abounds. -Other pot-herbs possess little nourishment. -Cabbage and greens, for example, are -chiefly composed of fibre, mucilage, and -water, and the same is true of onions, leeks, -celery, lettuce, and broccoli.</p> - -<p>Of fruits, those which are most farinaceous -and mucilaginous, and which are -sweet from the sugar contained in them, -are the most nutritious. The pear should -seem to answer this description the nearest, -but experience proves that this fruit is -of less easy digestion than the apple, whose -greater acidity corrects the heavy quality -of the saccharine matter with which the -pear abounds.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page79">[79]</span></p> - -<h3>GENERAL OPERATIONS OF COOKERY.</h3> - -<p>Few of the substances which we use for -food are consumed in the state in which they -are originally produced by nature. With -the exception of some fruits and salads, all -of them undergo some preparation. In -most cases, indeed, this is indispensable; -for, otherwise, they would not only be less -wholesome and nutritive, but less digestible. -The preceding observations, therefore, -are only applicable to the materials -when cooked, and not to the crude vegetables -and raw flesh in the undressed state.</p> - -<p>The general processes of cookery resolve -themselves into the various modes of applying -heat under different circumstances. -They are the following—roasting, frying,<span class="pagenum" id="Page80">[80]</span> -broiling, baking, stewing, and boiling. -These operations not only soften the raw -materials, and render them alimentary, but -the chemical constitution of the cooked -substance suffers also such alterations, that -its constituent parts can often no longer -be recognised.</p> - -<h3>ROASTING ON A SPIT</h3> - -<p>Appears to be the most ancient process -of rendering animal food eatable by means -of the action of heat.</p> - -<p>Spits were used very anciently in all -parts of the world, and perhaps, before the -plain practice of hanging the meat to a -string before the fire. Ere the iron age -had taught men the use of metals, these -roasting instruments were made of wood;<span class="pagenum" id="Page81">[81]</span> -and as we find it in Virgil,<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> slender branches -of the hazel tree were particularly <span class="nowrap">chosen—</span></p> - -<div class="poem"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">————“<i>Stabit sacer hircus ad aram</i><br /></span> -<span class="i0"><i>“Pinguiaque in verubus torrebimus extra colurnis.</i>”<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The altar let the guilty goat approach,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And roast his fat limbs on the hazel broach.”<br /></span> -</div><!--stanza--> - -</div><!--poem--> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Georgics II. 545.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Roasting is the most simple and -direct application of heat in the preparation -of food. The process is, for the most part, -confined to animal substances, though several -fruits, such as apples, chesnuts, and -some roots, are in this manner directly subjected -to fire.</p> - -<p>But in dressing animal food, butcher’s -meat, venison, fowl, and fish, roasting is -one of the most usual processes, and it is, -we believe, the best for rendering food -nutritive and wholesome. The chemical<span class="pagenum" id="Page82">[82]</span> -changes also which roasting induces, are -sufficiently slight, as a careful analysis -will procure from meat, properly roasted, -nearly all the elements which are to be -found in it in the raw state. Slight -as the change is however in a chemical, -it is considerable in a culinary, point -of view. The texture of the meat is -more relaxed and consequently it is more -tender; it is also more sapid and high -flavoured. It is absolutely essential that -the meat intended for roasting, has been -kept long enough for the fibres to become -flaccid, without which precaution the best -meat does not become tender. If the meat -be frozen, it should be thawed, by putting -it into cold water, before it is put on the -spit.</p> - -<p>The process of roasting requires some -care to conduct it properly. The meat<span class="pagenum" id="Page83">[83]</span> -should be gradually turned before the fire, -in order to effect its uniform exposure to -the rays of heat. A covering of paper -prevents the fat from taking fire, and frequently -<i>basting</i> the meat with gravy or -melted fat, prevents it from being scorched -or becoming dry, bitter, and unpalatable. -It is necessary to be very careful in placing -the meat to be roasted at a proper distance -from the fire. If it is put too near, the -surface will be scorched and burnt to a -cinder, while the inner portion will be quite -raw; and, if it be too distant, it will never -have either the tenderness or the flavour -it would have had by proper care. At first, -it should be placed at some distance, and -afterwards be gradually brought nearer the -fire, to give the heat time to penetrate the -whole piece equally; and, the larger the -joint is, the more gradually should this be<span class="pagenum" id="Page84">[84]</span> -done. Poultry, in particular, should be -heated very gradually.</p> - -<p>When the joint is of an unequal thickness, -the spit must be placed slanting, so -that the thinnest part is further removed -from the fire.</p> - -<p>The less the spit is made to pass through -the prime part of the meat, the better. -Thus, in a shoulder of mutton, the spit is -made to enter close to the shank-bone, -and passed along the blade-bone of the -joint.</p> - -<p>When the meat is nearly sufficiently roasted, -it is dusted over with a coating of flour; -this, uniting with the fat and other juices -exuded on the surface, covers the joint -with a brown crust, glazed and frothy, -which gives to the eye a prelude of the -palatable substance it encrusts.</p> - -<p>The process, as just described, is very<span class="pagenum" id="Page85">[85]</span> -similar, whatever may be the sort of meat -roasted, whether joints, and the several -species of fowl, or game. Fish is -not usually dressed in this way, though -the larger sorts are sometimes roasted. -Those who relish eels and pike prefer them -roasted to any other mode of dressing -them.</p> - -<p>It is a general practice to move the spit -back when the meat is half done, in order -to clear the bottom part of the grate, and -to give the fire a good stirring, that it may -burn bright during the remainder of -the process. The meat is deemed sufficiently -roasted when the steam puffs out -of the joint in jets towards the fire.</p> - -<p>To facilitate the process of roasting, a -metal screen, consisting of a shallow concave -reflector, is placed behind the meat, -in order to reflect the rays of heat of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page86">[86]</span> -fire back again upon the meat. This -greatly hastens the process. The screen -is usually made of wood, lined with tin. -It should be kept bright, otherwise, it will -not reflect the rays of heat.</p> - -<h3>ROASTING ON A STRING</h3> - -<p>Is usually performed by means of the -useful contrivance called a <i>bottle jack</i>, a -well-known machine, so named from its -form. It only serves for small joints, but -does that better than the spit. It is cheap -and simple, and the turning motion is produced -by the twisting and untwisting of a -string. The sort of roasting machine, -called the <i>Poor Man’s Spit</i>, is something -of the same nature, but still more -simple. The meat is suspended by a -skein of worsted, a twirling motion being<span class="pagenum" id="Page87">[87]</span> -given to the meat, the thread is twisted, -and when the force is spent, the string untwists -itself two or three times alternately, -till the action being discontinued, the meat -must again get a twirl round. When the -meat is half done, the lower extremity of -the joint is turned uppermost, and affixed -to the string, so that the gravy flows over -the joint the reverse way it did before.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page88">[88]</span></p> - -<h3>ROASTING IN AN OPEN OVEN.</h3> - -<p>A Dutch or open oven is a machine for -roasting small joints, such as fowls, &c. It -consists of an arched box of tin open on -one side, which side is placed against the -fire. The joint being either suspended in -the machine on a spit, or by a hook, or put -on a low trevet placed on the bottom of the -oven, which is moveable. The inside of the -oven should be kept bright that it may reflect -the heat of the fire. This is the most -economical and most expeditious method -of roasting in the small way.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page89">[89]</span></p> - -<h3>ROASTING IN A CLOSED OVEN.</h3> - -<p>Roasting in a closed oven, or <i>baking</i>, consists -in exposing substances to be roasted -to the action of heat in a confined space, -or closed oven, which does not permit the -free access of air, to cause the vapour -arising from the roasted substance to escape -as fast as it is formed, and this circumstance -materially alters the flavour of roasted -animal substances.</p> - -<p><i>Roasters</i> and ovens of the common construction -are apt to give the meat a disagreeable -flavour, arising from the empyreumatic -oil, which is formed by the -decomposition of the fat, exposed to the -bottom of the oven. This inconvenience has -been completely remedied in two ways, by -providing against the evil of allowing the<span class="pagenum" id="Page90">[90]</span> -fat to burn; and secondly, by carrying out -of the oven by a strong current of heated -air, the empyreumatic vapours, as fast as -they are formed.</p> - -<p>Such are the different processes of -roasting meat.</p> - -<p><i>Rationale.</i>—The first effect of the fire is -to rarify the watery juices within its influence -which make their escape in the form -of steam. The albuminous portion then coagulates -in the same manner as the white of an -egg does, the gelatine and the osmazome<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> -become detached from the fibrine, and -unite with a portion of the fat, which -also is liquified by the expansive property -of heat. The union of these form a -compound fluid not to be found in the -meat previously. This is retained in the -interstices of the fibres where it is formed<span class="pagenum" id="Page91">[91]</span> -by the brown frothy crust, but flows -abundantly from every pore when a cut is -made into the meat with a knife. In consequence -of the dissipation of the watery -juices, the fibrous portion becomes gradually -corrugated, and, if not attentively watched, -its texture is destroyed, and it becomes -rigid. Chemists prove that the peculiar -odour and taste of roasted meat depends -on the development of the principle which -has been called <i>osmazome</i>, or the <i>animal -extractive matter</i> of the old chemist, a -substance which differs very much from -every other constituent part of animal -matter <i>chemically</i>, in being soluble in alcohol—and -to the <i>senses</i>, in being extremely -savoury or sapid. It is upon this principle, -which seems to admit of considerable varieties, -that the peculiar grateful flavour of -animal food, (whether in the form of broth -or roasted,) and of each of its kinds,<span class="pagenum" id="Page92">[92]</span> -depends. Osmazome exists in the largest -quantity in the fibrous organs, or combined -with fibrine in the muscles, while the tendons -and other gelatinous organs appear to be -destitute of it. The flesh of game, and old -animals, contains it in greater quantity than -that of young animals abounding in gelatine.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> -Derived from οσμη, <i>smell</i>, and ζωμος, <i>broth</i>.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>The tenderness produced by roasting, -we account for, from the expansion of the -watery juices into steam, loosening and -dissevering the fibres one from another, in -forcing a passage through the pores to -make their escape by. This violence, also, -must rupture all the finer network of the -cellular membranes, besides the smaller -nerves and blood vessels which ramify so -numerously through every hair’s-breadth -of animal substance. This dissolution of -all the minute parts of the meat, which -must take place before a particle of steam<span class="pagenum" id="Page93">[93]</span> -can escape, will most clearly account both -for the tenderness and the altered colour -of roasted meat. The action of heat, also, -upon the more solid parts of the bundles of -fibres, will, independent of the expansion -of the juices, cause them to enlarge their -volume, and consequently make the smaller -fibres less firmly adhesive.</p> - -<h3>BROILING.</h3> - -<p>Another process in which meat is subjected -to the immediate action of fire is -broiling, which at first sight seems not to -differ from roasting. The effect on the -meat is, however, considerably different. -The process consists in laying chops or -slices of meat on clear burning coals, or a -gridiron placed over a clear fire. It is indispensable -that the chops or slices be moderately<span class="pagenum" id="Page94">[94]</span> -thin, otherwise the outside will be -scorched to a cinder before they are cooked -within; from one fourth to three fourths -of an inch is a proper thickness.<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> It is -also necessary that the fire be moderately -brisk, without smoke or flame, lest the -meat should acquire a smoky taste. When a -gridiron is used it ought to be thoroughly -heated before the slices or chops are laid -on it, to prevent them from sticking to the -bars. In order to broil them equally, they -must be turned from time to time till the -cook can easily pierce them with a fork or -sharp skewer, which is the test of them -being sufficiently cooked. It is improper, -however, to cut into the chops to ascertain -whether they are broiled enough, because -it lets out the gravy.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> -It is recommended by cooks to previously beat -the raw slices with a mallet, but this practice is a -bad one.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page95">[95]</span></p> - -<p>Coke is the best fuel for broiling, for -it does not emit any smoke, and gives a -clear and moderate heat; a mixture of -coke and charcoal is exceedingly well calculated -for the broiling process.</p> - -<p>Those gridirons of the usual appearance -and form, that have the bars fluted or -hollowed on the upper side, by which -means, the fat that comes from the meat -that is cooked on them, is prevented from -falling into the fire, and causing flame -and smoke are the best; for all the grease -that runs down the bars is received into a -small trough, which prevents it from being -wasted or lost. The upright gridiron is -a still better invention, as the meat cooked -on it, is entirely free from smoke, and the -melted fat is still more easily saved, and -kept more clean.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page96">[96]</span></p> - -<p><i>Rationale.</i>—The heat being very quickly -and directly applied, not gradually as in -roasting and baking, the surface of the -meat is speedily freed from its watery -juices, and the fibres become corrugated, -forming a firm and crisp incrustation of -fibre and fat. This crust effectually prevents -the escape of the juices from within; -namely, the gelatine, and the osmazome, -which are more rapidly expanded by the -heat than in roasting, and consequently -must more violently dissever the small -fibres among which they are lodged, the -effect, however, is more mechanical than -chemical, for it does not appear that any -new combination is formed, nor much disorganization -produced. Accordingly, it is -found that broiled meat is more sapid, and -contains more liquid albumen, gelatine, -and free osmazome, than the same meat<span class="pagenum" id="Page97">[97]</span> -would do if boiled or roasted. It is this -greater degree of juicyness, sapidity, and -tenderness, that constitutes the peculiarity -and perfection of this mode of cooking, compared -with roasting, baking, or frying in a -pan.</p> - -<p>Every sort of meat, however, is not fit -for broiling. The chemistry of the process -will point out the sorts best adapted -for it. The flesh, for example, of old animals, -which is deficient in gelatine and -albumen, would be too much dried by -roasting. The larger muscles, also, which -abound in fibrous substance, such as the -rump of beef, are well fitted for broiling. -The flesh of game is likewise less juicy -and gelatinous, and forms a very savoury -dish when broiled. The process is peculiarly -fit for most sorts of fish, which roasting -or baking would render dry and<span class="pagenum" id="Page98">[98]</span> -shrivelled, and in many cases boiling would -make it too soft and pulpy. Fresh caught -char, and trout,<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> are in the highest perfection -when dressed in this way.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> -The best way of eating mackerel, is to broil it in -buttered paper upon the gridiron; and, when properly -done, to put fresh butter in the inside, with -chopped parsley, pepper, and salt, which melts, and -adds an exceedingly good flavour to the fish.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>On the other hand, the flesh which -abounds in watery juices and gelatine is -not well adapted for broiling. The flesh -of all young animals is of this kind; and -accordingly lamb, veal, and sucking pig; -the flesh of the fawn and kid do not answer -to be broiled but roasted. The same is -true of all the parts of an animal, whatever -be its age, which abound more in gelatine, -albumen, and fat, than in red muscular -fibre.</p> - -<p>Broiled beaf steaks were the established -breakfast of the Maids of Honour of Queen<span class="pagenum" id="Page99">[99]</span> -Elizabeth. At an earlier period they gave -strength and vigour to those who</p> - -<div class="poem"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“———————————————drew,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">“<i>And almost joined the horns</i> of the tough yew.”<br /></span> -</div><!--stanza--> - -</div><!--poem--> - -<h3>FRYING.</h3> - -<p>Frying is a process somewhat intermediate -between roasting and boiling. Indeed, -in one sense, it may be termed boiling, -as it is the application of heat to the substance -to be cooked, through the medium -of melted fat, raised to the boiling temperature. -The effect on the meat is very peculiar, -and easily distinguished from every -other mode of cooking. The meat is prepared -in the same way as in broiling, by -cutting it into chops, or slices, of not more -than half an inch or three quarters in thickness. -A sufficient quantity of mutton or<span class="pagenum" id="Page100">[100]</span> -beef suet, butter, lard, or oil, being melted -in a pan, and made boiling-hot, the -meat is laid in it. It is not necessary that -the meat be <i>wholly</i> immersed in the boiling -fat; if it be immersed in part, it will be quite -sufficient. When flesh is the substance to -be fried, the pieces, previously to their being -put into the pan, are sometimes brushed -over with eggs and crumbs of stale bread, -flour, or any other farinaceous substance. -This application may also be made when -the meat is nearly cooked. The intention -of it is to cover the meat with a thin brown -crust, the savour of which increases the -relish of the dish. Fish are, for the most -part, treated in this manner when fried. -It answers well with trout, whitings, flounders, -and soles. When this application is -made to the meat previously to its being -put into the pan, the peculiar flavour of<span class="pagenum" id="Page101">[101]</span> -the meat is more effectually retained. -One of the best preparations for this purpose -is oatmeal, flour, or crumbs of stale -bread, made into a liquid paste with the -yolk and white of eggs.</p> - -<p>Vegetable, as well as animal substances, -are subjected to this process, though it is -always at the expense of their wholesome -and nutritive qualities; and not always to -the improvement of their taste and flavour.</p> - -<p>As in the case of animal substances, all -the juices are, by frying, extracted from -the vegetables; with this difference, however, -that their place is not supplied by -the melted fat; for the starch of the vegetables -(potatoes for example) is rendered -insoluble in water by the fat, and exhibits a -corneous appearance and texture. Fried -potatoes are the most familiar instance -of the process. When cut into thin slices and<span class="pagenum" id="Page102">[102]</span> -fried in oil, butter, or lard, they are rendered -semi-transparent. Cabbage, or the stalks, -leaves, and fruits of other vegetable substances, -previously boiled and then fried, -shrink, and become more easy to break, in -proportion as the water is driven off from -them, as this, during their previous boiling, -dissolves the saccharine and amylaceous -matter which rendered them supple -and juicy. These principles are much -better prepared and improved by boiling; -they are very much deteriorated by the -boiling fat in the frying pan.</p> - -<p>The melted fat, or oil, should always be -brought to the boiling point, or nearly so. -The proper temperature is ascertained by -putting into the fat a few sprigs of parsley, -a thin slice of turnip, or a piece of bread, -and if any of these substances become crisp -without acquiring a black colour, the fat is<span class="pagenum" id="Page103">[103]</span> -hot enough for frying; if it be made hotter, -it becomes blackened, and the meat acquires -a burnt and unpleasant flavour. Any sort -of hard fat, such as beef suet, is the best -fitted for frying meat; because, fat of this -description can be brought to a higher -temperature, without suffering decomposition, -than either lard, butter, or oil. There -are, however, particular kinds of meat -which answer better with some one or other -of these than with any of the rest. Fish, -for example, is best fried in oil.</p> - -<p>A rich brown colour is communicated to -the fried substance, by pressing it, when -nearly cooked, against the bottom of the pan.</p> - -<p>The fire for frying should be kept sharp -and clear, to keep the melted fat at a sufficient -high temperature, and without this -precaution the fried substance cannot be -browned. If the temperature of the fat<span class="pagenum" id="Page104">[104]</span> -is not hot enough, the fried meat will be -sodden. Fish cannot be fried of a good -colour, and crisp, and firm texture, unless -the fat is boiling hot.</p> - -<p>Frying, though one of the most common -culinary occupations, is one of those that is -least commonly performed.</p> - -<p>Eggs are often fryed.</p> - -<p>“Fresh butter, hissing in the pan, receives -the yolk and white together in its burning -bosom. One minute or two and all the -noise is over; and, sprinkled with pepper, -salt, and a few drops of vinegar, they appear -perfectly fit for the table. The <i>salamander</i> -is often held over them, and accelerates the -culinary process.”</p> - -<p><i>Rationale.</i>—The process of frying is -considerably different from those which we -have formerly been examining. In frying, -the high temperature of the melted fat has<span class="pagenum" id="Page105">[105]</span> -the effect of extracting (at least from the -outer surface) all the gelatine, osmazome -and albumen, the place of which is, in part, -supplied by the melted fat entering between -the fibres, and gradually filling up the interstices. -It is this circumstance which -prevents the fibres of fried meat from becoming -hard and dry, and preserves them -in a tender and supple state. Meat which -has been fried, shrinks more in bulk than -when boiled or roasted, in consequence of -the melted fat having a stronger influence -in dislodging the animal juices. It is this -also which gives the meat the structure -which has not unaptly been compared to -leather.</p> - -<p>Taste informs us, independently of our -<i>rationale</i>, that fried meat is less gelatinous -and less savoury than when simply boiled -or roasted. It is also less tender. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page106">[106]</span> -gelatine and other juices of the animal -fibre, which are extracted during the process -may be discovered, after the melted -matter in the pan is suffered to settle, in -the form of a rich, brown, savoury jelly, -which separates spontaneously from the -rest of the substance.</p> - -<h3>STEWING.</h3> - -<p>Stewing differs from roasting and broiling, -in the heat being applied to the substance -through a small portion of a liquid medium; -and, from boiling and frying, in the process -being conducted by means of an <i>aqueous</i>, and -not by means of an oily fluid. It is necessary -that the fire be moderate; for a strong heat -suddenly applied would be very injurious. -The liquids employed as the medium for applying<span class="pagenum" id="Page107">[107]</span> -the heat are usually water, gravy, or -broth, the quantity of which must be such as -shall prevent the meat from burning and adhering -to the pan. It is not requisite that -the liquid be made to boil in stewing. It -should only be raised nearly to a simmering -heat, which will retard the fluid being -evaporated too quickly. The closeness of -the vessel will also prevent the waste of the -liquid. If it diminish too quickly, it must, -from time to time, be replenished.</p> - -<p>The management of the fire in cooking, -is, in all cases, a matter of importance, but -in no case is it so necessary to be attended -to as in preparing stews or made dishes; -not only the palatableness, but even the -strength or richness of all made dishes, -seems to depend very much upon the -management of the heat employed in -cooking them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page108">[108]</span></p> - -<p>The most proper sorts of animal food for -stewing, are such as abound in fibrine, and -which are too dry or too tough for roasting. -When beef or mutton is rather old and too -coarse flavoured, and not tender enough -for the spit or the gridiron, it may, by stewing, -be not only rendered tolerably palatable, -but even sometimes savoury and -good. But the stewing process is not confined -to flesh of this sort; for veal and other -young flesh which abounds in gelatine, -when properly stewed, is much relished.</p> - -<p>The vegetables most usually stewed are -carrots, turnips, potatoes, pease, beans, -and other leguminous seeds. Some fruits -are also cooked in this way.</p> - -<p><i>Rationale.</i>—Stewing is nothing else than -boiling by means of a small quantity of an -aqueous fluid, and continuing the operation -for a long time to render the substance tender,<span class="pagenum" id="Page109">[109]</span> -to loosen its texture, to render it more -sapid, and to retain and concentrate the most -essential parts of animal or vegetable food.</p> - -<p>If the stew-pan be close shut, it is evident -that none of the nutritive principles can -escape, and must either be found in the meat -itself or in the liquid. The water or gravy -in which the meat is stewed, being capable of -dissolving the gelatine and albumen, the -greater part of them become separated during -the simmering process. Now, since the -firm texture of the bundles of fibres of the -meat is owing to the solid gelatine and albumen -glueing them, as it were, together, -when they are dissolved and disengaged, -the meat must become greatly disorganized. -These principles, as well as the fat and -osmazome, are partly disengaged from the -meat, and become united with the gravy. -It is to these, indeed, that the gravy owes<span class="pagenum" id="Page110">[110]</span> -all its richness and excellence. The muscular -fibres and the tendons acquire a gluey -appearance and texture, and the whole -forms a savoury gelatinous <i>stew</i>, <i>gravy</i>, or -<i>soup</i>.</p> - -<p>No scorching or browning of the meat -takes place if the process is properly conducted; -for the temperature to which it is -exposed does not exceed the boiling point -of water.</p> - -<p>In the stewing of vegetables, saccharine -matter is formed, the starch and -mucilage are rendered soluble, and of -course, set free the woody fibre, which -either floats through the liquid or adheres -together very slightly. It accordingly constitutes -either a pasty fluid, or converts -the vegetables to a soft pulp; sometimes -their original shape being preserved entire, -and at other times not.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page111">[111]</span></p> - -<h3>BOILING.</h3> - -<p>Boiling is a much more common operation -than any of those we have considered, -with the exception perhaps of roasting. -It consists, as every body knows, in subjecting -the materials of food to the influence -of heat, through the medium of boiling -water, or of steam.</p> - -<p>The water employed for boiling meat or -pulse should be soft, and the joint should -be put on the fire immersed in cold water, in -order that the heat may gradually cause -the whole mass to become boiled equally.</p> - -<p>If the piece of meat is of an unequal -thickness, the thinner parts will be over-done -before the more massy portion is -sufficiently acted on by the boiling water.</p> - -<p>Salted meat requires to be very slowly<span class="pagenum" id="Page112">[112]</span> -boiled, or simmered only, for a quick and -rapid ebullition renders salted provisions -extremely hard.</p> - -<p>Frozen substances should be thoroughly -thawed, and this is best effected by immersing -them in cold water.</p> - -<p>Count Rumford has taken much pains -to impress on the minds of those who -exercise the culinary art, the following -simple but pratical, important fact, namely, -that when water begins only to be agitated -by the heat of the fire, it is incapable of -being made hotter, and that the violent -ebullition is nothing more than an unprofitable -dissipation of the water, in the form -of steam, and a considerable waste of fuel.</p> - -<p>From the beginning of the process to -the end of it the boiling should be as gentle -as possible. Causing any thing to boil -violently in any culinary process, is very<span class="pagenum" id="Page113">[113]</span> -ill-judged; for it not only does not expedite, -in the smallest degree, the process -of cooking, but it occasions a most enormous -waste of fuel, and by driving away -with the steam many of the more volatile -and more savoury particles of the ingredients, -renders the victuals less good and -less palatable: it is not by the bubbling up, -or <i>violent boiling</i>, as it is called, of the water -that culinary operations are expedited.</p> - -<p>One of the most essential conditions to -be attended to in the boiling of meat is, to -skim the pot well, and keep it really boiling, -the slower the better. If the skimming be -neglected, the coagulated albuminous matter -will attach itself to the meat, and spoil -the good appearance of it.</p> - -<p>It is not necessary to wrap meat or -poultry in a cloth, if the pot be carefully -skimmed. The general rule of the best -cooks is to allow from 20 to 30 minutes<span class="pagenum" id="Page114">[114]</span> -slow simmering to a pound of meat, reckoning -from the time the pot begins to boil.</p> - -<p>The cover of the boiling pot should fit -close, to prevent the unnecessary evaporation -of the water, and the smoke insinuating -itself under the edge of the cover, and -communicating to the boiled substance a -smoky taste.</p> - -<p>Cooks often put a trevet, or plate, on -the bottom of the boiling pot, to prevent -the boiled substance sticking to the pot.</p> - -<p><i>Rationale.</i>—When flesh or fish is boiled -in an open vessel, or one not closely -covered, the fibrous texture is rendered -more tender: at the same time its nutritive -quality is not much diminished. -For the temperature of the water or steam, -never exceeding 212°, is insufficient to produce -the partial charring, which roasting -and broiling effect. But, as in stewing, the -gelatine, albumen, osmazome, and fat, are<span class="pagenum" id="Page115">[115]</span> -developed and disengaged, and becoming -united with the liquid in the vessel, form a -soup, or broth. The paler colour of boiled -meat is owing to the blood being separated -and diffused in the water. In frying, -the boiling fat or oil enters into the interstices -of the fibres, which the disengaged -animal juices have left empty. In boiling, -in a similar way, the hot water takes the -place of the blood, gelatine, fat, and albumen, -which have been dissolved and separated -from the fibres. The fibres are in -this manner soaked and washed, first by -the boiling water, and afterwards by the -soup or broth which is formed, till the -whole texture assume a softened consistence, -and pale appearance. It is this, -rather than any softening of the fibres -themselves, which seems to be the real -effect produced, unless, with some, we -consider the fibres as nothing more than<span class="pagenum" id="Page116">[116]</span> -minute and close-set bundles of blood vessels. -This doctrine, however, the experience -of every cook will disprove; for if -the boiling be long continued, the fibres of -the meat will alone remain, and so far -from becoming more soft and pulpy, they -will become dry and juiceless. If indeed -the boiling point of the water be artificially -increased above 212°, by pressure applied -to the surface of the liquid, the fibres may -be reduced to a pulp, quite homogeneous. -When this is done by Papin’s digester, or -by any other apparatus of the same kind, -and when the process under such circumstances -is long continued, the hardest -bones may be converted into jelly.</p> - -<p>It is only by boiling that the more gelatinous -parts of flesh can be completely -extracted unaltered from such parts as are -cartilaginous, ligamentous, or tendinous.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page117">[117]</span></p> - -<h3>COMPARISON OF THE CHEMICAL CHANGES PRODUCED -ON ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE FOOD, IN -THE DIFFERENT PROCESSES OF COOKERY.</h3> - -<p>The principal operations of cookery -which we have just examined and explained, -all agree in this, that they effect -some chemical change on the materials -operated upon, by which they are rendered -more digestible, more wholesome, and consequently -more nutritive.</p> - -<p>In such of the operations as are -performed by the direct application of -heat to the flesh of animals, namely, -roasting, baking, frying, and broiling, -the meat loses the vapid and nauseous -taste and odour which it possesses in a raw<span class="pagenum" id="Page118">[118]</span> -state, and becomes savoury, juicy, and -grateful to the taste. These effects arise -from the development of the gelatine and -osmazome from the smaller vessels, and -their being rendered soluble; while, at the -same time a portion of the fat is liquified, -and combines with them after they are disengaged.</p> - -<p>The fibres again, on the surface of the -meat, are partly scorched, and form a -crust, which, except in the interstices of -the corrugations, is impermeable, and consequently -prevents the savoury gravy that -is disengaged from the fibres from oozing -out or becoming evaporated. It is thus -only disengaged from its chemical union -with the fibres, and remains mechanically -united with them in the meat, after it is -cooked, as we see upon cutting into the -fibrous portion.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page119">[119]</span></p> - -<p>The effect produced on the fat is -somewhat different. The direct application -of fire to this portion of the meat -soon melts part of the substance, and -raises it to the boiling point, or nearly so; -the water which it contains is consequently -given off in the form of steam, and it -carries with it a quantity of osmazome. -It is this which occasions the peculiar -odour that arises from meat while roasting.</p> - -<p>The vapid taste is also corrected by the -empyreuma, combined with a minute quantity -of ammonia, which is soon developed -on the surface of the fat, by the partial -charring—not of the fat itself, but of the -cellular membrane in which it is enveloped. -This structure may easily be perceived on -a slight examination of a piece of recent -fat; all the membranous or skinny portions -being only the receptacles or nests for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page120">[120]</span> -fat itself. And since these membranes are -for the most part exceedingly thin and -easily ruptured, and since heat increases the -volume of the fat which they contain, the -application of heat in roasting or broiling -will soon make all the membranes burst -which are within its influence, and thus give -a free passage for the juices to unite with -each other.</p> - -<p>There is, according to these statements, -but little loss of the substance of meat -when roasted or broiled, and the chemical -changes produced are so slight, that nearly -all its nutritive elements must be preserved -and concentrated in the cooked meat.</p> - -<p>When there is a watery medium used, -through which heat is applied to animal -food, as for example, in the process of -stewing or boiling, a portion of the fat, -gelatine, and osmazome, is dissolved, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page121">[121]</span> -mixes with the water. Nutritive matter is -consequently lost, or, at least, it is transferred -from the meat to the broth or soup.</p> - -<p>In the operation of <i>stewing</i> there is less -of this transfer made; and, besides, as the -medium is scarcely kept at a boiling heat, -less of the nutritive juices are dissolved. -When, however, the broth or gravy in -which meat is <i>boiled</i> is made use of, as -well as the meat itself, boiling is the most -economical practice; for though nothing -be added except the water, this itself, if it -contains no nourishment, at least fills the -stomach, and serves to diffuse more widely -the nutritive juices of the meat which it -holds in solution or in mixture.</p> - -<p>But though boiling be thus the most -economical practice, it is not always -to the taste of individuals, or even of -whole nations to use the broth or soup.<span class="pagenum" id="Page122">[122]</span> -The English and Irish, for example, rarely -follow this practice, while the Scots, -French, and Germans, prefer it to all other -modes of cooking. In general, then, it -should seem, that roasting as it is the simplest, -is also the best mode of rendering -the flesh of animals fit for human food. -Roasted meat is wholesome and highly -nourishing; and when there is not too -much of the empyreumatic crust formed, -it is for the most part easily digested. In -these respects, broiled meat differs little -from such as is roasted. What is fried is -always less tender. It is often found that -roasted or broiled meat sits more easily -on the stomach, and is sooner digested -by those whose digestive organs are feeble -or diseased, than fried or boiled meat, or -broths and stews.</p> - -<p>The effects of the processes of cookery<span class="pagenum" id="Page123">[123]</span> -on vegetable substances, though usually -very slight and simple, are in some instances -both striking and unexpected. -For example, some sorts of vegetables are -extremely acrid and even poisonous in their -crude state, and altogether unfit for human -food; yet, by simply boiling them in water, -they become bland, sweet, and wholesome. -Several species of <i>arum</i> (cuckoo-pint), -which are very acrid, and would be dangerous -to use raw, become quite palatable -pot-herbs when boiled. Their acrimony -must reside in a very volatile principle, -which, during the boiling, makes its escape, -or is chemically altered; but the nature of -this principle has not yet been accurately -investigated by chemists. A more familiar -example than this is found in onions, leeks, -and garlick, whose acrimony and strong -odour can be almost destroyed, or rather<span class="pagenum" id="Page124">[124]</span> -driven off by a sufficiently long application -of heat, either directly, or through the -medium of water. Many other instances -could be given, but we shall content -ourselves with one more.</p> - -<p>Every body knows that potatoes, in a -raw state, are nauseous and unpalatable. -It is not, perhaps, so generally known that -the potatoe, (<i>solanum tuberosum</i>,) belongs -to the night-shade genus of plants, which -are all more or less poisonous. If potatoes -were used raw, in any quantity, they -would be deleterious to man; nor does it -disprove this that cattle eat them with -impunity, as sheep and goats eat plants -much more strongly poisonous to man, -such as hemlockdropwort, [<i>oenanthe crocata</i>;] -and waterhemlock, [<i>phelandrium -aquaticum</i>].</p> - -<p>By boiling or roasting, however, all the<span class="pagenum" id="Page125">[125]</span> -unpalatable and all the unwholesome qualities -of the potatoe are changed, and it becomes -farinaceous, wholesome, digestible, -and highly nutritious. Yet, although this -change is remarkable, and could scarcely -have been anticipated, very little is lost -and nothing is added to the potatoe by -either roasting or boiling, yet its immediate -constituent parts have evidently suffered -a very great chemical alteration, -chiefly, in consequence it should seem, from -the farinaceous substance being acted on -by water.</p> - -<p>Vegetables, when used as food, are -most commonly boiled, and seldom baked -or roasted. Salads, indeed, are eaten -raw, without any application of heat. The -chemical action of heat on pot-herbs, on -esculent roots, and leguminous seeds, does -not appear to be confined to the mere softening<span class="pagenum" id="Page126">[126]</span> -of their fibres, or to the solution or -coagulation of some of their juices and -component parts; for we have just now -seen that their flavour, and other sensible -qualities, as well as their texture, suffer a -remarkable chemical change, which greatly -improves their alimentary properties.</p> - -<p>In the cooking of vegetables, saccharine -matter is often formed, or mucilage and -jelly extracted; and the whole substance -is on that account rendered more palatable, -wholesome, and nourishing. These effects -are very well exemplified in the changes -which take place in flour when converted -into bread;<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" -class="fnanchor">[24]</a> which differs materially from<span class="pagenum" id="Page127">[127]</span> -flour paste, insomuch that the constituent -parts of the unbaked dough can no longer -be separated by the processes employed -in chemical analysis.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> -A treatise on the <i>art</i> of making good and <i>wholesome</i> -bread of wheat, oats, rye, barley, and other -farinaceous grain, exhibiting the alimentary properties -and chemical constitution of different kinds -of bread corn, and of the various substitutes used -for bread, in different parts of the world, p. 58, 1821.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Vegetable substances are most commonly -boiled or baked; or, if occasionly fried or -roasted, there is always much water present, -which prevents the greater action of -the fire from penetrating below the surface. -The universal effect of cookery by boiling -upon vegetable substances, is to dissolve in -the water some of their constituents, such -as the mucilage and starch, and to render -those that are not properly soluble, as the -gluten and fibre, softer and more pulpy.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page128">[128]</span></p> - -<h3>COMPARATIVE DIMINUTION OF THE WEIGHT OF -MEAT IN COOKING.</h3> - -<p>It is evident, that whether the heat be -applied directly or indirectly for cooking -animal food, there must be a considerable -diminution of weight. In the cooking of -animal substances in public institutions, -where the allowance of meat is generally -weighed out in its raw state, and includes -bones, and is served out cooked, and sometimes -without bone, it is a matter of importance -to ascertain nearly their relative -proportions. Much, no doubt, depends -upon the piece of the meat cooked, and -the degree of cookery, and the attention -bestowed on it. Persons who salt rounds<span class="pagenum" id="Page129">[129]</span> -of beef to sell by retail, after it is -boiled, get 19 lbs. of cold boiled beef from -25 lbs. raw; but the meat is always rather -underdone.</p> - -<p>Messrs. Donkin and Gamble boiled in -steam 56 lbs. of captain’s salt beef; the -meat, when cold, without the bones, which -amounted to 5 lbs. 6 oz. weighed only 35 lbs.</p> - -<p>In another experiment, 113 lbs. of prime -mess beef, gave 9 lbs. 10 oz. of bones, and -47 lbs. 8 oz. meat; and in a third, 213 lbs. -mess beef gave 13 lbs. 8 oz. bones, and -103 lbs. 10 oz. meat; or, taken in the aggregate, -372 lbs. of salt beef, including bones, -furnish, when boiled, 186 lbs. 2 oz., without -bone, being about 50 <i>per cent.</i>; or, disregarding -the bone altogether, salt meat -loses, by boiling, about 44.2 per cwt. or -nearly half.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page130">[130]</span></p> - -<p>We are indebted to Professor Wallace -(of Edinburgh) for the detail of a very -accurate and extensive experiment in a -public establishment, of which the results -were, that, in pieces of 10 lbs. weight, each -100 lbs. of <span class="smcapall">BEEF</span> lost, on an average, by -<i>boiling</i>, 26.4; <i>baking</i>, 30.2; and <i>roasting</i>, -32.2: <span class="smcapall">MUTTON</span>, the leg, by <i>boiling</i>, 21.4; -by <i>roasting</i> the shoulder, 31.1; the neck, -32.4; the loin, 35.9. Hence, generally -speaking, <i>mutton</i> loses, by boiling, about -one-fifth of its original weight, and <i>beef</i> -about one-fourth; again, <i>mutton</i> and <i>beef</i> -lose, by <i>roasting</i>, about one-third of their -original weight.</p> - -<p>The loss arises, in roasting, from the -melting out of the fat and the evaporation -of the watery part of the juices, but the -nutritious matters remain condensed in the -solid meat when cooked; but in boiling,<span class="pagenum" id="Page131">[131]</span> -the loss arises partly from fat melted out, -but chiefly from gelatine and osmazome -becoming dissolved in the water in which -the meat is boiled; there is, therefore, a -real loss of nutritive matter in boiling, unless -the broth be used, when this mode of -cooking becomes the most economical.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page132">[132]</span></p> - -<h3>PRIMARY OR CHIEF DISHES OF THE ENGLISH -TABLE.</h3> - -<p>The principal or chief dishes that are -prepared for the English table, what the -scientific cooks for the marshals and generals -of France would term <i>dishes of the -first order</i>, are few in number. <i>Flesh</i>, -<i>fowl</i> and <i>fish</i>, roasted, boiled or fried, -accompanied by some simple and easy -made puddings and pies, are the primary -dishes of an English table. Soups and -broths are less generally made use of; and -the flesh, fowl and fish, served up in -made dishes, are, like the lord mayor in -his state coach, generally less noticed than -the attendants.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page133">[133]</span></p> - -<h3>BROTH</h3> - -<p>May be defined a weak decoction of -meat, slightly seasoned with the addition -of aromatic herbs, roots or spices, in -which the flavour of the meat greatly predominates.</p> - -<p>To produce a high flavoured broth, it is -essential that the boiling of the meat be -moderate, and continued for some time; -the simmering should be done in a vessel -nearly closed. Cooks consider it essential -that the broth be clear; the scum, or albumen -of the meat, which becomes coagulated -and rises to the surface during the -boiling, must therefore be removed from -time to time.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page134">[134]</span></p> - -<p>The meat employed for broth (and also -for soup and gravy), should be fresh, for -if in the slightest degree tainted or musty, -it infallibly communicates a very disagreeable -taste to the broth; besides, fresh meat -gives a more savoury broth than meat that -has been kept for two or three days. It is -also advisable to score the meat and to cut -it into slices, or to bruise it with a mallet -or cleaver.</p> - -<p>Two pounds of muscular beef scored and -cut into slices, affords a stronger and far -more savoury broth, than 3 lbs. of the same -beef when boiled in one piece. Cooks usually -allow for good broth, one pound of -muscular meat, to two quarts of water, and -they suffer the fluid to simmer till reduced, -by evaporation, to one pint, or one pint and -a half. A second decoction may be made -by again covering the meat with a less quantity<span class="pagenum" id="Page135">[135]</span> -of water, and suffering it to boil, taking -care to supply the water from time to time -as it becomes evaporated.</p> - -<p>This reminds us of Rabelais, the humorous -vicar of Meudon, who distinguishes, -in his jocose way, two sorts of -broths. (<i>Bouillon de Prime</i>,) prime-broth; -and broth good for hounds; (<i>Bouillon -de levriers</i>,) the meaning of which stands -as follows.<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> The first designates that premature -delibation of broth which the young -monks in the convent used to steal, when -they could, from the kitchen, in their way -to the choir at the hour of “<i>Prime</i>,” a service -which was performed at about seven -or eight in the morning, when the porridge-pot, -with all its ingredients, had been boiling -for the space of one or two hours, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page136">[136]</span> -when the broth, full of eyes swimming -gently on the golden surface, had already -obtained an interesting appearance and taste. -On the contrary, greyhound’s broth, (<i>Bouillon -de levriers</i>,) means that portion of -the porridge which was served to the novices -after an ample <i>presumption</i> in favour -of the <i>Magnates</i> of the monastery. This -was good for nothing, and monks of inferior -ranks were ready to throw it to the dogs.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Tabella Cibaria, p. 23.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>The flavouring ingredients, which are -usually the domestic pot-herbs and indigenous -roots, such as cellery, carrots, &c. -should be added at the end of the process, -to prevent their aromatic substances becoming -dissipated by long simmering.</p> - -<p>Dr. Kitchener<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> says, “meat from which -broth has been made, is excellently well<span class="pagenum" id="Page137">[137]</span> -prepared for <i>potting</i>, and is quite as good, -or better than that which has been boiled, -till it is dry.”</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> -The Cook’s Oracle, p. 103.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<h3>SOUP.</h3> - -<p>Soups are decoctions of meat which differ -from broth, in being more concentrated, -and usually also more complex in their composition. -They are in fact strong broths, -containing either farinaceous roots and -seeds, or other parts of vegetable substances.</p> - -<p>The erudite editor of the “<i>Almanach -des Gourmands</i>”<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" -class="fnanchor">[27]</a> tells us, that ten folio -volumes would not contain the receipts of -all the soups that have been invented in -that grand school of good eating, the Parisian -kitchen. The author of <i>Apicius<span class="pagenum" id="Page138">[138]</span> -Redivivus</i><a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> -says “the general fault of our -English soups seems to be the employment -of an excess of spice, and too small -a portion of roots and herbs.” “<i>Point -des Legumes, point de Cuisiniere</i>,” is deservedly -the common adage of the French -kitchen. A better soup may be made -with a couple of pounds of meat, and -plenty of vegetables, than our common -cooks will make with four times that quantity -of meat. The great art of composing -a rich soup consists in so proportioning -the several flavouring ingredients, -that no particular taste predominates.”—One -pound and a half of meat at least ought -to be allowed for making a quart of soup. -The full flavour can only be obtained by long -and slow simmering the meat, during which<span class="pagenum" id="Page139">[139]</span> -time the vessel should be kept covered to -prevent the evaporation of the fluid as much -as possible.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Vol. II. page 30.</p> - -<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> -Or the Cook’s Oracle, 2d edit. Vol. 97.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>The flavouring ingredients should not be -added till ten or fifteen minutes before the -soup is finished. Clear soups should be -perfectly transparent, and thickened soups, -should be of the consistence of cream.</p> - -<p>The soup, says a writer, on Cookery, -might be called the portal of the edifice -of a French dinner, either plain or sumptuous. -It is a <i>sine qua non</i> article. It -leads to the several courses constituting -the essence of the repast, and lays the unsophisticated -foundation upon which the -whole is to rest, as upon a solid basis, in -the stomach. It is, perhaps, the most -wholesome food that can be used; and the -gaunt, yet strong frame of the French -soldiery, has long experienced the benefit<span class="pagenum" id="Page140">[140]</span> -of it. They vulgarly say, “<i>C’est la soupe -qui fait le Soldat.</i>” ‘It is the soup that -makes the soldier.’ Partial to this mess, they -have it daily in barracks, in their marches, -and in the camp; and they often swallow a -large bowl of broth and bread, in the -morning a few minutes before the trumpets -calls them to the field of battle.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page141">[141]</span></p> - -<h3>PIES</h3> - -<p>Are those dishes which consist either of -meat, or of fruit, covered with a farinaceous -crust, enriched with butter or other -fat, and rendered fit for eating by baking.</p> - -<p>The crust of the pie is usually made of -two parts by weight of wheaten flour, and -one part of butter, lard, or other fat.</p> - -<p>The flour is made into a stiff paste with -cold water, and rolled out on a board with -a paste pin to the thickness of about one -quarter of an inch, the board being previously -sprinkled over with flour to prevent -the dough from sticking to the board. -About one-sixth part of the butter, in -pieces of the size of a nutmeg, is put -over the extended paste, and the whole<span class="pagenum" id="Page142">[142]</span> -again dusted with flour; the paste is then -doubled up and rolled out as before. A -like portion of butter is again distributed -over the paste, which, after being doubled -up, is rolled out, and the same operation -is repeated till the whole quantity of butter -is thus incorporated with the flour.</p> - -<p>Part of the paste is then laid, one quarter -or half an inch in thickness, over the -inside of a deep dish in which the pie is to -be baked, and the meat, cut in chops or -slices, is put into the dish, together with the -seasonings, and a portion of water or gravy, -about one tea cup full, to one pound of -meat. The contents of the basin are then -covered with a lid, made of the remainder -of the paste, rolled out rather thicker than -the inside lining of the dish, and the lid is -made to adhere to the inside sheeting, which -should extend over the rim of the dish,<span class="pagenum" id="Page143">[143]</span> -by pressing the top paste close upon the -margin. A few small holes are then made -in the top crust, and the pie is put in the -oven.</p> - -<p>The baking should be slow. If the pie -be put into a hot oven, the crust becomes -hard, and many a cook is blamed for -making bad pies, when the fault really lies -with the baker. A light and flaky pie crust -can only be produced by the judicious -application in the manner stated, of the -butter, or fatty matter. By this means the -butter is distributed, in distinct layers, -through the mass of the pie crust. The -flour dusted over each layer prevents the -paste forming one mass, or, as it is called, -becoming heavy. The more frequently, -therefore, the paste is rolled out with butter, -lard, or other fat, interposed between -each layer, provided the layers are dusted<span class="pagenum" id="Page144">[144]</span> -over with flour, the more flaky will be the -pie; and hence, also, by increasing the -quantity of butter, to a certain limit, the -flakeness of the pie crust becomes increased.</p> - -<p>Pastry cooks usually allow from ten to -twelve ounces of butter to one pound of -flour for making a light puff paste, such as -they use for tarts and patties.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page145">[145]</span></p> - -<h3>PUDDINGS</h3> - -<p>Are of two kinds; the first consists of a -farinaceous dough, containing a portion of -butter or other fat, inclosing any kind -of meat or fruit, and rendered eatable by -boiling; it may be termed <i>a boiled pie</i>.</p> - -<p>The paste for a meat pudding is usually -made with beef suet, or marrow, one part -of it chopped as fine as possible, and intimately -mixed with four parts by weight of -flour, is made into a paste with water or -milk. With this paste, a pudding mould -or basin, previously rubbed with butter -within, is lined, and the meat is added to -fill up the vacancy. A lid of paste is now -put over the meat, and made to adhere to -the margin of the dish. The whole is then<span class="pagenum" id="Page146">[146]</span> -tied over with a wetted cloth, dusted with -flour to prevent the dough sticking to it, -and then boiled in water till the pudding is -sufficiently cooked.</p> - -<p>The other kind of pudding is a batter composed -of eggs, butter and flour, or any other -farinaceous substance, occasionally enriched -with the admixture of fruit, sugar, and -spices, and rendered eatable either by boiling -in the manner stated, or by baking in -an oven.</p> - -<h3>MADE DISHES,</h3> - -<p>So called to distinguish them from plain, -roasted, boiled, or fried meat; are usually -composed of flesh, fish, poultry, or vegetables, -stewed with gravy, butter, cream, -or other savoury sauces. The composition<span class="pagenum" id="Page147">[147]</span> -of made dishes is generally from -printed or written receipts, except when -done by what are termed professed cooks, -who, understanding completely their business, -follow their own judgment, in aid of -the receipt. There is a mistake very common -in supposing that there is a great difficulty -in cooking such dishes, though there -is indeed much trouble; but if a mistake -is made, it can in general be remedied, -which is not the case in the mere simple -operations of roasting and boiling, where a -mistake is very often irreparable.</p> - -<p>When we take a view of the chemical -composition of made dishes, we soon perceive -that they are all compounds of animal -and vegetable substances, rendered sapid -or agreeable to the palate by strong decoctions -of meat, gravy, and spices, of various -descriptions; all of them abound in animal<span class="pagenum" id="Page148">[148]</span> -gelatine and vegetable mucilage, or farinaceous -matter, rendered soluble in water. -The quantity of spices is generally small, -“<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>their presence should be rather supposed -than perceived, they are the invisible spirit -of good cookery.”</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> -Dr. Kitchiner’s Cook’s Oracle, p. 493.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<h3>OBSERVATIONS ON MADE DISHES.</h3> - -<p>Made dishes are sometimes very expensive, -and sometimes very economical, for -ragouts and fricassees are often much less -expensive than the plain dishes made of -the same material, that is, a given weight -of meat will go farther than if plainly -roasted or boiled. French cookery consists -nearly altogether of made dishes, both -with the rich and poor. The rich have -them to gratify the palate, and the poor,<span class="pagenum" id="Page149">[149]</span> -for the sake of economy. Many circumstances -combine to prevent made dishes -from becoming of very general or frequent -use in England. The care, attention, and -length of time necessary for preparing -them, are incompatible with the domestic -affairs and usages of life in this country, -where time is far more precious than in any -other country; it is for that reason, most -probably, that all the operations of English -cookery are such as can be performed -expeditiously.</p> - -<p>The English cooks, both in the middling -and lower ranks, are generally in a hurry -to get a dinner dressed. The French cooks, -on the contrary, begin in the morning -early, and even in the house of the simple -<i>Bourgois</i>, the dinner begins to be cooked -immediately after breakfast.</p> - -<p>The superior expedition, and inferior degree -of skill which distinguish English from<span class="pagenum" id="Page150">[150]</span> -French cookery, would be sufficient alone -to give the former the preference in this -country; but there are a number of other -circumstances that have the same tendency.</p> - -<p>A good table is a study in France: it is -with the master a grand object in life, and -with the cooks a constant employment, like -our journeymen in a manufactory. With -us, again, the dinner is readily prepared, -and expeditiously eaten. It is despatched -like a piece of business in this country; -but in France, and more or less all over -the Continent, people dine as if they had a -pleasure in dining; they converse more -during the repast than almost at any other -time, and they never hurry it over as if -they were in haste to be done, and as if -they had business always on their mind, -and were reflecting on the saying, so -common and so true, that “<i>time is money</i>.”</p> - -<p>It is curious enough, however, to remark,<span class="pagenum" id="Page151">[151]</span> -that the French, who sit so long, and enjoy -themselves so leisurely at dinner, rise, immediately -after the dessert, from the table, -and are ready for business; and that the -English, who hurry the dinner over, pass -whole hours over the bottle as if time were -of no value. Such are the inconsistencies -of mankind, arising from different tastes -and different circumstances.</p> - -<p>The construction of our kitchen grates -and fire places, and the nature of the fuel -we burn, are unfavourable to the slow and -regular simmering with which made dishes -are prepared; and, at the same time, that -they are unfavourable for made dishes, they -are exactly what is wanted for English cookery. -The construction of the grates, together -with the nature of the fuel, produce -a fierce scorching fire, so that the direct rays -of heat may be made to impinge on the -substance to be cooked.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page152">[152]</span></p> - -<p>In France, roasting large joints is almost -impracticable with the form and nature of -the fire; so that it does not appear that -taste or will has been the only guide in the -mode of cooking in either country; but -that the practices most suitable to circumstances -have been a chief cause of the great -difference of the manner of dressing victuals.</p> - -<p>English medical men have always been -at great pains to condemn made dishes -as injurious to health; but the French -physicians have been of a different opinion, -and if <i>experientia docet</i> is a true proverb, -they ought to be the best judges: but those -who have been used to both, will allow that -they are less heavy, and the stomach seems -to be less encumbered after the French -dinner on made dishes, than the English -one on single joints.</p> - -<p>In made dishes, where butcher’s meat -enters, as although the chief ingredient is<span class="pagenum" id="Page153">[153]</span> -generally <i>much more</i> done, to use the -common phrase, none of its nutritive substances -are lost; but as the arguments -for and against the real things of one or -the other is not to be determined by reason, -and has not been determined by experience, -it would be absurd to give an opinion on -the subject.</p> - -<p>It may be well enough, however, to -observe, that the dispute about what are the -most healthy dishes, probably arises from -difference of tastes, and from those things to -which the stomach has not been accustomed, -not agreeing with it at first; so that most -people on finding it so, if they can avoid -doing it, never repeat the experiment.</p> - -<p>The case is the same with Foreigners as -with Englishmen, for their stomachs do -not at first find our dishes agree with them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page154">[154]</span></p> - -<h3>GRAVY.</h3> - -<p>When the muscular part of meat is gradually -exposed to a very moderate heat, -sufficient to brown the outer fibres, the gelatine, -osmazome, and other animal juices of -it, become disengaged, and separated in a -liquid state, and constitute a fluid of a -brown colour, possessing a highly savoury -and grateful taste. Hence gravy is -the soluble constituent or liquid part of -meat, which, spontaneously, exudes from -flesh, when gradually exposed to a continued -heat sufficient to corrugate the -animal fibre. Flavouring vegetables are -often added, and fried with the meat, such -as sliced onions, carrots or cellery, till they<span class="pagenum" id="Page155">[155]</span> -are tender, together with some spices and -the usual condiments.</p> - -<p>To extract gravy, the meat is cut into -thin slices, or it is scored, and the fibres are -bruised with a mallet. It is then usually -seasoned, with pepper and salt, and exposed -in a pan containing a small quantity of -butter, or other fat, (or without any fat,) to -the action of a gradual heat, just sufficient -to brown the outer fibre strongly. The -juices of the meat, which are thus during the -frying process, copiously disengaged, are -suffered to remain exposed to the action of -heat till they have assumed the consistence -of a thin cream, and a brown colour. A small -portion of water is then added to re-dissolve -the extracted mass, and after the whole has -been suffered to simmer with the spices and -roots for a short time, together with an -additional quantity of water, the liquid is<span class="pagenum" id="Page156">[156]</span> -strained off through a sieve. If the gravy be -intended for made dishes, it is customary -to give it the consistence of cream, by means -of <i>thickening paste</i>. (See <a href="#Page160">p. 160</a>.) The -meat is capable of furnishing an additional -quantity of gravy. It is therefore covered -with water and suffered to simmer for -about one hour, or till the fluid is reduced -to one half its bulk.</p> - -<p>One pound and a quarter of lean beef, -or one pound and a half of veal, will afford -one pint of strong gravy.</p> - -<p>When broth, soups, or gravy, are preserved -from day to day, in hot weather, -they should be warmed up every day, and -put into fresh scalded pans, this renders -them less liable to spoil.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page157">[157]</span></p> - -<h3>SAUCES.</h3> - -<div class="poem"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“The fundamental principle of all,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Is what ingenious cooks, the <i>relish</i> call;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">For when the markets send in loads of food,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">They all are tasteless till that makes them good.”<br /></span> -</div> - -<p class="poemcredit"><i>Dr. King’s Art of Cookery.</i></p> - -</div><!--poem--> - -<p>Sauces are intended to heighten the -taste and give a savoury flavour to a dish, -flesh, fish, fowl, or vegetables.</p> - -<p>In England there is little variety in those -kind of relishes, and it was observed by a -foreigner, with a good deal of wit, and a -great deal of truth, “that the English had -a great variety of forms of religion and -no variety in their sauces; whereas, in -France they had uniformity in the former, -and an infinite variety in the latter.”</p> - -<p>Melted butter is the grand and chief<span class="pagenum" id="Page158">[158]</span> -basis of most English sauces. Melted -butter and oysters, melted butter and -parsley, melted butter and anchovies, melted -butter and eggs, melted butter and shrimps, -melted butter and lobsters, melted butter -and capers, are nearly all the sauces used in -England. Besides these, the following flavouring -substances are in common use: <i>viz.</i> -mushrooms, onions, spices, sweet herbs, -wine, soy, and the usual condiments, but -melted butter, gravy, or some farinaceous -mucilage, form the basis of all sauces. -These substances combined in different -proportions are quite sufficient to make -an endless variety of picquant sauces, as -pleasant to the palate and stomach, as the -most compound foreign sauces in which -every thing has the same taste, and none its -own taste. The aim of the English cooks, as -far as it regards sauces, appears to be to let<span class="pagenum" id="Page159">[159]</span> -every sauce display a decided character, so -as to taste only of the material from which -it derives its name. <i>Compound sauces</i> are -seldom employed, but in the <i>learned</i> foreign -dishes.</p> - -<p>What has been observed, relative to time -used in the article, of <i>made dishes</i>, namely, -that it was in this country too valuable to -be bestowed on eating, or on preparing to -eat, applies also in the case of making -sauces.</p> - -<p>Nothing can be made more easily than -the English sauces, but the variety of -French sauces are great, and much skill -and time are necessary for preparing most -of them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page160">[160]</span></p> - -<h3>THICKENING PASTE FOR BROTH, SOUP, GRAVY, -AND MADE DISHES.</h3> - -<p>It is customary to thicken some dishes with -a compound of two parts of flour and one of -butter, first made into a paste by heating -slowly the ingredients in a pan, till the mass -acquires a yellow gold colour, the flour and -butter being stirred all the time to prevent -the mass from burning to the bottom of the -pan. The substance thus obtained is called -<i>thickening</i>, or <i>thickening paste</i>, for it is -the basis employed by cooks for thickening -soups, gravies, stews, sauces, and other -dishes. The mass readily combines with -water; a large table spoonful is sufficient -to thicken a quart of meat broth. Besides -this <i>thickening paste</i>, other farinaceous substances<span class="pagenum" id="Page161">[161]</span> -are employed for that purpose, such -as bread raspings, crumbs of stale bread, -biscuit powder, potatoe mucilage, oatmeal, -sago powder, rice powder, &c. A cow-heel, -on account of the vast quantity of -gelatine with which it abounds, is excellently -well calculated for giving <i>body</i> to -soups: the cow-heel, after being cracked, -is boiled with the broth or soup.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page162">[162]</span></p> - -<h3>COLOURING FOR BROTH, SOUP, GRAVIES, AND -MADE DISHES.</h3> - -<p>The substance employed for colouring -soups, gravies, broths, and other dishes, -requiring a brown colour, is burnt sugar. -This imparts to the dish a fine yellowish -brown tinge, without giving any sensible -flavour to the dish. Eight ounces of powdered -lump sugar, and two or three table -spoonfuls of water, are suffered to boil -gently in an iron pan, till the mass has -assumed a dark brown colour, which takes -place when all the water is evaporated, and -the sugar begins to be partly charred by -the action of the heat. The mass is then -removed from the fire, and about a quarter -of a pint of water is gradually added to<span class="pagenum" id="Page163">[163]</span> -effect a solution. The fluid thus obtained -is of a syrupy consistence, and of a fine -dark brown colour; a small quantity gives -to broth, soup, or gravy, a bright orange -colour, without altering sensibly the flavour -of the dish. Some cooks add to it mushroom -catsup and port wine.</p> - -<h3>STOCK FOR MAKING EXTEMPORANEOUS BROTH, -SOUP, OR GRAVY.</h3> - -<p>The name of <i>stock</i> is given to meat jelly -produced from a decoction of meat, so -highly concentrated that the fluid, when -cold, exhibits an elastic tremulous consistence.</p> - -<p>The meat is slowly boiled in water, with -the customary seasonings, as pot herbs, or -esculent roots, and the decoction skimmed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page164">[164]</span> -and continued to simmer till it is charged -with a sufficient quantity of animal matter -to form a jelly when cold; this degree of -concentration is known by removing, from -time to time, a portion of the fluid, and suffering -it to cool. When the decoction has -been so far concentrated, it is strained off -through a sieve and suffered to repose, that -the insoluble part, if any, may subside. -When this has been effected, the clear fluid is -suffered to cool, which causes the fatty matter -it contains to become collected at the surface, -where it forms a cake or crust, which is -to be removed. The substance underneath -is a tremulous jelly; it is called first -stock, or long broth, (<i>Le grand bouillon</i> -of the French kitchen). If the jelly be not -transparent it is re-melted by a gentle -heat, and clarified by the addition of the -white of eggs added to it, as soon as it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page165">[165]</span> -liquified. This substance becoming coagulated -at the boiling heat, entangles -with it the parts mechanically diffused -through the jelly, and rises to the top -as a dense scum. It may then be removed -by a skimmer. The name of <i>second-stock</i> -(<i>Jus de bœuf</i> of the French) is given -to a more concentrate jelly of meat made -in a similar manner. It is chiefly employed -as the basis of all savoury made -dishes and rich sauces, whilst the former -serves for making extemporaneous soups. -<i>Second stock</i> is usually prepared in the -following manner:—Put into a stew-pan -about half a pound of lean bacon or ham, a -few carrots and onions, two or three cloves, -about six or eight pounds of lean beef, -and a shin of beef of about the same weight, -break the bone, and having scored the -meat, suffer it to simmer over a very gentle<span class="pagenum" id="Page166">[166]</span> -fire, with about two quarts of <i>first stock</i>, -or better put it into an oven, and suffer it -to stew, till the liquid assumes a light brown -colour. When this has taken place, add to -the mass six quarts of boiling water, suffer -it to boil up gently, and remove the scum -as it rises; and suffer it to evaporate till -reduced to about three quarts, then strain -it through a sieve, and clarify it as before -directed.</p> - -<h3>OBSERVATIONS ON THE CHOICE OF MEAT.</h3> - -<p>The flesh of animals which are suddenly -killed when in high health, so far as the -palate is concerned, is not yet fit for the -table, although fully nutritious and in perfection -for making soup; because sometime -after the death, the muscular parts suffer<span class="pagenum" id="Page167">[167]</span> -contraction—their fibres become rigid. -When this has taken place, the flesh is not -long in experiencing the commencement -of those chemical changes which terminate -in putrefaction; and it is of the utmost -importance, in domestic economy, to take -care that all large joints of meat be in this -intermediate state when they are cooked: -for no skill in the culinary art will compensate -for negligence in this point, as every -one must have often experienced to his -great disappointment.</p> - -<p>The degree of inteneration may be known -by the flesh yielding readily to the pressure -of the finger, and by its opposing little resistance -to an attempt to bend the joint. -Poultry also thus part readily with their -feathers; and it would be advisable to -leave a few when the bird is plucked, in -order to assist in determining their state.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page168">[168]</span></p> - -<p>The following wholesome advice on this -subject we copy from Doctor Kitchiner:<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a -href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>—“<i>When -you order meat, poultry, or fish, -tell the tradesman when you intend to dress -it</i>, and he will then have it in his power to -serve you with provision that will do him -credit, which the finest meat, &c. in the -world, will never do, unless it has been -kept a proper time to be ripe and tender. -If you have a well-ventilated larder, in a -shady, dry situation, you may make still -surer, by ordering in your meat and poultry, -such a time before you want it as will -render it tender, which the finest meat -cannot be, unless hung a proper time, according -to the season and nature of the -meat, &c. but always till it has made some -very slight advance towards putrefaction.”</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> The Cook’s Oracle.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page169">[169]</span></p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Ox-beef</i></h4> - -<p class="hinline nospace">—when of a young animal, has -a shining oily smoothness, a fine open -grain, and dark florid red colour. The fat -is splendish yellowish white. If the animal -has been fed upon oil cakes, the fat has a -golden yellow colour.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Cow-Beef</i></h4> - -<p class="hinline nospace">—is closer in the grain than ox-beef, -but the muscular parts are not of so -bright a red colour. In old meat there is a -streak of cartilage or bone in the ribs, called -by butchers, <i>the crush-bone</i>; the harder this -is, the older has been the animal.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Veal.</i></h4> - -<p class="hinline nospace">—The flesh of a bull calf is firmer, -but not in general so white as that of a cow -calf. Exposures to the air for some time -reddens the colour of the flesh. Veal is best -of which the kidney is well covered with -thick white hard fat.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page170">[170]</span></p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Mutton.</i></h4> - -<p class="hinline nospace">—A <i>wether</i>, five years old, affords -the most delicate meat. The grain of the -meat should be fine, and the fat white and -firm. The leg of a <i>wether mutton</i> is known -by a round lump of fat on the insides of the -thigh, the leg of an <i>ewe</i> by the udder.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Lamb.</i></h4> - -<p class="hinline nospace">—The flesh of fine lamb looks of -a delicate pale red colour; the fat is -splendid white, but it does not possess a -great solidity. <i>Grass Lamb</i> is in season -from Easter to Michaelmas. <i>House Lamb</i> -from Christmas to Lady-day.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Pork.</i></h4> - -<p class="hinline nospace">—This species of meat of the best -fed animals is particularly fine grained, and -may be bruised by forcibly pressing it between -the fingers. The skin of the young -animal is thin; the flesh of old pigs is -hard and tough, and the skin very thick. -The prime season for pork is from Michaelmas -to March. The western pigs, chiefly<span class="pagenum" id="Page171">[171]</span> -those of Berks, Oxford, and Bucks, possess -a decided superiority over the eastern of -Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Hare.</i></h4> - -<p class="hinline nospace">—To ascertain its age, examine -the first joint of the fore foot; you will find -a small knob, if it is a <i>leveret</i>, which disappears -as the hare grows older; then examine -the ears; if they tear easily, the animal -is young. When newly killed, the body -is stiff; as it grows stale, it becomes -flaccid.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Venison</i></h4> - -<p class="hinline nospace">—is of a darker colour than mutton. -If the fat be clear, bright and thick, and -the cleft of the hoof smooth and close, it is -young, but if the cleft is wide and tough, -it is old. By pushing a skewer or knife -under the bone which sticks out of a haunch -or shoulder, the odour of the skewer will -tell whether the meat be fresh or tainted. -Venison is best flavoured in the month of<span class="pagenum" id="Page172">[172]</span> -August, the animal should not be killed till -he is about four years old.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Fowls</i></h4> - -<p class="hinline nospace">—for boiling should be chosen as -white as possible, those which have black -legs had better be roasted. The season of -perfection in poultry is just before they -have quite come to their full growth. -Chickens three months old are very delicate. -Age makes a striking difference in the -flesh of fowls, since after the age of twelve -months it becomes tougher. The cock -indeed, at that age, is only used for making -soup.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Pigeons</i></h4> - -<p class="hinline nospace">—are in their greatest perfection -in September, there is then the most -plentiful and best food for them; their -finest growth is just when they are full -feathered. When they are in the pen-feathers, -they are flabby; when they are -full grown, and have flown some time, they -are hard.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page173">[173]</span></p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Pheasants</i></h4> - -<p class="hinline nospace">—may be distinguished by the -<i>length</i> and <i>sharpness</i> of their <i>spurs</i>, which -in the younger ones are <i>short</i> and <i>blunt</i>.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Partridges</i></h4> - -<p class="hinline nospace">—if old are always to be known -during the early part of the season, by their -legs being of a pale blue, instead of a -yellowish brown colour: “so that when a -Londoner receives his brace of blue legged -birds in September, he should immediately -snap their legs and draw out the sinews, by -means of pulling off the feet, instead of -leaving them to torment him, like so many -strings, when he would be wishing to enjoy -his repast.” This remedy to make the legs -tender, removes the objection to old birds, -provided the weather will admit of their -being sufficiently long kept. If birds are -overkept, their eyes will be much sunk, -and the trail becomes soft, and somewhat -discoloured. The first place to ascertain<span class="pagenum" id="Page174">[174]</span> -if they are beginning to be tainted, is the -inside of the bill.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Fish</i>, and <i>Crimping of Fish</i>.</h4> - -<p class="hinline nospace">—Both sea -and river fish cannot be eaten too fresh. -The gills should be of a fine red colour, -the eyes glistening, the scales brilliant, -and the whole fish should feel stiff and firm, -if soft or flabby the fish is old.</p> - -<p>To improve the quality of fish, they are -sometimes subject to the process called -<i>crimping</i>. The operation has been examined -by Mr. Carlisle, to whom we are indebted -for the following particulars:</p> - -<p>“Whenever the rigid contractions of -death have not taken place, this process -may be practised with success. The sea -fish destined for crimping, are usually -struck on the head when caught, which it -is said protracts the term of the contractibility -and the muscles which retain the property -longest are those about the head. Many<span class="pagenum" id="Page175">[175]</span> -transverse sections of the muscles being -made, and the fish immersed in cold water, -the contractions called crimping takes place -in about five minutes, but if the mass be -large, it often requires 30 minutes to complete -the process. The crimping of fresh -water fish is said to require hard water, -and the London fishmongers usually employ -it.”</p> - -<p>Mr. Carlisle found, that by crimping, -the muscles subjected to the process -have both their absolute weight, and their -specific gravity increased, so that it appears, -that water is absorbed and condensation -takes place. It was also observed that -the effect was greater in proportion to the -vivaciousness of the fish.</p> - -<p>From these observations, it appears, that -the object of crimping is first to retard the -natural stiffening of the muscles, and then -by the sudden application of cold water, to<span class="pagenum" id="Page176">[176]</span> -excite it in the greatest possible degree, -by which means the flesh both acquires the -desired firmness and keeps longer.</p> - -<h3>ON KEEPING OF MEAT, AND BEST CONSTRUCTION -OF LARDERS, PANTRIES AND MEAT SAFES.</h3> - -<p>Larders, pantries and safes, for keeping -meat, should be sheltered from the direct -rays of the sun, and otherwise guarded -against the influence of warmth. All -places where provisions are kept should be -so constructed that a brisk current of cool -air can be made to pass through them at -command. With this view it would be -advisable to have openings on all sides -of larders, or meat safes, which might be -closed or opened according to the way -from which the wind blows, the time of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page177">[177]</span> -day, or season of the year; they should -be kept, too, with the greatest attention to -cleanliness. It will be better also if the -sides or walls of meat safes are occasionally -scoured with soap, or soap and slacked -quicklime.</p> - -<p>Warm weather is the worst for keeping -meat; the south wind has long been noted -as being hostile to keeping provisions. -Juvenal, in his 4th Satire, says:</p> - -<div class="poem"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Now sickly autumn to dry frost give way,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Cold winter rag’d and fresh preserved the prey;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Yet with such haste the busy fisher flew,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">As if hot south-wind corruption blew.”<br /></span> -</div><!--stanza--> - -</div><!--poem--> - -<p>A joint of meat may be preserved for several -days in the midst of summer by wrapping -it in a clean linen cloth, previously moistened -with strong vinegar, and sprinkled -over with salt, and then placing it in an<span class="pagenum" id="Page178">[178]</span> -earthenware pan, or hanging it up, and -changing the cloth, or ringing it out a-fresh, -and again steeping it in vinegar once a day, -if the weather be very hot.</p> - -<p>The best meat for keeping is <i>mutton</i>, -and the leg keeps best, and may with care, -if the temperature be only moderate, be -preserved without becoming tainted for -about a week; during frost a leg of mutton -will keep a fortnight.</p> - -<p>A shoulder of <i>mutton</i> is next to the leg -the joint best calculated for keeping in -warm weather.</p> - -<p>The scrag end of a neck is very liable -to become tainted; it cannot be kept with -safety during hot weather for more than -two days.</p> - -<p>The kernels, or glands, in the thick part -of the leg should be dissected out, because -the mucous matter in which they abound<span class="pagenum" id="Page179">[179]</span> -speedily becomes putrid, and then tends very -much to infect the adjoining part.</p> - -<p>The chine and rib-bones should be wiped, -and sprinkled over with salt and pepper, -and the bloody part of the neck should be -removed. In the brisket, the commencement -of the putrefactive process takes place -in the breast, and if this part is to be kept, -it is advisable to guard against it becoming -tainted, by sprinkling a little salt and -pepper over it: the vein, or pipe near the -bone of the inside of a chine of mutton -should be cut out, and if the meat is to be -kept for some time, the part close round -the tail should be sprinkled with salt, after -having first cut out the gland or kernel.</p> - -<p>In <i>beef</i> the ribs are less liable to become -tainted than any other joint; they may be -kept in a cool pantry in the summer months -for six days, and ten days in winter.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page180">[180]</span></p> - -<p>The round of beef will not keep long, -unless sprinkled over with salt. All the -glands or kernels which it contains should -be dissected out.</p> - -<p>The brisket is still more liable to become -tainted by keeping, it cannot be kept -sweet with safety more than three days in -summer, and about a week in winter.</p> - -<p><i>Lamb</i> is the next in order for keeping, -though it is considered best to eat it soon, -or even the day after it is killed. If it is -not very young the leg will keep four or -five days, with care, in a cool place in summer.</p> - -<p><i>Veal</i> and <i>Pork</i>—a leg will keep very well -in summer for three or four days, and a -week in winter:—but the scrag end of veal -or pork will not keep well above a day in -summer, and two or three days in winter.</p> - -<p>The part that becomes tainted first of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page181">[181]</span> -leg of veal is where the udder is skewered -back. The skewer should be taken out, -and both that and the part beneath it wiped -dry every day, by which means it will keep -good three or four days in warm weather. -The vein or <i>pipe</i> that runs along the chine -of a loin of veal should be cut out, as is -usually done in mutton and beef. The skirt of -a breast of veal should likewise be taken off, -and the inside of the breast wiped, scraped, -and sprinkled with salt.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page182">[182]</span></p> - -<h3>PRESERVATION OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES IN A -RECENT STATE.</h3> - -<p>As the supply of food is always subject -to irregularities, the preservation of the -excess, obtained at one time, to meet the -deficiency of another, would soon engage -the attention of mankind. At first this -method would be simple and natural, and -derived from a very limited observation, -but in the progress of society, the wants -and occupations of mankind would lead -them to invent means, by which the more -perishable alimentary substances of one season, -might be reserved for the consumption -of another, or the superfluous productions -of distant countries might be transported -to others where they are more needed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page183">[183]</span></p> - -<h3>PICKLING AND DRY SALTING OF MEAT.</h3> - -<p>Common salt is advantageously employed -as an antiseptic, to preserve aliments -from spontaneous decomposition, and particularly -to prevent the putrefaction of -animal food. In general, however, the -large quantity of salt which is necessarily -employed in this way, deteriorates the -alimentary properties of the meat, and the -longer it has been preserved, the less wholesome -and digestible does it become.</p> - -<p>Meat, however, which has not been too -long preserved, simply pickled, or <i>corned</i> -meat as it is called, is but little injured or -decomposed, it is still succulent and tender, -easily digested, nourishing and wholesome -enough.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page184">[184]</span></p> - -<p>The property of salt to preserve animal -substances from putrefaction is of the most -essential importance to the empire in general, -and to the remote grazing districts in -particular. It enables the latter to dispose -of their live stock, and distant navigation -is wholly dependant upon it. All kinds of -animal substances may be preserved by -salt, but beef and pork are the only staple -articles of this kind. In general, the pieces -of the animal best fitted for being salted -are those which contain fewest large -blood vessels, and are most solid. Some -recommend all the glands to be cut out, -they say, that without this precaution meat -cannot be preserved; but this is a mistake, -a dry salter of eminence, informs me, that -it is not essential, provided the glands or -kernels are properly covered with salt.</p> - -<p>The salting may be performed either by<span class="pagenum" id="Page185">[185]</span> -dry rubbing, or better by immersing the -meat in a salt pickle. Cured in the former -way the meat will keep longer, but it is -more altered in its valuable properties; in -the latter way it is more delicate and -nutritious. Eight pounds of salt, one pound -of sugar, and four ounces of saltpetre, -boiled for a few minutes with four gallons of -water, skimmed and allowed to cool, forms -a strong pickle, which will preserve meat -completely immersed in it. To effect this, -which is essential, either a heavy board, or -flat stone, must be laid upon the meat. The -same pickle may be used repeatedly, provided -it be boiled up occasionally with -additional salt to restore its strength, -diminished by the combination of part of the -salt with the meat, and by the dilution of -the pickle by the juices of the meat -extracted. By boiling, the albumen, which -would cause the pickle to spoil, is coagulated,<span class="pagenum" id="Page186">[186]</span> -and rises in the form of scum, which -must be carefully removed.</p> - -<p>Beef and pork, although properly salted -with salt alone, acquire a green colour; -but if an ounce of saltpetre be added -to each five pounds of salt employed, -the muscular fibre acquires a fine red -tinge; but this improvement in appearance -is more than compensated by its -becoming harder and harsher to the taste; -to correct which, a proportion of sugar or -molasses is often added. But the red colour -may be given if desired, without hardening -the meat, by the addition of a little cochineal.</p> - -<p>Meat kept immersed in pickle rather -gains weight. In one experiment by -Messrs. Donkin and Gamble, there was a -gain of three per cent. and in another of two -and a half; but in the common way of -salting, when the meat is not immersed in<span class="pagenum" id="Page187">[187]</span> -pickle there is a loss of about one pound, -or one and a half in sixteen.</p> - -<p>Dry salting is performed by rubbing the -surface of the meat all over with salt; and -it is generally believed that the process of -salting is promoted if the salt be rubbed in -with a heavy hand. However this may be, -it is almost certain that very little salt -penetrates, except through the cut surfaces, -to which it should therefore be chiefly -applied; and all holes, whether natural or -artificial, should be particularly attended -to. For each twenty-five pounds of meat, -about two pounds of coarse grained salt -should be allowed, and the whole, previously -heated, rubbed in at once. When laid in -the pickling tub, a brine is soon formed by -the salt dissolved in the juice of the meat -which it extracts, and with this the meat -should be wetted every day, and a different<span class="pagenum" id="Page188">[188]</span> -side turned down. In ten or twelve -days it will be sufficiently cured.</p> - -<p>For domestic use the meat should not be -salted as soon as it comes from the market, -but kept until its fibre has become short -and tender, as these changes do not take -place after it has been acted upon by the -salt. But in the provision trade, “the expedition -with which the animals are -slaughtered, the meat cut up and salted, -and afterwards packed, is astonishing.”<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a -href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> -Wakefield’s Ireland, vol. I. p. 750.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>By salting the meat while still warm, and -before the fluids are coagulated, the salt -penetrates immediately, by means of the -vessels, through the whole substance of the -meat; and hence meat is admirably cured -at Tunis, even in the hottest season, so -that Mr. Jackson, in his <i>Reflections on the -Trade in the Mediterranean</i>, recommends<span class="pagenum" id="Page189">[189]</span> -ships being supplied there with their provisions.</p> - -<p>The following mixture of condiments is -exceedingly well calculated for dry salting.</p> - -<p>Take a pound of black pepper, a quarter -of a pound of Cayenne pepper, and -a pound of saltpetre, all ground very fine; -mix these three well together, and blend -them alternately with about three <i>quarts</i> -of very fine salt: this mixture is sufficient -for eight hundred weight of beef. As -the pieces are brought from the person -cutting up, first sprinkle the pieces with -the spice, and introduce a little into all the -thickest parts; if it cannot be done otherwise, -make a small incision with a knife. -The first salter, after rubbing salt and spice -well into the meat, should take and mould -the piece, the same as washing a shirt upon -a board; this may be very easily done, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page190">[190]</span> -the meat being lately killed, is soft and -pliable; this moulding opens the grain of -the meat, which will make it imbibe the -spice and salt much quicker than the common -method of salting. The first salter -hands his piece over to the second salter, -who moulds and rubs the salt well into the -meat, and if he observes occasion, introduces -the spice; when the second salter -has finished his piece, he folds it up as close -as possible, and hands it to the packer at -the <i>harness</i> or salting tubs, who must be -stationed near him: the packer must be careful -to pack his <i>harness</i> tubs as close as -possible.</p> - -<p>All the work must be carried on in the -shade, but where there is a strong current -of air, the <i>harness</i> tubs in particular; this -being a very material point in curing the -meat in a hot climate. Meat may be cured -in this manner with the greatest safety,<span class="pagenum" id="Page191">[191]</span> -when the thermometer, in the shade, is at -110°, the extreme heat assisting the -curing.</p> - -<p>A good sized bullock, of six or seven -hundred weight, may be killed and salted -within the hour.</p> - -<p>The person who attends with the spice -near the first salter, has the greatest trust -imposed upon him; besides the spice, he -should be well satisfied that the piece is -sufficiently salted, before he permits the -first salter to hand the piece over to the -second salter.</p> - -<p>All the salt should be very fine, and the -packer, besides sprinkling the bottom of -his <i>harness</i> tubs, should be careful to put -plenty of salt between each tier of meat, -which is very soon turned into the finest -pickle. The pickle will nearly cover the -meat, as fast as the packer can stow it -away. It is always a good sign that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page192">[192]</span> -meat is very safe when the packer begins -to complain that his hands are aching with -cold.</p> - -<p>By this method there is no doubt but -that the meat is perfectly cured in three -hours from the time of killing the bullock: -the saltpetre in a very little time strikes -through the meat; however, it is always -better to let it lie in the <i>harness</i> tubs till -the following morning, when it will have -an exceeding pleasant smell on opening the -<i>harness</i> tubs; then take it out and pack it -in tight barrels, with its own pickle.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page193">[193]</span></p> - -<h3>METHOD OF PREPARING BACON, HAMS, AND -HUNG BEEF.</h3> - -<p>Meat, when salted, is sometimes dried, -when it gets the name of bacon, ham, or -hung beef.</p> - -<p>The drying of salt meat is effected either -by hanging it in a dry and well-aired -place, or by exposing it at the same time -to wood smoke, which gives it a peculiar -flavour, much admired in Westphalia hams -and Hamburgh beef, and also tends to -preserve it, by the antiseptic action of the -pyrolignic acid. When meat is to be hung, -it need not be so highly salted.</p> - -<p>The method of preparing bacon is peculiar -to certain districts. The following -is the method of making bacon in Hampshire -and <span class="nowrap">Somersetshire:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page194">[194]</span></p> - -<p>The season for killing hogs for bacon is -between October and March. The articles -to be salted are sprinkled over with bay-salt, -and put for twenty-four hours in the salting -trough, to allow the adhering blood to -drain away. After this they take them -out, wipe them very dry, and throw away -the draining. They then take some fresh -bay-salt, and heating it well in a frying-pan, -rub the meat very well with it, repeating -this every day for four days, turning the -sides every other day.</p> - -<p>If the hog be very large, they keep the -sides in brine, turning them occasionally -for three weeks; after which they take -them out, and let them be thoroughly dried -in the usual manner.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page195">[195]</span></p> - -<h3>SMOKE-DRYING, OR CURING OF BACON, HAMS, -AND BEEF, AS PRACTISED IN WESTPHALIA.</h3> - -<p>The custom of fumigating hams with -wood smoke is of a very ancient date, it -was well known to the Romans, and Horace -mentions it.<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> - -<div class="poem"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“<i>Fumosæ cum pede pernæ.</i>”<br /></span> -</div><!--stanza--> - -</div><!--poem--> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Sat. II. 2-117.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Several places on the Continent are -famous for the delicacy and flavour of their -hams; Westphalia, however, is at the head -of the list.</p> - -<p>The method of curing bacon and hams -in Westphalia (in Germany) is as follows: -Families that kill one or more hogs a year, -which is a common practice in private -houses, have a closet in the garret, joining -to the chimney, made tight, to retain smoke,<span class="pagenum" id="Page196">[196]</span> -in which they hang their hams and bacon -to dry; and out of the effect of the fire, -that they may be gradually dried by the -wood smoke, and not by heat.</p> - -<p>The smoke of the fuel is conveyed into -the closet by a hole in the chimney, near -the floor, and a place is made for an iron -stopper to be thrust into the funnel of -the chimney, to force the smoke through -the hole into the closet. The smoke is -carried off again by another hole in the -funnel of the chimney, above the said -stopper, almost at the ceiling, where it -escapes. The upper hole must not be -too big, because the closet must be always -full of smoke, and that from wood fires. -Or the bacon and hams are simply placed -in the vicinity of an open fire-place, where -wood is burned, so as to be exposed to the -smoke of the wood.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page197">[197]</span></p> - -<h3>METHOD OF CURING HAMS, BEEF, AND FISH, BY -MEANS OF PYRO-LIGNEOUS ACID.</h3> - -<p>The following account of the preservative -quality of pyro-ligneous<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> acid, exhibited -in a memoir by Dr. Wilkinson to the Bath -Society, is highly <span class="nowrap">important:—</span></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> -Philosophical Magazine, 1821, No. 273, p. 12.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>“Mr. Sockett having directed his attention -to the smoking of hams with wood -smoke, either in a building erected for that -purpose, or in a chimney where wood alone -is burned, in addition to its considerable -increase of flavour, he considered it more -effectually preserved from putrefaction by -being, what is commonly called, smoke-dried. -Mr. Sockett having ascertained -by experiments, that meat thus cured required -less salt, he was induced to suppose<span class="pagenum" id="Page198">[198]</span> -some antiseptic quality in the same, and not -attributable to the mere application of heat. -A neighbouring manufactory of pyro-ligneous -acid afforded him an opportunity -of trying a variety of experiments, which -convinced him of the correctness of the -supposition of the antiseptic quality of -wood smoke, as the same effects as to -flavour and preservation were produced -in a superior degree without the aid of any -increase of temperature, which, by drying, -diminishes the nutritious quality of meat -thus exposed.”</p> - -<p>“Mr. Sockett ascertained, that if a ham -had the reduced quantity of salt usually -employed for smoke-dried hams, and was -then exposed to smoke, putrefaction soon -took place when pyro-ligneous acid was not -used; even one half this reduced portion -of salt is sufficient when it is used, being<span class="pagenum" id="Page199">[199]</span> -applied cold, and the ham is thus effectually -cured without any loss of weight, and retaining -more animal juices.”</p> - -<p>“The mode adopted was by adding -about two table-spoonfuls of pyro-ligneous -acid to the pickle for a ham of 10 -or 12 lbs.; and when taken out of the -pickle, previous to being hung up, painted -over with the acid, by means of a brush. -In many instances, Mr. Sockett has succeeded -by brushing the ham over with the -acid, without adding any to the pickle. -The same mode answers equally well with -tongues, requiring a little more acid, on -account of the thickness and hardness of -the integuments.”</p> - -<p>“Upon dried salmon it answers admirably; -brushing it over once or twice had a better -effect than two months smoking in the -usual way, and without the same loss from<span class="pagenum" id="Page200">[200]</span> -rancidity. From the result of a few experiments -on herrings, he is persuaded that -this mode of curing might be most advantageously -introduced in our fisheries, so -that herrings might be cured here superior -to those imported from Holland.”</p> - -<p>“These experiments so satisfactorily demonstrating -the antiseptic qualities of this -acid, where only small portions of salt -were employed, Mr. Sockett was then induced -to try the results of the application -of this acid when no salt was employed: -he placed some beef steaks upon a plate, -and covered the bottom with the acid, the -steaks being daily turned; and at the time -of recording the experiment, he noticed -that they kept above six weeks without the -least tendency to putrefaction: this experiment -was made in the middle of July 1815.”</p> - -<p>“Not only Mr. Sockett, but many families<span class="pagenum" id="Page201">[201]</span> -in Swansea, and its vicinity, practise, with -the greatest success, this mode of curing -hams, tongues, beef, fish, &c.”</p> - -<p>“This acid is very easily and cheaply prepared: -the first distilled product of the -wood, in that state denominated black acid, -answers the best when separated from its -tar and naphtha. More than 70 gallons of -acid, sufficiently strong, are procured from -a ton of wood; a gallon is quite sufficient -for 2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> cwt. of pork, beef, and most animal -substances, with the addition of a comparatively -small portion of salt, not only affording -a considerable saving in this article, but -also materially contributing to the increase -of flavour and nutritive quality. Hams or -beef cured this way require no previous -soaking in water to being boiled, and when -boiled swell in size and are extremely succulent.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page202">[202]</span></p> - -<p>“Herrings Mr. Sockett cures with very -little salt. Being well dried, as early after -being caught as can be effected, they are -then dipped into a vat of the acid, and when -dry, the same process repeated a few times, -suspending them like the manufacture of -candles. Mr. Sockett entertains no doubt, -from the result of his experiments with -herrings, that the same process would -answer for other kinds of fish, as salmon, -cod, &c.; and hence, when cooked, may -be salted according to each individual’s -taste.”</p> - -<p>“I presume this acid would be found very -useful on board any vessel fitted out for -long voyages; it appears from calculations -on a small scale, that one hogshead of this -acid would suffice to cure six tons of fish, -in such a manner as to retain their nutritious -quality; and they could be cured on<span class="pagenum" id="Page203">[203]</span> -board when opportunities occurred of procuring -them, independent of its being an -excellent substitute for common vinegar -in many culinary purposes on board.”</p> - -<p>“Mr. Sockett recommends that fish, as -soon as practicable after taken, should be -a little rubbed with salt, and laid upon a -sloping board to drain, and when dry, to -be dipped in the acid as before stated.”</p> - -<p>“One great advantage attending this mode -of curing hams or beef is, that when hung -up they are never attacked by the flies.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page204">[204]</span></p> - -<h3>PICKLING OF FISH.</h3> - -<p>Fish may be preserved either by dry -salting or in a liquid pickle. The former -method is employed to a great extent on -the banks of Newfoundland, and in Shetland. -When a liquid pickle is used, the -fish, as fresh as possible, are to be gutted, -or not, and without delay plunged into the -brine in quantity so as nearly to fill the -reservoir, and after remaining <i>covered</i> with -the pickle five or six days, they will be -so completely impregnated with salt as to -be perfectly fit to be re-packed in barrels, -with large-grained solid salt, for the hottest -climates and longest voyages.</p> - -<p>The brine becomes frequently somewhat -weaker at the top; to remedy this, some -of the salt may be suspended in bags or<span class="pagenum" id="Page205">[205]</span> -otherwise, just under the surface, which -will saturate whatever moisture may exude -from the fish, and thus the whole of the -brine will continue fully saturated and of -the most strength.</p> - -<p>Such brine, although repeatedly used, -will not putrify, nor the fish, if kept under -the surface, become rancid.</p> - -<p>By this process great quantities of herrings -may be salted when salt or casks -are not on the spot, and the fish may remain -for a great length of time immersed -in this brine without the least injury.</p> - -<p>From Mr. London’s statement, it appears -that the brine ought always to contain -a redundancy of salt; and in such case -there is not the least danger of the fish -putrifying or growing rancid, as the extra -lumps of solid salt in the brine immediately -act upon any watery or other liquors which<span class="pagenum" id="Page206">[206]</span> -proceed from the fish when inclosed in the -cask.</p> - -<p>For judging of the relative strength of -different solutions of common salt, Mr. -London recommends a glass bottle, with a -ground-glass stopper, to be filled with -brine made from a solution of solid salt in -water; within this bottle are three glass -bubbles, of different specific gravities, so -graduated, that supposing the temperature -of the air to be at sixty degrees of Fahrenheit’s -thermometer, and only one bubble -floats on the surface, and that it indicates -the specific gravity of the brine to be 1.155, -containing about 20 parts salt, and 80 of -water, which is insufficient to cure animal -matters with certainty by immersion in it.</p> - -<p>When the second bubble floats, it indicates -the specific gravity of the brine to be -1.180, or about 24 parts salt, and 76 parts<span class="pagenum" id="Page207">[207]</span> -water, which may be used for the purpose -of immersion.</p> - -<p>This brine will fully answer the purpose -in the hottest weather in most climates, -provided the meat or fish is always completely -covered with the brine.</p> - -<h3>PICKLED MACKEREL.</h3> - -<p>After splitting the fish, and having taken -off their heads and part of the skin of the -belly, let them be laid in brine about three -or four hours; then put them in jars with -the following pickle:—two pounds common -salt, two ounces saltpetre, one ounce of -sugar, half ounce white pepper, one drachm -corriander seed, pounded all well together; -sprinkle with this mixture the bottom of -the jar; then put on a layer of mackerel, -with the back downwards; then a layer<span class="pagenum" id="Page208">[208]</span> -of the spices, and then another of mackerel, -alternately, till the jar is full; press them -down, and cover them close. In six months -they will be ready for use.</p> - -<h3>PICKLED SALMON.</h3> - -<p>Split the fish down the middle, and divide -each half into six pieces. Make a brine of -salt sufficient in quantity to cover the fish -when placed in a saucepan. Season with -bruised pepper, mace, and allspice, and -simmer the whole till the fish is done, -taking care not to boil the fish more than -is barely sufficient. Then take out the -pieces to cool, and put them into a jar. -Strain off the spice from the liquor in which -the fish was boiled, and add to it a like -quantity, by measure, of vinegar, and pour -it over the fish. When cold, tie it over<span class="pagenum" id="Page209">[209]</span> -with paper, and keep the fish submersed -under the liquor, by placing a weight on it.</p> - -<h3>COLLARED EELS.</h3> - -<p>Skin and bone the eels; season them -with mace, chopped eschalots, pepper, salt -and pimento. Roll up the whole, and tie -it firmly with tape; put it in a stew-pan -with a pint of veal <i>stock</i>, half pint of white -wine, and half as much vinegar; and let -them simmer till done. Then put them -into a dish; skim off the fat, and season -with salt. Clear the liquor by simmering -it a few minutes, with the white of two -eggs, and pass it through a cloth: after -which boil it till it becomes a thick jelly -when cold. Then take the tape from the -eels, and pour the liquid transparent jelly -over the fish.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page210">[210]</span></p> - -<h3>BEST METHOD OF PRESERVING ALL KINDS OF -COOKED BUTCHER’S MEAT, FISH, OR POULTRY.</h3> - -<p>Of all the methods of preserving animal -substances for domestic purposes, or sea -store, the process found out by Mr. Appert, -and pursued in this metropolis upon a large -scale by Messrs. Donkin and Gamble, is -unquestionably the best. It is as follows:</p> - -<p>Let the substance to be preserved be -first par-boiled, or rather somewhat more, -the bones of the meat being previously removed. -Put the meat into a tin cylinder, -fill up the vessel with the broth, and then -solder on the lid, furnished with a small -hole. When this has been done, let the -tin vessel, thus prepared, be placed in -water and heated to the boiling point to<span class="pagenum" id="Page211">[211]</span> -complete the remainder of the cooking of -the meat. The hole in the lid is now -closed perfectly, by soldering, whilst the -air is rushing out.</p> - -<p>The vessel is then allowed to cool, and -from the diminution of volume in the contents, -in consequence of the reduction of -temperature, both ends of the cylinder are -pressed inwards and become concave. The -tin cases, thus hermetically sealed, are exposed -in a <i>test-chamber</i> for at least a month, -to a temperature above what they are ever -likely to encounter; from 90° to 110° -Fahrenheit. If the process has failed, -putrefaction takes place, and gas is evolved, -which in process of time will bulge out -both ends of the case, so as to render them -convex instead of concave. But the contents -of whatever cases stand this test, will -infallibly keep perfectly sweet and good in<span class="pagenum" id="Page212">[212]</span> -any climate, and for any length of time. -If there was any taint about the meat when -put up, it inevitably ferments, and is detected -in the <i>proving</i> process.</p> - -<p>All kinds of animal food may be preserved -in this way—beef, mutton, veal, and -poultry, either boiled or roasted. The -testimonies in favour of the success of the -process are of the most unexceptionable -kind. At Messrs. Donkin and Gamble’s -establishment the meat is put up in canisters -of from 4 lbs. to 20 lbs. weight each. -It is charged from 1s. 8d. to 3s. a pound; -roast higher than boiled, and veal dearer -than mutton or beef. The weight of the -canister is deducted, and nothing is -charged for the canisters; and it should -be observed, that these provisions being -cooked, and without bone, render them -equivalent to double the weight of meat in<span class="pagenum" id="Page213">[213]</span> -the raw state; for it is certain, that the -waste in cooking, together with the weight -of bone, are about one half.</p> - -<p>Captain Neish took a quantity of provision, -thus prepared, to India, not one -canister spoiled; and one which he brought -home contained beef in the highest state of -preservation after two years, and having -been carried upwards of 35,000 miles in -the warmest climates.</p> - -<p>The commissioners for victualling the -navy also examined some, nearly four years -old, which had been in the Mediterranean -and Quebec, and found it as sound, sweet, -and fresh, as if it had been only yesterday -boiled. We are enabled to add the testimony -of that distinguished navigator, captain -Basil Hall, who has liberally communicated -to us the result of his personal -experience and observation, which is as<span class="pagenum" id="Page214">[214]</span> -follows:—“I can answer for the perfect -preservation of a great number of cases -which were in my possession during the -voyage to China. I had 88<i>l.</i> worth, and -not one failure. At that time milk was -preserved in bottles corked; but tin cases -have been substituted with very great -effect, as I have myself tried. It is really -astonishing how excellent the milk is; -and, indeed, every thing preserved in this -way is good.”</p> - -<p>“You must, on examining the list of prices, -bear in mind, that meat thus preserved <i>eats</i> -nothing, nor <i>drinks</i>—is not apt to get the -rot, or to die—does not <i>tumble</i> over-board, -nor get its legs broken, or its flesh wore off -its bones, by knocking about the decks of -a ship in bad weather—it takes no care in -the keeping—it is always ready—may be -eat cold or hot—and thus enables you to<span class="pagenum" id="Page215">[215]</span> -toss into a boat in a minute, as many days’ -<i>cooked</i> provisions as you choose—it is not -exposed to the vicissitudes of markets, nor -is it scourged up to a monstrous price (as -at St. Helena), because there is no alternative. -Besides these advantages, it enables -one to indulge in a number of luxuries, -which no care or expence <i>could</i> procure.”</p> - -<p>In this preservative process is displayed -a singular and important fact with regard -to the agency of oxygen in putrefaction. -The tin canisters being closed during the -exposure to heat, must necessarily contain -with the included matter some portion of air; -and if heat were not applied, or even if applied -imperfectly, putrefaction would take -place. This proves that the effect of the -high temperature is to produce some kind -of combination of the oxygen of the air -with the animal or included matter, not<span class="pagenum" id="Page216">[216]</span> -leading to putrefaction, or even counter-acting -it, while by this combination it is -effectually removed. The air accordingly, -where the process is successful, is deprived -of oxygen; but if the heat were not sufficiently -prolonged, and by far the greatest -part of the air in the vessel not exhausted, -putrefaction soon comes on. From experiments -that have been made on this mode of -preserving alimentary substances, it has -been proved, that if the vessels were opened -only for a short time and again closed, without -heat being applied, the inclosed substances -soon putrefied: as they did also from -mere exposure to the air. But if, after having -been exposed even for an hour or two, they -were re-placed, the vessels again treated as -before, and then the due degree of heat applied, -they could be preserved as at first. -And this repeated exposure to the air, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page217">[217]</span> -removal of its operation by heating, it -appears from Gay Lussac’s experiments, -can be renewed a number of times. Nay, -by occasional exposure to the heat of boiling -water, without the exclusion of the air, -he found the exemption from putrefaction -to be attained.</p> - -<p>The theory of these effects is not very -apparent. Gay Lussac supposes, that the -oxygen may combine with that principle -analogous to gluten, which excites fermentation, -and which may equally excite -putrefaction; that this by a kind of coagulation -is separated by heat, and thus rendered -inert; and that it is only that part -of it which has suffered oxygenation which -is capable of this coagulation; it is thus -removed, while the exclusion of oxygen -prevents the putrefaction from taking place, -which would otherwise be excited by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page218">[218]</span> -remainder. But this is rather hypothetical -and unsatisfactory.</p> - -<h3>PRESERVATION OF MEAT BY POTTING.</h3> - -<p>The process of potting consists in reducing -cooked animal substances to a pulp, by -beating the meat in a mortar, and incorporating -the mass with a portion of salt and -spices. The pulp is then put into a jar, -and covered with a thick coat of melted -butter or lard, to prevent the contact of -air; and the surface is further protected -with a bladder-skin tied over the mouth of -the jar. The muscular part of meat is -best suited for potting, and the quantity -of salt and spices ought to be rather liberal.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page219">[219]</span></p> - -<h3>POTTED BEEF, GAME, OR POULTRY.</h3> - -<p>Take three pounds of lean beef, salt it -twelve hours with half a pound of common -salt, and half an ounce of saltpetre; divide -it into pound pieces, and put it into an -earthen pan, that will just hold it; pour -in half a pint of water; cover it close with -paste, and set it in a very slow oven for four -hours; when it comes from the oven, pour -the gravy from it into a basin, shred the -meat fine, moisten it with the gravy poured -from the meat, and pound it thoroughly -in a marble mortar with fresh butter, till -it is as fine a paste as possible, season it -with black pepper and allspice, or cloves -pounded, or grated nutmeg; put it in -pots, press it down as close as possible; -put a weight on it, and let it stand all<span class="pagenum" id="Page220">[220]</span> -night; next day, when it is quite cold, -cover it a quarter of an inch thick with -clarified butter, and tie it over with paper.</p> - -<h3>POTTED HAM.</h3> - -<p>Cut a pound of the lean of boiled ham -into pieces, pound it in a mortar with fresh -butter, in the proportion of about two ounces -to a pound of the ham, till it is a fine paste, -season it by degrees with pounded mace, -pepper, and allspice; put it close down in -pots, and cover it with clarified butter a -quarter of an inch thick; let it stand one -night in a cool place, and tie it over with -paper.</p> - -<p>Veal may be potted in a similar manner.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page221">[221]</span></p> - -<h3>POTTED LOBSTER.</h3> - -<p>Take the meat and eggs from the shell; -season it with powdered mace, cloves, nutmeg, -pepper, salt, and anchovy liquor. -Pound the meat in a marble mortar, and -reduce the liquor, by evaporation, to a thick -jelly; then put it and the meat together, -with about one quarter of its weight of -butter. Mix all together, and press it into -a small pot; cover it with melted butter. -When it is cold, put paper over the pots, -and set them in a dry place.</p> - -<p>Craw fish, crabs, shrimps, and prawns, -may be potted in the same way.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page222">[222]</span></p> - -<h3>PRESERVATION OF EGGS.</h3> - -<p>Eggs may be kept for three or four -months, or more, if the pores of the shell -be closed, and rendered impervious to -air by some unctuous application. We -generally anoint them with mutton-suet, -melted, and set them on end, wedged close -together, in bran, <i>stratum super stratum</i>, -the containing box being closely covered.</p> - -<p>Another method of preserving eggs is, -to place them into a vessel containing lime -water, or more properly slacked quicklime -diluted with water, to the consistence -of a thin cream, taking care that the eggs -are completely covered with this liquid. -The first mentioned process is, however, -preferable, and answers exceedingly well.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page223">[223]</span></p> - -<h3>PRESERVATIVE EFFECT OF FROST, ON BUTCHER’S -MEAT, FISH, AND FOWL.</h3> - -<p>The preservative effect of frost on dead -animal matter are of the utmost importance -to the northern nations, by enabling them -to store up a sufficient stock of all manner -of animal provisions for their winter supply, -and to receive stores from a great distance.</p> - -<p>There is annually held at St. Petersburg -and Moscow what is called the frozen, or -winter market, for the sale of provisions -solidified by frost. In a vast open square, -the bodies of many thousand animals are -seen on all sides, piled in pyramidal and -quadrangular masses: fish, fowl, butter, -eggs, hogs, sheep, deer, oxen, all rendered -solid by frost. The different species of -fish are strikingly beautiful; they possess<span class="pagenum" id="Page224">[224]</span> -the lustre and brilliancy of colour which -characterises the different species in a -living state.</p> - -<p>Most of the larger kinds of quadrupeds -are skinned, and classed according to their -species; groups of many hundreds are piled -upon their hind-legs, one against another, -as if each were making an effort to climb -over the back of his neighbour. The -motionless, yet apparent animation of their -seemingly struggling attitudes (as if they -had died a sudden death), gives a horrid -life to this singular scene of death. The -solidity of the frozen creatures, is such, -that the natives chop and saw them up, for -the accommodation of the purchasers, like -wood. These frozen provisions are the -produce of countries very remote from each -other. Siberia, Archangel, and still more -distant provinces, furnish the merchandize<span class="pagenum" id="Page225">[225]</span> -which, during the severity of the frost, is -conveyed hither on sledges.</p> - -<p>In consequence of the multitude of these -commodities, and the short period allowed -to the existence of the market, they are -cheaper than at any other time of the year, -and are, therefore, purchased in larger -quantities, to be stored, as a winter stock.</p> - -<p>When disposed in cellars, they will keep, -with care, for a considerable time during -the cold season. All the provisions which -remain, and are exposed to the temperate -atmosphere, speedily putrify; but as the -desertion of the frost is generally pretty -well calculated, almost to a day, but little -loss is suffered in this respect. The same -advantage is taken of the cold in Canada, -and all other countries, when the frost is -sufficiently steady.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page226">[226]</span></p> - -<p>Substances, so long as they are hard -frozen, probably undergo no chemical -change, of which the most striking proof -was afforded by the body of an animal, -probably antediluvian, being found imbedded -in a mass of ice at the mouth of the -Lena; but in the act of freezing, or of the -subsequent thawing, some alteration is -produced, which affects the nature of the -substance. This may be either merely mechanical, -from the particles of ice during -their formation, tearing asunder and separating -the fibres, or chemical, by destroying -the intimate union of the constituents of -the fluids, as in wine injured by having -been frozen; or by causing new combinations, -of which we have an example in the -sweetness acquired by the potatoe.</p> - -<p>Captain Scoresby, contrary to popular<span class="pagenum" id="Page227">[227]</span> -belief, states, that “the most surprising -action of the frost, on fresh provision, is -in preserving it a long time from putrefaction, -even after it is thawed and returns -into a warm climate.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> I have,” says he, -“eaten unsalted mutton and beef nearly -five months old, which has been constantly -exposed to a temperature above the freezing -point for four or five weeks in the outset, -and occasionally assailed by the septical -influences of rain, fog, heat, and electricity, -and yet it has proved perfectly sweet. It -may be remarked, that unsalted meat that -has been preserved four or five months -in a cold climate, and then brought back -to the British coasts during the warmth of -summer, must be consumed very speedily<span class="pagenum" id="Page228">[228]</span> -after it is cut into, or it will fail in a day -or two. It will seldom, indeed, keep sweet -after being cooked above twenty or thirty -hours.”</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> -Account of the Arctic Regions, with a History -and Description of the Northern Whale Fishery.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>In freezing animal substances, for the -purpose of preserving them, no other precaution -is necessary than exposing them to -a sufficient degree of cold. “Animal substances,” -says Captain Scoresby, “requisite -as food, of all descriptions (fish excepted), -may be taken to Greenland and -there preserved any length of time, without -being smoked, dried, or salted. No preparation -of any kind is necessary for their -preservation; nor is any other precaution -requisite, excepting suspending them in -the air when taken on shipboard, shielding -them a little from the sun and wet, and -immersing them occasionally in sea-water, -or throwing sea-water over them after<span class="pagenum" id="Page229">[229]</span> -heavy rains, which will effectually prevent -putrescency on the outward passage; and, -in Greenland, the cold becomes a sufficient -preservation, by freezing them as hard as -blocks of wood. The moisture is well -preserved by freezing, a little from the surface -only evaporating; so that if cooked -when three, four, or five months old, meat -will frequently appear as profuse of gravy, -as if it had been but recently killed.” -Captain Scoresby has not informed us why -fish cannot be taken to Greenland in a -frozen state, though this is a mode of preservation -much used in Russia and Germany, -and even in this country.</p> - -<p>Some attention is necessary for thawing -provisions which have been frozen. -“When used, the beef cannot be divided -but by an axe or saw; the latter instrument -is preferred. It is then put into cold water,<span class="pagenum" id="Page230">[230]</span> -from which it derives heat by the formation -of ice around it, and soon thaws; -but if put into hot water, much of the gravy -is extracted, and the meat is injured without -being thawed more readily. If an attempt -be made to cook it before it is thawed, it -may be burnt on the outside, while the -centre remains raw, or actually in a frozen -state.” These observations, which we -have transcribed from Captain Scoresby, -an excellent observer, agree with the directions -of earlier writers. Thus Krünitz -says,<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> “when fish taken under the ice are -frozen, lay them in cold water, which thus -draws the ice out of the fish, so that it can -be scraped off their scales. They taste -much better afterwards than when they -are allowed to thaw in a warm room.”</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Encyclop. Vol. X. p. 586.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page231">[231]</span></p> - -<h2 class="blacklet">Pickles.</h2> - -<p>The antiseptic power of vinegar is employed -with advantage in domestic economy -for preserving from decay a variety of -fruits, roots, leaves, and other parts of vegetables, -which by a species of refinement -and luxury, are often considered as condiments -to improve the relish of several -kinds of food. Their qualities, no doubt, -depends almost entirely on the vinegar, -spice, or salt imbibed by them.</p> - -<p>The art of preparing vinegar pickles -consists in impregnating the vegetable substances -with the strongest vinegar, to -which are usually added a portion of common -salt, and the most heating spices. To -effect this object, the substance to be pickled<span class="pagenum" id="Page232">[232]</span> -is usually suffered to macerate, or slightly -boiled with the acid, and afterwards kept -infused in it, together with spices and salt.</p> - -<p>It is customary to impregnate the article -to be pickled first in a strong brine of -common salt; but this is not absolutely -necessary for the preservation of the pickled -substance. To facilitate the action of the -vinegar or salt, the articles to be pickled, -especially such as walnuts, cucumbers, -&c. should be punctured with a large -needle or fork. To assist their preservation, -and to improve their flavour, a variety -of pungent and aromatic spices are added, -which vary according to the fancy of the -cook; pepper, pimento, cloves, mace, -ginger, capsicum, and mustard, are the -spices usually employed.</p> - -<p>For the preparation of acid pickles, the -vinegar prepared from wood, as in itself<span class="pagenum" id="Page233">[233]</span> -containing no substance liable to a spontaneous -decay, is preferable to common -malt vinegar, although the contrary has -been asserted, because it is free from mucilage, -which promotes the spoiling of common -vinegar, and therefore the former is a -better antiseptic than vinegar abounding in -mucilage. We prepare our home-made -pickles with this acid, and we are authorised -to state that, although kept for years, they -are inferior to none met with in commerce.</p> - -<p>All pickles should be preserved in unglazed -earthenware jars, carefully corked, and tied -over with a bladder to exclude air. The -vinegar used for preparing them should -always be heated in an unglazed earthenware -pan, it should never be suffered to -boil, but poured over the substance to be -pickled, just when it begins to simmer. The -spices may be simmered with the vinegar.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page234">[234]</span></p> - -<h3>PICKLED RED CABBAGE.</h3> - -<p>Put sliced red cabbage into a stone -jar, and strew amongst it common salt; -then heat vinegar nearly to a boiling -point, and pour it over the cabbage, in a -sufficient quantity to cover the sliced leaves. -It is customary to add long pepper, allspice, -and ginger, to the vinegar, which impart -to the pickle a pungent taste. A small -quantity of powdered cochineal is also frequently -added, with an intent to give to -the cabbage a beautiful red colour; the -cochineal should be strewed amongst the -sliced leaves previous to the infusion of the -vinegar; two drachms are sufficient to one -pound of cabbage. Red beet root is employed -for a similar purpose, but the former -pigment, which is perfectly harmless, is<span class="pagenum" id="Page235">[235]</span> -preferable. When the pickle is cold, it -should be tied over with a bladder skin to -exclude the air.</p> - -<h3>PICKLED ONIONS.</h3> - -<p>For this pickle the small white round -onions, of the size of a child’s playing -marble, are usually chosen. Having peeled -off the exterior brown coat of the onions, -simmer them in water, till their outer layers -have acquired a semi-transparency, (not -longer), then strain off the water, and suffer -the onions to dry; put them into an unglazed -earthen jar and pour over them so -much colourless vinegar, previously heated -nearly to the boiling point, as will cover -them. The seasoning spices usually added -are white pepper, ginger root, white mustard -seed, mace, and salt.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page236">[236]</span></p> - -<h3>PICKLED WALNUTS.</h3> - -<p>Take unripe walnuts; run a large needle -through each in several places; suffer -them to macerate for ten or twelve days, -in a strong brine of common salt. When -this has been done, decant the brine, -transfer the walnuts into a stone jar, and -pour vinegar, previously heated nearly to -the boiling point, over them, in a sufficient -quantity to cover them.</p> - -<p>They may be seasoned with long pepper, -capsicum, ginger, mustard seed, mace, -and pimento. These substances should -be simmered with the vinegar for a few -minutes.</p> - -<p>The walnuts will not be fit for use till -when about six months old.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page237">[237]</span></p> - -<h3>PICKLED CUCUMBERS.</h3> - -<p>Perforate fresh gathered cucumbers, with -a needle, or fork, put them into a stone jar, -and pour over them boiling hot vinegar. -Season with salt, pimento, long pepper, -and ginger. These substances should be -simmered with the vinegar for a few -minutes.</p> - -<p>To this pickle is sometimes intentionally -given a lively green colour, by copper, and -numerous fatal consequences are known to -have ensued from the use of such a practice.<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> -Treatise on the Adulteration of Food and Culinary -Poisons, 1821.—“Poisonous Pickles.”</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>If pickled cucumber, or any other kind -of vegetable pickle, be wanted of a lively -green colour, it may readily be effected -by soaking them when ready prepared, -for a few minutes, first in tincture of turmeric,<span class="pagenum" id="Page238">[238]</span> -and then in a diluted solution of the -colouring matter of indigo, dissolved in -water.<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> This method of straining the -pickle is perfectly harmless.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> -This substance is called, at the colour-shops, -intense (not liquid blue, which is quite a different -preparation of Indigo,) blue.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Samphire, French beans, tomatoes, capsicum -pods, nasturtium and raddish pods, -may be pickled in the same manner.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page239">[239]</span></p> - -<h3>PICKLED RED BEET-ROOT.</h3> - -<p>Boil the root till sufficiently done; peel -it and cut it into thin slices. Put it into a -stone jar, and pour over it white vinegar, -seasoned with long pepper, horse-raddish, -cut into small slices, allspice, cloves, and -salt.</p> - - -<h3>PICKLED MUSHROOMS.</h3> - -<p>Having peeled small button mushrooms, -put them in a strong brine of salt for three -or four days; strain off the brine, and pour -over them boiling hot vinegar: season -with long pepper, ginger, and mace.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page240">[240]</span></p> - -<h3>PICKLED ARTICHOKE.</h3> - -<p>Take large fresh gathered artichokes, -boil and simmer them till they are nearly -tender, remove the leaves and choke, and -put the bottom part of the artichoke in a -salt brine for about forty-eight hours; -then strain off the brine, put the artichoke -into a jar, and cover it with vinegar, -previously heated to the boiling point, and -seasoned with pepper, salt, eschalots, and -mace.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page241">[241]</span></p> - -<h3>SOUR KRAUT.</h3> - -<p>M. Parmentier has given a minute description -of a process of making sour -kraut on the large scale. The heads of -white winter cabbages, after removing the -outer leaves, are to be cut into fine shreds, -by means of a knife, or with a plane, and -spread out to dry upon a cloth in the shade. -A cask is to be set on end, with the head -taken out. If it formerly contained vinegar -or wine, so much the better, as it will -promote the fermentation, and give the -cabbage a more vinous taste; if not, the -inside may be rubbed over with sour kraut -liquor. Caraway seeds are to be mixed -with the shreds of cabbage, a good layer of -salt is placed at the bottom of the cask, and -then cabbage shreds evenly packed, to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page242">[242]</span> -depth of four or six inches. The layers -are regularly stamped down with a wooden -stamper, to half their original bulk. The -same process is to be repeated, with additional -layers of salt, and shreds, till the -whole be packed. They are then to be -covered with a layer of salt, or till the barrel -be filled within two inches of the top, over -which the outside leaves of the cabbages -are to be spread. About two pounds of -salt are required for twenty middling sized -cabbages.</p> - -<p>The head of the barrel, which should -have been previously well fastened together, -is lastly to be put within the barrel -above the leaves, and loaded with stones, -to prevent the mixture from rising during -the fermentation. The mass thus compressed -subsides, and the cabbage gives -out its juice, which rises to the surface,<span class="pagenum" id="Page243">[243]</span> -it is green, muddy, and fætid. It is to be -drawn off by a spigot placed two or three -inches from the bottom, and re-placed by -fresh brine.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The following notice may serve to remind -the reader of the time when the various -articles for preparing pickles are in season.</p> - -<ul class="nostyle"> - -<li><i>Nasturtium pods</i> fit for pickling, are in season in -the middle of July.</li> - -<li><i>Onions</i>, by the middle and end of July.</li> - -<li><i>Cucumbers</i>, the latter part of July and August.</li> - -<li><i>Capsicum pods</i>, the end of July and beginning of -August.</li> - -<li><i>Tomatas, or Love Apples</i>, the end of July and -August.</li> - -<li><i>Cauliflower</i>, in July and August.</li> - -<li><i>Artichokes</i>, in July and August.</li> - -<li><i>Radish pods</i>, in July.</li> - -<li><i>French Beans</i>, in July.</li> - -<li><i>Mushrooms</i>, in September.</li> - -<li><i>Red Cabbage</i>, in August.</li> - -<li><i>Samphire</i>, in August.</li> - -</ul> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page244">[244]</span></p> - -<h3>MUSHROOM CATSUP.</h3> - -<p>The name of catsup is given to several -kinds of liquid pickles, made of savoury vegetable -substances, such as mushrooms, -walnuts, &c. The following method of -preparing mushroom catsup is copied from -the Cook’s <span class="nowrap">Oracle:—</span></p> - -<p>Take full grown mushrooms; put a layer -of them at the bottom of a deep earthen -pan, and sprinkle them with salt, then -another layer of mushrooms, put some -more salt on them, and so on, alternately, -salt and mushrooms; let them remain two -or three hours, by which time the salt will -have penetrated the mushrooms, and rendered -them easy to break; mash them -well and let them remain for a couple of -days, stirring them up, and mashing them<span class="pagenum" id="Page245">[245]</span> -well each day; then pour them into a stone -jar, and to each quart add half an ounce -of whole black pepper; stop the jar very -close, set it in a stew-pan of boiling -water, and keep it simmering for two hours -at least. Take out the jar, and pour off -the juice clear from the sediment through -a hair sieve into a stewpan (without -squeezing the mushrooms); let it boil up, -skim it, and pour it into a dry jar; let -it stand till next day, then pour it off as -gently as possible, through a tammis, or -flannel bag, (so as not to disturb the sediment -at the bottom of the jar.) Bottle it in -pints or half pints; for it is best to keep it in -such quantities as are soon used: in each -pint, put a dozen berries of black pepper, -the same of allspice, and a table-spoonful -of brandy.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page246">[246]</span></p> - -<h3>TOMATA CATSUP.</h3> - -<p>Mash a gallon of ripe tomatas; add to -it one pound of salt, press out the juice, -and to each quart add a quarter of a -pound of anchovies, two ounces of eshallots, -and an ounce of ground black pepper; -simmer the mixture for a quarter of an -hour; then strain it through a sieve, and -put to it a quarter of an ounce of pounded -mace, the same quantity of allspice, ginger, -and nutmeg, and half a drachm of cochineal; -let the whole simmer for twenty minutes, -and strain it through a bag: when cold, -bottle it:</p> - -<p>Or, put tomatas into an earthen pan, and -bake them very slowly in an oven. Rub -the pulp through a hair sieve, to separate -the seeds and skins. To every pound, by<span class="pagenum" id="Page247">[247]</span> -weight, of the pulp, add a pint and a -quarter of vinegar, with a drachm of mace, -ginger, cloves, allspice, and one ounce each -of white pepper, and minced eshallot. -Simmer them for half an hour, and strain -off the liquid.</p> - -<h3>WALNUT CATSUP.</h3> - -<p>Take 28 lbs. of unripe walnuts when quite -tender, reduce them to a pulp in a marble -mortar; add to the mass two gallons of -vinegar; let it stand three or four days; -to each gallon of liquor, put a quarter of a -pound of minced eshallots, half an ounce of -bruised cloves, the same of mace and black -pepper, one tea-spoonful of Cayenne pepper, -and a quarter of a pound of salt: give -it a boil up, and strain it through a flannel.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page248">[248]</span></p> - -<h2 class="blacklet">Conserved Fruits.</h2> - -<p>The preserving of the pulpy fruits employed -in housekeeping for making fruit -pies, tarts and puddings, so as to render -them fit for that purpose, when they cannot -be procured in their recent state, is an -object of considerable importance in every -well regulated family.</p> - -<p>The expence of sugar is frequently urged -as a reason for not conserving fruits in -housekeeping, and to this may be added -the uncertainty of success from the strong -fermentable quality of many fruits, if the -sugar has not been very liberally added. -They may indeed be conserved for a length -of time without sugar, by baking them -in an oven, and then closely stopping them -up; but if the cork becomes dry, the atmospheric<span class="pagenum" id="Page249">[249]</span> -air exchanges place with what is -impregnated by the fruit, which then soon -becomes mouldy; some pulpy fruits may -be conserved in good condition by the -following method, for years, or even it is -probable for a longer period, in hot climates.</p> - -<h3>CONSERVATION OF RECENT FRUITS WITHOUT -SUGAR.</h3> - -<p>The following fruits may be conserved -without sugar. The more juicy fruits of -the berry kind, such as currants, mulberries, -strawberries, raspberries, are not well calculated -for this process.</p> - -<p class="listheader">METHOD OF CONSERVING GOOSEBERRIES,</p> - -<div class="splitlist"> - -<div class="leftlist"> - -<p class="list right">Orlean Plums<br /> -Green Gages<br /> -Damsons</p> - -</div><!--leftlist--> - -<div class="rightlist"> - -<p class="list left">Peaches<br /> -Nectarines<br /> -Bullaces.</p> - -</div><!--rightlist--> - -<p class="thinline allclear"> </p> - -</div><!--splitlist--> - -<p>Let the fruit be clean picked, and not<span class="pagenum" id="Page250">[250]</span> -too ripe, put it into wide-mouthed, or what -are called gooseberry bottles, let the bottles -be filled as full as they can be packed, and -stick the corks lightly into them; then -place them upright in a saucepan of water, -heated gradually to about 100 or 170° F. -that is, until the water feels very hot to -the finger, but does not scald. Let this -degree of heat be kept up for half an hour, -then remove the bottles one by one, and -fill them up to within half an inch of the -cork with boiling water; when cold let -the cork be fitted very close, and lay the -bottles on their sides, that the cork may be -kept moist by the water. To prevent fermentation -and mould, the bottles must be -turned once or twice a week for the first -month or two, and once or twice a month -afterwards. When applied to use, some of -the liquor first poured off may serve to be -put into the pie, or pudding, instead of<span class="pagenum" id="Page251">[251]</span> -water, and the remainder being boiled up -with a little sugar, makes a rich and agreeable -syrup.</p> - -<p>The fruit ought not be cracked by the -heat; some trials were made by keeping -the bottles in a heat of 190° for three quarters -of an hour, but the fruit was reduced -nearly to a pulp. It is also advisable -that the fruit be not quite ripe, nor should -it be bruised.</p> - -<p>Some fruits may be preserved in a succulent -state by being kept in water, without -boiling. This is practised in regard to -the cranberry: it also succeeds with the -smaller kinds of apples. All pulpy fruits, -such as damsons, plums, &c., if gathered -when not quite ripe, and not wounded, -may likewise be preserved, by putting them -into dry bottles, so as to exclude the air, by -sealing over the cork, and then burying -them in a trench, with the cork downwards.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page252">[252]</span></p> - -<h3>CONSERVATION OF RECENT FRUITS, BY MEANS OF -SUGAR, IN A LIQUID STATE.</h3> - -<p>A great number of fruits in their natural -state may be conserved in a fluid, transparent -syrup, of such a consistence as will prevent -them from spoiling. This method of conserving -fruits requires some care; for if -they are too little impregnated with sugar, -they do not keep, and if the syrup is too -concentrated, the sugar crystallizes, and -thus spoils the conserved fruit.</p> - -<p class="listheader">METHOD OF CONSERVING APRICOTS BY MEANS -OF SUGAR.</p> - -<div class="splitlist"> - -<div class="leftlist"> - -<p class="list right">Plums<br /> -Damsons<br /> -Green Gages</p> - -</div><!--leftlist--> - -<div class="rightlist"> - -<p class="list left">Peaches<br /> -Nectarines.<br /> - </p> - -</div><!--rightlist--> - -<p class="thinline allclear"> </p> - -</div><!--splitlist--> - -<p>Take apricots, not too ripe, cut a small -slit near the stem end of the fruit, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page253">[253]</span> -push out the stone; simmer them in water -till nearly half done, then peel them, and -simmer them again for about twenty -minutes in a syrup, made of two parts by -measure of water, and one part by weight of -loaf sugar. When this has been done, put -them aside for about twelve hours; strain -off the syrup, and to one pint of it add four -ounces of lump sugar, simmer the fruit -again for about ten minutes in this concentrated -syrup; skim off the impurities that -rise to the surface, and repeat the simmering -of the fruit in the syrup three or four -times; and, lastly, put the apricots into -pots, and cover them with a syrup made of -seven ounces, by measure, of water, and -one pound of loaf sugar. Tie over or -cork the jar to exclude the air.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page254">[254]</span></p> - -<h3>CONSERVED PINE APPLES.</h3> - -<p>Break off the top and stalk of the pine -apple, cut the fruit into slices, about one-fifth -of an inch in thickness; put the slices -into an earthenware jar, at the bottom of -which has been previously put a layer of -powdered lump sugar, about one-eighth -of an inch in thickness. Place on this -stratum of sugar, a layer of the slices of -the fruit, then put another layer of sugar, -and so on; lastly, put the jar up to the -neck into a saucepan of boiling water, -and keep the water boiling for about half -an hour, or till the sugar is completely -dissolved, taking care to remove the scum -that rises on the surface. Tie over the -mouth of the jar with a wet bladder, or -keep it well corked.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page255">[255]</span></p> - -<h3>CONSERVED PEARS.</h3> - -<p>Put peeled pears in a stone pan with -water, let them simmer till they are soft, -skim them, and when cold simmer them for -about ten minutes in a syrup made of three -parts by measure, of water, and one by -weight of loaf sugar, let them remain in the -syrup till the next day; then pour off the -syrup from the pears, simmer them again for -about ten minutes, and repeat the simmering -in the syrup three or four times successively. -They are usually coloured red by powdered -cochineal, a small portion of which is added -during the boiling process. Some persons -add cinnamon, and other spices, and a -portion of port wine. If the pears be not -intended to keep, they may be simmered -till done in a syrup, composed of one pound -of sugar and three pints and a half of water.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page256">[256]</span></p> - -<h3>CONSERVATION OF RECENT FRUITS, BY MEANS OF -SUGAR, IN A SOLID FORM.</h3> - -<p>The name of <i>candied fruits</i>, or <i>comfits</i>, is -given to such substances as are preserved -by means of sugar in a solid state, so that -the whole substance is impregnated and -covered with sugar, in a crystalline, or -solid state.</p> - -<h3>CANDIED ORANGE, OR LEMON PEEL.</h3> - -<p>Soak Seville orange peel, well cleaned -from the pulp in several waters, till it -loses its bitterness; cut it into thin slips, -simmer them in a syrup composed of two -parts, by weight, of lump sugar, and one of -water, and continue the simmering till they -are become tender, and nearly transparent.<span class="pagenum" id="Page257">[257]</span> -Then take them out, put them aside for -about twenty-four hours; and simmer -them again in a sufficient quantity of a -syrup composed of six ounces, by measure, -of water, and one pound of loaf sugar, and -continue the simmering till the sugar candies -about the pan and peel. Now lay -them separately on a wire sieve to drain; -sift finely powdered sugar over them, -whilst still hot, and put them to dry in a -warm stove.</p> - -<p>Candied lemon peel may be prepared in -the same manner.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page258">[258]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="oldtype">Marmalades, Jams,</span><br /> -<span class="fsize60">AND</span><br /> -<span class="oldtype fsize80">Fruit Pastes.</span></h2> - -<p>Marmalades, Fruit Jams, and Pastes, -are compositions of the pulpy matter of -recent Fruits, or other vegetable substances, -so combined into a mass with -sugar, as will cause them to suffer as little -alteration as possible in their native qualities. -These comfitures are therefore in -reality solid extracts of the pulpy matter -of fruit conserved by means of sugar.</p> - -<p>The evaporation of the mass is most conveniently -performed in broad hollow vessels; -the larger the surface of the vessel, -the sooner will the aqueous parts exhale. -When the pulpy matter begins to grow -thick, great care is necessary to prevent its<span class="pagenum" id="Page259">[259]</span> -burning. This accident is almost unavoidable -if the quantity be large, and the -fire applied, as usual, under the pan; it -may be effectually prevented, by pouring -the mass, when it has acquired the consistence -of syrup, into shallow earthen -pans, and placing those in an oven with -its door open, moderately heated; which, -acting uniformly on every part of the liquid, -will soon reduce it to any degree of consistence -required. This may likewise be -done, and more securely, by setting the -evaporating vessels in boiling water; but -the evaporation is in this way very tedious. -The application of steam by means of what -is called a <i>preserving pan</i>, is the best contrivance -for preparing jams, fruit pastes, -and all other culinary preparations, which -are liable to become injured by a degree of -heat exceeding that of boiling water.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page260">[260]</span></p> - -<h3>BLACK CURRANT PASTE.</h3> - -<p>Mash the currants in a bowl or marble -mortar, so as to break all the berries without -materially bruising the seeds; put the -mass into a saucepan, and heat it nearly -to the boiling point; then rub it through a -sieve to separate the seeds. To one pint -measure of the pulpy juice, add one pound -and a half of loaf sugar, let the mixture -simmer gently over the fire, and keep -stirring it to prevent it burning at the -bottom of the pan. Continue the simmering -till the mass, when cold, assumes -the consistence of a stiff, or almost solid -paste, which may be readily known by -placing from time to time a tea spoonful -of it on a cold plate. When the mass -has acquired the proper consistence, pour<span class="pagenum" id="Page261">[261]</span> -it out on a marble slab, or earthenware -plate, and continue the further exsiccation -by putting it in a stove, or on a hot hearth.</p> - -<p class="listheader">APRICOT PASTE,</p> - -<div class="splitlist"> - -<div class="leftlist"> - -<p class="right list">Peach Paste<br /> -Plum Paste</p> - -</div><!--leftlist--> - -<div class="rightlist"> - -<p class="left list">Cherry Paste<br /> -Quince Paste.</p> - -</div><!--rightlist--> - -<p class="thinline allclear"> </p> - -</div><!--splitlist--> - -<p>Take ripe apricots, boil them till quite -soft, mash them, and rub the mass through -a splinter sieve, put the pulp into a pan, and -to every pound put half a pound of powdered -loaf sugar; put it again on the fire -to simmer till the paste drops off easily -from the spoon, then take it from the fire -and pour it on a slab.</p> - -<p>Peach, quince, plum, and cherry paste, -may be prepared in the same manner.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page262">[262]</span></p> - -<h3>RASPBERRY PASTE.</h3> - -<p>Mash the raspberries, and having heated -the mass in a saucepan, pass it through a -splinter sieve; simmer the mass gently to -the consistence of a paste, and to every -pound and a quarter of the pulp, add one -pound and a half of powdered loaf sugar, -and proceed as before directed.—<i>See black -currant paste.</i></p> - -<h3>ORANGE AND LEMON PASTE.</h3> - -<p>Squeeze out the juice of Seville oranges, -and boil the rinds in water till they are tender -enough to be crushed between the finger; -scoop out the pulp of the fruit, and -put it aside; pound the rind, in a mortar, -to form a smooth mass, pass it through a -splinter sieve; add to it the juice, and keep -it on the fire till the mass acquires the consistence<span class="pagenum" id="Page263">[263]</span> -of a paste; then take it off, weigh -it, and to every pound and a quarter add -two pounds of powdered loaf sugar; mix -and finish it like black currant paste. <i>See -<a href="#Page260">page 260</a>.</i></p> - -<p>Lemon paste is made in a like manner.</p> - -<p class="listheader">RASPBERRY JAM.</p> - -<div class="splitlist"> - -<div class="leftlist"> - -<p class="list right">Strawberry Jam<br /> -Currant Jam</p> - -</div><!--leftlist--> - -<div class="rightlist"> - -<p class="list left">Gooseberry Jam<br /> -Mulberry Jam.</p> - -</div><!--rightlist--> - -<p class="thinline allclear"> </p> - -</div><!--splitlist--> - -<p>Having mashed the raspberries, put them -into a saucepan, and make them boiling -hot; rub the pulp through a coarse splinter -sieve, and to a pint, by measure, add one -pound of powdered loaf sugar; simmer -the mixture with a gentle heat till the mass -has acquired the consistence of a stiff -paste, and comes off from the bottom of the -pan, taking care to stir the mixture continually -with a wooden spatula when it<span class="pagenum" id="Page264">[264]</span> -begins to thicken. Put the jam into pots, -which should be perfectly dry, for the -least damp spoils it. When quite cold, -tie it over.</p> - -<p>Strawberry, currant, gooseberry, and -mulberry jam, may be prepared in a like -manner.</p> - -<h3>APRICOT JAM.</h3> - -<p>Take ripe apricots, cut them into pieces, -and remove the stones; mash the fruit in -a marble mortar, to form it into a smooth -pulp; heat it over the fire, and when nearly -boiling hot, rub it through a splinter sieve; -add to one pint, by measure, of the pulp, -one pound of powdered sugar; stir the -mixture together, and suffer it to simmer -over the fire till it comes clear from the -bottom of the pan, taking care to stir the -mixture all the time.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page265">[265]</span></p> - -<h3>ORANGE MARMALADE.</h3> - -<p>Marmalades scarcely differ from jams. -This name is applied to those comfitures -which are composed of the firmer fruits, -such as quinces, pine-apples, &c.; whereas -jams are made of the more juicy, esculent -berries, such as strawberries, currants, -mulberries, &c.</p> - -<p>Cut the oranges into pieces, remove -the pulp, squeeze it through a sieve, and -measure it. Boil the rind in water till it is -quite soft, then clear it from the interior -side of the white pulpy mass, so that -nothing but the thin outer yellow rind is -left. To every pint of the pulpy juice add -three-quarters of a pound of coarsely powdered -loaf sugar, and add also the rind -of the yellow orange, cut into thin slips.<span class="pagenum" id="Page266">[266]</span> -Let the whole simmer, till a sample, when -taken out of the saucepan, and suffered to -cool on a plate, exhibits the consistence of -a semi-fluid mass.</p> - -<h3>PEACH MARMALADE.</h3> - -<p>Peel the peaches and take out the stones, -simmer them till half done, then drain them, -reduce them to a pulp, and squeeze the -mass through a coarse splinter sieve. Weigh -the pulp, and to every pound add twelve -ounces of powdered loaf sugar; simmer the -mass till it has acquired a stiff pasty consistence.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page267">[267]</span></p> - -<h3>PINE APPLE MARMALADE.</h3> - -<p>Cut the fruit into small pieces, pound it -in a mortar, and pass the mass through a -coarse splinter sieve; weigh the pulp, and -add to every pound three-quarters of a -pound of powdered loaf sugar, and six -ounces of water, and simmer it as before -described.</p> - -<h3>APRICOT MARMALADE.</h3> - -<p>Boil ripe apricots in water till they can -be crushed between the fingers, then take -them out, extract the stones, reduce the -fruit to a pulp, and pass the mass through -a sieve; weigh the pulp, and to every -pound take three-quarters of a pound of -loaf sugar; simmer it till it hangs on the -spoon, like a stiff jelly. Quince marmalade -may be prepared in a like manner.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page268">[268]</span></p> - -<h3>FRUIT JELLIES</h3> - -<p>Are compounds of the juices of fruits -combined with sugar, concentrated by -boiling to such a consistence, that the -liquid, upon cooling, assumes the form of -a tremulous glue.</p> - -<p>In the preparation of jellies, care must -be taken not to boil it too long, as it looses -by this means the property of gelatinising, -and assumes the form of mucilage, the -danger of this is greatest when the quantity -of sugar is too small to absorb the water of -the juice.</p> - -<p>Fruit jellies should not be kept in glazed -earthenware pots, because they act, or dissolve -a portion of the glaze. They should -(and all other comfitures) be covered with -paper dipped in brandy, and the pots -should be tied over with paper.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page269">[269]</span></p> - -<h3>CURRANT JELLY.</h3> - -<p>Mash the currants, and pass them -through a splinter sieve, put the pulp on -the fire, stir it with a spoon till it begins -to boil, then strain the mass through a -flannel bag to render the juice clear; -measure it, and to a pint put one pound -and a half of loaf sugar, and let it simmer -very gently, till you see, by dipping a spoon -or skimmer in the jelly, and again raising -it, the jelly forms a web upon it, which, -if simmered enough, will remain on the -skimmer. Then take it off the fire, let it -stand a few minutes till the scum has collected -on the surface, remove it and put -the clear fluid into pots. When quite cold, -cut pieces of writing paper to the size of -the brim of the pots, steep the paper in -brandy and place it on the jelly.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page270">[270]</span></p> - -<h3>RASPBERRY JELLY.</h3> - -<p>The juice of this fruit does not gelatinize -readily on account of the quantity of mucilage -which it contains; hence, for preparing -a jelly by means of this fruit, it is -necessary to add to one part of raspberries -at least two parts of red or white currant -juice. The jelly may then be obtained by -following the directions stated for making -currant jelly.</p> - -<h3>BARBERRY JELLY.</h3> - -<p>Pick the barberries from the stalks, mash -them, and having heated the mass in a saucepan -throw it into a flannel bag, to strain -off the juice. To one pint of the clear -juice add one pound and a half of loaf -sugar, simmer it with a gentle heat till it -gelatinizes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page271">[271]</span></p> - -<h3>GOOSEBERRY JELLY.</h3> - -<p>Take two quarts of bruised gooseberries, -simmer the mass with one pint and a half -of water for about a quarter of an hour, -then put it into a flannel bag to strain off -the juice, and to one pint add one pound -and a half of lump sugar; simmer it, as -stated under the article currant jelly.</p> - -<h3>APPLE JELLY.</h3> - -<p>Pare four pounds of russettins or any -other sub-acid apples, cut them into small -pieces, and boil them in two quarts of -water, till they become quite soft, then put -them into a sieve, strain off the liquid, and -run it through a flannel bag to render it -clear; measure it, and to one pint of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page272">[272]</span> -liquid add one pound and a half of sugar, -and finish the jelly as before directed. -<i>See Currant Jelly.</i></p> - -<h3>QUINCE AND APRICOT JELLY</h3> - -<p>May be prepared in a similar manner.</p> - -<h3>FRUIT SYRUPS.</h3> - -<p>A weak syrup has a tendency to ferment -and quickly become sour if kept in a temperate -degree of heat; it is therefore not -calculated to prevent the natural fermentation -of vegetable juices, which always increase -its tendency to corrupt. Pharmaceutists -have ascertained that a solution, -prepared by dissolving two parts of double -refined sugar in one of water, or any -watery fluid, and boiling the solution a -little, forms a syrup, which neither ferments -nor crystallizes; and this proportion may<span class="pagenum" id="Page273">[273]</span> -be considered as the basis of all syrups, -and seems to be the degree of boiling syrup -called <i>smooth</i> by the confectioners.</p> - -<p>After having squeezed the fruit for the -syrup, leave the mass for several days -undisturbed: a slight fermentation takes -place, this will separate the mucilage -and thick parenchyma which rendered the -juice viscid. By degrees these matters -subside, and very often the liquor appears -perfectly clear. This liquor may be separated -by decantation: put the remaining -matter under the press, and by these means -a juice not so clear as the preceding is obtained, -but which easily becomes clear -spontaneously, especially if put into bottles -immediately on its being expressed, -and suffered to ferment during some days; -by this means a transparent juice of the -fruit is obtained.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page274">[274]</span></p> - -<h3>LEMON SYRUP.</h3> - -<p>Take a pint of fresh lemon juice, add to -it two pounds of lump sugar; simmer it for -a few minutes, and remove the scum till the -surface is quite clean, then add an ounce of -thin cut lemon-peel; let them all simmer -very gently for a few minutes, and strain it -through a flannel. When cool, bottle, and -keep it in a cool place.</p> - -<h3>ORANGE SYRUP.</h3> - -<p>Squeeze the oranges, and strain the juice -from the pulp; to a pint of the juice, add -two pounds of sugar; give it a boil, skim -it well, strain it through a flannel, and let -it stand till cold, and then bottle it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page275">[275]</span></p> - -<h3>MULBERRY SYRUP.</h3> - -<p>Take Mulberry juice strained, rendered -clear by having suffered it to ferment, as -directed <a href="#Page273">page 273</a>, one pint; add to it -refined sugar, two pounds; simmer the -sugar in the juice, and proceed as directed.—<i>See -Currant Syrup.</i></p> - -<h3>RASPBERRY AND CURRANT SYRUP</h3> - -<p>May be prepared in a like manner.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page276">[276]</span></p> - -<h3>PRESERVATION AND STORING OF FRUIT,—PRINCIPAL -REQUISITES OF A GOOD FRUIT ROOM.</h3> - -<p>In storing fruits, care should be taken not -to bruise them. Pears, apples, and all -other summer fruit should be placed on -shelves singly in a dry and well aired room, -and not on moss, hay, or straw, as is often -done, because they thereby contract a very -disagreeable flavour. It is better to lay -the fruit on a clean shelf, covered with a -sheet of common writing paper; brown -paper gives them a flavour of pitch.</p> - -<p>The finer large kinds of pears should -not be allowed to touch one another, but -should be laid single and distinct. Apples, -and all kinds of pears, should be laid -thin; never tier above tier, which causes -them to sweat, and undergo a kind of fermentation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page277">[277]</span> -which renders them mealy. A -great deal of the preservation of summer -fruit depends on the manner of gathering -them. After having prepared the fruit-room, -a fine day is to be chosen, and, if -possible, after two or three preceding days -of dry weather, and about two in the afternoon -the fruit is to be gathered, and deposited -in baskets of a moderate size, taking -care that none of it receive any bruise or -blemish, for the injured part soon rots and -spoils the sound fruit in contact with it. -As the summer fruits ripen more quickly -after they are pulled, only a few days’ -consumption should be gathered at once. -Autumn apples and pears should be -gathered about eight days before they are -ripe, and indeed some kinds never become -fit for eating on the tree. If they have been -necessarily gathered in wet weather, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page278">[278]</span> -early in the morning, they should be exposed -a day to the sun to dry, and they -should on no account be wiped, which rubs -off the <i>bloom</i>, as it is called, which, when -allowed to dry, on some fruits, constitutes -a natural varnish, closing up the pores, and -preventing the evaporation of the juices.</p> - -<p>Fine pears may be preserved by passing -a thread through the stack, and having -sealed up the end of the stack with a drop -of sealing wax, to hang them up separately -in a cone of paper, suspended by the thread.</p> - -<p><i>Grapes</i> keep much better when hanging -than when laid upon a table, and it is -advisable also to seal the cut end with a -drop of sealing wax; or they may be hung -by the stack, or by the point of the bunch, -as the grapes are thus less pressed against -each other; but it is in both cases necessary -to visit them from time to time, and to<span class="pagenum" id="Page279">[279]</span> -cut off with a pair of scissors every berry -that is mouldy or spoiled.</p> - -<p>More artificial modes of preserving -grapes in a succulent state are sometimes -used, and become necessary for their transportation -to distant countries. They are -often packed with bran and saw dust. If -intended for transportation they should not -be quite ripe.</p> - -<p>The principal requisites of a good fruit -room are great dryness and equality of -temperature, and the power of excluding -light. It should be furnished with a number -of shallow trays, supported on a rack or -stand one above another. It should have -openings to admit fresh air during fine -weather. It should be warmed during -frost.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page280">[280]</span></p> - -<h3>PRESERVATION OF RECENT ESCULENT ROOTS, -POT-HERBS, AND OTHER CULINARY VEGETABLES.</h3> - -<p>When it is necessary to keep vegetables -a few days before they are made use of, -care should be taken that they receive as -little injury as possible from keeping. The -rules are simple and easy:—vegetables -of different sorts should not be left in the -same bundle, or basket; they should -not be washed till they are about to be -used; but if they have got flaccid, or dry-shrivelled, -and wrinkly, (not otherwise,) -they should be immersed in water: but to -prevent them becoming so, the best method -is not to expose them to the sun or air, but -to keep them in a cool, dark, damp place, -not scattered about, but close together, -though not in great quantities, lest they<span class="pagenum" id="Page281">[281]</span> -heat, and a sort of fermentation begins, -which destroys the quality altogether.—Strong -scented vegetables should be kept -apart from those that are inodorous.</p> - -<p>Leeks or cellery will quickly spoil a -whole basketful of cauliflower, sallads, or -the finer vegetables.</p> - -<p>Another general rule, as already stated, -is, that they should not be kept in water -when fresh, or refreshed by sprinkling -them with water, (as is often practised,) -till they are to be used, for the flavour is -thereby greatly injured. It is only when -they have become flaccid that they should -be immersed in water to restore their crispness -before they are cooked, otherwise they -will be tough and unpalatable; this is to -be done, when the size of the vegetable -admits of it, as cauliflower, sallad, cellery, -&c., by cutting off a piece of the stalk and<span class="pagenum" id="Page282">[282]</span> -setting the fresh surface, thus exposed, in -water, which will be absorbed; in other -cases the whole vegetable must be immersed -in water.</p> - -<p>Most vegetable substances being more -or less succulent, their full proportion of -fluids is necessary for their retaining that -state of crispness or plumpness which they -have when growing. On being cut or -gathered the exhalation from their surface -continues, while, from the open vessels of -the cut surface, there is often great exudation -or evaporation, and thus their natural -moisture is diminished, and the tender -leaves become flaccid, and the thicker -masses or roots lose their plumpness. This -is not only less pleasant to the eye, but is -a real injury to the nutritious powers of -the vegetable; for in this flaccid and shrivelled -state its fibres are less easily divided<span class="pagenum" id="Page283">[283]</span> -in chewing, and the water which exists in -vegetable substances, in the form of their -respective natural juices, is directly nutritious. -The first care in the preservation -of succulent vegetables, therefore, is to -prevent them from losing their natural -moisture. In regard to the tender succulent -vegetables this is not altogether possible; -because there is a constant exhalation -from their surface, while the supply of -moisture is cut off. The principle of preserving -them, then, is to retard and diminish -the exhalation. Even growing vegetables -become flaccid in a hot sun, because the -exhalation is then greater than the supply; -and exposure to the sun is absolutely ruinous -to all the more delicate vegetables.—The -operation of heat and air is slower but -similar. Succulent vegetables should,<span class="pagenum" id="Page284">[284]</span> -therefore, be kept in a cool, shady, and -damp place.</p> - -<p>Common sense will suggest what is best, -when it is known that to keep vegetables -fresh for a short time, the best way is to -hinder them from becoming too dry, and -therefore to keep them from heat and air, -and to avoid crushing or bruising them.</p> - -<p>If they become frozen in the cold of winter, -they should be immersed in cold water -for an hour or two, and the water should -be changed once or twice.</p> - -<p>The earthy mould should never be washed -from potatoes, or any other sort of roots, -till they are to be dressed.</p> - -<p>When potatoes, turnips, carrots, or any -other roots are to be preserved for a length -of time, they should be covered with earth, -or straw and mats, to preserve them both<span class="pagenum" id="Page285">[285]</span> -from the air and the action of frost, which -is peculiarly hurtful to all vegetable substances.</p> - -<p>Sweet herbs, or savoury pot-herbs should -be gathered in a dry day. Cleanse them -well from dirt and dust, cut off the roots, -separate the bunches into smaller ones, and -hang them across a line in the kitchen, -where there is a moderate heat, which will -dry them in an excellent manner: when -perfectly dry, put them in bags, and lay -them by on a shelf in the kitchen, they will -keep good for twelve months, and be ready -in the moment when wanted: or rub off the -stalks, put them through a coarse hair sieve, -and put the powder into stopped bottles; by -this means their flavour is still better preserved.—They -are in the highest state of -perfection just before they begin to flower; -the first and last crop have neither the fine<span class="pagenum" id="Page286">[286]</span> -flavour nor the perfume of those which are -gathered in the height of the season; that -is when the greater part of the crop of each -species is ripe at the same period.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<ul class="nostyle"> - -<li><i>Basil</i> is in the best state for drying from the middle -and end of August.</li> - -<li><i>Knotted Marjoram</i>, from the beginning of July, -and during the whole month.</li> - -<li><i>Winter Savory</i>, the latter end of July, and throughout -August.</li> - -<li><i>Summer Savory</i>, the latter end of July, and throughout -August.</li> - -<li><i>Thyme</i>, <i>Lemon-Thyme</i>, and <i>Orange-Thyme</i>, during -June and July.</li> - -<li><i>Mint</i>, the latter part of June, and during July.</li> - -<li><i>Sage</i>, in August and September.</li> - -<li><i>Tarragon</i>, in June, July, August.</li> - -</ul> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page287">[287]</span></p> - -<h2 class="blacklet">Vinegar.</h2> - -<p>Vinegar may be made in the small way -from grapes, gooseberries, or other sub-acid -fruits, with the addition of a portion -of Muscovado sugar, honey, or malt wort.</p> - -<p>In this country vinegar is prepared from -a wort obtained by the infusion of malted -grain; the fermentation being excited by -yeast. This vinegar is inferior in strength -and purity to that from wine, and is more -liable to become mouldy, or suffer the putrefactive -fermentation. And this appears -to be owing to the presence of a large portion -of glutinous matter.</p> - -<p>To make vinegar for domestic use, -fit for keeping, it is essential that the fluid -employed for that purpose should contain<span class="pagenum" id="Page288">[288]</span> -in every gallon at least three pounds of -sugar; to allow some access of air to the -vessel in which it is kept, and to keep -it in a temperature rather higher than that -of the atmosphere in this climate, that -is about 75° to 80° Fahr. It is also -essential, where a liquor already fermented -is employed, to add a portion of yeast; -for though any fermented liquor, if kept in -a moderate temperature in an open vessel, -will spontaneously run sour, or become -changed to vinegar, this change is too -gradual to produce this acid in perfection, -and the first acetified portion turns mouldy -before the last has become sour: but -where the substance employed has not yet -undergone fermentation, the whole process -of the vinous and subsequent acetous fermentation -will go on uninterruptedly with -the same ferment which at first set it in<span class="pagenum" id="Page289">[289]</span> -action, which happens, for example, in the -making vinegar from malt, or from fruit, -sugar, and water.</p> - -<h3>METHOD OF MAKING GOOSEBERRY VINEGAR.</h3> - -<p>Take gooseberries, when full ripe, mash -them in a tub or marble mortar, and -to every quart of the mashed fruit, put -three quarts of water, stir the pulp well -together, let it stand 24 hours, and press it -through a coarse bag. To every gallon of -the strained liquor add four pounds of -brown sugar, or four pounds and a half of -honey, the latter is preferable; put the -mixture into a barrel, which it should fill -about three fourths, and add to eight or -nine gallons of it one pint of good ale -yeast; cover the bung hole of the cask -with a slate, to exclude dust, and place<span class="pagenum" id="Page290">[290]</span> -the barrel in the sun in summer, or -a little away from a fire in winter. The -mixture will soon begin to ferment; keep -up the fermentation by keeping the liquor -at the same temperature, till the taste and -odour indicate that the vinegar is complete. -When the liquor has become perfectly -clear, draw it off into bottles. It will keep -much better if it be heated nearly to the -boiling point, which is best accomplished -by putting the bottles containing it in a -saucepan with water, and causing the -water to boil for about one quarter of an -hour. When this has been done, remove -the bottles, and when quite cold cork -them. Earthenware bottles are much less -liable to crack, during this process, than -glass bottles.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page291">[291]</span></p> - -<h3>RASPBERRY VINEGAR.</h3> - -<p>Take a pound of fine gathered red raspberries, -mash them in a wooden bowl, or -earthenware pan, add to the pulp a pint -and a half of vinegar; make the mixture -boiling hot, and strain it through a flannel -bag. To every pint of liquor add a pound -of lump sugar, suffer it to simmer in an -earthen pipkin for about five minutes, and -remove the scum as it rises. When cold -put it into dry bottles.</p> - -<p>Or, better mash the raspberries, suffer -them to ferment till the juice separates -from the pulpy matter; then add to a pint -of the mass a pint and a half of vinegar, -let it simmer for a few minutes, and strain -it through a flannel.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page292">[292]</span></p> - -<h3>CHILLI VINEGAR.</h3> - -<div class="splitlist"> - -<div class="leftlist"> - -<h3 class="right list">Tarragon Vinegar</h3> -<h3 class="right list">Mint Vinegar</h3> - -</div><!--leftlist--> - -<div class="rightlist"> - -<h3 class="left list">Eschallot Vinegar</h3> -<h3 class="left list">Burnet Vinegar</h3> - -</div><!--rightlist--> - -<p class="thinline allclear"> </p> - -</div><!--splitlist--> - -<p>Put an ounce of red chillies, (capsicum) -cut into small pieces, into a bottle containing -a pint of vinegar, stop the bottle close, -and suffer the chillies to macerate for -eight or ten days, and then strain off the -clear infusion. Tarragon, mint, or burnet -vinegar may be made in a similar way, by -suffering four ounces of fresh gathered -tarragon, mint, or burnet, (or three ounces) -eschallots, to macerate for eight or ten days -in a quart of vinegar.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page293">[293]</span></p> - -<h2 class="blacklet">Tea.</h2> - -<p>The dried leaves of the tea plant, a commodity -with which we are so well acquainted, -and which affords a beverage so generally -used in this country, must excite -curiosity to know something of its natural -history, or the nature of the plant from -which it is obtained.</p> - -<p>The precise period when tea was first -made known in Europe cannot be ascertained; -it is said that some Dutch adventurers, -seeking for such objects as might -fetch a high price in China, and hearing -of the general use there of a beverage -from a plant of that country, made -them fall upon the idea of trying whether -not an European plant might be relished by<span class="pagenum" id="Page294">[294]</span> -the Chinese, and become an article of commerce -among them, and accordingly they -introduced to them the herb <i>Sage</i>, the adventurers -accepting in return the Chinese -tea, which they brought to Europe. The -European herb did not continue long in use -in China, but the consumption of tea has -been amazingly increasing in Europe ever -since. It is generally said, that it was -first imported from Holland into England, -about 1666, by lord Arlington and lord -Ossory, who brought it into fashion among -people of quality. But it was used in coffee-houses -before this period, as it appears by an -act of parliament made in 1660, in which a -duty of 8<i>d.</i> was laid on every gallon of the -infusion sold in these places. In 1666 it -was sold in London for 60<i>s.</i> per pound, -though it did not cost more than 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> or -3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> at Batavia. It continued at this<span class="pagenum" id="Page295">[295]</span> -price till 1700. In 1715 green tea began -to be used; and as great quantities were -then imported, the price was lessened, and -the practice of drinking tea descended to -the lower ranks. In 1720, the French -began to send tea to us by a clandestine -commerce. Since that period the demand -has been increasing yearly, and it has become -almost a necessary of life in several -parts of Europe, even among the lowest as -well as the highest ranks.</p> - -<h3>NATURAL HISTORY OF THE TEA TREE.</h3> - -<p>The tea tree (Polyandria Monogynia) -is a native of China, Japan, and Tonquin, -it has never been found growing wild in -any other country. Linnæus says, that -there are two species of this plant, the -Bohe´a, or black, and the Vir´idis, or green<span class="pagenum" id="Page296">[296]</span> -tea. The green has much longer leaves -than the black, it is a more hardy plant; -and, with very little protection, bears the -severity of our winters. The tea is planted -in China round borders of fields, without -regard to the soil.</p> - -<p>The tree attains the height of ten or -twelve feet, and is an evergreen: the leaves, -which are the only valuable part of it, are -about an inch and a half long, and resemble -those of sweet brier. The flowers are -something like the wild white-rose; the -seeds are round, and blackish, about the -size of a large pea.</p> - -<p>As tea is a most important article of -commerce to the Chinese, they bestow the -greatest possible care upon its cultivation.</p> - -<p>The people of China and Japan take as -much pains to procure tea, of excellent -quality, as the Europeans do to obtain good<span class="pagenum" id="Page297">[297]</span> -wine; they generally keep it a year before -they use it.</p> - -<p>Tea is propagated by seeds, which are -put into holes about five inches deep, at regular -distances from each other; from six to -twelve being sown together, as it is supposed -that only a small number grow.</p> - -<p>When the tree is three years old, the -leaves are fit to be gathered; and the men -who collect them wear gloves that the -flavour may not be injured. They do not -pull them by handfuls, but pick them off one -by one, taking great care not to break the -leaves, and although this appears to be a -very tedious process, each person gathers -from ten to fifteen pounds a day. The -tea leaves are collected at three different -seasons: what are first procured, while the -leaves are very young, are called imperial -tea, being generally reserved for the court<span class="pagenum" id="Page298">[298]</span> -and people of rank, because they are considered -as of the finest quality. The last -gathering, when the leaves have attained -their full growth, is the coarsest tea of all, -and is used by the common people.</p> - -<p>The leaves are first exposed to the steam -of boiling water, after which they are put -on <i>plates of copper</i>, and held over a fire -until they become dry and shriveled; they -are then taken off the plates with a shovel, -and spread upon mats, some of the labourers -taking a small quantity at a time in their -hands, which they roll in one direction, -while others are continually employed in -stirring those on the mats, in order that -they may cool the sooner, and retain their -shriveled appearance. The adulteration -of tea<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> has been practised in this country -to an enormous extent.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> -Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons, and -Methods of Detecting them.—<i>See article Tea.</i>—1821.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page299">[299]</span></p> - -<h3>OBSERVATIONS ON THE ART OF MAKING TEA, -AND SINGULAR EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS -OF TEA POTS, ON THE INFUSION OF TEA.</h3> - -<p>It has been long observed, that the infusion -of tea, made in silver or polished metal -tea-pots, is stronger than that which is produced -in black, or other kinds of earthenware -pots. This remark is explained on -the principles, that polished surfaces retain -heat much better than dark rough surfaces, -and that, consequently, the caloric being -confined in the former case, must act more -powerfully than in the latter. It is further -certain, that the silver or metal pot, when -filled a second time, produces worse tea -than the earthenware vessel; and that it is -advisable to use the earthenware pot, unless -a silver or metal one can be procured sufficiently -large to contain, at once, all that -may be required. These facts are readily<span class="pagenum" id="Page300">[300]</span> -explained, by considering that the action -of heat, retained by the silver vessel, so far -exhausts the herb, as to leave very little -soluble substance for a second infusion; -whereas, the reduced temperature of the -water in the earthenware pot, by extracting -only a small portion at first, leaves some -soluble matter for the action of a subsequent -infusion.</p> - -<p>The reason for pouring boiling water -into the teapot, before the infusion of the -tea is made, is, that the vessel, being previously -warm, may abstract less heat from -the mixture, and thus admit a more powerful -action. Neither is it difficult to explain -the fact, why the infusion of tea is stronger -if only a small quantity of boiling water be -first used, and more be added some time -afterwards, for if we consider that only the -water immediately in contact with the herb<span class="pagenum" id="Page301">[301]</span> -can act upon it, and that it cools very rapidly, -especially in earthenware vessels, it -is clear that the effect will be greater where -the heat is kept up by additions of boiling -water, than where the vessel is filled at -once, and the fluid suffered gradually to cool. -When the infusion has once been completed, -it is found that any further addition -of the herb only affords a very small increase -in the strength, the water having -cooled much below the boiling point, and -consequently acting very slightly.</p> - -<h3>JAPANESE METHOD OF MAKING TEA.</h3> - -<p>The people of Japan reduce their tea -to a fine powder, which they dilute with -warm water until it has acquired the consistence -of a thin soup. Their manner of<span class="pagenum" id="Page302">[302]</span> -serving tea is as follows:—They place -before the company the tea-equipage, and -the caddy in which this powder is contained; -they fill the cups with warm water, and -taking from the caddy as much powder as -the point of a knife can contain, throw it -into each of the cups, and stir it, until the -liquor begins to foam; it is then presented -to the company, who sip it while it is -warm. According to Du Halde, this method -is not peculiar to the Japanese; it -is also used in some of the provinces of -China.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page303">[303]</span></p> - -<h2 class="blacklet">Coffee.</h2> - -<p>The beverage which we call coffee, is said -to have been drank in Ethiopia from time -immemorial. The Galla, a wandering -nation of Africa, in their excursions on -Abyssinia, being obliged to traverse immense -deserts, and being also desirous of -falling on the Abyssinians, without warning, -that they may be incumbered as little -as possible with baggage, carry nothing -with them to eat, but coffee roasted, till it -can be pulverised, and then mixed with -butter into balls; one of these, about the -size of a billiard ball, is said to keep them -during a whole day’s fatigue.<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Bruce’s Abyss. II. 226.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>The liquor, called coffee, was introduced<span class="pagenum" id="Page304">[304]</span> -into Adea, in Arabia, from Persia, about the -middle of the 15th century. Not long after -it reached Mecca, Medina, &c. and Grand -Cairo. Hence it continued its progress -to Damascus and Aleppo, and in 1554 became -known at Constantinople.</p> - -<p>It is not certain at what time the use of -coffee passed from Constantinople to the -Western part of Europe. Thevenot, a -French traveller into the East, at his return -in 1657, brought with him coffee to Paris. -In the year 1671, a coffee-house was opened -at Marseilles. Soon after coffee-rooms -were opened at Paris.</p> - -<p>The first mention of coffee in our statute -books was 1660. In the year 1688, Mr. -Ray affirms, that London might rival -Grand Cairo in the number of its coffee-houses.<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a -href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> -Miller’s Gardener’s Dictionary.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page305">[305]</span></p> - -<h3>NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COFFEE TREE.</h3> - -<p>The tree which produces coffee contains -ten species, chiefly natives of the East Indies, -South America, and the Polynesian -isles. The only species, however, that we -have to notice in the present work is the coffee -Arabica, of which there are two varieties, -though both are sold in our shops as Turkey -coffee, and possess similar qualities.</p> - -<p>The tree seldom rises more than 16 -or 18 feet high, with an erect main stem, -covered with a lightish brown bark: the -leaves are oblong-ovate, and pointed; -the flowers are set in clusters; they are -of a pure white, and possess a very pleasant -odour, but their duration is very -transient. The fruit resembles a cherry,<span class="pagenum" id="Page306">[306]</span> -and grows in clusters, ranged along the -branches under the axillæ of the leaves, -which are of a laurel hue, but rather longer -than a laurel leaf. It is an ever-green, and -makes a beautiful appearance at every -season in the year, but particularly when -it is in flower.</p> - -<p>The coffee tree has of late years been -much cultivated in America, but the coffee -which has been thence brought to Europe -has been very little esteemed. This great -difference in the goodness many have attributed -to the soil in which it grows, and -therefore have supposed it impossible for -the inhabitants of the British islands ever -to cultivate this commodity to any real advantage; -but this is certainly a mistake, as -is affirmed by several persons of credit, -who have resided abroad, who say, that the -berries which they have gathered from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page307">[307]</span> -trees and roasted themselves, were as well -flavoured as any of the coffee brought from -Mocha; so that the fault is in the drying, -and bringing over; for if in the drying of -the berries they be laid in rooms near the -sugar-works, or near the house where -rum is distilled, the berries soon imbibe -the surrounding effluvia, which will -greatly alter their flavour. In like manner -the coffee brought in the same ships with -rum and sugar, were the coffee ever so -good, would hereby be entirely altered.</p> - -<p>Raw coffee materially becomes ameliorated -by age. It should be kept in bags, -or vessels permeable to air, and in a dry, -or rather warm place.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page308">[308]</span></p> - -<h3>BEST METHOD OF MAKING COFFEE.</h3> - -<p>The general use of tea among us, has -caused the inhabitants of Great Britain to -be in general far inferior than their neighbours -on the continent in the art of preparing -the beverage called coffee. The -coloured water commonly drank in England -under this name, is as much the object -of derision to foreigners, as their <i>soup -maigre</i> is to us; hence a lively French -writer says, “The English do not care -about the quality of coffee, if they can but -get enough of it.” Coffee certainly is -almost universally made stronger on the -other side of the channel than it is here.</p> - -<p>Count Rumford, in the eighteenth of his -Essays has entered into a minute, elaborate,<span class="pagenum" id="Page309">[309]</span> -and useful analysis of the powers of coffee, -and the best means of infusing it for dietetic -purposes. He remarks, that among the -numerous luxuries of the table, unknown -to our forefathers, coffee may be considered -as one of the most valuable. Its taste is -very agreeable, and its flavour uncommonly -so; but its principal excellence depends on -its salubrity, and on its exhilarating quality. -It excites cheerfulness, without intoxication; -and the pleasing flow of spirits -which it occasions, lasts many hours, and is -never followed by sadness, languor, or -debility. It diffuses over the whole frame -a glow of health, and a sense of ease and -well-being which is extremely delightful: -existence is felt to be a positive enjoyment, -and the mental powers are awakened, and -rendered uncommonly active. After some -other judicious observations on the valuable<span class="pagenum" id="Page310">[310]</span> -properties of coffee, and the uncertainty of -the result in the common methods of preparing -it, the Count proceeds with his -subject.</p> - -<p>Different methods have been employed -in making coffee; but the preparation of -the grain is nearly the same in all of them. -It is first roasted in an iron pan, or in a -hollow cylinder made of sheet-iron, over a -brisk fire; and when, from the colour of the -grain, and the peculiar fragrance which it -acquires in this process, it is judged to be -sufficiently roasted, it is taken from the fire, -and suffered to cool. When cold, it is -ground in a mill to a coarse powder, and -preserved for use.</p> - -<p>Great care must be taken in roasting -coffee, not to roast it too much; as soon as -it has acquired a deep cinnamon colour, it -should be taken from the fire, and cooled;<span class="pagenum" id="Page311">[311]</span> -otherwise, much of its aromatic flavour will -be dissipated, and its taste becomes disagreeably -bitter.</p> - -<p>In order that coffee may be perfectly -good, and very high flavoured, not more -than half a pound of the grain should be -roasted at once; for when the quantity is -greater, it becomes impossible to regulate -the heat in such a manner as to be quite -certain of a good result.</p> - -<p>The progress of the operation, and the -moment most proper to put an end to it, -may be judged and determined with great -certainty, not only by the changes which -take place in the colour of the grain, but -also by the peculiar fragrance which will -first begin to be diffused by it when it is -nearly roasted enough.</p> - -<p>If the coffee in powder is not well defended -from the air, it soon loses its flavour, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page312">[312]</span> -becomes of little value; and the liquor is -never in so high perfection as when the -coffee is made immediately after the grain -has been roasted.</p> - -<p>Boiling-hot water extracts from coffee, -which has been properly roasted and ground, -an aromatic substance of an exquisite -flavour, together with a considerable quantity -of astringent matter, of a bitter but -very agreeable taste; but this aromatic -substance, which is supposed to be an oil, -is extremely volatile, and is so feebly united -to the water that it escapes from it into the -air with great facility. If a cup of the very -best coffee, prepared in the highest perfection, -and boiling hot, be placed on a -table, in the middle of a large room, and -suffered to cool, it will in cooling fill the -room with its fragrance; but the coffee, -after having become cold, will be found to<span class="pagenum" id="Page313">[313]</span> -have lost a great deal of its flavour. If it -be again heated, its taste and flavour will -be still further impaired; and after it has -been heated and cooled two or three times, -it will be found to be quite vapid and disgusting. -The fragrance diffused through -the air is a sure indication that the coffee -has lost some of its volatile parts; and as -that liquor is found to have lost its peculiar -flavour, and also its exhilarating quality, -there can be no doubt but that both these -depend on the preservation of those volatile -particles which escape into the air with such -facility.</p> - -<p>In order that coffee may retain all -those aromatic particles which give to that -beverage its excellent qualities, nothing -more is necessary than to prevent all internal -motions among the particles of that -liquid; by preventing its being exposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page314">[314]</span> -to any change of temperature, either during -the time employed in preparing it or afterwards, -till it is served up.</p> - -<p>This may be done by pouring boiling -water on the coffee in powder; and as -all kinds of agitation is very detrimental -to coffee, not only when made, but also -while it is making, it is evident that -the method formerly practised, that of -putting the ground coffee into a coffee-pot -with water, and boiling them together, -must be very defective, and must occasion -a very great loss. But that is not all, -for the coffee which is prepared in that -manner can never be good, whatever may -be the quantity of ground coffee that is employed. -The liquor may no doubt be very -bitter, and it commonly is so; and it may -possibly contain something that may irritate -the nerves,—but the exquisite flavour and<span class="pagenum" id="Page315">[315]</span> -exhilarating qualities of good coffee will be -wanting.</p> - -<p>Coffee may easily be too bitter, but it is -impossible that it should ever be too -fragrant. The very smell of it is reviving, -and has often been found to be useful to -sick persons, and especially to those who -are afflicted with violent head-aches. In -short, every thing proves that the volatile -aromatic matter, whatever it may be, that -gives flavour to coffee, is what is most -valuable in it, and should be preserved with -the greatest care, and that in estimating -the strength or richness of that beverage, -its fragrance should be much more attended -to than either its bitterness or its astringency.</p> - -<p>One pound avoirdupois, of good Mocha -coffee, which, when properly roasted and -ground, weighs only thirteen ounces,<span class="pagenum" id="Page316">[316]</span> -serves for making fifty-six full cups of very -excellent coffee.</p> - -<p>The quantity of ground coffee for one full -cup, should not be less than 108 grains troy, -which is rather less than a quarter of an -ounce. This coffee, when made, fills a -coffee-cup of the common size quite full.</p> - -<p>In making coffee, several circumstances -must be carefully attended to: in the first -place, the coffee must be ground fine, otherwise -the hot water will not have time to -penetrate to the centres of the particles; it -will merely soften them at their surfaces, -and passing rapidly between them, will -carry away but a small part of those aromatic -and astringent substances on which -the goodness of the liquor entirely depends. -In this case the grounds of the coffee are -more valuable than the insipid wash which -has been hurried through them, and afterwards<span class="pagenum" id="Page317">[317]</span> -served up under the name of -coffee.</p> - -<p>Formerly, the ground coffee being put -into a coffee-pot, with a sufficient quantity -of water, the coffee-pot was put over the -fire, and after the water had been made to -boil a certain time, the pot was removed -from the fire, and the grounds having had -time to settle, or having been fined down -with isinglass, the clear liquor was poured -off, and immediately served up in cups. -This was a bad practice of making coffee.</p> - -<p>From the results of several experiments -made by Count Rumford, to ascertain what -proportion of the aromatic and volatile particles -in the coffee escape, and are left in -this process, he found that it amounted to -considerably more than half.</p> - -<p>When coffee is made in the most advantageous -manner, the ground coffee is pressed<span class="pagenum" id="Page318">[318]</span> -down in a cylindrical vessel <i>a</i>, (<a href="#Fig4">fig. 4</a>, plate -facing the title page), which has its bottom -pierced with many small holes, so as to -form a metal strainer; a proper quantity -of boiling hot water being poured cautiously -on this layer of coffee in powder, -the water penetrates it by degrees, and -after a certain time begins to filter through -it. This gradual percolation brings continually -a succession of fresh particles of -hot water into contact with the ground -coffee; and when the last portion of the -water has passed through it, every thing -capable of being dissolved by the water will -be found to be so completely washed out of -it, that what remains will be of no kind of -value.</p> - -<p>It is, however, necessary to the complete -success of this operation, that the coffee -should be ground to a powder sufficiently<span class="pagenum" id="Page319">[319]</span> -fine. In order that the coffee may be perfectly -good, the stratum of ground coffee, -on which the boiling water is poured, must -be of a certain thickness, and it must be -pressed together with a certain degree of -force, by means of the presses <i>b</i>, (<a href="#Fig4">fig. 4</a>.) -If it be too thin, or not sufficiently pressed -together, the water will pass through it too -rapidly; and if the layer of ground coffee -be too thick, or if it be too much pressed -together, the water will be too long in -passing through it, and the taste of the -coffee will be injured.</p> - -<p>Count Rumford recommends, as of importance, -that the surface of the coffee be -rendered quite level after it is put into the -strainer before any attempt is made to -press it together, that the water, in percolating, -may act equally on every part.</p> - -<p>When the coffee is made, the strainer, or -cylindrical vessel <i>a</i> is removed, and the lid<span class="pagenum" id="Page320">[320]</span> -of it is made to serve as the lid for the -coffee pot.</p> - -<p>The following table shews the diameters -and heights of the cylindrical vessels, or -strainers, to be used in making the following -quantities of <span class="nowrap">coffee:—</span></p> - -<table summary="Coffee"> - -<tr> -<th>Quantity of Coffee<br />to be made<br />at once.</th> -<th colspan="2">Diameter<br />of the<br />Strainer.</th> -<th colspan="2">Height<br />of the<br />Strainer.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="padl2 padr2"><i>In Inches.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="padl2 padr2"><i>In Inches.</i></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">1 cup</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub></td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">2 cups</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub></td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">3 or 4 cups</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0"><sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">5 or 6 cups</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub></td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">7 or 8 cups</td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td class="left padl0"> </td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">9 or 10 cups</td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td class="left padl0"><sup>5</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub></td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">11 or 12 cups</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0"> </td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Metal coffee pots should be kept as bright -as possible; for, when the external surface -is kept clean and bright, the pot will be -less cooled by the surrounding cold bodies -than when its metallic splendour is impaired -by neglecting to clean it; pots for making -coffee in the manner stated in the preceding -pages, may now be had in most of the -tinmen’s shops of this metropolis.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page321">[321]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="oldtype">Kitchen Fire-places,</span><br /> -<span class="fsize60">AND</span><br /> -<span class="oldtype fsize80">Cooking Utensils.</span></h2> - -<p>The judicious use and proper application -of fuel are objects of particular moment -in domestic economy, especially in -the culinary art. Coal is an article of -primary necessity among all ranks of -people, and as it cannot be procured without -great expense, the consumption of it -in cookery with the smallest possible waste -is an object deserving the attention of -every family. So numerous are the varieties -of kitchen fire-places which have -been invented to save fuel, that there is -hardly an ironmonger in this metropolis -who does not claim the merit of possessing<span class="pagenum" id="Page322">[322]</span> -a patent for an apparatus of this description. -The pretended improvements of a great -many patent kitchen fire-places for cooking, -unfortunately consist in increasing -the quantity of iron work, to their evident -defect. The bare inspection of others -again, will at once convince the impartial -observer, that they cannot answer the intended -purpose; most of them are furnished -with numerous doors and apertures, solely -introduced to facilitate the cleaning of the -flues; and the reader may rest assured, -that whenever recourse is had to such expedients, -it is a sure sign that the construction -of the fire-place or apparatus is extremely -defective. When the combustion -of the fuel is perfect, there is little soot -produced—for a rapid accumulation of it, -indicates an imperfect combustion, and -consequently a waste of fuel. The evil in<span class="pagenum" id="Page323">[323]</span> -the cases which we have observed, originates -in the circuitous direction and awkward -angular distortions of the flues for -heating the baking closets, or the vessels -for boiling. The fire grate is indeed comparatively -small in all of them, and this -their apparent recommendation is what -misleads the purchaser, who on inspecting -the apparatus is told, that he will be enabled -to roast, bake, boil or stew, with a -small quantity of fuel. But if we consider -the mass of iron-work requiring to be -heated by the small fire-place, the saving -of coals will prove wholly imaginary, and -the purchaser (we speak from experience) -will soon become convinced that the simplest -and most economical employment of -fuel, for the purpose of cooking in a family -not exceeding eight or ten persons, unquestionably -consists of a common fire-grate<span class="pagenum" id="Page324">[324]</span> -fitted with a boiler placed either at the back -or at one side of the grate, for supplying hot -water, or for generating steam, having at the -other side a hollow chest or oven, (forming -the other hob of the grate,) to be heated by -the ignited coals lying laterally against it, -in the grate; such an apparatus appears to -be one of the most eligible contrivances of -a cooking grate for a moderate sized family, -where economy of coal is an object. Kitchen -ranges of this kind may be seen in most -of the ironmongers shops of this metropolis.</p> - -<p>The figure on the title page exhibits a -kitchen grate of this kind. The fire-place -for roasting is, as usual, in the middle of -the grate. At the right side of it, is a -boiler, furnished with a cock; on the left -hand side, is the baking closet, as shewn in -the design. The cast-iron hearth, upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page325">[325]</span> -which the stew-pans and kettles are put, -is furnished with a moveable plate, directly -over the fire-place. This contrivance is -convenient for causing (when the plate is -removed) the fire to act in a direct manner -upon a vessel placed over the opening -as occasion may require. The small door -in front, above the fire bars, serves for -throwing on the fuel. The door shown -under the bars of the fire-place is furnished -with a register, for regulating the heat. -The door under the boiler, on the right -hand side, and that under the baking -closet, on the left hand, serve to keep in -the heat. For cleaning the flues, a moveable -cast iron slider is fitted in front, -below the boiler, and another below the -baking closet, as shown in the design.—The -upper part of the flues are cleaned in -the usual manner, above the iron hearth.<span class="pagenum" id="Page326">[326]</span> -where a small door is provided for that -purpose to get admission to the flues.</p> - -<p>For larger families, where the operations -of cooking are multifarious, an horizontal -iron plate or hearth, (See <a href="#Fig2">fig. 2</a>, plate facing -the title page,) at one end heated by a fire-place, -so that the flame may traverse in a -serpentine direction underneath the hearth, -before it reaches the throat of the chimney, -is very convenient and economical. Upon -this hearth or iron plate, which is provided -with holes, fitted with stoppers, (and which -in fact resembles the sand bath of the -chemists), the cooking utensils for boiling -and stewing are placed; and as the different -parts of the plate become unequally -heated, the hottest part being of course -over the fire-grate, and the least heated -at the farthest extremity of the flue, near -its communication with the chimney, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page327">[327]</span> -cook has the advantage of placing the pans -and kettles, which require a strong and -lasting heat, at the precise spot where they -will be soonest heated; and those farthest -from the source of heat, which require only -a moderate degree of warmth.</p> - -<p>To economise the heat of the iron plate, -a small oven is sometimes placed at the extremity -of the flue of the fire-place, which -heats the plate. It is convenient for a -variety of culinary purposes requiring a -very gentle heat, or if it be wanted for -baking meat, or bread, a small fire-grate -fixed underneath it, will render it extremely -fit for those purposes.</p> - -<p>The front wall which supports the iron -plate or hearth, should be constructed of -brick-work, not of iron, as the former retains -the heat very effectually, whereas the<span class="pagenum" id="Page328">[328]</span> -latter enables it to pass into the kitchen, -to the great annoyance of the cook.</p> - -<p>The open fire-place, connected with this -cooking hearth, is furnished at the left -hand side with a baking closet, and at the -right hand side is a steam boiler for heating -the vessels <i>a a</i>. Underneath of these is -another hot closet, likewise heated by -steam.</p> - -<p>Mr. Marriott, an ingenious ironmonger -in Fleet-street, has greatly improved the -construction of kitchen ranges; the design -exhibited, on the title page of this Treatise, -is copied from an apparatus of his construction.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig1">Fig. 1</a>, is a Dutch oven; a description -of it has been given, <a href="#Page88">page 88</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page329">[329]</span></p> - -<h3>STEWPANS AND SAUCEPANS</h3> - -<p>Should not be made with flat bottoms, but -rounded a little at the edges—they must -by no means be made with corners that -are square like tin vessels, for such can -never be completely cleaned, and do not -wear near so long—that is the sides should -not be soldered to the bottom with a square -joint, as sand and grease that lodge there -can never be completely got out.</p> - -<p>These utensils should be scoured on the -outside round the rim, and a little way -down the sides, but not low on the sides or -on the bottom, as that only wears them -without any sort of advantage. For small -families, we recommend tin saucepans, as -being lightest and safest; and if proper -care is taken of them, and they are well<span class="pagenum" id="Page330">[330]</span> -dried after they are cleaned, are by far -the cheapest, for the cost of a new tin -saucepan is little more than the expense -of tinning a copper one. The covers of -the boiling pots should fit close, not only -to prevent unnecessary evaporation of the -water, but to guard against the smoke of -the fire insinuating itself under the edge of -the lid.</p> - -<h3>PRESERVING PANS.</h3> - -<p>The best sort are those which are heated -by means of steam, the temperature of -which can never be such as to burn, or -cause adherence to the bottom of the pan.—<a href="#Fig3">Fig. -3</a>, exhibits a steam preserving-pan; -the steam enters from a common steam-boiler, -at the extremity <i>a</i>, and passes between -the pan, which is double, as shown<span class="pagenum" id="Page331">[331]</span> -in the design. The condensed water may, -from time to time, be drawn off by the -cock and pipe <i>b</i>.</p> - -<h3>COPPER COOKING UTENSILS.</h3> - -<p>Copper cooking utensils are attended -with so much danger, that the use of them -ought to be laid entirely aside. They have -not only occasioned many fatal accidents, -(which have been made public), but they have -injured the health of great numbers, where -the slower, but not less dangerous effect has -not been observed. If not kept very clean -and bright, they become covered with verdigris, -for all fat, oily, or buttery substances -corrode copper; and if they are kept clean -and bright, the rubbing or scraping that -takes place when making stews, or cooking -dishes that require stirring, and remaining<span class="pagenum" id="Page332">[332]</span> -a considerable time on the fire, always -wears off some of the metal which impregnates -the food, and has a deleterious effect.</p> - -<p>The inexcusable negligence of persons -who make use of copper vessels has been -productive of mortality, so much more terrible, -as they have exerted their action -on a great number of persons at once.</p> - -<p>Though, after all, a single dose be not -mortal, yet a quantity of poison, however -small, when taken at every meal, must produce -more fatal effects than are generally -apprehended; and different constitutions -are differently affected by minute quantities -of substances that act powerfully on the -system.</p> - -<p>Some years ago, the death of several -persons was occasioned, at Salt-hill, by the -cook sending a ragout to the table which -she had kept from the preceding day in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page333">[333]</span> -copper vessel, badly tinned. Another instance -of death occasioned by the eating -of pickles, prepared in copper vessels, is -mentioned by Dr. Percival.<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> -See a Treatise on the Adulteration of Food and -Culinary Poisons, and Methods of Detecting them, -p. 249.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Dr. Johnson gives an account of the -melancholy catastrophe of three men being -poisoned, after excruciating sufferings, in -consequence of eating food cooked in an -unclean copper vessel, on board the Cyclops -frigate; and, besides these, thirty-three -men became ill from the same cause.</p> - -<p>If, however, copper utensils are to be -used, they should be employed with the -precautions as used in France, where the -tinning of the vessels on the inside is done -as regularly as the shoeing of horses in a -farm-yard.—If the least occasion is thought<span class="pagenum" id="Page334">[334]</span> -to exist, the vessel is immediately tinned; -but to prevent all risk, it is generally done -<i>once a month</i> with stew-pans that are in -daily use. Moreover, the victuals are -never stirred with any thing of metal, but -with a wooden spoon, or flat stick made -for the purpose.</p> - -<p>The following wholesome advice on this -subject is given to cooks by Dr. Kitchiner.</p> - -<p>“Stewpans and soup-kettles should be -examined every time they are used; these, -and their covers, must be kept perfectly -clean and well tinned, not only on the -inside, but about a couple of inches on the -outside; so much mischief arises from their -getting out of repair; and, if not kept -nicely tinned, all your work will be in vain; -the broths and soups will look green and -dirty, and taste bitter and poisonous, and -will be spoiled both for the eye and palate,<span class="pagenum" id="Page335">[335]</span> -and your credit will be lost; and, as the -health, and even the life, of the family -depends upon this, the cook may be sure -her employer had rather pay the tinman’s -bill than the doctor’s.”</p> - -<p>Various kinds of food used in domestic -economy are liable to become impregnated -with lead.</p> - -<p>The glazing of the common cream-coloured -earthen ware, which is composed of -an oxyd of lead, readily yields to the action -of vinegar and saline compounds; and therefore -the jars and pots of this kind of stoneware, -should not be used for marmalades -and other conserves. Pickles should in no -case be deposited in cream-coloured glazed -earthenware pots.</p> - -<p>The baking of fruit tarts in cream-coloured -earthenware is no less objectionable -All kinds of food which contain free<span class="pagenum" id="Page336">[336]</span> -vegetable acids, or saline preparations, attack -utensils covered with a glaze, in the -composition of which lead enters as a component -part.</p> - -<p><i>Wooden Tubs</i> lined with lead, should -not, as they often are, be used for salting -meat, as the salt brine corrodes the lead, -and all compounds of this metal are dangerous -to health.</p> - -<p class="center highline4 fsize80">FINIS.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="center fsize60">C. GREEN, 15, LEICESTER STREET, LEICESTER SQUARE.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<div class="tnbot" id="TN"> - -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>The language from the source document, including inconsistencies and unusual spellings, has been retained, except as listed below.</p> - -<p>Missing accents in French words and phrases have not been added.</p> - -<p>Page 140, Before the trumpets calls ...: as printed in the source document.</p> - -<p>Page 304, ... in Adea, in Arabia, ...: possibly an error for ... in Aden, in Arabia, ....</p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">Changes made</p> - -<p>Footnotes have been moved to immediately underneath the text element to which they belong.</p> - -<p>Some minor obvious punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected silently.</p> - -<p>Page xiii: page number 356 changed to 336</p> - -<p>Page 7: rabit changed to rabbit</p> - -<p>Page 16: Gastronomque changed to Gastronomique</p> - -<p>Page 24: The pleasure of the table changed to The pleasures of the table</p> - -<p>Page 138: “ added before <i>Point des Legumes ...</i></p> - -<p>Page 140: qui fail le Soldat changed to qui fait le Soldat</p> - -<p>Page 156: page number corrected (was 176)</p> - -<p>Page 158: parsly changed to parsley</p> - -<p>Page 161: gelantine changed to gelatine</p> - -<p>Page 200-204: several opening and closing quote marks inserted</p> - -<p>Page 202: vogages changed to voyages</p> - -<p>Page 261: Chery Paste changed to Cherry Paste</p> - -<p>Page 262: ORANGE AND LEMOM PASTE changed to ORANGE AND LEMON PASTE</p> - -<p>Page 325: covenient changed to convenient</p> - -<p>Page 336: page number corrected (was 356)</p> - -</div><!--tnbot--> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Culinary Chemistry, by Frederick Accum - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CULINARY CHEMISTRY *** - -***** This file should be named 60163-h.htm or 60163-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/1/6/60163/ - -Produced by deaurider, Harry Lam and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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