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diff --git a/old/60159-0.txt b/old/60159-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 35c901c..0000000 --- a/old/60159-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11518 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Identification of the Larger Fungi, by Roy Watling - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Identification of the Larger Fungi - -Author: Roy Watling - -Editor: Antony Kenney - -Release Date: August 24, 2019 [EBook #60159] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IDENTIFICATION OF THE LARGER FUNGI *** - - - - -Produced by MFR, Eric Lehtonen, Harry Lamé and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net. This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The British Mycological Society and special thanks and -appreciation are extended to the Author and Editor of the -book for granting permission to release it to the public -domain. - - - - - - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - - Text between _underscores_ represents text printed in italics in the - source document, text between =equal signs= represents bold face text, - and text between ~tildes~ represents bold face and italic text. - Superscript texts are represented by ^{text}. - - More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text. - - - - -IDENTIFICATION OF THE LARGER FUNGI - - - - -DEDICATION - - -To my parents who encouraged my interests in mushrooms and toadstools -and my wife who, later, was sympathetic to my studies and assisted in -the production of the manuscript. - - - - - Hulton Group Keys - - IDENTIFICATION OF THE LARGER - FUNGI - - by - - ROY WATLING, B.Sc., Ph.D., M.I.Biol. - Principal Scientific Officer, - Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh - - _Editor of series_: Antony R. Kenney, M.A., B.Sc. - - - - - © - 1973 - R. Watling - A. R. Kenney - ISBN 0 7175 0595 2 - - First published 1973 by Hulton Educational Publications Ltd., - Raans Road, Amersham, Bucks. - - Reproduced and printed by photolithography and bound in - Great Britain at The Pitman Press, Bath - - - - -PREFACE - - -This is one of a series of books intended to introduce field-biology to -students, particularly the sixth form and early university student. The -present work is ecologically biased in order to emphasise a rather -neglected aspect of the higher fungi. - -Few books on fungi have ever been designed for students. This book is -aimed primarily at this level, but if the interested amateur is assisted -and encouraged by this same text my hopes will have been doubly -achieved. Many amateurs interested in higher fungi wish only to name -their collections, or know approximately what they are before sampling -them as an addition to their diet. An understanding of our commoner -species at an early age will allow the ‘budding’ mycologist to tackle -the much needed study of the more critical forms. Mycology is still at a -descriptive stage, but it is hoped this will soon be changed and fungi -of all kinds will be studied as part and parcel of courses in ecology. - -It is of course quite impossible to cover all the species in such a -small volume as this present one, but it is hoped that the examples -which have been carefully chosen are sufficiently common throughout the -country for any student to collect them in a single season. The -examples, except for very few, in fact appear in the list of higher -fungi found about the Kindrogan Field Centre, Perthshire, Scotland, -compiled from the collections made by students attending my field course -there. - -The present work is arranged in three parts: the agarics are dealt with -first, the non-agarics next, both with particular reference to their -major habitat preferences, and lastly a catalogue of those more -specialised habitats which are frequently encountered. All parts are -supported at the end by lists in tabular form of those species expected -to be found in any one habitat. Keys to the major groups, families and -genera, are included to widen the scope of the book and place the -examples chosen and illustrated in the text in their position in -classification. - -In the description the synonymy has been very severely pruned and only -covers the commonly seen names; they are included as part of the general -information under each species. In order for the student to expand -unfamiliar names a list of references is added at the end of the work. -The common names of the fungi, whenever possible, have been adopted from -a list produced by Dr Large, the author of _The Advance of the Fungi_, -an exciting tale of fungal parasites. The authorities for the names of -the fungi described have been reduced to accord with the minimum -requirements set out by the Code of Botanical Nomenclature. After each -description a list of references to coloured plates is given and while -some of these illustrations are not of the highest quality they are -adequate, and, more important, they are widely available. Any technical -terms appearing in the description are explained in the glossary, -although they have been kept to a minimum; the difficulty of expressing -colours has been overcome by consistently referring to one colour chart -only, (a chart designed originally for the use of mycologists and -available from Her Majesty’s Stationery Office). - -I have not indicated the edibility of a particular species unless there -is no doubt as to the edibility of it, related species and those species -with which it might be easily confused. Many fungi are notoriously -difficult to identify and when one has approximately 3,000 species of -larger fungi in the country the task is even more difficult. It would be -folly therefore to indicate edibility for all the fungi described in a -book such as this; the golden rule which should be adopted is not to eat -any of the fungi one collects in the woods and fields. A fault of most -popular treatments is that they are biased towards the human diet and -selection of species is done on this basis; in the present work -selection of examples within the 270 pages has been difficult and two -factors have been particularly considered to ensure that (i) -representatives of all the major groups of fungi and genera have been -covered and (ii) a coverage has been attempted of all the common -ecological niches. - -I am fully aware that the taste of a fungus may be distinctive to that -species or to a group of closely related species, but it is only a spot -character and the tasting of one’s finds is neither necessary nor -advisable; indeed it is not used in this book. The odour, however, has -been indicated whenever distinctive. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - _Page_ - Preface 5 - Introduction 9 - Where to look 9 - Collecting 10 - Examination 11 - Microscopic examination 12 - Key to major groups of Larger Fungi 21 - A. Agarics and their relatives 22 - Key to major genera 22 - (i) Agarics of woodlands and copses 27 - (a) Mycorrhizal formers 27 - (b) Parasites 59 - (c) Saprophytes--Wood-inhabiting or lignicolous agarics 64 - (d) Saprophytes--Terrestrial agarics 78 - (ii) Agarics of pastures and meadows 95 - (a) Agarics of rough & hill-pastures 95 - (b) Agarics of chalk-grassland & rich uplands 108 - (c) Agarics of meadows and valley-bottom grasslands 114 - (d) Fairy-ring formers 118 - (e) Agarics of urban areas--lawn and parkland agarics 122 - (f) Agarics of wasteland and hedgerows 126 - B. Bracket fungi and their relatives 135 - Key to major genera 135 - (i) Pored and toothed fungi 140 - (a) Colonisers of tree trunks, stumps and branches 140 - (b) Destroyers of timber in buildings 154 - (c) Colonisers of cones 158 - (d) Terrestrial forms 160 - (ii) Cantharelles and related fungi 162 - (iii) Fairy-club fungi 166 - (iv) Resupinate fungi 176 - C. The Jelly fungi--Key to major groups with examples 179 - D. The Stomach fungi; puff-balls and their relatives--Key to - major groups with examples 186 - E. Cup fungi and allies 198 - F. Specialised Habitats 207 - (i) Fungi of dung and straw heaps 207 - (ii) Fungi of bonfire sites 216 - (iii) Fungi of bogs and marshes 222 - (a) _Sphagnum_ bogs 222 - (b) Alder-carrs 226 - (iv) Fungi of beds of herbaceous plants 227 - (v) Fungi of moss-cushions 230 - (vi) Heath and mountain fungi 231 - (a) Moorland fungi 231 - (b) Mountain fungi & Basidiolichens 236 - (vii) Sand-dune fungi 238 - (viii) Subterranean fungi 243 - (ix) Fungal parasites 246 - G. Appendix 249 - (i) Species lists of specialised habitats 249 - (ii) Glossary 260 - (iii) Simple experiments with Fairy-rings 264 - (iv) Development of the Agaric fruit-body 266 - (v) References 269 - H. Index 271 - - -_Cover transparency supplied by John Markham, F. R. P. S., F. Z. S._ - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The term larger fungus refers to any fungus whose study does not -necessarily require more than a low-powered lens to see most of the -important morphological features. Using such a term cuts across the -existing scientific classification, for it includes the more obvious -fungi bearing their spores on specialised reproductive cells called -basidia, fig. 5, and a few of those whose spores are produced inside -specialised reproductive cells called asci. The term is useful, however, -even though it embraces a whole host of unrelated groups of fungi; it -includes the polypores, fairy-clubs, hedgehog-fungi, puff-balls and -elf-cups, as well as the more familiar mushrooms and toadstools--or -puddockstools as they are often called in Scotland. Specimens of all -these groups will find their way some time into the collecting baskets -of the naturalist when he is out fungus-picking, along with probably a -few jelly-fungi and less frequently one or two species of the rather -more distantly related group, the morels. The biggest proportion of the -finds, however, on any one collecting day in the autumn, when the larger -fungi are in their greatest numbers, will be of the mushrooms and -toadstools; these are, collectively, more correctly called the agarics. - -The early botanists and pioneer mycologists of the nineteenth century -recognised the fact that the fungi both large and small are ecologically -connected to the herbaceous plants and trees among which they grow, but -many mycologists since have tended to neglect these early observations. -Although the importance of the fungi in the economy of the woodland, -copse, field and marsh is well-known, mycologists and ecologists alike -have been rather slow to appreciate that the fungi can be just as good -indicators of soil conditions, if not better, than many other plants. -Perhaps it is rash to attempt such a treatment as you find here because -we know so little of the reasons why a particular fungus prefers one -habitat to another. However, it is envisaged and hoped that, if a -framework is provided, accurate field-notes can gradually be accumulated -and many of the secrets yet to be uncovered explained. - - -_Where to look_ - -Fungi can be found in most situations which are damp at some time of the -year. Searching for fungi can begin as soon as the spring days become -warm, although even in the colder periods of winter several finds can -be made. In summer it gets very dry and this necessitates collecting in -damper areas, such as marshes, alder-carrs, swamps and moorland bogs. -After a heavy storm in summer, on the edges of paths and roadsides, -woodland banks, in clearings in woods and in gardens, fungi can be -collected within a few days of the rain, but collecting normally reaches -a climax in August-September, the precise date depending on the locality -and the individual character of the particular year. - -All woodlands are worth visiting, particularly well-established woods -with a mixture of trees. Pure pine-woods do not seem to be as good as -pine-woods with scattered birch; plantations are often disappointing -except after heavy rain or late in the season, even well into November -in mild years. Pure birch and beech, the latter particularly when on -chalky soils, are excellent areas to visit. Oak is possibly not as good -but areas with willow and alder have many unique species. The edge of -woods, sides of paths or clearings are usually more productive areas to -search in than is the depth of the wood, and a small plot of trees can -be much more rewarding than a large expanse of woodland. After some time -one is able to judge the sort of place which will yield fungi. Rotten -and burnt wood are very suitable substrates for they retain the moisture -necessary for growth of fungi even in dry conditions, so allowing -fructification to take place. - -Grasslands including hill-pastures, established sand-dunes, etc., are -often excellent, but of course they are much more dependent on the -weather to produce favourable conditions for fungal development than -woodland areas where the changes in the humidity and temperature are -less extreme; prolonged mist or mild showery weather favour the fruiting -of the grassland fungi. Dung in both woods and fields is an excellent -although ephemeral substrate; many species of fungi characterise dung -whilst others will grow in manured fields, on straw-heaps or where man -has distributed the habitat. - - -_Collecting_ - -The collecting of larger fungi should not be considered a haphazard -pursuit; careless collecting often results in many frustrating hours -being spent on the identification of inadequate material, which is also -not suitable after for preservation as reference material. A few good -specimens are infinitely better than several poor ones; one is always -tempted to collect too much and then collections are inevitably -discarded. Always try to select specimens showing all the possible -stages of development from the smallest buttons to the expanded caps. -Sometimes such a range is not possible and one must be satisfied with -either a couple or only one fruit-body. - -Carefully dig up or cut from the substrate the entire fungus and handle -it as little as possible. A strong pen-knife or fern-trowel is admirable -for the job. The associated plants should be noted, especially trees, -and if one is unable to identify the plants or woody debris retain a -leaf or a piece of wood for later identification. One should note in a -field-notebook any features which strike one as of interest, such as -smell, colour, changes on bruising, presence of a hairy or viscid -surface. - -For transporting home the specimens should be placed in tubes, tins or -waxed paper which are themselves kept in a basket. The smallest specimen -can go in the first, the intermediate-sized forms in the tins or waxed -paper and the larger ones laid in the basket or placed in large paper -bags; plastic bags are not suitable except for very woody fungi. Thus an -assortment of tins, tubes and various sizes of pieces of waxed paper are -essential before setting out on a collecting trip. The specimens should -be placed in the waxed paper such that they can be wrapped once or twice -and the ends twisted as if wrapping a sweet. - - -_Examination_ - -_Once home always aim at examining the specimens methodically._ - -The first necessity is to determine whether the fungus, which has been -collected, has its spores borne inside a specialised reproductive cell -(ascus) i.e. Ascomycete, or on a reproductive cell (basidium) i.e. -Basidiomycete. By taking a small piece of the spore-bearing tissue, -mounting in water, gently tapping it and examining under a low power of -the microscope this can be easily ascertained. The tapping out is best -done with the clean eraser of a rubber-topped pencil. There are several -different shaped asci and basidia; the latter structures are more -important in our study because the Ascomycetes are in the main composed -of microscopic members. - -The following procedure is necessary for the examination of your find:-- - -Select a mature cap of an agaric from each collection, cut off the stem -and set the cap gills down on white paper, or if the specimen is small -or is a woody or toothed fungus, or consists of a club or flattened -irregular plate, place the spore-bearing surface (hymenium) face down on -a microscope glass slide. The smaller specimens must be placed in tins -with a drop of water on the cap to prevent drying out. Even with the -larger specimens it is desirable to place a glass slide somewhere under -the cap between the gills and the paper, and if possible to enclose the -species carefully in waxed paper or in a tin. Whilst you are waiting for -the spore-print to form, notes must be made on the more easily -observable features; one is not required at this stage to examine the -microscopic characters. - -All the characters which may change on drying must be noted immediately, -and these include colour, stickiness, shape, smell and texture. A -sketch, preferably in colour, however rough, can give much more -information than many score words. - -Cut one fruit-body, longitudinally down with a razor or scalpel or a -sharp knife if the fruit-body is woody, and sketch the cut surfaces, -fig. 1A-B. These sketches and the rest of the collection notes should be -made such that identification and future comparisons can be achieved. -Thus always note the characters in the same order for each description. -A table of the important characters is provided here, but this is meant -as a guide not as a questionnaire. The attachment of the gills, pores or -teeth to the fruit-bodies when once the fungus is in section should be -always noted (see p. 20). - -The spore-print when complete should be allowed to dry under normal -conditions and then the spore-mass scraped together into a small pile. A -microscope cover-slip should be placed on the top of the pile and -lightly pressed down. The colour of the spore-print (or deposit) can -then be compared with a standard colour chart and the spores making up -the print examined in water under a microscope. - - -_Microscopic examination_ - -When one is more experienced with fungi it will be found necessary to -carry out many microscopic observations, but when commencing the study -it is necessary only to have an ordinary microscope; a calibrated -eyepiece-micrometer is an advantage as is an oil-immersion lens. An -examination of the spores is always necessary; the examination of -features such as the sterile cells on the gill and stem, etc., varies -with the fungus under observation. Spores should if at all possible be -taken from a spore-print and mounted on a microscope slide, either in -water or in a dilute aqueous solution of household ammonia. Although for -mycologists it is often necessary to measure spores to within a ½ micron -(µm) this book has been so arranged that one only really has to -distinguish between a spore which is small (up to 5 µm), medium (5-10 -µm), long (10-15 µm), or large if globose and very long (if over 15 µm); -this is not strictly accurate, but serves the purpose for an -introductory text. It is important to describe the character of the -spore, i.e. ornamentations, whether a hole (germ-pore) is present at one -end and/or a beak (apiculus) at the other (fig. 5). With white or pale -coloured spores it is useful to stain either the spore or the -surrounding liquid with a dye--10% cotton blue solution is admirable, or -a solution of 1·5 g iodine in 100 ml of an aqueous mixture containing 5 -g of potassium iodine and 100 g of chloral hydrate. Both these dyes must -be accurately made up if the study of the fungi is to be taken at all -seriously; because some of the chemicals used above are not normally -required by students, a chemist must make up the reagents for you. Often -the spores turn entirely or partially blue-black or pale blue or -purplish red in the iodine solution--a useful character. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. Dissection of a toadstool as recommended by the -author. For explanation see text.] - -Material in good condition is always required and one of the first -things the student needs to do is train himself to collect sufficient -material in good condition. The steps by which all the structures of the -fungus used in the text can be observed are outlined below:-- - -Fig. 1 shows the cuts required to furnish suitable sections in order to -observe the various structures and patterns of tissue which are -important. - -1. Carefully place the longitudinal section (AB) of the fruit-body which -has been sketched gill-face down under a low power or dissecting -microscope. Hairs or gluten on the cap, if present, will be made visible -by focusing up and down (figs. 2 and 3A) and/or those on the stem (fig. -3B). When any part of the cut fruit-body is not being examined retain it -in a chamber containing damp paper or moist moss; this will assist the -cells to retain their turgidity, for they frequently collapse on drying -and are difficult to observe except after performing often lengthy and -special techniques. - -If only one fruit-body is available, then cut along CD and mount in a -tin box on a slide in order to obtain a spore-print (otherwise see -paragraph 6). - -2. Cut off a complete gill (E) and quickly mount on a dry slide. Under -the low power of a microscope, the cystidia on the gill-margin will be -visible (fig. 4); it will be seen whether the spores are arranged in a -particular pattern (fig. 5) and whether the basidia are 2-spored or -4-spored. In white-spored toadstools it is difficult sometimes to -determine whether the basidia are 2- or 4-spored so one must confirm the -observations by other techniques. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2. - -Fig. 3. - -Fig. 4. - -Fig. 5. - -Fig. 6.] - -A section of the gill accompanied by a small piece of cap-tissue, as in -E, will confirm the presence or absence of noticeable cystidia (or -hairs) on the cap. Now mount the section bounded by FG and HI in a drop -of water containing either a drop of washing-up liquid and/or glycerine; -the soapy liquid helps to expel any water which may tend to cling to the -gill-margin amongst the cystidia and the glycerine stops the mount from -drying out whilst further sections for comparison are cut and examined. -It is at this time that the structure of the outermost layer of the cap -can be examined, e.g. whether it is made up of a turf-like structure; -the presence or absence of cystidia on the cap can be also confirmed -(fig. 7A-C). It is frequently necessary to tap the mount in order to -spread the tissue slightly and expose the elements; this can be done -very efficiently by light pressure from the end of a pencil to which an -eraser is attached. Cut off along line JK to eliminate marginal cystidia -from confusing the picture and mount both pieces separately. - -3. Cut out a wedge of tissue from the fruit-body (L) so as to have -several gills attached to some cap-tissue; until one is familiar with -the variability of facial and marginal cystidia, carefully cut along the -line PQ (note: the cut is made one-third of the distance from the cap -margin, thus eliminating the possibility of large numbers of marginal -cystidia being examined in error for facial cystidia). Now make a second -cut along the line of RS so that finally a small block of tissue remains -(M). - -Mount on a dry slide with the plane through PQ face down on the slide -and observe under a low magnification, to assess whether cystidia on the -gill-face are present or absent, and if present their general shape and -whether numerous or infrequent (fig. 8). - -Mount in water/washing-up mixture as outlined above and tap gently with -the rubber attached to the end of a pencil; evenly distributed pressure -should be given. If the gills appear to be too close then rotate the -rubber a little whilst pressing in order to spread the tissue. - -4. Using a low power of a microscope and looking down into the plane RS -of the unmodified block M or a similar block, one obtains by this simple -technique a very accurate idea as to the structure of the trama of the -gill (fig. 9). The organisation of this tissue is very important in -classification, some groups of toadstools having what has been described -as regular trama (fig. 9C), others irregular (fig. 9D), inverse (fig. -9B) or divergent (fig. 9A). This same tissue may be thick or sparse to -wanting, coloured or not. Such sections are often better than attempts -at very thin sections unless very specialised techniques are used. There -are few satisfactory thicknesses between the two extremes; the thick -sections you can do and the very thin requiring expert techniques. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7. - -Fig. 8. - -Fig. 9. - -Fig. 10.] - -5. Take out a small block of tissue T as indicated in the figure (fig. -1). Mount immediately and repeat as in 3. This will allow the outer -layer of the cap to be more clearly seen (fig. 7A-C) and also the -structure of the flesh (fig. 10). The latter may be composed of a -mixture of filaments and ‘packets’ or ‘nests’ of rounded cells (i.e. -heteromerous), or of filaments, only some of which may be inflated (i.e. -homoiomerous); but when individual cells are swollen they never form -distinct groups. By very similar techniques it is possible to show that -the more woody fungi can have flesh composed of one of four types of -cells (Corner, 1932): these types depend on whether distinctly thickened -cells (plate 47) are present with the actively growing hyphae or not -(pp. 140-150), whether hyphae are present which bind groups of hyphae -together, etc. (plate 46). - -6. Remove stem along line CD and cut out small blocks of tissue as -indicated (U, V and W). Mount immediately and examine as in paragraph 3, -for cystidia, etc. (see fig. 3). - -Whilst all these sections are being cut and processed a second -fruit-body, if available, should be set to drop spores; this is done by -cutting off the cap from the stem and placing it either entirely or in -part, and with gill-edges down, on a slide in a tin. - -7. Z is a ‘scalp’ of a cap; a thin sliver from the cap is placed on a -slide in a drop of water (modified with washing-up liquid, etc. as -above). After placing a cover-slip over the tissue it is tapped gently; -this will show if the cap is composed of globose to elliptic elements or -if it is composed of strictly filamentous units (figs. 6A & B). Care -must be taken not to reverse the section when transferring it to the -mountant, either by turning the scalpel or by allowing the surface -tension of the liquid to pull the section upside down. The construction -of any veil fragments will also be seen in this mount, and if a loose -covering of veil is present this should be removed before observation so -that it does not obscure the fundamental structures. - -8. Examine the stipe of the fruit-body used above under a low power or -with a dissecting microscope in order to ascertain whether there are any -remains of veil and/or vegetative mycelium. If found, mount immediately -in the solution containing iodine mentioned above and examine. - -Of course it is difficult to carry out the above system the first time -and be successful in seeing everything, indeed in being able to cut all -the sections 1-8. Practice makes perfect, so why not practise with a ¼ -lb of mushrooms from the grocer before the autumn season starts. In this -way you will have overcome the difficulties without having to experiment -with your collections. - - CHARACTERISTICS FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF HIGHER FUNGI WITH CAPS - Locality G. Ref. Date - Habitat notes soil type pH - vegetational community - solitary; in troops or rings - Draw or preferably paint exterior and vertical section of fruit-body - MACROSCOPIC CHARACTERS - CAP - General characters: - diameter shape consistency - colour: when immature when mature - when wet when dry - Surface - dry, moist, greasy, viscid, glutinous, peeling easily or not, - smooth, matt, polished, irregularly roughened, downy, velvety, - scaly, shaggy - Margin - regular, wavy incurved or not - smooth, rough, furrowed striate or not - Veil, if present - colour abundance or scarcity - distribution at margin, whether appendiculate or dentate - consistency, whether filamentous, membranous - GILLS, or pores or teeth etc. - remote, free, adnate, adnexed, emarginate, subdecurrent, decurrent - crowded or distant distinctly formed or not - shape interveined or not - easily separable from the cap-tissue or not - consistency (whether brittle, pliable, fleshy or waxy) - thickness width - colour: when immature at maturity - number of different lengths or number of layers - obvious features of gill-edge, tube-edge, e.g. colour, consistency - STEM - central, eccentric or lacking shape - dimensions: length thickness - hollow or not - colour: when immature when mature - consistency (whether fleshy, stringy, cartilaginous, leathery or - woody) - surface characters (whether fibrillose, dry, viscid, scaly or - smooth) - characters of stem-base - Veil, if present characters - Volva, if present characters - Ring, if present - whether single or double whether membranous or filamentous - whether persistent, fugacious or mobile whether thick or thin - whether apical, median or basal - FLESH - colour in cap: when wet when dry - colour in stem: when wet when dry - colour changes if any when exposed to air - presence or absence of milk-like or coloured fluid - (note: colour when exuded on fruit-body immediately and after some - time and when dabbed on to a clean cloth or paper handkerchief and - exposed to the air). - SMELL before and after cutting --relate to a common every day odour - MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS - BASIDIOSPORES - colour in mass colour under microscope. - shape size type of ornamentation, if any - size and shape of germ-pore, if present - iodine reaction of spore-mass:--blue-black to dark violet - (amyloid); red-purple (dextrinoid); yellow-brown or brown - (non-amyloid) - BASIDIA number of sterigmata - CAP-FLESH type of constituent cells - GILL-TISSUE type and arrangement of cells between adjacent - hymenial faces - CAP-SURFACE type of cells composing the outermost layer--whether - filaments or rounded cells - STERILE CELLS--CYSTIDIA - presence or absence of sterile cells:-- - on gill-edge on gill-margin - on cap on stem - shape, estimation of size, thick or thin-walled, hyaline or not - types of ornamentation, etc. - - - - -Key to the major classes of Larger Fungi - - - Spores borne externally on stalks on a clavate to cylindrical cell - Basidiomycotina - Spores produced within a clavate, cylindrical or subglobose cell - Ascomycotina - - -Key to major groups based on character of basidium and fruit-body shape - - 1. Basidia either produced in a hymenium or in a mass, and until - maturity contained within a closed fruit-body Gasteromycetes - - Basidia produced in a layer of cells (hymenium) and exposed to the - air before the maturity of the spores (Hymenomycetes) 2 - - 2. Basidia simple, a single cell (fig. 5) (Homobasidiae) 3 - - Basidia usually septate, or if simple then fruit-body gelatinous - and often collapsing to form a skin when dried (Heterobasidiae) 4 - - 3. Fruit-body usually fleshy, soft and easily decaying (putrescent), - hymenium spread over the surface of gills, ridges or within tubes - Agaricales (p. 22) - - Fruit-body with hymenium smooth or spread-out on teeth, ridges or - plates or if within tubes then fruit-body tough and leathery - Aphyllophorales (p. 135) - - 4. Basidia divided 5 - - Basidia simple and apex drawn out into two long necks Plate 61 (p. - 185) Dacrymycetales (p. 180) - - 5. Basidia divided transversely by one to three horizontal septae - Plate 60 (p. 183) Auriculariales (p. 182) - - Basidia divided into two or four cells by vertical septae Plate 61 - (p. 185) Tremellales (p. 184) - - - - -A. AGARICS AND THEIR RELATIVES - - -Key to major genera - - 1. Spores distinctly coloured in mass and coloured individually under - the microscope 2 - - Spores not, or faintly, coloured in mass and hyaline under the - microscope 25 - - 2. Spores blackish or some shade of brown 8 - - Spores pinkish 3 - - 3. Stem laterally attached to the cap or absent - _Claudopus_ (and some species of _Clitopilus_) - - Stem centrally attached to the cap 4 - - 4. Stem with a cup-like structure enveloping the base _Volvariella_ - - Stem lacking any special structure at its base 5 - - 5. Gills not attached to the stem (free), or with part attached to - and descending down the stem (decurrent) 6 - - Gills attached to the stem but not descending down the stem 7 - - 6. Gills remote to free from the stem _Pluteus_ - - Gills distinctly attached and descending down the stem - _Clitopilus_ (see also _Eccilia_ p. 102) - - 7. Gills broadly attached to the stem (adnate) _Entoloma_ - - Gills narrowly attached to the stem (adnexed) - _Leptonia_ & _Nolanea_ - - 8. Stem laterally attached to the cap _Crepidotus_ - - Stem centrally attached to the cap 9 - - 9. Spore-print some shade of brown 10 - - Spore-print blackish to purplish black 18 - - 10. Spore-print bright rust-brown 11 - - Spore-print dull clay-brown or ochraceous 16 - - 11. Stem with the veil girdling the stem (ring), or cobweb-like - (cortina) 12 - - Stem without the veil girdling the stem or when present then - easily lost 13 - - 12. Stem with distinct ring or ring-zone _Pholiota_ & related genera - - Stem with cobweb-like veil or faint filamentous ring-zone - _Cortinarius_ & _Gymnopilus_ - - 13. Gills attached to the stem but not descending down the stem - (adnexed to adnate) 14 - - Gills free of the stem, or distinctly attached to and running down - the stem (decurrent), and then often joined together at the apex - of the stem or at their base 15 - - 14. Cap-surface composed of rounded cells _Conocybe_ - - Cap-surface composed of filamentous cells _Galerina_ - - 15. Gills free of the stem and the whole fruit-body very fragile - _Bolbitius_ - - Gills attached to and running down the stem (decurrent), easily - separable from the cap-tissue and frequently veined at apex of - stem _Paxillus_ - - 16. Cap scaly, fibrillose and roughened _Inocybe_ - - Cap smooth, greasy or viscid 17 - - 17. Cap-surface composed of rounded cells _Agrocybe_ - - Cap-surface composed of filamentous cells _Naucoria_ & _Hebeloma_ - - 18. Gills or complete fruit-body becoming liquefied _Coprinus_ - - Neither the gills nor fruit-body collapsing into a slurry of cells - 19 - - 19. Gills free to remote from the stem or attached and descending down - the stem (decurrent) 20 - - Gills attached in some way to the stem but not descending down the - stem (adnate to adnexed) 21 - - 20. Gills decurrent; stem possessing a cobweb-like veil - _Gomphidius_ and _Chroogomphus_ - - Gills remote or free; stem possessing a usually persistent ring - _Agaricus_ - - 21. Gills distinctly spotted or distinctly mottled; stem stiff but - breaking with a snap when bent; growing on dung or in richly - manured areas _Panaeolus_ - - Gills not spotted or distinctly mottled; stem cartilaginous or - not, and fruit-body growing on dung or not 22 - - 22. Gills broadly attached to the stem (adnate) and with a veil - girdling the stem _Stropharia_ - - Gills narrowly attached to the stem (adnexed) or with concave - dentation near the stem (sinuate), or if adnate then lacking a - ring 23 - - 23. Gills with concave indentation near the stem (sinuate) and cap and - stem with a cobweb-like veil _Hypholoma_ - - Gills attached to the stem but lacking a distinct concave - indentation near the stem 24 - - 24. Stem stiff but breaking with a snap when bent; edge of cap - incurved at first and cap-surface composed of filamentous cells - _Psilocybe_ - - Stem fragile; edge of cap straight even when young and cap-surface - composed of rounded cells _Psathyrella_ - - 25. Fruit-body fleshy and readily decaying, often firm but never tough - 26 - - Fruit-body tough and not easily decaying 47 - - 26. Parasitic on other agarics _Nyctalis_ - - Not parasitic on other agarics 27 - - 27. Spore-bearing layer on fold-like often forked gills or simply on - irregularities 28 - - Spore-bearing layer (hymenium), on distinct well-formed gills 29 - - 28. Spore-bearing layer on fold-like gills _Cantharellus_ - - Spore-bearing layer on surface of irregularities _Craterellus_ - - 29. Cap easily separable from the stem 30 - - Cap not easily separable from the stem 31 - - 30. Stem with girdling veil (ring) and/or with a persistent cup-like - structure at the base (volva); cap usually with warts or scales - distributed on its surface _Amanita_ - - Stem with a ring but lacking a volva; cap surface powdery, hairy - or scaly _Lepiota_ & related genera - - 31. Cap, stem and gills brittle; stem never stiff and either exuding - a milk-like juice or not; spores with spines or warts which stain - blue-black in solutions containing iodine 32 - - Cap, stem and gills soft or if stem stiff then snapping when bent; - gills never brittle 33 - - 32. Fruit-body exuding a milk-like fluid _Lactarius_ - - Fruit-body not exuding milk-like fluid _Russula_ - - 33. Gills thick, watery and lustrous (waxy) or with a bloom as if - powdered with talc; often brightly coloured 34 - - Gills not waxy and rarely over 1·5 mm thick 36 - - 34. Gills rather watery and lustrous (waxy); spores smooth 35 - - Gills rigid not watery, with powdery bloom; spores with distinct - spines _Laccaria_ - - 35. Fruit-body with a distinct veil and growing in woods; cap often - viscid or pale coloured _Hygrophorus_ - - Fruit-body lacking a veil and usually growing in fields; cap - usually brightly coloured and sometimes viscid _Hygrocybe_ - - 36. Stem with girdling veil (ring) and/or stem not attached to the - centre of the cap (eccentric) 37 - - Stem central and lacking a ring 38 - - 37. Stem central and possessing a ring _Armillaria_ - - Stem not centrally attached to the cap - members of the ‘_Pleurotaceae_’ (p. 74) - - 38. Stem fibrous 39 - - Stem stiff only in the outer layers 42 - - 39. Gills with a concave indentation near the stem (sinuate) 40 - - Gills attached to and descending down the stem (decurrent) 41 - - 40. Spores with warts which darken in solutions containing iodine - _Melanoleuca_ - - Spores not so colouring in solutions containing iodine - _Tricholoma_ & related genera - - 41. Spores with warts which darken in solutions containing iodine - _Leucopaxillus_ - - Spores not so colouring in solutions containing iodine - _Tricholoma_ & related genera - - 42. Gills thick and with rather blunt edges - _Cantharellula_ & _Hygrophoropsis_ - - Gills thin and with distinct and sharp edges 43 - - 43. Gills attached to and descending down the stem (decurrent); cap - often depressed at the centre and sterile cells absent from the - gills and the surface of the cap _Clitocybe_ & _Omphalina_ - - Gills attached to the stem but not descending down the stem - (adnate to adnexed) or if descending then distinct sterile cells - on the gills, cap and stem 44 - - 44. Cap-edge straight and usually striate when young; cap thin and - somewhat conical and gills descending down the stem or not - _Mycena_ & related genera - - Cap-edge incurved, non-striate and cap rather fleshy; gills not - descending down the stem 45 - - 45. Stem dark and woolly at least in the lower half and the cap - viscid; fruit-bodies growing in clusters on tree-trunks - _Flammulina_ - - Stem not dark and woolly 46 - - 46. Cap viscid and stem usually rooting; fruit-body growing directly - on wood or attached to wood by long strands or cords of mycelium - (rhizomorphs) _Oudemansiella_ - - If cap viscid then fruit-body neither attached to wood by cords of - mycelium nor stem with a rooting base _Collybia_ & related genera - - 47. Stem central and gills often interconnected by veins; cap can be - dried and later revived, purely by moistening - _Marasmius_ & related genera - - Stem not attached to the centre of the cap and fruit-body although - persistent not easily revived to natural shape after once being - dried 48 - - 48. Spore-print blue-black with solutions containing iodine 49 - - Spore-print yellowish in solutions containing iodine 50 - - 49. Gills toothed or notched along the edges _Lentinellus_ - - Gills even along their edges and not toothed _Panellus_ - - 50. Gills appearing as if split down their middles _Schizophyllum_ - - Gills not splitting 51 - - 51. Gills notched or toothed along their edges _Lentinus_ - - Gills even along their edges and not toothed _Panus_ - - 52. Spore print yellowish, purplish, black or pink 53 - - Spore-print some shade of brown, but without purplish flush 56 - - 53. Spore-print yellowish or pinkish 54 - - Spore-print purplish brown or blackish 55 - - 54. Spore-print yellowish _Gyroporus_ - - Spore-print pinkish _Tylopilus_ - - 55. Spore-print purplish brown _Porphyrellus_ - - Spore-print blackish and spores ornamented _Strobilomyces_ - - 56. Cap glutinous and stem with or without girdling veil (ring); - within the tubes the sterile cells (cystidia) cluster together - _Suillus_ - - Cap at most viscid and then only in wet weather and sterile cells - within the tubes individually placed 57 - - 57. Stem-surface covered with distinct black or dark brown or white - then darkening scales; spore-print clay-brown with or without a - flush of cinnamon-pinkish brown _Leccinum_ - - Stem-surface covered completely or in part with a network or - pattern of faint lines or pale yellow or red-rust but never black - dots; spore-print olivaceous buff _Boletus_ & related genera - - -(i) Agarics of woodlands and copses - - -(a) Mycorrhizal formers - - -~Leccinum scabrum~ (Fries) S. F. Gray - - Birch rough stalks or Brown birch-bolete. - - _Cap_: width 45-150 mm. _Stem_: length 70-200 mm; width 20-30 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 1. - - Cap: convex and becoming only slightly expanded at maturity, pale - brown, tan or buff, soft, surface dry, but in wet weather becoming - quite tacky, smooth or streaky-wrinkled and cap-margin not overhanging - the tubes. - - Stem: white, buff or greyish, roughened by scurfy scales which are - minute, pale and arranged in irregular lines at the stem-apex, and - enlarged and dark brown to blackish towards the base. - - Tubes: depressed about the stem, white becoming yellowish brown at - maturity, with small, white pores which become buff at maturity and - bruise distinctly yellow-brown or pale pinkish brown when touched. - - Flesh: watery, very soft in the cap lacking distinctive smell and - either not changing on exposure to the air or only faintly becoming - pinkish or pale peach-colour. - - Spore-print: brown with flush of pinkish brown when freshly prepared. - - Spores: very long, spindle-shaped, smooth, pale honey-coloured under - the microscope and more than 14 µm in length (14-20 µm long × 5-6 µm - broad). - - Marginal cystidia: numerous and flask-shaped. Facial cystidia: sparse, - similar to marginal cystidia. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Found in copses and woods containing birch - trees, or even accompanying solitary birches. - - _General Information_: This fungus is recognised by the pale brown - cap, the white, unchanging or hardly changing flesh and the cap-margin - not overhanging the tubes. There are several closely related fungi - which also grow with birch trees but they need some experience in - order to distinguish them. This fungus was formerly placed in the - genus _Boletus_, indeed it will be found in many books under this - name. Species of _Leccinum_ are edible and considered delicacies in - continental Europe. The majority can be separated from the other - fleshy fungi with pores beneath the cap, i.e. boletes, by the black to - brown scaly stem and rather long, elongate spores. The scales on the - stem give rise to the common name ‘Rough stalks’ which is applied to - this whole group of fungi. - - _Illustrations_: F 39C; Hvass 253; LH 122; NB 155⁶; WD 89¹. - - -~Suillus grevillei~ (Klotzsch) Singer - - Larch-bolete - - _Cap_: width 30-100 mm. _Stem_: width 15-20 mm; length 50-70 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 2. - - Cap: convex or umbonate at first, later expanding and then becoming - plano-convex, golden-yellow or rich orange-brown, very slimy because - of the presence of a pale yellow sticky fluid. - - Stem: apex reddish and dotted or ornamented with a fine network, - cream-coloured about the centre because of the presence of a ring - which soon collapses, ultimately appearing only as a pale yellow zone; - below the ring the stem is yellowish or rusty brown, particularly when - roughly handled. - - Tubes: adnate to decurrent, deep yellow but becoming flushed - wine-coloured on exposure to the air, with angular and small - sulphur-yellow pores which become pale pinkish brown to lilaceous or - pale wine-coloured when handled. - - Flesh: with no distinctive smell, pale yellow immediately flushing - lilaceous when exposed to the air, but finally becoming dingy - red-brown, sometimes blue or green in the stem-base. - - Spore-print: brown with distinct yellowish tint when freshly prepared. - - Spores: long, ellipsoid, smooth and pale honey when under the - microscope, less than 12 µm in length (8-11 µm long × 3-4 µm broad). - - Marginal cystidia: in bundles and encrusted with amorphous brown, oily - material. Facial cystidia: similar in shape and morphology to marginal - cystidia. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Found on the ground accompanying larch - trees either singly or more often in rings or troops. - - _General Information_: This fungus is easily recognised by the poorly - developed ring, overall golden-yellow colour and pale yellow - viscidness on the cap which comes off on to the fingers when the - fruit-body is handled. There are several closely related fungi - which also grow with coniferous trees, e.g. _Suillus luteus_ Fries, - ‘Slippery jack’, but many need experience in order to identify them. - All these fungi were formerly placed in the genus _Boletus_, because - of the fleshy fruit-body with pores beneath the cap. The larch-bolete - receives its common name from the close relationship of the fungus - with the larch. On drying _S. luteus_ and _S. grevillei_ may strongly - resemble one another but the former can be distinguished when fresh by - the chocolate brown, sepia, or purplish brown cap and the large - whitish, lilac-tinted ring. - -[Illustration: Plate 1. Fleshy fungi: Spores borne within tubes] - -[Illustration: Plate 2. Fleshy fungi: Spores borne within tubes] - - Species of _Suillus_ are edible and rank highly in continental - cook-books, although they have disagreeably gelatinous-slimy caps, a - character, in fact, which helps to separate them from other fleshy - pore-fungi. - - _Illustrations_: F 41a; Hvass 257; ML 187; NB 104⁴; WD 84². - - -~Boletus badius~ Fries - - Bay-coloured bolete - - _Cap_: width 70-130 mm. _Stem_: width 34-37 mm; length 110-125 mm. - (36-40 mm at base). - - _Description_: Plate 3. - - Cap: hemispherical, minutely velvety, but soon becoming smooth and - distinctly viscid in wet weather, red-brown flushed with date-brown - and darkening even more with age and in moist weather to become - bay-brown. - - Stem: similarly coloured to the cap but paler particularly at the - apex, smooth or with faint, longitudinal furrows which are often - powdered with minute, dark brown dots. - - Tubes: adnate or depressed about the stem, lemon-yellow but - immediately blue-green when exposed to the air and with angular, - rather large similarly coloured, pores which equally rapidly turn - blue-green when touched. - - Flesh: strongly smelling earthy, pale yellow but becoming pinkish in - centre of the cap, and blue in the stem and above the tubes when - exposed to the air, but finally becoming dirty yellow throughout. - - Spore-print: brown with a distinct olivaceous flush. - - Spores: long, spindle-shaped, smooth, honey-coloured under the - microscope and greater than 12 µm in length (13-15 µm long × 5 µm - broad). - - Marginal cystidia: numerous, flask-shaped and slightly yellowish. - - Facial cystidia: scattered and infrequent and similar to marginal - cystidia in shape. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Found in woods, especially accompanying - pine trees, but often found fruiting on the site of former coniferous - trees, even years after the trunks or the stumps have been removed. - - _General Information_: This fungus is recognised by the rounded, - red-brown cap, coupled with the pale yellow flesh and greenish yellow - tubes, both of which become greenish blue when exposed to the air. - There are several species in the genus _Boletus_ which stain blue at - the slightest touch or when the flesh is exposed to the air, e.g. _B. - erythropus_ (Fries) Secretan, a common bolete with a dark olivaceous - cap, orange pores and red-dotted stem. - - The flesh of some species of _Boletus_, e.g. _B. edulis_ Fries, - however, remains unchanged or at most becomes flushed slightly - pinkish. Although many people say they recognise _B. edulis_, the - ‘Penny-bun’ bolete--a name derived from the colour of the cap, there - is some doubt as to whether the true _B. edulis_ is common in Britain - as we are led to believe. _B. edulis_ and its relatives are highly - recommended as edible (see p. 35). _B. badius_ is also edible, but it - is ill-advised to eat any bolete which turns blue when cut open. - - _Illustrations_: _B. badius_--F 38c; Hvass 248 (not very good); LH - 191; NB 109⁵; WD 85¹. _B. edulis_: F 42a; Hvass 246; LH 191; NB 143³. - - -General notes on Boletes - -There are nearly seventy boletes recorded for the British Isles and -evidence of others which have as yet not been fully documented. As a -group they are characterised by being fleshy, possessing a central stem -and producing their spores within the tubes, and not on gills as in the -common mushroom. It is the first character by which the boletes differ -so markedly from the other pored fungi, such as the ‘Scaly Polypore’ -(see p. 140). - -The boletes have long been classified in the genus _Boletus_, but -instead of referring all the pored, fleshy fungi to a single large genus -several genera are now recognised. The separation of these genera is -based on differences in colour of the spore-print and differences in the -anatomy of the tubes, cap and stem, etc., e.g. members of the genus -_Suillus_ have colourless or pale coloured dots on the stem exuding a -resin-like liquid in wet weather, which is clear and glistening in some -species but turbid and whitish in others, gradually darkening and -hardening so that the stem is ultimately covered in dark brown or -reddish smears or spots; members of the genus _Leccinum_ on the other -hand never exude liquid and have coarse or fine roughenings on the stem -which are usually dark, but may commence white and ultimately darken -depending on the species; many species of _Boletus_ possess a very -distinct raised network all over the stem, whilst others have it present -only in part, or have minute, often brightly coloured, dots replacing -it. - -[Illustration: Plate 3. Fleshy fungi: Spores borne within tubes] - -Within this single, yet not particularly large, group of fungi, several -biological phenomena are demonstrable. There is good evidence that the -majority of British boletes are mycorrhizal; several species are known -to be associated only with one species of tree or group of closely -related tree-species. Thus _Suillus grevillei_ and _S. aeruginascens_ -(Secretan) Singer grow in association with larch trees; _S. luteus_ and -_Boletus badius_ in contrast grow in association with pine trees; -_Leccinum scabrum_ with birch trees; _L. aurantiacum_ (Fries) S. F. -Gray, with poplar trees and _L. quercinum_ (Pilát) Green & Watling, with -oak trees. - -_Boletus edulis_ can be separated into several distinct subspecies which -are associated with different trees; the two commonest subspecies are -those associated with birch and with beech trees. It is well known that -although present in this country during the warmer periods of the -Ice-Age, larch neither survived the intense cold of the last advance of -the ice nor migrated back into Britain after the ice had melted. Thus -all larches which we see in Britain have been planted by man. There is -little doubt that mycelia of many fungi were introduced along with these -plants very probably including the mycelium of the larch-bolete. A -similar pattern can be seen with other introduced trees, although not to -such a marked degree, e.g. spruce trees. The beech tree, however, is -native to the south of England, unlike the larch returning to this -country after the ice had melted; it has been planted extensively -outside its former range in northern areas of the British Isles taking -with it its associated fungi. There is some evidence that some stocks of -beech and fungi have been introduced from continental Europe in -comparatively recent times. - -A parallel, yet inexplicable association is found between the bolete -_Suillus bovinus_ (Fries) O. Kuntze and its close relative _Gomphidius -roseus_ (Fries) Karsten where the mycelium of two fungi are found -intertwined forming a close association! Parasitism although rare is -also found amongst the boletes, and an uncommon parasitism at that--a -fungus on a fungus; for example in Britain although infrequent _Boletus -parasiticus_ Fries grows attached and ultimately replaces the -spore-tissue of the common earth-ball (_Scleroderma_, see p. 192). - -Those fungi which grow on dead and decaying substrates are called -saprophytes and although the greater number of higher fungi would be -included in this class of organisms the character is infrequent amongst -the boletes. One British example of this type of fungus is the rare -_Boletus sphaerocephalus_ Barla which grows on woody debris. - -Chemists have long been interested in boletes, for as noted above the -flesh of some species when exposed to the atmosphere turns vivid -colours, a feature often incorporated into the Latin name, e.g. _Boletus -purpureus_ Persoon, from the purple colours produced whenever the -fruit-body is handled. The reaction appears to be an oxidation where in -the presence of an enzyme and oxygen a pigmented substance or substances -are produced. What the significance of these colour-changes is in nature -is as yet unknown; however, what is interesting is that many of the -chemicals involved are unique and have only recently been analysed -completely; they are related to the quinones. - -There is little doubt that it is this rapid and intense blueing of the -flesh of many boletes that has lead to a belief that they are poisonous. -It is uncertain whether there are any truly toxic species of _Boletus_ -but several have unpleasant smells and tastes which make them very -unattractive. _Boletus edulis_ is the important ingredient, however, -which gives the distinctive taste to so-called dried mushroom soup. -Thousands of fruit-bodies are collected annually in the forests of -Europe to be later dried and processed for incorporation into soup. -Boletes appear to form an important part of the diet of several rodents -and deer and in Scandinavia in the diet of reindeer. - -Probably one of the most obscure of our British boletes is -_Strobilomyces floccopus_ (Fries) Karsten, the ‘Old Man of the Woods’. -It has a black, white and grey woolly, scaly cap and stem, and the flesh -distinctly reddens when exposed to the air. The spores are almost -spherical, purple-black in colour and covered in a coarse network when -seen under the microscope. All these characters readily separate -_Strobilomyces_ from all other European boletes; however, in -Australasia, members of this and related genera form a very important -part of the flora. - - -~Chroogomphus rutilus~ (Fries) O. K. Miller - - Pine spike-cap - - _Cap_: width 30-150 mm. _Stem_: width 10-18 mm; length 60-120 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: convex with a pronounced often sharp umbo, wine-coloured, flushed - with bronze-colour at centre and yellow or ochre at margin, viscid but - soon drying and then becoming paler and quite shiny. - - Stem: yellowish orange, apricot-coloured or peach-coloured, streaked - with dull wine-colour, spindle-shaped or narrowed gradually to the - apex from a more or less pointed base. - - Gills: arcuate-decurrent, distant, at first greyish sepia then dingy - purplish with paler margin, but finally entirely dark purplish brown. - - Flesh: lacking distinctive smell and reddish yellow or pale tan in the - cap, rich apricot- or peach-colour towards the stem-base. - - Spore-print: purplish black. - - Spores: very long, spindle-shaped, smooth, olivaceous purple and - greater than 20 µm in length (20-23 × 6-7 µm). - - Marginal cystidia: cylindrical to lance-shaped and up to 100 × 15 µm. - - Facial cystidia: similar to marginal cystidia. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Found in pine woods, usually solitary or - in small groups. Fairly common throughout the British Isles and - characteristic of Scots Pine woods. - - _General Information_: This fungus can be distinguished by the - purplish or wine-coloured cap and the gills being pigmented from - youth. There is only one other British species of this genus, i.e. _C. - corallinus_ Miller & Watling. - - _Chroogomphus_ is separated from _Gomphidius_ by the flesh having an - intense blue-black reaction when placed in solutions containing - iodine, and the gills being coloured from their youth. In many books - _Chroogomphus_ is placed in synonymy with the genus _Gomphidius_. - However, _Gomphidius glutinosus_ (Fries) Fries, _G. roseus_ (Fries) - Karsten and _G. maculatus_ Fries all have whitish gills when immature - which gradually darken, and their flesh simply turns orange-brown in - solutions of iodine. _G. glutinosus_ is uniformly grey in colour and - is most frequently found under spruce and other introduced conifers: - _G. roseus_ has a pale-pinkish coloured cap and white stem, and grows - with pine; _G. maculatus_ grows under larch and is flushed lilaceous - at first but becomes strongly spotted with brown when handled. - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 192; LH 213; WD 83^{a}. - -[Illustration: Plate 4. Fleshy fungi: Spores blackish and borne on -gills] - - -~Paxillus involutus~ (Fries) Karsten - - Brown roll-rim - - _Cap_: width 50-120 mm. _Stem_: width 8-15 mm; height 30-75 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: at first convex with a strongly inrolled, downy margin, but then - expanded and later frequently depressed towards the centre, - clay-coloured, ochre or yellow-rust, slightly velvety but becoming - smooth or sticky particularly in wet weather and readily bruising - red-brown when fresh. - - Stem: central or slightly eccentric, thickened upwards, - fibrillose-silky, similarly coloured to the cap but typically streaked - with red-brown particularly with age. - - Gills: ochre or yellow-brown then rust and finally darker brown, - decurrent, crowded, often branched and united about the apex of the - stem; easily peeled from the flesh with the fingers and rapidly - becoming red-brown on handling. - - Flesh: thick, soft and with slightly astringent smell and yellowish to - brownish but becoming red-brown after exposure to the air. - - Spore-print: rust-brown. - - Spores: medium-sized, ellipsoid, smooth, deep yellow-brown and rarely - greater than 10 µm in length (8-10 × 5-6 µm). - - Marginal cystidia: numerous lance-shaped or spindle-shaped. - - Facial cystidia: scattered and similar in shape to marginal cystidia. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Found on heaths and in mixed woods, - particularly where birch has or is now growing, or even accompanying - solitary birch trees. - - _General Information_: This fungus is easily recognisable by the - strongly inrolled, woolly margin of the cap and yellow-brown gills - which are easily separable from the cap-flesh. _P. rubicundulus_ P. D. - Orton is similar but grows under alder and has yellow gills unchanging - when handled and dark scales on the cap. _P. atrotomentosus_ (Fries) - Fries and _P. panuoides_ (Fries) Fries both grow on coniferous wood - and have smaller spores; the former is recognised by the dark brown to - almost black shaggy stem and the latter by the shell-shaped cap devoid - almost completely of a stem. - - _Illustrations_: F 41c; Hvass 189; LH 185; NB 115⁸; WD 70². - -[Illustration: Plate 5. Fleshy fungi: Spores brown and borne on gills] - - -~Cortinarius pseudosalor~ J. Lange - - _Cap_: width 60-125 mm. _Stem_: width 15-25 mm; length up to 180 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: bell-shaped or bluntly conical only slightly expanding with - maturity, smooth or wrinkled at centre but often furrowed at the - margin, slimy, brown with a distinct olive flush when in fresh - condition and becoming ochraceous brown and shiny when dry. - - Stem: usually swollen to some degree about the middle, slimy - particularly towards the base, whitish throughout when young except - for a faint amethyst or violaceous flush in the lower part; as the - slime dries the stem becomes shiny and the outer surface breaks up - into fibrillose scales or scaly, irregular ring-zones. - - Flesh: lacking distinct smell, white with ochraceous flush in the cap, - white in the stem, thick and soft in the cap but fibrous in the stem. - - Gills: adnate, broad, rather thick, frequently veined and distant, - ochraceous brown and finally deep rust-brown. - - Spore-print: rust-colour. - - Spores: long, slightly almond-shaped in side view, finely warted - throughout and not less than 12 µm in length (13-14 × 7-8 µm). - - Marginal cystidia: ellipsoid or club-shaped, hardly different from the - surrounding undeveloped basidia. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Found on the ground in copses and woods - especially those containing beech. - - _General Information_: Recognised by the conical, grooved cap and the - slimy spindle-shaped stem with a distinct violaceous flush; this - fungus is often misnamed _C. elatior_ Fries but this is a much less - common fungus. There are several closely related fungi, but these grow - with other tree-species and need much more experience to distinguish - one from the other. _C. pinicola_ P. D. Orton is one such species - growing in the litter under _Pinus sylvestris_, Scots Pine; this - species is fairly common in the remnant pine woods of Northern - Scotland. The large size, sticky or glutinous cap and stem indicate - that this fungus belongs to _Cortinarius_, subgenus _Myxacium_. - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 145; LH 162; NB 119; WD 60¹. - -[Illustration: Plate 6. Fleshy fungi: Spores brown and borne on gills] - - -General notes on Cortinarii - -The genus _Cortinarius_ is the largest genus of agarics in the British -Isles, indeed in Europe and North America--perhaps in the world. It -includes some of our most beautiful agarics, yet it is one of the least -satisfying to the mycologist because of the difficulties experienced in -identifying collections--partly because many species are so seldom seen. - -_Cortinarius_ contains just under two hundred and fifty recognisable -British species, although recent research has shown that many more are -yet to be described from this country as new to science. Except for some -very characteristic species the individual members within the genus -_Cortinarius_ are often very difficult to separate one from the other; -however, _Cortinarius_ is one of our least difficult genera to recognise -in the field owing to the presence when mature of rust-coloured gills -and a cobwebby veil which extends from the margin of the cap to the -stem. This structure is termed a cortina (Fig. 14) and in young -specimens covers the gills with delicate filaments. As the cap expands -the cottony or cobwebby filaments are stretched and either disappear -entirely or may collapse to form a ring-like zone of filaments on the -stem. In some species a second completely enveloping veil is also found, -and this veil is viscid in one distinct group of which _C. pseudosalor_ -already described is a member. The gills in the genus are variable in -colour when young although constant for a single species; they may be -lilaceous purple, orange, brown, red, yellow-ochraceous or tan, but -ultimately in all members at maturity they become rust-colour. The -spores under the microscope are richly coloured, yellow to red-brown and -are frequently strongly warted; in mass they are rust-brown and this -character coupled with the presence of the cobweb-like veil -characterises the genus. - -Within the genus _Cortinarius_ there is a wide range of characters -varying from species with distinctly sticky caps and stems, some with -sticky caps and dry stems to those with both dry caps and stems. A few -species are very large and fleshy whilst others are quite slender and -many of the latter rapidly change colour on drying out and are then said -to be hygrophanous. However, although there is such a large spectrum of -characters in a single genus the species all have in common the cortina -and rust-coloured gills, the latter often appearing as if powdered with -rusty dust. - -Utilising the characters mentioned above this very large genus can be -split into the following six sections, called by the mycologist -subgenera: - - a. Large to medium sized fleshy agarics with viscid caps and - stems--_Myxacium_ - - b. Large, fleshy agarics with viscid or tacky caps when fresh but dry - stems--_Phlegmacium_ - - c. Large to medium sized agarics with dry, scaly or humid caps and dry - stems which if orange tawny are robust--_Cortinarius_ - - d. Medium, rarely large, agarics with dry, silky to innately - fibrillose caps, slender stems and frequently with at least part of - the fruit-body yellow, orange or reddish--_Dermocybe_ - - e. Medium to small agarics with silky fibrillose, non-hygrophanous - caps which may become tacky in wet weather and then usually with - robust, clavate-bulbous stems--_Sericeocybe_ - - f. Small, less frequently medium or large agarics, all with distinctly - hygrophanous caps--_Hydrocybe_. - -In several continental books some or all of these divisions are -recognised as distinct genera in their own right. The subgenus -_Telamonia_ which occurs in many texts was formerly thought to differ -from _Hydrocybe_ in the presence of a universal veil; the universal veil -is a second veil which completely envelopes the fruit-body when it is -young and is in addition to the cortina. However, the modern treatment -would seem to suggest that the presence of the universal veil is not of -the utmost importance and so the two subgenera are incorporated into -one. The name _Hydrocybe_ reflects the character of changing colour as -it dries out because of the loss of water. Within each subgenus the -species are distinguished by the colour of the young gills and of the -cap, the veil colour and texture, and microscopic characters of the -spores, particularly their size. - -The majority of species of _Cortinarius_ are mycorrhizal and like the -boletes possess very specific relationships with tree species. Thus some -are typical of coniferous woodland and others typical of deciduous -woodland in general, whilst others typify woods of a particular tree, -e.g. beech, oak, birch, pine, larch. Some species are characteristic of -woods on limestone or chalky soils (calcareous) whilst others are -characteristic of woods on sandy, heathy acidic soils. For example, -_Cortinarius armillatus_ (Fries) Fries which is found in damp woods and -possesses one or more cinnabar-red or scarlet zones on the stem and red -fibrils at the stem-base appears to be connected with birch. Several -species are associated with native trees whilst others have undoubtedly -been introduced from abroad. They are very important in the economy of -the woodland ecosystem. - -One of the most beautiful and easily distinguished of our British -species is _Cortinarius violaceus_ (Fries) Fries which has uniformly -deep violet-coloured stem and cap and coloured cystidia on the -gill-margin, a character unusual in _Cortinarius_. - -No species are known to be truly poisonous and many species are known to -be edible, but many are too small to be of any value. Some of the larger -species are regarded as good to eat, but frequently are too scarce. Thus -the necessity for experience to recognise the different species, coupled -with their often unpleasant tastes make them an unimportant group of -agarics for eating. - - -~Russula ochroleuca~ (Secretan) Fries - - Common yellow russula - - _Cap_: width 50-100 mm. _Stem_: width 20-35 mm; length 50-100 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 7. - - Cap: yellow-ochre or dull yellow becoming paler with age, or flushed - faintly greyish green, convex but soon expanding and becoming flat or - depressed in the centre, smooth, or granular when young and slightly - tacky in wet weather, faintly striate at the margin. - - Stem: white at first then flushed slightly greyish, smooth or - wrinkled, firm at first but quickly becoming soft and fragile. - - Flesh: brittle, firm at first then soft, white, yellow under - cap-centre. - - Gills: white at first then flushed pale cream-colour, brittle, adnexed - to free, rather distant. - - Spore-print: faintly cream when freshly prepared. - - Spores: medium-sized, hyaline, broadly ellipsoid or subglobose to - almost globose, coarsely ornamented with prominent warts which stain - blue-black when mounted in solutions containing iodine and which are - faintly interconnected by low ridges, about 8 × 7 µm in size (9-10 × - 7-8 µm). - - Marginal cystidia: prominent, lance- to spindle-shaped and often - filled with oily material. - - Facial cystidia: similar in shape to marginal cystidia and projecting - some distance from the gill-face. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Commonly found in mixed woods from summer - until late autumn. - - _General Information_: Easily recognised by the ochre-yellow cap, very - pale cream-coloured spore-print and greying stem. Two other - yellow-capped species of Russula are commonly found. R. claroflava - Grove with yellow spore-print and blackening fruit-body which grows - with birches in boggy places, and R. lutea (Fries) S. F. Gray which is - much smaller, having a cap up to 50 mm and very deep egg-yellow gills - and spore-print; it grows in deciduous woods. - - _Illustrations_: F 22a; Hvass 226; LH 119; NB 137¹; WD 49¹. - - -General notes on the genus _Russula_ - -A large genus with nearly one hundred distinct species in the British -Isles and several others yet unrecognised or undocumented. This genus is -composed generally of large toadstools often beautifully coloured, -indeed the majority have brightly coloured caps in reds, purples, -yellows or greens depending on the species although a few are -predominantly white bruising reddish brown or grey to some degree. - -Such large and distinctive fungi one would think would be the easiest -members of our flora to identify, unfortunately they are not. They form -a group quite isolated in their relations, the only close relatives -being members of the genus _Lactarius_, to be dealt with later (see p. -50). The flesh of members of both _Lactarius_ and _Russula_ contains -groups of rounded cells, a feature unique amongst agarics and explains -why in _Russula_ the fruit-bodies, cap and gills and sometimes the stem -are brittle and easily break if crushed between the fingers. The -fruit-body does not exude a milky liquid when the flesh is broken. - -The spore-print varies, depending on the species involved, from white to -deep ochre and individual spores are covered in a coarse ornamentation -which is composed of isolated warts or warts interconnected by raised -lines, or mixtures of both. The ornamentation stains deep blue-black -when the spores are mounted in solutions containing iodine and the -pattern which is produced appears in many cases to be of a specific -character. - -The majority of the species, if not all north-temperate species are -mycorrhizal and the familiar host-tree fungus relationship can be -recognised:-- - - _R. claroflava_ Grove, with birch in boggy places, _R. emetica_ - (Fries) S. F. Gray with pine in wet places, _R. betularum_ Hora with - birch in grassy copses and _R. sardonia_ Fries with pines. Brief notes - are here included giving the basic characters of eight common species, - but it must be appreciated the identification of many species within - this genus is difficult. - - -~R. atropurpurea~ (Krombholz) Britz. - - Blackish purple russula - - _Cap_: width 50-100 mm. _Stem_: width 14-25 mm; length 60-80 mm. - - Cap: deep reddish purple but becoming spotted with either cream-colour - or white blotches. - - Stem: white but becoming flushed greyish or stained brownish with age. - - Gills: white then very pale yellow. - - Flesh: white in cap and stem. - - Spore-print: white. - - On the ground in mixed woods and copses, particularly those containing - oak. - -[Illustration: Plate 7. Fleshy but brittle fungi: Spores whitish and -borne on gills] - - -~Russula cyanoxantha~ (Secretan) Fries - - _Cap_: width 50-150 mm. _Stem_: width 10-30 mm; length 50-100 mm. - - Cap: lilac, bluish to purple often with green tints. - - Stem: pure white. - - Gills: pure white. - - Flesh: white. - - Spore-print: white. - - Common in deciduous woods, especially beech-woods. - - -~R. emetica~ (Fries) S. F. Gray - - Emetic russula - - _Cap_: width 50-100 mm. _Stem_: width 8-15 mm; length 25-70 mm. - - Cap: bright scarlet fading with age to become spotted pinkish, - slightly viscid when moist. - - Stem: spongy, fragile. - - Flesh: white. - - Gills: pure white. - - Spore-print: pure white. - - In pine woods usually in boggy areas. - - -~R. fellea~ (Fries) Fries - - Geranium-scented russula - - _Cap_: width 40-75 mm. _Stem_: width 10-20 mm; length 30-75 mm. - - Cap: tacky when fresh, straw-coloured or pale tawny brown. - - Stem: similarly coloured to the cap. - - Gills and flesh: pale straw-colour and smelling of House Geraniums - (i.e. Pelargoniums). - - Spore-print: cream-coloured. - - Common under beech. - - -~R. foetens~ (Fries) Fries - - Foetid russula - - _Cap_: width 70-170 mm. _Stem_: width 15-30 mm; length 50-90 mm. - - Cap: slimy, dingy yellow to tawny, margin strongly furrowed and - ornamented with raised bumps. - - Stem: whitish then flushed or spotted with rust-brown. - - Gills: straw-coloured, often spotted brown with age and beaded with - watery droplets when growing under moist conditions. - - Flesh: white to cream, brittle and with foetid-oily smell. - - Spore-print: pale cream-colour. - - Common in deciduous woods. - - -~R. mairei~ Singer - - _Cap_: width 30-75 mm. _Stem_: width 7-15 mm; length 35-70 mm. - - Cap: scarlet red but developing creamy areas with age, dry. - - Stem and gills: white but with a distinct although faint greenish grey - flush, the former fairly firm. - - Flesh: white. - - Spore-print: pure white. - - Commonly accompanying beech, even individual trees in gardens. - - -~R. nigricans~ (Mérat) Fries - - Blackening russula - - _Cap_: width 75-200 mm. _Stem_: width 15-35 mm; length 25-75 mm. - - Cap: cream-coloured then flushed sooty brown, finally black as if - scorched by proximity to bonfire. - - Stem: white then dark brown. - - Gills: pale ochre reddening when bruised, thick and very distant. - - Flesh: white slowly dull red on cutting then brown and finally - changing soot-colour after some time. - - Spore-print: white. - - Common in deciduous woods. - - -~R. xerampelina~ (Secretan) Fries - - _Cap_: width 50-140 mm. _Stem_: width 15-30 mm; length 40-60 mm. - - Cap: deep blood-red or brownish red. - - Stem: white with a flush of red towards the base. - - Gills: cream then ochraceous. - - Flesh: white staining brownish and smelling strongly of fish- or - crab-paste, and staining dark green when a crystal of green iron - sulphate is rubbed into it. - - Spore-print: deep cream-colour. - - Common in mixed woods; a very variable fungus with many colour-forms, - but easily recognised by the green reaction with ferrous sulphate. - - -~Lactarius turpis~ (Weinm.) Fries - - Ugly milk-cap - - _Cap_: width 60-200 mm. _Stem_: width 10-25 mm; length 40-75 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: firm, convex usually with a central depression at maturity, dark - olive-brown or dark greyish olive with a yellow-tawny, woolly margin - when young which soon disappears, and the whole cap becomes sticky - with age and turns deep purple when a drop of household ammonia is - placed on it. - - Stem: short, stout, similarly coloured to the cap except for the - distinctly ochraceous apex, slimy and pitted. - - Gills: crowded, cream-coloured to pale straw-coloured, but soon - spotted with dirty brown, particularly when bruised. - - Flesh: white or greyish ochre exuding a milk-like liquid which lacks a - distinct smell and is white and unchanging when exposed to the air. - - Spore-print: pale pinkish buff. - - Spores: subglobose or ellipsoid and covered in a network of strongly - developed, raised lines interconnected by finer ones, both of which - stain blue-black in solutions containing iodine, generally 8 × 6 µm in - size (7-8 × 6-7 µm). - - Marginal cystidia: lance- or spindle-shaped and filled with oily - contents. - - Facial cystidia: similar to marginal cystidia. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in woods and copses, or on heaths - especially in boggy places but always where birch is growing. - - _General Information_: Easily recognised by the dull colours and - purple reaction with alkali; there is no British species with which - _L. turpis_ can be mistaken. The purple reaction is similar to that - found in the familiar school laboratory reagent litmus, for the - compound found in _L. turpis_ turns purple in alkali and reddens in - acidic solutions. First discovered by Harley in 1893 this reaction - marked the beginning of a whole series of chemical studies on the - agarics which has led to the discovery of many unique compounds. - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 214 (but too green); LH 213; NB 113³; WD 38¹. - - -General notes on the genus _Lactarius_ - -There is little doubt that the genus _Russula_ and the genus _Lactarius_ -are closely related; in fact they stand aside from the other agarics -in the very important character mentioned on page 46. In Europe the -easiest distinction between the two genera is that members of the genus -_Lactarius_ exude a milk-like juice which may be white or variously -coloured depending on the species involved (e.g. purple in _L. uvidus_ -(Fries) Fries, yellow in _L. chrysorheus_ Fries). The cap, stem and -frequently the gills are brittle and when broken liberate the milk-like -liquid; when the fruit-body is dry, however, the presence of this liquid -may be difficult to demonstrate. The spores have a blue-black -ornamentation under the microscope when mounted in iodine, and although -when in mass the colours are not as varied as those found in the genus -_Russula_ there is every likelihood that they will play an important -role in the classification of the group in the future. The colour of the -spore-print has been rather neglected, although the genus includes some -rather unusual fungi. - -[Illustration: Plate 8. Fleshy and milking fungi: Spores whitish and -borne on gills] - -The odours of many species are very distinct and vary from the smell of -coconut and spice to those of various flowers; an odour commonly met -with is termed ‘oily rancid resembling butter which has become mouldy’; -in early books it was described as being the smell of bed-bugs! - -The majority of the species are undoubtedly mycorrhizal: thus _L. -torminosus_ is found with birch, _L. deliciosus_ and _L. rufus_ with -conifers and _L. quietus_ with oak. Brief notes are given on additional -species:-- - - -~L. camphoratus~ (Fries) Fries - - Curry-centred milk-cap - - _Cap_: width 20-50 mm. _Stem_: length 20-50 mm; width 4-6 mm. - - Cap and stem: red-brown. - - Gills: reddish brown. - - Flesh: reddish buff with an aromatic odour resembling spices which - becomes very strong when dried and exudes a pale thin milk-like - liquid. - - Common in conifer woods and plantations. - - -~L. deliciosus~ (Fries) S. F. Gray - - Saffron milk-cap - - _Cap_: width 50-120 mm. _Stem_: length 20-60 mm; width 15-25 mm. - - Cap: viscid, dirty greyish ochre with flush of tawny but soon becoming - greenish with age. - - Stem: dirty buff or greyish ochre, spotted with green particularly - with age or on handling. - - Gills: orange-yellow bruising deep orange but becoming green with - time. - - Flesh: pinkish to apricot-coloured but becoming green with age and - exuding a rich orange-red fluid which gradually becomes greyish green. - - Frequent in conifer woods and plantations. - - -~L. glyciosmus~ (Fries) Fries - - Coconut-scented milk-cap - - _Cap_: width 20-50 mm. _Stem_: length 30-50 mm; width 5-8 mm. - - Cap: usually with a central ‘bump’, greyish lilac, dull and minutely - scaly or velvety. - - Stem: white to pale yellowish. - - Gills: pale yellowish to flesh-coloured then flushed lilaceous. - - Flesh: pale yellowish or flushed lilaceous, smelling strongly of - desiccated coconut and exuding a white unchanging milk-like liquid. - - In woods and on heaths, particularly where birch is growing. - - -~L. quietus~ (Fries) Fries - - Oak milk-cap - - _Cap_: width 30-80 mm. _Stem_: length 40-80 mm; width 10-15 mm. - - Cap and stem: milky cocoa-coloured, zoned with reddish brown. - - Gills: pale ochraceous then flushed red-brown. - - Flesh: similar to gills, smelling strongly of rancid oil, and exuding - a white, thin milk-like liquid which becomes very, very faintly yellow - on exposure to the air. - - Common wherever oak is growing. - - -~L. rufus~ (Fries) Fries - - Rufous milk-cap - - _Cap_: width 50-90 mm. _Stem_: length 50-90 mm; width 10-15 mm. - - Cap: dark red-brown with a distinct, usually sharp ‘bump’ in centre. - - Stem: pale red-brown throughout or whitish at base. - - Gills: pale reddish brown and exuding a white, unchanging milk-like - fluid. - - In pine woods and less frequently with birches on acid heaths. - - -~L. torminosus~ (Fries) S. F. Gray - - Woolly milk-cap - - _Cap_: width 40-150 mm. _Stem_: length 60-100 mm; width 15-30 mm. - - Cap: pale strawberry-pink or pale salmon colour, distinctly zoned, - slimy when wet at centre and strongly shaggy fibrillose at margin. - - Stem and gills: pale strawberry colour. - - Flesh: tinged salmon-pink and exuding a white unchangeable milk-like - liquid. - - Frequent where birches grow. - - -~Amanita muscaria~ (Fries) Hooker - - Fly agaric - - _Cap_: width 100-175 mm. _Stem_: width 30-40 mm; length 150-275 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: bright scarlet to orange-red with scattered whitish or yellowish - fragments of veil particularly towards the centre and hanging down - from the margin, viscid when moist, striate at margin with age. - - Stem: white, striate above the soft easily torn, although prominent, - ring which is white above and yellow below; stem-base swollen and - ornamented with patches of yellowish or white veil-fragments which - form concentric rings or ridges of tissue. - - Gills: white, free, crowded, fairly thick, minutely toothed at their - edge. - - Flesh: soft, lacking distinctive smell, or at times slightly earthy - and white, yellowish below cap-centre. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: long, hyaline under the microscope, ellipsoid, smooth about 10 - × 7 µm in size (10-13 × 7-8 µm). - - Marginal cystidia: composed of chains of swollen, hyaline cells. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Found in birch-woods, less frequently - collected in the vicinity of conifers; wide-spread and fairly common, - but it is erratic in its appearance giving the impression of being - absent from a locality until one season it suddenly fruits in - profusion. - - _General Information_: An easily recognised fungus because of its - striking colour. It is also very familiar and well-known because it - appears so often on Christmas cards, and features commonly in - illustrations in children’s story-books. The fungus contains a poison - which formerly was used to kill flies--hence the common name of ‘Fly - agaric’ and the scientific name from the latin name for the house-fly. - The red skin of the cap, where the major amount of the poison resides, - was cut up with a little milk and sugar or honey; flies attracted to - this sweet concoction inadvertently ate the poison and later perished. - This fungus has a very well documented and long history and appears in - the legends of many countries. It is featured in Greek mythology, - Slavic and Scandinavian folk-lore and indeed appears in the - pre-history of Indian tribes of N.E. Asia. It has even been connected - with the formation of certain sects within the early Christian church. - - _Illustrations_: F. frontispiece; Hvass 1; LH 117; NB 113¹; WD 2¹. - -[Illustration: Plate 9. Fleshy fungi: Spores white and borne on gills] - - -Notes on the genus _Amanita_ - -The genus _Amanita_ contains many important mycorrhizal fungi including -the ‘Blusher’, _A. rubescens_ (Fries) S. F. Gray, the ‘Tawny grisette’, -_A. fulva_ Secretan, and the ‘False death-cap’, _A. citrina_ S. F. Gray. -The first grows on heaths and in woods with a variety of trees; _A. -fulva_ frequently grows with birch and _A. citrina_ with several leafy -trees although its var. _alba_ (Gillet) E. J. Gilbert appears to be -confined to beech woods. However, there is some evidence that many -members of the genus in drier more southern countries than Britain, are -non-mycorrhizal. In fact the genus as a whole may be southern-temperate -in its distribution. In the British Isles the number of species of -_Amanita_ recorded decreases as one goes north, or the frequency of -single species except for a few widespread forms falls off northwards. -In a few cases a more familiar southern species is replaced in similar -habitats by another species, e.g. _A. phalloides_ (Fries) Secretan is -replaced by _A. virosa_ Secretan the ‘Destroying angel’ in Scotland, and -_A. citrina_ frequently in the north by _A. porphyria_ (Fries) Secretan. -Species of _Amanita_ are usually large conspicuous fungi and the genus -contains some of our best known agarics. One, _A. muscaria_ (Fries) -Hooker has already been mentioned, but the genus also includes the -‘Death-cap’ _A. phalloides_ and ‘Caesar’s mushroom’ _A. caesarea_ -(Fries) Schweinitz, a fungus not found in this country but considered to -be superior in edibility to all other fungi; thus edible and deadly -poisonous species are found closely related and this simply emphasises -how important it is not to eat the agarics one finds in the woods and -fields except when accompanied by a ‘real’ expert. Deaths or near -fatalities in Europe and North America are recorded annually due to the -eating of fungi belonging to this genus. - -The poisonous qualities of the fungi in this genus--only a very small -amount of poison is often sufficient to produce fatal results--has led -to a close connection between these fungi and black magic and the -supernatural. This connection is even more emphasised when it is learnt -that some have an intoxicating effect. Hence the long history mentioned -earlier. - -Members of the genus _Amanita_ are characterised by their anatomy and -certain macroscopic features; the former is illustrated under _A. -muscaria_, i.e. the divergent gill-trama. The main macroscopic character -of note is the presence of a volva at the base of the stem and it is -the details of this volva which helps to distinguish different species. -_A. phalloides_ has a distinct, loose, membranous sheath, in _A. -citrina_ the volva is reduced to a narrow rim around the bulbous stem -and in _A. rubescens_ and _A. muscaria_ the volva is simply a series of -concentric zones of woolly scales. All the four species noted above -possess a ring, but _A. fulva_ the ‘Tawny grisette’ and _A. vaginata_ -(Fries) Vittadini the ‘Grisette’ only possess a volva; this has lead to -the use of the generic name _Amanitopsis_ in many books, now no longer -considered necessary. - -The veil in _Amanita_ is probably the most highly developed amongst our -common agarics and from Appendix iv it can be seen how the scaly cap and -stem originate and how the volva differs from the ring. The volva and -cap-scales constitute what has been called the universal veil and the -ring which stretches from the cap margin to the stem has been termed the -partial veil. - -The spores of species of _Amanita_ are large and their shape and -chemical reactions help to distinguish the different species within the -genus. One of the most interesting features, however, is that the -spore-mass, although usually described as white, in many species is not -white but flushed greenish grey, etc. The slight subtleties in colour of -the spore-print assist in classification. - -The following notes may be instructive in conjunction with the -information above (for common names see above). - - -(i) Possessing a ring on the stem:-- - - -~A. citrina~ S. F. Gray - - _Cap_: width 55-80 mm. _Stem_: width 18-22 mm; length 70-80 mm. - - A lemon-yellow or whitish capped agaric with bulbous stem-base, white - patches of volva on cap and white stem with flesh strongly smelling of - new potatoes. - - Spores: almost globose and measuring 9-10 × 7-8 µm. - - -~A. excelsa~ (Fries) Kummer - - _Cap_: width 75-140 mm. _Stem_: width 20-28 mm; length 85-120 mm. - - A greyish or brownish capped agaric with clavate stem-base, grey - patches of volva on the cap and white concentrically scaly stem with - flesh unchanged on exposure to the air. - - Spores: broadly ellipsoid and measuring 9-10 × 8-9 µm. - - -~A. rubescens~ (Fries) S. F. Gray - - _Cap_: width 70-120 mm. _Stem_: width 12-25 mm; length 65-100 mm. - - A reddish fawn or pinkish buff capped agaric with swollen stem-base, - pinkish or flesh-coloured patches of volva on cap and reddish - concentrically scaly stem with flesh becoming reddish when exposed to - the air. - - Spores: ellipsoid and measuring 9-10 × 5-6 µm. - - -~A. pantherina~ (Fries) Secretan - - ‘Panther’ - - _Cap_: width 48-95 mm. _Stem_: width 12-20 mm; length 65-100 mm. - - An olive-brown or smoky brown capped agaric with only slightly swollen - stem-base, white patches of volva on the cap and white concentrically - scaly stem with unchanging flesh. - - Spores: ellipsoid and measuring 8-12 × 7 µm. - - -~A. phalloides~ (Fries) Secretan - - _Cap_: width 70-85 mm. _Stem_: width 12-20 mm; length 85-120 mm. - - A greenish or yellow-olive capped agaric with stem sheathed in - membranous volva, white patches of volva on cap and smooth, white stem - with white flesh. - - Spores: broadly ellipsoid and measuring 10-12 × 7 µm. - - -(ii) Lacking ring on stem:-- - - -~A. fulva~ Secretan - - _Cap_: width 40-60 mm. _Stem_: width 10-15 mm; length 100-150 mm. - - A thin, tawny-brown agaric with stem sheathed in membranous volva and - pale tawny, slightly scaly stem. - - Spores: globose and 10-12 µm in diameter. - - -~A. vaginata~ (Fries) Vittadini - - Differs from _A. fulva_ in the cap being metallic grey or silvery in - colour. - - -(b) Parasites - - -~Armillaria mellea~ (Fries) Kummer - - Honey-fungus - - _Cap_: width 50-150 mm. _Stem_: width 10-12 mm; length 75-150 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 10. - - Cap: at first convex then more or less flattened or slightly - depressed, very variable in colour, yellowish, olive, buff, - sand-coloured or some shade of brown, at first covered in small, - brownish or ochraceous scales which give the young cap a velvety - aspect, but gradually the scales disappear with age except at the - cap-centre; margin striate and usually paler than centre of the cap. - - Stem: equal or swollen at base, often several grouped together, white - at apex above a whitish, rather thick, ring which is flushed with - olive-yellow or red-brown at its margin; stem-base fibrillose, whitish - but finally red-brown at maturity. - - Gills: adnate or slightly decurrent, whitish then flushed flesh colour - and developing brownish spots with age or in cold, wet weather. - - Flesh: with rather strong and unpleasant smell, white or flushed - pinkish in the cap, brown and stringy in the stem. - - Spore-print: very pale cream colour. - - Spores: medium-sized, hyaline, ellipsoid, less than 10 µm in length - (8-9 × 5-6 µm). - - Marginal cystidia: variable, hyaline, cylindric and not - well-differentiated. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus grows in troops or is found - joined at the base to form clusters. It is always attached to old - trees, trunks, stumps and buried wood, either directly or by its - vegetative stage which darkens and aggregates to form strands - resembling boot-laces which are called rhizomorphs. - - _General Information_: This rather variable, and therefore often - perplexing, fungus causes a destructive rot of trees and can travel - long distances through the soil with the use of its rhizomorphs. It - commonly grows on several species of broad-leaved trees, but can also - colonise conifer trees. It also attacks garden shrubs, such as - privet-hedges, and is particularly destructive to Rhododendrons - causing a wilt of the whole shrub and subsequent death; it has also - been recorded as attacking potatoes. The actively growing mycelium - which can often be found growing under the bark of infected trees, - exhibits a luminosity if freshly exposed and placed in a darkened - room. The rhizomorphs of _A. mellea_ are highly specialised structures - composed of mycelial threads some of which have become rather more - differentiated than is normally found in the vegetative stage of other - agarics. - - _Illustrations_: F 27a; Hvass 26; LH 93; NB 141¹; WD 4³. - - -~Pholiota squarrosa~ (Fries) Kummer - - Shaggy Pholiota - - _Cap_: width 50-120 mm. _Stem_: width 17-25 mm; length 95-125 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 11. - - Cap: convex, but expanding and becoming flattened with a slight - central umbo, ochre-yellow to yellowish rust-colour and covered with - dark brown recurved scales which are particularly dense at the centre. - - Stem: variable in length and thickness depending on how it is attached - to the substrate, whether in a deep crack or wound, or in a - depression, and how many specimens are in the cluster; its colour is - similar to that of the cap, exhibits a small, dark brown fibrillose, - torn ring or ring-zone and is ornamented with recurved red-brown - scales below that ring. - - Gills: broadly adnate with a decurrent tooth and crowded, yellowish at - first then rust-coloured. - - Flesh: with strong, pleasant but pungent smell, yellowish brown, soft - in the cap, fibrous in the stem. - - Spore-print: rich rust-brown. - - Spores: medium-sized, pale brown under the microscope, smooth, - ellipsoid, and 6-8 × 4 µm in size. - - Marginal cystidia: spindle-shaped, hyaline, numerous. - - Facial cystidia: flask-shaped with a small apical appendage and - becoming rich yellow when immersed in solutions containing ammonia. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in clusters in woods, gardens or - parks, on wood or at the base of the trunks of broad-leaved trees in - summer and autumn. - -[Illustration: Plate 10. Fleshy fungi: Spores white and borne on gills] - - _General Information_: Although rather a common easily recognisable - and aesthetically pleasing fungus growing in its characteristic - clusters at the base of trees, it is a weak parasite entering the - living tissue after invading decayed areas of the tree. This is the - reason why when branches are broken off trees by wind, snow or storms, - they should be carefully trimmed to remove ragged edges and the wound - treated with a protective tar to stop the entry of rain, cold and - fungus spores. Other more destructive fungi may enter a tree through - such wounds; _P. squarrosa_ frequently attacks mountain ash or rowan. - - It is recognised by the dry scaly cap and stem which helps to - distinguish it from the sticky capped _P. aurivella_ (Fries) Kummer - with similar habitat preferences but wider spores (6-9 × 4-5 µm). _P. - adiposa_ (Fries) Kummer is found on beech trees and it, too, has a - viscid cap, but the spores are 5-6 × 3-4 µm in dimensions. - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 134; LH 149; WD 54². - -[Illustration: Plate 11. Fleshy fungi: Spores rust-brown and borne on -gills] - - -(c) Saprophytes--wood inhabiting or lignicolous agarics - - -~Hypholoma fasciculare~ (Fries) Kummer - - Sulphur-tuft - - _Cap_: width 20-50 mm. _Stem_: width 6-13 mm; length 40-100 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: sulphur-yellow, flushed with sand-colour or red-brown at centre - then ochraceous yellow throughout, convex at first with margin - incurved and clothed with fibrillose remnants of a yellow-olive veil, - but then becoming flattened and losing evidence of that veil. - - Stem: equal or flexuous, usually with several joined at base, - similarly coloured to the cap, fibrillose streaky or with some fibrils - from the veil stretching from the cap to the stem in young specimens. - - Gills: sinuate and crowded, at first sulphur-yellow then olive-green, - but finally with a flush of purple-brown. - - Flesh: with rather strong and unpleasant smell, yellow throughout. - - Spore-print: purple-brown. - - Spores: medium-sized, ellipsoid or ovoid, smooth, purple-brown and - less than 10 µm in length (6-8 × 4 µm). - - Marginal cystidia: flasked-shaped, short, cylindric and hyaline. - - Facial cystidia: more swollen than marginal cystidia and with silvery - contents which yellow in solutions containing ammonia. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: The sulphur-tuft grows in dense clusters - on and around old stumps of broad-leaved trees, and can be found - throughout the year; it also grows on conifers, but less frequently. - - _General Information_: It may be recognised by the greenish tint of - the immature gills and of the young cap. _H. capnoides_ (Fries) Kummer - grows on the wood of coniferous trees and has a much more ochraceous - brown cap and stem than the sulphur-tuft and slightly larger - spores--7-8 × 4-5 µm. _H. sublateritium_ (Fries) Quélet grows on - hardwoods but is bigger than _H. fasciculare_ and has a brick-coloured - cap and very sturdy stem (spores 6-7 × 3-4 µm). - - _Illustrations_: F 37b; Hvass 176; LH 147; NB 141⁵; WD 76². - -[Illustration: Plate 12. Fleshy fungi: Spores purplish brown and borne -on gills] - - -~Flammulina velutipes~ (Fries) Karsten - - Velvet-shank - - _Cap_: width 20-80 mm. _Stem_: width 5-10 mm; length 35-60 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: bright sand-colour or slightly red-brown at centre, convex at - first then flattened with age, smooth, slimy because of the presence - of a sticky elastic skin, rather rubbery to the touch. - - Stem: cylindrical or slightly swollen towards the base, dark brown and - densely hairy or velvety, tough and rubbery to handle. - - Gills: adnexed, very unequal and somewhat distant, pale yellow, - gradually becoming buff as the spores mature. - - Flesh: with rather pleasant smell, yellowish, watery and soft. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: medium-sized, hyaline, ellipsoid and about 8 × 3-4 µm in Size - (7-9 × 3-4 µm). - - Marginal cystidia: hyaline, elongate, broadly flask-shaped. - - Facial cystidia: similar to marginal cystidia. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Found in clusters on old stumps, fallen - trunks and on the wounded parts of standing trees. - - _General Information_: This fungus can be recognised by the clustered - habit, the viscid, bright tawny cap and the dark velvety stem. This is - one of the few agarics which occurs regularly late in the season, even - appearing in the winter, although it can be seen growing in its - familiar groups at almost any time of the year. This fungus holds a - rather isolated position in classification and was once placed in the - genus _Collybia_. It may be found in several books under this last - genus. - - _Illustrations_: F 18b; Hvass 80; LH 109; NB 141³; WD 21⁴. - -[Illustration: Plate 13. Fleshy fungi: Spores white and borne on gills] - - -~Mycena galericulata~ (Fries) S. F. Gray - - Bonnet mycena - - _Cap_: width 25-50 mm. _Stem_: width 3-6 mm; length 50-125 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: conical or bell-shaped then expanding but retaining a central - umbo, never completely flattened, smooth, greyish, pale sepia or dirty - white and striate with darker lines from the margin to the centre. - - Stem: similarly coloured to the cap, smooth, shiny, tough and usually - noticeably downy at base. - - Gills: at first white flushed distinctly pale pink with age, uncinate, - rather distant and sometimes with interconnecting veins. - - Flesh: white with little or no distinctive smell. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: medium-sized, hyaline, broadly ellipsoid, smooth, about 10 × 7 - µm in size (9-12 × 6-8 µm) and staining bluish grey when mounted in - solutions containing iodine. - - Marginal cystidia: club-shaped but the apex ornamented with blunt - hairs of varying lengths. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Commonly found, in all but the coldest - months, in woods, parks or gardens, often in dense clusters on stumps - and fallen trunks of broad-leaved trees. - - _General Information_: This is one of our commonest members, and one - of the largest in the genus _Mycena_; many species in this genus are - quite small yet are nevertheless very important components of the - woodland flora decomposing leaves, twigs, etc., and contributing in - this way to the recirculating of organic matter. - - The name _Mycena_ is derived from the same Greek word as that which - refers to the country around the ancient city of Mycenae in the plain - of Argos, and from whence Agamemnon came and gathered his forces to - invade Troy to reclaim Helen his wife. It has been suggested that this - similarity in name came about through the necessity for an army - stationed in Argos, early in the history of Ancient Greece, to rely on - the mushrooms found on the plains about to save the soldiers from - starvation. - - _Illustrations_: F 17a; Hvass 119; LH 109; NB 133⁸; WD 26³. - -[Illustration: Plate 14. Fleshy fungi: Spores white and borne on gills] - - -~Pluteus cervinus~ (Fries) Kummer - - Fawn pluteus - - _Cap_: width 40-100 mm. _Stem_: width 10-15 mm; length 75-125 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: conical, rapidly expanding and then becoming plano-convex or - flattened with only a slight but persistent umbo, dark brown, umber or - vandyke brown, viscid when wet and often with radiating fibrils. - - Stem: white, streaked to varying degrees with dark brown fibrils, - cylindrical or slightly swollen towards the base, where it is attached - to the substrate. - - Gills: remote, very crowded, thin, at first white then distinctly - salmon-pink. - - Flesh: with pleasant smell, white and soft. - - Spore-print: dull salmon-pink. - - Spores: medium-sized, very faintly buff under the microscope, broadly - ellipsoid and 7-8 × 5-6 µm in size. - - Marginal cystidia: flask-shaped, the majority with three or four hooks - at the distinctively thick-walled apex. - - Facial cystidia: similar to marginal cystidia but sometimes intermixed - with those lacking hooks. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus grows singly or in groups on - old stumps and fallen trunks throughout the year except for the most - wintry months; it is commonest in autumn. - - _General Information_: This fungus may also grow on old sawdust heaps, - a habitat which is often very worth while examining in detail by the - interested amateur during wet seasons. In summer sawdust heaps dry out - but after a good soaking, which, of course, can be applied - artificially by frequent watering with a hose or watering-can, many - interesting fungi develop. On sawdust heaps containing conifer debris - a larger species with black or dark brown edge to the gills is - found--_P. atromarginatus_ Kühner. - - The peculiar pointed cystidia found on the gill-edge and on the - gill-face of _P. cervinus_ were thought by some early mycologists to - stop mites and insect larvae from crawling up between the gills and - damaging the developing spores. There is no evidence that this - actually takes place in nature; the real purpose of these obscure - structures is unknown and has been little studied. - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 127; LH 121; NB 135¹; WD 50². - -[Illustration: Plate 15. Fleshy fungi: Spores pinkish and borne on -gills] - - -~Gymnopilus penetrans~ (Fries) Murrill - - _Cap_: width 20-50 mm. _Stem_: width 4-7 mm; length 20-50 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: convex then becoming flattened at maturity, dry, slightly scaly, - golden tawny, or rusty yellow and when young with the remnants of a - rapidly disappearing yellow cortina hanging from the margin. - - Stem: yellow above and red-brown or orange-tawny below and darkening - on bruising; veil forming a delicate fibrillose zone in the upper part - of the stem which is soon lost on excessive handling. - - Gills: adnate to slightly decurrent, thin and crowded, at first golden - yellow, but soon spotted rust colour. - - Flesh: yellow and lacking distinctive smell. - - Spore-print: rich orange-tawny. - - Spores: medium-sized, ellipsoid, finely roughened and deep yellow - brown under the microscope, less than 10 µm in length (7-8 × 5-4 µm). - - Marginal cystidia: hyaline, flask-shaped with long often slightly - irregular neck. - - Facial cystidia: similar to the marginal cystidia, but often broader. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus is found on sticks or twigs or - chips of coniferous wood, particularly in plantations. - - _General Information_: Although it has only comparatively recently - been recognised in Britain it is very wide-spread. It has been - confused with, indeed described under, the name of the less-common - fungus _Gymnopilus sapineus_ (Fries) Maire which also grows in conifer - woods; it is easily distinguished, however, by its spotted gills. Both - the fungi above can be found in books under the old name _Flammula_, - from the bright colour of the caps of many of its constituent members, - but _Flammula_ has been used for a genus of flowering plants also and - this has precedence. - - _Illustrations_: F 29a; Hvass 152 not very good; LH 175 not very good; - NB 109⁶. - -[Illustration: Plate 16. Fleshy fungi: Spores rust-brown and borne on -gills] - - -Notes on the artificial family group ‘_Pleurotaceae_’--the Oyster -mushrooms - -One of the common features of lignicolous fungi is the fact that they -lack a distinct stem or if one is present it is attached to one side of -the cap, i.e. lateral. However, in the past the correlation of the -habitat with lack of stem has induced mycologists to define a single -family to include all these forms. After studying the anatomy and -microscopic characters this grouping has been found to be entirely -artificial and simply reflects how the morphology is tied up intimately -with the ecology of a species. - -In this one family members of the genera _Panus_, _Panellus_, -_Lentinus_, _Lentinellus_, _Crepidotus_, _Pleurotellus_, and _Pleurotus_ -have all been grouped together, but some of the genera are more related -to the polypores referred to later (p. 135); many of those with brown -spores are better placed with _Cortinarius_ and some of those with white -or cream-coloured spores are better placed close to _Mycena_ and -_Tricholoma_. This leaves as a residue the genus _Pleurotus_, a genus -which although rather heterogeneous contains one familiar member, i.e. -the common Oyster mushroom, _Pleurotus ostreatus_. - - -~Pleurotus ostreatus~ (Fries) Kummer - - Oyster mushroom - - Grows up to 150 mm across. - - Cap: flattened, shell-shaped, smooth or slightly cracked, deep bluish - grey, gradually becoming brownish with age and finally dark buff. - - Stem: absent or very short, passing gradually into one side of the - cap. - - Gills: white flushing dirty yellow with age, rather distant and deeply - decurrent. - - Flesh: white, soft and with very pleasant smell. - - Spore-print: pale lilac. - - Spores: long, hyaline, oblong under the microscope and 10-11 × 4 µm in - size. - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common, clustered in tiers on stumps, - trunks, posts, etc. - - _General Information_: This fungus is not infrequent on old - telephone-poles and forms white sheets of mycelium immediately under - the bark of fallen trees. Although frequent in autumn it may be found - throughout the year and is easily recognised by its size and - bracket-like, shell-shaped caps. It surprisingly has a pale lilac - spore-print and not as might be expected a white spore-print. In the - var. _columbinus_ Quélet the young caps are a beautiful peacock-blue; - this variety frequently grows on poplars. - - _Illustrations_: F 125²; Hvass 109; LH 107; NB 125²; WD 31¹. - -[Illustration: Plate 17. Wood-inhabiting, fleshy but leathery fungi: -Spores whitish or brownish and borne on gills--‘Pleurotaceae’] - - - ~Panus torulosus~ (Fries) Fries is a tough, funnel-shaped, yellowish - cinnamon fungus with oblong-ellipsoid, small, hyaline spores measuring - 5-6 × 3 µm and changing yellowish not bluish grey in iodine solutions. - - - ~Panellus stipticus~ (Fries) Karsten forms tiers of pale - cinnamon-brown, more or less kidney-shaped, scurfy caps on old wood - and has egg-shaped, hyaline, small spores measuring 4 × 2-3 µm which - become bluish grey in iodine solutions. - - - ~Lentinellus cochleatus~ (Fries) Karsten forms irregular lobed and - twisted, flattened or funnel-shaped dirty brownish caps with a - fragrant smell, toothed gill-edges and almost spherical, small, - hyaline spores measuring 5 × 4 µm which become bluish grey in iodine - solutions. - - _Lentinellus_ apparently has very close affinities to _Auriscalpium_, - ‘the Ear pick fungus’, (p. 158) both in the structure of the spores - and the anatomy of the fruit-body. - - - ~Lentinus lepideus~ (Fries) Fries forms very tough fruit-bodies with - convex or flattened, pale yellowish caps and stems ornamented with - dark tawny or brown scales. The stem is often eccentric and buried in - cracks or soft rotten wood on which it grows; the spores are - non-amyloid. It grows on pine stumps but also on decaying or - unprotected railway sleepers and wooden paving blocks, joists, etc., - made of conifer wood. When the fungus fruits in a darkened - environment, such as a cellar, the mushroom-like fruit-bodies are not - produced but are replaced by slender branched structures similar to - the ‘Stag’s horn’ or ‘Candle-snuff fungus’ (p. 206), or to certain of - the Fairy Club fungi (p. 172). Similar growths have been recorded for - _Polyporus squamosus_ which grows on hard wood timber and is described - in detail later (p. 140). - - -~Crepidotus mollis~ (Fries) Kummer - - Soft slipper toadstool - - Cap: up to 45 mm across and in tiers, sessile, shell-shaped or - kidney-shaped, smooth, rubbery and brownish ochre in colour. - - Gills: pale buff then cinnamon-brown and finally flushed snuff-brown, - thin and crowded. - - Flesh: watery, gelatinous beneath the skin of the cap and whitish - buff. - - Spore-print: warm brown. - - Spores: ellipsoid, smooth, medium-sized, pale buff under the - microscope and 8-9 × 5-5·5 µm in size. - - Easily recognised by the soft elastic cap which can be stretched - without breaking, the brown gills and pale buff spores. (See Plate 49, - p. 153.) - - _Illustrations_: LH 177; NB 145³; WD 69¹. - - The artificiality of classifying all those agarics with both a - spoon-shaped or bracket-shaped fruit-body, and a reduced (or lacking) - stem is further exemplified by the presence of similar genera in other - groups of fungi. For instance _Claudopus_ is typified by pink, angular - spores (Plate 28) and _Clitopilus_ is characterised by longitudinally - ridged spores, i.e. they are not angular in all optical sections but - only when seen end on (see p. 101). An example of the former is _C. - parasiticus_ (Quélet) Ricken which grows on dead remains of woody - fungi, and of the latter _C. passackerianus_ (Pilát) Singer which may - invade mushroom beds. Both species are quite small though the last - fungus is similarly coloured to the more familiar _Clitopilus - prunulus_ (Fries) Kummer, ‘The Miller’, so common in woods and fields. - - Thus in the British Isles agarics with eccentric stems may be found, - in the white, brown and pink-spored groups--and in the tropics and - subtropics the picture is completed by the existence of the genus - _Melanotus_ in the black-spored agarics. _M. bambusinus_ Pat. grows on - bamboos and _M. musae_ (Berk. & Curt.) Singer grows on dead leaves and - debris of bananas; the latter is also a probable agent in the decay of - fibres in the tropics. - - -(d) Saprophytes--terrestrial agarics - - -~Melanoleuca melaleuca~ (Fries) Murrill - - _Cap_: width 40-110 mm. _Stem_: width 50-80 mm; length 50-90 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: dark brown, umber or vandyke when moist, hygrophanous and - becoming very much paler on drying almost tan, convex then flattened - sometimes umbonate, smooth or wrinkled. - - Stem: white or whitish covered in brownish fibrils which increase in - number with age or after handling; solid, rather elastic and slightly - swollen towards the base. - - Gills: white, broad, crowded and as if cut out from behind before - joining the stem. - - Flesh: with pleasant smell, soft, white, becoming brownish with age, - particularly in the stem. - - Spore-print: very pale ivory-colour. - - Spores: medium-sized, ellipsoid, hyaline under the microscope and - roughened by distinct dots which become blue-black when mounted in - solutions containing iodine, 8 × 4-5 µm. - - Marginal cystidia: spear- or sword-shaped, roughened with crystals at - the top and appearing as if barbed like fish-spines. - - Facial cystidia: numerous and similar to marginal cystidia. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in autumn in woods; also found in - pastures. - - _General Information_: A very common fungus which is rather confusing - to the beginner because of its variation in colour, brought about by - the change in colour with change in content of water. However, this - fungus can be easily recognised by the unusually ornamented cystidia - found on the gill-faces and gill-margins. This character and the fact - that the spores possess amyloid ornamentation define in part the genus - _Melanoleuca_. In many books this common fungus is found under the - genus _Tricholoma_; however, members of this latter genus have neither - amyloid ornamented spores nor barbed cystidia. - - _Illustrations_: LH 103; WD 13¹. - -[Illustration: Plate 18. Fleshy fungi: Spores white and borne on gills] - - -~Clitocybe infundibuliformis~ (Weinm.) Quélet - - Common funnel-cap - - _Cap_: width 20-60 mm. _Stem_: width 8-13 mm; length 35-75 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: yellowish ochre flushed slightly pinkish buff or cinnamon but - later pale tan on ageing or drying, funnel shaped. - - Stem: colour like cap or slightly darker, flexible but firm and solid. - - Gills: white or faintly flushed buff, decurrent and crowded. - - Flesh: with pleasant slightly floral smell, white, soft and fairly - thin. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: medium-sized, hyaline, tear-drop shaped, smooth, 6-7 × 3-4 µm - and not blueing when mounted in solutions containing iodine. - - Marginal cystidia: little different from young basidia in dimension - and shape, although some may have a short apical prolongation. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Woods, copses, heaths and hill-pastures - from summer to autumn. - - _General Information_: An easily recognisable fungus because of its - graceful stature, thin, funnel-shaped pinkish buff cap and - tear-drop-shaped spores. Several _Clitocybe_ species grow in - woodlands, many of them appearing later in the season when colourful - agarics are rarer. - - The genus _Clitocybe_ is characterised by the fleshy cap with incurved - margin when young, fibrous, fleshy stem and decurrent gills. _C. - clavipes_ (Fries) Kummer has a smoky brown, top-shaped cap, fragile - stem which also has a distinct swelling at its base, and strong rather - unpleasant smell. _C. nebularis_ (Fries) Kummer is similar, but is - pale cloudy grey, has a less fragile stem and a fairly pleasant smell. - This species if often covered in a bloom which develops further as the - fruit-body deteriorates. The agaric _Volvariella surrecta_ (Knapp) - Singer is a rare parasite of _C. nebularis_ (see p. 247) and it has - been suggested that this bloom may in fact belong to this species. - However, I have on several occasions tried to encourage the bloom to - reproduce by keeping hoary looking fruit-bodies of _C. nebularis_ in a - damp-chamber, but as yet I have never been successful. - - Nevertheless, it is an exercise which would be of great interest to - continue and a source of great excitement if the small pink-spored - agaric were produced. _C. fragrans_ (Fries) Kummer is a small, sweetly - aromatic-smelling species found in frondose woods, and _C. langei_ - Hora, is a mealy-smelling species of conifer plantations. - - _Illustrations_: F 16a; Hvass 55; LH 95; WD 16². - -[Illustration: Plate 19. Fleshy fungi: Spores white and borne on gills] - - -~Hebeloma crustuliniforme~ (St Amans) Quélet - - Fairy-cake mushroom - - _Cap_: width 40-80 mm. _Stem_: width 8-12 mm; length 38-85 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: pale yellow buff or pale tan with a distinct reddish buff or - cinnamon-brown tint, darkening only slightly with age; smooth, at - first tacky to the fingers, but then dry and shiny at centre, convex - and hardly expanding. - - Stem: cylindrical or slightly swollen towards the base, whitish and - with a flush of pinkish buff at apex, and covered all over in small, - white scales. - - Gills: sinuate, crowded, pale clay-colour or buff, but finally dull - dark yellow ochre except for the distinct white margins which are - beaded in wet weather with droplets of liquid. - - Flesh: whitish with a very strong smell of radishes. - - Spore-print: dark clay-colour. - - Spores: long, slightly almond-shaped, pale brown under the microscope, - distinctly warted and about 11 × 6 µm in size (10-12 × 6-7 µm). - - Marginal cystidia: cylindrical to skittle-shaped with slightly to - distinctly swollen apex. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in autumn on the ground by - pathsides and in woodland clearings. - - _General Information_: Recognisable by the uniform cinnamon or pinkish - buff cap, white woolly scales on the stem and distinctive, strong - smell of radish. There is some evidence that this species may on - occasions be mycorrhizal; further field studies are required. - - There are several closely related fungi which are difficult for the - amateur to differentiate from _H. crustuliniforme_; there is no doubt - that there are several species present in the British Isles which do - not appear in the Check List of British Agarics & Boleti; in fact, it - would appear that there are several yet to be described as new to - science. Although individual species are fairly difficult to delimit, - the genus _Hebeloma_ itself is easily recognised, most members being - medium sized with brown sinuate gills, whitish, yellowish, or pinkish, - i.e. pale, caps and white-powdered stems. The word ‘crustulin’ which - appears in the Latin name of _H. crustuliniforme_ is itself from the - Latin and means small cake, referring to the cap-shape, which remains - fairly constant throughout the fungus’ growth. The common name is - derived from this also. - -[Illustration: Plate 20. Fleshy fungi: Spores dull brown and borne on -gills] - - -~Inocybe geophylla~ (Fries) Kummer - - Common white inocybe - - _Cap_: width 10-25 mm. _Stem_: width 3-6 mm; length 30-50 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: conical with incurved margin then bell-shaped and retaining a - distinct umbo even when mature, silvery white then ivory and finally - pale tan particularly centrally and silky fibrillose throughout. - - Stem: slender, cylindrical but for a small swelling at the base, silky - and shining with a few fibrils from a former cortina which may be - brownish due to spores adhering to it at maturity. - - Gills: adnexed to free, crowded, pale ochraceous becoming - clay-coloured. - - Flesh: white with smell of newly dug potatoes, strong when fresh. - - Spore-print: clay-colour. - - Spores: medium sized, ellipsoid or slightly French-bean-shaped, - smooth, yellow-brown under the microscope and 9-11 × 4-5 µm in size. - - Marginal and facial cystidia: flask- to spindle-shaped with distinctly - thickened walls and frequently ornamented with crystals apically. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in troops in woodland clearings, by - pathsides or on the edges of ditches bordering woods. - - _General Information_: This fungus is easily recognised by the very - pale uniform colour, the colour of the spore-print, silky umbonate cap - and small size. The cortina connects the cap-margin and the stem and - consists of a cobwebby structure which collapses at maturity. - - A violet coloured variety, var. _lilacina_ Gillet is frequently found, - in fact, even accompanying var. _geophylla_; it differs only in the - lilac-colour of the cap and stem. _I. geophylla_ is a member of the - very large genus _Inocybe_, further members of which will be dealt - with later (see p. 238). - - The genus is well defined with dull-yellow spore-print, well - differentiated sterile cells on the gill-edge (and often on the - gill-face) and the cobweb-like veil, or cortina, stretching from the - cap-margin to the stem and easily observed in young specimens. The - genus is split into three distinct groups: those with smooth spores, - those with nodulose spores and those with subglobose spores ornamented - with long projections. _I. geophylla_ is included in the first group. - The group which includes the nodulose-spored members has been elevated - to the rank of genus by some authors, i.e. _Astrosporina_--a name - referring to the spore-shape eg., _I. asterospora_. - - _Illustrations_: F 13a (too blue); LH 155; NB 139⁵; WD 65⁴. - -[Illustration: Plate 21. Fleshy fungi: Spores dull brown and borne on -gills] - - -~Laccaria laccata~ (Fries) Cooke - - Deceiver - - _Cap_: width 12-28 mm. _Stem_: width 4-8 mm; length 15-60 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: hygrophanous, reddish brown or brick-colour becoming ochraceous - on drying, but can be rapidly returned to the original colour by - placing on the top a drop of water which is rapidly absorbed; fragile, - convex at first then flattened or depressed about centre, smooth or - surface scaley, striate at margin when moist. - - Stem: similarly coloured to the cap, fibrous, cylindrical, tough and - usually with white woolly base. - - Gills: adnate with or without a decurrent tooth, thick, distant and - pinkish or pale reddish-brown, powdered with white when mature. - - Flesh: red-brown, soft in the cap and fibrous in the stem. - - Spore-print: pure white. - - Spores: medium sized, hyaline under the microscope and spherical, 7-8 - µm in diameter and beautifully spiny. - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in troops in woodland, copses, on - heaths; in fact it may be found in nearly all possible habitats. - - _General Information_: This is a very common agaric which in the - future will probably be split into several distinct species; - unfortunately it is as variable as it is common, hence the common name - ‘deceiver’; it is often mistaken at first glance for many other - species quite unrelated. I have seen even the most experienced - mycologist pick up rather unfamiliar specimens of _Laccaria laccata_ - in mistake for a species of _Lactarius_ or a species of _Collybia_, - etc. I would hate to say more because I have been ‘deceived’ myself on - more than one occasion. _L. laccata_ appears to be a composite - species, but because of the difficulty in defining some of the - characters the splitting of the species has not as yet been - satisfactorily solved. The smell, however, may well give a clue for - some specimens smell very strongly of radish whilst others are - odourless. - - - ~L. proxima~ (Boudier) Patouillard, differs in having ellipsoid - spores; it is larger in stature and is common in wet places. - - - ~L. amethystea~ (Mérat) Murrill, differs in the deep violet or - amethyst-colour of the fruit-body and commonly grows in shaded woods. - - - ~L. bicolor~ (Maire) P. D. Orton, which is less frequent, has - lilaceous gills and violaceous mycelium at the base of the stem. - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 66; NB 133¹; WD 20². - -[Illustration: Plate 22. Fleshy fungi: Spores white and borne on gills] - - -~Mycena sanguinolenta~ (Fries) Kummer - - Small bleeding mycena - - _Cap_: width 10-17 mm. _Stem_: width 2-4 mm; length 50-80 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: bell-shaped or conical expanding only slightly with age and so - remaining umbonate, reddish-brown, striate to the margin from the - darker apex and blotched age with red-brown spots. - - Stem: pale reddish brown, very slender, fragile, woolly at the base - and exuding a red-brown juice when broken. - - Gills: adnate, fairly distant, whitish to flesh-colour with a dark - red-brown edge and not noticeably becoming blotched with red-brown. - - Flesh: with no distinctive smell, reddish-brown and very thin. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: medium sized, hyaline, ellipsoid to pip-shaped, smooth about - 10 µm long (9-10 × 4-5 µm) and becoming bluish grey when mounted in - solutions containing iodine. - - Marginal cystidia: awl-shaped, pointed at the apex, swollen below and - filled with dark red-brown contents. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Solitary or in small groups on poorly kept - lawns, in woods and copses; it is particularly frequent in the beds of - needles found in pine woods. - - _General Information_: This fungus is easily recognised by the slender - habit, reddish juice exuded when broken and habitat preferences. - _Mycena haematopus_ (Fries) Kummer is larger and grows in tufts on - wood, but also has a red-brown juice which, however, spots the gills. - Another very common species of Mycena is _M. galopus_ (Fries) Kummer - which has a greyish or brownish cap and exudes a milk-like juice. The - related _M. leucogala_ (Cooke) Saccardo is almost black (see p. 216). - These agarics exuding juice when broken have a flesh composed of - filaments, a very different flesh-structure to species of _Lactarius_ - (see p. 50) and although their spores are amyloid they do not turn - blue-black in iodine because of the presence of amyloid crests and - warts. There are few additional species of agaric which exude a - milk-like liquid, but the majority of these are tropical or - subtropical. The second names or epithets for the four species - mentioned above all refer to the ‘latex’--sanguinolenta--bleeding, - _haematopus_ blood-foot; _galopus_, milk-foot and _leucogala_, white - milk. For notes on Mycena one is referred to p. 68 describing _M. - galericulata_ (Fries) S. F. Gray. - - _Illustrations_: WD 28⁴. - -[Illustration: Plate 23. Fleshy, milking fungi: Spores white and borne -on gills] - - -~Collybia maculata~ (Fries) Kummer - - Spotted tough-shank - - _Cap_: width 80-130 mm. _Stem_: width 5-20 mm; length 50-158 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: white but soon becoming spotted with reddish-brown, finally - cream-colour with red-brown blotches, convex then becoming flattened, - fleshy, firm and tough. - - Stem: white becoming streaked red-brown, thickest in the middle, - longitudinally furrowed or striate and often narrowed downwards into a - long irregular root embedded in the deep litter. - - Gills: very crowded, cream-coloured, becoming spotted red-brown with - age. - - Flesh: with pleasant smell, white and fibrous in the stem. - - Spore-print: pinkish cream-colour. - - Spores: small, almost spherical, hyaline under the microscope, about 5 - µm in diameter (4-5 × 5 µm) and not blueing when placed in solutions - containing iodine. - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in troops in woods, particularly - beech but also found in pine woods and on heaths. - - _General Information_: Easily recognised by the crowded, narrow, cream - coloured gills and the cap being entirely white when young, but which - rapidly becomes spotted red-brown as it develops. ‘Maculatus’ means - spotted and refers to the red-brown blotches which develop irregularly - on the cap, stem and gills as the fruit-body matures. - - The genus _Collybia_ is characterised by the fruit-body being tough, - the cap-margin incurved at first and the spore-print white or whitish. - The common fungus _C. maculata_ has always been assumed to have a - white spore-print but if a cap is placed on a piece of white paper - gills-down and left for twelve hours there is a surprise in store for - the careful observer. - - _Illustrations_: F 15a; Hvass 77; LH 101; NB 103⁴; WD 21². - -[Illustration: Plate 24. Fleshy fungi with tough stem: Spores white to -cream and borne on gills] - - -The specialised substrates of certain species of _Marasmius_ and related -genera - -A whole series of very small fungi are found in woodland communities -which appear to be closely related one to another because their caps are -usually tough, although membranous, dry rapidly yet do not decay, and, -moreover, revive on remoistening. Their gills are also rather tough and -their spores always white in mass. They are placed in the genus -_Marasmius_. _Collybia_ or _Marasmius peronatus_ (Fries) Fries the ‘wood -woolly foot’ is one of our larger more familiar agarics related to this -group, but whereas it grows on all kinds of leafy detritus, even wood, -these small fungi appear to be very specific to the substrate on which -they grow. - - -~M. androsaceus~ (Fries) Fries grows both on heather and on pine-needles -(see p. 231). - -Cap: whitish or pinkish buff. - -Stem: black and hair-like. - -Spores: pip-shaped and 7-9 × 3-4 µm. - - -~M. buxi~ Fries grows on box leaves. - - -~M. epiphylloides~ (Rea) Saccardo & Trotter grows on ivy leaves. - - -~M. graminum~ (Libert) Berkeley grows on grass stems. - -Cap: red-brown. - -Stem: dark brown. - -Spores: pip-shaped, 8-12 × 4-6 µm. - - -~M. hudsonii~ (Fries) Fries grows on holly leaves. - - -~M. perforans~ (Fries) Fries grows on pine needles (now placed in the -genus _Micromphale_). - - -~M. undatus~ (Berkeley) Fries grows on bracken stems. - -Cap: reddish brown or greyish and wrinkled. - -Spores: egg-shaped, 8-9 × 6-7 µm. - -Except for their rather special requirements as to substrate preference, -these species have in common small size, rather tough horny stems and -cap composed of erect ornamented cells. - -Several agarics which grow on cones have also been placed in -_Marasmius_. They are frequent in spring and early summer the -fruit-bodies being attached by a very long rooting stem and cord of -fluffy hyphae to buried cones in conifers. The biology of these fungi is -still unknown, but the cones to which they are attached are always -closed yet buried often several inches beneath the surface of the -soil. It is yet to be found whether the spores of the agaric infect -the cones after they drop or whether the cones fall because they have -become infected. How do the cones become so deeply buried? Are squirrels -or rodents involved? All the species which grow on cones have brown or -tawny caps and yellowish brown stems. - -[Illustration: Plate 25. Fleshy fungi with wiry to tough stem: Spores -white and borne on gills, fruit-body frequently reviving when moistened] - - - ~Strobilurus stephanocystis~ (Hora) Singer has cystidia with rounded - heads and grows on pine-cones. - - - ~S. tenacellus~ (Fries) Singer has pointed cystidia and grows on - pine-cones. - - - ~S. esculentus~ (Fries) Singer has lance-shaped cystidia and grows on - spruce cones. - - - ~Baeospora myosura~ (Fries) Singer is tough and pale-coloured and is - similar in general characters to species of _Strobilurus_, but has - amyloid spores and fruits on pine-cones in the autumn. - -When discussing the specialised plant-substrates, such as cones, one -must mention the small brown-spored, pale buff coloured agaric _Tubaria -dispersa_ (Persoon) Singer, or _Tubaria autochthona_ (Berkeley & Broome) -Saccardo, which grows on the ground under hawthorns, often in troops in -summer and autumn, attached to old hardened hawthorn berries. - - -(ii) Agarics of Pastures and Meadows - - -(a) Agarics of rough and hill pastures - - -~Hygrocybe pratensis~ (Fries) Donk - - Butter mushroom - - _Cap_: width 20-80 mm. _Stem_: width 5-12 mm; length 30-70 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: convex then expanding to become plano-convex with a broad low - umbo, tan, pale russet or even yellowish buff throughout or slightly - darker at the centre. - - Stem: gradually thickened upwards, similarly coloured to the cap or - paler if the cap is dark russet. - - Gills: pale buff, deeply decurrent and often connected up at their - bases by veins. - - Flesh: buff or pale tan, thick and soft in the cap, slightly fibrous - in the stem. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: medium-sized, ellipsoid to egg-shaped, hyaline under the - microscope, 7-8 × 5 µm in size and not becoming bluish grey in - solutions containing iodine. - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in pastures or on heaths from early - summer to late autumn. - - _General Information_: A fungus easily recognised by the uniform - buff-colour of the stem, cap and gills. As one might expect from the - common name it is edible; it is held in high regard by many - mushroom-pickers. - - Although ‘pratensis’ specifically means fields, reflecting the habitat - of the fungus, this and related species can also be found on heaths - and pastures often intermixed and forming a most interesting flora. - The following are perhaps the most commonly seen: - - _H. lacma_ (Fries) Orton & Watling and _H. cinerea_ (Fries) Orton & - Watling are similar in stature, but metallic grey in colour except for - the persistently yellow stem-base in _H. lacma_. - - _H. subradiata_ (Secretan) Orton & Watling is flesh-coloured or - brownish and _H. virginea_ (Fries) Orton & Watling is white. - - _H. nivea_ (Fries) Orton & Watling and _H. russocoriacea_ (Berkeley & - Miller) Orton & Watling are much smaller, the former white and - odourless and the latter off-white with a very strong smell of - incense. - - _Illustrations_: F 12^{b}; Hvass 95; LH 77; NB 33²; WD 33³. - -[Illustration: Plate 26. Fleshy fungi: Spores white and borne on thick, -waxy gills] - - -~Hygrocybe psittacina~ (Fries) Wunsche - - Parrot hygrophorus - - _Cap_: width 12-25 mm. _Stem_: width 3-8 mm; length 30-60 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: very slimy with colourless sticky fluid, deep bluish green when - fresh, but becoming more and more ochraceous-orange with age or - completely fading out to a yellow ochre, bell-shaped at first then - expanded except for central umbo. - - Stem: like the cap very slimy, apple-green or bluish green throughout - but becoming ochraceous like the cap except at the apex which is - persistently green. - - Gills: adnate yellow or apricot-coloured, greenish towards their base, - broad, distant and rather tough. - - Flesh: whitish, tinged green in the cap and yellow or apricot-colour - in the stem. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: medium-sized, hyaline, ellipsoid, not blue-grey in solutions - containing iodine and 8-9 × 4-5 µm in size. - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in grassland and hill-pastures, but - it also occurs in copses and woodlands. - - _General Information_: This fungus is easily recognised by the - distinctive colours, but it is rather deceptive for the cap and the - stem soon become faded; however, the green colouration persists at the - apex of the stem and it is by this that in the faded state the fungus - can still be identified. _H. laeta_ (Fries) Kummer fades to similar - colours but the cap is flesh-colour at first or sordid brown and the - gills are flesh-coloured or greyish; it prefers upland pastures and - heathland: its spores are smaller, being 5-7 × 4 µm. - - _Illustrations_: F 12a; Hvass 92; LH 79; NB 33⁶; WD 34⁵. - - -General notes on Hygrophori - -_Hygrophori_ are some of our most colourful groups of agarics, many are -brightly coloured with caps in reds, greens, yellows, oranges, etc., the -colour often accentuated by the usually slimy aspect. Traditionally the -genus _Hygrophorus_ has been split into three groups as follows:-- - - _Limacium_ with slimy cap, adnate to decurrent gills and slimy or - tacky stem which may also often be ornamented with dots, especially - towards the top. - - _Camarophyllus_ with dry cap, smooth and fibrous stem and decurrent - gills. - - _Hygrocybe_ with thin, fragile, sticky or moist cap, smooth fibrillose - stem and gills varying from free to decurrent. - -The last two sections have been joined together into the single genus -_Hygrocybe_ and all the members seem to be saprophytic or intimately -associated with grassland communities. The first section _Limacium_ now -makes up the genus _Hygrophorus_ and its members are thought to be -mycorrhizal with trees, e.g. _H. hypothejus_ (Fries) Fries with pine, -the ‘Herald of the winter’ because it occurs at the end of the fungus -season and _H. chrysaspis_ Métrod, a whitish, sickly-smelling fungus -under beech. Results from examining the anatomy of the gills appears to -confirm these divisions. All the Hygrophori have a homogeneous flesh, -white spores, central, fleshy stem and thick, waxy gills; -microscopically this group of fungi can be recognised by the very long -basidia. - -The following are common examples of the genus Hygrocybe:-- - - - ~H. calyptraeformis~ (Berkeley & Broome) Fayod has a rose-pink, - conical cap which expands to become upturned at the edge with age. - - - ~H. coccinea~ (Fries) Kummer has a bright scarlet cap which becomes - yellow-ochre on drying and a yellow base to a scarlet stem. - - - ~H. conica~ (Fries) Kummer has an orange to red stem and sharply - conical cap which turns blackish with age and whose gills when cut - exude a clear watery liquid. - - - ~H. flavescens~ (Kauffman) Singer has a slimy, golden yellow cap and - similarly coloured stem. - - - ~H. chlorophana~ is similar, but has a lemon-yellow cap and stem. - - - ~H. punicea~ (Fries) Kummer is a large and robust species, similar in - colour to _H. coccinea_ but with a white base to the stem. - - - ~H. unguinosa~ (Fries) Karsten has a smoky grey, very slimy cap and - stem. - - - ~H. nitrata~ (Persoon) Wunsche is as dull coloured as _H. unguinosa_, - but is not slimy, and in addition strongly smells of cleaning fluid or - bleaching-powder. It is one of three dull coloured, strong - bleaching-powder-smelling species found in Britain. _H. ovina_ is - another, but is darker than _H. nitrata_ and becomes red when bruised - or cut. - -[Illustration: Plate 27. Fleshy brightly coloured fungi: Spores white -and borne on thick, waxy gills] - - - ~H. metapodia~ (Fries) Moser has a sooty brown fibrillose-streaky cap - and stem. The gills are distant and grey, and the fruit-body may reach - up to 100 mm across. It is probably the biggest of our native species - of _Hygrocybe_. - -For completion examples of _Hygrophorus_ include: - - - ~H. bresadolae~ Quélet has a slimy orange-yellow cap, yellow gills and - yellow, slimy, smooth stem. It is found under larch trees. - - - ~H. chrysaspis~ Métrod has ivory white cap, stem and gills which soon - become flushed with rust-brown and finally the whole fruit-body - becomes red-brown. The stem is slimy and white dotted at the apex. It - grows in beech woods. - - - ~H. hedrychii~ Velenovsky has a slimy cream-coloured cap flushed with - pale peach colour. The gills and stem are cream and the latter slimy - and dotted at the top. It is found in pine woods. - - - ~H. hypothejus~ (Fries) Fries has an olive-brown slimy cap, yellow - stem and gills; the stem is slimy and smooth. It is found in pine - woods and under pines on heaths. - - - ~H. pustulatus~ (Persoon) Fries has an ash-grey cap brownish towards - its centre, viscid white stem with dark grey dots at the apex and - white gills. _H. agathosmus_ (Secretan) Fries is similar, but smells - strongly of bitter almonds. Both species are found in plantations. - - Species of the genus _Hygrophorus_ are infrequently encountered in - Britain, although twenty species are recorded for the British Isles. - They are ecologically distinct from members of the genus _Hygrocybe_ - in preferring woodland communities to grassland areas; they are - probably mycorrhizal. The anatomy of the fruit-body is also rather - different to that found in _Hygrocybe_; the gill-trama is bilateral as - in _Leccinum_ (p. 27), _Suillus_ (p. 28), _Boletus_ (p. 31), - _Chroogomphus_ (p. 36), _Paxillus_ (p. 38) and _Amanita_ (p. 54). - Members of the genus _Hygrocybe_ have regular to irregular - gill-tramas. In fact, although both genera are united into a single - family, the Hygrophoraceae is based on one character common to both, - i.e. the long basidium; there is every indication that the genus - _Hygrocybe_ has greater affinity to _Omphalina_ in the - Tricholomataceae (p. 232). - - Surprisingly enough in North America many of our familiar grassland - species including _H. pratensis_ are to be found in deep shaded - woodland! - - -Angular, pink-spored agarics--Rhodophyllaceae - -The name of the family refers to the pink gills and it unites all those -fungi with a salmon-pinkish buff spore-print and whose spores are -angular in all optical sections. There are a few agarics, e.g. -_Clitopilus prunulus_ (Fries) Kummer with ridged spores which appear -angular in end-on view, but which are ellipsoid in both side and face -views and so are considered less related. - -The family _Rhodophyllaceae_ by some authorities contains one genus -_Rhodophyllus_, more correctly called _Entoloma_; in the British Isles -five constituent genera are recognised, but they will have to be more -critically defined to make a more meaningful classification. At the -moment, many of the species are poorly documented and it would appear -that anatomical studies will assist in the future in the recognition of -species-groups. - -If one selects the eight most distinctive shaped spore-types exhibited -in members of this family, then when their spores are examined side-on a -feature is available for correlation with the traditional field -characters, such as cap scaliness and gill-attachment. The most -distinctive spore-shape is Type G, found in _Nolanea staurospora_ -Bresadola, which is probably the most common and widespread species of -the family. It grows in woodlands, grassland and on lawns and will be -dealt with later (p. 122). The other spore types are illustrated and -range from irregularly rhomboid to elongate angular. - -The majority of the members of this group grow in grassland, -hill-pastures and meadows and distinct communities containing members of -this family and of the _Hygrophoraceae_ can be recognised. It is not -proposed to deal in detail with any individual members because they can -be so easily confused with each other by the specialist let alone by the -amateur. - -However, the genera as at present accepted are as follows:-- - - 1. ~Entoloma~ in its original sense contains agarics with fleshy caps, - fibrous stems and sinuate or adnexed gills, e.g. _Ent. clypeatum_ - (Fries) Kummer with grey to yellow-brown cap, found growing with - members of the apple and rose-family in the summer and early autumn. - This genus corresponds to _Calocybe_ in the white-spored agarics (p. - 110). - - 2. ~Leptonia~ contains those agarics with rather thin caps whose - margin is incurved, cartilaginous stems and adnate to adnexed, rarely - decurrent, gills and whose cap flesh is indistinct from that of the - stem, e.g. _Lept. serrulata_ (Fries) Kummer with dark blue to - violet-blue cap and dark blue edge to the gills. This genus approaches - the tough-shanks (_Collybia_) in the white-spored genera (p. 90). - - 3. ~Nolanea~ is characterised by agarics with delicate caps, whose - flesh is distinct from that of the stem and whose edge is straight and - pressed against the fragile stem when young, and the adnexed or - adnate, rarely decurrent, gills, e.g. _N. staurospora_ (see p. 122). - _N. cetrata_ (Fries) Kummer with yellow-brown to tan-coloured cap is - found from spring to autumn in conifer woodland, especially - plantations. The genus corresponds to _Mycena_ in the white-spored - agaric genera (p. 68). - - 4. ~Eccilia~ is a small genus containing agarics with thin, membranous - caps and distinctly decurrent gills, e.g. _E. sericeonitida_ P. D. - Orton with convex, then umbilicate, silky greyish brown cap. This - genus corresponds to _Omphalina_ in the white-spored agarics (p. 232). - - 5. ~Claudopus~ has three British representatives, all of which have a - very small stem which may even be absent, e.g. _C. depluens_ (Fries) - Gillet grows on soil and _C. parasiticus_ (Quélet) Ricken grows on old - decaying fruit-bodies of woody fungi. This genus corresponds to - _Pleurotellus_ in the white-spored genera and to _Crepidotus_ in the - brown-spored genera (p. 77). - -[Illustration: Plate 28. Fleshy fungi: Spores pinkish and angular and -borne on gills - Rhodophyllaceae] - - -~Cystoderma amianthinum~ (Fries) Fayod - - _Cap_: width 15-35 mm. _Stem_: width 4-8 mm; length 15-30 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: pale ochraceous yellow to sand-colour, convex then expanded, with - central umbo and often radially wrinkled-reticulate, covered - completely in powdery granules when fresh but these gradually - disappear with age or on excessive handling. - - Stem: slender, white above a narrow, easily lost ring which is - composed of floccose, ochraceous yellow granules which also clothe the - lower part of the stem. - - Gills: adnate, cream-coloured and crowded. - - Flesh: yellowish with a strong smell of new-mown hay. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: small to medium sized, hyaline under the microscope, smooth, - ellipsoid, 5-7 × 3-4 µm and becoming blue-grey when mounted in - solutions containing iodine. - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Frequently found amongst grass on heaths, - in hill-pastures and in woodlands from summer to autumn. - - _General Information_: This fungus is recognised by the - gill-attachment and the powdery-scurfy cap formed by the breaking up - of an enveloping veil composed of thick-walled, rounded cells, similar - to those on the surface of the stem. - - This fungus was formerly placed in the genus _Lepiota_ because of the - ring but the veil in _Cystoderma amianthinum_ is formed in quite a - different way to the ring in the true parasol mushrooms. The gills are - also adnate and not free as in the true species of _Lepiota_ (see p. - 112). _C. carcharias_ (Secretan) Fayod is found under similar - conditions, but is white or flesh-coloured. _C. cinnabarinum_ - (Secretan) Fayod is also found in short grass and moss, but has a - cinnabar-red, floccose cap and _C. granulosum_ (Fries) Fayod is - yellowish brown with non-amyloid spores and adnexed gills. - - Many authorities prefer to connect this small group of closely related - species more to members of the _Tricholomataceae_ (i.e. the family - which contains the Wood Blewits (p. 131), _Mycena_ (p. 68, etc.) than - to the parasol mushrooms--_Lepiota_ (p. 112). - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 23; LH 129; NB 103⁷; WD 8⁴. - -[Illustration: Plate 29. Fleshy fungi: Spores white and borne on gills] - - -~Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca~ (Fries) Maire - - False chanterelle - - _Cap_: width 25-70 mm. _Stem_: width 4-7 mm; length 25-50 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: bright orange-yellow or apricot, fleshy, soft, depressed at - centre and with wavy, incurved, slightly downy margin. - - Stem: yellow at apex, rich red-brown or orange about the middle and - sometimes dark brown at the very base. - - Gills: decurrent, deep orange, thin, crowded, repeatedly forked and - easily separable from the cap-tissue. - - Flesh: yellowish, pale in the cap, darker in the stem. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: medium sized, hyaline under the microscope, ellipsoid or - pip-shaped, smooth, 7-8 × 4 µm and red-brown when mounted in solutions - of iodine. - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in woodlands, particularly with - pines, and on heaths or in rough hill-pastures. - - _General Information_: This fungus is recognisable by the orange or - yellow cap and stem and the decurrent gills. It was formerly placed in - _Cantharellus_ because of the colours, white spores and the decurrent - gills, but it really differs in many other respects. It is true, - however, that it is frequently confused with the true Chanterelle - (_Cantharellus cibarius_ Fries, p. 162) by those who do not inspect - their specimens carefully. The gills are thin, plate-like as in other - agarics and not fold-like as in _Cantharellus_ (see p. 162). The - Chanterelle is edible and sought after as a delicacy, but there are - varying reports as to the edibility of _Hygrophoropsis_. Certainly it - is not of the best quality and there is evidence for it causing - upsets: therefore it is best to take the name ‘False Chanterelle’ at - face value and treat this fungus as truely false; ‘aurantiaca’ means - orange-coloured and refers to the colour of the fungus. - - A pale form is frequently collected, particularly in hill-pastures, - and is probably worthy of specific recognition. The cap is ochraceous - yellow to cream and the stem distinctly dark in the lower half. - - There is some confusion as to the true position in classification of - this fungus. The anatomical details of the fruit-body parallel those - of _Paxillus involutus_ (Fries) Fries (see p. 38) although the - spore-print is white. There is little doubt that future research will - answer this problem. - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 183; LH 185; NB 103¹; WD 16³. - -[Illustration: Plate 30. Fleshy fungi: Spores white and borne on gills] - - -(b) Agarics of chalk-grassland and rich uplands - - -~Agaricus campestris~ Fries - - Field mushroom - - _Cap_: width 40-100 mm. _Stem_: width 12-20 mm; length 40-80 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: rounded then expanding to become plano-convex, fleshy with the - margin incurved at first, initially pure white, but soon becoming - cream-colour and at maturity streaked brownish particularly at the - centre. - - Stem: white with a simple, very thin, white ring which becomes - brownish on rubbing and is easily lost with age or by handling. - - Gills: free, pink but finally umber-brown at maturity. - - Flesh: white, flushed reddish when cut especially in the stem. - - Spore-print: cigar-brown, with hint of purple. - - Spores: medium sized, ellipsoid or egg-shaped, smooth, small, 7-8 × - 4-5 µm and dark brown under the microscope. - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. Basidia 4-spored. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: The field-mushroom grows amongst grass in - pastures, etc., and also on old lawns where it may form fairy-rings. - - _General Information_: This is the common wild, edible mushroom for - which many people have in the past unwisely substituted many quite - unrelated species. Deaths have often been caused by lack of careful - observation when selecting wild fungi for the table; this only - emphasises why white mushrooms found in fields should not be casually - eaten. - - - ~A. arvensis~ Secretan the Horse-mushroom is also edible, but is much - bigger (up to 180 mm), creamy white and bruises slightly yellowish on - handling; it also has larger spores (7-10 × 5 µm), club-shaped cells - on the gill-edge, gills commencing white and not pink, and the - presence of a complex ring. - - - ~A. xanthodermus~ Genevier the ‘Yellow-staining mushroom’ has even - smaller spores than the field mushroom, i.e. 5-6 × 4 µm and a rather - strong, unpleasant smell; if eaten many people subsequently suffer - from stomach-pains and this shows that even amongst those fungi which - the scientist would call true mushrooms, i.e. those fungi in the genus - _Agaricus_, there are some poisonous members. Thus it is always - necessary to have wide experience before one collects fungi for eating - and until this is achieved all specimens should be discarded. - - _Illustrations_: Field mushroom--Hvass 163; LH 133; NB 31⁶; WD 71². - Horse mushroom--Hvass 160; LH 135; WD 72¹. Yellow-staining - mushroom--Hvass 159; WD 71³. - -[Illustration: Plate 31. Fleshy fungi: Spores purple-brown and borne on -gills] - - -~Calocybe gambosum~ (Fries) Singer. - - St George’s mushroom - - _Cap_: width 70-100 mm. _Stem_: width 15-25 mm; length 50-70 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: creamy white, ivory or light buff, slightly darker at the centre - with age, fleshy, rounded and with wavy margin, finally expanding to - become plane-convex; the margin is incurved and slightly downy at - first. - - Stem: firm, rather thick, white at the top, creamy or buff below and - slightly downy when fresh. - - Gills: sinuate to adnexed with a slight decurrent tooth, white to pale - buff. - - Flesh: with a very strong smell of meal, white and thick. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: small, ellipsoid, smooth, hyaline under the microscope, 5-6 × - 3-4 µm and not becoming blue-grey with solutions containing iodine. - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Found amongst grass in base rich pastures, - often in fairly large rings from April to June and on golf-courses - particularly those near the sea. - - _General Information_: The common name refers to the early appearance - of this agaric; St George’s Day is April 23rd, and this mushroom is - found about this time in favourable years, its fruiting often - extending into early June, particularly if the fruiting is retarded by - a cold and wet spring. It is easily recognised by the pale colour of - the cap, strong mealy smell, but particularly by its appearance in - spring. In each new year it is probably the first of the larger - agarics to appear. This species will be found in most books under the - genus _Tricholoma_, but differs from typical members of this group in - the anatomy and chemistry of the gill-tissues. - - The Latin name ‘gambosum’ is derived from ‘gamba’ meaning a hoof and - this reflects the shape of the fleshy cap as it pushes up through the - grass. Another much older name is _Tricholoma georgii_ (Fries) Quélet - which was used by Clusius and is derived from the legend of St George. - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 28; LH 83; WD 9². - -[Illustration: Plate 32. Fleshy fungi: Spores white and borne on gills] - - -~Lepiota procera~ (Fries) S. F. Gray - - Parasol mushroom - - _Cap_: width 70-200 mm. _Stem_: width 12-20 mm; length 100-250 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: dull brown or greyish brown, oval or rounded at first, but later - becoming bell-shaped, finally expanding but for the central umbo and - the surface breaking up into shaggy scales. - - Stem: straight, tapering upwards from a slightly bulbous base, felty - at first but then the surface breaking up into small patches which - finally resemble the pattern of a snake-skin; there is also a large, - thick, white ring which is brown below and becomes loose on the stem. - - Gills: remote, white, crowded and fairly broad. - - Flesh: white, thin, soft. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: very long, ellipsoid with a germ-pore, hyaline under the - microscope about 16 × 10 µm (14-17 × 9-12 µm), and becoming reddish - brown in solutions containing iodine. - - Marginal cystidia: variable, elongate balloon-shaped and hyaline. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Found from summer until mid-autumn, on the - outskirts of copses, in fields, at edges of woodland or in woodland - clearings; it is sometimes found in very large rings. - - _General Information_: When this fungus first appears through the soil - it resembles a drum-stick with the margin of the unexpanded cap - tightly hugging the stem. It is an easily recognised fungus because of - its straight and graceful stature with large cap and tall stem. It is - one of our best edible fungi and cannot be confused with any other - agaric. _L. rhacodes_ (Vittadini) Quélet is not as elegant and has - much smaller spores. - - _Illustrations_: F 26a; Hvass 15; LH 125; NB 31¹; WD 5¹. - -[Illustration: Plate 33. Fleshy fungi: Spores white and borne on gills] - - -(c) Agarics of meadows and valley-bottom grasslands - - -~Psilocybe semilanceata~ (Secretan) Kummer - - Liberty caps - - _Cap_: width 8-14 mm; height up to 18 mm. _Stem_: width 4-6 mm; length - 50-70 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: sharply conical, in fact often with a very distinct apical point, - never or very rarely becoming expanded, often fluted and puckered at - the incurved margin, smooth, viscid, pale buff or clay colour, but - soon flushed with greyish green at maturity and becoming free of the - fibrils of veil which ornament the margin when young. - - Stem: slender, tough and smooth, similarly coloured to the cap and - sometimes blueing at the base when picked. - - Gills: adnate to adnexed, crowded, purplish black except for white - edge. - - Flesh: white or pallid. - - Spore-print: purple-brown. - - Spores: long, ellipsoid, slightly lemon-shaped, smooth and with a - distinct germ-pore at one end and 12-14 × 7 µm in size. - - Marginal cystidia: bottle-shaped with an elongate tapering neck, with - thin walls which at most become pale honey in solutions containing - ammonia, unlike the cystidia of _Hypholoma_ (p. 64). - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Commonly growing amongst grass in fields - near farm-yards, on heaths and by roadsides; often it occurs in small - troops. - - _General Information_: _Psilocybe semilanceata_ is recognised by the - uniquely shaped cap; ‘semilanceata’ means half spear-shaped, from the - papilla at the top of the cap, giving it a pointed aspect. However, - the common name is more descriptive and comes from the fact that these - caps resemble the helmets worn by French soldiers in the early part of - the century. - - This fungus was once very isolated amongst British agarics, but now it - has been united with a group of small purplish brown-spored fungi - formerly placed in the genus _Deconica_. What is of more interest is - the fact that unlike many British agarics the cap often does not - expand fully in order to release the spores. In this way it allows - mycologists to hypothesise on how certain of the enclosed, stalked - Gastromycetes evolved in some of the desert regions of the world. - - _Illustrations_: LH 149; NB 33¹¹; WD 78⁷. - -[Illustration: Plate 34. Fleshy fungi: Spores purple-brown and borne on -gills] - - -~Conocybe tenera~ (Fries) Fayod - - Brown cone-cap - - _Cap_: width 10-20 mm. _Stem_: width 3-6 mm; length 70-100 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: very hygrophanous, sand colour, orange-yellow or ochraceous brown - tinted cinnamon when fresh but drying uniformly yellow-ochre, thin, - fragile, striate when moist, but soon non-striate as water is lost - from the cap. - - Stem: tall, slender and similarly coloured to the cap, straight, - fragile, minutely striate from the top to bottom with what appears to - be minute powdery granules. - - Gills: adnate then becoming free, crowded, ochraceous and finally - cinnamon-rust in colour. - - Flesh: russet when moist but rapidly becoming yellowish as the - fruit-body dries. - - Spore-print: rust-brown. - - Spores: long, ellipsoid, with thick, bright yellow-brown walls and - distinct germ-pores at their ends when seen under the microscope, and - over 10 µm in length (11-12 × 6 µm.) - - Marginal cystidia: pinheaded or skittle-shaped. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus grows in ones and twos, more - rarely in troops amongst grass. - - _General Information_: This is one member of a whole complex group of - ochraceous, brown, tawny or cinnamon-brown capped agarics which - superficially appear to be the same, but on closer examination the - expert can split them into several distinct species. The use of - microscopic characters is essential and outside the scope of this book - or the ordinary mushroom-picker’s manual. However, the closely related - _C. lactea_ (J. Lange) Métrod can be more easily distinguished for it - has a white or cream-coloured cap and stem. It also has larger broadly - ellipsoid spores, measuring 12-14 × 6-9 µm, but the same shaped cells - on the gill-edge. - - _Illustrations_: LH 153; NB 35⁴; WD 68². - -[Illustration: Plate 35. Fleshy fungi: Spores brown and borne on gills] - - -(d) Fairy-ring formers - -Many agarics grow in circles, but not all of them produce zones in the -vegetation. It is the distinct zonation caused by the ‘fairy-ring -champignon’ _Marasmius oreades_ (Fries) Fries and related fungi which -have given rise to the name of Fairy-ring and which resulted in the -foundation of many folk tales. - -A fairy-ring can be divided into four distinct zones, a central zone of -fairly normally developed vegetation on the outside of which is a green, -actively growing zone of grass; outside this is a zone composed of brown -or dead vegetation. The outermost zone again appears to be far more lush -than the normal grass in the vicinity and it is in this last zone that -the fruit-bodies of the fungus causing the pattern appear. - -A generalised explanation of the zoning appears to be as follows:-- - -In the outermost zone the actively growing mycelium decomposes soil -constituents and liberates nitrogenous material which is in turn taken -up by the plant roots nearby and utilised for their growth. In the -penultimate zone the grass is dead, probably not caused by a direct -parasitic attack but by the mycelial threads filling the air-spaces in -the soil and so inhibiting water flow. This destruction of the delicate -balance of water and air found in any soil induces drying out and -gradual death of the plants whose roots permeate the soil. Behind the -dead-zone is vegetation which shows increased vigour apparently due to -plant-nutrients being released by the decaying mycelium and -plant-material, whose death has been caused by the presence of the -fungus. The innermost zone is not so stimulated. - -With nothing more than graph and tracing paper, a tape-measure, -note-book and pencil, pieces of cane about four inches long, and -coloured dye or indian ink, it is exciting to assess the annual radial -growth of fairy-rings and to correlate these with environmental -conditions. This can be carried out on a school lawn or on a home lawn; -the method and further experiments are given in Appendix iii. - -[Illustration: Plate 36. Fairy-ring fungus--~Marasmius oreades~] - - -~Marasmius oreades~ (Fries) Fries - - Fairy-ring champignon - - _Cap_: width 25-60 mm. _Stem_: width 5-9 mm; length 30-80 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: pinkish tan with slight flush of brown at centre, hygrophanous - and drying out buff-coloured or clay-coloured, convex at first then - expanding to become plane, but for an obtuse umbo which is retained at - the centre. - - Stem: pale buff, tough, flexible and smooth. - - Gills: adnexed, pale cream colour or pinkish buff and fairly distant. - - Flesh: whitish or pinkish tan, smelling of cherry laurel (cyanic). - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: medium sized, hyaline, pip-shaped, smooth, not staining bluish - grey when mounted in solutions containing iodine and about 10 × 6 µm - in size (9-11 × 5-6 µm). - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This agaric is very common from May to - October on lawns and grass-verges. - - _General Information_: _M. oreades_ forms well developed fairy-rings, - and is easily recognised by its tough nature, pale colours and ability - to revive after having been dried. This ability to revive in moist - weather even after the fruit-body has been dried by the sun or wind is - a character which was used to distinguish members of the genus - _Marasmius_. However, this is a very subjective character and since - microscopic techniques were introduced and used widely in the study of - agarics the genus has been delimited rather more critically. - _Marasmius_ is close to _Collybia_ (p. 90), in fact many species - appear in one book in one genus and in another book in the second - genus; _M. oreades_ itself is not a typical member of the genus. - _Marasmius_ seems to be a much more important genus in the tropical - and subtropical regions of the world; we have already mentioned how - some of the small species of _Marasmius_ in Europe grow only on leaves - of a particular plant (see p. 92). _M. androsaceus_ (Fries) Fries (see - p. 231) is the horse-hair fungus. - - _Illustrations_: F 19a; Hvass 81; LH 115; NB 35¹; WD 24¹⁰ (not very - good). - -[Illustration: Plate 37. Fleshy fungi reviving when moistened even after -drying: Spores white and borne on gills] - - -(e) Agarics of urban areas--lawn and parkland agarics - - -~Nolanea staurospora~ Bresadola - - _Cap_: width 20-40 mm. _Stem_: width 3-5 mm; length 45-70 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: bell-shaped at first then expanded, hygrophanous, date-brown, - striate when moist but pale fawn or tan and non-striate when dry, and - usually becoming quite silky-shiny. - - Stem: slender, fragile, greyish brown, silky fibrillose-striate and - shiny. - - Gills: almost free, crowded and pale greyish brown when young, but - finally flesh coloured. - - Flesh: brownish and smelling very strongly of meal when cut or broken - between the fingers. - - Spore-print: salmon-pink with flush of cinnamon. - - Spores: medium sized, fawn under the microscope, star-shaped with 4-6 - prominent angles, 9-10 × 7-9 µm, smooth and with no germ-pore. - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. - - -~Nolanea sericea~ (Mérat) P. D. Orton - - Silky nolanea - - _Cap_: width 25-40 mm. _Stem_: width 5-9 mm; length 25-50 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: convex then flattened or with slight umbo, umber-brown with a - greyish cast which becomes accentuated as the cap dries out and - finally becoming silky-shiny; the margin is incurved and striate at - first but on expanding it becomes non-striate with time. - - Stem: short, fibrillose, greyish brown, shining and white at the base, - very fragile and often snaps just above the soil-level when collected. - - Gills: crowded, adnate and pale greyish brown then pinkish brown. - - Flesh: with a strong smell of new meal, brownish becoming paler as it - dries out. - - Spore-print: salmon-pink. - - Spores: medium sized, smooth, pale fawn under the microscope, angular - almost cubic and 10-13 × 8-9 µm in size. - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. - - _General Information_: _Nolanea staurospora_ is very common amongst - grass, in many habitats such as on heaths, and in woodlands and - copses, but it is particularly common in pastures and on lawns. It is - difficult to separate from close relatives on field-characters, - except for the strong mealy smell; however, it is recognised - immediately by the spore-shape, in fact stauro--means a cross and - spora--spore! - -[Illustration: Plate 38. Fleshy fungi: Spores pinkish and angular, and -borne on gills] - - Because of the flattened cap and gill-shape _N. sericea_ (Mérat) P. D. - Orton was first placed in _Entoloma_, but for a long time it was one - of the smallest members of that genus. The European species of - _Nolanea_ have recently been critically analysed, and now that closely - related species to the silky _Nolanea_ have been found, it appears - better placed in _Nolanea_ although it is still found under _Entoloma_ - in many books. The Latin word ‘sericeum’ means silky and refers to the - silky cap and stem of this fungus which is a very noticeable feature - when the fungus is collected in the dry state. The common name which - has been given to this fungus also refers to the silky nature of the - fruit-body. - - _Illustrations_: _N. staurospora_--LH 181; ND 31²; WD 52². _N. - sericea_--LH 181; WD 52⁵. - - -~Panaeolus foenisecii~ (Fries) Schroeter - - Brown hay-cap - - _Cap_: width 12-28 mm. _Stem_: width 3-6 mm; length 40-60 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: semiglobate to convex and hardly expanding even with age, smooth, - expallent, dull cinnamon-brown or dark tan-colour, becoming - clay-colour or pale cinnamon-colour from centre outwards on drying and - so sometimes appearing as if it is zoned. - - Stem: slender, fragile, smooth and pale cinnamon-brown, except at apex - where it is dotted with white; it is usually more brownish below. - - Gills: adnate, crowded, pale brown and mottled, but becoming more - uniformly umber-brown except for whitish margin. - - Flesh: whitish or pale cinnamon colour. - - Spore-print: purple-brown. - - Spores: long, lemon-shaped under the microscope, dull brown, warted - all over but for the distinct germ-pore; 12-15 × 7-8 µm in size. - - Marginal cystidia: variable spindle-shaped with flexuous neck and - subcapitate apex, about 5-6 µm wide. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common amongst short grass on lawns, in - pastures, on grass-verges, etc., from May until October. - -[Illustration: Plate 39. Fleshy fungi: Spores purple-brown and born on -gills] - - _General Information_: _P. foenisecii_ is recognised under the - microscope by the ornamented spores; this character was used to - separate this fungus in the new genus _Panaeolina_. However, although - the spore-print is not exactly black the stature, mottled gills and - anatomy conform closely with _Panaeolus sphinctrinus_ (Fries) Quélet - and _P. rickenii_ Hora (see p. 210 and below respectively). The same - fungus has been placed in _Psilocybe_ (see p. 114), but it has little - in common with members of that genus. The word ‘foenisecii’ means - hay-harvest, reflecting the habitat of growing in fields. This fungus - is variable in colour depending on its state of turgidity; it can be - easily confused with other species of _Panaeolus_ when moist and with - certain species of _Conocybe_ when dry. _P. rickenii_ is an equally - common agaric growing on similar or slightly less base-rich - soil-types. It has a distinctly bell-shaped reddish brown cap with a - pale incurved margin which in wet weather is, like the entire stem, - beaded with droplets of liquid. This gives the fungus a glistening - appearance when seen fresh and as it dries these droplets are lost and - the cap becomes slightly zoned. The stem is pale reddish-brown with a - strong frosted appearance because of the minute hairs which cover it. - I have no doubt that the classification of these fungi will be - assisted by careful analysis of the shapes of the hairs found in the - different species. - - _Illustrations_: _Panaeolina foenisecii_--LH 145; WD 78⁴. _Panaeolus - rickenii_--LH 145. - - -(f) Agarics of wasteland and hedgerows - - -~Coprinus comatus~ (Fries) S. F. Gray - - Lawyer’s wig - - _Cap_: width 30-60 mm; height 80-200 mm. _Stem_: width 10-20 mm; - length 80-250 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 40. - - Cap: at first cylindrical or oval then bell-shaped, fleshy, fragile, - white and covered with woolly, whitish, shaggy scales which have brown - tips; the centre of the cap is smooth and yellow to ochraceous whilst - the margin becomes striate and lilaceous and finally black as the - tissue liquefies (autodigests) and the margin rolls up to expose new - areas of spore-bearing tissue. - - Stem: tall, white, smooth and tapered towards the apex, with a white - ring which can easily move up and down the stem with handling, and - which soon disappears with age. - -[Illustration: Plate 40. Fleshy fungi becoming reduced to an inky mass: -Spores black and borne on gills] - - Gills: free at first, white then pink and finally black, becoming - gradually dissolved into a black fluid from the base of the cap - upwards. - - Flesh: white, thin, except immediately in the central area of the cap. - - Spore-print: blackish-purple. - - Spores: long, elongate-ellipsoid, large and about 13 × 5-8 µm in size, - (12-15 × 7-9 µm). - - Marginal cystidia: elongate club-shaped to balloon-shaped, hyaline and - thin-walled. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Grows in clusters on rich ground, in - gardens, on sides of newly prepared roads and central reservations of - motor-ways, on path-sides, in cultivated fields and on rubbish dumps; - it grows from spring to autumn and sometimes occurs in huge troops. - - _General Information_: Easily recognised by its size, the shape of the - cap with its scaly surface and from its resemblance to a ‘judge’s - wig’; it is frequently called the ‘lawyer’s wig’ and whereas some - common names are not very descriptive and one has to use a lot of - imagination to conjure up what the common name implies, in this case - it is not so. It is also known as the ‘shaggy cap’ or ‘shaggy - ink-cap’. Ink or inky cap is, however, a common name for many species - of the genus _Coprinus_ (see p. 211-4). - - The unrelated _Lyophyllum decastes_ (Fries) Singer and _L. connatum_ - (Fries) Singer are also common fungi growing on roadsides, on soil and - compost-heaps. They too break through embankments, soil, paths, etc., - producing large craters and mounds of debris. - - _Illustrations_: _Coprinus comatus_--F 34^{b}; Hvass 172; LH 137; NB - 35⁵; WD 82². _Lyophyllum decastes_--LH 81; WD 14². - - -~Lacrymaria velutina~ (Fries) Konrad & Maublanc - - Weeping widow - - _Cap_: width 45-90 mm. _Stem_: width 8-14 mm; length 50-125 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 41. - - Cap: convex then expanded with obtuse central umbo, dull clay-brown or - date-brown and at first covered with flattened, woolly fibrils which - are gradually lost with age; the margin is incurved and fringed with - remnants of the veil. - - Stem: fragile, pale dingy-coloured or clay-coloured at apex, dull - brown below the ring-zone which consists of white fibrils; later in - development these fibrils catch the spores and the stem becomes black - and fibrillose-scaly, particularly below the ring-zone. - -[Illustration: Plate 41. Fleshy fungi: Spores blackish and borne on -gills] - - Gills: sinuate, crowded and very dark brown or almost black with - distinct white margin which is covered in tiny beads of liquid in - moist weather. - - Flesh: pale buff. - - Spore-print: almost black. - - Spores: long, dark brown, lemon-shaped and warted with distinct and - prominent germ-pore and 10-12 × 6-7 µm in size. - - Marginal cystidia: club-shaped or with a distinctly rounded head. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common on the ground near newly built - houses, on roadsides, tips and paths in woods, either solitary or in - groups; it is also found in pastures. - - _General Information_: The fibrillose scaly cap and stem and the - almost black gills which frequently have liquid droplets at their edge - separate this species from all other agarics and microscopically it - can be easily recognised by the warted spores. ‘Velutina’ means - velvety and refers to the texture of the cap-surface, of the young - fruit-body. The genus name _Lacrymaria_ refers to this peculiar, but - certainly not unique, phenomenon, of exuding liquid from cells on the - gill-edge. This has been compared with weeping and ‘lacrymans’ means - weeping; the common name reflects this also--weeping widow (cf. p. - 154). - - This fungus has had a chequered history, for it is also known in some - books as _Hypholoma lacrymabunda_ (again meaning weeping) or _H. - velutina_; the anatomy of the fungus, however, is quite different to - _Hypholoma_ (e.g. _H. fasciculare_ p. 64). More recently it has found - a place in _Psathyrella_, but it seems unsatisfactorily placed there - because of the warty spores, black spore-print and fibrillose - cap-surface; it warrants a separate genus, i.e., _Lacrymaria_. _L. - pyrotricha_ (Fries) Konrad & Maublanc is the only other British - species of this genus but it has a bright orange cap colour; it is - rare. - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 180; LH 141; WD 86³. - - -~Lepista nuda~ (Fries) Cooke - - Wood blewits - - _Cap_: width 70-100 mm. _Stem_: width 10-15 mm; length 70-100 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 42. - - Cap: rounded then flattened or slightly depressed in the centre, - smooth, bluish lilac, or violaceous when young but gradually with age - becoming reddish-brown, with or without a flush of wine colour. - - Stem: similarly coloured to the cap, equal, fleshy, elastic, - fibrillose and streaky. - - Gills: adnate with or without a decurrent tooth, crowded, lilac and - easily separable from the cap-tissue by the fingers. - - Flesh: bluish violaceous, but drying out dirty buff in the base of the - stem. - - Spore-print: flesh-coloured. - - Spores: medium-sized, ellipsoid appearing smooth but very minutely - roughened under the microscope, although it is very difficult to see - except with a good instrument (6-8 × 4-5 µm in size). - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Widespread in troops or small groups in - copses and under hedgerows and not uncommon in flower-beds in gardens - in late autumn and early winter especially on compost heaps and in - rhubarb patches which have been mulched with piles of moribund leaves. - - _General Information_: This fungus was originally placed in - _Tricholoma_, but due to differences in anatomy and the distinctly - coloured and ornamented spores it has been placed along with ‘common - blewits’ _T. personatum_ (Fries) Kummer (or better _L. saeva_ (Fries) - P. D. Orton), in the genus _Lepista_. This genus which is also called - _Rhodopaxillus_, again referring to the pinkish spore-print, is not - found in many of the easily obtainable books. One should look for the - fungus under _Tricholoma_, from which it can be separated easily by - the beautiful colour. - - Both the ‘wood blewits’ and ‘common blewits’ have been regularly sold - in markets in England within the last fifty years. They are edible and - considered of high quality. In their fresh state they are easily - recognised, but as they age they become browned and so resemble many - other less desirable fungi. - - _Illustrations_: F 17^{d}; Hvass 49; LH 91; NB 125²; WD 12³ (a bit too - pastel). - -[Illustration: Plate 42. Fleshy fungi: Spores pale pinkish and borne on -gills] - - -~Agaricus bisporus~ (J. Lange) Pilát - - Common mushroom - - _Cap_: width 40-100 mm. _Stem_: width 15-25 mm; length 50-75 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 43. - - Cap: rounded gradually expanding to become plane, whitish with - numerous brown radiating fibrils and with the margin irregular because - of fragments from the ring which are left there after expansion of the - cap. - - Stem: short, cylindrical, smooth, bruising reddish-brown when handled - and with a narrow ring which soon collapses and disappears. - - Gills: free, pink at first then purple-brown, narrow and crowded. - - Flesh: solid, thick, firm and slowly flushing brownish on cutting. - - Spore-print: purple-brown. - - Spores: medium-sized, broadly ellipsoid, purple-brown under the - microscope, less than 10 µm long, (6-8 × 5-6 µm). - - Marginal cystidia: club-shaped, 10-12 µm at apex. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - Basidia: 2-spored. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Frequent on manure heaps, straw heaps, on - road scrapings and around garden plants. - - _General Information_: This fungus is recognised by the dark fibrils - on the cap, the 2-spored basidia easily seen with the low power of a - microscope, and the pink gills when young. Much confusion has existed - over this fungus and its nearest relatives. It is similar to the - ‘Cultivated mushroom’, _A. hortensis_ (Cooke) Pilát, which is offered - for sale in shops. However, it differs in several minor details and it - may be that _A. bisporus_ is the fungus from which the cultivated - mushroom developed, very probably unconsciously by man, but the - history of the cultivated mushroom is very obscure. The cultivated - mushroom when bought in British shops is white but in the United - States two varieties are sold, one with the brownish fibrils - predominating and a snow-white one where the fibrils do not darken; - the former is frequently found in Europe. The white form is sometimes - found in gardens where spent-mushroom spawn is used as mulching around - fruit-trees but it has a rounder cap than _A. bisporus_. The - cultivated mushroom accounts for an annual income of £14 million in - the British Isles. - - _Illustrations_: _A. hortensis_--LH 133 (as the forma _albida_); NB - 31⁷; WD 71¹. _A. bisporus_--Hvass 161; LH 133. - -[Illustration: Plate 43. Fleshy fungi: Spores purple-brown and borne on -gills] - - - - -B. BRACKET-FUNGI AND THEIR RELATIVES - - -_Key to major genera_ - -A group of fungi which includes the bracket fungi, hedgehog fungi, -fairy-clubs and their relatives; in the majority of species the margin -continues to grow through the favourable part of the season and so often -envelopes leaves, grass, etc. - - 1. Spore-bearing layer (hymenium) quite smooth, spread over veins or - shallow pores; fruit-body top-shaped, fan-shaped or club-shaped, - or spread over the substrate (resupinate) 2 - - Spore-bearing layer lining the inner surface of tubes or borne on - warts or spines 17 - - 2. Fruit-body club-shaped, coral-shaped or distinctly funnel-shaped, - fan-like or resembling an agaric 3 - - Fruit-body resupinate or with poorly developed cap 11 - - 3. Fruit-body coral-like or club-shaped with clubs grouped or - branched 4 - - Fruit-body resembling an agaric or funnel-shaped to fan-shaped 9 - - 4. Fruit-body large, branched with flattened and curled lobes and so - resembling a cauliflower _Sparassis_ - - Fruit-body of single or grouped clubs or if branched then not - resembling a cauliflower, the lobes being cylindrical or only - slightly flattened and hardly bent 5 - - 5. Fruit-body small arising from a seed-like structure or growing - attached to dead herbaceous plant remains 6 - - Fruit-body medium to large, simple or branched and usually growing - on the ground; one large species grows on wood 7 - - 6. Fruit-body arising from a seed-like body embedded in the - plant-tissue or found loose in the soil _Typhula_ - - Fruit-body on dead plant-remains but seed-like structure absent - _Pistillaria_ - - 7. Fruit-body much branched; spores ornamented (see also _Thelephora_ - below) _Ramaria_ - - Fruit-body simple or if with well-developed branches then spores - smooth 8 - - 8. Fruit-body branched irregularly with many to few branches, grey, - white or drab-coloured; spores large, subglobose and smooth - _Clavulina_ - - Fruit-body club-shaped or if branched then brightly coloured and - spores not large and subglobose - _Clavaria_, _Clavulinopsis_ & _Clavariadelphus_ - - 9. Fruit-body resembling an agaric with spores borne on fold-like, - often forked and shallow ridges and veins, and often brightly - coloured - _Cantharellus_ (compare carefully with _Craterellus_ below) - - Fruit-body funnel-shaped or fan-shaped 10 - - 10. Fruit-body often drab colour or greyed with smooth or slightly - veined outer surface _Craterellus_ - - Fruit-body wrinkled, irregular or smooth and powdery, lilaceous to - chocolate-brown in colour _Thelephora_ - - 11. Fruit-body sessile or resupinate and fleshy; spores borne on veins - united to form shallow pores 12 - - Fruit-body resupinate or bracket-like, and spore-surface veined or - rugulose but lacking distinct pores 13 - - 12. Spores colourless _Merulius_ - - Spores brown _Serpula_ - - 13. Spore-bearing layer containing long, brown spines _Hymenochaete_ - - Fruit-body lacking spines although often having encrusted sterile - cells 14 - - 14. Surface of fruit-body more or less radiately veined _Phlebia_ - - Surface of fruit-body not radiately veined 15 - - 15. Spores brown _Coniophora_ - - Spores colourless 16 - - 16. Flesh distinctly formed and fruit-body with or without a well - formed cap _Stereum_ & related genera - - Flesh poorly differentiated and fruit-body lacking a cap - members of the Corticiaceae (including _Peniophora_ & - _Hyphodontia_ p. 176) - - 17. Spores borne on teeth or spines 18 - - Spore-bearing layer lining tubes or elongate pores 22 - - 18. Fruit-body with central stem; agaric-like but not attached to - cones 19 - - Fruit-body encrusting or bracket-like, or with lateral stem if - resembling an agaric 20 - - 19. Fruit-body fleshy _Hydnum_ and related genera - - Fruit-body rubbery or tough _Hydnellum_ and related genera - - 20. Fruit-body growing attached to cones and cap with lateral stem - _Auriscalpium_ - - Fruit-body not on cones and distinct stem lacking 21 - - 21. Spores borne on a series of radially arranged knotches resembling - gills _Lentinellus_ - - Spores borne on a resupinate layer of spines - _Mycoacia_ and related genera - - 22. Tubes free one from another _Fistulina_ - - Tubes united to form a distinct tissue 23 - - 23. Fruit-body perennial and exhibiting more than one layer of tubes - 24 - - Fruit-body annual although the fruit-body can persist in a dried - depauperate form for several months 27 - - 24. Spores brown 25 - - Spores colourless 26 - - 25. Large, brown, sterile cells present in the tubes; spores simple - _Phellinus_ & _Cryptoderma_ - - Brown, sterile cells absent from tubes; spores complex _Ganoderma_ - - 26. Large woody fruit-body with crust-like top _Fomes_ - - Medium sized to small, fleshy-tough fruit-body with downy or - crust-like top _Oxyporus_, _Fomitopsis_ & _Heterobasidion_ - - 27. Spores borne in labyrinth-like or elongate pores, or cap either - poorly developed or absent, and only resupinate pore-surface - present 28 - - Spores borne in distinct pores on well-developed woody - fruit-bodies 31 - - 28. Spores borne in labyrinth-like pores _Daedalea_ & _Daedaleopsis_ - - Spores borne in elongate pores like very thick gills, or - fruit-body completely resupinate 29 - - 29. Spore-layer lining elongate pores - _Lenzites_ (white) & _Gloeophyllum_ (brown) - - Spore-layer consisting of a resupinate pore-layer 30 - - 30. Pore-layer totally resupinate; flesh very poorly developed - _Fibuloporia_ and related genera - - Fruit-body resupinate or developing ill-formed caps at the margin; - flesh well-developed and quite tough - _Datronia_, _Gloeoporus_ & _Bjerkandera_ - - 31. Fruit-body with a distinct stem 32 - - Fruit-body sessile or with a poorly developed stem, or if merely - with a basal swelling then pores bruising 33 - - 32. Pores dark-coloured but spores pale-coloured in mass - _Coltricia_ (also see _Phaeolus_ below) - - Pores white or creamy, foot often darkened or black, and spores - hyaline _Polyporus_ - - 33. Pores brightly coloured, red, lilaceous or orange to - apricot-colour 34 - - Pores never as brightly coloured, cream, white, grey or in some - shade of brown 35 - - 34. Pores red to orange-red _Pycnoporus_ - - Pores lilac to violaceous, or lilaceous orange to apricot colour - _Hapalopilus_ (orange-apricot) & _Hirschioporus_ (lilaceous) - - 35. Pore-surface brown or dark grey and spores often colourless 36 - - Pore-surface white or creamy, or yellow; spores hyaline 38 - - 36. Pore-surface firm and grey _Bjerkandera_ - - Pore-surface greenish yellow, bruising brown or yellow-brown and - darkening with age 37 - - 37. Fruit-body lacking a stem, rust-brown, breaking easily, cheesy and - with silky sheen _Inonotus_ - - Fruit-body with a broad basal hump, fibrillose spongy with yellow - margin to cap _Phaeolus_ - - 38. Tubes forming a layer quite distinct from the flesh; fruit-body - fleshy and tough 39 - - Tubes not forming a layer distinct from the flesh; fruit-body - woody or corky 43 - - 39. Pore-surface bright yellow; upper surface yellow or orange - _Laetiporus_ - - Pore-surface white 40 - - 40. Fruit-body medium to large, shell-shaped, whitish brown or silvery - grey on top; on birch _Piptoporus_ - - Fruit-body often frond-like, infrequently shell-shaped and if on - birch then small 41 - - 41. Fruit-body fan- or frond-shaped, composed of innumerable more or - less complete caps joined together at their base or to half-way - _Grifola_ & _Meripilus_ - - Fruit-body neither fan-shaped nor frond-shaped and compound 42 - - 42. Fruit-body wholly pale-coloured white, cream, ivory, etc. - _Tyromyces_ - - Fruit-body except pores usually some shade of brown _Polyporus_ - - 43. Cap thick, corky or woody and pores medium or large - _Trametes_ & _Pseudotrametes_ - - Cap thin but leathery and pores small _Coriolus_ - - -(i) Pored and toothed fungi - - -(a) Colonisers of tree trunks, stumps and branches - - -~Polyporus squamosus~ Fries - - Scaly polypore - - _Cap_: 100-300 mm. _Stem_: width 25-50 mm; length 25-75 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: fan-shaped or semicircular, spreading horizontally with age, - ochre-yellow or straw-coloured with dark brown, flattened scales in - concentric zones which are much more dense at the centre. - - Stem: short, stout, white at apex and netted with pale creamy buff - about middle, but dark brown or black towards the base and attached to - the side of the cap. - - Tubes: whitish to yellowish and decurrent with large, angular, - irregularly fringed, whitish or cream-coloured pores. - - Flesh: with strong, not very pleasant smell, cream-coloured or white. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: long, oblong or elongate ellipsoid, hyaline under the - microscope (10-15 × 4-5 µm) and not blueing in solutions containing - iodine. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: An easily recognisable fungus growing on - stumps and old living trees, especially of sycamore and elm where it - often forms tiers of caps from late spring until autumn; however, they - decompose rapidly and almost completely disappear by the next year - when new fruit-bodies may appear in the same place, a phenomenon which - may take place for several consecutive seasons. - - _General Information_: The genus _Polyporus_ is in most text-books, a - big and unwieldy genus joining together all fleshy, annual fungi - possessing tubes; even the boleti (see p. 32) have been included! Many - of these species are now considered less closely related one to - another than previously thought. Boleti differ from polypores, - however, in their less tough and distinctly putrescent fruit-body, and - in the fact that the margin of the cap extends but does not continue - to grow during the life-cycle; the margin of the polypore fruit-body - is active and may burst into growth again when favourable weather - conditions occur. The ‘Scaly polypore’ has a flesh which consists of - two types of hyphae: (i) hyphae of unlimited growth with abundant - protoplasmic contents which stain easily and which collapse on drying; - and (ii) thick-walled, strengthening hyphae which bind the thin walled - hyphae together. _Laetiporus sulphureus_ (Fries) Murrill ‘Sulphur - polypore’ has a single type of hyphae in the tubes, i.e. thin walled - generative, and only a few binding hyphae in the flesh. It has an - orange cap with a rather thick, sulphur or chrome-yellow margin, - sulphur-yellow tubes and pores and yellow, then pale buff, flesh. The - spore-print is white and the spores hyaline, pip-shaped and medium - sized, (5-7 × 4-5 µm). - - _Illustrations_: _P. squamosus_--F 43^{b}; Hvass 267; LH 75; NB 129¹; - WD 94¹. _L. sulphureus_--Hvass 268; LH 73; NB 129³; WD 94². - -[Illustration: Plate 44. Woody fungi: Spores white and borne within -tubes--fruit-body annual] - - -Some common annual polypores - - -~Piptoporus betulinus~ (Fries) Karsten - - Birch polypore - - Cap: 75-200 mm, kidney-shaped or hoof-shaped, smooth, covered by a - thin, separable and greyish silvery or pale brownish skin; cap-margin - thick, incurved and projects beyond the tubes. - - Stem: rudimentary, simply a small hump below which the fungus - develops. - - Tubes, pores and spore-print: white. - - Spores: sausage-shaped, and thin-walled hyaline under the microscope - and very narrow, (5-6 × 1-2 µm). It grows on birch throughout the - country where it causes a sap wood-rot which finally converts the - inner timber to a red-brown friable mass. The flesh, which contains - thickened binding hyphae, is used for mounting insects and for - sharpening knives, hence the common name ‘Razor-strop fungus’. - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 269; LH 67; NB 117⁴; WD 93³. - - -~Inonotus hispidus~ (Fries) Karsten - - Shaggy polypore - - Cap: 100-250 mm, kidney-shaped, yellow-brown to rust-brown, but - finally almost black, at first covered with shaggy hairs, but these - tend to mat together with age. - - Stem: absent. - - Tubes and flesh: rust-colour; pores at first yellow, but finally - red-brown. - - Spore-print: yellow-brown. - - Spores: medium sized (8-9 × 7-8 µm) and globose under the microscope. - It grows on various broad leaved trees, especially ash where it causes - a spongy, white heart-wood rot. The flesh contains hyphae with thick, - brown walls. - - _Illustrations_: LH 63; WD 96¹. - -[Illustration: Plate 45. Woody fungi--annual polypores] - - -~Phaeolus schweinitzii~ (Fries) Patouillard - - Cap: 100-300 mm, bracket-shaped or tub-shaped, dark brown with a - knobbly, velvety, roughened and grooved surface; margin at first - golden yellow. - - Stem: absent or short, thick and brown. - - Tubes and pores: greenish yellow. - - Flesh: deep rust-brown. - - Spore-print: greenish yellow. - - Spores: medium sized, greenish under the microscope, ellipsoid and - about 8 × 4 µm in size, (7-8 × 3-4 µm). This fungus is found on - conifers or near conifer stumps where it is attached to the roots; it - causes a brown cubical heart-wood rot; the flesh of the fruit-body is - composed of only one type of hyphae. - - _Illustrations_: LH 67; NB 111³; WD 95¹. - - -~Meripilus giganteus~ (Fries) Karsten - - Giant polypore - - Cap: 75-100 mm, or even up to 200 mm wide, grouped and forming a tuft - of caps up to 750 mm across. The individual caps are fan-shaped, - pliable, rather thin and yellow-brown to snuff-brown with their - margins wavy and cream colour or yellowish. - - Stem: replaced by a united mass of caps. - - Tubes, pores and flesh: white and very soft, but becoming black on - bruising. - - Spores: small, pip-shaped, hyaline under the microscope and 5-6 × 4-5 - µm. This fungus is a common sight forming masses at the base of - broad-leaved trees; it is common on beech. It is a soft, fibrous - polypore as a result of the lack in the flesh of thick-walled - specialised hyphae. - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 277; LH 73; NB 129⁴; WD 93¹. - - The spores of all the annual polypores described above do not blue - when placed in solutions containing iodine. - - -~Coriolus versicolor~ (Fries) Quélet - - Many zoned polypore - - _Cap_: 25-60 mm. _Stem_: absent. - - _Description_: Plate 46. - - Cap: semi-circular, flattened, thin, tough and flexible when fresh - with the surface velvety and marked with smoother, paler concentric - zones giving a pattern of yellow-brown, grey or darker greenish grey - zones; the margin is thin and is the palest of the zones and may be - wavy or lobed. - - Tubes: white with small, round and rough-edged to angular white or - cream-coloured pores which become yellowish with age. - - Flesh: white, tough and continuous with the tube tissue and so not - allowing one to detect any difference between the tissues. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: medium sized, oblong and hyaline under the microscope, and 6-8 - × 2-3 µm; not blueing in solutions containing iodine. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Very common on stumps, trunks and fallen - branches of various trees, especially beech; it is to be found - throughout the year. - - _General Information_: It is often associated with nodulose masses of - fungal tissue which are covered in small poroid areas and are very - confusing when found by the beginner; they are simply growth-forms of - _Coriolus versicolor_; such forms are frequently found on old - house-timbers exposed to the weather, particularly window frames where - it forms a distinct rot. Its flesh consists of thin-walled hyphae and - binding hyphae as in _Polyporus squamosus_ as well as an additional - thick-walled type called skeletal hyphae. It would appear that several - polypores are capable of producing the amorphous growths mentioned - above, some of which contain hyphal fragments called conidia. - - The bands of colour on the cap of the ‘many zoned polypore’ are - retained after drying and from a group of fruit-bodies the most - attractively zoned can be selected, mounted on small pieces of wood or - cardboard and fitted at the back with a pin. Such preparations make - very attractive brooches and have been used even by modern designers - to contrast with their fashion creations. - - There are many pale tubed polypores growing on wood. _Daedalea - quercina_ Fries ‘Mazegill’, grows on oak and has irregular maze-like - pores; _Lenzites betulina_ (Fries) Fries, grows on birch, has tough - plates which resemble the gills of an agaric. _Datronia mollis_ - (Fries) Donk forms thick spreading resupinate patches on beech, - sometimes with irregular dark brown caps formed by the upturned - margin. Several species of _Tyromyces_ occur in Britain and are - characterised by their white pores and tubes and the white or - pale-coloured caps. _Bjerkandera adusta_ (Fries) Karsten has a grey - pore-surface and is also frequently found on beech. - - _Illustrations_: F 44a; LH 69; NB 117³; WD 51². - - -~Ganoderma europaeum~ Steyaert - - Common ganoderma - - _Cap_: 100-350 mm. _Stem_: absent. - - _Description_: Plate 47. - - Cap: bracket-shaped, rather flat at margin but humpy and irregular - about the middle, frequently concentrically zoned, smooth and only - slightly shiny; its margin is whitish or pale greyish. - - Tubes: red-brown or cinnamon-brown, obscurely layered and with small, - white pores flushed with pale cinnamon-brown, but deep red-brown when - rubbed or with age. - - Flesh: with a fragrant smell, deep red brown and felty-fibrous. - - Spore-print: dark cinnamon-brown. - - Spores: long, oval with truncate apex, smooth, but reticulate on the - inner surface of the inner wall giving the spores a patterned - appearance when seen under the microscope; 10-11 × 6-7 µm in size. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus is common on various trees, - especially beech and can be found throughout the year. - - _General Information_: This common _Ganoderma_ is perennial and - distinguished from other polypore groups by the complex spores. _G. - applanatum_ (Fries) Karsten is closely related, but differs in the - thinner fruit-body with a thin margin, and the pale cinnamon-brown - flesh; the flesh of both species contains thick-walled binding and - strengthening hyphae as well as the generative hyphae. - - So sensitive are the pores to bruising that if a drawing or writing is - executed on the lower surface with a pin, needle or similar sharp - instrument and the fungus dried, the red-brown lines produced are - retained and the pattern preserved. Several fungus paintings prepared - in this way were made in the early part of the century, many beautiful - ones having originated in the eastern part of North America. - -[Illustration: Plate 46. Woody fungi: Spores white and borne within -tubes or on thickened plates] - - _Fomes fomentarius_ whose important characters are described below has - frequently been confused with _Ganoderma europaeum_. It is common - growing on birch in Scotland, but is less frequent south of Perth, and - then grows probably more frequently on beech which is similar to the - pattern found on the continent of Europe. However, it has grown in - former periods in England on birch, for it was found commonly amongst - birch timbers in an excavation of an early Mesolithic lake side - village near Scarborough, Yorkshire. - - _Illustrations_: NB 125³; WD 160². - - -Some perennial polypores. Plate 48. - - -~Fomes fomentarius~ (Fries) Kickx - - Tinder fungus - - Cap: 90-300 mm, hoof-shaped, thick, broadly attached to the substrate, - zoned with yellow-brown and shades of grey; its margin is blunt and - fawn or pale brownish. - - Tubes: layered, cinnamon-brown with pale cinnamon pores with a whitish - bloom. - - Flesh: cinnamon-brown or buff and woolly. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: elongate, ellipsoid, very long, hyaline under the microscope, - 15-18 × 5-6 µm, and not ornamented. The flesh contains both thick- and - thin-walled hyphae. It grows on birch and less frequently on beech. - The flesh has been used in dentistry, in manufacturing fancy articles, - such as mats, and was the basis of the tinder used in flint-boxes. - - _Illustrations_: LH 65; NB 117¹; WD 100¹. - - - ~Phellinus igniarius~ (Fries) Quélet ‘Willow Fomes’, grows on willows - and causes their heart-rot. It is a rust-brown, woody fungus with a - hard crust and brown tubes and flesh. The spore-print is white and - composed of small, spherical, hyaline spores, 5-6 µm in diameter. The - flesh contains thin- and thick-walled hyphae. - - _Illustrations_: LH 63; WD 99³. - -[Illustration: Plate 47. Woody Fungi: Spores brown and borne within -tubes--fruit-body perennial] - - - ~Oxyporus populinus~ (Fries) Donk, grows on various sorts of - broad-leaved trees, particularly poplars and often becomes covered in - mosses and algae. It has a pale buff or cream-coloured cap, white - flesh, pores, tubes and spores. - - _Illustrations_: LH 67. - - - ~Cryptoderma pini~ (Fries) Imaz, grows on conifers often several feet - above the ground. It has a woody, deeply cracked upper surface, dark - red-brown flesh, tubes and pores. Its spores are small, broadly - ellipsoid and brown. - - -~Heterobasidion annosum~ (Fries) Brefeld - - Root fomes - - Variable, sometimes possessing a cap, sometimes resupinate except for - the upturned margin, flattened or shell-shaped, red-brown to blackish - at the centre but pale at the margin, which when seen from below is - always white. The tubes are in layers and like the pores, flesh and - spore-print are white. The spores are broadly ellipsoid, small, - smooth, hyaline and 4-5 × 4 µm. The flesh is fairly tough as it - contains both generative hyphae and skeletal hyphae. It is frequent on - the roots and lower parts of stems of many trees and shrubs causing a - rapid heart-rot of conifers and extensive damage to young trees. - - _Illustrations_: LH 67; NB 111¹; WD 98¹. - - The spores of all the perennial polypores described above do not blue - when placed in solutions containing iodine. - -[Illustration: Plate 48. Woody fungi: Spores borne within -tubes--perennial polypores] - - -~Schizophyllum commune~ Fries - - Split-gill fungus - - _Cap_: 10-25 mm. _Stem_: width 2-4 mm; length 2-4 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: greyish fawn becoming whitish when dry, fan or kidney-shaped, - often lobed and covered in close-set hairs and with incurved margin. - - Stem: absent or the cap simply narrows into a stem-like bump. - - Gills: replaced by a series of grey-brown plates which when dry appear - as if to split longitudinally and their edges roll back. - - Flesh: brownish but drying whitish. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: medium sized, oblong, hyaline under the microscope, not - blueing in solutions containing iodine and 6-7 × 2-5 µm in size. - - Facial and marginal cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Grows on fallen branches, trunks, dead - wood, etc. - - _General Information_: Easily recognised by the ‘gills’ radiating from - a point and becoming ‘split’ when dry. Specimens of _Schizophyllum_ - sealed by A. H. R. Buller in a tube in 1911 have been shown on - remoistening to unroll their gills and shed variable spores, after 52½ - years--probably a world record! The split-gill is a rather unique - British fungus which appears to be much more closely related to the - polypores than to the agarics--although it has for a long time been - associated with the Oyster mushroom (p. 74). In fact, the splitting - gills are two adjacent shallow dishes with spores produced on their - inner surfaces. The cups separate on drying and therefore only - superficially resemble gills splitting down the centre. - - Another fungus which can also be associated with the idea of cups is - _Fistulina hepatica_ Fries ‘the Beef-steak fungus’. This fungus is a - polypore in the widest sense. It may grow up to 250 mm wide and is - reddish-brown or liver-coloured with reddish tubes and pale - flesh-coloured pores; the tubes although free are aggregated together - and can be easily separated individually with the fingers. This fungus - is edible although very strong in taste, it produces a serious decay - of oaks. - - _Illustrations_: _S. commune_--LH 105; NB 125⁶; WD 69³. _F. - hepatica_--F 43³ (lower figure); Hvass 278; LH 75; NB 129²; WD 101⁴. - -[Illustration: Plate 49. Woody fungi: Spores white and borne on -split-‘gills’] - - -(b) Destroyers of timber in buildings - - -~Serpula lacrymans~ (Fries) Karsten - - Dry-rot fungus - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: usually widely spreading, but sometimes forming a distinct - bracket with the upper surface silvery or smokey grey, flushed with - lilac or rose or yellowish. - - Stem: absent and replaced by a series of dirty white or greyish - mycelial threads or strands which can be traced up to 100 mm over the - substrate. - - Flesh: thin, dirty yellowish and composed of only one type of hypha. - - Spores: borne in shallow pores which are part of a complicated network - of rust-brown folds and ridges. - - Spore-print: rust-brown. - - Spores: medium sized, golden yellow, thick-walled and broadly - ellipsoid, and 8-10 × 5-6 µm in size. - - Cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: On worked wood in buildings and less - commonly in timber-yards. It can be found throughout the year. - - _General Information_: This fungus forms fan-like structures and - strands of mycelium which pass along beams and joists and through - plaster. Where there is a bad case of dry-rot, the room or building - will have an unpleasant musty smell and when actually growing the - fungus exudes droplets of water on the mycelium and fruit-body, i.e. - weeping, hence the name ‘lacrymans’--weepy. It is a very important and - destructive agent causing damage to floors and skirting boards, to - joists and beams. It is a frequent pest of old houses and therefore of - many of our cities. This fungus does not appear to have been found in - the wild in Europe, but there is a record from the Himalayas. There - are, however, very closely related species found on soil or - wood-detritus. The Dry-rot fungus darkens the wood and produces a rot - which makes the wood crack into small cubes or rectangular blocks. - - This fungus was formerly placed in _Merulius_, but this genus should - be retained for hyaline-spored fungi, e.g. _M. tremellosus_ Fries, a - species which grows even in winter on stumps of various trees in our - woods. - - _Illustrations_: LH 53; WD 103³. - -[Illustration: Plate 50. Dry-rot fungi--leathery and tough spores borne -in shallow irregular pores] - - -~Coniophora puteana~ (Fries) Karsten - - Cellar or Wet-rot fungus - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: variable in size, resupinate, composed of one type of - hypha only and with a sterile whitish cream or yellow margin. - - Spore-bearing tissue: an irregularly wrinkled or humpy, yellowish - surface which then becomes olive-green or bronze-colour. - - Spore-print: olivaceous brown. - - Spores: olive-brown under the microscope, smooth, ellipsoid, - thick-walled and 12-14 × 8-9 µm in size. - - Cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus causes wet-rot in houses, but - may also be found on stumps and fallen trunks in woodland. - - _General Information_: The fungus causes a discolouration of worked - timber and induces longitudinal cracking with only a few lateral - hair-like cracks unlike timber attacked by the dry-rot fungus (see p. - 154). - - _Illustrations_: WD 103⁵. - - -~Fibuloporia vaillantii~ (Fries) Bondarsev & Singer - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: a resupinate layer of pores with cream-coloured or white - sterile radiating margin. - - Spore-bearing tissue: distributed within a series of small often - shallow, white or ivory tubes. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: smooth, hyaline under the microscope, oblong 5-7 × 3-4 µm. - - Cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: The dry-rot of houses, particularly in - roof-systems. - - _General Information_: _Fibuloporia vaillantii_ is recognised by the - white, resupinate pore-surface and fairly tough nature due to the - presence of strengthening hyphae. Just as the genus _Polyporus_ was - found to be composed of several quite different elements (see pp. - 140-44) and has since been split up into a number of different genera, - the genus _Poria_ has also been fragmented; one of the constituent - genera is _Fibuloporia_. _Amyloporia xantha_ (Fries) Bondarsev & - Singer differs in having amyloid tissue and cystidia encrusted with - crystals. The flesh contains both simple hyphae and thickened - structural hyphae. It is yet another member of the large old unwieldy - genus _Poria_ and causes decay of worked wood, particularly the - timbers of benching and staging in greenhouses. _A. xantha_ has a - sulphur-yellow pore-surface and is rather cheesy when handled. - -[Illustration: Plate 51. Wet and Dry-rot fungi--leathery and tough and -spores borne within shallow pores or on an uneven surface] - - -(c) Colonisers of cones - - -~Auriscalpium vulgare~ S. F. Gray - - Ear-pick fungus - - _Cap_: 8-12 mm. _Stem_: width 4-6 mm; length 40-75 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: kidney-shaped or semicircular, thin, date- or umber-brown, hairy, - but paler towards the margin. - - Stem: erect, slender, hairy, particularly at the base, and attached at - the side of the cap (excentric). - - Gills: replaced by flesh-coloured, then greyish brown spines. - - Flesh: brown. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: small, hyaline, minutely spiny, spherical, 4-5 µm in diameter, - and becoming blue-grey in solutions containing iodine. - - Cystidia: flask-shaped with oily contents. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus is always found on fallen - pine-cones and occurs from early summer to autumn. - - _General Information_: The ear-pick fungus is easily recognised by the - slender, elegant habit, excentrically placed cap, substrate preference - and dark colours. It cannot be confused with any other fungus. - Recently it has been shown that the ‘agaric’ _Lentinellus cochleatus_ - (Fries) Karsten (p. 76) is more closely related to _Auriscalpium_ than - this fungus is to other spine-bearing forms and _Lentinellus_ is to - the other agarics. Both fungi possess thick-walled cells in the flesh - and oil-containing hyphae; they are placed in the family - _Auriscalpiaceae_. - - Another laterally stemmed Hedgehog fungus differs in possessing - distinctly gelatinised teeth and preference for conifer wood and not - cones. Examination of the basidia of this fungus shows that it is more - closely related to the jelly-fungi, _Exidia_ and _Tremella_ (p. 184) - than to Hedgehog fungi such as _Auriscalpium_ or _Hyndum repandum_ - Fries (p. 160). This false nature is reflected in the name of the - genus to which it belongs, _Pseudohydnum_, and the very gelatinous - texture in the specific name ‘_gelatinosum_’: the fungus is - _Pseudohydnum gelatinosum_, or as it used to be called _Tremellodon - gelatinosum_. - - _Illustrations_: Auriscalpium vulgare--WD 103⁶. Pseudohydnum - gelatinosum--WD 105⁹. - -[Illustration: Plate 52. Tough or leathery fungi: Spores white and borne -on spines--Ear pick fungus] - - -(d) Terrestrial forms - - -~Hydnum repandum~ Fries - - Wood-hedgehog - - _Cap_: 50-75 mm width. _Stem_: width 10-17 mm; length 45-65 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: rather thick, fleshy, pinkish buff or tan, paler at its incurved - and often lobed margin. - - Stem: short, stout and powdered with white roughenings and often - attached to the cap to one side of the centre. - - Gills: replaced by awl-shaped, pinkish buff spines which are unequal - in length and run down the top of the stem. - - Flesh: white, firm and with a pleasant smell. - - Spore-print: whitish. - - Spores: medium sized, hyaline under the microscope, smooth, broadly - ellipsoid, 7 × 6-7 µm, and not becoming bluish grey in solutions - containing iodine. - - Cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: The ‘wood-hedgehog’ grows on the ground in - mixed woods and is easily recognised by its colour and fleshy texture. - - _General Information_: The closely related, smaller, red-brown species - _H. rufescens_ Persoon grows with conifers. _Hydnum_ was formerly a - genus which contained several entities, now not considered closely - related. Thus the following genera have been delimited in addition to - those related to _Hydnum repandum_ and _H. rufescens_, and - _Auriscalpium_ described on p. 158. - - _Sarcodon_: Fruit-body fleshy: spores brown and ornamented with - irregular bumps, e.g. _S. imbricatum_ (Fries) Karsten. - - _Phellodon_: Fruit-body tough and fibrous: spores white and ornamented - with small spines, e.g. _P. niger_ (Fries) Karsten. - - _Hydnellum_: Fruit-body tough and fibrous: spores brown and ornamented - with irregular bumps and bosses, e.g. _H. scrobiculatum_ (Secretan) - Karsten. - - _Bankera_: Fruit-body fleshy: spores white and ornamented with small - spines, e.g. _B. fuliginoalbum_ (Fries) Pouzar. - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 280; LH 61; NB 153³; WD 53⁴; Z 61. - -[Illustration: Plate 53. Tough or leathery fungi: Spores whitish and -borne on spines] - - -(ii) Chanterelles and relatives - - -~Cantharellus cibarius~ Fries - - Chanterelle - - _Cap_: 30-100 mm. _Stem_: width 15-25 mm; length 30-70 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: convex then flattened, irregularly wavy, more or less top-shaped, - depressed and smooth or slightly roughened at centre, egg-yellow or - lemon-chrome with flush of orange and with the margin incurved at - first. - - Stem: short, stout, tapered downwards, fleshy and similarly coloured - to the cap. - - Gills: replaced by irregularly branched yellow folds which may form a - network near the margin and at the apex of the stem over which the - folds run down irregularly (decurrent). - - Flesh: with pleasant, fruity smell, yellow but paler on drying. - - Spore-print: pale cream-colour. - - Spores: medium sized, ellipsoid, thin-walled, smooth, 8-10 × 5-6 µm in - size and not becoming bluish grey in solutions containing iodine. - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. - - Basidia: 2-8 spored. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Very common in troops in deciduous woods - especially those with beech and oak. - - _General Information_: Easily recognised by its folds and absence of - true gills beneath the cap and the overall yellow colour. This fungus - is the edible chanterelle of the continental market, where it is - considered of very high quality; it can be purchased in this country - in tins. _C. friesii_ Quélet is of a bright apricot colour with - lilaceous or rose-coloured flesh. The ‘false chanterelle’ - _Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca_ (Fries) Maire already discussed (see p. - 106) has true gills and is reddish orange in colour. - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 182; LH 59; NB 123²; WD 83¹. - -[Illustration: Plate 54. Fleshy but firm fungi: Spores pale-coloured and -borne on irregular folds (False gills)] - - -~Craterellus cornucopioides~ (Fries) Persoon - - Horn of plenty - - _Cap_: 22-80 mm. _Stem_: width 15-25 mm; length 25-80 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: funnel-shaped, membranous to leathery, but limp, dark brown or - almost black in wet weather, but on drying becoming dull brown or - sepia, slightly scaly and with irregularly wavy margin. - - Stem: short, blackish and hollow. - - Gills: absent, replaced by a smooth to irregularly wrinkled, ash-grey - surface. - - Flesh: sepia but drying out greyish ochre. - - Spore-print: cream-colour. - - Spores: medium sized, hyaline under the microscope, ellipsoid, smooth, - 10-11 × 6-7 µm in size and not blueing in solutions containing iodine. - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. - - Basidia: usually 2-spored. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Often in very large troops in woods, - especially under beech. - - _General Information_: This fungus is recognised by the peculiar shape - and dull colours which conceal it so well amongst the dead leaves and - woodland debris; in the shade of the tree-canopy it is easily - overlooked. _Craterellus sinuosus_ (Fries) Fries is a much smaller - species with dirty ochraceous fertile surface and brownish grey cap - and stem. - - ‘Cornucopioides’ means like (oides) a horn of plenty, a familiar - object in mediaeval paintings as part of heathen festivities full and - overflowing either with fruit or wine, or both! - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 186; LH 59; NB 123¹; WD 83⁴. - -[Illustration: Plate 55. Fleshy but leathery fungi: Spores pale-coloured -and borne on irregular wrinkles] - - -(iii) Fairy-club fungi - - -~Clavulina rugosa~ (Fries) Schroeter - - Wrinkled club - - _Cap_: absent. _Fruit-body_: length 50-100 mm; width 7-13 mm. - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: club-shaped, simple with blunt apex or irregular blunt - branches, white or dirty cream colour, often thickened upwards and - marked with longitudinal wrinkles or grooves and the whole surface of - the club bearing spores. - - Stem: absent or extremely short. - - Flesh: white. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spore: medium sized, broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, hyaline under - the microscope and not turning bluish grey in iodine solutions, 9-10 × - 7-8 µm in size. - - Cystidia: absent. - - Basidia: 2-spored. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Frequent on the ground in woods, - especially in the shade of beech trees or in conifer plantations. - - _General Information_: Two very closely related species are to be - found in similar localities and are equally as common; they are _C. - cristata_ (Fries) Schroeter with strongly branched white fruit-body, - each branch ending in pinkish or lavender-white, divided, sharply - pointed branchlets and _C. cinerea_ (Fries) Schroeter with irregular - greyish or dark grey branches with a flush of violaceous. - - These three species are very closely related; in fact so many - intermediates between the extreme morphological forms are known that - some authorities have considered them simply forms of a single - species. All these species lack cystidia. - - rugosa--wrinkled, referring to the spore-bearing surface. - - cristata--crested, referring to the branchlets. - - cinerea--ash-grey, referring to the colour. - - All these species are often found blackened by the growth of the - microscopic fungus, _Helminthosphaeria clavariae_ (Tulasne) Fuckel. - - _Illustrations_: _C. rugosa_--LH 55; WD 104⁵. _C. cristata_--LH 55; NB - 153⁵; WD 104². _C. cinerea_--WD 104¹. - -[Illustration: Plate 56. Fleshy but firm fungi: Spores pale-coloured and -borne on club-shaped fruit-bodies] - - -~Clavaria vermicularis~ Fries - - White spindles - - _Cap_: absent. _Fruit-body_: width 6-10 mm; length 50-85 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 56. - - Simple or very rarely branched, but not forked below the soil-level, - densely tufted, spindle-shaped, pure white with sharp, often slightly - brownish, tips, when old it is wavy, often twisted, compressed and - fragile. - - Stem: absent. - - Flesh: whitish. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: small, pip-shaped, smooth, hyaline under the microscope, 4-5 × - 3 µm in size, and not becoming bluish grey in iodine solutions. - - Cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in autumn amongst grass in fields, - less frequent in woods. - - _General Information_: _Clavulinopsis fusiformis_ (Fries) Corner, - ‘Golden spindles’ is similar to _C. vermicularis_, but forms dense - tufts of canary-yellow, very fragile clubs joined in 2’s or 3’s below - the soil level; the spores are also slightly different, being almost - globose, hyaline under the microscope and 5-7 µm in diameter. - - _Clavaria fumosa_ Fries is similar to _C. vermicularis_ and forms - tufts of very fragile mouse-grey clubs with brownish tips; it produces - elongate ellipsoid spores measuring 6-8 × 3-4 µm which are hyaline - under the microscope. _C. vermicularis_ and _C. fumosa_ differ from - _Clavulinopsis_ in hyphal construction, but the differences are rather - difficult to demonstrate to the beginner. _Clavulinopsis helvola_ - favours similar habits to _C. fusiformis_ and although yellow in - colour differs in the more orange-yellow colouration, but more - particularly in the spores being rounded, 5-6 µm in diameter with - large angular spines. - - The earth-tongues, i.e. members of the family _Geoglossaceae_ which - are also found in pastures belong to an unrelated group of fungi, the - Ascomycetes. If the clubs are crushed and examined under the - microscope rows of sacs (asci) containing long thread-like ascospores - are found--no basidia are to be seen. - - _Illustrations_: _Clav. fusiformis_--WD 104⁹. _C. vermicularis_--WD - 104¹⁰. _C. fumosa_--Hvass 303; WD 104¹¹. _Clav. helvola_--Hvass 300; - WD 105¹. - -[Illustration: Plate 57. Club-shaped and coral fungi] - - -~Clavulinopsis corniculata~ (Fries), Corner (p. 171). - - _Cap_: absent. _Fruit-body_: complex; width 20-30 mm; length 20-40 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 57. - - Fruit-body: shape depending on the length of grass in which it grows - but always branching strongly from its base, composed of a dense - compact tuft of egg-yellow or orange-tawny branches which are either - irregular or of equal length and so they form a flattened top to the - fruit-body complex, the branchlets are slender, forked 2- or 3-times, - with their apices narrowed or curved. - - Stem: very downy at the base. - - Flesh: pale yellow. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: medium sized, hyaline under the microscope, smooth, spherical - and 5-7 µm in diameter, not becoming bluish grey in iodine solutions. - - Cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common amongst grass in fields or on - grassy path sides in woodland. - - _General Information_: _Clavulinopsis corniculata_ is recognised by - the branched habit and the smooth spores; _Ramaria ochraceo-virens_ is - of similar form, but has an overall duller colour and turns green on - bruising, grows in pinewoods and has finely roughened brownish spores. - _Calocera viscosa_ also has an erect, bright golden or orange-yellow - fruit-body which becomes more orange on drying. It is repeatedly - branched and usually has a long, tough-rooting base. However, the - spore-print is dirty yellowish and the fruit-body, which grows on - coniferous wood, is viscid and elastic, a character reflected in the - name ‘viscosa’. Microscopically the basidium of _Calocera_ is shaped - like a tuning-fork and is not clavate as in _Clavulinopsis - corniculata_. It appears to be more related to the jelly-fungi (see p. - 180). - - _Illustrations_: _Clavulinopsis corniculata_--LH 55; NB 6; WD 104³. - _Calocera viscosa_--Hvass 304; LH 225; NB 149³; WD 107⁸. - - -~Typhula erythropus~ Fries. - - _Cap_: absent. _Fruit-body_ up to 20 mm high. - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: upper fertile portion club-shaped and not more than half - the length, white, surmounting a reddish brown, thread-like, often - wavy or twisted stem which is attached at its base to an ellipsoid - bead-like structure, called a sclerotium. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: oblong, smooth, hyaline under the microscope, 6-7 × 2 µm in - size and not becoming bluish grey in iodine solutions. - - Cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Not uncommon on dead leaves and twigs or - dead herbaceous stems. - - -~Pistillaria micans~ Fries. - - _Cap_: absent. _Fruit-body_: up to 10 mm high. - - _Description_: - - Club-shaped or oblong, rose-pink hardly differentiated from the - similarly coloured stem, and arising at most from a small pad of - filaments. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: broadly ellipsoid to pip-shaped, smooth, hyaline under the - microscope, about 10 × 6 µm (8-11 × 5-7 µm) in size and not becoming - bluish grey in iodine solutions. - - Cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Not uncommon on dead herbaceous stems and - leaves, especially those in damp places. - - _Illustrations_: _T. erythropus_ WD 105¹⁰. _P. micans_ WD 105⁷. - - -General notes on the club-fungi - -Early mycologists believed that the club-shaped nature of the fruit-body -was important in the classification of these fungi. Thus the Earth -Tongues (_Geoglossum_, see Plate 57), the Stag’s horn fungi and -relatives (_Xylosphaera_ see p. 204), both Ascomycete groups, the -Dacrymycetales (a group of jelly-fungi, see p. 180) and the true -fairy-clubs were all classified together. It was the ‘Father of -Mycology’, the Swede, Elias Fries, who in 1821, as in many other groups -of fungi, made an attempt to make some sense of the chaos. By very -careful observations, and what is so amazing without using a microscope, -he was able to separate the tough stemmed and gelatinous stemmed groups -from the more slender or coral-like ones. Fries was a very keen observer -and noticed features which many modern authorities miss in the field -because they rely too heavily on the microscope. Fries’ system was used -almost unchanged until the second half of this century; its beauty was -its simplicity in that it joined together in one group all those fungi -with simple basidia and the spore-bearing tissue distributed all around -a simple club or around the branches of a complex fruit-body resembling -a coral. However, by a careful examination of the microscopic -structures, such as the spores and hyphae and the development of the -fruit-body, it has been found necessary to separate these fungi still -further. The ecology of the club-fungi has assisted in an understanding -of these proposed divisions. - -The larger many branched clavarias, more correctly placed in the genus -_Ramaria_, are to be found on bare soil in woodlands and plantations; -_R. ochraceo-virens_ is common in conifer plantations and can be -recognised by the long ornamented spores, which characterise this group -of fungi, and the fact that the sandy-coloured fruit-body becomes dark -olive-green on bruising (see p. 170). - -_Clavariadelphus pistillaris_ is the largest of our simple club-fungi; -it may grow up to 200 mm high and 50 mm wide. This fungus has a wrinkled -outer surface and sometimes the apex of the club becomes flattened and -lacks basidia; this suggests a possible relationship, perhaps -evolutionary, to the primitive chanterelles (see p. 162)--also woodland -fungi. _Clavulina_, a complex group of dull or whitish, branched -fruit-bodies, has been described earlier and the genus is characterised -by the large spores and 2-spored basidia; they are woodland fungi also. - -The grassland species are often simple in structure belonging in the -main to the genus _Clavulinopsis_ (see p. 170) and the now much reduced -genus _Clavaria_ (see p. 168). Although really complex, some of these -species of _Clavulinopsis_ are branched only below the soil level and -thus appear as single clubs amongst the grass. Perhaps the single club -has evolved especially to grow amongst blades of grass. _C. -corniculata_, however, is well branched and the head is tight and -compact and often flattened close to the ground. The same fungus in -woodland is more open and because of this it was thought to be a -different species to the grassland form. It is the simple club which -dominates the form of those species which grow on herbaceous debris and -grass-stems; indeed several species of _Typhula_ cause diseases of grass -particularly those of lawns where they have suffered damage because of -cold or long periods under the snow. Some of these small fungi produce a -small hard mass of fungal tissue about the size of a lupin seed (called -a sclerotium). This is a resting body from which the club-shaped almost -filament-like fruit-body later develops. - - -~Thelephora terrestris~ Fries - - Earth-fan - - _Cap_: absent. _Fruit-body_: width 20-40 mm; height 30-50 mm. - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: erect, fan-shaped or effused with upturned margin, tough - but thin and fibrous, chocolate-brown or cocoa-coloured, scaly from - radiating fibrils and with fringed, pale buff or wine-coloured margin. - - Gills: absent and replaced by a wrinkled or irregularly granular, dark - lilaceous grey or cocoa-coloured surface. - - Flesh: brown and thin. - - Spore-print: purplish brown. - - Spores: medium sized, dark brown under the microscope, warted-angular - and 8-9 × 6-7 µm in size. - - Cystidia: absent but basidia often filled with brown contents. - - Basidia: 2-4 spored. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Found on the ground in woods, especially - pine woods; also on heathland growing up vegetation and incorporating - it into the fruit-body’s shape. - - _General Information_: There is some evidence to suggest that this - fungus can form mycorrhiza with pine trees under certain conditions. - - Although it may be easily passed over because it is perfectly - camouflaged it is quite easy to recognise when collected. _T. palmata_ - (Bulliard) Patouillard, is a bigger, less frequently seen species more - coral-like in shape; it also grows in pine woods. When the fruit-body - of _T. terrestris_ spreads over the soil or plant debris it resembles - other members of the family to which it belongs, i.e. - _Thelephoraceae_; species of _Tomentella_. They also have warty - angular spores, purplish brown colours, and wrinkled or puckered - spore-bearing surfaces. _Tomentella_ spp., however, are resupinate or - encrusting and so do not form caps, even at the margin of the - fruit-body. _Tomentella_ is one of the many genera which were classed - collectively as resupinate fungi because they lack a cap and form - crusts. This group ‘the resupinates’ consists of a whole series of - quite unrelated fungi. - - _Illustrations_: LH 53; NB 47⁸. - -[Illustration: Plate 58. Club and Fan-shaped fungi] - - -(iv) Resupinate fungi - -When mycologists talk generally about ‘resupinates’ they are referring -to a whole group of Basidiomycetes whose spore-bearing layer is exposed, -the cap highly reduced or completely lacking, and the fungus adhering to -the surface of the substrate which may be soil, wood, grasses, etc., at -the point which would have been the cap of an agaric. Probably members -of the group are the most commonly seen yet it is one of the most -commonly ignored groups of fungi--by naturalists and mycologists alike; -they form ‘white wash’ on old sticks, dark coloured discolourations on -trunks, etc. It is an entirely artificial group of many quite unrelated -elements united on the common factor of having either a reduced or -primitive fruit-body consisting only of a sheet of tissue. However, -these same fungi have a uniting factor in that they frequent the same -ecological sites, e.g. on muddy soil in bogs, under overhangs of banks -and stream sides, undersides of logs, trunks, branches and twigs, hidden -in cracks of old stumps or spreading over carpets of conifer needles or -dead leaves and sedges. - -By studying the anatomy of the fruit-body and the characters of the -spores certain relationships can be found which relate many of these -fungi to several other groups of fungi we have dealt with in earlier -chapters. - -It is only possible to mention here the group as a whole for all the -species really require very careful examination, often necessitating -several hours of microscope work. They should be left by the beginner -until more experience is obtained and advice of an expert easily -available. - -Although the group mainly contains saprophytes, a few are parasitic. -‘Silver-leaf disease’ of almonds and fruit trees is caused by _Stereum -(chondrostereum) purpureum_ (Persoon) Fries; it has a purple fruiting -surface, and greyish upper surface when ever this is formed at the -margin. - -There are several species of _Stereum_ in Britain, three species of -which when handled in the fresh state stain red: _S. sanguinolentum_ (A. -& S.) Fries, a pale coloured species on conifer wood, _S. rugosum_ -(Pers.) Fries a similar coloured species on beech, birch and especially -hazel, and _S. gausapatum_ Fries an ochraceous yellow species on oak, -often forming a pocket rot of the timber. However, the commonest member -of the genus is an orange-tawny coloured species with a greyish buff, -hairy cap, _S. hirsutum_ (Willd) Fries. It grows on many trees of -broad-leaved wood and can be found wherever twigs, branches, trunks or -stumps have been lying out in the rain; it does not bleed. - -[Illustration: Plate 59. Resupinate fungi] - -Those species of resupinate fungi which resemble members of this genus, -i.e. those with a distinct tough, although poorly developed, cap, are -called stereoid. - -‘Red thread disease’ of grass which often causes unsightly red patches -on lawns and school and corporation playing-fields is caused by -_Corticium fuciforme_ (Berkeley) Wakefield. Fungi belonging to this -genus produce fruit-bodies which ‘scramble’ over the substrate; for -example, if one searches old elder trees throughout the year one will -certainly find a ‘white wash’ fungus of this type, _Hyphodontia sambuci_ -(Pers.) J. Eriksson. Fungi with this type of fruit-body are called -corticoid. - -The two major types are illustrated along with some of the bizarre -microscopic structures one finds in the resupinates; such structures are -useful in classification and identification, and their beauty and -intricacy make up for the surprisingly simple fruit-body shape and -texture. - - - - -C. THE JELLY FUNGI - - -_Key to the major groups_ - -The jelly fungi or Hymenomycetous heterobasidiae is a complex group of -fungi and not only includes our common jelly fungi but many microscopic -forms some of which are parasitic. The group is divided into three main -divisions depending on the position of the cross-walls within the -basidium, or whether the basidium is in the shape of a tuning-fork. They -are probably not closely related one to another. - - =Auriculariales= (Basidia divided into cells by transverse walls) - - 1. Fruit-body lacking a cap and more or less forming a gelatinous - coating on plant-debris _Helicobasidium_ - - Fruit-body with more or less distinct cap, gelatinous but tough 2 - - 2. Fruit-body ear-like or cup-shaped; upper surface with grey hairs - and lower surface lilaceous brown or wine-coloured _Hirneola_ - - Fruit-body at first cup-shaped but then spreading; upper surface - grey and hairy, and lower surface purplish. _Auricularia_ - - =Tremellales= (Basidia divided into cells by longitudinal walls) - - 1. Fruit-body with distinct stem and spines on lower surface - _Pseudohydnum_ - - Fruit-body lacking a well-developed stem, either reduced to a small - lobe or entirely absent 2 - - 2. Fruit-body flattened or disc-shaped, often with warts or veins on - the surface; spores more or less sausage-shaped _Exidia_ - - Fruit-body brain-like or with irregular bumps, sometimes lobed or - irregular and encrusting 3 - - 3. Fruit-body brain-like or with bumps or bosses; spores rounded or - ovoid _Tremella_ - - Fruit-body encrusting woody or herbaceous material; spores - ellipsoid _Sebacina_ - - =Dacrymycetales= (Basidia resembling the shape of a tuning-fork) - - 1. Fruit-body club-shaped or coral-like _Calocera_ - - Fruit-body top-shaped or with irregular bumps 2 - - 2. Fruit-body top-shaped _Femsjonia_ - - Fruit-body cushion- or brain-like, or with irregular bumps - _Dacrymyces_ - - -~Dacrymyces stillatus~ Nees ex Fries - - _Fruit-body_: 3-6 mm. - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: cushion or brain-like, often irregular, lacking any - evidence of stem, yellow or orange, gelatinous, covered entirely by - spore-bearing tissue. - - Spore-print: yellowish. - - Spores: long, cylindrical or oblong, and slightly curved and 12-15 × - 5-6 µm in size; they characteristically have 2 to 4 cross-walls - dividing the interior of the spore (see below). - - Cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common on all sorts of old wood, - particularly on fence-posts, wooden railway-sleepers and other worked - timber outside, e.g. sides of summer-houses and garden sheds. It is - also found on twigs and branches in woods and copses. - - _General Information_: This fungus is found throughout the year, but - it is much more obvious under damp conditions when it is strongly - gelatinised and very soft; when dry it almost disappears. The tissue - bearing the basidia (perfect state) is yellow, when orange there is a - predominance of asexually produced spores called arthrospores - (conidia). - - _D. deliquescens_ is only another name for the same fungus. There are - several species of _Dacrymyces_ with which _D. stillatus_ can be - confused, but can only be separated with certainty by using a - microscope. The Coral-spot fungus, frequently found in gardens, - produces gelatinous, pink protuberances on wood especially that of - sycamore, and may easily be mistaken for species of _Dacrymyces_. It - consists entirely of asexually produced spores (conidia) of the - Ascomycete _Nectria cinnabarina_. The perfect state appears late in - the year as grouped, small, blood-red flask-shaped fruit-bodies - containing envelopes of spores. It is quite unrelated to _Dacrymyces_. - - ~Calocera viscosa~ (Fries) Fries described earlier (p. 170) is closely - related to _Dacrymyces_. The much smaller, and probably equally as - common, _Calocera cornea_ (Fries) Fries is simple, club-shaped and - yellow, but darkens to become orange on drying. It grows up to 10 mm - high and occurs on all sorts of wood; it is especially common on wet - beech trunks. It approaches _Dacrymyces_ more than the much larger _C. - viscosa_. - - _Illustrations_: _D. deliquescens_--LH 225; NB 149⁷; WD 107¹⁰. _C. - cornea_--WD 107⁹. - - -~Hirneola auricula-judae~ (St Amans) Berkeley - - Jew’s ear - - _Fruit-body_: width 20-75 mm. - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: cup or ear-shaped, red-brown or deep wine-colour, - gelatinous with its upper surface, velvety and clothed in greyish or - olivaceous hairs. - - Spore-bearing layer: reddish or purplish brown, smooth or veined and - translucent. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: very long, hyaline under the microscope, oblong, curved and - narrowed towards their base, 16-18 × 6-8 µm in size. - - Cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: On dead branches of all kinds and - particularly common throughout the year on elder. - - _General Information_: Easily recognised by the wine-coloured, - cup-shaped or ear-shaped fruit-body; it is often called _Auricularia - judae_ in many books. Its Latin name is reflected in the common - name:--_auricula_ ear and _judae_, of a jew. This fungus is supposed - to be a reappearance, as a warning to us all, of Judas, who on - betrayal of Christ hung himself from an elder tree. - - - ~Auricularia mesenterica~ (S. F. Gray) Persoon, ‘Tripe-fungus’, is - bracket-shaped with a hairy upper surface and reddish purple or deep - purple lower surface which when fresh has a greyish bloom due to the - formation of the spores. - - There are several fungi in the group Auriculariales in Britain, but - many of them are inconspicuous and are identified with difficulty - except by the expert. _Sebacina incrustans_ (Fries) Tulasne is a - common more obvious example of the resupinate forms. It grows as a - cream or ivory-coloured, soft fruit-body encrusting twigs, leaves, - grass and soil. - - _Illustrations_: LH 225; NB 149¹; WD 107¹. - -[Illustration: Plate 60. Jelly fungi] - - -~Exidia glandulosa~ (St Amans) Fries - - Witch’s butter - - _Fruit-body_: width 15-50 mm. - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: sessile or shortly stalked, blackish, variable in shape, - rounded, flattened, disc-shaped or convolute, gelatinous with its - under surface tomentose and free from the substrate. - - Fruiting surface: uppermost, wavy and folded, and with numerous - wart-like projections. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: long, hyaline, cylindrical, sausage-shaped and 12-15 × 5 µm in - size. - - Cystidia: absent. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Frequent in crowded groups on stumps, logs - and fallen branches of broad-leaved trees, especially those of ash; - common throughout the year. - - _General Information_: _Tremella foliacea_ (S. F. Gray) Persoon and - _Tremella mesenterica_ Hooker are similar but more convoluted with - leaf-like lobes. The former is cinnamon brown and occurs on conifer - wood and its spores are 7-9 × 5-7 µm, whilst the latter is bright - golden yellow or orange-yellow and occurs on broad-leaved trees. _T. - mesenterica_ has spores 7-8 × 5-6 µm, often accompanied or replaced by - small, asexually produced spores. - - Glandulosa--means full of glands and refers to the glands of the upper - surface of the Witch’s butter. - - The convoluted fruit-body of the _Tremella_ spp. is reflected in the - word foliacea--leafy, and mesenterica--middle intestine. The last - species is also often called the ‘Yellow brain-fungus’. - - _Illustrations_: _Exidia glandulosa_--LH 225; NB 149⁴; WD 107³. - _Tremella mesenterica_--LH 225; NB 149⁵; WD 107⁶. - -[Illustration: Plate 61. Jelly fungi] - - - - -D. THE STOMACH FUNGI - - -The Gasteromycetes are a complex mixture of higher fungi united in -virtue of their spores being enclosed in a fruit-body and not forcibly -ejected from the basidium; the group includes the puff-balls and their -relatives. - - -_Key to some groups_ - - 1. Fruit-body growing beneath the surface of the soil (hypogeous) - False truffles (including _Hymenogaster_, _Rhizopogon_) - - Fruit-body not growing beneath the soil-surface 2 - - 2. Spores in a slimy mass on a specialised fruit-body arising from an - egg-like structure Stinkhorns (_Phallus_ & _Mutinus_) - - Spores powdery at maturity or in small capsules 3 - - 3. Spores powdery at maturity and contained within the fruit-body 4 - - Spores enclosed in a small capsule or group of capsules in a - cup-like structure, resembling the eggs within the nest of a bird - Bird’s nest fungi (including _Crucibulum_ & _Cyathus_) - - 4. Spores intermixed with threads within the fruit-body from which - they are dispersed through a specialised pore at its apex - Puff-balls and Earth-stars (_Lycoperdon_ & _Geastrum_) - - Spores not mixed with threads within the fruit-body and not - dispersed through special structure but through cracks as the - fruit-body weathers Earth-Balls (_Scleroderma_) - -The Gasteromycetes is an unnatural group of predominantly saprophytic -higher fungi many of which are extremely grotesque and strange in their -morphology. Instead of the spores being formed asymmetrically on the -basidium as is found in the agarics, the spores of members of this group -are usually more or less symmetrically attached to their sterigmata or -may even be seated directly (sessile) on the basidium. The whole group, -even if unnatural, can, however, be regarded under one heading as a -biological unit. Until something better is suggested and supported by -evidence the existence of this group is very convenient. - -Usually the basidia project into cavities within the fruit-body in which -the spores themselves are released as the fruit-body gradually -matures--hence the name Gastero-mycetes: ‘stomach-fungi’. In a few more -advanced forms, the puff-balls of temperate countries, for instance, the -spores escape from these cavities through a pore or pores in the outer -wall of the fruit-body, and in the stinkhorns the spores are exposed as -a sticky mass because the smell of the material in which they are held -is attractive to flies. In forms which have subterranean (or hypogeous -p. 243) fruit-bodies there is no special opening and here the spores are -dispersed by insects and small mammals. In the bird’s nest fungi the -spores are enclosed in separate packets within a saucer or cup-like open -structure. - -Recently it has been shown by examination of the microscopic structure -of the fruit-bodies and spores that certain genera of the Gasteromycetes -are more closely related to the agarics than many of them are between -themselves. - -It is believed that some of the Gasteromycetes may have evolved from -more familiar fungi by adaptation to arid or semi-arid conditions. -Although this is not true for all the Gasteromycetes within this one -group of fungi, a whole series of methods of overcoming the -disadvantages connected with non-violent disposal of spores has evolved. -These methods include both changes in structure and ecology; only a few -have evolved a mycorrhizal relationship with higher plants. - - -~Lycoperdon pyriforme~ Persoon - - Stump puff-ball - - _Fruit-body_: width 20-50 mm; height 40-75 mm. - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: more or less pear-shaped, pale brownish often with a - slight hump on the top, scurfy on the outside with tiny pointed - granules which soon fall off or become rubbed off by abrasion, - particularly after careless handling. - - Stem: consisting of rather small cells and connected at the base by - long, white, branched cords of mycelium which permeate the substrate. - - Spore-mass: white at first then greenish yellow and finally - olive-brown and formed around a sterile column. - - Spores: small, olive, minutely warted but appearing smooth under the - student microscope; 4 µm in diameter and intermixed with long, olive - coloured, branched hyphal threads 4-5 µm broad and of irregular wall - thickness. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This puff-ball grows in huge clusters on - stumps and logs, or can be traced to buried pieces of wood; it occurs - from summer to late autumn. - - _General Information_: There are several species of _Lycoperdon_ in - this country, some quite small and several rather infrequent. _L. - pyriforme_ is the only one which grows on wood; ‘pyriforme’ means - pear-shaped and is derived from the shape of the fruit-body. - - - ~L. perlatum~ Persoon is also a common puff-ball; it is pestle-shaped - or top-shaped, whitish or tan with minutely roughened, globose spores - measuring 4 µm in diameter. The fruit-body is covered in a mixture of - large and small, fragile spines which leave a network when rubbed off. - It grows in woods and on heaths. - - - ~L. foetidum~ Bonorden is similar to _L. perlatum_, but the spines are - umber or vandyke-brown; it also grows both in woods and upland - pastures, particularly the latter. - - _Illustrations_: _L. pyriforme_--Hvass 316; LH 219; NB 155³; WD 109³. - _L. perlatum_--Hvass 315; LH 217; NB 155²; WD 110². - -[Illustration: Plate 62. Puff-balls] - - -~Langermannia gigantea~ (Persoon) Rostkovius - - Giant puff-ball - - _Fruit-body_: diameter 300-450 mm (-1,050 mm). - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: round or slightly flattened on the top, smooth or cracked - into small scales, white but becoming flushed yellowish with age and - finally olive-brown when old, frequently the outer layer dries and - breaks away to expose the powdery spore-mass within. - - Stem: absent or only present as a small cone of tissue. - - Spore-mass: whitish, cream-coloured and finally olive-brown. - - Spores: small, brownish, minutely warted and spherical, 4-5 µm in - diameter and intermixed with thick-walled, branched, brown hyphae, 3-5 - µm broad. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: On the ground in copses, at the edges of - woods, under hedges or on refuse tips, and sometimes in gardens. It - may appear in the same place year after year, and has been recorded - growing beneath the rafters in houses. - - _General Information_: When young it is white inside or cream-coloured - before the spores have developed and can then be cut into slices and - cooked. I have seen it on sale in markets in N. America and it is - collected for food by many in Europe. Its pumpkin-shape with a - circumference of anything up to 1,050 mm makes this fungus easily - recognisable. The number of spores produced by a fruit-body measuring - 400 × 280 mm has been calculated by A. H. R. Buller as - 7,000,000,000,000 spores! - - - ~Calvatia utriformis~ (Fries) Jaap (= _C. caelata_ (Persoon) Morgan) - has a goblet-like shape and a distinct, sterile base composed of large - cells with a prominent membrane separating them from the spore-mass; - the spores are 4-5 µm diameter, smooth and spherical. - - - ~C. excipuliformis~ (Fries) Perdeck (= _C. saccata_ (Vahl.) Morgan) is - pestle-shaped with a well developed stem. The spore-mass is composed - of warted, globose spores, 4-5 µm in diameter. - - - ~Bovista nigrescens~ Persoon is very similar in shape to the Giant - puff-ball, but is very much smaller; it lacks a stalk, being attached - to the substrate only by mycelial cords. It commences white, but then - darkens to become purplish brown at maturity when it also breaks from - its moorings and rolls about in the wind. - - The last three species are found on heaths, in pastures or on the - ground in woods. - - _Illustrations_: _C. gigantea_--Hvass 312; LH 217; NB 371; WD 109⁷. - _B. nigrescens_--Hvass 311; LH 219; NB 37³. - -[Illustration: Plate 63. Puff-Balls] - - -Earth-stars and Earth-balls - -The earth-stars, i.e. species of _Geastrum_, are closely related to the -puff-balls, but differ in having two very distinct and separate -enclosing walls, the outer one splitting at maturity to expose a -‘puff-ball’ within; an example of the genus is _G. triplex_ Jungh, found -in parks or under beech trees or _G. rufescens_ Pers. (illustrated) in -mixed woodland. The outer skin splits in different ways in different -species: in some it splits like a star--hence the common name of -Earth-star, in some the spore-mass is raised as if on stilts. There are -several species of _Geastrum_ recorded for Britain, but they are -decidedly uncommon. - -The Earth-balls are, however, far from uncommon and may be met with from -early summer until late autumn in any wood particularly those on sandy -soils. They are unrelated to the earth-stars. - - -Earth-balls - - -~Scleroderma citrinum~ Persoon - - Common earth-ball - - _Fruit-body_: diameter 25-75 mm. - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: rounded or flattened on top, sometimes lobed, very firm, - yellow or clay colour, scaly, thick, white within or pinkish, if cut - when immature, and then purplish black as the spores mature. - - Stem: absent or reduced to a small group of mycelial cords. - - Spore-mass: purplish black. - - Spores: medium to large, dark brown, 8-13 µm in diameter and covered - with a delicate network. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: On the ground in woods or on heaths. - - _General Information_: This fungus is found in many books under the - name of _S. aurantium_. _S. verrucosum_ Persoon is closely related, - but has a stem-like rooting base and an umber brown spore-mass. The - spores are also slightly different; they are 10-14 µm in diameter and - ornamented with spines and ridges. - - The earth-balls appear to have characters in common with the false - truffles, indeed sometimes they grow partially buried in the sandy - soil of woods. Like the false truffles they have been used to - adulterate pâté as a cheap substitute for true truffles (see p. 244). - It is not wise, however, to eat earth-balls as there are cases of - poisoning known. Although truffle-like, they should be avoided except - under the guidance of an expert, as with agarics. - - _Illustrations_: _Geastrum triplex_--Hvass 307; LH 221; NB 155¹. - _Scleroderma citrinum_--Hvass 320; LH 223; NB 155⁵; WD 111³. - -[Illustration: Plate 64. Earth-balls and Earth-stars] - - -Stinkhorns - - -~Phallus impudicus~ Persoon - - Common stinkhorn - - _Fruit-body_: Egg: 30-60 mm in diameter--then _Cap_: 25-40 mm and - _Stem_: width 18-25 mm; length 100-150 mm. - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: commencing as a white, silky egg-like structure full of - jelly in which is embedded a conical cap attached only at its apex to - a cylindrical white, spongy, hollow stem. - - Cap: covered in a slimy mass of dark olive-coloured spores at - maturity. - - Stem: cylindrical, rapidly elongating, white, spongy and hollow. - - Spore-mass: dark olive-green, smelling strongly, foetid. - - Spores: small, pale olive, oblong and 3-5 × 2 µm in size. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common from summer to autumn on the ground - in woods and in gardens. - - _General Information_: Easily recognised by its shape and evil smell - which can be detected at some distance. The unburst eggs are called - ‘witches eggs’. Under favourable conditions the egg bursts and the - stem elongates carrying the cap and spore-mass with it. The spore-mass - is attractive to flies and they feed upon it; spores stick to their - feet and so are transported from one place to another. - - The very similar _P. hadriani_ Persoon is frequently found in - sand-dunes; it differs in having a lilaceous colour to the egg. An - interesting variety of the common stinkhorn is uncommonly found and - differs in having a skirt-like frill beneath the cap. The jelly in the - egg is a water-store and is used by the fungus to expand rapidly. - - - ~Mutinus caninus~ (Persoon) Fries, the ‘Dogs stinkhorn’, is found - around old stumps or on piles of leaves. It has the spore-mass - covering an orange-red pear-shaped cap which is itself fused to the - stem. - - The stinkhorns and their allies appear to be commoner in warmer - countries where they take on many bizarre shapes. Other than the three - species noted above stinkhorns are rarely found in this country, but - when they are it would appear they have been introduced with foreign - imports such as timber, ornamental plants, vegetables etc. - - Eggs of phalloids brought into the laboratory can be surrounded by wet - tissues or blotting paper and then allowed to develop further in a - dish or box. Provided the skin covering the spores is not broken or - injured the fungus will not smell and therefore before it becomes - unpleasant, the whole mechanism of expansion can be studied. - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 323; LH 215; NB 153¹; WD 108¹. - -[Illustration: Plate 65. Stinkhorns] - - -Birds nest fungi - - -~Crucibulum laeve~ (de Candolle) Kambly - - _Fruit-body_: diameter 8-12 mm. - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: ochraceous brown or sand-colour, downy and then smooth, - truncate, cup-shaped with the cup at first closed by a yellowish - membrane which finally splits to expose a group of pale brown or dingy - whitish, circular, lens-shaped ‘eggs’ (peridioles), scattered on a - shiny pale ochraceous interior. - - Spores: medium-sized, in packets within ‘eggs’, ellipsoid, hyaline, - smooth and 8-10 × 4-6 µm in size. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in crowded groups on dead twigs, - fern stems, straw and wheat stubble. - - _General Information_: _Cyathus_ differs from _Crucibulum_ in the more - complex fruit-body which consists of three layers, and the peridioles - forming on distinct stalks. Two species are frequently seen: _Cyathus - striatus_ Persoon has a grey, fluted inner surface to the cup and - strongly hairy red-brown outer surface; the spores measure 16-22 × - 9-10 µm. _Cyathus olla_ Persoon has a smooth, shiny, grey surface and - minutely silky, yellowish grey outer surface. _C. striatus_ is found - on twigs, and about dead stumps; _C. olla_ is more frequent in gardens - on herbaceous debris and dead pieces of perennial flowers--or even in - plant pots. - - ~Sphaerobolus stellatus~ Persoon is more distantly related and grows - on decaying leaves, bracken fronds, partially buried twigs and dung. - It is an intriguing fungus because it possesses a remarkable - spore-dispersal mechanism. The inner layer of the fruit-body when ripe - suddenly turns inside out catapulting the inner spore-mass to - distances of anything up to 4,200 mm, that is a distance of 1,000 - times the size of the fruit-body. The fruit-body is externally whitish - or pale yellow, but this layer splits into lobes like a star exposing - the bright orange inner surface and pale spore-mass. - - _Illustrations_: _Crucibulum laeve_--LH 223; WD 111⁷. _Cyathus - striatus_--LH 223; WD 111⁹. _Sphaerobolus stellatus_--LH 223; WD 111⁵. - -[Illustration: Plate 66. Bird’s nest fungi] - - - - -E. CUP FUNGI AND ALLIES - - -_General Notes._ - -The Ascomycetes differ from all the other fungi so far dealt with in -that the spores develop enclosed in a microscopic envelope or -sac--called the ascus. Usually eight spores are produced in each ascus -and they are often dispersed violently into the air. Elf-cups and morels -are typical Ascomycetes, but the group also includes innumerable minute -forms of the microscopic fungi, small discs, minute flask-like -structures, some of which are parasitic on leaves and stems of higher -plants. In number the large species of Ascomycetes are few when compared -with the others and therefore can only be given but a mention in the -present account. When collected the Ascomycetes can be distinguished -from the Basidiomycetes by simply examining a slice of the -spore-producing tissue where the tell-tale asci will be seen (see p. -21). If the fruit-body is placed in a tin when collected and opened in a -warm room all the mature asci explode at once producing a cloud of -spores visible in the air immediately over the fruit-body. - - -~Aleuria aurantia~ (Fries) Fuckel - - Orange-peel fungus or Scarlet elf-cup - - _Fruit-body_: diameter 25-50 mm. - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: cup-shaped then undulating and becoming flattened, - irregular, sometimes split and lacking a stem. - - Inner surface: bright orange. - - Outer surface: whitish and minutely downy. - - Flesh: thin and white. - - Spores: very long, ellipsoid, ornamented with a coarse network which - projects at each end, and 17-24 × 9-11 µm in size; eight contained in - an elongate, cylindric ascus. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common on bare soil in woods and open - spaces, on road verges, between stone sets and on lawns. - -[Illustration: Plate 67. Cup-fungi] - - -~Peziza repanda~ Persoon - - Elf-cup - - _Fruit-body_: diameter 20-50 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 67. - - Fruit-body: cup-shaped with white, crenulate margin, becoming expanded - and undulating, and lacking a stem. - - Inner surface: light chestnut brown. - - Outer surface: whitish or pale fawn and finely scurfy. - - Flesh: whitish or fawn, and appearing as if layered. - - Spores: very long, ellipsoid, smooth and 15-16 × 9-10 µm in size; - eight contained in an elongate, cylindrical ascus. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: On bare soil in woods, farm-yards, - hedgerows, etc. - - _General Information_: There are many different species of _Peziza_ - classified on the shape and ornamentation of the spores and colour of - the fruit-body--see pp. 216 and 220. _P. badia_ is darker, although - similar in other ways; it is found on pathsides in woods and has - roughened spores. - - -~Morchella esculenta~ St Amans - - Common morel - - _Cap_: width 30-40 mm; length 35-60 mm. _Stem_: width 15-25 mm; length - 50-80 mm. - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: consisting of a head with a honeycomb-like arrangement of - narrow ridges surrounding angular and often slightly elongated, - shallow pits, on a cylindric or swollen stem. - - Cap: brownish grey then reddish brown or ochraceous brown. - - Stem: cylindrical or slightly enlarged at the base, brittle, hollow, - minutely scurfy and/or furrowed. - - Flesh: ochraceous. - - Spore-print: cream. - - Spores: very long, broadly ellipsoid, pale honey, smooth but for some - small granules at each end, and 16-23 × 11-14 µm in size; eight - contained in an elongate cylindrical ascus. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Infrequent in gardens, on river-banks, - sites of bonfires, etc., in spring. - - _Illustrations_: F7^{c}; LH 41; NB 41³. - -[Illustration: Plate 68. Morels and related fungi] - - -~Gyromirta esculenta~ (Persoon) Fries - - Turban-fungus - - _Cap_: width 30-40 mm; length 35-45 mm. _Stem_: width 15-25 mm; length - 50-80 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 68. - - Fruit-body: consisting of a subglobose, more or less lobed, wrinkled - and convoluted head on a short stem. - - Cap: yellow-brown to reddish brown and becoming hollow or chambered. - - Stem: flesh-coloured or creamy grey and powdery. - - Flesh: yellow-buff, darker in the cap. - - Spores: very long, ellipsoid, usually containing two or more yellowish - oil drops and 18-22 × 9-12 µm in size; eight contained in an elongate - cylindrical ascus. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus is found in the spring, under - conifers, but also on railway embankments, river banks, etc. This - fungus is also known as the ‘Lorel’ or ‘Elephant’s ears’. - - _General Information_: _Mitromorpha semilibera_ (Fries) Léville - differs from species of _Morchella_ in that the head is for its - greater length free from the stalk. It is frequently found in the - spring in gardens, tennis courts, etc. - - _Illustrations_: G. esculenta--F 6^{d}; Hvass 327; LH 39. - - -~Helvella crispa~ Fries - - Common white helvella - - _Cap_: width 18-28 mm. _Stem_: width 8-12 mm; length 40-65 mm. - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: consisting of a saddle-shaped cap on a short stem. - - Cap: convoluted towards the centre, two lobed, wavy at the margin, - white or cream-coloured. - - Stem: cylindric and hollow, white or cream-coloured and unevenly and - deeply longitudinally furrowed. - - Flesh: thin and pale. - - Spores: very long, broadly ellipsoid, with a large central oil drop - and 18-20 × 10-13 µm in size; eight contained in an elongate - cylindrical ascus. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Frequent in damp woods with deciduous - trees, from early summer until autumn. - - _General Information_: Plate 68. - - - ~Helvella lacunosa~ Fries, ‘Slate grey Helvella’ is similar in stature - but differs in being ash-grey or dark grey. - - - ~Leptopodia elastica~ (St Amans) Boudier is better placed in the genus - _Helvella_. It differs in having a slender, smooth, cylindric stem and - irregularly 2-3 lobed, yellow or tan-coloured cap. - - - ~Cyathipodia macropus~ (Fries) Dennis is sometimes placed in - _Helvella_. It differs in having a grey cup-shaped cap on a long, - slender stem. The spore-bearing tissue in the last species is the - inner surface of the cup whilst in _Helvella_ and _Leptopodia_ it is - on the outer surface of the saddle-like cap. - - - ~Mitrula paludosa~ Fries, the ‘Bog beacon’, is a similar fungus - growing in spring to early autumn on old leaves and detritus in - swamps. It is widespread and has a bright orange head on a white - stem--as the common name might suggest. It grows to a height of about - 20 mm. - - _Illustrations_: _H. crispa_--F 6^{e}; Hvass 331; LH 41. _H. - lacunosa_--F 6^{b}; Hvass 330; LH 39; NB 153⁴. _L. elastica_--Hvass - 332; LH 39. _C. macropus_--F 6^{a}; LH 39. - - -~Rhizina undulata~ - - Pine fire fungus - - _Fruit-body_: width 20-60 mm, or several coalescing. - - _Description_: Plate 69. - - Fruit-body: chestnut-brown to rust colour with a distinct white or - cream margin, fleshy, smooth, concave and thrown up into irregular - humps. - - Stem: lacking, but undersurface pale, ochraceous, and bearing numerous - cylindrical branched, whitish root-like structures, 1-2 mm thick. - - Flesh: reddish brown, tough and fibrous. - - Spores: very, very long, spindle-shaped with two or more internal - droplets, with hyaline extensions at each end, and 22-40 × 8-11 µm in - size; eight contained in an elongate cylindrical ascus. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Infrequent in pine woods but common at the - sites of bonfires in pine woodlands. - - -~Daldinia concentrica~ (Fries) Cesati & de Notaris - - Cramp-balls - - _Fruit-body_: diameter 20-40 mm × 20-60 mm. - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: date-brown at first finally black or dark brownish black, - tough, minutely pimply over entire surface although at first covered - in a powdery dust of asexual spores (conidia). - - Stem: lacking. - - Flesh: pale grey or buff, concentrically zoned with darker purplish - black layers below which are small, black dots. - - Spores: very long, black, ellipsoid with one flattened side and 12-17 - × 6-9 µm in size; eight contained in an elongate cylindrical ascus. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common on old deciduous wood, particularly - of ash and beech. - - _General Information_: These two fungi are unrelated; the first is - related to the disc-fungi, like species of _Peziza_, whilst _Daldinia_ - is related to the Dead man’s finger fungus. _Rhizina undulata_ has - been shown to be able to attack roots of pine or larch trees and cause - death. _Daldinia_ is a pure saprophyte rotting down wood into more - simple compounds later to be incorporated into the soil-system. The - common name ‘Cramp-balls’ refers to the old belief that if one of the - fruit-bodies is carried in the pocket it saves the possessor from - cramp and rheumatism. The other common name for the same fungus is - ‘King Alfred’s cakes’. The black colour of the fruit-body is like that - of charred cakes--resembling the cakes in the legend which King Alfred - allowed to burn. - - _Illustrations_: _R. undulata_--LH 37; NB 111⁶. _D. concentrica_--F - 7^{b}; LH 47; NB 147⁷. - - -~Xylosphaera polymorpha~ (Mérat) Dumortier - - Dead man’s fingers - - _Fruit-body_: width 10-20 mm; length 30-60 mm. - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: more or less club-shaped, irregularly or evenly lobed at - apex, at first light brown due to development of asexually produced - spores (conidia) but finally almost black. - - Stem: black and short. - - Flesh: white, fibrous and tough. - -[Illustration: Plate 69. Cup-fungi allies] - - Crust: black, thin, pimply with the protruding tips of the perithecia, - and sometimes irregularly furrowed. - - Spores: very long, fusiform with one flattened side, black and 20-32 × - 5-9 µm in size; eight contained in an elongate cylindrical ascus. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common either solitary or in clusters on - dead stumps or on buried wood, especially that of beech. This fungus - may be found throughout the year. - - -~Xylosphaera hypoxylon~ Dumortier - - Stag’s horn fungus - - _Fruit-body_: width 4-8 mm; length 25-60 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 69. - - Fruit-body: slender, subcylindrical to strap-shaped and usually forked - repeatedly near the tip, white at first due to production of conidia - and then black or dark brown and covered in pimples. - - Stem: black and hairy. - - Spores: very long, bean-shaped, black and 11-14 × 5-6 µm in size; - eight in an elongate ascus. - - _General Information_: Another name for _X. hypoxylon_ is - ‘Candle-snuff fungus’. Other club-shaped ascomycetes include members - of the genus _Geoglossum_ (already mentioned p. 172) and members of - the genus _Cordyceps_. Plate 69. - - - ~Cordyceps militaris~ (St Amans) Link, the ‘Scarlet caterpillar - fungus’, produces orange-red or orange, minutely roughened - fruit-bodies up to 50 mm high, which grow on larvae and pupae of moths - buried in the soil. It is not infrequent late in the autumn in pasture - land. - - - ~C. ophioglossoides~ (Fries) Link produces long (up to 100 mm high) - yellow stemmed, dark and rough headed fruit-bodies growing on the - subterranean fungus _Elaphomyces_--see p. 244. - - - ~C. capitata~ (Fries) Link also grows on fungi beneath the soil - surface but has a rounded head. _Leotia lubrica_ Persoon the ‘Gum-drop - fungus’ is similarly coloured but grows on soil under trees and is - gelatinous. It grows in autumn and is quite common and in fact more - related to the Discomycetes than to _Cordyceps_. - - _Illustrations_: _X. polymorpha_--F 7^{d}; LH 47; NB 147⁶. _X. - hypoxylon_--F 7^{e}; LH 47; NB 147⁵. _C. militaris_--LH 48. - - - - -F. SPECIALIZED HABITATS - - -(i) Fungi of dung and straw heaps - - -~Bolbitius vitellinus~ (Fries) Fries - - Yellow cow-pat toadstool - - _Cap_: width 20-40 mm. _Stem_: width 2-5 mm; length 30-60 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: chrome-yellow or lemon-yellow when young, paling with age at - margin to become cinnamon-buff, bell-shaped but rapidly expanding to - become plane or slightly umbonate, smooth, viscid but soon drying; - margin striate then radially grooved, often split and the whole cap - soon collapsing. - - Stem: slender, whitish, cream colour to pale yellow, at apex covered - in small, white floccose scales but downy at the base, fragile and - soon collapsing. - - Gills: adnexed or free, cinnamon-buff, thin and crowded. - - Flesh: yellowish, very thin and lacking distinct smell. - - Spore print: rust-brown. - - Spores: long, yellow-brown under the microscope, ellipsoid with a very - distinct germ-pore about 13 × 8 µm in size (11-15 × 6-9 µm). - - Facial cystidia: rare, balloon-shaped. - - Marginal cystidia: swollen, flask-shaped with a variable, elongate - neck. - - _General Information_: This fungus is common on horse droppings or - other manures, but it may also be found amongst grass in pastures and - in sand-dunes, and gardens on piles of rotting grass stems or straw. - It is easily recognised by the colour and rapid expansion of the cap - and the sudden collapse of the whole fruit-body. ‘Vitellinus’ means - yolk of an egg and refers to the persistently bright yellow - cap-centre, so obvious even when the fruit-body collapses. This - collapsing is not one of autodigestion as described for members of the - genus _Coprinus_. It is variable both in size and habitat, and I even - have records of the fungus growing within herbaceous stems. - - _Illustrations_: LH 153; WD 80⁶. - - -~Stropharia semiglobata~ (Fries) Quélet - - Dung-roundhead - - _Cap_: width 10-35 mm. _Stem_: width 4-7 mm; length 25-50 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: hemispherical or slightly umbonate, sometimes flattened and - hardly expanding even with age, very viscid, smooth, pale yellow-ochre - or yellowish tan. - - Stem: slender, straight, white then yellowish, smooth, viscid, but - then dry and shiny below an imperfectly formed, thin ring. - - Gills: adnate, almost triangular in shape, crowded, dark brown to - purplish black, but with ochraceous areas at maturity. - - Flesh: pale ochre. - - Spore-print: purplish brown. - - Spores: very long, dark brown under the microscope, smooth, ellipsoid - with large germ-pore and about 18 × 10 µm in size (17-20 × 9-10 µm). - - Facial cystidia: spindle-shaped, thin-walled and filled with amorphous - contents which become yellow in solutions containing ammonia. - - Marginal cystidia: spindle-shaped or flask-shaped, numerous, - thin-walled and typically yellowing as above. - - _General Information_: ‘Semiglobata’ means hemispherical and refers to - the shape of the cap of _S. semiglobata_; it is a very variable fungus - in both size of the cap and the prominence of the ring. The - Dung-roundhead grows only on dung which is acidic in its soil status, - whilst _Panaeolus semiovatus_ (Fries) Lundell next described (p. 210) - grows on slightly to distinctly base-rich dung. This may explain why - in Britain the Dung-roundhead is the commoner of the two species. - However, _P. semiovatus_ was formerly placed in the genus _Stropharia_ - because of its blackish spores and distinct ring. The spores of - _Stropharia_ in the mass are violaceous black whilst those of _P. - semiovatus_ are brownish black. Under the microscope they are also - differently coloured and have different chemical compositions as their - reaction with dilute solutions of ammonia shows; the spores of the - first species turn purplish olive in ammonia and those of the second - species become very dark brown. - - _Illustrations_: F 33^{b}; Hvass 171; LH 153; NB 31⁵; WD 75³. - -[Illustration: Plate 70. Dung-fungi] - - -Mottle-gills--on dung from Spring until Autumn. - - -~Panaeolus semiovatus~ (Fries) Lundell - - _Cap_: width 20-70 mm. _Stem_: width 5-10 mm; length 80-160 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: oval or bell-shaped, not expanding, dingy whitish or pale clay - colour, smooth, slimy when moist, but soon drying and then becoming - shiny, often wrinkled and cracked, and ornamented with fragments of - veil at the margin. - - Stem: dull, straight, rather rigid, tapering upwards, white, and - striate at apex above a whitish erect and membranous, often - collapsing, ring; yellowish below the ring and whitish and cottony at - the slightly swollen base. - - Gills: adnate, greyish then black, mottled and crowded. - - Flesh: whitish or pale ochre. - - Spore-print: black. - - Spores: very long, very dark brown under the microscope with large - obvious germ-pore and 18 × 10 µm (16-20 × 9-11 µm) in size. - - Facial cystidia: flask-shaped and with amorphous contents. - - Marginal cystidia: numerous, flask-shaped. - - -~Panaeolus sphinctrinus~ (Fries) Quélet - - _Cap_: width 15-35 mm. _Stem_: width 3-6 mm; length 60-95 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: bell-shaped, hardly expanding, expallent, dark grey to olivaceous - black, much paler when dry and zoned when half dry; margin ornamented - with a white fringe of veil fragments. - - Stem: long, slender, straight, rather rigid but fragile, grey and - completely powdered with white. - - Gills: adnate, crowded and grey then blackened, mottled throughout - except at the white fringed edge. - - Flesh: reddish brown. - - Spore-print: black. - - Spores: long, very dark brown under the microscope, broadly - lemon-shaped with large germ-pore, smooth and 14-15 × 9-10 µm in size - (14-19 × 8-10 × 10-12 µm). - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - Marginal cystidia: numerous, cylindrical, flexuous and hyaline. - - General Information: _P. sphinctrinus_ is recognised by the overall - grey colouration and very distinct white fringe to the cap-margin. - - _P. campanulatus_ (Fries) Quélet which is said to be common is in - fact infrequent and many records really refer to _P. sphinctrinus_. - The word _semiovatus_ means half ovate and refers to the shape of the - cap in _P. semiovatus_. _Sphinctrinus_ means banded, referring to the - zoned cap of the fungus when it is partially dry. - - _Illustrations_: _P. semiovatus_--LH 145; WD 77³. _P. - sphinctrinus_--NB 41⁵; WD 78¹. - - -~Coprinus cinereus~ (Fries) S. F. Gray - - Dung-heap ink-cap - - _Cap_: width 20-40 mm. _Stem_: width 4-8 mm; length 50-100 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: oval then rapidly expanding, covered at first in a mass of dense, - white or greyish woolly scales which break up into patches and finally - leave the cap shiny, brownish grey at centre and striate and dark grey - at the margin. - - Stem: white, covered particularly towards the base with white, woolly - scales, long, fragile, tapering upwards and at the base often - elongated into a ‘tap root’ buried in the dung. - - Gills: free, white but then rapidly dissolving into a black liquid. - - Flesh: thin and whitish. - - Spore-print: violaceous black. - - Spores: medium sized, ellipsoid, smooth with a distinct germ-pore and - 10-12 × 5-6 µm in size. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - Marginal cystidia: inflated and large. - - _General Information_: It is found on manure heaps, on straw dung and - on silage heaps: very common throughout the year. - - _C. macrocephalus_ (Berkeley) Berkeley is very closely related to _C. - cinereus_, but differs in having much larger spores over 12-15 × 7-9 - µm, a long cap and a stem which lacks a rooting base. - - _Coprinus radiatus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray is smaller in stature and also - differs in spore-size (11-14 × 6-7 µm). _C. pseudoradiatus_ Kühner & - Josserand is minute and has even smaller spores (7-9 × 4-5 µm). The - dung-heap ink-cap has long been used by scientists in genetic studies, - usually under the name of _C. lagopus_ (Fries) Fries. However, this - latter species, although similar, grows only on woodland detritus; it - has narrower spores. The dung-heap ink-cap may be referred to in other - books as _C. fimetarius_ Fries or _C. macrorhizus_ (Fries) Rea and - whilst _cinereus_ means grey referring to the colour, _fimetarius_ - means dung--from the habitat, and _macrorhizus_ refers to the long - rooting base found in some specimens. - - _Illustrations_: LH 137; NB 41¹⁰; WD 81⁴. - - -The genus _Coprinus_--or Ink-caps - -The genus _Coprinus_ is easily recognised from all other agarics by the -structure and development of the fruit-body. In the field, most species -of the genus can be recognised by the gradual conversion of the gills, -and often the cap tissue into a black liquid resembling ink--hence the -name inky-caps. The conversion of the gills to an inky mass is called -autodigestion and the process is complete within a few hours; this -mechanism enables spores to be dispersed immediately they have ripened. -Unlike other agarics the spores are not shot off into the spaces between -the gills, but directly into the air. The gills are parallel-sided in -_Coprinus_ and not wedge-shaped as in more normal agarics, and in order -to achieve spore dispersal the gills must disintegrate; Coprini are very -specialised. - -_Coprinus_ is a large genus with over seventy members in the British -Isles, many of which are strictly dung-loving. It is impossible to give -more than one example in full here, for although many of the large -species can be recognised on sight the smaller ones require the aid of a -microscope. The interested student must therefore refer to more advanced -texts, but in order to demonstrate the diversity of the Coprini and how -they are classified the following key to the sections of _Coprinus_ will -be found useful. - - 1. Cap naked of any veil fragments, either smooth or covered in minute - hairs 2 - - Cap covered when young by powdery or hairy veil, particles of which - either may persist on the cap until maturity or may disappear - quickly 3 - - 2. Cap completely naked--group Nudi, e.g. _C. miser_ (Karsten) Karsten - - Cap with hairs giving it a frosted appearance--group Setulosi, e.g. - _C. ephemerus_ (Fries) Fries, _C. pellucidus_ Karsten and _C. - bisporus_ J. Lange - - 3. Veil on the cap composed under the microscope of rounded cells - giving the cap a floccose powdery appearance--group Vestiti, e.g. - _C. patouillardii_ Quélet, _C. niveus_ (Fries) Fries and _C. - ephemeroides_ (Fries) Fries - - Veil on the cap composed under the microscope of elongate cells, - either like thin-hairs or strings of sausages 4 - - 4. Veil on the cap composed under the microscope of strings of - sausage-shaped cells--group Lanatuli, e.g. _C. cinereus_, _C. - pseudoradiatus_, _C. radiatus_ (see p. 211) - - Veil on the cap composed under the microscope of thick- or - thin-walled, flexuous or straight, filamentous, hardly inflated - cells--group Impexi, e.g. _C. filamentifer_ Kühner, _C. - vermiculifer_ Dennis. - -[Illustration: Plate 71. Dung-fungi--The genus ~Coprinus~] - - -General notes on dung-loving fungi and their habitats - -Dung fungi are highly satisfactory for demonstrating the diversity and -morphology of a group of related organisms within a single ecological -system, as representatives of most of the major groups of fungi usually -grow on dung after a period of incubation. Dung will always produce -characteristic fungi whatever time of year it is collected. - -Dung is best incubated in a light place, for example on a window sill, -in a warm room on layers of blotting paper or other absorbent material. -For rabbit-pellets and samples of similar size petri-dishes are ideal, -but for cow, horse and similar types of dung large covered dishes such -as casseroles or sandwich containers are very good. Samples should not -be kept in airtight containers for long periods of time as under such -conditions animal life present rapidly breaks down the dung and induces -anaerobic conditions. Instead larvae and earthworms should be excluded -from the sample as they decompose the dung and inhibit fungal growth but -their activity can be reduced, if causing a problem, by spraying the -sample lightly with a proprietary fly-kill aerosol. - -By keeping the dung under constant observation during incubation a whole -succession of fungi can be seen. Thus the first fungi to appear are the -moulds which although numerous need a microscope for their -identification. The moulds are followed by a series of Ascomycetes -(_Sporormia_ & _Sordaria_ with flask-shaped fruit-bodies and -_Iodophanus_, _Coprobia_ and _Cheilymenia_ with disc-shaped -fruit-bodies), which are best sought with the use of a powerful -hand-lens or a stereoscopic binocular microscope when their full beauty -will be revealed. However, because they need the aid of instruments even -to see them they cannot be considered larger fungi. The fruit-bodies of -the Basidiomycetes are readily seen with the naked eye, but a hand-lens -is still very useful for observing features of the cap and stem, -particularly the veil characters. The Basidiomycetes usually conclude -the succession of fungi found on dung and soon after this state the dung -is colonised by mosses and higher plants and later it is fully -incorporated into the soil. - -[Illustration: Plate 72. Dung-fungi: Cup fungi and allies] - -Dung is a very useful substrate for studying succession. However, -equally interesting results can be obtained from observing the fungi -which appear on a stump, colonise a newly laid lawn, or indeed those -growing on refuse such as a cast-out rug; microscopic and larger fungi -are all to be found. - -If the dung cannot be incubated immediately it should be dried quickly, -for most dung-fungi will survive such treatment and grow when the sample -is remoistened. The blotting-paper on which the dung is placed should be -kept moist throughout the incubation period. - -One large discomycete (up to 80 mm across) occurring on manure-heaps -must, however, be mentioned, this is _Peziza vesiculosa_ St Amans (see -p. 200); the inner surface of this cup-fungus becomes detached from the -flesh at maturity and forms blisters. - - -(ii) Fungi of bonfire-sites - - -~Pholiota highlandensis~ (Peck) A. H. Smith - - Charcoal pholiota - - _Cap_: width 20-50 mm. _Stem_: width 4-8 mm; length 25-60 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 73. - - Cap: convex then flattened and slightly umbonate, smooth, very sticky - at first, but becoming shiny when dry, orange-yellow to sand-colour; - the margin is first incurved and ornamented with filaments from the - veil, but these are soon lost. - - Stem: dirty yellow, darker towards the base, cylindric or narrowed - downwards and covered in small fibrillose scales. - - Gills: clay-coloured then dull brown, adnate and crowded. - - Flesh: yellowish. - - Spore-print: dull rust-brown. - - Spores: medium-sized, ellipsoid, smooth, dull brown under the - microscope and 7-8 × 3-4 µm in size. - - Facial cystidia: spindle-shaped with obtuse apex. - - Marginal cystidia: similar to facial cystidia but usually smaller. - - _General Information_: This fungus which occurs from spring to autumn - is recognised by the habitat, colour of the fruit-body and the - spore-size. It is known in many books as _Flammula carbonaria_ - (Fries) Kummer, but the genus _Flammula_ is no longer used for it - refers to a flowering plant in the buttercup family. - - _P. highlandensis_ is the same fungus as that referred to as _Pholiota - carbonaria_ by European Mycologists, but this name cannot be used for - it refers to an entirely different N. American species. - ‘Highlandensis’, in fact, refers to the locality where the present - fungus was first found in the United States of America. The true _P. - carbonaria_ A. H. Smith has only been found once in Europe and this - only recently in the south of England. It differs in the reddish - orange scales on the stem; indeed it is a much brighter fungus than - the common charcoal _Pholiota_. - - -~Tephrocybe anthracophila~ (Lasch) P. D. Orton - - _Cap_: width 1-4 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 2-5 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 73. - - Cap: blackish when wet, drying sooty brown, slightly depressed in the - centre, smooth, and viscid. - - Stem: sooty brown, tough and smooth. - - Flesh: sooty brown. - - Gills: whitish then grey, adnate and not very crowded. - - Spores: medium sized, subglobose, 4-6 × 4-5 µm in diameter and - minutely roughened. - - Spore-print: white, not blueing in solutions of iodine. - - _General Information_: _T. atrata_ also grows on burnt soil and is - very closely related, but differs in its spores being broadly - ellipsoid and smooth. _Mycena leucogala_ also grows on burnt soil (see - p. 88). - - _Illustrations_: _T. anthracophila_--LH 83. _T. atrata_--WD 4^{b}. - - -~Psathyrella pennata~ (Fries) Pearson & Dennis - - Bonfire brittle-cap - - _Cap_: width 10-30 mm. _Stem_: width 1-3 mm; length 30-40 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: conical or bell-shaped then expanding and slightly umbonate, - whitish because of a coating of dense fibrils, but soon becoming - brownish as these are lost. - - Stem: short, stout, white and densely floccose. - - Gills: slightly adnate, pale brownish grey with pink tinge, then - dark-brown. - - Spore-print: purplish brown. - - Spores: medium sized, oval, ellipsoid with an obvious germ-pore, - purplish brown under the microscope and 8-9 × 4-5 µm in size. - - Marginal & facial cystidia: flask-shaped, hyaline with either a short - or long neck. - - The brown-spored _Hebeloma anthracophila_ Maire is similar. - - -~Coprinus angulatus~ Peck - - Bonfire ink-cap - - _Cap_: width 4-25 mm. _Stem_: 1-3 mm; length 15-30 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: dark red-brown at first, then orange-brown, especially at the - margin and appearing as if frosted all over, conical at first but - rapidly expanding at the margin and becoming grey-brown, strongly - striate and deliquescent, leaving finally only a central red-brown - umbo. - - Stem: white and minutely hairy. - - Gills: free, dirty whitish then black. - - Spore-print: black-brown. - - Spores: medium sized, dark brown under the microscope, lobed like the - hat of a bishop and 8-11 × 6-8 × 5-7 µm in size. - - Marginal cystidia: bottle-shaped, very variable. - - Facial cystidia: similar to marginal cystidia. - - _General Information_: It must be noted that this fungus has spores - which require three quite different measurements to describe the - dimension. Another species of _Coprinus_ found on burnt soil is _C. - lagopides_ Karsten which resembles _C. cinereus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - (p. 211); it is typified, however, by the rounded spores. - -[Illustration: Plate 73. Fungi of bonfire-sites] - - -General notes on fungi of burnt sites - -Several common fungi found at the sites of bonfires have their closest -relatives amongst various groups of microscopic fungi more than amongst -the large forms already discussed. Keeping a close watch at the site of -a former bonfire day by day, week by week and month by month is very -rewarding and shows a further example, like the dung habitat, of a -tightly knit community of various groups of fungi. - -_Peziza repanda_ Persoon has been discussed in detail above (p. 200); -its close relatives _P. petersii_ Berkeley & Curtis (brown with grey -tints and with spores finely warted and measuring 10-12 × 5-6 µm), _P. -praetervisa_ Bresadola (violet or mauve and with spores finely warted -and measuring 11-13 × 6-8 µm), _P. violacea_ Persoon (dark violet with -smooth spores measuring 13-15 × 7-9 µm) and _P. echinospora_ Karsten -(dark chocolate brown with spores densely warted and 14-18 × 7-10 µm in -size) all grow on the sites of old bonfires or around charred root -stumps. _Rhizina undulata_ also found by charred stumps has been -described on p. 203. These are large to medium sized disc-fungi, but -there are many much smaller species which cannot be dealt with here, -such as species of _Anthracobia_ and _Trichophaea_. Pyrenomycetes are -also found on charred wood and soil. Probably the commonest species of -fungus met with is a pale reddish orange to rose-pink disc-fungus seated -on a white mycelial mat; this is _Pyronema omphalodes_ (St Amans) -Fuckel. _Morchella esculenta_ St Amans and _M. elata_ Fries (see p. 200) -appear to grow on the sites of garden bonfires or where cinders have -been spread on the soil surface. The stimulus for fruiting appears to be -due to the release of mineral nutrients during the process of burning. -Competition from other fungi appears to be reduced so rapid colonisation -by the bonfire fungi (carbonicoles) after the period of sterilisation -ensures their development. Many similar fungi were found about bomb- and -shell-craters on the continent during the two World Wars. - -One microscope fungus, however, must be mentioned when considering -bonfires and that is _Neurospora sitophila_ Shear & Dodge so much used -in genetical studies. It can be found as the conidial state on burnt -soil and is called ‘Baker’s mould’ because it is frequently found -growing on refuse in the hot moist conditions of bakers’ kitchens. - -[Illustration: Plate 74. Fungi of bonfire-sites] - - -(iii) Fungi of bogs and marshes - - -(a) _Sphagnum_ bogs - - -~Hypholoma elongatum~ (Fries) Ricken - - _Cap_: width 12-20 mm. _Stem_: width 3-5 mm; length 50-80 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 75. - - Cap: bell-shaped but rapidly expanding to become plane, honey-yellow - with a greyish green tint, slightly striate at the margin and also - with a few remnants of a fibrillose veil when very young, but these - are soon lost. - - Stem: slender, smooth, whitish at the apex and yellow-brown or - honey-yellow below. - - Gills: adnate and distant, pale ochraceous honey-yellow then lilaceous - grey and finally sepia. - - Flesh: yellowish in the cap, red-brown in the stem and lacking a - distinct smell. - - Spore-print: purplish brown. - - Spores: long, ellipsoid, fairly thick-walled, olivaceous brown under - the microscope and with a small germ-pore, smooth and 10-12 × 6-7 µm - in size. - - Marginal cystidia: flask-shaped and hyaline. - - Facial cystidia: flask-shaped with contents which turn yellowish in - solutions containing ammonia. - - _General Information_: This fungus which appears from early summer to - late autumn is recognised by the almost uniform ochraceous colour with - hint of olive and its habit of growing in troops. The word elongatum - means elongated and refers to the shape of the stem which pushes up - through the _Sphagnum_ and in order to disperse its spores it must - elongate so that it just pushes up above the bog-surface. _H. - polytrichi_ is closely related to _H. elongatum_ but has a paler cap - and stem and it grows in moss, particularly _Polytrichum_ in - woodlands; the spores of _H. polytrichi_ are paler, slightly narrower - and slightly thinner, but they have a much more distinct germ-pore. - - Both the above species have been formerly placed in _Psilocybe_, but - they are more correctly classified in _Hypholoma_ along with the - sulphur-tuft fungus (see p. 64) because of the cortina-like veil and - specialised facial cystidia. - - _Illustrations_: WD 78⁵. - - -~Tephrocybe palustris~ (Peck) Donk - - _Cap_: width 12-30 mm. _Stem_: width 3-5 mm; length 50-75 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 75. - - Cap: bell-shaped then plane-convex, but finally depressed at centre, - watery buff to greyish with flush of ochre or smoky grey, striate to - centre when moist, but drying out non-striate and uniformly ochraceous - buff. - - Stem: thin, rather long, smooth, similarly coloured to the cap or - paler, fragile and whitish woolly at the base. - - Gills: dirty whitish, adnate with a tooth and not very crowded. - - Flesh: thin, watery buff, drying out ochraceous and with a strong - smell of new meal. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: medium sized, hyaline under the microscope, oval, not turning - blue-grey in solutions of iodine, and 6-7 × 4-5 µm in size. - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. - - _General Information_: This fungus which grows from late spring to - autumn is usually associated with a greying and finally a killing of - the _Sphagnum_, noticeable from a distance even in the absence of the - fruiting-bodies as paler patches in the rich green bog. Another agaric - found only in _Sphagnum_ bogs is _Omphalina sphagnicola_ (Berkeley) - Moser with decurrent gills and long, elongate, hyaline spores. - - At the margin of _Sphagnum_ bogs, the fungus _Mycena bulbosa_ can be - found attached to the base of tufts of rushes. - - Potting up a sward of _Sphagnum_ and retaining it in a warm greenhouse - during winter favours the bog agarics to fruit when other larger fungi - are not available. - - -~Mycena bulbosa~ (Cejp) Kühner - - _Cap_: width 3-6 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 10-15 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: dirty white, greyish and very gelatinous. - - Stem: very thin, hyaline with a very distinct hairy, basal disc. - - Gills: crowded, adnexed, very short and whitish. - - Spore-print: white, but because it is so small it is often difficult - to see. - - Spores: medium sized, hyaline under the microscope, ellipsoid, not - blueing in solutions of iodine, and 8-10 × 4 µm in size. - - Marginal cystidia: clavate or ventricose, hyaline and smooth. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - _Illustrations_: T. palustris LH 83. - - -~Galerina paludosa~ (Fries) Kühner - - _Cap_: width 10-20 mm. _Stem_: width 3-5 mm; length 50-90 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: conico-convex expanding slightly but retaining the central umbo, - striate to half-way, sand-colour to red-brown, hygrophanous, minutely - floccose because of remnants of veil distributed over its surface, but - soon becoming smooth. - - Stem: long, buried amongst the _Sphagnum_, red-brown and flecked with - white fibrils, except at the finely hairy apex, the fibrils typically - form a distinct but easily lost ring. - - Gills: almost horizontal, adnate to subdecurrent, pale at first and - then rust-brown. - - Spore-print: rust-brown. - - Spores: medium-sized, ovate to slightly lemon-shaped, minutely warty, - honey-brown under the microscope and about 10 × 6 µm in size, (9-11 × - 6-7 µm). - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - Marginal cystidia: hyaline, almost cylindrical or bottle-shaped with - an inflated base. - - _General Information_: This species grows from spring to early autumn - in _Sphagnum_ bogs; several other species of _Galerina_ are also found - in the same localities:-- - - (i) _G. sphagnorum_ (Fries) Kühner has a convex cap, fibrillose silky - and ochraceous brown stem, but it lacks the ring-zone so typical of - _G. paludosa_. The smell is like that of meal when crushed and the - gills are emarginate. - - (ii) _G. tibiicystis_ (Atkinson) Kühner has a rapidly expanding cap - which becomes plano-convex or depressed at maturity; it also lacks a - ring-zone, but the stem in this species is finely hairy because of the - presence of numerous pin-shaped cells which can be seen only with the - aid of a lens. The gills are broadly adnate. - - _Illustrations_: _G. paludosa_--LH 175. - -[Illustration: Plate 75. Fungi of marshes] - - -(b) Alder-carrs - - -~Naucoria escharoides~ (Fries) Kummer - - _Cap_: width 12-30 mm. _Stem_: width 1-3 mm; length 25-45 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 76. - - Cap: pale yellowish ochre, but becoming darker ochraceous with age, - scurfy, convex but then flattened, or with its edge upturned; the - margin is slightly striate when moist. - - Stem: slender, pale to dirty yellowish ochre but darker brown at base, - slightly fibrillose, particularly at first because of filaments from a - veil, but these are soon lost. - - Gills: pale tan to brownish ochre with a paler, floccose margin, - adnate and crowded. - - Flesh: yellowish ochre but lacking a distinct smell. - - Spore-print: clay-colour. - - Spores: medium sized, almond-shaped, pale brown under the microscope, - warted and 10-11 × 5-6 µm in size. - - Marginal cystidia: swollen below, but drawn out into a hair-like apex. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - _General Information_: Although this is a common species growing in - damp places under alder it is difficult except with an expert eye to - separate it from several closely related species which are also found - in similar places. At present it is not known whether these fungi are - favoured by the water-logged base-rich, reducing soils found nowhere - else except under alder, or if they have a special relationship with - the tree. There is ample evidence that soil conditions in alder woods - are rather different from those found in other woodlands, but whatever - the reason _Naucoria escharoides_ is only found under alder--in fact - this species has been placed in the genus _Alnicola_ because of this - character--_cola_ meaning inhabitant and _Alnus_ the tree of that - name. Willow-carrs have not been as extensively studied as alder-carrs - but there is evidence that a store of mycological information is still - to be obtained from these places. Several species of _Naucoria_ have - been described from only willow-carrs, while others are to be found - under both alder and willows; about eight species are known to grow - under alder. The word _escharoides_ means scab-like and refers to the - cap which when freshly collected is minutely scaly and appears scabby. - - _Illustrations_: LH 163; WD 67¹. - - -(iv) Fungi of beds of herbaceous plants - -Beds of herbaceous plants provide protection for many small agarics and -collecting can be conducted in these situations from spring to early -winter. The buffered environments under the herbs is humid and -relatively still, and this allows the development of the small often -delicate fruit-bodies of certain species to continue unimpeded. -Nettle-beds or mixtures of nettle and dog’s mercury have very rich -floras under the shelter of their leaves and stems, either on the bare -soil or plant debris. - - -On herbaceous stems - - -~Coprinus urticicola~ (Berkeley & Broome) Buller - - _Cap_: width 4-7 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 10-15 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 76. - - Cap: white then greyish, globose at first and then expanding to become - plane with upturned margin covered, at first, with scales from a veil - which at the centre are white-tipped with ochre. - - Stem: white and slightly downy. - - Spore-print: brownish black. - - Spores: elliptic-ovoid, only slightly compressed with distinct - germ-pore, dark brown under the microscope and 6-8 × 5 µm in size. - - Marginal cystidia: ellipsoid to pyriform and hyaline. - - Facial cystidia: elongate cylindric larger than marginal cystidia. - - -On bare soil - - -~Leptonia babingtonii~ (Bloxam) P. D. Orton - - _Cap_: 5-15 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 20-50 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 76. - - Cap: grey to sepia or greyish brown entirely scaly-hairy, at first, - but then fibrillose. - - Stem: silvery grey to grey-sepia and silky fibrillose. - - Gills: greyish pink. - - Spore-print: greyish pink. - - Spores: very long, wavy angular in outline, very pale honey under the - microscope and 14-20 × 7-9 µm. - - Marginal cystidia: club-shaped or balloon-shaped and hyaline. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - So very different to other species of _Leptonia_ is it that it should - be classified in Dr. Pilát’s genus _Pouzaromyces_. - - -~Conocybe mairei~ Watling - - _Cap_: width 5-10 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 10-40 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: pale to deep ochraceous or buff, minutely tomentose. - - Stem: flexuous, whitish or very pale ochraceous. - - Gills: pale buff then ochraceous. - - Spore-print: ochraceous. - - Spores: medium sized, ellipsoid or slightly almond-shaped with small - germ-pore and 6-8 × 3-4 µm in size. - - -~Flammulaster granulosa~ (J. Lange) Watling - - _Cap_: 4-15 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 10-25 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: ochraceous to date-brown, darker at the centre and granular scaly - throughout. - - Stem: similarly coloured to the cap and similarly roughened, except - for the slightly smoother paler apex. - - Spores: ellipsoid to almond-shaped, very pale brown under the - microscope and 8-10 × 4-5 µm in size. - - Marginal cystidia: cylindric-wavy, hyaline. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - Depending on the herbaceous constituents the fungus-flora will vary. - Certain species are found on all sorts of herbaceous debris, but - others are much more specific to their substrate preferences. Beds of - Butterbur, Coltsfoot or Impatiens are also good hunting places, as are - beds of sedges in fenland. In many of these localities agarics with - reduced fruit-bodies looking like disc-fungi are frequently seen. We - have already discussed the specific requirements of certain species of - _Marasmius_ (see p. 92). - -[Illustration: Plate 76. Fungi of alder-carrs and from under herbaceous -plants] - - -(v) Fungi of moss-cushions - -Many small species grow amongst moss cushions on tree trunks, tucked in -crevices in walls or on the tops of old buildings. However, there is one -genus of agarics, i.e. Galerina which is probably more typical than any -other of such situations. There are many members of this genus whose -small caps are found in the autumn pushing up through the moss plants. -Plate 78. - - -~Galerina hypnorum~ (Fries) Kühner - - _Cap_: width 4-6 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 20-40 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: hemispherical or bell-shaped, hygrophanous, orange-yellow, - sand-colour, smooth and striate almost to the cap-centre. - - Stem: smooth and similarly coloured to the cap. - - Gills: yellow-tawny then rust-coloured, adnate emarginate, rather - broad and somewhat distant. - - Flesh: thin, yellow-tawny and with a smell of new meal. - - Spore-print: rust-colour. - - Spores: medium-sized, almond-shaped, golden yellow under the - microscope, slightly roughened and 10-11 × 6-7 µm in size. - - Marginal cystidia: flask-shaped or cylindrical with slight swelling at - the apex. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - -~Galerina mycenopsis~ (Fries) Kühner - - _Cap_: width 6-15 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 30-60 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: similarly coloured to _G. hypnorum_, but with a few white silky - fibrils. - - Stem: coloured as the cap, but with white silky fibrils when young. - - Gills and flesh: as in _G. hypnorum_, but it has no smell. - - Spore-print: rust-colour. - - Spores: medium-sized, ellipsoid, pale golden yellow under the - microscope, smooth and 9-11 × 5-6 µm in size. - - Marginal cystidia: club-shaped, cylindrical and with distinct rounded - heads. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - _General Information_: _G. mniophila_ (Lasch) Kühner is similar to or - slightly larger than _C. mycenopsis_, but differs in its dull - honey-coloured cap and stem, and distinctly roughened spores. _G. - calyptrata_ P. D. Orton is small and has been long confused with _G. - hypnorum_; it, however, is of a much brighter orange-colour, with - distinct white fibrils on the cap and has spores which have a distinct - envelope, sometimes separating as a loose covering. _G. vittaeformis_ - (Fries) Moser is a red-brown fungus with 2-spored basidia, facial - cystidia, minutely hairy stem, and very rough spores; it grows in moss - in pastures as well as on moss-cushions. - - -(vi) Heath and mountain fungi - - -(a) Moorland fungi - - -~Marasmius androsaceus~ (Fries) Fries - - Horse-hair toadstool - - _Cap_: width 5-15 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 30-60 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 77. - - Cap: whitish to pale smoke-brown with a distinct wine-coloured tinge, - membranous, flattened, or umbilicate and radially wrinkled. - - Stem: thread-like, black or very dark brown, horny and usually - springing from a black horse-hair-like mycelium. - - Gills: whitish or dirty flesh-colour, adnate and crowded. - - Flesh: white in the pileus and black in the stem. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: medium-sized, pip-shaped, not blueing in solutions containing - iodine and measuring 7-9 × 3-4 µm in size. - - Marginal cystidia: oval or ellipsoid, covered on the upper half with - small pimple-like projections. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - _General Information_: This fungus is common in troops from late - summer until winter on dead and dying heather. It is also found in - woods on leaves and twigs, particularly in plantations on conifer - needles. It is easily recognised by the dark horse-hair-like stem - which becomes bent and twisted on drying and the small, pinkish - flesh-coloured cap. The word _androsaceus_ means, and refers to, the - stem which resembles the tough and wiry fronds of some of the red - algae, such as _Ahnfeldtia_ which is found around our sea-shores. - - _Illustrations_: LH 115; NB 47¹; WD 24⁴. - - -~Omphalina ericetorum~ (Fries) M. Lange - - _Cap_: width 5-20 mm. _Stem_: width 2 mm; length 10-20 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: variable in colour, straw-colour, cream-colour, bistre or grey, - convex then flat or slightly depressed, radially grooved to the centre - when moist; the margin is scalloped. - - Stem: slender, similarly coloured to the cap, except for a brownish - wine-coloured zone at the very apex, thickened upwards and smooth with - a white and woolly base. - - Gills: adnate to decurrent, white then cream-colour or yellowish, - triangular in shape, very distant and often connected by veins. - - Flesh: pale cream-colour. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: medium sized, hyaline under the microscope, broadly ellipsoid, - or pip-shaped, not becoming bluish grey in solutions of iodine, 8-10 × - 5 µm in size. - - Marginal and facial cystidia: absent. - - _General Information_: This fungus is common and often in large troops - on peaty ground in woods as well as in moorland and mountain regions. - In mountains _O. ericetorum_ must be carefully distinguished from some - of the truly mountain species of _Omphalina_ dealt with on p. 236. _O. - wynniae_ (Berkeley & Broome) P. D. Orton is similar but pale - lemon-yellow and is found on stumps of conifers. The word _ericetorum_ - refers to the habit of growing on heaths--_Erica_ is the Latin name - for heath. In many books this same fungus is called _O. umbellifera_ - which reflects the shape of the cap--umbrella shaped. - - _Illustrations_: Hvass 116; LH 99; NB 85⁷; WD 29⁹. - - -~Entoloma helodes~ (Fries) Kummer - - _Cap_: width 25-75 mm. _Stem_: width 2-6 mm; length 25-55 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: finely or minutely velvety at centre, fibrillose or white silky - as if frosted towards the margin, sepia or bistre, or mouse-grey, - dull-coloured but with a hint of violaceous brown. - - Stem: equal or slightly thickened at the apex, sometimes club-shaped, - thickened at the base, greyish brown and pale cream-colour at the - base. - - Flesh: dark sepia in the cap, whitish in the stem and smelling - strongly of meal. - -[Illustration: Plate 77. Moorland fungi] - - Gills: white or whitish at first then dirty pinkish brown, adnate and - emarginate. - - Spore-print: dull salmon-pink. - - Spores: medium to long, angular, ellipsoid-oblong, slightly - cinnamon-colour under the microscope and 9-12 × 7-8 µm in size. - - Marginal cystidia: conspicuous, spindle or bottle-shaped and with - subcapitate apex. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - -~Hypholoma ericaeum~ (Fries) Kühner - - _Cap_: width 15-30 mm. _Stem_: width 4-7 mm; length 50-100 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: fleshy, convex, later becoming flattened but remaining slightly - umbonate at the centre, viscid at first, smooth and shining when dry, - bright reddish to sand-colour or brown. - - Stem: slender, yellow above, brown below, smooth and tough. - - Gills: adnate or adnexed, purplish black with a whitish margin and - fairly crowded. - - Flesh: yellowish or red-brown in the stem. - - Spore-print: purple-brown. - - Spores: long, dark purple-brown, broadly ellipsoid and 12-15 × 7-9 µm - in size. - - Marginal cystidia: cylindrical or flask-shaped. - - Facial cystidia: flask-shaped and filled with contents which become - yellowish in solutions containing ammonia. - - -~Clavaria argillacea~ (Persoon) Fries - - _Fruit-body_: height 20-60 mm. - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: club-shaped, blunt or rounded at the apex, cylindrical or - compressed and often grooved, yellow ochraceous or buff. - - Stem: distinct but short and yellowish. - - Flesh: yellowish. - - Spore-print: white. - - Spores: medium-sized, hyaline under the microscope, smooth and 10-11 × - 5-6 µm in size. - - All these three species are typical of bare peaty soil, or moss - covered peat amongst or around Heather or Ling (_Calluna vulgaris_) - bushes. - -[Illustration: Plate 78. Moorland, moss-cushion and mountain fungi] - - -(b) Mountain fungi and the so-called Basidiolichens - - -‘Basidiolichens.’ Plate 78. - - - _Omphalina ericetorum_ (Fries) M. Lange has already been described (p. - 232): it grows on acidic soils and ascends into mountain areas where - it frequently grows on algal scum which accumulates around _Sphagnum_ - plants. - - Under these conditions the algal cells enter the base of the fungus - and grow in the cavity of the stem and amongst those hyphae which - constitute the base. This association, however, appears to be much - closer in the two lichens _Coriscium viride_ (Acharius) Vain and - _Botrydina vulgaris_ Meneghini which have long been classified as - species of lichen of unknown affinity because no perfect state was - known. _Coriscium viride_ consists of blue-green overlapping plates or - scales with narrow rounded often paler margins and which dry out - greenish brownish grey. _Botrydina vulgaris_, in contrast, consists of - dark green, gelatinous blobs drying out greenish brown. - - _Coriscium_ is now considered to be an association of an algae and a - Basidiomycete, the latter being the agaric, _Omphalina hudsoniana_ - (Jennings) Bigelow, which resembles _O. ericetorum_ but for the - pinkish coloured stem. _Botrydina_ may be a complex of several - separate associations of an algae with different species of - _Omphalina_. In the high mountains the association is with _O. - luteovitellina_ (Pilát & Nannfeldt) M. Lange a small uniformly bright - yellow agaric, whilst in _Sphagnum_ bogs it is with _O. sphagnicola_ - (Berkeley) Moser. _Myxomphalia maura_ (Fries) Hora, a fungus typical - of burnt ground, is also reported to take up this association in - lowland woods and _O. velutina_ (Quélet) Quélet appears to be capable - of forming a loose relationship with algal cells also. This is a most - interesting association and research work is still at an early stage. - In the tropics and subtropical regions of the world, similar - associations are found on rotten and decomposing trunks and stumps. In - these examples the _Basidiomycetes_ are frequently fairy-clubs, - particularly species of _Multiclavula_ (‘many small clubs’). A few - species of this genus may be found also in North temperate woodlands. - _Botrydina_ also grows in Europe with _Stereum fasciatum_ (Schw.) - Fries and _Athelia viride_ (Bres.) Parm. (see p. 176), and _Odontia - bicolor_ (Fries) Quélet is rarely collected without green algal cells - buried in the thallus. Perhaps associations like this are much - commoner than at first supposed. Probably the most remarkable of this - group of poorly known organisms is _Cora pavonia_ (Sw.) Fries which - produces masses of interlocking fans; it is tropical and found in - Brazil. - - -Mountain fungi: general remarks - -There are several groups of mountain fungi, some mycorrhizal formers, -some which prefer peaty soil and some which are associated with algae -forming a loose relationship--the Basidiolichens. When the mountain top -is covered with such dwarf willows as _Salix herbacea_ or _S. -reticulata_ the leaves are cast each year, woody tissue develops above -and below the ground; in fact all the processes taking place in our -familiar woodlands are also taking place in these communities, the only -difference being that the trees are dwarf. Indeed it looks quite odd to -see normal sized agarics growing amongst the woody stalks of dwarf -trees, the leaves of which are often one-tenth the size of the -fruit-bodies, but this is what happens. - -The mycorrhizal formers in these conditions include species of _Russula_ -(e.g. _Russula alpina_ Möller & Schaeffer, _R. xerampelina_ var. -_pascua_ Favre (see p. 45)), _Lactarius_ (e.g. _Lactarius lacunarum_ -Hora see p. 50), _Cortinarius_ (e.g. _C. anomalus_ (Fries) Fries see p. -42) and _Amanita_ (e.g. _Amanita nivalis_ Greville see p. 56). -Subterranean fungi are also found, e.g. _Elaphomyces_ see p. 244, and, -just as woodlands, valley bottoms have a saprophytic ground flora of -toadstools so do the high mountain ‘woods’, and many familiar fungi of -the lowerland areas are to be found there also, e.g. _Mycena -epipterygia_ (Fries) S. F. Gray, _Mycena olivaceo-marginata_ (Massee) -Massee (see p. 88.) - -The barer tops of the mountains, where large areas of moss are only to -be found, support species of _Hygrocybe_, e.g. _H. lilacina_ -(Laestadius) Moser and _H. subviolacea_ (Peck) P. D. Orton & Watling -(see p. 97). - -In the moist atmosphere on the hills in western Scotland, woodland-like -floras containing familiar flowering plants are found on the mountain -sides often much higher than in central Scotland. It is in such -communities that typical woodland fungi are also to be found, e.g. -_Nolanea cetrata_ (Fries) Kummer (see p. 101). - - -(vii) Sand-dune fungi - - -~Inocybe dunensis~ P. D. Orton - - _Cap_: width 27-75 mm. _Stem_: width 4-10 mm; length 35-80 mm. - - _Description_: - - Cap: convex then expanded, usually broadly umbonate, pale or dirty - ochraceous paler at the margin, reddish brown at the centre, smooth, - radially fibrillose towards the margin and sometimes showing the - remains of a pale greyish buff veil. - - Stem: equal with marginate or rounded bulb at the base, white or - whitish, then becoming discoloured pinkish or brownish, powdered with - white, at first, but finally silky. - - Gills: free or narrowly adnate, subcrowded, whitish then clay-buff, - finally snuff-brown with whitish edge. - - Flesh: white or whitish, tinted ochraceous or dirty pinkish and with - strong smell of rancid oil. - - Spore-print: snuff-brown. - - Spores: medium to long, ellipsoid-oblong, indistinctly nodulose or - wavy-angular and 9-12 × 6-7 µm in size. - - Facial cystidia: swollen, spindle-shaped with short, broad neck, - thick-walled and crested with crystals. - - Marginal cystidia: spindle-shaped and crested with crystals. - - _General Information_: This fungus is often buried to half-way in the - sand of slacks near dwarf willows (_Salix_ spp.). Three other species - of _Inocybe_ grow in dune-slacks _I. halophila_ Heim, _I. serotina_ - Peck and _I. devoniensis_ P. D. Orton, but all differ in their spores - being smooth and elongate-cylindric. _Astrosporina_, a name referring - to the shape of the spore, has been considered a genus of agarics in - its own right and to this group _I. dunensis_ would belong. However, - as the members show the same range of characters as those species with - the smooth spores it seems unnecessary to split _Inocybe_ into two. - The cystidia in many species are unusual, being crested with a bundle - of crystals which have been reported as being calcium oxalate, - although even the simplest school-laboratory tests have been rarely - applied to them (see p. 84). - -[Illustration: Plate 79. Sand-dune fungi] - - -~Psathyrella ammophila~ (Durieu & Léville) P. D. Orton - - Sand-dune brittle-cap - - _Cap_: width 20-40 mm. _Stem_: width 4-8 mm; length 40-80 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 79. - - Cap: semiglobate to convex, pale dingy clay-colour or dark tan to - dirty brownish, non-striate, rather fleshy and usually sand covered. - - Stem: deeply rooting in sand and club-shaped towards the base, - similarly coloured to the cap except for the whitish apex. - - Gills: adnate, subfuscous or dark dirt-brown. - - Flesh: dirty buff and with no distinct smell. - - Spore-print: pale snuff-brown with purplish flush. - - Spores: long, ovoid, yellowish-grey brown under the microscope with a - distinct germ-pore and 10-12 × 7 µm in size. - - Marginal cystidia: balloon-shaped, obtuse or somewhat bottle-shaped - and hyaline. - - Facial cystidia: sparse, similar to the marginal cystidia, voluminous. - - _General Information_: This is a very distinct fungus found amongst - stems of Marram grass in sand-dune systems. At first sight it appears - as if it is growing in the bare sand, but by careful excavation it - usually is found attached to pieces of Marram grass, indeed the hyphae - enter the roots of the grass, but apparently do not kill them. - - This fungus was first described in the genus _Psilocybe_ (see p. 114) - because of its brownish purple spore-print, but the cap-surface is - composed of rounded cells and so is related to all the other species - of _Psathyrella_. - - _Psathyrella flexispora_ Wallace & P. D. Orton grows in similar - habitats amongst _Ammophila_ and other seashore grasses. It is easily - recognised by the chocolate, umber or date-brown cap and the peculiar - shaped spores, which look as if they have been slightly twisted during - their development. - - ~Stropharia coronilla~ (Fries) Quélet, resembling a little mushroom - (i.e. _Agaricus_) is also found in sand-dune systems and, just as - species of _Psathyrella_, it possesses purplish black spores. However, - the cap is ochraceous yellow with a whitish margin formed of veil - fragments. The stem is white becoming yellow with age and possesses a - narrow, white striate ring. The spores are ellipsoid and measure 8-9 × - 4-5 µm and it has filamentous cells in the cap. Unlike _P. ammophila_ - it is not confined to sand-dune systems but it is also to be found in - pastures and on heaths. - -[Illustration: Plate 80. Sand-dune fungi] - - -~Conocybe dunensis~ P. D. Orton - - Sand-dune brown cone cap. - - _Cap_: width 10-30 mm. _Stem_: width 2-4 mm; length 40-100 mm. - - _Description_: Plate 80. - - Cap: conical then conico-expanded, date-brown, dull sand-colour or - dark liver-colour, drying buff or ochraceous, expallent, not or - indistinctly striate when moist. - - Stem: whitish or pale ochraceous then darker ochraceous or dirty - brownish from the base up, lower part whitish and buried in the sand. - - Flesh: thin and pale ochraceous. - - Gills: adnate, whitish but soon pale honey and finally rusty honey. - - Spore-print: rust-brown. - - Spores: long, ellipsoid or slightly amygdaliform, golden brown under - the microscope with large germ-pore and 12-14 × 7-8 µm in size. - - Facial cystidia: absent. - - Marginal cystidia: capitate. - - _General Information_: _C. dunensis_ differs from _C. tenera_ in its - dull colours (see p. 116) and habitat preferences. _Conocybe - dunensis_, _Stropharia coronilla_, the two species of _Psathyrella_ - are all dull-coloured. However, in the sand-dunes colourful agarics - are also found. The most common is _Hygrocybe conicoides_ (P. D. - Orton) Orton & Watling; _Laccaria maritima_ (Theodowicz) Moser is - indeed an unusual but rewarding find. ‘Lac’ as in _Laccaria_ is a - red-brown resinous substrate produced by the lac-insect and resembles - the cap colour of many species of the genus, including _L. maritima_, - _L. laccata_ and _L. proxima_ (see p. 86). All these fungi were - formerly placed in _Clitocybe_, but they differ in the warted or spiny - spores which at maturity give the rather thick gills the appearance of - being heavily talced. _L. maritima_ can be distinguished from all - other species of Laccaria by the elongated spores which are minutely - spiny and not strongly warted as in _L. laccata_. _Hygrocybe - conicoides_ (P. D. Orton) Orton & Watling has a conical to - conico-convex, acutely umbonate cap with wavy-lobed margin; it is - scarlet or cherry-red, discolouring blackish with age or on bruising. - The gills are at first chrome-yellow then become flushed red and the - stem is yellow or greenish lemon becoming streaky blackish after - handling. The spores are 10-13 × 4-5 µm in size and slightly French - bean-shaped. It can be readily distinguished from close relatives, - e.g. _H. conica_ (Fries) Kummer by the gills soon turning reddish, the - reddish cap and the narrow spores. - - -(viii) Subterranean fungi - - -_General notes_ - -The adaptive habit of growing completely submerged beneath the surface -of the ground has developed in all the major groups of fungi. Thus the -simplest form related to the common bread-mould have taken up the -character just as certain relatives of the disc-fungi (discomycetes) and -of the flask-fungi (pyrenomycetes). In the higher fungi in several -foreign countries even agarics, polypores and stinkhorns have become -hypogeous, but in this country we have a very depauparate flora composed -of some twenty-eight species of false (Basidiomycete) truffle. The -following key may assist in identifying the different groups of -hypogeous fungi for some of these species are of commercial value and -includes the French or Perigord truffle, _Tuber melanospermum_ Vittadini -which is used as a constituent of Pâté de Foie Gras, and many of the -fungi used as poor quality substitutes. There is a long folk-history -surrounding truffles and they have been utilised in the production of -aphrodisiacs for centuries. Seeking them out was a difficulty and has -been overcome in different countries in different ways. Thus in -continental Europe, pigs have been used to sniff them out but on finding -them the pigs cannot eat the truffles because of a ring placed through -their nose. In Dorset a particular breed of dog was developed to do the -same job--the Dorset hounds. - - A simple key would read as follows:-- - - 1. Spores produced on basidia 2 - - Spores produced in asci 4 - - 2. Chambers throughout the inner tissue containing spores of - approximately the same age 3 - - Chambers in the inner tissues containing spores found at different - stages of development _Hymenogaster_ - - 3. Basidiospores brown or greenish brown under the microscope, and - black in mass _Melanogaster_ - - Basidiospores colourless or pale honey colour under the microscope - and ochraceous in mass _Rhizopogon_ - - 4. Asci globose, irregularly arranged within the fruit-body and - quickly breaking down to shed the spores _Elaphomyces_ - - Asci globose or club-shaped and arranged in fertile areas which - do not rapidly break down to shed the spores _Tuber_ & relatives - - -Basidiomycetes - - -~Rhizopogon roseolus~ (Corda) Fries - - Red truffle - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: globular to tubiform and up to 60 mm broad, partly covered - in mycelial cords, dirty white, later reddish-tawny gradually reddish - and finally olive-brown, it soon becomes tawny on bruising when fresh - and young. - - Spores: medium sized, narrowly ellipsoid, smooth at first, hyaline - then pale olive under the microscope and measuring 8-11 × 4 µm. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus is not uncommon on the edges - of paths, in pine woods just pushing up through the soil surface. - - -Ascomycetes - - -~Elaphomyces granulatus~ Fries - - Harts’ truffle - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: globose to ovoid, 20-40 mm broad, pale ochraceous, covered - in small pyramidal warts, and when it is cut it shows three layers, an - outer thin yellowish zone, an inner thicker compact white zone and - within this a purplish black area full of spores separated into - chambers by bands of sterile white tissue; the first two zones make up - the ‘rind’. - - Spores: spherical, blackish brown, warty, 24-32 µm in diameter; eight - contained in globose asci. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus is not uncommon in the surface - layers of pine woods at the junction of needle debris and mineral - soil. _E. muricatus_ Fries is similar, but differs in the marbled - flecked interior. - - -~Tuber aestivum~ Vittadini - - English truffle - - _Description_: - - Fruit-body: subglobose except for basal flattening, up to 80 mm broad, - covered in 5-6-sided pyramidal scales, dark brown to violaceous, white - then greyish brown within, separated by a network of veins radiating - from the basal cavity. - - Spores: very large, ellipsoid, light or yellowish brown and ornamented - with a prominent network, borne in two’s and sixes in subglobose asci - and variable in size, 20-40 × 15-30 µm. - -[Illustration: Plate 81. Subterranean fungi and fungus-parasites] - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus is to be found buried in the - surface layers of soil in beech woods. _T. rufum_ is smaller and - smoother and the spores are not crested but simply minutely spiny. - - _Illustrations_: _R. luteolus_--Hvass 322; LH 215. _El. - granulatus_--Hvass 325; LH 49. _T. aestivum_--LH 43. _Melanogaster - variegatus_--LH 215 (see p. 243). _Hymenogaster tener_--LH 215 (see p. - 243). - - -(ix) Fungal parasites - - -~Nyctalis parasitica~ (Fries) Fries - - Pick-a-back-toadstool - - _Description_: Plate 81. - - Cap: bell-shaped then becoming expanded, silky dirty white, but - gradually grey with a flush of lilac with age. - - Stem: slender, white and smooth except for the base. - - Gills: pallid but soon becoming brownish, adnate or adnate with tooth, - thick and distant alternately long and short and contorted or united - with age. - - Flesh: dark brown. - - Spore-print: buff. - - Spores: small, hyaline under the microscope, ovoid, 5-6 × 3-4 µm but - usually replaced completely or in part by ovoid, smooth, thick-walled - and pale brownish asexually produced spores (chlamydospores) measuring - about 15 × 10 µm in size. - - _Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus grows in clusters on old - decaying specimens of various species of _Russula_ and _Lactarius_ - (Russulaceae)--see p. 45. - - _General Information_: _N. asterophora_ Fries is closely related and - also grows on decaying specimens of various species of Russula, - particularly _R. nigricans_ (Fries) Fries. It differs, however, in the - cap being fawn-coloured and very mealy when touched; it is recognised - by the poorly formed often developmentally hindered gills on which - chlamydospores are formed. Unlike the smooth asexual spores in _N. - parasitica_ this species has chlamydospores with conical, blunt - humps--i.e. star-shaped; _asterophora_ in fact means ‘I bear stars’. - These fungi have been associated by some mycologists with the common - chanterelle (_Cantharellus cibarius_ Fries, see p. 162) in virtue of - them possessing reduced fold-like gills. However, the fold-like gills - are secondary in nature, correlated with the active production of - chlamydospores and the suppression of the formation of basidiospores. - The gills are not therefore of a primitive type. The genus _Nyctalis_ - is related to fungi such as _Tephrocybe palustris_ (Peck) Donk (see p. - 223). - - There are several rather uncommon ‘agaric-parasites’ of agarics or - other higher fungi, e.g. _Volvariella surrecta_ (Knapp) Singer, but - their formal description must be left to other more advanced texts. - However, the intriguing bolete, _Boletus parasiticus_ Fries, which - grows on _Scleroderma_ (earth-balls) in this country has been - mentioned and figured previously (p. 35 & Plate 64). It is of interest - to note that a close relative of _B. parasiticus_ in Japan lives on - another group of Gasteromycetes. - - _Illustrations_: _N. parasitica_--F 11^{a}; LH 81; WD 25⁷. _N. - asterophora_--LH 81; WD 25⁸. - - -General notes on Fungicoles - -Many beginners are confused on finding specimens which, although -appearing agaric-like, are covered in long hairs or irregularly shaped -bumps. Indeed many of these abnormalities are true agarics attacked by -microscopic fungi, and I know of one textbook on mushrooms and -toadstools which includes such an abnormality amongst the discussion on -the normal fruit-bodies. Thus _Sporadinia grandis_ Link, which is a -primitive fungus, attacks many fungi reducing them to a grey velvety -mass of fungal filaments. Specimens of several species of _Mycena_ (p. -88) are common in autumn, covered in whiskers with small nobbles on the -top. These whiskers are produced by the parasitic _Spinellus -megalocarpus_ (Corda) Karsten, another primitive fungus--a phycomycete. - -In some wet seasons the orange and green coloured _Lactarius deliciosus_ -(Fries) S. F. Gray is to be found contorted and covered in small pinkish -to lilac pimples of the ascomycete _Byssonectria lactaria_ (Fries) -Petch, and other species of _Lactarius_ are attacked by _Byssonectria -viridis_ (Berkeley & Broome) Petch which converts the fruit-bodies into -a hardened mass of green tissue. In North America, species of -_Lactarius_ are frequently attacked by _Hypomyces lactifluorum_ -(Schweintz) Tulasne and the whole fungus is reduced to a contorted -acidic-smelling mass of fungal tissue with vivid orange pimples or warts -on the outer surface. These parasitic fruit-bodies are eaten as a -delicacy in their own right whereas the same consumer will be less -enthusiastic about eating the same agaric before it is so deformed. - -Boletes particularly _B. subtomentosus_ Fries, _B. chrysenteron_ St -Amans and _B. edulis_ Fries are frequently converted into yellow powdery -masses due to the production of asexual spores of the fungus _Sepedonium -chrysospermum_ Fries; the sexual stage occurs on the remains after they -have collapsed into the soil surface--this stage is called _Apiocrea -chrysosperma_ (Tulasne) Sydow. Several closely related fungi in the -genus _Hypomyces_ also attack agarics. - -The yellow pustules found on the spore-bearing surface of the birch -polypore _Piptoporus_ (p. 142) is _Hypocrea pulvinata_ Fuckel; it is -only one of several lower fungi which grow on bracket fungi. The genus -_Cordyceps_ has been mentioned previously (p. 206) and in the discussion -it was indicated that certain hypogeous fungi are attacked by members of -this genus. - -White gelatinous pustules found amongst the fruit-bodies of _Stereum -sanguinolentum_ (p. 176) have a hard white centre. On examination these -‘nuclei’ are aborted structures of the stereum covered in the -jelly-fungus _Tremella encephala_ Persoon. This fungus is apparently -parasitic; it is closely related to _Tremella foliacea_ and _T. -mesenterica_ described on page 184. - - - - -G. APPENDIX - - -(i) Species list of specialised habitats - - -_INTRODUCTION_ - -Although some fungi prefer one type of woodland more than another many -fungi are less specialised and may be found in all kinds of woods. -Indeed many fungi which we usually associate with a woodland fungus -flora can also be commonly seen in pastures and gardens, e.g. _Laccaria -laccata_ (Fries) Cooke, _Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca_ (Fries) Maire. - -It is useful to consider the fungi of different woodland types -separately, but this in some cases is very difficult because some -species are not exclusive; indeed some species may grow in completely -contrasting habitats, e.g. _Amanita muscaria_ (Fries) Hooker in both -birch and conifer woods, or on contrasting substrates, e.g. _Fomes -fomentarius_ (Fries) Kickx on birch in Scotland and beech on the -continent of Europe. The picture becomes even more complex because -frequently woods, in fact, often include several tree species growing in -close proximity and it is then difficult to draw connections between a -fungus and the tree with which it is truly growing--we know little or -nothing except for mycorrhizal fungi, why certain fungi prefer certain -habitats. - -A parallel example is that phenomenon seen in certain polypores which -only attack twigs or branches and not stumps or trunks, whilst others -grow exclusively on stumps. We know little of the reasons for these -demarcations, even when they occur within the same host. Mycology, -therefore, offers to the beginner and the professional many -opportunities in physiology and ecology. - -In grassland areas it is difficult to know where to draw the line -between one plant-community and another when listing species, for -although ecologically distinct both would come under the name grassland. -In the field, however, this is often very obvious and there is little -doubt that fungi can give just as accurate an indication as to the -soil-type, as many mosses or vascular plants. In sand-dune systems, the -mobile dunes offer a different ecological niche to that of the fixed -dunes which in many ways resemble grasslands. Thus although the lists -below are split into easily manageable units, some flexibility must -still be allowed. It is meant only as a guide--and will differ in some -cases from one place to another, even within the British Isles. - - -=General Woodland= - - _Agaricus silvicola_ (Vitt.) Peck - _Amanita citrina_ S. F. Gray - _A. excelsa_ (Fries) Kummer - _A. rubescens_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _A. vaginata_ (Fries) Vittadini - _Boletus calopus_ Fries - _B. erythropus_ (Fries) Secretan - _B. piperatus_ Fries - _Cantharellus infundibuliformis_ Fries - _Clitocybe clavipes_ (Fries) Kummer - _C. fragrans_ (Fries) Kummer - _C. nebularis_ (Fries) Kummer - _C. odora_ (Fries) Kummer - _Collybia butyracea_ (Fries) Kummer - _C. confluens_ (Fries) Kummer - _C. dryophila_ (Fries) Kummer - _Hebeloma crustuliniforme_ (St Amans) Quélet - _Hygrocybe strangulatus_ (Orton) Moser - _Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca_ (Fries) Maire - _Inocybe eutheles_ (Berkeley & Broome) Quélet - _I. fastigiata_ (Fries) Quélet - _I. geophylla_ (Fries) Kummer - _Laccaria laccata_ (Fries) Cooke - _Lactarius mitissimus_ (Fries) Fries - _L. piperatus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _L. subdulcis_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _Limacella glioderma_ (Fries) Maire - _Mycena filopes_ (Fries) Kummer - _M. galopus_ (Fries) Kummer - _M. pura_ (Fries) Kummer - _M. sanguinolenta_ (Fries) Kummer - _M. vitilis_ (Fries) Quélet - _Paxillus involutus_ (Fries) Fries - _Ripartites tricholoma_ (Fries) Karsten - _Russula adusta_ (Fries) Fries - _R. atropurpurea_ (Krombholz) Britz. - _R. delica_ Fries - _R. foetens_ (Fries) Fries - _R. nigricans_ (Mérat) Fries - _R. ochroleuca_ (Secretan) Fries - _R. xerampelina_ (Secretan) Fries - _Tricholoma agyraceum_ (St Amans) Gillet - _T. orirubens_ Quélet - _T. saponaceum_ (Fries) Kummer - _T. sciodes_ (Secretan) Martin - _T. terreum_ (Fries) Kummer - _T. virgatum_ (Fries) Kummer - _Tylopilus felleus_ (Fries) Karsten - - _Hydnum repandum_ Fries - - _Phallus impudicus_ Persoon - _Scleroderma citrinum_ Persoon - _S. verrucosum_ Persoon - - _Leotia lubrica_ Persoon - _Microglossum viride_ (Fries) Gillet - - -On wood - - _Armillaria mellea_ (Fries) Kummer - _Crepidotus variabilis_ (Fries) Kummer - _Hypholoma fasciculare_ (Fries) Kummer - _H. sublateritium_ (Fries) Quélet - _Pluteus cervinus_ (Fries) Kummer - - _Calocera cornea_ (Fries) Fries - _Coriolus versicolor_ (Fries) Quélet - _Merulius tremellosus_ Fries - _Schizophyllum commune_ Fries - _Stereum hirsutum_ (Fries) Fries - _S. rugosum_ (Fries) Fries - - _Lycoperdon pyriforme_ Persoon - - _Coryne sarcoides_ (S. F. Gray) Tulasne - _Cudoniella acicularis_ (Fries) Schroeter - _Nectria cinnabarina_ (Fries) Fries - _Xylosphaera hypoxylon_ Dumortier - _X. polymorpha_ (Mérat) Dumortier - - -Conifer Woods - -characterised by species of _Suillus_, _Chroogomphus_, _Gomphidius_, -several _Lactarius_ and _Russula_ spp. - - _Agaricus sylvatica_ Secretan - _Amanita porphyria_ (Fries) Secretan - _Boletus badius_ Fries - _B. pinicola_ Venturi - _Chroogomphus rutilus_ (Fries) O. K. Miller - _Clitocybe flaccida_ (Fries) Kummer - _C. langei_ Hora - _Collybia distorta_ (Fries) Quélet - _Cortinarius callisteus_ (Fries) Fries - _C. gentilis_ (Fries) Fries - _C. mucosus_ (Fries) Kickx - _C. pinicola_ P. D. Orton - _C. sanguineus_ (Fries) Fries - _C. semisanguineus_ (Fries) Gillet - _Cystoderma amianthinum_ (Fries) Fayod - _Gomphidius glutinosus_ (Fries) Fries - _G. maculatus_ Fries - _G. roseus_ (Fries) Karsten - _Hygrophorus hypothejus_ (Fries) Fries - _Hypholoma marginatum_ (Fries) Schroeter - _Inocybe calamistrata_ (Fries) Gillet - _Lactarius camphoratus_ (Fries) Fries - _L. deliciosus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _L. helvus_ (Fries) Fries - _L. rufus_ (Fries) Fries - _Leccinum vulpinum_ Watling - _Marasmius androsaceus_ (Fries) Fries - _Mycena adonis_ (Fries) S. F. Gray (= _Hemimycena_) - _M. amicta_ (Fries) Quélet - _M. capillaripes_ Peck - _M. coccinea_ Quélet - _M. rubromarginata_ (Fries) Kummer - _M. vulgaris_ (Fries) Kummer - _Nolanea cetrata_ (Fries) Kummer - _N. cuneata_ Bresadola - _Rozites caperata_ (Fries) Karsten - _Russula caerulea_ Fries - _R. decolorans_ (Fries) Fries - _R. emetica_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _R. erythropus_ Peltereau - _R. nauseosa_ (Secretan) Fries - _R. obscura_ Romell - _R. paludosa_ Britz. - _R. queletii_ Fries - _R. sardonia_ Fries - _Tricholoma albobrunneum_ - _T. flavovirens_ (Fries) Lundell - _T. focale_ (Fries) Ricken - _T. imbricatum_ (Fries) Kummer - _T. vaccinum_ (Fries) Kummer - - _Ramaria ochraceo-virens_ (Jungh.) Donk - _R. invallii_ (Cotton & Wakef.) Donk - _Sarcodon imbricatum_ (Fries) Karsten - _Sparassis crispa_ (Wulfen) Fries - _Thelephora palmata_ (Bulliard) Patouillard - _T. terrestris_ Fries - - _Geastrum pectinatum_ Persoon - - -Hypogeous - - _Rhizopogon luteolus_ Fries - _Elaphomyces granulatus_ Fries - _E. muricatus_ Fries - - -On cones - - _Baeospora myosura_ (Fries) Singer - _Strobilurus esculentus_ (Wulf. ex Fr.) Singer - _S. stephanocystis_ (Hora) Singer - _S. tenacellus_ (Fries) Singer - - _Auriscalpium vulgare_ S. F. Gray - - -On conifer wood - - _Gymnopilus penetrans_ (Fries) Murrill - _Hypholoma capnoides_ (Fries) Kummer - _Mycena alcalina_ (Fries) Kummer - _Lentinus tigrinus_ (Fries) Fries - _Paxillus atrotomentosus_ (Fries) Fries - _P. panuoides_ (Fries) Fries - _Pholiota flammans_ (Fries) Kummer - _Pleurotellus porrigens_ (Fries) Singer (= _Pleurocybella_) - _Pluteus atromarginatus_ Kühner - _Tricholompsis rutilans_ (Fries) Singer - _Xeromphalina campanella_ (Fries) Maire - - _Calocera viscosa_ (Fries) Fries - _Dacrymyces stillatus_ Nees ex Fries - _Pseudohydnum gelatinosum_ (Fries) Karsten - _Gloeophyllum sepiarium_ (Fries) Karsten - _Heterobasidion annosum_ (Fries) Brefeld - _Hirschioporus abietinus_ (Fries) Donk - _Laetiporus sulphureus_ (Fries) Murrill - _Phaeolus schweinitzii_ (Fries) Patouillard - _Stereum sanguinolentum_ (Fries) Fries - _Tremella encephala_ Persoon - _T. foliacea_ (Persoon) Persoon - _Tyromyces stipticus_ (Fries) Kotlaba & Pouzar - - -Deciduous Woods General - - _Amanita fulva_ Secretan - _A. inaurata_ Secretan - _A. virosa_ Secretan - _Boletus edulis_ Fries - _B. chrysenteron_ St Amans - _B. luridus_ Fries - _B. subtomentosus_ Fries - _Collybia peronata_ (Fries) Kummer - _Lactarius vellereus_ (Fries) Fries - _Russula cyanoxantha_ (Secretan) Fries - _R. grisea_ (Secretan) Fries - _R. heterophylla_ (Fries) Fries - _R. lutea_ (Fries) Fries - _R. ochroleuca_ (Secretan) Fries - _Tricholoma album_ (Fries) Kummer - _T. columbetta_ (Fries) Kummer - _T. saponaceum_ (Fries) Kummer - _T. sulphureum_ (Fries) Kummer - - _Cantharellus cibarius_ Fries - _Clavulina cinerea_ (Fries) Schroeter - _C. cristata_ (Fries) Schroeter - _Hydnum repandum_ Fries - - _Geastrum rufescens_ Persoon - _Lycoperdon perlatum_ Persoon - - _Helvella crispa_ Fries - _H. elastica_ (St Amans) Boudier - _H. lacunosa_ Fries - _Disciotis venosa_ (Persoon) Boudier - _Paxina acetabulum_ (St Amans) Kuntze - _Peziza badia_ Mérat - _P. succosa_ Berkeley - - -On wood - - _Coprinus disseminatus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _C. micaceus_ (Fries) Fries - _Crepidotus mollis_ (Fries) Kummer - _Galerina mutabilis_ (Fries) P. D. Orton - _Gymnopilus junonius_ (Fries) P. D. Orton - _Mycena galericulata_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _Oudemansiella radicata_ (Fries) Singer - _Pholiota squarrosa_ (Fries) Kummer - Pleurotoid fungi (see p. 74) - _Psathyrella candolleana_ (Fries) R. Maire - _P. hydrophilum_ (Mérat) Maire - - _Coniophora puteana_ (Fries) Karsten - _Meripilus giganteus_ (Fries) Karsten - _Tremella mesenterica_ Hooker - - -Beech Woods - - _Amanita citrina var alba_ Gillet - _Boletus edulis_ Fries - _B. satanus_ Lenz - _Collybia fuscopurpurea_ (Fries) Kummer - _Coprinus picaceus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _Cortinarius pseudosalor_ J. Lange - _C. bolaris_ (Fries) Fries - _Hygrophorus chrysaspis_ Métrod - _Laccaria amethystea_ (Mérat) Murrill - _Lactarius blennius_ (Fries) Fries - _L. pallidus_ (Fries) Fries - _L. tabidus_ Fries - _Marasmius cohaerens_ (Fries) Cooke & Quélet - _M. wynnei_ Berkeley & Broome - _Mycena capillaris_ (Fries) Kummer (on leaves) - _M. pelianthina_ (Fries) Quélet - _Russula alutacea_ (Fries) Fries - _R. fellea_ (Fries) Fries - _R. lepida_ Fries - _R. mairei_ Singer - _R. virescens_ (Zantedschi) Fries - _Tricholoma ustale_ (Fries) Kummer - - _Clavariadelphus pistillaris_ (Fries) Donk - _Geaster triplex_ Jungh - _G. fimbriatum_ Fries - - -Hypogeous - - _Melanogaster variegatus_ Vittadini - _Tuber aestivum_ Vittadini - - -On wood - - _Oudemansiella mucida_ (Fries) Höhnel - _O. radicata_ (Fries) Singer - _Panus torulosus_ (Fries) Fries - _Pholiota adiposa_ (Fries) Kummer - _Stropharia squamosa_ (Fries) Quélet - - _Bjerkandera adusta_ (Fries) Karsten - _Datronia mollis_ (Fries) Donk - _Hiericium coralloides_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _Lentinellus cochleatus_ (Fries) Karsten - _Pseudotrametes gibbosa_ (Fries) Bond. & Singer - - _Bulgaria inquinans_ Fries (a large dark brown, gelatinous - discomycete) - - Several pyrenomycetes are recorded and dealt with by J. Webster in a - popular account published in _The Naturalist_, London 1953, pp. 1-16. - - -Birch Woods - - _Amanita crocea_ (Quélet) Kühner & Romagnesi - _Boletus edulis_ Fries - _Cortinarius armillatus_ (Fries) Fries - _C. crocolitus_ Quélet - _C. hemitrichus_ (Fries) Fries - _Lactarius glaucescens_ Crossland - _L. glyciosmus_ (Fries) Fries - _L. lacunarum_ Hora - _L. torminosus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _L. turpis_ (Weinm.) Fries - _L. uvidus_ (Fries) Fries - _L. vietus_ (Fries) Fries - _Leccinum holopus_ (Rostkovius) Watling - _L. roseofractum_ Watling - _L. scabrum_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _L. variicolor_ Watling - _L. versipellis_ (Fries & Hök) Snell - _Russula aeruginea_ Lindblad ex Fries - _R. betularum_ Hora - _R. claroflava_ Grove - _R. gracillima_ J. Schaeffer - _R. nitida_ (Fries) Fries - _R. pulchella_ Borszczow - _R. versicolor_ J. Schaeffer - _Tricholoma fulvum_ (Fries) Saccardo - - -On wood - - _Fomes fomentarius_ (Fries) Kickx - _Lenzites betulina_ (Fries) Fries - _Piptoporus betulinus_ (Fries) Karsten - - -Oak Woods - - _Amanita phalloides_ (Fries) Secretan - _Boletus albidus_ Rocques - _B. appendiculatus_ Fries - _B. pulverulentus_ Opatowski - _B. reticulatus_ Boudier - _B. versicolor_ Rostkovius - _Gyroporus castaneus_ (Fries) Quélet - _Hygrophorus eburneus_ (Fries) Fries - _Lactarius chrysorheus_ Fries - _L. quietus_ (Fries) Fries - _Leccinum quercinum_ (Pilát) Green & Watling - _Russula vesca_ Fries - _Tricholoma acerbum_ (Fries) Quélet - - -Hypogeous - - _Hymenogaster tener_ Berkeley & Broome - - -On wood - - _Mycena inclinata_ (Fries) Quélet - _Psathyrella obtusata_ (Fries) A. H. Smith - - _Daedalea quercina_ Persoon - _Fistulina hepatica_ Fries - _Hymenochaete rubiginosa_ (Fries) Léville - _Peniophora quercina_ (Fries) Cooke - _Inonotus dryadeus_ (Fries) Murrill - _Stereum gausapatum_ (Fries) Fries - - -Specific Tree Species - - -Alder - - _Lactarius obscuratus_ (Lasch) Fries - _Naucoria escharoides_ (Fries) Kummer - _N. scolecina_ (Fries) Quélet - - -On wood - - _Clavariadelphus fistulosus_ var. _contorta_ (Fries) Corner - _Exidia glandulosa_ (St Amans) Fries - _Inonotus radiatus_ (Fries) Karsten - _Plicaturiopsis crispa_ (Fries) Reid - - -Ash - - -On wood - - _Inonotus hispidus_ (Fries) Karsten - _Daldinia concentrica_ (Fries) Cesati & de Notaris - - -Elder - - -On wood - - _Hirneola auricula-judae_ (St Amans) Berkeley - _Hyphodontia sambuci_ (Fries) J. Eriksson - - -Elm - - -On wood - - _Lyophyllum ulmarius_ (Fries) Kühner - _Rhodotus palmatus_ (Fries) Maire - _Volvariella bombycina_ (Fries) Singer - _Rigidoporus ulmarius_ (Fries) Imaz - - -Hazel - - _Lactarius pyrogalus_ (Fries) Fries - _Leccinum carpini_ (R. Schulzer) Reid - - -On wood - - _Hymenochaete corrugata_ (Fries) Léville - - _Sarcoscypha coccinea_ (Fries) Lambotte (red discomycete occurring in - early spring) - - -Hawthorn - - _Entoloma clypeatum_ (Fries) Kummer - - -On wood - - _Pholiota squarrosa_ (Fries) Kummer - _Phellinus pomaceus_ (Persoon) Maire - _Stereum purpureum_ (Fries) Fries - - -Hornbeam - - _Lactarius circellatus_ Fries - _Leccinum carpini_ (R. Schulzer) Reid - - -Poplar - - _Lactarius controversus_ (Fries) Fries - _Leccinum aurantiacum_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _L. duriusculum_ (Schulzer) Singer - _Mitromorpha hybrida_ (Fries) Léville - - -On wood - - _Agrocybe cylindracea_ (Fries) Maire - _Pholiota destruens_ (Brondeau) Gillet - _Bjerkandera fumosa_ (Fries) Karsten - _Oxyporus populinus_ (Fries) Donk - - -Willow - - _Hebeloma leucosarx_ P. D. Orton - _H. mesophaeum_ (Persoon) Quélet - _H. testaceum_ (Fries) Quélet - _Lactarius lacunarum_ Hora - - -On wood - - _Daedaleopsis rubescens_ (Fries) Schroeter - _Pluteus salicinus_ (Fries) Kummer - _Phellinus igniarius_ (Fries) Quélet - _Trametes suaveolens_ (Fries) Fries - - -Grasslands - - _Agaricus arvensis_ Secretan - _A. campestris_ Fries - _A. macrosporus_ (Moëller & Schaeffer) Pilát - _Agrocybe semiorbicularis_ (St Amans) Fayod - _Calocybe gambosum_ (Fries) Singer - _C. carneum_ (Fries) Kummer - _Cantharellula umbonata_ (Fries) Singer - _Clitocybe dealbata_ (Fries) Kummer - _C. ericetorum_ Quélet - _C. rivulosa_ (Fries) Kummer - _Clitopilus prunulus_ (Fries) Kummer - _Dermoloma atrocinereum_ (Fries) P. D. Orton - _D. cuneifolium_ (Fries) Singer - _Entoloma porphyrophaeum_ (Fries) Karsten - _Hygrocybe aurantiosplendens_ R. Haller - _H. berkeleyi_ (P. D. Orton) Orton & Watling - _H. chlorophana_ (Fries) Karsten - _H. coccinea_ (Fries) Kummer - _H. conica_ (Fries) Kummer - _H. calyptraeformis_ (Berkeley & Broome) Fayod - _H. flavescens_ (Kauffman) Singer - _H. marchii_ (Bresadola) Singer - _H. nivea_ (Fries) Orton & Watling - _H. nitrata_ (Pers.) Wunsche - _H. obrussea_ (Fries) Fries - _H. pratensis_ (Fries) Donk - _H. psittacina_ (Fries) Wunsche - _H. punicea_ (Fries) Kummer - _H. reai_ (Maire) J. Lange - _H. russocoriacea_ (Berkeley & Miller) Orton & Watling - _H. splendidissima_ (P. D. Orton) Moser - _H. unguinosa_ (Fries) Karsten - _H. virginea_ (Fries) Orton & Watling - _Lepiota procera_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _Lepista luscina_ (Fries) Singer - _L. saeva (Fries)_ P. D. Orton - _Leptonia griseocyanea_ (Fries) P. D. Orton - _L. incana_ (Fries) Gillet - _L. sericella_ (Fries) Barbier - _L. serrulata_ (Fries) Kummer - _Leucoagaricus naucina_ (Fries) Singer - _Melanoleuca strictipes_ (Karsten) J. Schaeffer - _Mycena flavoalba_ (Fries) Quélet - _M. leptocephala_ (Fries) Gillet - _M. fibula_ (Fries) Kühner - _M. swartzii_ (Fries) A. H. Smith - _Nolanea papillata_ Bresadola - _N. sericea_ (Mérat) P. D. Orton - _N. staurospora_ Bresadola - _Psathyrella atomata_ (Fries) Quélet - _Rhodocybe popinalis_ (Fries) Singer - - _Clavaria fumosa_ Fries - _C. vermicularis_ Fries - _Clavulinopsis corniculata_ (Fries) Corner - _C. fusiformis_ (Fries) Corner - _C. helvola_ (Fries) Corner - - _Bovista nigrescens_ Persoon - _B. plumbea_ Persoon - _Calvatia utriformis_ (Fries) Jaap - _C. excipuliformis_ (Fries) Perdeck - _Corynetes atropurpureus_ (Fries) Durand - _Geoglossum cookeianum_ Nannfeldt - _G. glutinosus_ Fries - _G. nigritun_ Cooke - _Trichoglossum hirsutum_ (Fries) Boudier - - -Lawns: Wasteland: Hedgerows - - _Agaricus hortensis_ (Cooke) Pilát - _A. bisporus_ (J. Lange) Pilát - _A. xanthodermus_ Genevier - _Agrocybe dura_ (Fries) Singer - _A. erebia_ (Fries) Kühner - _A. praecox_ (Fries) Fayod - _Coprinus comatus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _C. acuminatus_ (Romagnesi) P. D. Orton - _C. atramentarius_ (Fries) Fries - _C. micaceus_ (Fries) Fries - _C. plicatilis_ (Fries) Fries - _Flammulaster granulosa_ (J. Lange) Watling - _Lacrymaria velutina_ (Fries) Konrad & Maublanc - _Lepiota cristata_ (Fries) Kummer - _L. friesii_ (Lasch) Quélet - _L. rhacodes_ (Vittadini) Quélet - _Lepista nuda_ (Fries) Cooke - _L. sordida_ (Fries) Singer - _Lyophyllum connatum_ (Fries) Singer - _L. decastes_ (Fries) Singer - _Marasmius oreades_ (Fries) Fries - _Melanophyllum echinatum_ (Fries) Singer - _Mycena olivaceomarginata_ (Massee) Massee - _M. fibula_ (Fries) Kühner - _M. swartzii_ (Fries) A. H. Smith - _Panaeolus fimicola_ (Fries) Quélet - _P. foenisecii_ (Fries) Schroeter - _Psathyrella gracilis_ (Fries) Quélet - _P. squamosa_ (Karsten) Moser - _Tubaria furfuracea_ (Fries) Gillet - _T. pellucida_ (Fries) Gillet - _Volvariella speciosa_ (Fries) Singer - _Langermannia gigantea_ (Persoon) Lloyd - - _Aleuria aurantia_ (Fries) Fuckel - _Morchella esculenta_ St Amans - _Verpa conica_ Persoon - - -On herbaceous material - - _Coprinus urticicola_ (Berkeley & Broome) Buller - _Panaeolus subbalteatus_ (Berkeley & Broome) Saccardo (in middens) - - _Crucibulum laeve_ (de Candolle) Kambly - _Cyathus olla_ Persoon - - _Helicobasidium brebissonii_ (Desmazieres) Donk - - _Pistillaria micans_ (Persoon) Fries - _P. quisquilliaris_ Fries (on bracken stems) - - -In greenhouses - - _Lepiota rhacodes_ var. _hortensis_ Pilát - _Leucocoprinus cepaestipes_ (Fries) Patouillard - _L. birnbaummii_ (Corda) Singer - _L. brebissonii_ (Godey) Locquin - _L. denudatus_ (Rabenhorst) Singer - _L. lilacinogranulosus_ (Henning) Locquin - _Psilocybe cyanescens_ Wakefield - - -Near out-buildings, stables, etc. - - _Anthurus archeri_ (Berkeley) E. Fischer - _Asteroe ruber_ La Billardiere - _Clathrus ruber_ Persoon - _Lysurus australiensis_ Cooke & Massee - _Queletia mirabilis_ Fries - - -Specialised habitats - - -(a) Dung - - _Bolbitius vitellinus_ (Fries) Fries - _Conocybe coprophila_ (Kühner) Kühner - _C. pubescens_ (Gillet) Kühner - _C. rickenii_ (J. Schaeffer) Kühner - _Coprinus cinereus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _C. ephemeroides_ (Fries) Fries - _C. macrocephalus_ (Berkeley) Berkeley - _C. patouillardii_ Quélet - _C. narcoticus_ (Fries) Fries - _C. niveus_ (Fries) Fries - _C. pellucidus_ Karsten - _C. pseudoradiatus_ Kühner & Josserand - _C. radiatus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _Panaeolus semiovatus_ (Fries) Lundell - _P. sphinctrinus_ (Fries) Quélet - _Psathyrella coprobia_ (J. Lange) A. H. Smith - _Psilocybe coprophila_ (Fries) Kummer - _P. merdaria_ (Fries) Quélet - _Stropharia semiglobata_ (Fries) Quélet - - Pyrenomycetes: Genera--_Sordaria_; _Podospora_; _Sporormia_; - _Delitschia_. - - Discomycetes: Genera--_Cheilymenia_; _Ascobolus_; _Coprobia_. - - A key to the common dung fungi is given in _Bull. British Myc. - Society_, 1968 by Watling & Richardson. - - -(b) Burnt patches - - _Aureoboletus cramesinus_ (Secretan) Watling - _Coprinus angulatus_ Peck - _C. lipophilus_ Romagnesi & Heim - _Hebeloma anthracophilum_ Maire - _Mycena leucogala_ (Cooke) Saccardo - _Myxomphalia maura_ (Fries) Hora - _Pholiota highlandensis_ (Peck) A. H. Smith - _Psathyrella pennata_ (Fries) Pearson & Dennis - _Tephrocybe anthracophila_ (Lasch) P. D. Orton - _T. ambusta_ (Fries) Donk - _T. atrata_ (Fries) Donk - - _Coltricia perennis_ (Fries) Murrill - - _Anthracobia macrocystis_ (Cooke) Boudier - _A. maurilabra_ (Cooke) Boudier - _A. melaloma_ (Fries) Boudier - _Ascobolus carbonarius_ Karsten - _Geopyxis carbonaria_ (Fries) Saccardo - _Lamprospora astroidea_ (Hazslinzky) Boudier - _Peziza echinospora_ Karsten - _P. petersii_ Berkeley & Curtis - _P. praetervisa_ Bresadola - _P. violacea_ Persoon - _Pyronema omphalodes_ (St Amans) Fuckel - _Tricharia gilva_ Boudier - _Trichophaea woolhopeia_ (Cooke & Phillips) Boudier - - -(c) Sand-dunes - - _Agaricus bernardii_ Quélet - _A. devoniensis_ P. D. Orton - _Conocybe dunensis_ P. D. Orton - _Eccilia nigella_ Quélet - _Hygrocybe conicoides_ P. D. Orton - _Inocybe devoniensis_ P. D. Orton - _I. dulcamara_ (Persoon) Kummer - _I. dunensis_ P. D. Orton - _I. halophila_ Heim - _I. serotina_ Peck - _Laccaria maritima_ (Theodowicz) Singer - _Psathyrella ammophila_ (Durieu & Léville) P. D. Orton - _Stropharia albocyanea_ (Desmariezes) Quélet - - _Geaster striatum_ de Candolle - _Tulostoma brumale_ Persoon - _Vascellum depressum_ (Bonorden) Smarda - _Phallus hadriani_ Persoon - _Corynetes arenarius_ (Rostrup) Durand - _Peziza ammophila_ Durieu & Montagne - - -(d) Heathland - - _Cystoderma amianthinum_ (Fries) Fayod - _Entoloma helodes_ (Fries) Kummer - _E. madidum_ (Fries) Gillet - _Galerina mniophila_ (Lasch) Kühner - _G. praticola_ (Moëller) P. D. Orton - _G. vittaeformis_ (Fries) Moser - _Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca_ (Fries) Maire - _Hygrocybe cantharella_ (Schweintz) Murrill - _H. lacma_ (Fries) Orton & Watling - _H. laeta_ (Fries) Kummer - _H. ovina_ (Fries) Kühner - _H. subradiata_ (Secretan) Orton & Watling - _H. turunda_ (Fries) Karsten - _Hypholoma ericaeum_ (Fries) Kühner - _H. subericaeum_ (Fries) Kühner - _Mycena epipterygia_ (Fries) S. F. Gray - _M. olivaceomarginata_ (Massee) Massee - _Omphalina velutina_ (Quélet) Quélet - - _Clavaria argillacea_ (Persoon) Fries - - _Lycoperdon foetidum_ Bonorden - - -(e) Marshes - - _Cortinarius uliginosus_ Berkeley - _Coprinus friesii_ Quélet (on grass-stems) - _C. martinii_ P. D. Orton (on _Juncus_) - _Entoloma sericatum_ (Britz.) Saccardo (under birches) - _Galerina jaapii_ Smith & Singer - _G. paludosa_ (Fries) Kühner - _G. sphagnorum_ (Fries) Kühner - _G. tibiicystis_ (Atkinson) Kühner - _Hygrocybe cantharella_ (Schweinitz) Murrill - _H. coccineocrenata_ (P. D. Orton) Moser - _H. turunda_ (Fries) Karsten - _Hypholoma elongatum_ (Fries) Ricken - _H. udum_ (Fries) Kühner - _Laccaria proxima_ (Boudier) Patouillard - _Marasmius menieri_ Boudier on _Typha_ - _Mycena belliae_ (Johnston) P. D. Orton on _Phragmites_ - _M. bulbosa_ (Cejp) Kühner on _Juncus_ - _M. integrella_ (Fries) S. F. Gray on _Cladium_ - _Omphalina ericetorum_ (Fries) Quélet Lange - _O. oniscus_ (Fries) Quélet - _O. philonotis_ (Lasch) Quélet - _O. sphagnicola_ (Berkeley) Moser - _Pholiota myosotis_ (Fries) Singer - _Psathyrella sphagnicola_ (Maire) Favre - _Tephrocybe palustris_ (Peck) Donk - - _Cudoniella clavus_ (Fries) Dennis - _Mitrula paludosa_ Fries - - _Scutellinia scutellata_ (St Amans) Lambotte (with bright red disc and - conspicuous brown hairs at the margin) - - _Vibrissea truncorum_ Fries (an orange-capped fungus with a black - stem) - - -(f) Mountain tops - - _Amanita nivalis_ Greville - _Cortinarius anomalus_ (Fries) Fries - _C. cinnamomeus_ (Fries) Fries - _C. tabularis_ (Fries) Fries - _Russula alpina_ (Blytt) Moëller & Schaeffer - _R. xerampelina_ var. _pascua_ Favre - -(g) Mossy areas on the ground, rocks or stumps - - _Galerina hypnorum_ (Fries) Kühner - _G. mniophila_ (Lasch) Kühner - _G. mycenopsis_ (Fries) Kühner - _G. praticola_ Moëller - _C. unicolor_ (Sommerf.) Singer (often on wood) - _Leptoglossum lobatus_ (Fries) Ricken - _L. retirugis_ (Fries) Kühner & Romagnesi - _Mycena corticola_ (Fries) Ricken (on wood) - _M. hiemalis_ (Fries) Quélet (on wood) - _M. olida_ Bresadola (on wood) - _Omphalina rickenii_ Hora - _Cyphella muscigena_ (Pers.) Fries - _Cyphellostereum levis_ (Fries) Reid - _Neottiella rutilans_ (Fries) Dennis - - -(h) Hypogeous fungi - - _Melanogaster variegatus_ Vittadini - _Rhizopogon luteolus_ Fries - _R. rubescens_ Tulasne - _Elaphomyces granulatus_ Fries - _E. muricatus_ Fries - _Gyrocratera ploettneriana_ Hennings - _Hydnotrya tulasnei_ Berkeley & Broome - _Melanogaster variegatus_ Vittadini - _Tuber aestivum_ Vittadini - _T. rufum_ Fries - - -(i) On rotten fungi - - _Nyctalis asterophora_ Fries - _N. parasitica_ (Fries) Fries - _Collybia cirrhata_ (Fries) Kummer - _C. cookei_ (Bresadola) J. D. Arnold - _C. tuberosa_ (Fries) Kummer - - -(ii) Glossary of technical terms - -_Specialised colours are placed in capitals_ - - _Adnate_ (of the gills or tubes), broadly attached to the stem at - least for one quarter of their length. See p. 267. - - _Adnexed_ (of the gills or tubes), narrowly attached to the stem by - less than one quarter of their length. See p. 267. - - _Amygdaliform_ (of the spore), almond-shaped. - - _Amyloid_ (of the spore-walls, spore-ornamentation or hyphal walls), - greyish or bluish or blackish violet in solutions containing iodine. - - _Apiculus_ (of the spore), the short peg-like structure at the basal - end of the spore by which it is attached to the basidium. See Fig. 5, - p. 15. - - _Arcuate-decurrent_ (of the gills or tubes), curved and extending down - the stem. See p. 267. - - _Ascus_, a clavate to cylindrical or subglobose cell in which the - (asco-) spores are borne, usually in eights. - - _Basidium_, a clavate or subcylindrical cell on which the (basidio-) - spores are borne, externally on stalks. See Fig. 5, p. 15. - - _Cap_ (of the fruit-body), that structure which bears the - spore-bearing layers beneath it (= pileus). - - _Caespitose_ (of the fruit-body), aggregated into tufts. - - _CINNAMON-BROWN_, the colour of cinnamon powder obtainable from the - grocer. - - _Clavate_ (of the stem, or cystidia), club-shaped. - - _Convex_ (of the cap), curving outwards. See Plate 9, p. 55. - - _Cortex_ (of the cap or stem), outer layers of the tissue. - - _Cortina_, a cobweb-like veil at first connecting the margin of the - cap and stem, but at maturity often only present as remnants on the - stem and/or cap-margin. See p. 267. - - _Cystidium_, a differentiated terminal cell usually on the surface and - edges of the cap, gill and stem: facial cystidia occurring on the - gill-face: marginal cystidia occurring on the gill-margin. See Fig. 4, - p. 15. - - _DATE-BROWN_, the colour of packed dates. - - _Decurrent_ (of the gills and tubes), with a part attached to and - descending down the stem. See p. 267. - - _Deliquescent_ (of the gills, cap or entire fruit-body), changing into - a liquid at maturity. - - _Depauperate_ poorly developed. - - _Depressed_ (of the cap), having the central portion sunken, and (of - the tubes) sunken about the apex of the stem. See Plate 1, p. 29. - - _Dentate_ see toothed. - - _Distant_ (of the gills), greater than their own thickness apart. - - _Divergent_ (of the gill-trama in transverse longitudinal section), - with the hyphae curving downwards and outwards on both sides of a - central zone as if combed. See Fig. 9A, p. 17. - - _Ellipsoid_ (of the spores), elliptic in outline in all planes. - - _Emarginate_ (of the gills), notched near the stem. See Sinuate, p. - 263. - - _Excentric_ (of the cap), laterally placed on the stem. - - _Expallent_ (of the cap), becoming paler when drying. - - _Expanded_ (of the cap), opened out when mature. See Plate 10, p. 61. - - _Fibrillose_ (of the cap and stem-surfaces), almost smooth but for - distinct parallel longitudinal filaments (fibrils). - - _Fleshy_ (of the fruit-body), of a rather soft consistency: readily - decaying. - - _Floccose_, with loose, cottony surface; diminutive--flocculose. - - _Free_ (of the gills and tubes), not attached to the stem. See p. 267. - - _Frondose_ trees, broad-leaved trees. - - _Fruit-body_, the whole agaric (toadstool or mushroom, polypore, - etc.), as usually understood. - - _Germ-pore_, a differentiated apical, usually thin-walled portion of - the spore. See Fig. 5, p. 15. - - _Gill_, the structure on which the reproductive tissue is borne in - agarics, resembling plates. - - _Globose_ (of the spore), round in outline in all planes. - - _Glutinous_ (of the cap or stem), provided with a sticky jelly-like - coating. - - _Heteromerous_ (of the cap and stem-flesh), with discrete nests of - rounded cells in a background of filamentous cells: characterises - members of the Russulaceae. See Fig. 10B, p. 17. - - _Homoiomerous_ (of the cap and stem-flesh), not sharply differentiated - into two types of cells, although some may be swollen: characterises - agarics other than members of the Russulaceae. See Fig. 10A, p. 17. - - _Hygrophanous_ (of the cap), translucent when wet, opaque and often - paler on drying. - - _Hymenium_, the superficial layer of cells in which basidia occur. See - Fig. 9A-D, p. 17. - - _Hyaline_, appearing as if clear glass. - - _Hypogeous_, growing under ground. - - _Hypha_, a fungus filament composed of a chain of several cells; - plural--hyphae; adjective--hyphal. - - _Inverse_, (of the gill-trama in transverse longitudinal section), - with the hyphae curving upwards and outwards on both sides of a - central zone. See Fig. 9B, p. 17. - - _Irregular_ (of the gill-trama in transverse longitudinal section), - lacking any clear pattern as to hyphal arrangement. See Fig. 9D, p. - 17. - - _Mealy_, covered in powdery granules, resembling meal. - - _Mycelium_, a mass of fungus-filaments (hyphae). - - _Mycorrhiza_, a symbiotic association of a fungus and the roots of a - higher plant. - - _Non-amyloid_ (of the spore-wall, spore-ornamentation and hyphal - walls), remaining uncoloured or becoming yellowish in solutions - containing iodine. - - _OCHRACEOUS_, bright clay-colour: colour of ochre (yellow-brown). - - _OLIVACEOUS BROWN_, a dull clay-brown with an additional but distinct - hint of dirty green. - - _Plano-convex_ (of the cap), regularly rounded although almost flat. - See Plate 13, p. 67--adult fruit-body. - - _Pruinose_ (of the cap and stem-surfaces), finely powdered. - - _Pubescent_ (of the cap and stem-surfaces), with short, soft hairs. - - _Putrescent_ (of the fruit-body), soft and very easily decaying. - - _Pyriform_ (of the spore), pear-shaped. - - _Regular_ (of the gill-trama in transverse longitudinal section), with - hyphae showing no distinct curvature and practically parallel to the - gill-surfaces. See Fig. 9C, p. 17. - - _Remote_ (of the gills or tubes), separate from the stem by a zone of - cap-flesh. See p. 267. - - _Resupinate_ (of the fruit-body), spore-bearing tissue facing outward - and attached to support by what would have been the cap had the fungus - been a normal agaric. - - _Ring_, a girdling veil on the stem. See p. 267. - - _Rugulose_ (of a surface), covered in small wrinkles. - - _RUST-BROWN_, the colour of rusty iron. - - _Saprophyte_ (of an organism), using dead material for active growth. - - _Scurfy_ (of the cap and stem surfaces), with small irregular loosely - attached scales. - - _Sessile_ (of the fruit-bodies), lacking a stem. - - _Septate_ (of the structural units of the fruit-body), with - cross-walls; septum--cross-wall. - - _Sinuate_ (of the gills), having a concave indentation of that part of - the edge nearest the stem. See Plate 32, p. 111. - - _SNUFF-BROWN_, a dull dark clay-brown said to resemble the colour of - snuff. - - _Spore-print_ (or deposit), the mass of spores obtained by allowing - the fruit-body to discharge its spores at maturity. - - _Stem_ (of the fruit-body), that structure which supports the cap (= - stipe). - - _Sterile_, a tissue or structure not involved in the reproductive - process, or failing to take part. - - _Sterigma_, the point-like structure at the apex of the basidium - actually bearing the spores. - - _Striate_ (of a surface), having minute furrows or lines. - - _Subdecurrent_ (of the gills or the tubes), having the gill-attachment - extending slightly down the stem. See p. 267. - - _TAWNY_, sand-coloured. - - _Tomentose_ (of the cap and stem surfaces), densely matted and woolly. - - _Toothed_ (of the gills or cap-margin), as if with teeth (= dentate). - - _Trama_ (of the gills), the tissue between the layers bearing basidia - (hymenia). - - _Umbilicate_ (of the cap), having a central, small depression. See p. - 267. - - _Umbonate_ (of the cap), provided with a broad, flattened, raised - centre (the umbo). - - _Uncinate_ (of the gills), emarginate, but with a long descending - decurrent tooth because the cap does not expand. See Plate 14, p. 69. - - _Veil_, a general term for the tissues which protect the whole or part - of the developing fruit-body. - - _Viscid_ (of the cap or stem), very slippery to the touch. - - _Volva_, a persistent cup-like structure at the base of the stem. See - p. 267. - - _Waxy_ (of the gills), lustrous because they are thick and watery. - - -_Illustrations_ - -Text-figures and line-drawings of the greater number of the fungi -mentioned in the text have been included in the book. It is impossible -to supply colour pictures of a high quality in a book such as this -without raising the price of the publication astronomically. The plates -in six easily obtainable popular books have been used to represent -whenever possible the fungus described in the text, as accurate colour -illustrations are very useful in identification. The titles of these -books have been abbreviated for clarity. - - -_Abbreviations for illustrations used throughout the text_ - - F--Findlay, W. P. K. (1967), _Wayside and Woodland Fungi_, London. - - Hvass--Hvass, E. & H. (1961), _Mushrooms and Toadstools in Colour_, - London. - - LH--Lange, M. & Hora, F. B. (1963), _Collins Guide to Mushrooms and - Toadstools_, London. - - NB--Nicholson, B. E. & Brightman, F. H. (1966), _Oxford Book of - Flowerless Plants_, Oxford. - - WD--Wakefield, E. & Dennis, R. W. G. (1950), _Common British Fungi_, - London. - - Z--Zeitlmayr, L. (1968), _Wild Mushrooms_, London. - - -(iii) Fairy rings - - _Object_: To assess the annual radial growth of fairy-rings and to - correlate this with any obvious environmental change. - - _Materials_: Graph and tracing papers, tape-measures, note-book, - pencil and rule, small pieces of cane about four inches long and - coloured dye (e.g. Eosin solution, Janus Green). - - _Method_: Select a fairy-ring on the school cricket pitch or hockey - pitch, school lawn, local golf course or park at a time when the - fruit-bodies are first visible. Carefully mark the centre of the ring - by driving into the soil a piece of cane until the top is only just - visible. Plot this point on graph paper and relate it to any prominent - feature nearby, e.g. post, tree or hedge. - - Carry out weekly observations throughout the fruiting season plotting - the individual fruit-bodies on tracing paper, which is trimmed so as - to make a replica of the original graph-sheet. A small dab of coloured - dye placed on a fruit-body will assist one in recognising fruit-bodies - from previous observations. During the fruiting season observe and - plot the zones of differently coloured vegetation--devise some method - of describing (and measuring) these colours perhaps by comparison with - a colour-chart, printed or hand prepared. Continue observations on the - ring at monthly or fortnightly intervals after the disappearance of - the fruit-bodies, and record subsequent changes in the vegetation for - twelve months. - - This project can be continued for several years and for different - species of fungus. Weather conditions may be noted simultaneously with - the growth observations, or obtained from a reliable source of similar - information close by. In this way not only is the increase in ring - size measured but the results can be considered in the light of - climatic data; fungal growth appears to be dependent on favourable - weather conditions. - - -_Further experiments_: - - (i) Compare the effect that different species of agaric have on the - same type of vegetation. - - (ii) Observe selected fairy-rings for several seasons then either - apply fertilisers, particularly calcium-based fertilisers to the - ring-area, or mow the vegetation. Note increase in fruit-body - production, if any, changes in period of fructification or increase in - rate of ring development. - - (iii) Prepare transects across the fairy-ring and observe the species - of flowering plants and mosses present, the differences between - species in the two stimulated zones, and the colonisation of the dead - zone by annuals and later perennial grasses and herbs. - - (iv) To the soil from each zone apply simple soil-dilution - plate-methods for the culture and isolation of soil fungi and - bacteria. Compare the results with those obtained by similar methods - from soil without the fairy-ring. - - -(iv) Development of the agaric fruit-body - -In the soil or substrate the hyphae of agarics frequently grow in close -contact with each other, indeed the intertwining of such hyphae to form -small knots is common in many fungi. In these intertwining hyphae, those -close together divide and branch, later branching again to form a heap -of tissue. The fruit-body develops from, or within, this knot and at its -earliest stage is usually covered by loosely branched and irregularly -arranged hyphae. To the unaided eye the primordium, for this is what -such a structure or early beginning is called, appears to be enveloped -in a mass of pale hyphal strands, often giving the fruit-body a woolly -appearance when seated on the soil, wood, herbaceous debris, etc. If -more than one primordium develops in close proximity, usually all but -one abort early in development, or they remain checked in formation at -this stage until those close by have matured. Some species which grow on -wood are caespitose, that is clustered together, and in these cases all -or many more of the primordia develop fully and simultaneously. - -Often it is possible to search and find these primordia in the fields -and woods, and if they are examined under the low-power of a microscope -it is possible to study how the fruit-body subsequently develops from -its small beginnings and the part played by the ring and volva in the -development determined. Thus the origin of the veil can be located, its -development followed as well as its disintegration. When the fungus is -grown in pure culture on sterile dung, or soil, or wood, or simply on -artificial media prepared in the laboratory the full sequence of events -can be more easily followed. This is how the professional mycologist -conducts his observations. By very careful studies it has been found in -recent years that the development of the fruit-body, the origin of the -gills, etc. can assist in the classification of the higher fungi. Thus -some species have no protective tissue around the developing gills -(gymnocarpic) whilst others have one or even two, simple or complex, -tissues around the developing gills or pores (hemiangiocarpic). It is -these tissues which give rise to the ring, volva, cortina, etc. This -most exciting part of the study of the higher fungi is illustrated in -the accompanying figures (Figs. 12 & 13) along with the various types -of gill-attachment mentioned in the text (Fig. 11 A-H). If the agaric -has two tissues surrounding it as the cap expands and matures, first the -outer tissue or skin breaks leaving pieces on the stem and/or cap and -then the second skin breaks as the cap expands still further. The last -skin leaves remnants on the stem and sometimes bits and pieces at the -cap margin. Only now can the agaric shed its spores from the fully -exposed gills. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11 - -Fig. 12 - -Fig. 13 - -Fig. 14] - - -(v) References - - -A. Reference Texts - -Some references have already been given on p. 264. Findlay, Hvass & -Hvass, Lange & Hora, Nicholson & Brightman, Wakefield and Dennis and -Zeitlmayr. - -In addition to these the following texts are suggested: - - Henderson, D. M., Orton, P. D. & Watling, R. (1969). _British Fungus - Flora: Agarics and Boleti: Introduction_, H.M.S.O., Edinburgh. - - Hennig, E. (1958-60). _Handbuch für Pilzfreunde_, Jena (in German). - - Haas, H. (1969). _The Young Specialist looks at Fungi_, London. - - Pilát, A. & Usak, O. (1951). _Mushrooms_, London. - - Pilát, A. & Usak, O. (1961). _Mushrooms and other fungi_, London. - - Ramsbottom, J. (1951). _Handbook of Larger fungi_, London. - - Ramsbottom, J. (1953). _Mushrooms and Toadstools_, New Naturalist, - London. - - Romagnesi, H. (1963). _Petit Atlas des Champignons_, Bordas (in - French). - - Smith, A. H. (1963). _Mushroom Hunters’ Field-guide_, Michigan. - - Wakefield, E. M. (1954). _Observer’s book of Common fungi_, London. - - Watling, R. (1970). _British Fungus Flora: Agarics & Boleti_, Part I, - H.M.S.O., Edinburgh. - - -B. General Texts - - Talbot, P. M. B. (1971). _Principles of Fungal Taxonomy_, London. - - Webster, J. (1970). _Introduction to Fungi_, Cambridge. - - -C. Journals - - _Bulletin Trimestriel de la Société Mycologique de France_, Paris. - (Official organ of the French Mycological Society.) - - _Coolia_, Leiden. (Official organ of the Dutch Mycological Society.) - - _Mycologia_, New York. (Official organ of the American Mycological - Society.) - - _Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Pilzkunde._ (Official organ of the - Swiss Mycological Society.) - - _Transactions of the British Mycological Society_, (Official organ of - the British Society: Hon. Sec. Dr B. E. Wheeler, Imperial College of - Science and Technology Field Station, Silwood Park, Sunninghill, - Ascot, Berks, also publishes a Bulletin intended for the amateur.) - - -D. Advanced Texts - - Dennis, R. W. G., Orton, P. D. & Hora, F. B. (1960). _New Check List - of British Agarics and Boleti_, suppl. Trans. British Mycological Soc. - - Moser, M. (1967). _in Gams Kleine Kryptogamenflora_, Band IIb - Stuttgart (in German). - - Kühner, R. & Romagnesi, H. (1953). _Flore Analytique des Champignons - Supérieurs de France_, Paris (in French). - - Rea, C. (1922). _British Basidiomycetae_, Cambridge. - - _Revue de Mycologie_ (journal) Paris (in French). - - - - -INDEX - - -Numbers in bold italics refer to pages with illustrations. - - -_Latin Names_ - - Agaricales 21 - - _Agaricus_ 23, 240 - - _Agaricus arvensis_ ~108~, Plate 31 (109) - _bisporus_ ~133~, Plate 43 (134) - _campestris_ ~108~, Plate 31 (109) - _hortensis_ 133, Plate 43 (134) - _xanthodermus_ ~108~ - - _Agrocybe_ 23 - - _Aleurodiscus amorphus_ Plate 59 (177) - - _Aleuria aurantia_ 198, Plate 67 (199) - - _Alnicola_ 226 - - _Amanita_ 24, 56, 57, 100, 237 - - _Amanita caesarea_ 56 - _citrina_ 56, ~57~ - _citrina_ var. _alba_ 56 - _excelsa_ ~57~ - _fulva_ 56, 57, ~58~ - _muscaria_ ~54~, Plate 9 (55), 56, 57, 249 - _nivalis_ 237 - _pantherina_ ~58~ - _phalloides_ 56, 57, ~58~ - _porphyria_ 56 - _rubescens_ 56, 57, ~58~ - _vaginata_ 57, ~58~ - _virosa_ 56 - - _Amanitopsis_ 57 - - _Amyloporia xantha_ 156 - - _Anthracobia_ 220 - - _Anthracobia macrocystis_ Plate 74 (221) - - _Apiocrea chrysosperma_ 248 - - Aphyllophorales 21, 135 - - _Armillaria_ 25 - - _Armillaria mellea_ ~59~, 60, Plate 10 (61) - - _Astrosporina_ 84, 238 - - _Auricularia_ 179 - - _Auricularia judae_ 182 - _mesenterica_ 182, Plate 60 (183) - - Auriculariales 21, 179 - - Auriscalpiaceae 158 - - _Auriscalpium_ 76, 137, 158, 160 - - _Auriscalpium vulgare_ 158, Plate 52 (159) - - _Ascobolus carbonarius_ Plate 74 (221) - _furfuraceus_ Plate 72 (215) - - _Ascophanus microsporus_ Plate 72 (215) - - _Asterostroma laxum_ Plate 59 (177) - - _Athelia viride_ 236 - - - _Baeospora myosura_ 94 - - _Bankera_ 160 - - _Bankera fuliginoalbum_ 160 - - _Bjerkandera_ 138 - - _Bjerkandera adusta_ 146 - - _Bolbitius_ 23 - - _Bolbitius vitellinus_ ~207~, Plate 70 - (209) - - _Boletus_ 26, 28, 31, 32, 34, 35, 100 - - _Boletus badius_ ~31~, 32, Plate 3 (33), 34 - _chrysenteron_ 248 - _edulis_ 32, 34, 35, 248 - _erythropus_ 32 - _parasiticus_ 35, Plate 64 (193), 247 - _purpureus_ 35 - _sphaerocephalus_ 35 - _subtomentosus_ 248 - - _Botrydina vulgaris_ Plate 78 (235), 236 - - _Botryobasidium conspersum_ Plate 59 (177) - - _Botryohypochnus isabellinus_ Plate 59 (177) - - _Bovista nigrescens_ ~190~ - - _Byssonectria lateritia_ 247 - _viridis_ 247 - - - _Calocera_ 170, 180 - - _Calocera cornea_ Plate 57 (169), 181 - _viscosa_ Plate 57 (169), 170, ~181~ - - _Calocybe_ 101 - - _Calocybe gambosum_ ~110~, Plate 32 (111) - - _Calvatia caelata_ 190 - _excipuliformis_ ~190~, Plate 63 (191) - _saccata_ 190 - _utriformis_ ~190~, Plate 63 (191) - - _Camarophyllus_ 98 - - _Cantharellus_ 24, 106, 136 - - _Cantharellus cibarius_ 106, ~162~, Plate 54 (163), 246 - _friesii_ 162 - - _Cantharellula_ 25 - - _Chaetomium globosum_ Plate 72 (215) - - _Cheilymenia_ 214 - - _Cheilymenia stercorea_ Plate 72 (215) - - _Chondrostereum purpureum_ 176 - - _Chroogomphus_ 23, 36, 100 - - _Chroogomphus corallinus_ 36 - _rutilus_ ~36~, Plate 4 (37) - - _Claudopus_ 22, 77, 102 - - _Claudopus depluens_ 102 - _parasiticus_ 77, 102 - - _Clavariadelphus_ 136 - - _Clavariadelphus pistillaris_ 172, Plate 58 (175) - - _Clavaria_ 136, 173 - - _Clavaria argillacea_ ~234~, Plate 78 (235) - _fumosa_ 168, Plate 56, (167) - _vermicularis_ Plate 56 (167), ~168~ - - _Clavulina_ 136, 172 - - _Clavulina cinerea_ 166 - _cristata_ 166, Plate 56 (167) - _rugosa_ ~166~, Plate 56 (167) - - _Clavulinopsis_ 136, 168, 173 - - _Clavulinopsis corniculata_ Plate 57 (169), ~170~, 173 - _fusiformis_ Plate 56 (167), 168 - _helvola_ Plate 56 (167), 168 - - _Clitocybe_ 25, 242 - - _Clitocybe clavipes_ 80, 81 - _fragrans_ 80 - _infundibuliformis_ 80, Plate 19 (81) - _langei_ 80 - _nebularis_ 80 - - _Clitopilus_ 22, 77 - - _Clitopilus passackerianus_ 77 - _prunulus_ 77, 101 - - _Collybia_ 26, 66, 86, 90, 92, 102, 120 - - _Collybia maculata_ ~90~, Plate 24 (91) - _peronata_ 92 - - _Coltricia_ 138 - - _Coniochaeta scatigena_ Plate 72 (215) - - _Coniophora_ 136 - - _Coniophora puteana_ 156, Plate 51 (157) - - _Conocybe_ 23, 126 - - _Conocybe dunensis_ ~242~, Plate 80 (241) - _lactea_ 116 - _mairei_ 228, Plate 76 (229) - _tenera_ ~116~, Plate 35 (117), 242 - - _Coprinus_ 23, 128, 207, 212, 218, Plate 71 (213) - - _Coprinus angulatus_ 218, Plate 73 (219) - _bisporus_ 212 - _cinereus_ ~211~, 214, 218, Plate 71 (213) - _comatus_ ~126~, Plate 40 (127) - _ephemerus_ 212 - _ephemeroides_ 212 - _filamentifer_ 214 - _fimetarius_ 211 - _lagopides_ 218 - _lagopus_ 211 - _macrocephalus_ 211 - _macrorhizus_ 211 - _miser_ 212 - _niveus_ 212 - _patouillardii_ 212 - _pellucidus_ 212 - _pseudoradiatus_ 211, 214 - _radiatus_ 211, 214 - _urticicola_ ~227~, Plate 76 (229) - _vermiculifer_ 214 - - _Coprobia_ 214 - - _Coprobia granulata_ Plate 72 (215) - - _Cora pavonia_ 237 - - _Cordyceps_ 206, 248 - - _Cordyceps capitata_ Plate 69 (205), ~206~ - _militaris_ Plate 69 (205), ~206~ - _ophioglossoides_ Plate 69 (205), ~206~ - - _Coriolus_ 139 - - _Coriolus versicolor_ ~145~, Plate 46 (147) - - _Coriscium viride_ Plate 78 (235), 236 - - _Corticium fuciforme_ 178 - - _Corticiaceae_ 136 - - _Cortinarius_ 23, 40, 42, 43, 44, 74, 237 - - _Cortinarius_ sp. _Cortinarius_ 43 - _hydrocybe_ 43 - _phlegmacium_ 43 - _sericeocybe_ 43 - _telamonia_ 43 - - _Cortinarius anomalus_ 237 - _armillatus_ 43 - _elatior_ 40 - _pinicola_ 40 - _pseudosalor_ ~40~, Plate 6 (41), 42 - _violaceus_ 44 - - _Craterellus_ 24, 136 - - _Craterellus cornucopoides_ ~164~, Plate 55 (165) - _sinuosus_ 164, Plate 55 (165) - - _Crepidotus_ 22, 74, 102 - - _Crepidotus mollis_ Plate 17 (75), ~77~, Plate 49 (153) - - _Cristella farinacea_ Plate 59 (177) - _sulphurea_ Plate 59 (177) - - _Crucibulum_ 186, 196 - - _Crucibulum laeve_ ~196~, Plate 66 (197) - - _Cryptoderma_ 137 - - _Cryptoderma pini_ ~150~, Plate 48 (151) - - _Cyathipodia macropus_ Plate 68 (201), 203 - - _Cyathus_ 186, 196 - - _Cyathus olla_ 196, Plate 66 (197) - _striatus 196_, Plate 66 (197) - - _Cystoderma amianthinum_ ~104~, Plate 29 (105) - _carcharias_ 104 - _cinnabarinum_ 104 - _granulosum_ 104 - - - _Dacrymyces_ 180, 181 - - _Dacrymyces deliquescens_ 180 - _stillatus_ ~180~, Plate 61 (185) - - Dacrymycetales 21, 180 - - _Daedalea_ 137 - - _Daedalea quercina_ Plate 46 (145) - - _Daedaleopsis_ 137 - - _Daldinia_ 204 - - _Daldinia concentrica_ ~204~, Plate 69 (205) - - _Datronia_ 138 - - _Datronia mollis_ 145, Plate 46 (147) - - _Deconica_ 114 - - - _Eccilia_ 22, 102, Plate 28 (103) - - _Eccilia sericeonitida_ 102 - - _Elaphomyces_ Plate 69 (205), 206, 237, Plate 81 (243) - - _Elaphomyces granulatus_ ~244~, Plate 81 (243) - _muricatus_ 244, Plate 81 (243) - - _Entoloma_ 22, 100, 101, Plate 28 (103), 124 - - _Entoloma clypeatum_ 101 - - _Entoloma helodes_ ~232~, Plate 77 (233) - - _Exidia_ 158, 179 - - _Exidia glandulosa_ ~184~, Plate 61 (185) - - - _Femsjonia_ 180 - - _Fibuloporia_ 138, 156 - - _Fibuloporia vaillantii_ ~156~, Plate 51 (157) - - _Fistulina_ 137 - - _Fistulina hepatica_ 152 - - _Flammula_ 72, 217 - - _Flammula carbonaria_ 217 - - _Flammulaster granulosa_ ~228~, Plate 76 (229) - - _Flammulina_ 25 - - _Flammulina velutipes_ ~66~, Plate 13 (67) - - _Fomes_ 137 - - _Fomes fomentarius_ ~148~, Plate 48 (151), 249 - - _Fomitopsis_ 137 - - - _Galerina_ 23, 224, 230 - - _Galerina calyptrata_ 231 - _hypnorum_ ~230~, 231, Plate 78 (235) - _mniophila_ 231 - _mycenopsis_ ~230~, 231 - _paludosa_ ~224~, Plate 75 (225) - _sphagnorum_ 224, Plate 75 (225) - _tibiicytis_ 224, Plate 75 (225) - _vittaeformis_ 234, Plate 78 (235) - - _Ganoderma_ 137, 146 - - _Ganoderma applanatum_ 146 - - _Ganoderma europaeum_ 146, 148, Plate 47 (147) - - Gasteromycetes 21, 186, 187 - - _Geastrum_ 186, 192 - - _Geastrum rufescens_ 192, Plate 64 (193) - _triplex_ 192 - - Geoglossaceae 168 - - _Geoglossum_ 172, 206 - - _Geoglossum cookeianum_ Plate 57 (169) - - _Geopyxis carbonaria_ Plate 74 (221) - - _Gloeocystidium porosum_ Plate 59 (177) - - _Gloeophyllum_ 137 - - _Gloeoporus_ 138 - - _Gomphidius_ 23, 34, 36 - - _Gomphidius glutinosus_ 36 - _maculatus_ 36 - _roseus_ 35, 36 - - _Grifola_ 139 - - _Gymnopilus_ 23 - - _Gymnopilus penetrans_ ~72~, Plate 16 (73) - - _Gymnopilus sapineus_ 72 - - _Gyromitra esculenta_ Plate 65 (201), 202 - - _Gyroporus_ 26 - - - _Hapalopilus_ 138 - - _Hebeloma_ 23, 82 - - _Hebeloma anthracophila_ 218, Plate 73 (219) - _crustuliniforme_ ~82~, Plate 20 (83) - - _Helicobasidium_ 179 - - _Helminthosphaeria clavariae_ 166 - - _Helvella_ 203 - - _Helvella crispa_ ~202~, Plate 68 (201) - _lacunosa_ 203, Plate 68 (201) - - Heterobasidion 137 - - _Heterobasidion annosum_ ~150~, Plate 46 (147), Plate 43 (151) - - _Hirneola_ 179 - - _Hirneola auricula-judae_ ~182~, Plate 60 (183) - - _Hirschioporus_ 138 - - _Hygrocybe_ 25, 93, 100, 237 - - _Hygrocybe calyptraeformis_ ~98~ - _chlorophana_ ~98~ - _cinerea_ 95 - _coccinea_ ~98~ - _conica_ ~98~, Plate 27 (99), 242 - _conicoides_ 242, Plate 80 (241) - _flavescens_ 98 - _lacma_ 95 - _laeta_ 97 - _lilacina_ 237 - _metapodia_ ~100~ - _nitrata_ ~98~ - _nivea_ 95 - _ovina_ 98 - _pratensis_ ~95~, Plate 26 (96), 100 - - _Hygrocybe psittacina_ ~97~, Plate 27 (99) - _punicea_ ~98~, Plate 27 (99) - _russocoriacea_ 95 - _subradiata_ 95 - _subviolacea_ 237 - _unguinosa_ ~98~ - _virginea_ 95 - - _Hydnellum_ 137, 160 - - _Hydnellum scrobiculatum_ 160, Plate 53 (161) - - _Hydnum_ 137, 160 - - _Hydnum repandum_ 153, ~160~, Plate 53 (161) - _rufescens_ 160 - - _Hygrophoropsis_ 25 - - _Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca_ ~106~, Plate 30 (109), 162, 249 - - _Hygrophorus_ 25, 97, 98 - - _Hygrophorus agathosmus_ 100 - _bresadolae_ ~100~ - _chrysaspis_ 98, Plate 27 (99), ~100~ - _hedrychii_ ~100~ - _hypothejus_ ~100~ - _pustulatus_ ~100~ - - Hygrophoraceae 101, Plate 80 (241) - - _Hymenochaete_ 136 - - _Hymenogaster_ 186, 243 - - _Hymenomycetes_ 21 - - _Hymenomycetous heterobasidiae_ 179 - - _Hyphoderma setigera_ Plate 59 (177) - - _Hyphodontia_ 136 - - _Hyphodontia arguta_ Plate 59 (177) - _sambucii_ Plate 59 (177), 178 - - _Hypholoma_ 24, 130, 222 - - _Hypholoma capnoides_ 64 - _elongatum_ ~222~, Plate 75 (225) - _ericaeum_ ~234~, Plate 78 (235) - _fasciculare_ ~64~, Plate 12 (65) 130 - _lacrymabunda_ 130 - _polytrichi_ 222 - _sublateritium_ 64 - _velutina_ 130 - - _Hypocrea pulvinata_ 248 - - _Hypocopra equorum_ Plate 72 (215) - - _Hypomyces_ 248 - - _Hypomyces lactifluorum_ 247 - - - _Inocybe_ 23, 84, 238 - - _Inocybe asterospora_ 84, Plate 21 (85) - _devoniensis_ 238, Plate 79 (239) - _dunensis_ ~238~, Plate 79 (239) - _geophylla_ ~84~ - var. _geophylla_ ~84~, Plate 21 (85) - var. _lilacina_ 84 - _halophila_ 238, Plate 79 (239) - _serotina_ 238, Plate 79 (239) - - _Iodophanus_ 214 - - _Iodophanus carneus_ Plate 72 (215) - - _Inonotus_ 138 - - _Inonotus hispidus_ ~142~, Plate 45 (143) - - - _Laccaria_ 24, 242 - - _Laccaria amethystea_ ~86~ - _bicolor_ ~86~ - _laccata_ ~86~, Plate 22 (87), 242, 249 - _maritima_ 242 - _proxima_ ~86~, Plate 22 (87), 242 - - _Lacrymaria_ ~130~ - - _Lacrymaria pyrotricha_ 130 - _velutina_ ~128~, Plate 41 (129), 130 - - _Lactarius_ 46, 50, 52, 86, 237, 246, 247 - - _Lactarius camphoratus_ ~52~ - _chrysorheus_ 52 - _deliciosus_ 52, 247 - _glyciosmus_ ~53~ - _lacunarum_ 237 - _quietus_ 52, ~53~ - _rufus_ 52, ~53~ - _torminosus_ 52, ~53~ - _turpis_ ~50~, Plate 8 (51) - _uvidus_ 52 - - _Laetiporus_ 138 - - _Laetiporus sulphureus_ 140, Plate 44 (141), Plate 46 (147) - - _Lamprospora astroidea_ Plate 74 (221) - - _Langermannia gigantea_ ~190~, Plate 63 (191) - - _Lasiobolus ciliatus_ Plate 72 (215) - - _Lasiosordaria coprophila_ Plate 72 (215) - - _Leccinum_ 26, 28, 34, 100 - - _Leccinum aurantiacum_ 34 - _quercinum_ 34 - _scabrum_ 27, Plate 1 (29), 34 - - _Lentinellus_ 26, 74, 76, 137, 158 - - _Lentinellus cochleatus_ Plate 17 (75), ~76~, 158 - - _Lentinus_ 26, 74 - - _Lentinus lepideus_ ~76~ - - _Lenzites_ 137 - - _Leotia lubrica_ 206 - - _Lepiota_ 24, 104 - - _Lepiota procera_ ~112~, Plate 33 (113) - _rachodes_ 112 - - _Lepista nuda_ ~131~, Plate 42 (132) - - _Leptonia_ 22, 102, Plate 28 (103), 227 - - _Leptonia babingtonii_ ~227~, Plate 76 (229) - _serrulata_ 102 - - _Leptopodia elastica_ ~203~ - - _Leucopaxillus_ 25 - - _Limacium_ 98 - - _Lycoperdon_ 186, 188 - - _Lycoperdon perlatum_ ~180~, Plate 62 (189) - _foetidum_ ~188~ - _pyriforme_ ~188~, Plate 62 (189) - - _Lyophyllum connatum_ 128 - _decastes_ 128 - - - _Marasmius_ 26, 92, 120, 228 - - _Marasmius androsaceus_ ~92~, 120, 231, Plate 77 (233) - _buxi_ ~92~, Plate 25 (93) - _epiphylloides_ ~92~, Plate 25 (93) - _graminum_ ~92~, Plate 25 (93) - _hudsonii_ ~92~, Plate 25 (93) - _oreades_ 118, Plate 36 (119), ~120~, Plate 37 (121) - _perforans_ ~92~ - _peronatus_ 92 - _undatus_ ~92~ - - _Melanogaster_ 243 - - _Melanoleuca_ 25, 78 - - _Melanoleuca melaleuca_ ~78~, Plate 18 (79) - - _Melanotus_ ~77~ - - _Melanotus bambusinus_ 77 - _musae_ 77 - - _Meripilus_ 139 - - _Meripilus giganteus_ ~144~ - - _Merulius_ 136, 154 - - _Merulius tremellosus_ 154, Plate 50 (155) - - _Micromphale_ 92 - - _Mitromorpha semilibera_ Plate 68 (201), 202 - - _Mitrula paludosa_ 203 - - _Monilia_ sp. Plate 74 (215) - - _Morchella_ 202 - - _Morchella elata_ 220 - _esculenta_ ~200~, Plate 68 (201), 202 - - _Multiclavula_ 236 - - _Mutinus_ 186 - - _Mutinus caninus_ ~194~, Plate 65 (195) - - _Mycena_ 25, 68, 74, 88, 102, 104, 247 - - _Mycena bulbosa_ ~223~, Plate 75 (225) - _epipterygia_ 237 - _galericulata_ ~68~, Plate 14 (69), 88 - _galopus_ ~88~ - _haematopus_ 88, Plate 23 (89) - _leucogala_ 88, 217 - _olivaceo-marginata_ 237 - _sanguinolenta_ 88, Plate 23 (89) - - _Mycoacia_ 137 - - _Myxomphalia maura_ 236 - - - _Naucoria_ 23, 226 - - _Naucoria escharoides_ ~226~, Plate 76 (229) - - _Nectria cinnabarina_ 180 - - _Neurospora sitophila_ 220, Plate 74 (215) - - _Nolanea_ 22, 102, Plate 28 (103), 124 - - _Nolanea cetrata_ 102, 237 - _sericea_ ~122~, Plate 38 (123), 124 - _staurospora_ 101, 102, 122, Plate 38 (123) - - _Nyctalis_ 24, 247 - - _Nyctalis asterophora_ Plate 81 (245), 246 - _parasitica_ Plate 81 (245), ~246~ - - - _Odontia bicolor_ 236 - - _Oedocephalum Plate_ 74 (215) - - _Oidium conspersum_ Plate 59 (119) - - _Omphalina_ 25, 100, 102, 232 - - _Omphalina ericetorum_ 232, Plate 7 (233), 236 - - _Omphalina hudsoniana_ Plate 78 (235), 236 - _luteovitellina_ Plate 78 (235), 236 - _sphagnicola_ 223, Plate 75 (225), 236 - _umbellifera_ 232 - _velutina_ 236 - _wynniae_ 232 - - _Oudemansiella_ 26 - - _Oxyporus_ 137 - - _Oxyporus populinus_ ~150~, Plate 48 (151) - - - _Panaeolina_ 126 - - _Panaeolina foenisecii_ ~124~, Plate 39 (125), 126 - - _Panaeolus_ 23, 126 - - _Panaeolus campanulatus_ 210 - _rickenii_ 126 - _semiovatus_ 208, Plate 70 (209), ~210~, 211 - _sphinctrinus_ 126, Plate 70 (209), ~210~, 211 - - _Panellus_ 26, 74 - - _Panellus stipticus_ Plate 17 (75), ~76~ - - _Panus_ 26, 74 - - _Panus torulosus_ ~76~ - - _Paxillus_ 23, 100 - - _Paxillus atrotomentosus_ 38 - _involutus_ ~38~, Plate 5 (39), 106 - _panuoides_ 38 - _rubicundulus_ 38 - - _Peniophora_ 136 - - _Peniophora lycii_ Plate 59 (177) - _polygonii_ Plate 59 (177) - _quercina_ Plate 59 (177) - - _Peziza_ 200, 204 - - _Peziza badia_ Plate 67 (199), 200 - _echinospora_ 220 - _petersii_ 220 - _praetervisa_ 220, Plate 74 (215) - _repanda_ Plate 67 (199), ~200~, 220 - _vesiculosa_ 216, Plate 67 (199) - _violacea_ 220 - - _Phaeolus_ 138 - - _Phaeolus schweinitzii_ Plate 45 (143), ~144~ - - _Phallus_ 186 - - _Phallus hadriani_ 194 - _impudicus_ ~194~, Plate 65 (195) - - _Phellinus_ 137 - - _Phellinus igniarius_ ~148~, Plate 48 (151) - - _Phellodon_ 160 - - _Phellodon niger_ 160, Plate 53 (161) - - _Phlebia_ 136 - - _Phlebia gigantea_ Plate 59 (177) - - _Pholiota_ 23, 217 - - _Pholiota adiposa_ 62 - _aurivella_ 62 - _carbonaria_ 216, 217, Plate 73 (219) - _highlandensis_ ~216~, 217, Plate 73 (219) - _squarrosa_ ~60~, 62, Plate 11 (63) - - _Piptoporus_ 138, 248 - - _Piptoporus betulinus_ ~142~, Plate 45 (143), Plate 46 (147) - - _Pistillaria_ 135 - - _Pistillaria micans_ ~171~ - - _Pleurotellus_ 74, 102 - - _Pleurotaceae_ ~25~, 74 - - _Pleurotus_ 74 - - _Pleurotus ostreatus_ ~74~, Plate 17 (75) - _ostreatus_ var. _columbinus_ 76 - - _Pluteus_ 22 - - _Pluteus atromarginatus_ 70 - _cervinus_ ~70~, Plate 15 (71) - - _Podospora_ Plate 72 (215) - - _Podospora curvula_ Plate 72 (215) - - _Polyporus_ 138, 139, 140, 156 - - _Polyporus squamosus_ 77, ~140~, Plate 44 (141), 145 - - _Poria_ 156 - - _Porphyrellus_ 26 - - _Pouzaromyces_ 227 - - _Psathyrella_ 24, 130, 240, 242 - - _Psathyrella ammophila_ Plate 79 (239), ~240~ - _flexispora_ Plate 79 (239), 240 - _pennata_ ~218~, Plate 73 (219) - - _Pseudohydnum gelatinosum_ 158, Plate 52 (159), 179 - - _Pseudotrametes_ 139 - - _Psilocybe_ 24, 126, 222, 240 - - _Psilocybe semilanceata_ ~114~, Plate 34 (115) - - _Pycnoporus_ 138 - - _Pyronema omphalodes_ 220, Plate 74 (221) - - - _Radulomyces confluens_ Plate 59 (177) - - _Ramaria_ 136, 172 - - _Ramaria ochraceo-virens_ Plate 57 (169), 170, 172 - - _Rhizina undulata_ ~203~, 204, Plate 69 (205), 220 - - _Rhizopogon_ 186, 243 - - _Rhizopogon roseolus_ ~244~, Plate 81 (245) - - _Rhodopaxillus_ 131 - - _Rhodophyllaceae_ 101 - - _Rhodophyllaceae--spores_ Plate 28 (103) - - _Rhodophyllus_ 101 - - _Russula_ 24, 45, 46, 50, 237, 246, Plate 81 (245) - - _Russula alpina_ 237 - _atropurpurea_ ~46~ - _betularum_ 46 - _claroflava_ 45, 46 - _cyanoxantha_ ~48~ - _emetica_ 46, ~48~ - _fellea_ ~48~ - _foetens_ ~48~ - _lutea_ 45 - _mairei_ ~49~ - _nigrescens_ ~49~ - _ochroleuca_ ~45~, Plate 7 (47) - _sardonia_ 46 - _xerampelina_ ~49~ - _xerampelina_ var. _pascua_ 237 - - _Saccobolus versicolor_ Plate 72 (215) - - _Sarcodon_ 160 - - _Sarcodon imbricatum_ 160, Plate 53 (161) - - _Schizophyllum_ 26, 152 - - _Schizophyllum commune_ ~152~, Plate 49 (153) - - _Scleroderma_ 35, 186, 247 - - _Scleroderma aurantium_ 192, 247 - _citrinum_ ~192~, Plate 64 (193) - _verrucosum_ 192, Plate 64 (193) - - _Sebacina_ 179 - - _Sebacina incrustans_ 182 - - _Sepedonium chrysospermum_ 248 - - _Serpula_ 136 - - _Serpula lacrymans_ ~154~, Plate 50 (155) - - _Sistotrema commune_ Plate 59 (177) - - _Sordaria_ 214 - - _Sparassis_ 135 - - _Sphaerobolus stellatus_ ~196~, Plate 66 (197) - - _Spinellus megalocarpus_ 247 - - _Sporodina grandis_ 247 - - _Sporormia_ 214, Plate 72 (215) - - _Stereum_ 136, 176 - - _Stereum fasciatum_ 236 - _gausapatum_ 176 - _hirsutum_ Plate 59 (177), 178 - _purpureum_ 176 - _rugosum_ 176 - _sanguinolentum_ 176, 248 - - _Strobilomyces_ 26, 35 - - _Strobilomyces floccopus_ 35 - - _Strobilurus_ 94 - - _Strobilurus esculentus_ ~94~ - _stephanocystis_ Plate 25 (93), ~94~ - _tenacellus_ Plate 25 (93), ~94~ - - _Stropharia_ 23, 208 - - _Stropharia coronilla_ ~240~, Plate 80 (241), 242 - _semiglobata_ ~208~, Plate 70 (209) - - _Suillus_ 26, 31, 34, 100 - - _Suillus aeruginascens_ 34 - _bovinus_ 34 - _grevillei_ ~28~, Plate 2 (30), 31, 34 - _luteus_ 31, 34 - - - _Tephrocybe anthracophila_ ~217~, Plate 73 (219) - _atrata_ 217, Plate 73 (219) - _palustris_ ~223~, Plate 75 (225), 247 - - _Thelephora_ 136 - - _Thelephora palmata_ 174, Plate 58 (175) - _terrestris_ ~174~, Plate 58 (175) - - Thelephoraceae 174 - - _Tomentella_ 174 - - _Tomentella fusca_ Plate 58 (175) - - _Trametes_ 139 - - _Tremella_ 158, 179 - - _Tremella encephala_ 248 - _foliacea_ 184, Plate 61 (185), 248 - _mesenterica_ 184, Plate 61 (185), 248 - - Tremellales 21, 179 - - _Tremellodon gelatinosum_ 158 - - _Trichophaea_ 220 - - _Trichophaea woolhopeia_ Plate 74 (221) - - _Trichodelitschia bisporula_ Plate 72 (215) - - _Tricholoma_ 25, 74, 78, 110, 131 - - _Tricholoma georgii_ 110 - _personatum_ 131 - - _Tricholomataceae_ 104 - - _Tubaria autochthona_ Plate 25 (93), 94 - _dispersa_ 94 - - _Tuber_ 243 - - _Tuber aestivum_ 244, Plate 81 (245) - _melanospermum_ 243 - _rufum_ Plate 81 (245), 246 - - _Tubulicrinis glebosus_ Plate 59 (177) - - Tyromyces 139, 146 - - _Tylopilus_ 26 - - _Tylosperma asterophorum_ Plate 59 (177) - - _Typhula_ 135, 173 - - _Typhula erythropus_ 171 - - - _Volvariella_ 22 - - _Volvariella surrecta_ 80, 247 - - _Vuilleminia comedens_ Plate 59 (177) - - - _Xylosphaera_ 172 - - _Xylosphaera hypoxylon_ Plate 69 (205), ~206~ - _polymorpha_ ~204~, Plate 69 (205) - - -_Common Names_ - - Agaric, fly 54 - - _Amanita_ 56 - - Basidiolichens 237 - - Blewits, common 131 - wood 104, 131 - - Blusher 56 - - Bog-beacon 203 - - Boot-laces 59 - - Boletes 32 - bay-coloured 31 - brown birch 27 - larch 28 - - Brittle-cap, bonfire 218 - sand-dune 240 - - Candle snuff 76, 206 - - Cap brown cone 116 - common funnel 80 - death 56 - false death 56 - hay brown 56 - ink, _see_ Inky cap - liberty 114 - milk, _see_ Milk cap - shaggy 128 - - Chanterelle, common 106, 162, 246 - false 106, 162 - - Clubs, fairy 76, 135, 166, 172 - wrinkled 166 - - Cone cap, sand dune brown 242 - - _Cortinarii_ 42 - - Cramp balls 204 - - Cup, elf 200 - scarlet elf 193 - - Deceiver 86 - - Destroying angel 56 - - Earth-ball 186, 192 - common 192 - - Earth fan 174 - - Earth star 186, 192 - - Earth tongue 168, 172 - - Elephant’s ear 202 - - Fairy ring 118, Plate 36 (119), 264 - champignon 120 - - Fingers, dead man’s 204 - - Fomes, root 150 - willow 148 - - Fungus - beef steak 152 - bird’s nest 186, 187, 196 - bracket 135 - candle snuff 76, 206 - cellar 156 - cup 198 - dry rot 154 - ear pick 158 - gum drop 206 - hedgehog 135, 158 - honey 59 - jelly 179 - orange peel 198 - pine fire 203 - resupinate 176 - scarlet caterpillar 206 - silver leaf (disease) 176 - stomach 186, 187 - split gills 152 - subterranean 243 - tinder 148 - tripe 182 - turban 202 - wet rot 156 - white wash 178 - yellow brain 184 - - Ganoderma, common 146 - - Grisette, common 57 - tawny 56 - - Hedgehog, wood 160 - - Helvella, slate grey 203 - - Herald of the Winter 98 - - Horn of Plenty 164 - - _Hygrophorus_, parrot 97 - - _Hygrophori_ 97 - - Inocybe, common white 84 - - Inky caps 212 - bonfire 218 - dung 211 - shaggy 128 - - Jew’s ear 182 - - Judge’s wig 128 - - King Alfred’s Cakes 204 - - _Lactarii_ 50 - - Lawyer’s wig 126 - - Lorel 202 - - Marasmius 92 - - Milk-caps 50 - coconut-scented 53 - curry-scented 52 - oak 53 - rufous 53 - saffron 52 - ugly 50 - woolly 53 - - Miller, The 77 - - Morel, common 200 - - Mushroom - butter 95 - Caesar’s 56 - common field 133 - cultivated 133 - fairy cake 82 - field 108 - horse 108 - oyster 74 - parasol 104, 112 - St. George’s 110 - soft slipper 77 - yellow staining 108 - - Mycena, bonnet 68 - small bleeding 88 - - Nolanea, silky 122 - - Old Man of the Woods 35 - - Panther 58 - - Pâté de Foie Gras 243 - - Pholiota, charcoal 216 - shaggy 60 - - Pluteus, fawn 70 - - Polypore - birch 142 - giant 144 - many-zoned 145 - scaly 32, 140 - shaggy 142 - - Puff ball 186 - giant 190 - stump 188 - - Roll-rim, brown 38 - - Rough Stalk 28 - birch 27 - - Round head, dung 208 - - Russula 45 - blackening 49 - common yellow 45 - emetic 48 - foetid 48 - geranium scented 48 - - Shank, spotted tough 90 - velvet 66 - - Slippery Jack 31 - - Spike cap, pine 36 - - Spindles - golden 168 - white 168 - - Stag’s horn 76, 172, 206 - - Stinkhorn 186, 187, 194 - common 194 - dog’s 194 - - Toadstool - horse-hair 231 - pick-a-back 246 - yellow cow pat 207 - - Truffle 243 - English 244 - false 186, 243 - French 243 - Hart’s 244 - perigord 243 - red 244 - - Tuft, sulphur 64 - - Weeping widow 128 - - Witch’s butter 184 - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - - Inconsistent formatting, spelling and hyphenation have been retained, - except as listed below. - - The differences between the Table of Contents and the body text have - not been standardised, except as mentioned below. - - The name Léville may be a variant or misspelling of (Joseph-Henri) - Léveillé. - - Page 10, where man has distributed the habitat: possibly an error for - ... disturbed the habitat. - - Page 49, changing soot-colour: possibly an error for changing to - soot-colour. - - Page 68, to reclaim Helen his wife: Helen was his brother’s wife. - - Page 88, blotched age: there may be one or more words missing. - - Page 104, Many authorities prefer ...: a closing parenthesis is - missing. - - Page 187, non-violent disposal of spores: possibly an error for - dispersal. - - - Changes made: - - Illustrations have been moved out of text paragraphs and some lists - and tables. - - Some obvious minor misprints and typographical and punctuation errors - have been corrected silently. - - Page 22: reference to key 24 changed to key 25 - - Page 27: width 70-200 mm; length 20-30 mm changed to length 70-200 mm; - width 20-30 mm - - Page 45: Stem: changed to _Stem_: - - Page 52: mm inserted after 20-50 - - Page 95: H. subradiat changed to H. subradiata; - - Page 98: H. calytraeformis changed to H. calyptraeformis - - Page 158: Hyndum changed to Hydnum - - Page 174: 8-9 · 6-7 µm changed to 8-9 × 6-7 µm - - Page 202: Marchella changed to Morchella; Léveille changed to Léville - - Page 207: (i) added in section heading Fungi of dung and straw heaps - - Page 212: patoullardii changed to patouillardii - - Page 222: (a) added in section heading Sphagnum bogs - - Page 231: (a) added in section heading Moorland fungi - - Page 236: (b) added in section heading Mountain fungi and the - so-called Basidiolichens - - Page 256: G. glutinosum changed to G. glutinosus; Marchella changed to - Morchella - - Page 257: Hebeoloma anthracophilum changed to Hebeloma anthracophilum; - Tephrocybe arthracophila changed to Tephrocybe anthracophila; - Myxomphalina changed to Myxomphalia - - Page 262: closing parenthesis added after fruit-body - - Page 269, _Bulletin Trimestriel ..._ formatted as other journals - - Page 270: _Flore Analytique des Champignons_ Superiéurs de France - changed to _Flore Analytique des Champignons Supérieurs de France_ - - Index: some entries moved to proper alphabetical order - - Page 271: Baespora changed to Baeospora; Bjerkandera adjusta changed - to Bjerkandera adusta; pantharina changed to pantherina - - Page 273: serioceocybe changed to sericeocybe - - Page 274: tibiicytis changed to tibiicystis - - Page 275: chrysorhaeus changed to chrysorheus - - Page 276: Myxomphalina changed to Myxomphalia - - Page 277: vesciculosa changed to vesiculosa - - Page 280: Paté de Foi Gras changed to Pâté de Foie Gras - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Identification of the Larger Fungi, by Roy Watling - 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