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diff --git a/old/60150-0.txt b/old/60150-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f6f396f..0000000 --- a/old/60150-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9808 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Selling Latin America, by William E. Aughinbaugh - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Selling Latin America - A Problem in International Salesmanship. What to Sell and How to Sell It - -Author: William E. Aughinbaugh - -Release Date: August 22, 2019 [EBook #60150] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SELLING LATIN AMERICA *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - SELLING LATIN AMERICA - - -[Illustration] - - - - - SELLING LATIN AMERICA - A Problem in International Salesmanship - WHAT TO SELL AND HOW TO SELL IT - - - BY - - WILLIAM E. AUGHINBAUGH, M.D., LL.B., LL.M. - - _Illustrated from Photographs_ - -[Illustration] - - BOSTON - SMALL, MAYNARD & COMPANY - PUBLISHERS - - - - - _Copyright, 1915_ - - BY SMALL, MAYNARD AND COMPANY - - (INCORPORATED) - - - Printers - S. J. PARKHILL & CO., BOSTON, U.S.A. - - - - - FOREWORD - - -I made the acquaintance of Doctor W. E. Aughinbaugh about eight years -ago, when I was in charge of the advertising department of a large -concern doing an international business. The doctor came with us to look -after the export trade, especially in the West Indies and South America. -My work naturally brought me into close association with him, and I soon -began to appreciate his unusual ability in many directions and his -special fitness for the position he occupied. There seemed to be no -phase of merchandising in far-off markets with which he was not fully -conversant; nor did this knowledge relate solely to Latin America. He -had previously travelled the distant markets of the Orient in the -interests of an American house whose products he successfully introduced -there and to him the Far East was an open book. - -He has been in Egypt eight times on business missions. He has travelled -Somaliland, Palestine, Asia Minor, Morocco, Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, -South Africa, Persia, Arabia, Afghanistan, Cashmir, Beluchistan, India, -Assam, Burma, Siam, China, Cochin-China, Japan, the East Indies and all -over Europe with the single exception of Russia. The doctor also spent -two years of his restless life in the Far North where a business mission -of importance took him into Iceland, Greenland, Labrador, Newfoundland, -Cape Breton Island, Prince Edward Island and the Hudson’s Bay Country. -As to the West Indies and South America, he has been not only to them, -but through them many times and in every habitable spot where business -was to be done. Some idea may be gained as to the frequency of his -visits to South America by mentioning the fact that he has made -thirty-six trips across the Equator. - -Dr. Aughinbaugh talks about the markets of foreign countries with the -authority of long experience for he has been engaged in these special -fields for more than twenty years; yet he is still a young man with a -modern viewpoint. He speaks the languages of many countries and speaks -them well. His information is first-hand, reliable data gathered on the -ground where he lived and worked, whose people he knew and could speak -to in their own tongue, not the unreliable, superficial vaporings of -some dilettante globe-trotter who has given the high-spots of -civilization the “once over” and therefore considers himself a competent -authority to write upon the commerce, customs and manners of foreign -countries the very languages of which he does not understand without the -aid of an interpreter, or who could not find his way back to the railway -station or dock without the assistance of a guide. - -Doctor Aughinbaugh is no such lightweight. He has not written this book -because he believes he knows it all. Left to himself he would never have -written it. It was only after repeated urgings on the part of some of -his friends who appreciated his ability to write an unusual book, that -he consented to undertake the work, and then he did so under protest. - -It may be asked with pertinence how a man could travel in the interest -of one line and yet be in possession of so much information relating to -every other line; or how one could master the intricacies of foreign -banking and credits and still attend to his business. The answer to all -of this is that no man can successfully negotiate foreign markets unless -he is more than a mere “order taker.” As to the doctor’s ability to -measure the requirements of a market all the way from cereals to -concrete, that may be accounted for by the fact that he is both a -physician and a graduate of the law, and while he never practised at the -bar to any great extent he did have considerable experience in medicine, -a profession which developed a naturally analytical mind, so that he -looked at things with the eyes of a student and from the viewpoint of -the trained diagnostician. For six years he followed medicine in Latin -America, finally giving it up to accept an offer from a large company -who compensated him accordingly. His experience in that line alone took -him all over the world and the ramifications of the business brought him -into close contact with the marketing of nearly every other commodity. -But even had this not been so, he is the sort of man who would have -sensed a business opportunity because he is naturally a keen observer -and everything interests him. He is the type of man who absorbs -information; he does not have to be shown—he sees. - -Here, then, is a man possessed of a fund of particularly desirable -information—especially valuable to-day when Europe is war-mad and, in -her sanguinary frenzy, has left open the door of opportunity to peaceful -Uncle Sam. Why not put this information in concrete form for the benefit -of American commerce? - -These considerations were put up to the author by some of his friends -who knew him to be a keen, accurate, analytical observer, a writer and a -_raconteur_ of more than ordinary ability, and this book was the result. - -Probably never—let us fervently hope never for the same reason—will the -United States have another opportunity such as the present one, to enter -those fruitful fields to the south, where Europe in general, and Germany -in particular, has reaped a golden harvest for so many years. - -A careful reading of this book—not a difficult matter, for unlike most -works on commerce it is full of lively interest—will be profitable to -every business man interested in the subject of Latin America. It will -be valuable to those who are equipped or willing to prepare themselves -to cope with conditions as they really are, and just as valuable to -those who are not, for it may save them from the costly mistakes of -experimentation in foreign fields. - - MAURICE SWITZER. - -New York, March 20, 1915. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I GENERAL REMARKS ON FOREIGN TRADE 1 - - II BRAZIL 13 - - III ARGENTINE 31 - - IV URUGUAY 49 - - V PARAGUAY 57 - - VI CHILE 67 - - VII BOLIVIA 79 - - VIII PERU 91 - - IX ECUADOR 106 - - X COLOMBIA 114 - - XI VENEZUELA 126 - - XII CENTRAL AMERICA 138 - - XIII MEXICO 156 - - XIV CUBA 168 - - XV SANTO DOMINGO 176 - - XVI HAITI 182 - - XVII PORTO RICO 186 - - XVIII THE GUIANAS: BRITISH, DUTCH AND FRENCH 191 - - XIX EUROPEAN POSSESSIONS IN THE WEST INDIES 199 - - XX FOREIGN TRADE WITH LATIN AMERICA AND HOW IT DEVELOPED 212 - - XXI METHODS OF DOING BUSINESS 224 - - XXII THE SALESMAN AND THE CUSTOMER 242 - - XXIII CUSTOM-HOUSES AND TARIFFS 266 - - XXIV TRADE MARKS 276 - - XXV FINANCE AND CREDITS 288 - - XXVI PACKING AND SHIPPING 311 - - XXVII ADVERTISING 331 - - XXVIII RECIPROCITY 345 - - XXIX HEALTH PRECAUTIONS 368 - - APPENDIX 377 - - INDEX 401 - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - THE HARBOR OF RIO DE JANEIRO 14 - - AVENIDA RIO BRANCO AND OPERA HOUSE, RIO DE JANEIRO 28 - - TAKING PRODUCE TO THE STATION, ARGENTINE 36 - - GRAIN ELEVATORS, BUENOS AIRES 44 - - INTERIOR OF A GENTLEMEN’S HAT STORE, ASUNCION, PARAGUAY 60 - - A COUNTRY STORE IN COLOMBIA 60 - - VALPARAISO 68 - - LAKE TITICACA AT PUNO, PERU 86 - - OROYA LINE, PERU 98 - - A COMPARISON OF CLIMATES 224 - - DRYING HIDES AND SKINS IN ARGENTINE 240 - - AVENIDA CENTRAL, RIO DE JANEIRO 262 - - CALLE RIVÀDAVIA, BUENOS AIRES 288 - - A PACK-TRAIN ON THE ANDES TRAIL IN COLOMBIA 312 - - LLAMAS IN CERRO DE PASCO, PERU 316 - - CHILEAN INFANTRY. _See page 220_ 340 - - ADVERTISEMENT OF COGNAC BISQUIT 340 - - SOUTH AMERICAN APPRECIATION OF ADVERTISEMENTS “MADE IN - U. S. A.” 342 - - THE PLAZA HOTEL IN BUENOS AIRES 368 - - - MAPS - - SOUTH AMERICA _Frontispiece_ - - CENTRAL AMERICA 138 - - MEXICO 156 - - THE WEST INDIES 168 - - - - - SELLING LATIN AMERICA - - - - - I - GENERAL REMARKS ON FOREIGN TRADE - - -War completely changes commercial currents. The victor takes the -established and profitable trade, leaving to the vanquished the harder -lines of business and the development of new fields. This is as true of -the first war recorded by history as it will be of the last. - -As an illustration of the veracity of this statement it is only -necessary to recall our war with Spain. Prior to her defeat, Spain -controlled the bulk of the banking and commerce of the Philippines, Cuba -and Porto Rico. To her possessions she exported wines, foods, -manufactured articles, textiles, drugs, perfumes, canned goods, shoes -and hats, receiving in exchange their sugar, tobacco and coffee. - -To-day the United States consumes all of these exports, while the -requirements of the three countries are supplied by America, which also -does their financing through banks organized in these possessions, and -capitalized with American money. To be more specific and by way of a -concrete example let me mention Cuba, which in 1913 exported -$165,000,000 worth of products, all but 15 per cent. of which was taken -by the United States, the amount shipped to Spain being about -four-tenths of one per cent. During the same period of time she imported -goods to the value of $132,000,000 of which we supplied 65 per cent. -against Spain’s 8 per cent. Since 1902, Cuba’s foreign commerce has -increased 250 per cent. due absolutely to the part played by the United -States in the Spanish-American war. The same condition of affairs in -exports, imports and other lines is equally true, although not on such a -large scale, of course, of the Philippines and Porto Rico. - -The Napoleonic wars gave to England the strong position she now occupies -in the financial and commercial world. Her bankers and shippers, -merchants and manufacturers, with one accord grasped the opportunity -that presented itself then and have held the supremacy thus gained for -more than a century. - -Perhaps it was the recollection of what gave Great Britain her start in -this field which led the London _Spectator_ to remark, at the outbreak -of war in 1914: - -“The present war gives the United Kingdom an excellent opportunity to -capture the export and import trade of Germany and Austria-Hungary.” - -If England, engaged in the most desperate and expensive war she or the -civilized world ever has known, with her enormous resources taxed to -their utmost, saw an “opportunity” for trade expansion, how much greater -is the chance in this line for an absolutely neutral power, populated -with keen business men, and provided by Nature with unparalleled -productive possibilities. - -The war in Europe developed the most remarkable business situation for -the United States ever presented to any nation. The virtual closing of -all the doors of the export and import trade of the Old World and the -almost total dependence heretofore of the Far East and Latin America, -especially, on Europe for finance and trade connections made the war -truly the psychological moment for us, as a nation, not only to overcome -the lead of the European commercial world, but also to cement by other -than ties of business the bonds of friendship due us not only on account -of our ideal geographical position, but also because of our similar -republican form of government. - -By embracing this extraordinary opportunity—apparently almost created -for our express benefit, we being the only people able to profit by -it—we can make the nations which formerly depended on Europe for support -in their trade ventures our business allies, our sincere friends and -well-wishers, and at the same time bring about a new trade alignment so -that all America will reap the benefit. - -Let us briefly consider some of the enormous possibilities of foreign -trade in Latin American countries. - -Latin America—that is, the countries of Central and South America, -together with Mexico, Cuba, Santo Domingo and Porto Rico—comprises -twenty distinct states, with a total population of about 65,000,000, a -large portion of whom are Indians and half-breeds—a fact which we should -not lose sight of in view of the tremendous imports. - -Statistics recently compiled by the Pan-American Bureau show that these -countries, in 1913, conducted a foreign commerce valued at -$2,870,178,575. Of this the imports were $1,304,261,763, and the -exports, $1,565,916,812, thus giving Latin America a favorable balance -of $261,655,049. - -Ten of these countries alone purchased goods to the amount of -$961,000,000. Of this sum Great Britain supplied $273,000,000; Germany, -$180,000,000; France, $84,000,000; Italy, $54,000,000; Belgium, -$47,000,000, and Austria-Hungary, $8,000,000. The United States exported -to these ten countries last year $160,000,000 and imported from them -$250,000,000. Brazil, in 1913, imported $15,000,000 in textiles alone, -of which amount the United States supplied only $500,000. In the same -length of time Argentine imported goods to the amount of $468,999,996, -of which amount less than 8 per cent, was supplied by this country. The -United Kingdom exported to all of Latin America $23,500,000 worth of -coal in 1913, the United States, during the same period of time, -$750,000. - -Practically the same story in all lines of exports could be told of -these countries, demonstrating that individually in nearly all cases the -United States is the largest consumer of their raw or finished products -and the smallest exporter of the goods they most require. - -Fearful that some one may infer after looking at these figures that -European countries have preferential duties with Latin America, let me -state most emphatically that this is not the case. With one single -exception no favoritism is shown any of the trading nations, in the -matter of import fees, and in that instance we benefit by it. Brazil -makes a decided preferential tariff in favor of some of our goods in -view of the fact that we are the largest consumers of her chief -product—coffee. - -Everyone of these countries is in process of development and expansion. -They have in profusion the things the busy world most needs. Their mines -are the richest known to man. Some have been worked for thousands of -years and are still productive. Their broad fields are destined to make -them the granaries of the world. Their miles of pasture lands and their -extensive acreage mean that Europe and the United States will depend -upon them for meat. Their vast virgin forests are capable of supplying -humanity with cabinet and other woods for several centuries. Their trade -and imports must therefore increase. It is apparent that they cannot -diminish. We cannot as a nation afford to remain indifferent any longer -to their possibilities and opportunities. - -Very naturally there have been many objections on the part of our -business men to going after this trade which all of Europe strained -every resource to acquire and control. It was urged that we had all the -business we required; that we lacked foreign banking facilities; that -our merchant marine was small and inefficient; that to go abroad for -trade meant learning new languages, acquiring new customs, opening new -accounts, taking more risks. These conditions were equally true when the -European merchant decided to enter this field. He met and overcame all -these difficulties under far more adverse circumstances than exist for -us, to-day. His experience in this territory has charted the path for us -to follow, and if we take advantage of the beacons he has erected we -shall be saved from many pitfalls. - -Latin America with the things the world most requires—wheat, meat, wool, -coffee, sugar, nitrates, minerals, woods—can never collapse completely -through any financial crisis. Furthermore its power of reviving quickly -from any unfavorable panic is truly phenomenal. I recall Venezuela, the -year she terminated her bloodiest revolution under Castro, harvesting -and exporting a bumper crop of coffee, which immediately cleared up her -monetary depression, and this rapid convalescent condition has been -duplicated time and time again after every period of internal trouble -experienced by all of these countries. - -Nature has been bounteous in her gifts to these favored lands of the -sun. If in a given locality the soil is not fertile, it is rich in -mineral wealth, or covered with luxuriant forests. Throughout Latin -America large and small rivers afford easy and cheap means of -transportation. Drought or excessive rainfalls are comparatively -unknown. Despite the fact that a majority of the population lives -primitively, epidemics of a severe nature have been few and far between. -Revolutions, formerly the blight on these lands, are becoming rare and -in most of these countries there have been no such uprisings or -demonstrations of this character for more than twenty years. - -The opportunities for successful business in almost any chosen line in -Latin America are unlimited, provided one uses ordinary judgment and -simple tact in the undertaking. Furthermore less capital is required to -start an enterprise than in lands where competition is keener, and less -energy necessary to insure success. The truth of these statements is -demonstrated most completely by the fact that millions of Europeans—many -of them uneducated and possessed of no great amount of ability or -money—have settled throughout these lands and established themselves in -prosperous occupations. - -The greatest possibilities exist along the lines of general development. -All these countries are new; most of them practically unexplored—many of -them not even having their boundary lines definitely established. Think -of what must be the opportunities in Brazil—a country larger in area -than the United States, and supporting only 20,000,000 people—or of -Argentine, spreading over almost as much territory as Europe, excepting -Russia and Austria-Hungary, with a population slightly more than -7,000,000. It is to these countries that overcrowded Europe must come -for elbow room—for a glimpse of the sun. - -Once a business or a plant is established in Latin America one need not -have the intense fear of bitter local competition. These people have -never been manufacturing or creative in their desires, and the chances -are, if we are to predicate their future from their past, that they -never will become competitors in any of these fields. Climatic -conditions, racial and inherited traits have made them follow the lines -of least resistance and they have become cattle raisers and large -farmers, while comparatively few have entered commercial life. This -being true it follows that these countries are ideal for those desirous -of leading an active commercial or manufacturing career. - -All of Latin America is in the process of awakening. They are building -railways, making vast municipal and national improvements, exploiting -their natural resources, modernizing their agricultural methods. The -advent of the foreigner has been potent in raising their standard of -living. If these people were to raise their standard of living to that -of the United States at the present time, it would be the equivalent, so -far as market possibilities are concerned, to creating three new -Americas. Each day sees some progress in this direction, and with it a -desire for more of the comforts of modern civilization—for more of the -things which go to make up the full and complete life. This means -employment for their people—civic progress—and prosperity. - -Their markets are easily reached, the merchants willing to buy, our -producers capable of providing the things they require. Their first -orders may be small, but they become enormous buyers when they find the -article adapted for their needs. The European marts which might have -supplied the things these nations require in their growth cannot do so -for a long time to come, thus giving us an ideal opportunity to capture -these markets and at the same time introduce American methods throughout -the length and breadth of the land. - - - - - II - BRAZIL - - -The Republic of the United States of Brazil, including the Acre -Territory, is the largest of the South American countries and if we -include Alaska and our island possessions is really larger in area than -the United States of America, by about 200,000 square miles. It is -fifteen times larger than Germany and sixteen times larger than France. -With the exception of Ecuador and Chile its frontier touches every -country of South America, being bounded on the north by British, French -and Dutch Guiana and Venezuela; on the west by Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, -Paraguay and Argentine; on the south by Uruguay, while the Atlantic -Ocean forms its eastern and a portion of its northern limitation. Its -most eastern point is but three days’ sail from the western coast of -Africa. It is the fourth largest country in the world, and is widest -between the Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn, covering an area of -3,292,000 square miles. - -The population has been variously estimated at from 20,000,000 to -24,000,000, of whom less than 1,000,000 are aborigines, thus giving it -about one-fifth of the population per square mile of the population of -the United States of America. Its inhabitants are white, black, -mulattoes, Indians and mixed breeds, a heavy percentage being -descendants from the slaves imported originally from Africa, slavery in -Brazil having been abolished in 1888. - -The language of Brazil is Portuguese except among the Indian tribes, -each one of which has its own dialect. These Indians are to be found in -the interior and the remote districts, and are a negligible quantity as -far as trade is concerned, living primitive lives and having few wants -that the rich country and rivers cannot supply. - -[Illustration: - - The Harbor of Rio de Janeiro -] - -Brazil was discovered April 22, 1500, by Pedro Alvarez Cabral, a -Portuguese explorer, but no definite attempt was made to settle it, or -assume governing power by the Portuguese until 1549, fifty-seven years -after Columbus had been to America, when Portugal awoke to the great -possibilities of the country and dispatched her first Governor General -in the personage of Thome de Souza. - -During the century following the arrival of its first constituted -governor, Brazil became the scene of numerous attacks and invasions on -the part of the French, Dutch and British, each one desirous of -acquiring portions of its territory, having been attracted by the -current stories of its great wealth and latent resources. For a time -both France and Holland established themselves in a small way within its -boundary, but ultimately abandoned their outposts. - -From 1640 to 1808 Brazil was governed by a Viceroy, who resided in Rio -de Janeiro. The victorious armies of Napoleon and their progress across -the Spanish Peninsula ultimately caused King John to abandon his capital -in Portugal and flee to Brazil, where he established himself in Rio de -Janeiro (in 1808), and ruled Portugal from this one of his possessions. -This is the only instance in history of any portion of Europe ever being -ruled from the western continent. When peace came to Europe, King John -returned, leaving Brazil under the regency of his eldest son Dom Pedro, -who in 1822, proclaimed Brazil independent of Portugal, and established -himself in power as Emperor, the first and only instance of such a form -of government in South America. Dom Pedro was forced to abdicate in 1831 -in favor of his son Dom Pedro II, who after reigning through a regency -assumed the throne on becoming of age in 1840. It is unnecessary to -detail the causes that led to the bloodless revolution of November 15, -1889, which ended his reign and by means of which Brazil proclaimed -herself a republic, adopting a constitution patterned after our own and -a government comprising a President, with legislative powers vested in a -Congress composed of two bodies, a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. - -Brazil is so immense, situated between the fifth degree north and the -thirty-third degree south, and its topography so varied that it has all -kinds of climates excepting extreme cold. Lying in the temperate and -tropical zones one would incline to the belief that it would be more or -less warm, but its many rivers and mountains, its high table-lands and -plateaus exert a beneficial influence in this regard and materially -modify what otherwise would be extreme degrees of heat. - -More than half of Brazil is an elevated plateau, varying from 2000 to -3000 feet in altitude. It has four distinct mountain ranges, which -deflect its rains and form vast watersheds for irrigating the fertile -lands at their base. The eastern and central portions are elevated while -the chief characteristics of the north and west are its fertile plains -and valleys. - -The coast of Brazil straggles along for over 5000 miles and is provided -with numerous natural harbors, where the earlier settlers established -cities which have grown and prospered, the principal ones from the north -to the south being Belem, or Para, San Luiz, Parnahyba, Fortaleza or -Ceara, Natal, Parahyba, Recife or Pernambuco, Maceio, Aracaju, São -Salvador or Bahia, Victoria, Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Paranagua, São -Francisco, Rio Grande do Sul and Porto Allegre. As a rule each of these -ports is the terminus for a railway system penetrating the interior, -designed solely for the purpose of bringing the products to market and -carrying supplies and necessities to the part of the country dependent -upon it. There are practically no trunk or interstate lines, but plans -are now formulated to overcome this condition. - -Manaos is an inland port of Brazil, famous as a trading depot and one of -the centers of the rubber industry. It is located on the Rio Negro, at -its mouth where it empties into the great Amazon, one thousand miles -from the Atlantic Ocean, and maintains direct steamship connection with -the United States and Europe as well as the other ports of Brazil. - -Perhaps no other country in the world is so well provided with rivers as -Brazil. The mighty, muddy Amazon, the greatest river in existence, -practically traverses the country from east to west in its 3850 miles -journey to the sea. Some idea of its strength and volume may be gained -when I state that its yellow waters color the Atlantic for over 100 -miles beyond its mouth, and freshen the salt water for a distance of 180 -miles. Emptying into this Queen of Rivers are more than 200 tributaries, -over 100 of which are navigable, the famous Rio Roosevelt or River of -Doubt forming one of the number. There are over 10,000 miles of -navigable waterways for ocean vessels and 20,000 miles for light-draft -boats. - -Brazil is a pastoral country and the indications are that it will always -remain so. Its vast savannahs and fields have formed ideal locations for -raising cattle and sugar, while its mountain sides and plateaus are -unparalleled for the growth of its staple product—coffee, the average -yearly crop of which is the enormous amount of 1,596,000,000 pounds. -Rice, cotton, sugar, tobacco, matte (a species of tea for native use), -mandioca (a starchy tuber from which a bread is made much liked by the -native) and cacao are also extensively grown. India rubber, the use of -which was early known to the Indians of Brazil, to whom it is indebted -for its name, is the second leading product of this remarkable land. The -tree, the juice of which produces this twentieth century necessity, -grows wild in the northern portion of the country, although it can be -successfully cultivated. No effort is made to preserve the trees when -once tapped, and the rubber prospectors are continually going farther -and farther into the interior in search of new districts. The trees are -from three to twelve feet in diameter, of slow growth, indigenous to the -region of the Amazon and its tributaries, growing wild, scattered -through the jungles and tropical shrubbery. - -The forests of Brazil are practically virgin. They abound in dye, -cabinet and hard woods and the opportunities for the development in this -field alone are enormous. Due to the fact that the country has a -wonderful series of aqueous arteries the transportation problem to mills -and markets is easily solved and the waterpower can be used in preparing -the timber for shipping. - -Brazil has at present more local factories than all the other Latin -American countries combined, forty per cent. of her manufactured -articles being cotton goods, which find a ready market. In the Federal -District of Rio de Janeiro, five of these mills have eight thousand -operatives, producing yearly about 80,000,000 yards. Petropolis has four -mills and São Paulo twenty-five with a total output of nearly -100,000,000 yards. The number of establishments in this industry alone -amounts to 3664, giving employment to 168,760 hands, with a total yearly -output of 275,000,000 yards of goods. - -Of late the shoe-making industry has developed extensively. In 1913 -there were in all of Brazil 4524 factories employing ten or more -operatives, with a total invested capital of $18,857,000. These plants -are nearly all operated by American machinery, many of them under -American superintendents, the demand for American equipment being -sufficiently large to warrant the big shoe machinery and shoe-finding -houses of New England in maintaining their own offices and carry their -own stock in the larger cities devoted to this business. - -Brazil is wonderfully rich in mines of precious and semi-precious -stones. Among the semi-precious stones to be found are achroite, -actinolite, agates, amethysts, analcime, anatase, andalusites, -anthophyllite, apophyllite, apatite, aquamarines, cymophane, citune, -columbite, desemine, iolite, jasper, opals, ruby, sapphires, spinel, -topaz, tourmalines. There are many deposits of minerals, such as copper, -iron, silver, gold, arsenic, barium, bismuth, cinnabar, cobalt, galena, -manganese, nickel, platinum, tin, and wolframite. There are also rich -veins of asbestos, coal, soapstone, sulphur, salt, marble, mica, and -evidences of petroleum. - -Gold has been mined in Brazil for over 300 years, the principal deposits -being in the State of Minas Geraes. A mine near the Honario Bicalho -station produced from 1888 to 1912, over $26,000,000 worth of gold and -as late as 1911, paid a dividend of 10 per cent. An English authority -has estimated the total output of gold to date from all mines at -$1,000,000,000. - -Brazil is reputed to be the second largest diamond-producing country in -the world, the Brazilian stone being considered fifty per cent. better -than others owing to the constant attrition it has undergone in -prehistoric days. At one time more than 40,000 men were employed in this -industry in Minas Geraes alone. The best diamond fields extend from 10 -degrees to 25 degrees south latitude and many enormous and high-grade -stones have been discovered, the total amount exported in 175 years or -up to 1903, being estimated at four tons. Edwin Streeter in his book on -precious stones, says that “The State of Minas Geraes produced in the -first twenty years 144,000 carats. Up to 1850,—5,844,000 carats worth -$45,000,000 were sold and some $10,000,000 stolen from the mines by -employes.” As an evidence of the fact that these mines are still -productive, there were registered 456 claims in 1909 in the Diamanta -Districts, which produced $1,000,000 worth of gems. In 1911 there were -registered in the State of Minas Geraes 437 claims. - -Travel along the coast and to the cities located on the railway lines is -comparatively convenient and comfortable although very expensive. In the -interior and from the beaten paths it is difficult and filled with -hardships. - -Living is high—much more so than in the larger cities of the States or -Europe. Hotels are far from the standard one is accustomed to in towns -of corresponding size, throughout the world—a statement equally true of -all Latin America. - -At first the monetary system of Brazil may confuse one, its currency -being on the gold exchange basis. A _milreis_ is the unit of value and -while it is subject to fluctuation, may for all practical purposes be -reckoned as worth .33⅓ cents, or three _milreis_ as the equivalent of a -United States dollar. The symbol for the unit is $ and the value of our -dollar would be expressed thus 3$000. A _conto_, or about $333.33 would -be written 1000$000. The banking of Brazil is chiefly controlled by the -British, while Germany is their closest competitor, both France and -Italy being represented each by a bank. The National City Bank of New -York has recently established a branch in Rio de Janeiro, with -sub-agencies throughout Brazil, so that direct exchange on New York may -now be bought. - -Brazil imported in 1913, $326,428,509 worth of goods, of which sum the -United Kingdom supplied $79,881,008; Germany, $57,043,754; United -States, $51,289,682; France, $31,939,752; Argentine, $24,293,712. - -In the same period of time she exported goods to the value of -$315,164,687, the United States taking about one-third of the total -amount or to be exact, $102,652,923; Germany, $44,392,410; United -Kingdom, $41,701,815; France, $38,685,561; Holland, $23,252,700. - -The United States should do a much larger trade with Brazil owing to a -preferential duty allowed our nation due to the fact that we are the -largest consumers of her leading staple—coffee. According to government -decree No. 9323, of January 17, 1912, flour imported from the States -pays 30 per cent. less duty than if imported from any other land, while -dried fruit, condensed milk, typewriters, rubber articles, and supplies, -scales, refrigerators, cement, corsets, school furniture, windmills, -watches, desks and printing inks, pay 20 per cent. less duty than -similar articles imported from other countries. - -Brazil exports coffee, rubber, hides, skins, cacao, tobacco, salt, -cotton, sugar, woods, nuts, precious and semi-precious stones and gold. -She imports foodstuffs, shoes, machinery, textiles, building woods, -ammunition, wheat, automobiles, vehicles, codfish, dried fruits, glass, -toilet articles, building and kitchen hardware, cement, scientific -instruments, iron and steel, enamelled ware, paints and varnish, -haberdashers’ goods, cottons, hats, corrugated iron, galvanized iron, -tools, condensed milk, stationery, pipe, printing material and presses, -electric machinery and supplies, typewriters, nails, screws and rivets. - -American fruits are much in demand in Brazil, and an excellent market -exists to-day for apples. Potatoes, onions, beets, garlic and other -fresh vegetables would also sell well and a lucrative trade in these -necessities of life could be developed without any great effort. The -refrigerator ships running from the Argentine to New York with meat -could carry as return freight these perishable cargoes at a low rate. - -Steamship connections between Europe and the United States, with -Brazilian ports are numerous and sailings comparatively frequent and as -a rule the accommodations are all that could be desired. From New York -the Booth line (English) has two steamers a month to North Brazil and -Amazon River towns, touching at Barbados, Para and Manaos, with a ship -every six weeks to Iquitos, Peru. One steamer goes each month to North -Brazilian ports including Parnahyba, Natal and nearby localities. The -United States Steamship Line (American) has one vessel monthly for -Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro and Santos, freight being redistributed at -these ports for intermediate points. The Lloyd Brazilleiro Line -(Brazilian) maintains a semi-monthly service between New York and Natal, -and Parahiba; and Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, and Santos, with -occasional service to other larger ports. These boats do not as a rule -carry passengers. They also maintain a service along the smaller coast -towns and the rivers leading into the interior of Brazil, even having -regular sailings from Asuncion, Paraguay, for Brazilian river towns. The -Lamport & Holt Line (English) has weekly sailings from New York to -Bahia, Rio de Janeiro and Santos, generally stopping at Trinidad and -Barbados, West Indies, on their trip north. The Prince Line (British) -touch once a month at Rio de Janeiro and Santos, carrying freight -chiefly. Other vessels of this line make monthly calls at Pernambuco, -Bahia, Rio de Janeiro and Santos. Numerous tramp ships also sail from -American ports on the eastern coast of the States to Brazil. - -[Illustration: - - _Photograph by Underwood & Underwood_ - - Avenida Rio Branco and Opera House, Rio de Janeiro -] - -Brazil has 15,272 miles of railways, federal, state and private, over -many of which tickets which correspond to our mileage books are issued, -for the convenience of the travelling public. Many new lines are in -process of construction or contemplated, and a very decided effort is -being made to unite the various main lines by connecting roads, so that -the entire republic, including its most remote districts, may be thus -reached. - -The leading cities, which should be visited for business purposes, are:— - - _Population_ - Rio de Janeiro 1,128,000 - São Paulo 450,000 - Bahia 300,000 - Belem or Para 250,000 - Pernambuco 200,000 - Porto Allegre 125,000 - Mañaos 60,000 - Santos 45,000 - Campinas 40,000 - Ceara 40,000 - San Luiz or Maranao 40,000 - Parahiba 32,000 - Nichteroy 30,000 - Florianopolis, or Desterro 27,000 - Rio Grande do Sul 20,000 - -Some of the States and municipalities of Brazil have a special tax for -commercial travellers, which varies from year to year, concerning the -payment of which arrangements can be best made when on the ground. A -small tax is also levied on trade samples, presumably to be refunded -when leaving the country. It is advisable to learn how best to handle -the situation from travellers with whom you will meet en route. As a -rule, all of these are mere matter of detail and can be advantageously -arranged, through the proper channel. - - - - - III - ARGENTINE - - -Juan Diaz de Solis in 1508 discovered the Rio de la Plata, otherwise -known as the River Plate, while searching for a southerly passage to the -Pacific Ocean. In 1525 Sebastian Cabot entered the river and gave it the -name it now bears, at the same time erecting a fort near its mouth. A -wealthy Spaniard, Pedro de Mendoza, in 1536, in exchange for certain -landed rights and governmental privileges, established what is now the -present city of Buenos Aires. - -It is unnecessary for the purposes of this book to do more than state -briefly that the conditions imposed by Spain on all its colonies were -outrageously unjust and caused much dissension. Efforts to progress were -throttled and the friction between the mother country developed until -the conquest of Spain by Napoleon, which gave the many Spanish colonies -that had become thoroughly satiated with disgust and contempt for the -Madrid Government, a chance to rebel and establish themselves as -independent nations. Taking advantage of the condition in Europe and -having in mind the successful revolution of the American colonists, the -people of Argentine, Bolivia, Paraguay and Chile revolted, and after -much fighting finally drove the Spanish troops from their shores. May -25, 1810, the people of Buenos Aires declared their independence. A -Congress was held in Tucuman on July 9, 1816, the result of which was -the more complete unification of the Argentine people under the title of -the United Provinces of the La Plata River. The government in 1860 -adopted as its national title “The Argentine Nation” by which it now -prefers to be called. - -Few know that the British had covetous plans upon this really wonderful -country and twice invaded it, once in 1806, and again in 1807. After -their fleet had bombarded the capital, the troops landed, and were both -times thoroughly defeated, some of the English battle flags which were -captured still being exhibited in Buenos Aires. - -The government of the Argentine Nation is patterned after that of the -United States of America, and has a constitution similar in its -important features. There are three branches of government, executive, -legislative and judicial; the legislative power being vested in a -Congress composed of a Senate and a House of Deputies. The executive -power is vested in a President and Vice-President elected as those of -the United States, each holding office for the period of six years. Of -late the Government has been very stable and there have been less -tendencies to overthrow the authorized power than in most Latin American -countries. By a treaty with Chile in 1881, the great territory of -Patagonia, to the south of the Argentine, was divided between these two -nations. - -Argentine covers an area of 1,153,418 square miles, or about one-third -as large as the United States. To be more specific it is as large as -Texas, and all of our territory east of the Mississippi. It is bounded -on the north by Bolivia, and Paraguay, on the west by Chile, on the -south by a portion of Chile and the Atlantic Ocean. Paraguay, Brazil and -Uruguay, together with the Atlantic Ocean which washes its shores for -more than 1500 miles, constitute its eastern boundary. Over 700,000,000 -acres of its land is admirably adapted for cattle raising and the -growing of cereals, a fact which argues much for its future development -and prosperity. - -Its population is variously estimated at from 6,000,000 to 9,000,000 but -it can with safety be placed at 7,000,000, a little less than 25 per -cent. of its inhabitants residing in the city of Buenos Aires, which has -1,700,000 citizens, a rather unusual condition of affairs. The early -settlers of the Argentine were of course Spaniards and their descendants -form the bulk of the population to-day. There are comparatively few -blacks or mixed breeds, slavery having been abolished in 1813, while the -Indians and aborigines are scattered along the frontier. Early in its -history Argentine encouraged emigration from Europe, using as an -inducement the free grant of public lands, which proved especially -attractive to the Italian and Spaniard. In fact the preponderance of the -Italian in the business and social life, due to this movement has had a -noticeable effect on the Spanish language as spoken in this country. -From 1857 to 1913 the total of newcomers amounted to 4,781,653, many of -whom became landholders and began at once to contribute to the growth -and wealth of the country. The population to-day is 7.8 persons per -square mile as against 32.31 per square mile in the United States. More -than 300,000 persons migrate to this country each year. - -The chief characteristic of the physical formation of the Argentine is -its vast pampas or plains stretching from the Rio de la Plata to the -west, terminating in the foothills of the Andes, or the Cordilleras. -Perhaps no part of the earth’s surface has such flat, smooth, treeless -plains as here confront the traveller. The climatic conditions, owing to -the fact that it extends over thirty-four degrees of latitude, vary from -tropical in the north to practically arctic coldness in the south, the -seasons being the reverse of ours,—that is, they have winter when we -have summer and vice versa. The greater portion of the country is in the -temperate zone, the summers being very hot and the winters typified by -heavy rains, especially in the eastern portion, diminishing toward the -west where there is often much drought. In the extreme south, in what -was formerly Patagonia the heavy snows of winter take the place of -rains, which together with the warm summers produce a luxuriant growth -of grass, especially adapted for the grazing of sheep. - -[Illustration: - - _Photograph by Underwood & Underwood_ - - Taking produce to the station, Argentine -] - -The Argentine has for some years been one of the granaries of the world -and as its available land becomes cultivated is destined to play a more -important rôle in this field. Some idea of its rapid development may be -gained from the fact that in 1904, 26,000,000 acres were under -cultivation, while in 1913 over 60,000,000 were sown. Wheat is of course -its chief cereal, last year over 17,000,000 acres being cultivated. The -Argentine Agricultural Department states that for the same period of -time there were 12,000,000 acres in corn; 4,000,000 in oats and -15,000,000 in lucerne or alfalfa, proportionately large territories -being planted with barley, sugar, grapes, rice, cotton and tobacco. - -This country has been the second largest linseed producing nation of the -world, yielding first place to India. Last year nearly 6,000,000 acres -were devoted to the growing of this seed alone. - -Comparatively little attention is paid to truck gardening or the raising -of kitchen vegetables, fruits or berries, and this offers a remarkable -opportunity to one versed in the subject. Conditions for growing these -necessities are most favorable but have been neglected in the efforts -made to develop other sources of revenue. - -Tucuman has been the center of the sugar industry, practically all of -which is consumed in the country, 43 refineries and plants being devoted -to this business. The grapes grown at the foot of the eastern slopes of -the Andes, near and around Mendoza, yield 500,000,000 quarts of wine -yearly, most all being for internal consumption. Owing to the reversal -of seasons here, crops are harvested when ours are being sown. - -Recently dairying has developed to a remarkable extent, over 1300 -creameries and factories being devoted to the manufacture of butter and -cheese, doing a gross business of nearly $9,000,000. Much butter and -cheese are shipped to England, Brazil and South Africa. For the first -time in its history, butter was exported to the United States last year. - -Flour milling was established in the Argentine in the 16th century. -Prior to this Chilean flour supplied the demands for this article. -To-day in addition to providing sufficient for its own requirements, -Argentine ships much of its flour to Brazil, Chile and Europe and has -about 800 flour mills in operation, representing an investment of -approximately $14,000,000. - -From the days of the early Spaniards stock-raising has flourished and -will always be one of the chief industries of the land. Not only the -Government but individuals as well realize this and co-operate with each -other for the purpose of producing the best strains of all breeds of -cattle. - -There are many “refrigerificos” or cold-storage plants and abattoirs -throughout the land and for years Europe received practically all of -Argentine’s animal products, her exports in this line alone being -approximately $350,000,000 in 1914. Due to the fact that these -establishments were operated by British capital, England naturally took -most of this meat. The larger American packing-houses have now entered -the trade with the double purpose of supplying both their European and -American customers from this field and direct refrigerator ships now run -from the River Plate to New York City with cargoes of Argentine beef and -mutton. The last census showed 30,000,000 beef cattle; 9,000,000 horses; -500,000 mules; 300,000 asses; 90,000,000 sheep; 4,000,000 goats and -3,000,000 pigs. - -Nature seems content in having blessed this country with fertile pampas -and agricultural lands, consequently there are comparatively few -minerals within its territory. There are however some veins of gold, -silver, copper and wolfram. Petroleum has recently been discovered, but -not in large quantities. There is no coal in the Argentine, but in some -sections bogs of peat cover extensive areas and await development. - -To the north and in the interior are forests of valuable woods, there -being over thirty-three species of commercial value. Quebracho wood is -found in the provinces of Santa Fe, Santiago del Estero and Corrientes. -It is very hard, impervious to moisture and will not rot. Due to these -admirable qualities it was formerly used for sleepers for railways but -now owing to the fact that it is excessively rich in tannin it is used -almost exclusively for the purpose of curing leather. Formerly it was -exported in large logs to Europe or to the States and the tanning -extracts expressed, but to-day there are many factories in the districts -where the wood is grown, devoted to obtaining the tannin directly, -thereby materially reducing the cost of the article. Inasmuch as hides -and quebracho are products of the Argentine it would seem that the -tanning of leather would under proper management develop into a large -industry here. The export of tannin for 1914 was over $11,000,000. - -Outside of the industries referred to and a few breweries, cigar -factories, and apparel factories, wherein goods for local consumption -are produced, there is no general manufacturing in the Argentine. - -No other country of Latin America is as well provided with railways as -the Argentine, nor with as regular and superior access to Europe and the -States and all parts of the world. More than fifty steamship lines -arrive and depart regularly from the various Argentine ports, all the -seafaring nations of the earth being represented. In 1852, one observer -counted over 600 vessels in the harbor of Buenos Aires flying the -American flag or more than double the number of all the other nations -combined. To-day but few are to be seen in the vast shipping of this -busy port. - -The Argentine Republic stands ninth among the world’s nations in the -length of her railways, having about 22,000 miles of track. Many lines -are in process of construction or contemplated, the public and the -government both realizing that a complete network of railways leading to -the ports accelerate the moving of crops and cattle and are absolutely -essential to its prosperity. Buenos Aires quite naturally is the -principal terminal of most roads, while Santa Fe, Rosario, Bahia Blanca -and La Plata are rapidly coming to the front as shipping centers and are -providing appropriate facilities for handling trade. It has been said -that every railway in the country is extending its lines more and more -into the interior, and railway journeys to Brazil, Paraguay and Bolivia -as well as Chile are now possible. It may be interesting to note that -the longest stretch of straight track known to railroad builders is to -be found in the Argentine, where the rails run a distance of 175 miles -without a curve of any kind. - -Wagon roads outside of the larger cities are poor and in bad condition, -and much is needed to be done in this respect. - -There are many weekly sailings of the most modern and swift passenger -ships to Europe, one Italian line making the voyage from Buenos Aires to -Genoa in fifteen days. It is also possible to go via Hamburg or England -to New York in better ships for practically the same money and in less -time than is taken by ships engaged in the direct run from Buenos Aires -to New York. The Lamport & Holt Line (British) runs directly from New -York to Buenos Aires, with weekly sailings, carrying freight and -passengers. The Prince Line (British) and the Barber Line (American but -flying the British flag), the Norton Line (British), the American Rio -Plate Line (American) leave New York twice a month for Argentine ports. -The Houston Line (British) from Boston and New York and the New York and -South American Line sail monthly from New York for River Plate ports. -The Munson Line (American) from Mobile, Alabama, sends two ships monthly -to Buenos Aires. There are many tramp ships from American ports in this -trade also. - -The docks and facilities for handling goods in Buenos Aires are second -to none in the world and are modeled after the famous Liverpool system, -having cost over $50,000,000. Steamers unload cargoes directly into the -government custom warehouses, on the other side of which are networks of -railway tracks from which they can be forwarded to the interior. Each of -the large cement-sided canals or basins for the ship traffic is provided -with locks or water gates, while the masonry warehouses, buildings and -grain elevators extend for miles along the city water front. Yet the -business of the port has grown so that there is much congestion, -especially at certain seasons of the year and plans are being considered -for doubling its present facilities. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the editor of_ The Americas - - Grain Elevators, Buenos Aires -] - -Much of the impetus in trade circles in this land is due to the presence -of the English, Germans and Italians who control the banking, -transportation and commercial life of the country. Both the Briton and -the Teuton have large sums invested in all kinds of enterprises, the -total being estimated at $2,000,000,000. The Italian has developed into -the small shopkeeper and farmer. In Buenos Aires alone there are two -daily papers printed in English, which serves to give some idea of the -extent of the English speaking population in this city. There are also -daily papers published in Italian, German, French and Arabic. - -Practically all the nations of Europe are represented in the banking -business, the United States being the last to enter the field. The -English are the strongest and the Germans next. - -Argentine is supposed to be on a gold exchange basis, the gold _peso_ -being worth one hundred _centavos_, or in our money 96.5 cents. The gold -_peso_ is designated by the sign $C/L, the symbol C/L meaning _curso -legal_, or legal tender. This is practically an imaginary coin, and the -money one sees is paper currency, the paper _peso_ being worth 44 per -cent. of its face value, or 42.46 cents in United States gold. This is -represented in the following manner $M/N, meaning _moneda nacional_ or -national money. This paper currency fluctuates slightly each day, being -governed by the market conditions. The abbreviations O/S, C/L, and M/N -are placed before the dollar or _peso_ mark, as for example O/S $500 or -may follow it, as, for instance, $500 M/N. - -The Argentine has long been noted for its unfavorable fees charged -travellers, each province having a separate tariff, varying according to -the commodity one may be selling. They are subject to such changes on -short notice that it is useless to give them here, besides the subject -has been dealt with elsewhere in this book. Before doing business it is -wise to give this matter careful consideration. No duty is charged on -samples. - -The following cities should be visited: - - _Population_ - Buenos Aires 1,700,000 - Rosario 300,000 - Cordoba 120,000 - La Plata 100,000 - Tucuman 80,000 - Bahia Blanca 75,000 - Mendoza 65,000 - Santa Fe 50,000 - Salta 40,000 - Parana 37,000 - Corrientes 30,000 - San Juan 16,000 - San Luis 15,000 - -The Argentine exported goods to the value of $468,999,410 in 1913, and -during the same time imported goods to the extent of $408,711,966, of -which amount less than 8 per cent. came from the United States. England -controlled the bulk of the trade with Germany second and France third. - -The principal exports are meats and meat products, agricultural products -such as wheat, corn, oats, barley, linseed, hay, alfalfa, woods and dye -woods, live animals, wool, hides, skins, butter and cheese. It imports -foodstuffs, textiles, iron, steel, railway supplies and rolling stock, -agricultural implements and machinery, wagons, carriages, automobiles -and automobile supplies, electrical apparatus, glass, china, ready-made -clothes, hats, shoes, toilet articles, drugs and chemicals, paints and -varnish, stockings and socks, silks, kitchen-utensils, enamelled ware, -tools, vegetables, fruits, eggs, oils, greases, and coal. - - - - - IV - URUGUAY - - -The first European who set foot on Uruguayan soil was the man who -discovered the Rio de la Plate—Juan Diaz de Solis. This was in 1508. He -and his associates were immediately attacked by the Charruca Indians, -who annihilated the party. Later on Portuguese settlers from Brazil -attempted to colonize this land, but they met with repulses, as did also -the Spanish colonists who followed them. As a result of the invasion of -this territory by Portuguese and Spanish it was claimed by both these -countries and became a bone of contention between them for more than two -hundred years. The Portuguese colonists were finally routed bodily and -their city of Montevideo, founded in 1724, came under control of the -Spanish Viceroy. Portugal still persisted in claiming this province and -when Dom Pedro made an Empire of Brazil, he also attempted to exercise -jurisdiction over Uruguay as well. This ultimately resulted in a war -between Brazil and Argentine, in which the Uruguayans rallied to the aid -of the Argentinians, defeating the Brazilians. A treaty of peace in -which the mediation of England was asked, was signed August 27, 1828, -giving Uruguay its independence. - -The present government is based upon that of the United States and -comprises executives in the persons of a President and a Vice-President, -elected for four years, and a legislative body, consisting of a House of -Representatives and a Senate. - -Uruguay occupies an area of 72,210 square miles, or is about as large as -all of the New England States. It is virtually an extensive undulating -plain, having in its northern section a series of mountain ranges but -few of which are higher than 2000 feet. It is bounded on the east by the -Atlantic Ocean and on the north by Brazil, the Rio Cuareim flowing -between the two countries. The Uruguay, dividing Argentine and Uruguay, -forms its western boundary while the wide mouth of the Rio de la Plate -may be called its southern boundary line. - -The climate is extremely temperate and healthful—so much so in fact that -it is rapidly developing into a summer resort for Chileans, Argentinians -and Brazilians; many of the wealthiest of these nationalities have -established seashore homes within its boundaries, especially outside of -Montevideo. Extreme summer heat such as one finds in Buenos Aires, is -never encountered here, although there are days in winter when it is -particularly cold. Snow occasionally falls. - -Uruguay has a population of 1,500,000, its people being among the best -in Latin America. As in Argentine, the Indians are comparatively few and -to be found in remote districts only. There are practically no negroes -and mixed breeds. Owing to the influx of English, Italian, and Swiss -colonists, the standard of the population is continually rising and its -geographical position, salubrious climate and vast areas of tillable -land will attract more and more desirable settlers to its boundary. -Immigration is encouraged along the most modern and progressive lines. - -Uruguay is fortunate in having many navigable rivers, the chief of which -are the Rio de la Plate and the Uruguay, giving a total of over 700 -miles of water deep enough for ocean-going vessels. One river alone—the -Uruguay—has ten ports open for interoceanic trade, the cities on this -river being Carmelo, Neuva Palmira, Soriano, Fray Bentos, Neuva Berlin, -Casa Blanca, Pysandu, Neuva Pysandu, Salto and Santa Rosa. Mercedes is a -large city, on the Rio Negro, and is used as a port of call for -ocean-going vessels. There is also Lake Merim on the borders of Brazil -on which run small launches. - -Uruguay has comparatively few railroad systems and only 1600 miles of -railways. There are many projects for railway development however and -the completion of the mileage planned will rapidly bring the country to -the fore. American capital is now being interested in this field. - -While there are some minerals to be found in the mountainous sections, -still the country will always be a pastoral one. Mica, gold, precious -stones and petroleum are known to exist, yet comparatively little, if -anything, has been done along these lines. - -Of her 45,000,000 acres of land, less than 5 per cent. is devoted to -agriculture, owing to lack of population. There are about 1,700,000 -acres of virgin forest lands and over 40,000,000 acres devoted to -grazing cattle and sheep. - -Wheat is the chief cereal grown, with corn, barley, oats and linseed in -the order named. Tobacco has been tried with favorable results. - -The raising of cattle of all kinds and the maintenance of -slaughter-houses and packing establishments for the purpose of supplying -Europe with meat forms the largest industry. One plant alone at Fray -Bentos—owned by the Liebig Company and where the extract of that name is -made,—kills over 3,000,000 head a year. Very naturally meat by-products -are produced and exported in large quantities. Much frozen and tinned -meat is exported. Some idea of the enormous size of the cattle industry -here may be gained when we are told that at the present time Uruguay has -over 9,000,000 cattle, 30,000,000 sheep, 800,000 hogs, 600,000 goats and -430,000 horses. - -One of the leading industries is the shearing of wool, all of which is -exported. The good climatic conditions, in connection with attention -paid to breeding, have resulted in the production of a wool of superior -length and texture and as a consequence wool-buyers from Europe are -attracted to this market. In 1913 the amount exported reached the -enormous sum of $35,875,975. - -Despite the fact that Uruguay has no gold coin of its own, it is on a -gold basis and its _peso_, or dollar, is worth almost four cents more -than ours, or to be exact, $1.034. This is a decidedly unusual state of -affairs for Latin America, and reflects favorably on the financial -condition of the country. - -There is much English capital invested here, and to a large extent trade -is in the hands of Englishmen. Many German and Italian houses are -represented and these nationalities are also becoming interested in -local enterprises. - -Uruguay exports wool, hides, horn, hair, meats and meat products, grease -tallow, grain and cereals, the total amount expressed in figures for -1913 being $65,142,000. - -In 1913 she imported goods to the value of $50,666,000, the leading -items being foodstuffs, iron, steel, glass, china, wooden products, -oils, chemicals, medicines, stationery, toilet articles, tobacco, -textiles, shoes, hats, and silks. - -While commercial travellers are supposed to pay a yearly license of -$100, still this can be waived by making the proper connection with some -local dealer or commission house. - -The following cities should be visited: - - _Population_ - Montevideo 500,000 - Pysandu 35,000 - Mercedes 25,000 - Salto 25,000 - Fray Bentos 15,000 - Rivera 10,000 - Guadalupe 10,000 - Minas 10,000 - Florida 10,000 - Colonia 10,000 - -Uruguay has from three to five steamships sailing weekly direct for -Europe, or the United States. - -All vessels leaving either Europe or the United States and calling at -Buenos Aires touch at Montevideo the day before arriving at Buenos -Aires, as well as on the return trip. Two night lines of comfortable -steamers connect Buenos Aires and Montevideo, which are about 110 miles -apart. Ample transoceanic and coastwise freight service is also -provided. - - - - - V - PARAGUAY - - -Due to the ambitions of one man—Carlos Antonio Lopez—a dictator of the -worst type, with Napoleonic designs, Paraguay, one of the finest of -South American countries, one with brilliant prospects and holding the -greatest opportunities, is to-day the most backward and has the smallest -population. - -Paraguay was discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1526. Following him came -Juan de Ayolas and Domingo Irala, who in 1536 founded the city of -Asuncion, now the capital of the republic. Up to 1810 it was a Spanish -colony, being latterly governed by the Viceroy from the home country who -resided in Buenos Aires. At that time it was called the Province of -Paraguay. It declared its independence from the mother country in 1811, -the Spanish Governor-General aiding in the movement. After trying -various forms of government it became a republic in 1844, which form of -government still exists, the executive power being vested in a President -and Vice-President, with a legislative body composed of a Senate and -Chamber of Deputies. - -It is impossible in even briefly writing of this really wonderful -country to refrain from some reference to the one man, Lopez, whose -desire for power resulted in the almost total annihilation of a people. -His arbitrary rule embroiled his nation in disputes with much of Europe -and the United States, and resulted in a war with Uruguay, Brazil and -Argentine. In addition to this internal strife developed in which -assassins, murderers and executioners played their parts. When Lopez was -finally killed and his power gone, Paraguay’s population, according to -Dawson, the well-known historian, had decreased from a “1,300,000 to a -little over 200,000, only about 29,000 being men and 90,000 children -under fifteen years of age.” There were five women to one man. As a -result of this devastation the country never has revived. Recent -revolutions have set it back still further and whatever of good may come -to this benighted land must be written in the future tense. - -Paraguay is almost an inland country, having but one outlet to the sea -in the Parana River. Its 196,000 square miles of territory is bounded on -the north by Brazil and Bolivia; on the west and south by Argentine, and -on the east by Argentine and Brazil. The Paraguay River runs directly -through its territory from south to north dividing it into two sections, -Western Paraguay, or the Chaco, and Eastern Paraguay. It is well watered -with many small streams, while toward the north and east are mountain -chains. - -The climate of Paraguay is so equable that the country is sometimes -called the “Sanitarium.” The two seasons are the rainy and the dry. It -never snows in this land and flowers in great variety and a riot of -color bloom constantly. The southern two-thirds are in the Temperate -Zone, the northern one-third in the Tropic Zone. - -The population is estimated at 800,000, over 100,000 of which are wild -Indians, the remainder being largely of mixed blood, negro -predominating. There have been some sporadic attempts to encourage -immigration, which have not resulted in any great movement in this -direction, owing to the instability of the government and the backward -condition of the people as well as to the general isolation of the -country. - -Travel in Paraguay is most primitive. There are few roads and most of -the commerce is carried by bullock carts on almost impassable trails or -by pack train over narrow paths. But one railway, having a total length -of about 250 miles, ekes out a homeopathic existence, running from -Asuncion, the capital, to Ville Encarnacion. Many railways must be built -to open the country. One can go by rail from Asuncion to Buenos Aires in -two days, the trip requiring a ferry-age from Posadas to Ville -Encarnacion. The Trans-Paraguayan Railway now in course of construction -will do much to develop the country. Communication with the outside -world via Montevideo or Buenos Aires is maintained by river steamers, -requiring from five days to a week to make the trip to Asuncion, which -is about 1100 miles from the Argentine capital. - -[Illustration: - - Interior of a gentlemen’s hat store, Asuncion, Paraguay -] - -[Illustration: - - A country store in Colombia -] - -From Asuncion it is possible to go into the interior or even to Brazil, -on light-draft steamers, the Guyara Falls, 1300 miles above the capital, -stopping navigation of the Parana River at this point. - -The Paraguay River is navigable for vessels of twelve-foot draft to -Asuncion and for smaller vessels 700 miles farther. - -Most of the commerce of Paraguay is carried in lighters drawn by tugs, -and these emissaries of trade are to be met on all the rivers and -waterways of this country. - -There are several lakes, navigable for small craft, but of no importance -from a commercial standpoint. - -While both the climate and the soil warrant one in stating that Paraguay -is susceptible of high agricultural development, little has been done in -this regard, outside of locally producing the few vegetables and fruits -required for home consumption. Sugar-cane, tobacco, tropical fruits and -cotton would thrive in this country. Each one of these staples has been -successfully raised, the cotton being something like our own famous Sea -Island brand. - -A business, small in size, yet of great importance, and restricted to -this locality, is the production of oil of petitgrain, a form of orange -perfume, much in use in European perfume houses as a base for toilet and -flavoring extracts. The essential oil is obtained in the most primitive -manner and is always in great demand. - -A lace peculiar to the country, called “nanduti” or spider lace, is made -by native women, and if properly commercialized might develop into a -paying trade. - -The growing and curing of “Yerba Mate,” a native tea, used extensively -in Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil, Argentine and Chile, yields considerable -income, but is never destined to become an article of great -international commerce. The plant or shrub grows wild. The crop amounts -to about 18,000,000 pounds yearly. - -Quebracho, a red-colored wood, rich in tannin, is indigenous to the -country. It is used for furniture and railroad ties and the extract made -from it is employed in tanning leather. In one year, over $4,000,000 of -this wood alone was imported to the United States, much of it being used -for paving blocks. - -Thousands of acres of cabinet and other commercial woods are to be found -in the forests, but are without value, owing to their isolation and lack -of means of transportation to get them to the markets. - -The country has some ore deposits. The principal ones are copper, -mercury, manganese and iron. They cannot be developed on account of -their remote location. - -It therefore follows that the chief industries of Paraguay for years to -come will be in the production of raw materials and in the raising of -cattle for which its well-watered plains are admirably adapted. It has -now about 6,000,000 head of cattle and sheep and two slaughter-houses, -killing about 40,000 annually. There are two large American companies -engaged in the cattle industry; also one big German firm in the same -line. - -Paraguay has not invited capital and inducements of this nature need not -be expected for some time. - -While supposedly on a gold basis, money of this metal exists only as a -fiction. The inconvertible paper _peso_ has a fluctuating value, being -at times as low as two and a half cents U. S. gold, and as high as five -cents U. S. gold, according to the stability of the government and local -commercial conditions. - -Credits should be extended with the greatest caution. - -In 1913 Paraguay exported $5,462,000 worth of materials, chiefly fruit -to Argentine, as well as yerba mate, timber, hides, dried beef, -quebracho, lace, and tobacco. Most of her exports were taken by the -neighboring republics, and by them reshipped to the markets of the -world. No exports to the United States for 1913 are given, but in 1912 -they amounted to only $593. Germany is her largest European creditor, -last year taking over $1,198,686 of her products. - -Paraguay in 1913, imported $7,671,551 in textiles, foods, hardware, -fancy and toilet goods, shoes, hats, liquors, drugs, clothes, steel and -iron, of which amount the United States contributed $181,367 as against -Germany’s $989,898 and England’s $963,418. - -Commercial travelers are supposed to pay a duty proportionate to the -business they do. As a matter of fact, no effort is made to collect this -tax and the local merchant generally protects the traveler visiting him -from such exploitation. - -The following cities should be visited: - - _Population_ - Asuncion 60,000 - Villa Rica 35,000 - Concepcion 25,00 - Encarnacion 10,000 - -Owing to its situation it is necessary in order to reach Paraguay to go -by train or boat from Buenos Aires, or by boat from Montevideo; the -journey from Buenos Aires is the quickest and most comfortable. - -All goods intended for Asuncion or other points in the country are -trans-shipped at either Buenos Aires or Montevideo, arrangements for -which can be made with the lines running from Europe or the United -States direct to either of these ports. Or your customer in Paraguay -will instruct you to ship his order through some agent whom he will -specify in his shipping instructions, who will attend to the routine -detail to forward the consignment. - - - - - VI - CHILE - - -After Pizarro had conquered Peru he dispatched Diego de Almagro with an -army, instructing him to explore and take the territory to the south, or -what is now Chile. He was unable to accomplish the task. In 1540 Pizarro -sent another expedition under Pedro Valdivia, whom fortune favored and -who penetrated to what is now the city of Santiago, which he founded in -1541. For more than 100 years the warlike Araucanian Indians made -repeated attacks on settlers in this territory, the Spaniards having -great difficulty in conquering them. A treaty of peace was concluded in -1640. - -When the revolutionary movement in South America started against Spain, -Chile on September 18, 1810, declared her independence, and became the -scene of much fighting, finally on April 5, 1818, defeating forever -Spanish power and becoming absolutely independent. - -A republican form of government was adopted, the executive power being -vested in a President, and the legislative in two houses, a Senate and a -Chamber of Deputies. - -The Republic of Chile has 292,580 square miles, with a ragged coast line -of 2,627 miles, and varies in width from 90 to 248 miles. It is bordered -on the north by Peru, the east by Bolivia and Argentine, the south and -west by the Pacific Ocean. - -Two almost parallel ranges of mountains, the Cordillera de la Costa and -the Andes, run from north to south, with a valley over 500 miles long -and 40 wide spread between them. In this chain of mountains are more -than 30 extinct volcanoes from 11,700 to 21,340 feet in height. - -Owing to its extreme length Chile possesses many climates. To the north -it is dry and hot, the central portion being decidedly temperate with -changing seasons, almost like California, while in the south the -temperature gets lower, and rains increase. To the extreme south there -is much snow and cold with but little vegetation. - -[Illustration: - - Valparaiso -] - -There are practically no negroes in the 3,500,000 of Chile’s population. -Some writers estimate that 25 per cent. of the inhabitants are Germans, -or of German descent, this nation having many business men and large -colonies in the Republic, especially toward the south and around -Valdivia. Perhaps 50 per cent. are descendants of the Araucanian Indians -by the early Spanish explorers. There is a large percentage of English; -it is estimated that in Valparaiso, a city of 250,000, there are at -least 20,000 Anglo-Saxons. The French and Italian colonies are also -quite numerous. - -Chile ranks third in South America in her railways, possessing a total -of 3800 miles, nearly 2000 of which are owned by the Government. A -longitudinal railway, designed to run practically the length of the -country—2132 miles—from north to south, is in process of construction. -It will be connected with the coast and the hinterland by roads crossing -it at right angles, and is designed to develop the entire country and to -be of strategic value in transporting troops. Two new trans-Andean roads -are contemplated in addition to the one now running from Los Andes to -Mendoza, one to operate about 300 miles north of Santiago—the other to -cross 400 miles to the south of the capital. Other lines from the -smaller ports to the longitudinal road are proposed, in all over 3000 -miles being projected. Of the roads maintained by the government, it -might be said that they are run at a great annual loss, a condition -which may operate materially against the country’s prosperity at some -near date. Many of the privately owned roads are used only in connection -with the nitrate industry. - -Chile has many small rivers varying from 25 to 150 miles in length -arising in the mountains and rushing to the sea. Most of them are dry a -greater part of the year, but during the rainy season become raging -torrents. With the exception of a few in the southern part of the -country, they are not navigable, but by a proper system of conserving -and storing their water might be made useful for generating power or -light. - -Her extensive coast line gives Chile 59 ports on the Pacific, most of -which are open roadsteads and at certain times of the year positively -dangerous, loading and unloading of vessels being done by means of -lighters, ships being obliged to lie from one to two miles off the land. -The principal ports from north to south in the order named are Arica, -Pisagua, Iquiqui, Tocopilla, Antofagasta, Taltal, Caldera, Carrizal, -Coquimbo, Valparaiso, Talcahuano, Coronel, Valdivia, Puerto Monte, -Ancud, and Punta Arenas, the most southerly city on this continent and -one of the big fur markets of the world. - -Chile is to-day spending millions of dollars on the modernization of her -leading ports so as to properly safeguard life and property, but it will -be years before this work is finished. - -Primarily the wealth of Chile comes from her nitrate beds and her mining -possibilities. There are about $150,000,000 invested in the nitrate -industry alone—$55,000,000 being English and $51,000,000 local. American -capital is little represented in this line. The exports in 1913 amounted -to 60,500,000 _quintals_, a _quintal_ being 101.41 pounds; the value in -money was $98,239,569. Iodine is one of the by-products in the -manufacture of nitrate, and is controlled by a combination or trust, -$1,876,277 worth being exported last year, the United States taking 183 -tons, England 65 tons and the remainder of Europe 264 tons. - -The nitrate beds run a distance of 450 miles south of the Camarones -River, at an altitude of 4000 to 5000 feet and from 10 to 20 miles -inland. Many theories have been advanced as to these deposits, the one -generally accepted being that these fields were once the bottom of some -sea elevated by a titanic upheaval. The beds vary in width from a half -to five miles, and the “caliche” or strata of earth bearing the nitrate -is usually covered by sand and dirt varying from a few inches to 10 -feet. This is blown out by dynamite, separated by washing and boilings -from foreign matter, then bagged and shipped. A more desolate spot than -a nitrate “officina,” as these reduction plants are called, would be -hard to imagine. No trees or vegetation are to be seen and even water -has to be carried for miles in cars for operating the machinery and for -other uses. Authorities differ as to the extent of the deposits, some -alleging they will be worked out in 20 years, while others claim there -is sufficient supply available for 200 years. Nitrate is used -extensively in the arts, for manufacturing gunpowder and explosives and -for a fertilizer in agriculture. - -Copper is found in great profusion, $7,947,307 worth being exported last -year. One of the largest copper mines is owned by the Braden Copper -Company, an American concern. In 1913 its average daily production was -30 tons of bar copper. Machinery is being installed which is intended to -double this output. Chile at one time contributed one-third of the -world’s supply of this metal and mineralogists state that there are yet -great bodies of high grade ore awaiting the discoverer. - -Coal is found throughout the south of Chile, one coal field alone being -estimated to contain 1,862,000,000 tons. Over $7,500,000 is invested in -this enterprise. - -Iron ore of excellent quality and freeness from sulphur is found in -large quantities. An American company is largely interested in -developing this market, and contemplates investing $6,000,000 in their -property. - -There are silver and gold, deposits of salt and borax, as well as -cobalt, nickel, mercury bearing ores, tungsten, zinc, graphite, sulphur -and alum. All of these await proper development as they exist in paying -quantities. - -Much of the territory, which resembles California in scenery, climate -and formation, is given over to agriculture. Over 600,000 tons of wheat -were harvested in 1912 with 71,000 tons of barley, 50,000 tons of oats -and 40,000 tons of corn. Some authorities claim Chile to be the fourth -largest wine producing country of the world, most of its vintage being -consumed locally. - -Stock raising is increasing, especially to the south, where sheep are -profitably grazed. The latest census gives the number of cattle at -1,900,000, sheep 5,000,000 and goats 300,000. Much wool from three to -four-inch staple is produced, last year 20,563,833 pounds being -exported. Dairying is rapidly growing. Bee culture is becoming a -permanent industry, there being 90,000 hives in Chile in 1913. Much -honey and wax are exported. - -There are millions of acres of virgin forests of valuable hard woods in -the south, the north being a barren, treeless country. The chief trees -are the Chilean oak, the rauli, elm, cypress, pine, cherry, laurel and -of late the eucalyptus is being propagated extensively. - -Some industries such as shoe factories, canneries, breweries, -distilleries, sugar refineries, cracker bakeries, and the like exist but -their products are for local consumption. - -The fruits of Chile, such as the cherry, peach, pear, apple, nectarine, -plum, apricot and melon, are the equal of ours. Inasmuch as the seasons -here are reversed, these luscious fruits would reach our markets during -winter, and this could be developed into a profitable trade. - -Chile exports nitrate of soda (nitrate), copper, iodine, wheat, borate -of lime, iron, gold, silver, wool, hides, woods, honey, and wax. - -She imports bottles, cars and rolling stock, cement, cotton goods, -glassware, iron and steel manufactures, such as wire, nails, pipes, -corrugated iron, hardware, tools, locomotives, mining and agricultural -machinery, mineral waters, paper, petroleum, rice, sacks, tinned salmon, -thread, tea, woolen goods, shoes, and hats. - -Chilean money is unstable and fluctuates from day to day, the paper -_peso_ or dollar being worth from 17 to 36 cents, according to -variations in exchange. A gold _peso_ exists fictitiously for trade -purposes, being estimated at 18 pence or 36 cents U. S. gold. When this -mark “$” is followed by the word _oro_ the amount is understood to be -gold. If however this abbreviation is used “m/c” it means “moneda -corriente” or the paper money. - -Chile has for a long time talked of changing its currency and making it -staple. The sooner this is done the better for the country. Such a -movement has been greatly retarded by men who have made money due to the -fluctuations in currency. - -Both the English and Germans have large interests here, and as a -consequence do the bulk of the exporting and importing business with -Chile. Imports in 1913 were $122,075,994 as against $139,878,201 of -exports. India shipped to Chile $3,500,000 worth of jute bags for -nitrate in 1913, and stands seventh in the list of countries sending -goods here, the United States being third with $16,806,341 to its credit -as against England’s $38,616,886 and Germany’s $33,189,070. - -Commercial travelers are not required to pay a license. The authorities -are very liberal about admitting samples. - -The following cities are worth visiting for trade purposes: - - _Population_ - Santiago 400,000 - Valparaiso 250,000 - Iquiqui 50,000 - Concepcion 50,000 - Chillon 45,000 - Antofagasta 35,000 - Punta Arenas 20,000 - Talcahuano 16,000 - Valdivia 16,000 - Coquimbo 12,000 - -Chile may be reached by taking any line from New York to Buenos Aires, -then crossing via the Trans-Andean road to Santiago or Valparaiso, or by -any line of steamers sailing for Colon, thence via train to Panama from -where English, German, Chilean or Peruvian steamers sail weekly, -touching at all the leading coast ports. There are also English and -German ships direct from Europe, which pass through Smythe Channel on -the southwest coast of Chile and touch at all its ports on both the -outward and return voyage. - - - - - VII - BOLIVIA - - -Bolivia, the fourth largest of the South American republics, extending -over an area of 708,195 square miles, is without a seacoast, having lost -control of her ports on the Pacific Ocean as a result of the war between -Peru and Chile. This country occupies as much territory as all of the -states east of the Mississippi, excepting those of New England, or is as -large as the combined areas of California, Washington, Oregon, Idaho, -Arizona, Utah and Nevada, and is bounded on the north and east by -Brazil, the south by Paraguay, Argentine and Chile, while her western -boundary is made up by Peru and Chile. - -After Pizarro discovered Peru, he organized an expedition, explored -Bolivia, and annexed it to the Spanish crown, which controlled its -destinies until all of Latin America revolted against the home -government. In 1809 the Spanish authorities were deposed and -independence declared in 1825, as a result of the Battle of Ayacucho, -fought on Dec. 9, 1824, when the Spanish forces were totally defeated. - -Simon Bolivar, the hero of the rebellion against Spain, drafted its -constitution which provided for a President, two Vice-Presidents, and -two houses of Congress—composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. - -Although Bolivia is entirely within the Tropic Zone, it is blessed with -a variety of climates, due chiefly to its altitude. There are two -seasons, the rainy from December to May and the dry covering the -remainder of the year. - -Owing to some gigantic convulsion of Nature, ages ago, what evidently -was the bottom of the ocean was forced upward, and now forms an enormous -plateau over 500 miles in length, covering more than 60,000 square -miles, at an average altitude of 12,000 feet. This is a comparatively -barren stretch of land with little vegetation, but is extremely rich in -mineral deposits. - -Running north and south, and at the east and west sides of this vast -plateau are two ranges of the Andes, the distance between them being -about 85 miles. In addition to these main ranges are many others which -criss-cross the country in numerous directions. In but few, if any, -countries of the world is there to be found such a wealth of scenery, -Bolivia possessing three of the highest peaks in this hemisphere, namely -Illampu, Sorata and Illimani, the sentinel of La Paz, whose snowcovered -peak towers into space 22,500 feet. - -As may be surmised the climate in the plateau and mountain regions is -cool and invigorating most of the year, but extremely warm in the -summer, while as the land descends toward Brazil and the upper Amazon -region it becomes milder until it reaches tropic warmth. - -On account of the high altitude of Bolivia, the traveler generally has -attacks of what is known locally as “puno” or “sirroche”—or in plain -English, mountain sickness, owing to the rarity of the atmosphere. While -it is exceedingly unpleasant and may cause palpitation of the heart, -shortness of breath, bleeding at the nose and ears, and other -disagreeable symptoms, it seldom results fatally. Rest until acclimated -and the use, under a physician’s direction, of some heart stimulant, are -all that is necessary to restore the patient to his normal state. Stout -persons are apt to suffer more than others and should exert themselves -as little as possible. Compressed oxygen is carried in most of the -passenger trains to give immediate relief in case of danger from -mountain sickness, the train crew being instructed as to its -administration. - -The population of Bolivia is estimated at 2,300,000, but no census has -ever been taken, and it is doubtful if it has more than 1,500,000 -inhabitants. Fully fifty per cent. of its people are docile, -full-blooded Indians, living the most primitive life and speaking their -own dialect with a few head men familiar with Spanish, which is the -official or state tongue. The Beni, or white Indians of Bolivia, are a -rather warlike race and have maintained their tribal laws, the control -of their lands and customs, independent of all attempts to subjugate -them. In fact, the Bolivians stand in awe of them. There are about -500,000 “cholos,” the native term for half-castes or mixed breeds, -250,000 whites of Spanish descent and perhaps 10,000 foreigners,—that is -Americans and Europeans engaged in business. - -Bolivia has been the scene of a remarkable railway development -encouraged by the government. There are to-day about 900 miles of road -in actual operation, about 400 miles in the process of construction and -nearly 2,500 miles, plans and estimates for the completion of which are -under consideration. - -These railways maintain three arteries of commerce with the Pacific -coast from the interior, and reach the ocean via Lake Titicaca at -Mollendo, Peru; at Antofagasta, and also at Arica in Chile, the last -named being the shortest and most direct route from the coast to the -capital at La Paz, a distance of 274 miles, and only recently completed, -requiring about 14 hours for the journey. To go to La Paz via Mollendo, -or via Antofagasta is much longer in distance, requiring two days’ time, -but repays the traveller in the magnificence of the scenery encountered -all along the line. - -Roads are in process of construction from Potosi to Sucre, in order to -afford an outlet for the products of the mines located in this vicinity, -and from Uyuni to Tupiza near the border line of Argentine, so that -direct communication can be had with this country as well as Chile and -Peru. Other roads are being built from Oruro to Banderani and Oruro and -Cochabamba, also from La Paz to Yungas, from Yungas to Puerto Panda and -from Cochabamba to Chimon. The government also intends building roads -from Yacuiba to Santa Cruz, and thence to Puerto Saurez. Connecting -lines will be built to the famous Mamore-Madeira R. R. in Brazil. - -There is a perfect net work of rivers in Bolivia, located chiefly in the -northeast and southeastern sections, many of which are navigable for -light draught vessels and lighters. It is estimated that the Paraguay, -Beni, Itenes, Mamore, Pilcomayo, Paragua, and other streams give a total -water transportation of more than 11,000 miles. These streams, however, -can be used more advantageously as commerce carriers toward Brazil, -Paraguay and Argentine than to the West Coast countries. Various -projects have been suggested for dredging them and providing locks so as -to develop the territory drained by them, but it is doubtful if the next -century will see this work started, although it is feasible. - -Lake Titicaca is the highest body of navigable water in the world, the -steamers which operate on it having been brought from Europe in sections -and erected on its banks. It is one of the largest lakes in this -hemisphere, covering an area of more than 4,000 square miles and being -160 miles long and 30 wide. While the steamers which ply on its surface -carry passengers, they also bring all of the freight into or leaving the -country via the port of Mollendo in Peru. - -Bolivia may rightly be called the mineral storehouse of the world, for -locked within the heart of her many mountains are untold riches, the -tons which she has contributed to the universe being microscopic in -proportion to what remains. Her inexhaustible dried lakes of borax and -salt, glistening like snow in the pure air of the high elevation, have -been scraped for centuries without apparently reducing their supply. -There are many rich deposits of gold, silver, copper, tin, antimony, -bismuth, borax, zinc, wolfram and coal. - -In the production of tin, Bolivia ranks second, the chief producer being -the Malay Peninsula. Tin forms about 70 per cent. of the total export of -Bolivia, amounting in value to over $23,000,000, Great Britain taking -about 90 per cent. of the output of the mines and selling it to the -other nations of the world. There are yet enormous unworked deposits of -this metal in this land. - -[Illustration: - - _Copyright by Underwood & Underwood_ - - Lake Titicaca at Puno, Peru, with native balsas in the foreground. - Balsas, which are made of reeds lashed together, are used for - carrying freight and passengers -] - -Bolivia is one of the largest bismuth producing countries of the world -and the third in the production of copper, and is rich in antimony and -wolfram. In 1912, the latest available authentic data, she exported the -following amount of metals: - - Antimony $ 26,615 - Bismuth 784,183 - Copper 1,311,156 - Gold 23,039 - Silver 1,676,704 - Tin 23,289,732 - Wolfram 114,847 - Zinc 129,243 - -If the forests of Bolivia as well as the territory sloping toward Brazil -were more accessible, much of value would be added to its products. This -land is especially adapted for grazing and agriculture as well as the -growth of medicinal plants and trees. - -In 1912, Bolivia exported rubber to the value of over $6,000,000. - -It gives to the pharmacopœia the following drugs: aconite, arnica, -belladona, some camphor, cocaine, digitalis, ipecac, jalap, quinine, -quassia, sarsaparilla, tamarind, tolu and valerian. - -Cabinet woods, such as ebony, mahogany, rosewood, satinwood and cedar -are to be found in great profusion. Fruits of the tropical and temperate -zones flourish. Coffee and cocoa are largely grown. - -Bolivia is one of the few countries of the world without a national -debt, a remarkable condition of affairs, more especially for a Latin -American country, and its monetary system is on a gold basis, the unit -being the _boliviano_, worth about 39 cents in our currency. - -English capital is largely invested in the various mines and railways -but the greater portion of the mercantile business, especially in the -crude drug line, is in the hands of Germans, who shipped to the -Fatherland over 83,000 pounds of the 100,000 pounds of quinine exported -last year. - -In 1913 Bolivia exported tin, rubber, silver, copper, bismuth, cocoa, -wolfram, zinc, lead, hides, alpaca-wool, medicinal and crude drugs to -the value of $36,551,390. Her imports during the same time were -$20,600,000, comprising iron, steel and railway building materials, -textiles, machinery, arms and ammunition, foodstuffs, toilet goods, -glass ware, and medicines. - -Bolivia is one of the countries where the travelling salesman is sure to -be obliged to pay a tax; the porters, hotel employes and others -assisting, on a commission basis, of course, the person who has this -concession. The fee which amounts to about $115 can often be -“side-stepped” by arrangement with the local merchant with whom you may -desire to establish a connection. Under no circumstances let it be known -that you are a travelling man until you have perfected your plans with -regard to this problem. - -The following cities should be visited: - - _Population_ - La Paz (the capital) 85,000 - Cochabamba 35,000 - Sucre 30,000 - Potosi 28,000 - Oruro 25,000 - Santa Cruz 20,670 - Tarija 10,000 - Tupiza 5,000 - -Bolivia may be reached via the three cities referred to, namely -Mollendo, Antofagasta and Arica, these places being ports of call for -all vessels. Both the Peruvian and Chilean steamship companies, as well -as the European lines, touch here also. It is to be expected that some -of the larger lines from New York will arrange a service passing through -the Panama Canal and calling at these places, thereby saving the long -trip around the Horn, or the trans-shipping at Colon and Panama. - - - - - VIII - PERU - - -Recent archæological finds warrant some authorities in claiming Peru to -have been the home of a highly civilized and cultured people 25,000 -years before Christ. The race which inhabited the land then were the -Chumus, the progenitors of the Incas, whom Pizarro found when his -expedition arrived in Peru from Panama in 1532. The Incas had a -socialistic form of government, were able engineers, good surgeons, -noted agriculturists and really a wonderful people. The treatment of -this docile and intellectual nation by the invading Spaniards is one of -the darkest pages of history. - -Francisco Pizarro founded Lima, the capital of Peru, in 1535, was -appointed by the Crown governor of the newly acquired territory and was -assassinated in front of his palace in 1541. - -The great wealth which Peru, through her rich mines, contributed to -Spain, warranted that country in making this possession a viceroyalty, -the viceroy at one time governing all Spanish possessions in South -America from Lima. - -The movement for independence from Spanish control, started early in the -last century, found many adherents in Peru and after several reverses -the yoke of Spain was thrown off July 28, 1821, a congress organized in -1822, representing a republican form of government and the first -president inaugurated in 1823. - -In 1879, over a question of boundary lines, Peru became involved in a -war with Chile, lasting five years, the result being the defeat of Peru -and the invasion of its capital. As a consequence, Peru ceded one of its -richest provinces, Tarapaca, outright to Chile, and the territories of -Tacna and Arica conditionally for ten years, at the end of which period -a vote was to be taken in these provinces, and the inhabitants were to -decide under which country they preferred to remain. The Chileans, -despite the repeated requests of Peru, have failed to observe this -condition of the peace treaty and these territories with all their -wealth still are under the control of the conquerors. The methods -employed by the Germans in Alsace-Lorraine have been used here by Chile, -and the chances are that this district will always remain in the hands -of its present governors. - -A President and two Vice-Presidents, together with a legislative body of -two branches, a Senate and a House of Representatives, control the -destinies of Peru. - -Peru contains 687,600 square miles, and is bounded on the north by -Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil and Bolivia, on the south by -Chile, its western boundary being washed by the waters of the Pacific -for its entire length of 1600 miles. For purposes of comparison Peru -covers as much territory as Texas, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico and Arizona. - -Three mountain ranges run through this country between which are found -extremely fertile and productive plateaus, the scene of much of the -country’s agricultural development. The land from the coast to the -foothills of the Andes is as a rule barren, and were it not for the -Humboldt Current which runs close to the shore and cools it, would be -exceedingly tropical. On the eastern slopes of the Andes, as they -stretch toward Brazil and Bolivia, there is a wealth of verdure, -vegetation and virgin forests, due to the heavy rains and the tropical -sun’s action. This comprises three-fourths of Peru’s territory. The -table-lands are cool and enjoy a temperate climate. From June to -November, the days are marked by a fine drizzling rain, particularly -along the coast but for the rest of the year rain coats and umbrellas -are not needed. - -Peru claims a population of 4,500,000 but I seriously doubt if it will -reach 3,500,000. Of this number fully half are unlettered, ignorant -Indians, lacking in ambition, requiring few necessities and living most -primitively. One-fourth are half-breeds, the descendants of the -conquerors and the Incas. About two per cent. of the population are -Chinese. Here it may be noted that many archæologists and -anthropologists believe that the early settlers of Peru came from China, -across the stepping stones in line with the finger of Alaska which -points toward Asia, and by degrees wandered down the western coast of -America, finally establishing a government near what is now the city of -Cuzco. Perhaps 15 per cent. are pure white. There are nearly 50,000 -Europeans and Americans located throughout Peru. Italians and their -descendants are most numerously represented, followed by Germans and -English. - -Peru has no navigable rivers on her west coast, the many streams which -empty into the Pacific being dry or very low except during the periods -of heavy rains. Properly husbanded their water power could be -effectively used. To-day they serve for irrigation and near some of the -larger cities, such as Lima and Callao, have been advantageously used -for generating electric light and power for tram systems. On the eastern -side of Peru there are about 3500 miles of navigable rivers for -light-draft vessels, drawing 8 to 15 feet, all of these streams -ultimately emptying into the Atlantic. - -Iquitos with 20,000 inhabitants, on the Amazon, 2500 miles from the -Atlantic Ocean, is the center of the rubber industry, and is more -accessible from New York than from the capital of the Republic, Lima. - -Peru has 1840 miles of railway, 1300 being standard and 500 narrow -gauge. Nearly 3500 miles of road have been surveyed and are in various -process of construction. Nominally about 1200 miles of these roads are -owned by the Government but are operated and controlled by the Peruvian -Corporation, Ltd., an English organization, whose presence is very much -in evidence in Peru, and which also operates a line of steamers on Lake -Titicaca. Under the present contract with the government this concern is -to control the railways under it until 1973, a certain percentage of the -profits to go to the State, and another portion to be utilized in -railway extension. - -The Peruvian Corporation, it should be stated, was organized by -Europeans holding Peruvian bonds on which it was impossible to collect -the guaranteed interest, due to the mismanagement of the government as -well as the outcome of the war with Chile. This corporation took over -and cancelled the indebtedness in return for certain privileges among -which was the right to exploit the railways. - -To Henry Meiggs, an American from San Francisco, Peru and the world is -indebted for the completion of what are the most marvelous railways on -the globe. By a series of twists and turns, which include 65 tunnels and -67 bridges, it climbs to the highest point in the world ever reached by -a railway, 15,665 feet above sea level in a distance of 138 miles, to -what is locally called “the roof of the world.” Some idea of the -rapidity of the ascent may be gained when I state that in the first -twenty-five miles from Lima the train ascends 2800 feet above the sea, -while it reaches 5000 feet twelve miles further on its journey. - -Another wonderful road runs from Mollendo through Arequipa and on to -Puno, at the edge of Lake Titicaca, passing through the most magnificent -scenery and ascending to an altitude of 14,665 feet. There are numerous -Americans employed in the management of the Peruvian railways and -practically all the rolling stock comes from the States. - -The many mountains paralleling the coast make railway construction a -difficult and expensive problem. It is possible that this will have much -to do with the retarding of the progress of mine development, inasmuch -as many of the mineral deposits are almost inaccessible due to their -interior location. - -Unlike Chile, Peru has many natural harbors, affording protection -against storms, Mollendo, Salaverry and Eten being the only ones really -dangerous to shipping and life. The ports from north to south are -Tumbez, Paita, Eten, Pacasmayo, Salaverry, Chimbote, Huacho, Ancon, -Callao, Pisco, Mollendo, and Ilo. The docks at Callao, the leading port, -are quite modern and capable of receiving the largest vessels. - -[Illustration: - - _Copyright by Underwood & Underwood_ - - Oroya Line, Peru -] - -Peru’s products are chiefly mineral and agricultural. - -Her mines have long been famous, producing gold, silver, copper, iron, -coal, bismuth, lead, quicksilver, tungsten, antimony, molybdenum, -vanadium and borax. Her petroleum fields are a source of much revenue. -Her guano industry is being revived by protecting the birds which -frequent the islands and by restricting the working of these deposits. -Sugar cane, cotton, and rice are profitably raised. - -The forests of the eastern section are rich in cabinet and medicinal -woods. - -Copper is the leading metal mined, the production in 1912 being valued -at $9,625,000, while the amount of silver extracted in the same period -was $5,152,412. Vanadium, used for hardening steel, exists, the deposits -being larger than in any other locality. More than $500,000, or 70 per -cent. of the world’s output, was exported in 1912. The bulk of these -industries is controlled by American capital and many Americans are -employed. - -There was mined in Peru in 1912, 268,000 long tons of coal, 254,088 of -which came from the mine owned by the American companies operating at -Cerro de Pasco and was used chiefly in the smelters. Geologists estimate -that there is a carboniferous area in this country of approximately -40,000,000 tons of coal. - -Peru is fortunately rich in being the possessor of petroleum fields -yielding a high-quality oil, much of which goes to the States and Europe -for purifying. One local refinery has a capacity of 300,000 gallons per -month. The Standard Oil Company owns some of these properties, but the -largest holders are British and Italians. In 1912, 214,947 metric tons -of oil were produced. The national line of steamers are oil burners. - -In 1913 Peru exported over $51,000,000 worth of cotton and $7,500,000 of -sugar; $2,000,000 of vicuna, alpaca, llama and sheep’s wool; $500,000 -worth of cocaine and $3,000,000 worth of rubber. Much coffee, tobacco, -and cocoa are grown, most of which is used for home consumption. - -Peru’s crops are produced chiefly by irrigation, the watersheds on the -mountain sides being of great advantage in this connection. - -Cotton is manufactured into cloth in mills situated at Lima, Arequipa -and Ica. There are also woolen mills but they do not come anywhere near -supplying the local demand and much is imported. - -Panama hats are largely produced, in 1911 the exports in this line -reaching the enormous sum of $2,147,668. Some twenty-five factories in -the Cuzco valley are devoted to the production of cocaine, the world’s -supply largely coming from this section. The cattle and wool growing -industries are capable of much greater development. - -Peru is on a gold basis, the _sole_ being the unit of value. This is a -silver coin and is designated thus “$.” Ten _soles_ ($10) equal a gold -_Libra_ or pound, worth a pound sterling or $4.8665 U. S. gold and -expressed thus “_Lp._,” meaning _Libra Peruana_, or Peruvian Pound. A -_sole_ contains 100 _centavos_, or cents. - -Peru’s exports in 1912 were $45,871,504, and her imports $25,066,354, -the bulk of the business being done with the United Kingdom, the United -States being second. Within the past five years the exports from and -imports to the States have materially increased and are rapidly -approaching those of our greatest competitor, England. This is due -perhaps to the development of the mining industries, under the control -of American capital. In 1910, England shipped Peru $8,134,189 worth of -goods to our $4,484,214 and Germany’s $3,842,855. In 1912 the figures -were as follows, England $6,800,708, United States $5,763,423 and -Germany $4,557,698. Undoubtedly the figures for 1913, when available, -will show a decided further gain for us. - -Peru exports copper, gold, silver, mercury, vanadium, bismuth, cocaine, -quinine, wool, sugar, petroleum, hides, hats and guano, and imports -textiles, mining machinery, oil machinery, pipe, railway supplies, -windmills, corrugated iron, tools, hardware, flour, canned goods, shoes, -electric supplies, typewriters, mineral waters, wines and liquors. - -The bulk of invested capital is English, but in this line the Americans -are forging to the front. Germans, Italians, and French are chiefly -interested as merchants throughout the country. - -There are no taxes or restrictions placed on commercial travelers and -samples are admitted duty free. - -If you are handling mining machinery or devices for use in mines or -petroleum fields, it is apparent that the localities where these -industries thrive should be visited personally. Many of the mines have -company stores located in their holdings that are worthy of calls, while -others maintain purchasing agents in Lima for this purpose. Inquiry of -local authorities will give all the information necessary, otherwise the -following cities should be visited: - - _Population_ - Lima 150,000 - Callao 35,000 - Arequipa 35,000 - Cerro de Pasco 18,000 - Piura 15,000 - Trujillo 12,000 - Mollendo 6,000 - -Cuzco, with a population of 26,000, is hardly worth a visit for business -purposes, but is interesting for its historical associations. It was the -ancient metropolis of the Inca Empire. Mostly all of its buildings were -of stone, set together as wonderfully as the Pyramids, their joints -being so perfect that a knife blade cannot be inserted between them. -Streets crossed each other at right angles, and were paved with -naturally colored stones, forming intricate patterns and geometrical -designs, which can still be seen. There was an imposing temple dedicated -to the sun, whose walls were studded with gold plates. Water from the -mountains ran through the city streets, while around the entire town -were fortifications many of which yet remain. Its civilization was of -the highest order. - -Iquitos, 20,000, should only be visited from Mañaos in Brazil. It is a -good business town. - -Peruvian ports can be reached via the Straits of Magellan and Smythe -Channel from New York or via Colon and Panama. There are direct European -steamers from England and Germany weekly, with connections for Panama, -either through their own lines or via the Chilean or Peruvian National -steamers, both of which make all the ports along the coast. There are -also tramp and freight boats from San Francisco which carry passengers, -but for personal comfort this service is not to be recommended. - -To get to Iquitos, take the river boats from Mañaos, Brazil. - - - - - IX - ECUADOR - - -Sebastian de Benalcazar, a lieutenant of Pizarro, on December 6, 1534, -was the first European to enter the Kingdom of Quito, the seat of -government of the Caras Indians. The Spaniards controlled this territory -at different times from Lima, Peru, or from Bogota, Colombia, as -conditions warranted. - -In 1809 the Ecuadorians attempted to throw off the yoke of Spain, but -were unsuccessful in establishing their independence from the Mother -Country until May 24, 1822, when General Sucre defeated the Spanish -forces at Pichincha, as a result of which Ecuador entered a union, -fathered by the Great Liberator, Simon Bolivar, and comprising as its -other states Colombia and Venezuela. Internal dissension which grew -resulted in the dissolution of this trinity of republics, and on August -14, 1830, Ecuador proclaimed herself an independent republic, adopting a -constitution similar to those in vogue in Latin America. The executive -power is vested in a President and Vice-President, the legislative in a -National Congress composed of two houses—a Senate and a Chamber of -Deputies. - -Ecuador has an area of 116,000 square miles, or about as big as the -combined areas of Missouri and Arkansas. The Galapagos Islands, which at -one time the United States tried to acquire by purchase for a coaling -station, lying 750 miles to the westward, with an area about 2500 square -miles, also belong to this country. - -Ecuador is wedge-shaped, bounded on the north and east by Colombia, on -the south by Peru while the waters of the Pacific lap its western shore -line. - -The climate is diversified, running all the gamuts of change from -tropic, semi-tropic and temperate to cold. The tropical region, as may -be surmised, starts at the coast line and continues to the foothills -where it gradually changes to semi-tropical at 6000 feet, and to cold in -the fertile plateau on which Quito is situated at about 9000 feet. Above -this in the mountains it is always much colder. The Equator passes -across the northern tip of the country near Quito, while two ranges of -the Andes run parallel throughout its length for 520 miles, embracing -some of the highest peaks in the system, Chimborazo being 20,498 feet -high and Cotopaxi 19,613. The plateau between these ranges averages 65 -miles in width and has a mean altitude of 8250 feet. - -These mountains form watersheds giving rise to two river systems, -flowing respectively toward the sea and toward the interior, which -ultimately develop into 91 distinct rivers, only one, the Guayas, on -which Guayaquil is situated about 60 miles from where it empties into -the sea, being of any great commercial value. The other rivers which are -navigable for a short distance are the Daule and the Vinces in the west, -while the extension of the Amazon in Ecuador, there called Marañon, -affords direct communication with Brazil. - -A census has never been taken in Ecuador but the population is estimated -at 1,500,000. Perhaps 1,200,000 would be nearer the true figure. -Seventy-five per cent. are Indians, 200,000 half-breeds, 100,000 white, -2500 negroes, with a floating foreign population of 7500. - -There are fewer railways in Ecuador than any other country of South -America. One American owned and operated railway running from Duran, on -the opposite bank of the river from Guayaquil to Quito, a distance of -285 miles, may be described briefly as the scenic road of the world. -There is another road of about 20 miles, and one or two contemplated -lines. - -Ecuador has been cursed by revolutions, and depressed by the lack of -enterprise on the part of its various governments. Guayaquil is perhaps -the dirtiest city in the world and at all times a hotbed of filth and -disease. For these reasons it has been shunned by tourist and traveler -alike, although it is one of the best markets I know of on the West -Coast. - -The country has no great industries. It is, however, susceptible of -enormous developments. It has no agriculture to speak of, but can -successfully raise sugar, tobacco, coffee, cotton, cocoa, bananas, -wheat, cereals and tropical and temperate fruits. Its forests are rich -in cabinet and hard woods. Medicinal trees abound, as well as the tagua -nut tree from which the ivory nut comes, and the species of palm which -furnishes the fibre for Panama hats. Cocoanuts are plentiful and of an -excellent quality. There are minerals in quantities sufficient to pay -for the mining, such as coal, sulphur, copper, gold, iron and silver. -Oil has recently been discovered. Over most of the land disease lurks -and the ambition of the native is dead. - -The monetary unit of value is the _sucre_, named after one of its -military heroes; it has a value in American money of 48.7 cents. Ten -_sucres_ are the equivalent of a pound sterling and are called a -_condor_, after the Andean bird. - -There are a few English houses in business here, but the bulk of the -trade is under German control. Many Syrians have come to the country and -established themselves as petty merchants. - -Cocoa is largely grown in Ecuador, the bean being of a high grade, rich -in color and fats. Strange to say, practically none of the chocolate of -commerce is made here, the crude dried bean only being exported. In 1912 -$7,653,505 of this article alone was exported, chiefly to Europe, -despite the fact that we, as a nation, are the largest users of -chocolate. - -Forty million one hundred and forty-three thousand four hundred and -fifty-two pounds of tagua or ivory nuts worth $936,511 were exported in -the same time, most of it going to Germany to be made into buttons; one -German village has fourteen factories elaborating this product into the -finished article of commerce. - -Panama hats are made by individuals, collected by jobbers, and exported, -this trade in 1912 amounting to $1,372,051. - -More than $1,000,000 worth of rubber was exported in 1913, and in the -same time coffee to the value of $783,787, most of which went to Chile. - -The total exports in 1912 amounted to $13,717,884, as against -$10,652,843 imports, the leading articles being boots and shoes, -candles, ready made clothes, crockery, drugs, food stuffs (flour and -canned goods), hats, hardware, machinery, oils, paper, perfumes, -textiles, wines and liquors. - -I cannot refrain from repeating that Ecuador, due to the prevalence of -disease, is passed over by most travelers and as a consequence there is -little competition, and one is sure of doing business here if his -product is appropriate. - -A small license or fee is one of the legal requirements to sell goods in -this country, but is more honored in the breach than the observance. - -These towns should be made: - - _Population_ - Guayaquil 80,000 - Quito 80,000 - Cuenca 35,000 - Riobamba 18,000 - -There is but one city in the Galapagos group of islands, namely -Floriana. They are unworthy of any attention from a commercial -standpoint. - -Ecuador is reached most directly from Panama in about three days. -Travelers going to Peru or Panama from any of its ports are detained in -quarantine and have their baggage disinfected. This rule is strictly -observed. Freight should be sent via any line to Colon or Panama for -trans-shipment as there are but few direct boats. From San Francisco the -Kosmos Line of Hamburg formerly maintained a bi-monthly direct service -which may be resumed after the war. The West Coast Line from New York -has irregular sailings via the Strait of Magellan, carrying only -freight; the voyage takes about three months as the ships drop off cargo -en route. - - - - - X - COLOMBIA - - -Columbus on his fourth trip of discovery to the New World was the first -European to sight Colombia. He sailed along the coast during September, -1502, but did not undertake to land. Alonso de Ojeda in 1508 obtained a -patent from the Spanish crown and after repeatedly repulsing the warlike -Indians, secured a foothold at Cartagena, which place he proceeded to -fortify. Others with warrants from the King of Spain also entered the -territory, ultimately subjugating the Indians and establishing the -capital at Bogota in 1538. - -The province was called New Granada and was governed by a Viceroy until -1810 when a revolutionary movement deposed him, and on December 17, -1819, the Republic of Colombia was born. Under the guidance of Simon -Bolivar, Venezuela and Ecuador joined with Colombia in forming a union -of these republics, which could not be held together after the death of -the founder, in 1830. On the dissolution of this body of states, the -Republic of New Granada came to light November 17, 1831, this title -being changed to the United States of Colombia in 1863. - -Colombia covers an area of 438,436 square miles, and like the United -States enjoys the unique advantage of having a coast line on two -oceans—the Caribbean Sea to the northwest being part of the Atlantic and -the Pacific on the south and west. Ecuador and Peru form her southern -boundary, Brazil and Venezuela are on her eastern frontier, while -Venezuela stretches across much of her northern limits, and the Republic -of Panama is the only land on the west. - -Colombia is a land of mountains, plateaus and wide plains. To the east -and south are large areas of level ground known as “_llanos_,” or -“_selvas_,” covered with grass and tropical growths including virgin -forests. This section has enormous rainfalls, is very warm, unhealthful -and sparsely populated, in fact, has hardly been explored. There are -three different mountain systems running northeast and southwest, -between which are rich, luxuriant valleys, capable of great agricultural -possibilities. These mountains contain many extinct volcanoes, of -varying altitude, one being 18,000 feet high. - -The climate ranges from tropical to temperate, Bogota, the capital, -having a uniformly cool and spring-like temperature throughout the year, -due to its elevation of 8600 feet. In the lowlands, and especially along -both coasts, the heat is oppressive and far from salubrious. This is -also true of much of the low-lying interior country. The cities on both -coasts are notably unsanitary. - -Colombia claims a population slightly in excess of 5,000,000, but I -doubt if it really has 4,000,000. About one-tenth of the inhabitants are -pure white and there are 200,000 wild Indians, living primitively under -tribal chiefs, nominally under the control of the local government. The -remainder are mixtures of white, black and Indian in varying proportion, -over 300,000 of whom are negroes and mulattoes. Little can be hoped for -from the majority of these people owing to their poor source of origin -and the climatic conditions which surround them. - -The Government recognizes the doctrine of states rights, and is -republican in form with the usual branches, judicial, legislative and -executive. A President with two Vice-Presidents represent the executive -control, and the legislative body is composed of a Senate and House of -Representatives. - -The mountainous topography of Colombia has had much to do with the -scarcity of railways, rendering them expensive in construction and owing -to the great distance between possible termini, likely to make them -profitless ventures. There are about 650 miles of railroads in Colombia, -many of them supplemental to river transportation, or connecting ports -with interior towns. It is doubtful if this condition will ever alter -materially. - -The trade of Colombia is carried chiefly on the Magdalena River, which -is 1060 miles long with a swift current, and navigable to Honda, a city -600 miles from Barranquilla at its mouth. A marine railway, around the -rapids at Honda, allows small steamers to go about 200 miles above this -inland port. Goods intended for Bogota usually go via rail from Puerto -Colombia to Barranquilla, a distance of about sixteen miles, and are -then transferred to the stern wheeler, wood-burning, river steamers for -all the world like those which navigate the Mississippi. A trip from -Barranquilla or from Cartagena to Bogota takes via the Magdalena River -from ten to fourteen days, according to the stage of water in the river -and includes steamboat, railway and muleback travel. In making this trip -the traveler is advised to take tinned food and bottled mineral water. - -Travel through Colombia at best is difficult, the roads are bad and the -hotels miserable. Goods intended for Bogota have six trans-shipments -from the ocean to their destination—an argument for good packing. - -The Atrato River, which rises in the foothills of the Andes and empties -into the Gulf of Darien, an arm of the Caribbean Sea and which England -threatened to make into a canal connecting the two oceans if not given -special privileges in the Panama Canal, is navigable for about 225 of -its 350 miles. The largest river on the Pacific side is the San Juan, -being navigable for 150 of its 200 or more miles. The rivers emptying -into the Amazon are navigable for canoes and lighters, but are so remote -and in such a sparsely populated region as to be negligible quantities -in this connection. - -Agricultural experts estimate that only one-third of Colombia is -susceptible of cultivation, the eastern part being swampy and the high -mountain lands incapable of sustaining any growth, especially at an -elevation of 13,000 feet. The belt of coast lands with the plateau -regions can be made highly productive. - -Coffee is perhaps the largest crop grown, in 1913 the output being -nearly 55,993 tons valued at $16,777,908, practically all of which came -from the Cauca Valley, and nearly all taken by the United States. - -Some cotton is grown, of a particularly long fibre, and this industry -could be easily developed into a larger one. - -Due to the work of the United Fruit Company of Boston, which maintains -banana plantations near Santa Marta and Cartagena, the growing of this -staple fruit is enlarging into a great business, owing to the fact that -the soil and climatic conditions are ideal for its propagation. In 1913, -$1,996,999 worth of this fruit alone was shipped. - -Rubber to the extent of $736,427, tobacco valued at $442,461, most of -which went to Germany, ivory or tagua nuts worth $754,708 and Panama -hats to the extent of $1,174,641 were shipped in 1913. These industries -are susceptible of a greater increase. - -The cattle-raising business could be materially developed in some -sections of the country which now grazes about 3,000,000 head. The -breeding of goats could be done profitably. Hides to the value of -$2,661,721 were exported last year, the United States taking by far the -greater portion. Some 30,000 alligator skins are sent annually to the -leather markets of Europe and America. - -Excellent hard, cabinet and dye woods are to be found toward the -interior, but the poor transportation facilities retard the development -of trade in this field. - -Colombia’s chief wealth is in her mines. There is much gold, also iron, -silver, lead, copper and coal. In the production of platinum this -country ranks next to Russia. Petroleum is found and the petroleum -industry is rapidly assuming large proportions. Practically all the -emeralds of the world to-day come from Colombia, this precious stone -being worth more per carat than diamonds. The government controls the -exploitation of emerald mines, leasing them to operators. The chief -groups of mines are the Muzo, the Coscuez, the Chivor and the Cuincha, -the first named having a yearly output of 262,548 carats of the first -water, 467,690 of the second, 22,700 of the third and 17,800 of the -fourth class. The Chivor group, it is estimated, is capable of producing -$500,000 worth of these stones per year. - -Gold to the value of $6,634,914 was exported in 1913. Its production -increases annually. About $1,000,000 worth of silver and $600,000 worth -of platinum were shipped abroad in 1913. - -Colombia is presumably on a gold standard, having as its unit of value a -_peso_ or dollar equal in value to the American one. As a matter of -fact, however, the currency in circulation is an inconvertible paper -dollar, which fluctuates in value according to the stability of the -government. I have seen it take three hundred of these dollars to equal -one of ours. Now a paper dollar is worth about one cent gold. Business -transactions are usually done in United States dollars or English -pounds. - -Much of the business of Colombia is in the hands of the Germans who -maintain houses at the port towns and branches at other trade centers in -the interior. The English are the next largest investors, followed by -the French. - -Colombia in 1913 imported goods to the value of $28,535,780 and exported -products worth $34,315,252. Of these amounts the United States shipped -her 27 per cent., Great Britain 20 per cent. and Germany 14 per cent. -Colombia shipped us 55 per cent. of her products, to Great Britain 16 -per cent. and to Germany 9½ per cent. Expressed in figures we bought -from Colombia $18,861,880 and sold her $7,629,000. It is obvious that we -should do a much larger trade with the country, especially when it is -practically next door to us. Our trade with her in textiles now is -$1,500,000 against England’s $3,500,000. In this one line we should be -able to make a 100 per cent. increase. - -Colombia exports coffee, gold, emeralds, platinum, rubber, tagua nuts, -hides, skins, feathers, bananas, hats, and requires textiles, -foodstuffs, flour, kerosene, railway supplies, hardware, machinery, -medicines, paper, metals, wines and liquors. - -While Colombia _per se_ does not impose a tax in order to do business -within her territory, many of the municipalities do. This problem is a -matter that can generally be adjusted with the leading police official -of the city. - -The chief cities are: - - _Population_ - Bogota 150,000 - Medellin 72,000 - Barranquilla 50,000 - Cartagena 40,000 - Manizales 35,000 - Sonson 30,000 - Pasto 28,000 - Aguadas 27,000 - Cali 27,000 - Ibague 25,000 - Palmari 24,000 - Neiva 22,000 - Monteria 21,000 - Yarumal 21,000 - Cucuta 20,000 - Bucaramanga 20,000 - -Travel is tiresome, cities hard to reach, samples difficult to carry. -The country can be thoroughly covered by calling on the trade in -Barranquilla, Cartagena, Bogota, Santa Marta, Rio Hacha, Medellin and -Bucaramanga. The larger business houses are located at these points and -have branches in the smaller cities, to which goods are shipped, and -with which they are in close contact. - -Colombia may be reached directly from the United States by the United -Fruit Company’s ships which stop at all ports on the Caribbean Sea, or -one may go direct to Colon and there transship to some vessel, of which -there are many plying along the coast. - -Buenaventura and Tumaco are the largest ports on the Pacific coast and -are in weekly connection with Panama through the medium of small -steamers. - - - - - XI - VENEZUELA - - -Venezuela was discovered by Columbus on his third voyage to America -August 1, 1498, at the time of his visit being the home of more than 150 -different tribes of warlike Indians, who resisted to their limit the -attempts made by Spain to conquer them and explore the country. In 1520, -Cumana, on the coast of the Caribbean Sea, was founded and is the oldest -European settlement in this hemisphere. The Indians, however, kept up a -continuous warfare against the invaders, being gradually pushed into the -interior while the conquerors established themselves along the coast in -towns fortified to resist invasion from the buccaneers who paid them -many visits. - -An attempt at independence was made in 1718, which was suppressed. -Although quasi loyal to the Spanish crown, there were many abortive -attempts at revolution, which finally assumed definite form in 1810 when -the citizens of Caracas revolted openly, and declared Venezuela -independent July 5, 1811. Spain, however, put down this uprising and -reestablished its authority, maintaining control of the colony until -August 7, 1819, when Simon Bolivar defeated the Castilian army, and made -Venezuela one of the three States of Greater Colombia. With the breaking -up of this alliance Venezuela became absolutely independent September -22, 1830. - -Venezuela is situated in the northern tip of South America with a -northwestern boundary of 2000 miles on the Caribbean Sea. To the east -she is bounded by British Guiana, on the south by Brazil and the west by -Colombia, a total area of 393,976 square miles, although it is really -doubtful if the exact extent of the country is known, especially along -the Brazilian frontier. It is as large as Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, -Michigan, Wisconsin and Iowa. - -There are three different mountain regions in Venezuela—a continuation -of the Andes—the Coastal Range and the Parima Range, between which are -many high plateaus. The mountain ranges reach an altitude of nearly -10,000 feet, while the highest plateau is about 6000 feet. - -Owing to the mountain systems, Venezuela is divided into three climatic -zones: the tropical extending along the coast and up into the valley -through the center of which flows the Orinoco River, the semi-tropical -zone to be found in the llanos or broad plains or plateau between the -mountain ranges, and the temperate zone along the sides of the mountains -on which is grown the famous coffee for which the country is noted. - -The United States of Venezuela is a federal union with a republican form -of government, the States, of which there are 20, being entirely -autonomous in their internal affairs. The executive power is vested in a -President and two Vice-Presidents, and the legislative in two houses—a -Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. - -While the official estimate of the population is 2,743,000, it is -doubtful if the country has 1,500,000 inhabitants. There are about -400,000 semi-nomadic Indians, the remainder being of mixed blood, part -Indian, part negro, part white, or a mixture of all three. Pure white -and pure negroes are comparatively few. There are perhaps 20,000 -Europeans engaged in business and located in the larger cities, the -countries represented in the order of their population being Germany, -Italy, France, Spain, England and a very few Americans. - -In the northwest of the country is situated Lake Maracaibo, 370 miles in -circumference, covering an area of 8000 square miles, and navigable over -its entire surface. This lake is accessible to the Caribbean Sea by a -strait 34 miles long and varying from 8 to 12 miles in width. Its -channel permits the entrance of ocean-going vessels of 5000 tons or -less. - -The fluvial systems of Venezuela are numerous, there being about 70 -rivers navigable for shallow-draft boats for over 6000 miles, the third -largest river in the world—the Orinoco—with its many tributaries -contributing some 4000 miles of this distance. About 600 miles up this -river is situated the town of Ciudad Bolivar, formerly known as -Angostura, where the bitters of that name were first made. Regular lines -of ocean-going vessels and steamboats run to this inland port, the river -being navigable for smaller vessels to San Fernando de Apuri, where the -Apuri River joins it over a thousand miles from its mouth. It drains a -territory of over 370,000 square miles. Other navigable rivers are the -Meta, the Portuguesa, the Yaracuy, and the Escalante. Along the coast of -Venezuela there are about 50 harbors and 32 ports. - -For its size there are few railways in Venezuela, the total mileage -being about 550, and the chances are that it will be many years before -there will be any marked activity in this field, due to the topography -of the country, its lack of population and its tendency to revolutions. -Some idea of the conditions confronting the engineer may be had when I -state that the German railway from Caracas to Valencia, a distance of -111 miles, is cut through the mountains in 86 different tunnels and -passes over 212 bridges, often coming out of a tunnel on a bridge and -into a tunnel again. Every time a revolution started some of its bridges -were blown up or tunnels blocked. The English road from La Guaira to -Caracas, a distance of 23 miles, has nowhere 50 feet of straight track -and goes up the mountain its entire length at a gradient of 4 per cent. -The road from Valencia to Puerto Cabello, a distance of 33 miles, owned -by an English company, requires a rack and pinion supplemental track to -negotiate some of its climbs. - -There are no manufactured products exported from this country. The few -things elaborated within its confines, matches, candles, shoes, beer, -alcohol, sugar and the like, are for local consumption. - -The chances are that its people will always be pastoral in their -pursuits. Its coffee and cocoa are world famous and form a large -proportion of its exports, about 25 per cent. of its population being -engaged in this line. In 1912, $15,137,994 worth of coffee was exported, -two-fifths of this going to the United States and the remainder to -Germany. “Caracas” cocoa is famous, most of the product going to France, -which in 1913 imported $2,305,475 worth of this article alone. - -Tonka beans, used in flavoring extracts, are shipped to the United -States, which bought $137,156 worth of them in 1913. - -This country is rich in dye woods, cabinet and hard woods, but the great -distance of the forests from the seacoast retards this industry. - -“Ballata,” an inferior rubber, much used in the arts and found in the -forests bordering the Orinoco and its tributaries, formed an important -article of export, $1,767,259 worth being shipped abroad in 1913. - -One of the largest asphalt deposits in the world, covering 1000 acres in -extent, is to be found in the State of Bermudez. This is owned by an -American company and is practically all exported to the States, $294,184 -of the $303,589 shipped last year going to America, and the remainder of -$9,405 to England. - -Venezuela, due to its vast grassy, well-watered plains, is destined to -become one of the world’s greatest cattle-producing countries, and is -capable of supporting many million heads. It is estimated that there are -more than 2,000,000 goats and 3,000,000 head of beef cattle in this land -to-day. Four slaughter-houses adapted to ship frozen meat to Europe were -opened and seemed to be on the verge of success when governmental -interference closed them. - -Hides to the extent of $1,010,636 and goatskins to the value of -$365,447, came to the United States from this country in 1913. Feathers, -horns, wild animal skins, deer skins and fish-sounds are also large -items of export. - -The extent of the mineral wealth of Venezuela is unknown, but the -chances are that it is exceedingly rich in such deposits. It is certain -that there is gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, sulphur, asphalt, coal, -lead, petroleum, phosphates, manganese and caolin. One gold mine between -the years 1871–1890 yielded $25,000,000. I have seen many Indians bring -bottles of gold dust to stores to trade for supplies. There is -undoubtedly much gold to be found in the country and the man with -determination and enterprise who will follow this clue is sure to get -rich returns. - -The Island of Margarita, off the coast of Venezuela, and owned by the -Republic, produces the finest of pearls and mother of pearl. Other -islands off the coast are rich in guano and phosphate rock. - -Venezuela is on a gold basis, the _bolivar_, equalling almost 20 cents -in our currency, being the unit of value. The _peso_, according to which -bills of the country are reckoned, consists of four _bolivars_, and is a -fictitious coin not existing in reality. The “_peso fuerte_,” or -five-_bolivar_ piece, is a regular silver coin. - -The bulk of the business of Venezuela is handled by the Germans, -although the United States takes most of its exports, with France -second, Germany third and England fourth. German merchants are all over -the country, the Italians also are much in evidence. - -In 1912, the latest data available, Venezuela exported goods to the -value of $25,260,908 and imported articles worth $20,568,940. - -She purchases agricultural implements, arms, ammunition, bags for coffee -and cocoa, beer, butter, canned goods, confectionery, chemicals, drugs, -medicines, flour, glassware, iron-ware, lard, leather, oils, paints, -paper, perfumery, railroad material (chiefly from Europe), wall-paper, -wines, textiles, cotton and woolen goods, shoes, hats, and exports -coffee, cocoa, hides, skins, horns, feathers, dye woods, tonka beans, -gold, pearls, guano, phosphate rock, fish-sounds and ballata. - -There are no fees or taxes assessed on the commercial traveler, and -samples are as a rule admitted duty free. - -The following cities should be visited: - - _Population_ - Caracas 100,000 - Valencia 65,000 - Barquisimeto 60,000 - Maracaibo 50,000 - Puerto Cabello 40,000 - Ciudad Bolivar 40,000 - La Guaira 20,000 - Cumana 10,000 - Carupano 10,000 - Barcelona 10,000 - -A visit to the Island of Margarita is not necessary because its traders -come to the ports of Venezuela for supplies. - -Owing to the fact that in Venezuela the consignee can obtain his goods -without presenting an invoice or bill of lading, it is well, unless the -merchant to whom the goods are shipped is known to be reliable, to send -them through some bank or banker, with draft attached. - -Venezuela is reached by the Red D Line, flying the American flag, direct -from New York to La Guaira, which maintains weekly freight and passenger -sailings. The Royal Dutch West Indies Line, under the Dutch flag, sail -bi-monthly from New York, having freight and passenger service, but -their route involves many stops and takes about twice the time of the -direct Red D Line. - -Ciudad Bolivar may be reached by either of these lines or by going to -Trinidad, B. W. I., on any of the vessels touching there, then taking -the river steamers which cross the Gulf of Para and make the Orinoco -River landings. Better passage and quicker time can be made for these -ports by taking a Red D ship to La Guaira and trans-shipping there to -one of the coast boats. - - - - - XII - CENTRAL AMERICA - - -Owing to their many points of similarity in productions and climate and -their geographical position, the five republics of Central America, the -English colony of British Honduras, as well as the Republic of Panama, -may be considered together. - -Nicaragua and Costa Rica were discovered by Columbus on his last voyage -to the New World in 1502, and a small settlement was made by him in -Costa Rica, which the Indians afterwards destroyed, being incensed by -the treatment received at the hands of the invaders. In 1540 a further -attempt to establish a trading-post was successful and finally in 1565 a -Spanish governor was appointed, these colonies having proved to be -valuable acquisitions to the crown. - -[Illustration: CENTRAL AMERICA] - -In the meantime, Cortez, having completely subjugated the Aztecs in -Mexico, dispatched his officers in all directions to explore the -countries to the south. Pedro Alvaredo, after a series of battles, -finally established Spanish rule over San Salvador in 1525, and -Guatemala in 1527 when he founded the City of Guatemala. Spanish -Honduras was acquired in 1526 by means of conquest. - -British Honduras was originally a part of Guatemala, the Spanish troops -stationed there having conquered it, and it was ceded by Spain to -England in 1760. - -Panama was a part of Colombia and was discovered by Columbus in 1502 who -minutely explored its shore in search of an expected passage to the -Pacific. In 1903 it revolted against Colombia and became an independent -republic. - -In 1821 the five Central American Spanish Colonies, after many -unsuccessful attempts at independence formed a Federation, known as the -Central American Federation. This independence, however, was -short-lived, for Augustin Iturbide, who had proclaimed himself Emperor -of Mexico, annexed them to his territory in 1822 despite their protests. -After the downfall of Iturbide’s government and the execution of its -head, these states again formed a new union in 1824. Continual friction -and lack of harmony among the various countries, caused its dissolution -and one state after the other withdrew and ultimately established and -proclaimed its independence. Several abortive attempts since the rupture -of 1839 have been made to reorganize this union, and the chances are -that these states will always maintain their separate individualities. - -Each one, including Panama, is organized as a republic, with a -constitution based on that of the United States, an executive in the -personage of a President, and a legislative body composed of two -houses—a Senate and a House of Representatives or Chamber of Deputies. - -British Honduras is ruled by a governor sent from England. - -Guatemala has a total area of 48,290 square miles, with a population of -2,000,000, the greater portion of whom are Indians, mixed breeds, some -negroes, chiefly from the West Indies, and perhaps 50,000 whites, mostly -Europeans and Americans. It is bounded on the north by Mexico, on the -east by British Honduras, and Salvador, while the Pacific forms its -southern and western boundary. - -Salvador with an area of 7,225 square miles is the smallest of the -Central American Republics. It has a population of 1,700,000 and its -people are of a progressive type. There is a large percentage of Indian -and mixed blood among the inhabitants with a fair number of whites. The -Pacific Ocean forms its southern boundary, Guatemala its western and -Spanish Honduras its northern and eastern limits. - -Honduras extends over 46,250 square miles, with a population of 600,000, -chiefly Indians, 100,000 of whom are uncivilized. There are few whites -and many mixed breeds. Its northern boundary is the Gulf of Honduras, an -arm of the Caribbean Sea. Guatemala is on its western frontier, -Salvador, with a bay of the Pacific Ocean on its south and Nicaragua on -the east. - -Nicaragua has 49,200 square miles of territory with 700,000 inhabitants, -mostly Indians, and mixed breeds, with a gradual increasing of the white -race. Honduras runs diagonally across from northeast to southwest, the -Pacific Ocean is on its west coast, Costa Rica on the southern frontier, -and the Caribbean Sea washes its eastern boundary. - -Costa Rica covers 23,000 square miles and has 399,424 citizens, about -7000 being Europeans, Americans or from the West Indies. There are about -5000 Indians and the remainder whites, blacks and mulattoes. Its -northern neighbor is Nicaragua, the Caribbean Sea washes its eastern -shore, Panama is its southern boundary, while the Pacific Ocean laves -its entire western coast. - -Panama, 33,800 square miles in extent, with about 400,000 inhabitants, -and varying in width from 37 to 110 miles, needs little description. It -is bounded on the north by Costa Rica, on the east by the Caribbean Sea, -the south by Colombia, and the west by the Pacific Ocean. - -Through its center is a strip of land stretching five miles on either -side of the Panama Canal for a distance of 45 miles and known as the -Canal Zone. By the Isthmian Canal Convention of November 18, 1903, the -United States acquired a perpetual right of occupation, use and control -over the Zone, paying the Republic of Panama the sum of $10,000,000, -and, beginning February 26, 1913, the sum of $250,000 annually so long -as such occupancy continues. The Canal Zone is governed by the President -of the United States. The population of this strip during the building -of the canal was as high as 70,000, but it is doubtful if it has 30,000 -inhabitants to-day. With the completion of the Canal, the force of -workmen necessary to maintain it in running order, together with -civilian employes and the United States garrison, will make a permanent -population of perhaps 25,000. - -British Honduras, with an area of 7562 square miles and a population of -40,000, is the only European colony in Central America. Its inhabitants -are Indians and negroes, with a few mixed breeds, and less than a -thousand whites. It has no railways, although some effort has been made -to get capital interested, so far unsuccessfully. The British Government -seems to have completely neglected this possession. Its rivers, -navigable for some distance, serve all its transportation requirements. - -The topography and climate of all these countries is much the same. -Mountain ranges cross and recross them, having peaks of considerable -altitude, many of which are still active volcanoes. As is obvious, these -mountain systems influence the climate to a marked degree, making it -always pleasant and spring-like in the plateaus extended between them, -as well as in the intermediary table-lands. The higher elevations are -always cool, while the low-lying coast-lands are extremely warm and, as -a rule, unhealthy. The watershed which they form deflects the streams -arising in them toward either the Pacific or the Atlantic. If harnessed -these streams could be used to great advantage for light and power. Near -the coast they are navigable for small steamers of light draft and -canoes and are also useful in getting out lumber, affording a cheap -method of transporting it to the coast. - -Due to the smallness of the countries, and the complications in the way -of engineering problems, especially in the mountains, there are -comparatively few railways. - -Costa Rica has 490 miles of railroad, by means of which the capital is -kept in touch with ports on the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. - -Salvador has about 174 miles of railroad in operation with about fifty -more in progress of construction. Transportation in the interior is made -convenient and comfortable by the 2000 miles of really good roadway -built in accordance with the most modern methods. - -Guatemala contains 450 miles of railroads which afford an ocean to ocean -communication. - -Honduras possesses slightly over 100 miles of road, in a bad state of -repair, with obsolete rolling-stock. Engineers are making preliminary -surveys which will mean a material addition to the railway mileage here. - -Nicaragua maintains about 225 miles of railway which touch her leading -cities. In addition to this, Lake Nicaragua, 92 miles long, and Lake -Managua, 32 miles long, are used largely for transportation purposes and -have a fair-sized fleet of steamers operating in connection with the -railways. - -Panama has no railways of its own at present, although $3,000,000 has -been borrowed from New York bankers for the purpose of building lines -throughout the Republic. - -The Panama Railway, owned by the United States Government, passing -through the Canal Zone, and about 50 miles in length, may be considered -as a portion of the railway system of the Republic of Panama for its -citizens have the use of it for every purpose. - -Substantially all the railways of Central America are equipped with -American rolling-stock and operated with but few exceptions under -American control. It is extremely doubtful if the demands of these -republics will warrant a very great expansion of railways for years to -come. - -These countries have no manufactories, and were designed by nature to be -agricultural. In time, with the development of steamship service they -may become truck gardens for the United States, as their soil is -admirably adapted for vegetables, early fruits, melons and berries. In -some districts, especially in Nicaragua and in Honduras, cattle could be -raised much more extensively. There are mines, but not of sufficient -wealth to attract much capital. - -Owing to the diversity of zones, there are opportunities for many -varieties of fruits, vegetables, and cereals. For centuries these -countries have been covered with the most luxuriant tropical growths, so -that the subsoil is overlaid with a thick mould estimated at over ten -feet deep, capable of excessive productive possibilities. Tobacco, -sugar, indigo, rice, corn, coffee, cocoa, cocoanuts, and bananas, are -the principal products. - -Virgin forests are numerous; in fact they exist throughout Central -America. There is an abundance of pine, oak, many natural hardwoods, -such as ironwood, and mahogany, plenty of cedar, and a host of ideally -grained cabinet woods, susceptible of high polish. Logwood, dividivi, -quebracha, and other trees furnish dye woods. Throughout these countries -grows the Peruvian balsam from which the well known balsam of commerce -comes. There are rubber trees. Much of the chicle from which chewing-gum -is made comes from these lands, as well as other gums of a medicinal -nature. - -Banana growing has done much to bring prosperity to Costa Rica, -Guatemala, Nicaragua, Honduras and Panama and the chances are that this -industry will become the chief one of all these countries, along their -lowlands, which are so well adapted to the propagation of this fruit now -so much in demand. - -As an evidence of the growth of this business and what it means to these -localities, let me state that in 1913 Costa Rica exported $5,200,000 -worth of bananas; Panama, $1,150,000; Nicaragua, $425,000; Guatemala, -$825,000; Honduras, $1,400,000, and British Honduras, $200,000. And this -trade is yet in its infancy. The markets of Europe, notably Germany and -England, are also supplied from these countries and within twenty-five -years the demand will undoubtedly double, due to the opening of the -Canal, which permits the dispatch of the fruits along the west coast of -South America in modern vessels. - -Coffee is also an important export. In 1913 Costa Rica exported -$3,600,000 worth of coffee; Nicaragua $1,780,000; Guatemala $12,250,000; -and Salvador $7,900,000. - -Gold and silver amounting to $6000 was exported from Panama last year; -$875,000 from Costa Rica; $900,000 from Nicaragua; $900,000 from -Honduras, and $1,600,000 from Salvador. - -These with hides and skins, cocoanuts, ivory nuts, cabinet and other -woods, rubber, balsam, chicle, tortoise-shell, pearl shells, sugar and -tobacco form the principal items of export. - -The exports and imports during 1913 were as follows: - - _Country_ _Exports_ _Imports_ - Panama $ 2,467,556 $10,400,000 - Costa Rica 10,432,553 8,778,497 - Nicaragua 3,861,516 4,966,820 - Salvador 9,928,724 6,173,545 - Guatemala 14,449,926 10,062,328 - Honduras 3,300,254 5,132,678 - British Honduras 2,850,000 3,500,000 - -The bulk of the export and import trade of all of these countries is in -the hands of the United States, due to our geographical position, and -the fact that we have many citizens living within their boundaries, -engaged in various enterprises. England, Germany and France are our -closest competitors. Perhaps Germany has more real money invested here, -and there is a great preponderance of German mercantile establishments -throughout these nations. The following table gives the details for -1913: - - - IMPORTS TO CENTRAL AMERICA FOR 1913 - - _Country_ _U. S._ _Germany_ _United Kingdom_ - Guatemala $5,053,060 $2,043,329 $1,650,387 - Salvador 2,491,146 713,855 1,603,846 - Honduras 3,463,662 558,327 751,651 - Nicaragua 2,549,026 804,038 939,290 - Costa Rica 4,515,871 1,355,417 1,303,187 - Panama 5,483,678 970,263 2,453,118 - British Honduras 2,250,000 7,280 300,000 - - - EXPORTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA FOR 1913 - - _Country_ _U. S._ _Germany_ _United Kingdom_ - Guatemala $3,923,354 $7,653,557 $1,600,029 - Salvador 2,823,251 1,699,694 705,607 - Honduras 2,869,188 176,112 13,467 - Nicaragua 1,766,548 702,265 515,381 - Costa Rica 5,297,146 509,804 4,364,436 - Panama 2,130,000 240,000 86,000 - British Honduras 1,325,000 55,000 675,000 - -Each one of these countries requires cotton and woolens, iron and steel -supplies, corrugated iron, tools, machinery, food-products, flour, -wines, liquors, mineral waters, wooden ware and manufactures, -agricultural implements, soaps, perfumes, pharmaceuticals, surgical -instruments, boots and shoes, hats, hardware, oil, candles, electric -supplies, glassware, coffee sacks, socks, stockings, rubber goods, -musical instruments and paints. In fact they are dependent upon the -outside world for all the manufactured necessities of life. - -American money is accepted in preference to any other throughout this -part of the world, although each country has its individual monetary -system. - -In the Canal Zone American and Panamanian money is interchangeable, that -is either United States or Panama currency is equally well received. The -Republic of Costa Rica as well as the English Colony of British -Honduras, are on a gold basis, while Spanish Honduras and Salvador are -on a silver basis, the national money in common circulation in Guatemala -being inconvertible paper, subject to daily fluctuations, dependent upon -market conditions and the law of supply and demand. Nicaragua and Panama -are on a gold exchange standard basis. - -The following table gives the necessary data as to the monetary units -and the respective value in United States gold:— - - CENTRAL AMERICAN CURRENCY - - _Country_ _Standard_ _Unit_ _Value in _Condition_ - U. S. - Gold_ - Costa Rica Gold Colon 46½ cents Staple. - British Honduras Gold Dollar 100 cents Staple. - Nicaragua Gold exchange Cordoba 100 cents Staple. - standard - Panama Gold exchange Balboa 100 cents Staple. - standard - Honduras Silver Peso 39 cents Practically - staple. - Salvador Silver Peso 44 cents Practically - staple. - Guatemala Inconvertible Peso 5 cents Subject to daily - paper fluctuation. - -In all these countries the subject of commercial travelers’ fees may be -dismissed briefly, by stating that British Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama -and Salvador require the payment of fees and the others do not. By the -exhibition of tact it is often possible to evade these charges, -especially if proper arrangements are made with some local agent or -merchant. - -The following cities should be visited: - - _Country_ _Cities_ _Population_ - British Honduras Belize 20,000 - Guatemala Guatemala City 100,000 - Quezaltenango 25,000 - Coban 23,000 - Salvador San Salvador 70,000 - Santa Ana 60,000 - San Miguel 30,000 - Honduras Tegucigalpa 40,000 - La Ceiba 10,000 - Nicaragua Leon 70,000 - Managua 40,000 - Granada 15,000 - Bluefields 6,000 - Costa Rica San Jose 50,000 - Cartago 5,000 - Puerto Limon 6,000 - Panama Panama 40,000 - Colon 20,000 - Bocas del Toro 10,000 - -With the single exception of Salvador, all these countries are most -easily reached from the eastern coast, there being many passenger and -freight vessels with regular sailings from New York, Baltimore, Mobile -and New Orleans. The United Fruit Company maintain an excellent -bi-weekly service between the chief ports of Central America and New -York and New Orleans. - -Steamship service along the west coast is miserable, passenger and -freight rates being excessive. The passenger ships from San Francisco -are old, poorly equipped, slow and the food inferior. Travelers are -recommended to enter these countries from the east, taking the railway -across to the west coast, and a local coasting steamer thence to their -destination. The Kosmos Line maintains an irregular service from San -Francisco. Salvador has a national line of steamships, making calls at -ports in Nicaragua, Honduras, and Guatemala and going as far north as -Salinas Cruz in Mexico, the western terminus of the Tehuantepec Railway, -from which goods coming from the eastern part of the United States, -after crossing Mexico, are reshipped for Central American west coast -ports. - - - - - XIII - MEXICO - - -Prior to the invasion of Mexico by the Spaniards, the Aztecs who -inhabited the country, had developed a wonderful system of religion, -education, civilization and government. Hernando Cortes landed April 12, -1519, at about where Vera Cruz is now located, marched inland, and with -the aid of friendly Indians succeeded in finally conquering the -inhabitants, burning their cities, destroying their libraries and -killing their emperors, in reward for his service being made Governor of -New Spain as the Spaniards called this land in 1522. The Spanish -possessions in Mexico and Central America were united for the purposes -of government, and a viceroy appointed first in 1535, this method for -the control of these colonies being used until 1821. Spanish rule in -Mexico, as with all of her dependencies, was harsh, and the spirit of -revolt came to a head in 1810, under the leadership of a Spanish priest, -Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who was defeated and executed in 1811. The -movement for freedom was kept alive by another priest, Jose Maria -Morales, who was captured and killed in 1815. In 1821 Augustin Iturbide -defeated the Spanish army and was successful in having himself crowned -Emperor of Mexico July 21, 1822. He was forced to abdicate in 1823, and -to leave the country, but returning in 1824, was captured and shot. On -the departure of Iturbide, Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana proclaimed -the country a republic, Guadalupe Victoria becoming the first president. -Spain sent an army to regain Mexico in 1829 but was utterly defeated, -within three months after landing, and ultimately the Spanish Crown -recognized the independence of Mexico, Dec. 28, 1836. - -[Illustration: MEXICO] - -April 21, 1836, Texas seceded from Mexico and was annexed to the United -States in 1845, following which Mexico went to war with its northern -neighbor, was conquered and had her capital occupied by American troops. - -Taking advantage of the American Civil War, Napoleon III, aided by -England and Spain, in 1862 placed the Austrian prince, Maximilian, on a -throne in Mexico, maintaining him in power by a European army. When the -Civil War had terminated and it became evident that the Washington -government would oppose this European invasion of Mexico, Napoleon III -withdrew his military support, Maximilian was captured, and on June 19, -1867, was shot at Queretaro. On the death of the second Emperor of -Mexico, the republic again came into being; six presidents had -controlled its destinies up to the assassination of Francisco Madero and -the assumption of the executive power by Victoriano Huerta. Porfirio -Diaz, who ruled from 1877 to 1911 gave Mexico a stability that it never -possessed before or since. - -More than 300 successful or abortive attempts at revolution are recorded -during the stormy life of Mexican independence. A confusion of empires, -republics, dictatorships and military usurpations have succeeded each -other with bewildering rapidity. Between 1821 and 1868 the form of -government was changed ten times, over fifty persons succeeding each -other as presidents, dictators or emperors. And the end is not yet in -sight. The curse of anarchy and military dictatorship hangs over the -land like a pall. Murder, assassination, execution, rapine, the wanton -destruction of property and the complete paralysis of the commerce of -the nation make us ask how long can this continue? It is safe to assume -that when some man is found strong enough to take up the frayed -fragments of this people, and bring order out of chaos, a republican -form of government will again be established. - -Its constitution, based after ours, calls for a federal form of -government, the various states being free to regulate their internal -affairs; the executive power is vested in a President and Vice-President -elected for six years each, with a legislative body of two branches, -namely, a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. - -Mexico, including the islands along its coast and Southern California, -extends over an area of 767,097 square miles. Its northern boundary is -the United States, a coast line of 4574 miles on the Pacific Ocean marks -its western and southern limit, in connection with a portion of -Guatemala and British Honduras, while a little section of Guatemala, -1400 miles of the Gulf of Mexico and 327 miles on the Caribbean Sea form -its eastern confines. - -Two mountain systems traverse the entire country between which are a -series of plateaus of various altitudes and many fertile valleys. An -evidence of the extent of these elevated table-lands may be formulated -when one realizes that Mexico has fifty-three cities located above an -altitude of 4000 feet. Mexico City in the valley of Anahuac is 7850 feet -above sea level. The mountains have many high peaks and extinct -volcanoes, always covered with snow, the chief ones being Popocatepetl, -17,748 feet, Ixtaccihuatl, 16,176 feet, and Ajusco, 13,628 feet. - -Owing to the location of the country partly in the Temperate and -partially in the Torrid Zones, the climate is diversified, the varying -altitudes tempering extreme heat, except, of course, along the low lands -near both coasts. There are two seasons—the wet and the dry, the times -for the rains being materially governed by the altitude and location, -but generally corresponding respectively to our winter months. - -The present population is about 14,000,000 although it was estimated to -be 15,063,207 in 1910. The greater number of these people are unlettered -Indians, and mixed breeds. There are some negroes about the coastal -regions. Most of the business of the country is in the hands of the -foreigners, Americans predominating, with many English, Spanish, French -and Germans. - -There are about 16,000 miles of railway in Mexico in actual operation, -with 1000 more contemplated. The Mexican government owns 8612 miles of -road, while the remainder is controlled by private interests. These -roads form a network in the interior, and lead from both coasts and the -United States toward Mexico City. - -Mexico has no large rivers suitable for the navigation of ocean-going -vessels to any great distance. She has, however, much available water -power, which is going to waste, and possesses thirty-four deep water -ports on her eastern shore and thirty-one on the Pacific. - -The chief wealth of Mexico is in her mines, although agricultural -products and the raising of cattle add much to her source of revenue, -the annual value being estimated at more than $200,000,000. - -The soil is exceptionally productive, yielding coffee, henequen, corn, -cocoa, tobacco, fruits, beans and cotton. At one time much rubber was -exported and there are to-day many estates of cultivated rubber unable -to ship their products. - -The forests have valuable woods and have been but little exploited. In -the north are excellent pine forests, while cedar, mahogany, dye and -many cabinet woods abound in the south. - -Henequen-growing, from which rope is made, is a prosperous and -profitable industry in southern Mexico. Chicle, the gum from a resinous -tree, is found throughout the tropical forests of the country, while -guayule, a sort of bastard rubber, is being grown extensively. Owing to -the troubled condition of Mexico for the past few years, it has been -impossible to get authentic data as to the quantities exported in these -various lines. - -Over $700,000,000 is invested in mining in Mexico, of which sum -$500,000,000 is American, $90,000,000 English, $10,000,000 French and -$30,000,000 Mexican. - -The leading minerals exported in 1912, the latest records available, -were: - - Silver $44,784,177 - Gold 24,952,558 - Copper 13,285,192 - Lead 3,009,060 - Antimony 859,876 - Zinc 441,897 - -The production of petroleum is rapidly increasing, in 1912 over -17,000,000 barrels being the output from the wells. - -Mexico has been dependent upon Europe and the United States for her coal -supply, her yearly requirements being about 5,000,000 tons of which she -produced from local mines almost 1,000,000 tons. There are, however, -enormous deposits of this commodity and under proper development Mexico -could supply her own needs in this line as well as become an exporter. - -The local industries comprise paper mills, cotton-mills, cigarette -factories, woolen-mills, breweries, sugar refineries, shoe, furniture -and match factories. They produce only sufficient for home consumption. - -Mexico exported goods to the value of $150,202,808 in 1913, while during -the same period her imports reached the sum of $97,886,169, the United -States buying and selling the greater portion thereof. - -The following table shows the relative amounts of exports and imports -credited to the leading mercantile nations. - - _Country_ _Imports from Mexico_ _Exports to Mexico_ - United States $48,643,778 $116,017,854 - United Kingdom 12,950,046 15,573,551 - Germany 12,610,384 8,219,009 - France 9,168,977 3,575,509 - -The monetary system of Mexico to-day is completely disorganized, owing -to the issuance of paper money by the many revolutionary leaders. Mexico -is nominally on a gold exchange standard basis, the _peso_ having a -value in American gold of 49.846 cents. Prior to the present unrest in -this country, there were direct banking connections between Europe and -the United States. - -Some of the states and municipalities charged commercial travelers’ -taxes, while others did not. As a rule these fees can be evaded. - -Under ordinary conditions travel accommodations in Mexico are not bad -and the hotels passable. - -The following are the leading cities: - - _Population_ - City of Mexico 500,000 - Guadalajara 120,000 - Pueblo 100,000 - Monterey 65,000 - San Luis Potosi 61,000 - Vera Cruz 60,000 - Merida 50,000 - Guanajuanto 42,000 - Aguas Caliente 40,000 - Morelia 40,000 - Queretero 40,000 - Zacatecas 36,000 - Chihuahua 35,000 - Orizaba 35,000 - Toluca 30,000 - Jalapa 25,000 - Saltillo 25,000 - Tampico 25,000 - Torreon 25,000 - Colima 21,000 - Campeche 20,000 - Irapuato 20,000 - Mazatlan 20,000 - Cuernavaca 15,000 - Manzanillo 12,000 - -Mexico may be entered by rail from the United States at Nogales, Ciudad -Porfirio Diaz, Ciudad Juarez and Laredo. There are many lines of -steamships from Europe, New York and Gulf ports, plying to the larger -eastern coast cities. Its western coast is reached by direct steamship -lines from San Francisco, Canada and one line every two weeks from -Japan, calling en route at China, Hong Kong and Hawaii, and proceeding -down the west coast of South America, touching at all the leading ports -to and including Coronel, Chile. - - - - - XIV - CUBA - - -Cuba is so near to us and our commercial and political relations with it -are so intimate that it is worthy of careful study. It was discovered by -Columbus on his first trip to America October 28, 1498, and in 1511 -Diego Velasquez was appointed its first Spanish governor. His principal -task was the subduing of the warlike Carib Indians. In 1762 when Spain -was fighting England and France, Havana was captured by the English who, -when peace was finally declared, returned it to Spain. - -Many sporadic attempts at independence were made, the earliest dating -from the beginning of the last century when all of Spain’s colonies in -this hemisphere revolted. None was successful, however, until American -intervention in 1898 when Cuba became free and in May 1902 inaugurated -her first president. - -[Illustration: CUBA, PORTO RICO and JAMAICA] - -Cuba, situated in the Atlantic Ocean, but a few hours sail from Florida, -is 760 miles long, slightly over 90 miles in width at its eastern end -and about 20 miles at its western extremity with about 2000 miles of -coast line containing many deep water harbors. Its area covers 45,881 -square miles. Situated 38 miles off the southern coast of Cuba is the -Isle of Pines, containing 1214 square miles, with a population of 3500, -including many American colonists engaged in raising citrus fruits. The -island is governed by Cuba. - -The chief topographical features of Cuba are the many mountain ranges -which cross and intersect each other, the eastern end being particularly -mountainous, with one peak 8600 feet high. Between the mountains are -many fertile, healthful and beautiful valleys and plateaus. - -The climate varies from the tropical warmth of the coast to cool on the -plateaus and on the mountain sides. The trade winds do much to modify -the heat and add to the agreeableness of the temperature. There are two -seasons, the wet and the dry, the first lasting from May to October, and -the dry the remainder of the year, the average rainfall being fifty-four -inches. The thermometer ranges from 60° to 92° Fahrenheit. Since the -American invasion when its various cities were cleaned up and made -sanitary Cuba claims to be the second healthiest country in the world, -with a death rate of 12.69 per thousand as against Australia’s 12.00 per -thousand. - -Cuba’s population is 2,457,990, about half of whom are white and the -remainder black or mulattoes. The larger percentage of her foreign -inhabitants are Spaniards, who elected to remain after the close of the -war, and Americans. - -Her government is of the republican representative type, consisting of a -President and Vice-President, elected for four years, and a Senate and -House of Representatives, the Constitution being based on that of the -United States. - -Cuba has 2360 miles of steam railways, over 200 miles of electric -systems, and 1246 miles of excellent macadamized roads, which are -probably unsurpassed anywhere in the world, and are ideal for -automobiling, being over sixteen feet wide. - -Most of the rivers of Cuba are short, with currents too swift for -navigation. Some of them can be used for short distances by shallow -draft boats, a favorite means of getting sugar to ports. The Cauto is -navigable for 50 miles and the Sagua la Grande for 20 miles. - -Sugar is king in Cuba, the 1914 crop being worth $240,000,000, with only -4 per cent. of the available soil under cultivation, and but 172 estates -growing and grinding cane. - -Tobacco ranks next in importance, the annual production averaging -$32,000,000. This industry is centered in the Province of Pinar del Rio -which grows the famous Vuelta Abajo leaf. Much of this tobacco is made -into cigars and cigarettes in the country, the local factories exporting -in 1913 $13,878,436 worth while leaf tobacco amounting to $17,604,299 -was shipped abroad in the same time. - -Although the groves are young and have not reached full bearing yet, -citrus fruits and vegetables to the extent of $10,000,000 were shipped -in 1913. Pineapples, henequen, cedar, mahogany, bananas, mangoes, figs, -cocoanuts, tamarinds, guavas, and honey valued at $8,000,000 are -annually exported. - -In 1911, there were 1074 mines registered with the government, including -iron, copper, gold, mercury, lead, zinc, antimony, coal, asbestos, -asphalt and manganese, the total production of which in 1913 amounted to -$5,068,449, iron being the chief metal exported, valued at over -$4,000,000. - -Excellent opportunities exist for truck-farming, bee-culture, lumbering, -and cattle-raising. Good markets for all these products prevail -throughout Cuba and also in the United States. - -Nearly $400,000 worth of sponges and $50,000 worth of tortoise shell are -annually exported. - -In 1913 Cuba exported goods valued at $165,135,059; her imports in the -same year being $143,826,829. Her export trade has increased 140 per -cent. in ten years and her imports 82 per cent. Since Cuba has been a -republic her foreign commerce has increased 250 per cent. - -The United States takes 85 per cent. of Cuba’s exports, and supplies her -with about 60 per cent. of her requirements; the United Kingdom -receiving 11 per cent., Germany 2 per cent., France 1 per cent., and -Spain which formerly controlled this trade but four-tenths of one per -cent. England exports 13 per cent., Spain 8 per cent., Germany 7 per -cent. and France 6 per cent. of Cuba’s imports. - -Cuba requires foodstuffs, textiles, shoes, machinery, tools, hardware, -chemicals, drugs, toilet and paper materials. The main articles of -import, and their value, last year were: - - Potatoes $ 1,897,066 - Condensed Milk 2,165,766 - Flour 4,327,806 - Lard 6,148,827 - Hams 735,918 - Wines and Liquors 1,473,391 - Cotton Goods 12,648,470 - Shoes 4,980,055 - -Cuba has just established its own coinage. Its monetary system is on a -gold basis. The unit is the gold _peso_, worth exactly one dollar, -United States money. A silver fractional currency, with subsidiary coins -resembling our nickel, two and one cent pieces, is employed, these also -being the equivalent in value of American money of the same -denomination. Formerly American currency was in use, and the -possibilities are that it will continue to be accepted at its face value -through the island. - -Banking houses in close association with American financial institutions -are numerous here and every modern facility in this connection is -afforded. American capital is largely invested in various enterprises; -England and Canada are also well represented here. - -Commercial travellers pay no tax in Cuba, and samples are admitted duty -free. - -Travel is convenient and comfortable and the hotels fairly good, -especially in the cities. - -The following places should be visited: - - _Population_ - Havana 350,000 - Matanzas 75,000 - Cienfuegos 75,000 - Camaqüey 70,000 - Manzanillo. 56,000 - Santiago 55,000 - Pinar del Rio 53,000 - Santa Clara 48,000 - Guantanamo 45,000 - Trinidad 31,000 - Cardenas 30,000 - Guanabacoa 27,000 - -Cuba may be reached by rail or water routes, it now being possible owing -to an ocean ferry via Florida to land in Havana in the sleeper in which -one left New York. - -There are 22 steamers a week from the leading ports of the United States -for Cuba, in addition to others regularly from Europe and Mexico. There -are weekly ships from New York, Boston, New Orleans, Mobile and -Galveston to Havana. There is also direct daily service between Tampa, -Florida and Havana. - - - - - XV - SANTO DOMINGO - - -The Dominican Republic occupies the eastern and larger section of the -island known as Santo Domingo or Haiti. - -This island was discovered by Columbus on his first voyage December 6, -1492. The peaceable aborigines whom he found on landing were so abused -under the Spanish rule, that by the year 1500 fully 90 per cent. had -died and the colonists turned to Africa for slaves to work their -estates, 4000 being brought here in 1517. - -French, Dutch and English buccaneers made this island their rendezvous -owing to its favorable location. France recognized them as constituting -a state in 1630 and gave them the protection of the home government. In -1697 France secured control over the western half of the island, and in -1795 obtained by treaty the remaining portion. - -In 1809 Spain and France were at war, and Spanish rule was again -established on the island. The Spanish-speaking section of this -territory declared its independence of Spain in 1821 and in 1822 the -Haitians acquired control of the entire island, governing it until 1844, -when as the result of a rebellion in 1846 Santo Domingo became -independent, remaining so until 1861 when again fearing conquest she -petitioned Spain to direct her destinies. Following a revolution in -1863, Spanish rule terminated in 1865, the country since being known as -the Dominican Republic. Uprisings and revolutions followed each other -and foreign debts accumulated to such an extent that European invasion -was threatened. In 1907 the United States undertook to administer the -affairs of the government through American officials, cancelling each -year from the revenues of the country a portion of its foreign debt, -using another portion for internal national improvements. - -The present constitution provides for a President as an executive and a -Senate and Chamber of Deputies for legislative purposes. - -The island of Santo Domingo, or Haiti, is about 400 miles long and 160 -wide, its shores possessing numerous deep-water bays and inlets. Four -almost parallel mountain-ranges exist within its boundaries, one peak, -Mt. Tina, being 10,300 feet in altitude. These mountains form an -excellent watershed, resulting in many creeks and streams, but few -navigable and those only for very light draft boats. - -Along the coast and in the lowlands, the heat is extreme, Haiti being -much warmer than Santo Domingo. The high lands of the interior and the -plateaus between the mountains are pleasant and healthful. Continuous -sea breezes add materially to the comfort of the inhabitants. - -The Dominican Republic has an area of 19,325 square miles and a -population of 673,611, mostly blacks or mulattoes. There is a small -white foreign population, numbering perhaps 10,000. - -There are 160 miles of railway, partially under government ownership, -and 250 miles of railway privately owned and used in connection with the -larger sugar estates. - -There exist exceptional opportunities for cattle and goat raising. -Lumbering of hard, dye and cabinet woods could be profitably developed. -Gold is washed from the rivers in small quantities and some copper, iron -and silver are found. - -Cane is extensively grown throughout the island, the amount exported in -1912 being $5,841,357. Cocoa is largely raised, the crop last year -yielding $4,248,724. Tobacco, coffee, beeswax, honey, bananas, -lignum-vitae, dye woods, mahogany, gums, resins, hides and copra form -the other leading items of its exports which in 1913 amounted to -$12,385,248. - -In the same period her imports were $8,217,898, consisting of cotton -goods valued at $2,000,000, iron and steel, $1,400,000, meat and butter -$660,000, flour $450,000, drugs $225,000, paper $125,000, and soap -$100,000. Last year this country used 16,221,141 pounds of rice, 94.5 -per cent. of which came from Germany, a land that does not grow a pound -of this cereal. - -The United States takes considerably more than 50 per cent. of this -country’s exports, and ships it about 70 per cent. of its requirements, -Germany ranking next, followed by England and France. - -Santo Domingo has no currency of its own, but uses American money. An -American bank in Santo Domingo City exists, being the only financial -institution in the country, and affords every facility in monetary -matters. Credits are fairly good and detailed information will be -supplied by the bank. - -Travelers pay no tax and samples are admitted duty free. - -The chief cities are: - - _Population_ - Santo Domingo 30,000 - Santiago 15,000 - Puerto Plata 10,000 - San Pedro de Macoris 7,000 - Sanchez 5,000 - -The Clyde S. S. Company (American) maintains a semi-monthly service from -New York touching all the ports of the Republic. There are many European -lines calling at the various ports also. - - - - - XVI - HAITI - - -Much of the history of Haiti is associated with its neighbor, Santo -Domingo, and need not be again told. After the French had established -their government in this island they imported negroes from Africa as -slaves. These revolted in 1791 and in 1801 declared their independence, -finally expelling the French in 1804. This land has been the scene of -much bloodshed and lacks stability in its government, as it always will -until taken under the control of some strong power. - -Its geography and climatic conditions are the same as those of Santo -Domingo, its area of 10,200 square miles supporting a population -estimated at 2,000,000, French or a “patois” being the language spoken. -Perhaps 95 per cent. of its inhabitants are negroes, or have negro -blood. The country is backward. But few attempts have been made to -modernize it and it is to-day one of the most hopeless nations of this -hemisphere. About 75 miles of railways are in operation. No navigable -streams exist. There are no roads, travel in the interior being over -trails. The natives are ignorant, uneducated and in some portions of the -land are supposed to practice cannibalism. There are two seasons—a rainy -and a dry—the rainy lasting from April to November. - -Haiti’s chief products are coffee, 40,000 tons of which were exported -last year, cocoa, dye woods and cabinet woods, medicinal gums, rubber, -castor oil bean and bark for tanning. Her exports of $17,300,000 for -1913 were divided as follows: - - France $8,500,000 - Germany 6,400,000 - United Kingdom 1,300,000 - United States 1,100,000 - -while her imports for the same period amounted to $8,700,000, credited -to the following nations: - - United States $6,500,000 - France 800,000 - United Kingdom 630,000 - Germany 530,000 - Others 240,000 - -Her requirements are for flour, rice, foodstuffs, candles, oil, cotton -goods, shoes, hats, and tools. - -The country is retrograding and there is no inducement to capital to -revive its exhausted financial condition. - -The monetary system is in a hopeless tangle, and is on an inconvertible -paper basis, a _gourde_ the unit of value, fluctuating from 20 to 24 -cents, U. S. Gold. There has been some talk of placing its finances on a -gold basis, but this is visionary. There is one bank—Banque Nationale de -la Republique d’Haiti, financed by American money, but it has been -closed by the government. No one can authoritatively state with -certainty as to the outcome in consequence of this condition of affairs. -Credits should be closely watched. Owing to the heavy national debt and -the inability of the government to administer its affairs, it is quite -possible that the United States will sooner or later be forced to play -the rôle it is at present doing in Santo Domingo. - -There is a tax for travellers but by arrangement with some of the petty -municipal authorities the full sum need not be paid. Samples are -supposed to be free. - -Haiti may be reached from New York via the Clyde Line (American) which -disembarks its passengers in Santo Domingo. Tramp steamers or coasting -vessels may there be taken to Haitian ports, or one may go directly by -the Royal Dutch West India Mail line sailing twice a month from New -York. - -The principal cities of Haiti are: - - _Population_ - Port au Prince 65,000 - Jeremie 35,000 - Cape Haitien 30,000 - Aux Cayes 25,000 - Mole St. Nicholas 12,000 - - - - - XVII - PORTO RICO - - -Porto Rico was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and colonized by Ponce de -Leon in 1509. Because the greater percentage of the population of the -island speak Spanish and have the traits, desires and inclinations of -that race, it may be briefly considered despite the fact that it has -been an American possession since 1898. Within another 25 years -practically all of its 1,120,000 inhabitants will be able to speak or -understand English, which is now taught in all the schools, education -being compulsory. A large portion of the population are negroes and -mulattoes. There are also many Americans and Europeans. - -The island is 100 miles long and 35 wide, containing 2,300,000 acres of -which but 24 per cent. is under cultivation. It is extremely mountainous -toward the interior, one peak reaching a height of 3700 feet, the -lowland on which sugar is cultivated being along the coast. The climate -is warm but equable and comfortable, the trade winds moderating any -tendency toward excessive heat. Porto Rico is a land of continual -summer, and maintains its extreme verdure owing to its rainfall which -has an annual average of 77.30 inches. - -Porto Rico has about 500 miles of steam railways, and nearly 1000 miles -of excellent roads. There are no navigable rivers, but many good -harbors. - -Its government is under the control of the Insular Board of the United -States War Department, a governor being appointed by the President of -the United States. The Governor has as Council, six resident American -officials, and six natives, who with a House of Delegates of 35 members, -constitute the Legislative Assembly, the veto power being held by the -Executive; legislation is subject to the final revision of the Congress -of the United States. A Resident Commissioner to the United States -having a seat in Congress is elected by the people every two years. - -Since the yoke of Spain was cast off the island has progressed -wonderfully under American management. In 1904 its exports amounted to -$16,250,000 and had grown to the enormous sum of $43,000,000 in 1914, -while its imports in 1904 were $13,000,000; they had increased in 10 -years to $35,500,000. Its development and prosperity have been steadily -upward. Owing to the fact that it has free trade with the United States, -we do most of its business, last year taking $34,400,000 of its exports -and sending it $31,750,000 of its imports. - -Its chief exports are: - - Sugar (400,000 tons) $28,000,000 - Tobacco (170,000,000 cigars, 12,000,000 packs cigarettes) 5,000,000 - Coffee (20,000 tons) 7,000,000 - Fruits (oranges, pineapples, grape-fruit, cocoanuts) 3,000,000 - -Porto Rico is essentially an agricultural country and will remain so. -Cattle can be raised. There are no mineral resources. - -Its requirements are for foodstuffs, flour, meats, tools, fertilizer, -oil, machinery, cement, structural iron, vegetables, dried fruits, and -fish, cotton goods, shoes, wines and liquors, confectionery, butter, and -toilet articles. - -United States money is used exclusively, as are also our systems of -weights and measures. Direct banking is done with the United States -through nine banks in the island. - -English is the official tongue, Spanish the popular language. - -There are no travelers’ taxes and samples pay no duty. - -The following cities are the most important: - - _Cities_ _Population_ - San Juan 50,000 - Ponce 35,000 - Mayaguez 17,000 - Caguas 11,000 - Arecibo 10,000 - Fajardo 9,000 - Yauco 8,500 - Guayama 8,500 - Humacao 7,000 - Aguadilla 6,000 - Cayey 5,000 - Coamo 4,000 - -Thirteen lines of vessels connect this island with the United States, -four going direct to New York and providing a semi-weekly mail service. -There are also ships to Europe as well as the nearby islands. - - - - - XVIII - THE GUIANAS: BRITISH, DUTCH AND FRENCH - - -Most travelers ignore British, Dutch and French Guiana, assuming that -climatic conditions are unfavorable and the small size of the population -means no demand for goods. The fact is that they are not unhealthful, -that their credit is good, their merchants reliable, their purchasing -power in proportion to their inhabitants is excellent and especially the -Dutch and British colonies are friendly to us and what we produce. They -are well worth a visit, and spend annually in the United States jointly -about $3,000,000. Furthermore, they are easily accessible from either -Trinidad or Barbados. - -British Guiana is by far the largest and most prosperous. This entire -tract was at one time in the possession of Spain and was under its -control until 1624. The Dutch in 1648, after the close of their war with -Spain, and through one of their mercantile companies, obtained a trading -port in what afterwards became known as Dutch Guiana. Following their -move, the English under Sir Walter Raleigh, acquired their present -possession, establishing a town now known as Surinam, the English -afterwards giving a portion of this territory to the Dutch in exchange -for their holdings in North America. About the same time the French -established a colony at Cayenne, and later on came near being embroiled -in a war with Brazil over the boundary line, which was finally amicably -adjusted. - -These three European colonies, the only ones by the way, in South -America, British Guiana being the most westerly, French Guiana the -eastern and Dutch Guiana between the others, have for their northern -boundary the Atlantic Ocean. Venezuela is the western neighbor of -British Guiana. Brazil touches each of these colonies as their southern -border, also forming the western boundary of French Guiana. - -The topography of all of these possessions is similar. Toward the -interior are mountains whose watershed forms many small rivers and -creeks flowing toward the Atlantic. Between the mountains and the ocean -are broad fields or savannahs, millions of acres in extent, which -gradually terminate in the low lands near the sea. In the highlands and -toward the mountains of the interior the climate is spring-like, but it -is always very warm along the coast, the temperature being about 80° -Fahrenheit, the entire year. There is much rainfall—100 inches being the -annual average. - -British Guiana covers an area of 90,277 square miles, with a population -of about 300,000, composed of about 160,000 coolies, imported by -contract from India and under the supervision of the British government, -the remainder being white, black and mixed breeds. The native Indians -have never been counted owing to the inaccessible location of their -settlements. The East Indians were brought for the purpose of working -sugar plantations, labor being very scarce. There are also about 5000 -Chinese. - -Georgetown with 55,000 inhabitants is the capital, the other settlements -being Essequibo and Berbice. - -The exports which represent the country’s products were in 1913: - - Sugar $5,250,000 - Rum 1,000,000 - Gold 1,400,000 - Balata 800,000 - Rice 500,000 - Diamonds 80,000 - -Of this the United Kingdom took goods worth $9,300,000 and the United -States but $125,000. - -During the same period, the imports amounted to $7,750,000, England and -her colonies supplying $5,545,000 and the United States $1,800,000. - -This colony has about 100 miles of railway, its many rivers and creeks -sufficing for its interior transportation. - -No traveler’s license is required. - -Banking is done through Canada and London; banks in these places having -branches in Georgetown and selling exchange on New York. English or -American money is used. - -Sugar is the great crop here and rum, a byproduct from the sugar cane, -the next largest. Cattle might be raised extensively. The forests are -rich in cabinet woods. Cocoa, rice, bananas, rubber and cocoanuts could -be more extensively grown. There are some gold and a few diamond mines -in operation. This colony could be much more highly developed. - -The business is almost entirely in the hands of the British, England -selling about 65 per cent. of its requirements and the United States 25 -per cent. - -They import bags and sacks, boots and shoes, flour, corn meal, coal, -drugs and medicines, vegetables, hardware, machinery, clothes, textiles, -oils, wines and liquors, tobacco, cigars and cigarettes. - -Georgetown is the only town to visit, and is best reached by either one -of the several steamers sailing from Trinidad or Barbados. - -Dutch Guiana, sometimes called Surinam, is 46,060 square miles in area, -with a population of 87,500, mostly Indians, negroes and Javanese, who -are brought out to work the canefields. The proportion of white is small -and they are mostly merchants and government employes. - -This country is susceptible of agricultural development, its products -and requirements being the same as British Guiana. Paramaribo, with -40,000 inhabitants, is the capital and only town that will repay a -visit. This colony is not very progressive, and its trade is decreasing. -In 1912 its exports were $3,500,000, mostly sugar, with some cocoa, -coffee, balata, gold, bananas and rum, of which Holland took $1,500,000 -worth and the United States $900,000. - -It imported goods to the value of $3,000,000, Holland supplying -$1,700,000 and the United States $700,000. - -There are opportunities here but for some reason the colony has been -neglected, the capital, Paramaribo, having no modern conveniences, not -even a water supply, although it is ideally located for sewerage and -aqueducts. - -Dutch money is in use, although American and English is accepted. -Merchants maintain accounts in New York or Europe for their -requirements. Credits are good. English is spoken by all business men. - -The Royal Dutch West Indies Mail direct from New York has two sailings a -month for this colony. It is also accessible from Trinidad, Curaçao, and -Barbados. - -French Guiana has 49,000 square miles of territory, with a population of -about 13,500, some 8,500 of which are convicts, as this is a penal -settlement. Capt. Dreyfus was confined here on Devil’s Island. This is -the least developed and less promising of these colonies. There is -little agriculture and less cattle raising. Whatever trade there is is -controlled by France. - -In 1912 the exports were: - - Gold $2,000,000 - Phosphate 55,000 - Balata 20,000 - Rosewood oil 46,000 - Rosewood 19,000 - Cocoa and hide 2,400,000 - -Most of this was shipped direct to the mother country. - -Of the imports of $2,000,000, 70 per cent. came from France, our share -being $300,000. It is doubtful if our trade here could be materially -increased. Cayenne is the only town to visit, and may be best reached -from Trinidad or from the French possession of Martinique or Guadaloupe. -French money is in use and while dealers give drafts on Paris or London, -most of them having business with New York, do so through some branch of -the Credit Lyonnais. - -No traveler’s fee is required. French is spoken. - -All of these possessions are ruled by officials sent from the motherland -for a term of years. - - - - - XIX - EUROPEAN POSSESSIONS IN THE WEST INDIES - - -Four European countries, England, France, Holland and Denmark, have -possessions in the West Indies. They are readily accessible, cleanly, -attractive, hospitable, and will repay a visit both for business and for -pleasure. All of them are dependent on the outside world for their -staples and food supplies, and to-day are receiving great attention at -the hands of the Canadian merchant, who has in many instances supplanted -us, especially in such necessities as flour, dried fish, butter, -potatoes, onions, cheese and fruits. Their trade is well worth catering -to, and much of it can be diverted into American channels. With the -exception of Martinique and Guadeloupe, English is spoken universally, -even in the Dutch and Danish islands. - -The Dutch colony of Curaçao consists of the island of that name, and the -adjacent islands of Bonaire, Aruba, St. Eustache, Saba and the southern -part of St. Martin, the northern portion belonging to France. These -islands are small and situated about 60 miles off the coast of Venezuela -to the north, having a total area of 403 square miles, Curaçao being the -largest, and about 30 miles long with an area of 210 square miles. They -are mostly all of coral formation and cannot raise enough food for the -sustenance of their 50,000 inhabitants, 30,000 of whom reside in -Curaçao. - -Wilhelmstadt with 25,000 is the capital and the residence of the Dutch -Governor. It is well equipped for coaling and provisioning ships, being -a free port, and as it is in the beaten path of travel from Europe to -the Panama Canal its future seems bright. - -The inhabitants of these islands are poor whites who have intermarried -and a few blacks. Curaçao, however, is the home of many wealthy Jews, -whose forefathers were banished from Portugal, these islands having -formerly belonged to that country. They are all merchants or traders, -owning coasting vessels that ply along the Latin American shores and the -other islands. Their credit is good and they are thoroughly up-to-date -in their business methods. - -While Dutch money is used, American, English, French, German and other -currency is received at the current rate of exchange. There are no -government banks, but each merchant has credits in the United States or -Europe and buys and sells exchange against it. - -The total exports of these islands are less than $1,000,000 yearly, -$300,000 representing coal brought from the United States and resold to -steamers. Many straw hats made from fibre imported from Venezuela and -Colombia are exported, the yearly production being about $350,000. Aloes -to the extent of $70,000 and dividivi, a dye wood, to the value of -$25,000, with hides, skins, and a native lace are the chief exports. -Aruba ships some phosphate rock and has one small gold mine in -operation. Much smuggling is done into Latin America. - -This group imports about $2,000,000, $500,000 coming from the United -States, $250,000 from Holland and the remainder from the leading -European nations. They require flour, rice, beans, onions, garlic, -corn-meal, condensed milk, medicines, oil, candles, tinned foods, soups, -hams, cottons, shoes and hardware. - -No duty or fees for travelers are charged. - -The “Red D” (American) Steamship Line has a ship a week from New York to -Curaçao, and the other islands can be reached by coasting boats from -this port. - -The Danish West Indies consist of three small islands in the Caribbean -sea, St. Thomas, St. Croix and St. John, their total area being 138 -square miles, with a population of about 25,000, mostly negroes, a few -mulattoes and some European officials. St. Thomas, the largest in the -group and about 26 miles from Fajardo, Porto Rico, is used as a coaling -station for Hamburg-American ships in the Latin American trade. Its -imports of $1,000,000 in 1913 are chiefly accounted for by one item—coal -from the United States amounting to $550,000. Much bay rum is distilled -here. The Panama Canal may revive the trade of this island, owing to its -location in the lane of steamship travel. - -St. Croix, with 14,000 people in its 81 square miles of area, raises -sugar and cotton. They also make considerable rum. - -The United States in 1913 exported $600,000 of St. Thomas’s $1,000,000 -imports and $550,000 of St. Croix’s $800,000 worth of imports. - -No fees are charged in these islands for commercial travelers. - -American money is used here as much as Danish. There are no banks, -merchants maintaining credits in New York or European markets from the -sale of their exports and drawing against them. English is spoken -universally. - -The Quebec Steamship Company sailing from New York connects with St. -Thomas; the other islands being reached by coasting vessels from this -point. There are many opportunities from San Juan, Porto Rico, to get to -St. Thomas. - -These people buy from us coal, food stuffs, flour, dried fish, candles, -oil, rice, onions, beans, shoes, clothing, boots, medicines, soaps and -other staples. - -The French islands in the Caribbean Sea are Martinique and Guadeloupe, -and they import their requirements from the mother country, owing to the -fact that such goods pay no duties. The town of St. Pierre, Martinique, -with its entire population of 70,000 inhabitants was totally destroyed -by an eruption from the extinct volcanoe of Mt. Pelee, May 8, 1902. -Josephine, the first wife of the Great Napoleon, was born at Fort de -France, Martinique. - -We sell these colonies some food stuffs, oils and necessities, our -yearly sales to Martinique being about $700,000 and to Guadeloupe about -$900,000. - -Martinique raises sugar and manufactures rum, her sugar production being -about $3,000,000 yearly, and her rum export equalling $2,000,000 -annually. Guadeloupe exports about $3,000,000 yearly, mostly cocoa, bay -leaves, and vanilla beans. - -The natives all speak French, and are mostly negroes and half-breeds, -with the usual admixture of French officials and soldiers. Guadeloupe -has about 1200 square miles and a population of 160,000, while -Martinique possesses an area of 380 square miles with about 200,000 -inhabitants. - -The smaller islands of Marie Galante, St. Barts and half of St. Martins -also belong to France and get their supplies from either Martinique or -Guadeloupe. - -The Quebec Steamship Company maintains a direct service between New York -and these islands, connections for the smaller ports being made by -coasting vessels. France also has a line of ships from Europe direct. - -The British West Indies are made up of the following islands: - -Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica and Turks Island, with Caicos Islands and -Caymans; Barbados; the Leeward Islands, consisting of Antigua, St. -Kitts, Barbuda, Redonda, Virgin Islands, Nevis, Anguilla, Montserrat and -Dominica; the Windward Islands comprising Granada, Grenadines, St. -Vincent, and St. Lucia; the Bahamas and Bermuda. - -Of these islands the population perhaps numbers 1,500,000, mostly -blacks, and mulattoes, with a small percentage of white officials and -merchants. The larger islands of Jamaica with 900,000 people, Barbados -with 200,000 and Trinidad with 300,000 are the only ones worth visiting -for business purposes, as merchants in these places have trading -connections with residents of the smaller localities. Kingston in -Jamaica, Georgetown in Barbados, and Port of Spain in Trinidad are the -only large cities, and have good hotels and prosperous business houses. - -English is spoken exclusively everywhere and American money accepted at -its face value as readily as English currency in all these possessions. -The larger islands have branches of Canadian and English banks with -direct connection in New York. Credits are good. - -In 1913 the exports were as follows: - - Trinidad and Tobago $26,000,000 - Jamaica and her outlying islands 11,000,000 - Barbados 5,000,000 - Leeward Islands 2,800,000 - Windward Islands 2,900,000 - Bahamas 1,300,000 - ——————————— - $49,000,000 - -Trinidad, (with Tobago, twenty miles distant), 1754 square miles in -area, is perhaps the most important. Of the $26,000,000 it should be -noted that $11,000,000 was for coal, trans-shipped and not produced in -the country, thereby reducing her actual productive power in money to -$15,000,000. Her chief exports were as follows: - - Cocoa $7,000,000 - Sugar 2,000,000 - Asphalt 1,300,000 - Petroleum 400,000 - Cocoanuts 500,000 - -in addition to copra, rum and molasses. Of these exports the United -States took $7,000,000, France $2,500,000, England $2,400,000, Canada -$875,000, and Germany $675,000. - -Her imports in 1913 were $13,750,000, England supplying $4,500,000; the -United States $4,000,000, Canada, $1,250,000, France $300,000 and -Germany $200,000. - -Both England and Canada are favored by a preferential tariff. - -Jamaica covers an area of 4424 square miles. Its exports in 1913 were -$11,000,000 as against $14,000,000 in imports. Her chief exports are: - - Bananas $5,000,000 - Logwood 850,000 - Coffee 750,000 - Cocoanuts 650,000 - Rum 500,000 - Sugar 260,000 - Ginger 180,000 - Tobacco 180,000 - -Of these the United States took $6,200,000, Great Britain $2,000,000, -France $750,000, Canada $425,000 and Germany $425,000. - -Jamaica’s chief export is bananas, almost all of which are taken by the -United States, who in return sells her 50 per cent. of her imports, -England, Canada and Germany following in the order named with -$5,300,000, $1,300,000, and $340,000 respectively to their credit. - -Jamaica has no preferential tariff with the United Kingdom and will not -have so long as the United States continues to be her best customer. - -Barbados’ area of 166 square miles is the most densely populated piece -of land in the world, with 200,000 inhabitants. It imported $6,500,000 -worth of goods in 1913 and exported $2,600,000. It is a great coaling -station for ocean vessels, its trade in this line alone amounting to -$2,400,000 last year. - -The United States took $330,000 of its production in 1913 and sold it -goods to the extent of $1,850,000. England controls most of its trade. -Its chief articles of export are sugar, rum and molasses. - -The following table shows the imports and exports of the chief of the -remaining islands: - - _Islands_ _Imports_ _Exports_ - St. Kitts and Nevis $1,250,000 $ 950,000 - Antigua 830,000 850,000 - Dominica 720,000 735,000 - Montserrat 150,000 180,000 - Granada 1,350,000 1,800,000 - St Lucia 1,500,000 550,000 - St. Vincent 600,000 550,000 - -All of these islands have a preferential duty treaty with Canada and -Great Britain, despite which our own sales with them in 1913 were about -$2,000,000. - -Sugar and rum are their chief products. Dominica and Montserrat export -limes, lime juice and citrate of lime. Granada and St. Lucia export -cocoa, and St. Vincent’s chief product is arrow-root. Last year St. -Lucia supplied 135,000 tons of coal to vessels, most of which came from -the United States. - -The Bahama group, of which Nassau with 13,000 population is the capital, -exported last year goods valued at $1,300,000, of which amount $850,000 -was in sponges and $350,000 in sisal, the United States taking $620,000 -worth. The imports in the same period were $2,000,000, of which we -supplied $1,400,000. - -Bermuda, 20 miles square with 3,000 inhabitants, depends for its -existence upon the tourists who visit it and what we purchase from and -ship to its shores. Its chief exports are Easter lilies, potatoes and -early vegetables, 4,000 out of 12,000 acres being under cultivation, -yielding the islands $500,000 yearly. Of its $2,775,000 imports this -country supplied $1,600,000, England $750,000 and Canada $350,000. - -None of these islands is self-sustaining. They need the necessities of -life; flour, foodstuffs, hams, meats, vegetables, butter, lard, candles, -oil, shoes, cotton, textiles, drugs, soaps, toilet articles, glassware, -machinery and corrugated iron. - -The Quebec Steamship Company and the Royal Mail Steamship Company, -sailing from New York, stop at the leading cities of the larger islands, -an inter-island steamship service being provided for. The Lamport and -Holt line touches both at Trinidad and Barbados on their northward trip -and the United Fruit Company boats stop at Jamaica. The Hamburg-American -Line ships call at many of these islands. - - - - - XX - FOREIGN TRADE WITH LATIN AMERICA AND HOW IT DEVELOPED - - -No military campaign was ever planned with such exactness of detail and -precision as that which characterized the preliminary movements of the -exporting nations of Europe to acquire control of Latin American -markets. When the Franco-Prussian war was over and the Powers of the Old -World had settled down to a development of their resources, it soon -became apparent that foreign fields must be sought in which to dispose -of the excess products of their industry. With that object in view -governments, trade associations, manufacturers, shippers, exporters, -civic and social societies, colleges, merchants, and individuals united -in one harmonious movement to accomplish this purpose. While each nation -followed more or less the same general plan, still Germany attacked the -problem with the thoroughness so typical of its people that its course -in this direction may be taken as an example of what should be done in -similar contingencies, and it may be well worth mentioning in detail. - -To impress the Latin American people that their trade was courted by the -nation as well as the individual producer, government commissions were -dispatched from Europe to each of these countries, when possible in a -war vessel of the nation sending them. With much pomp and great ceremony -visits were exchanged between the members of this body and the -authorities ashore and every effort made to develop a national feeling -of regard between both parties, very much the same as we did when -Commodore Perry opened up Japan to the world. Much time was spent in -each country and nothing was overlooked that might be of any aid to -accomplish the object in view. - -Following these emissaries from the European Power came officials of -trade bodies and business organizations, college professors and writers, -each one studying the situation from his particular point of view and -noting the things most required and the methods under which business was -conducted. One of the subjects given the most complete and far reaching -attention was the question of banking relations and how to best develop -this important field, for it was early seen that this would form the -most essential link in the perfected chain of business success. In the -meantime the home government had caused to be printed throughout its -territory, full and specific facts regarding the countries, the nature -of their soils, everything obtainable about the flora and fauna, their -mountains and minerals, the various waterways, climatic conditions and -what crops could be grown with profit, with complete data concerning -business opportunities. Commercial schools were opened wherein the -student was taught Spanish and Portuguese, and perfectly drilled in -Latin American business methods and etiquette. Realizing that much of -their future success in these lands would be dependent upon having -colonies throughout them, every effort was made to encourage emigration, -the official authorities knowing full well that affection for the -Fatherland and a belief in the superiority of its products, would -materially help in the dissemination of its goods and keep up a demand -for home made articles, until they had through their own merit obtained -a foothold among the natives. As a direct result of this plan of -colonization, fully one-fourth of the population of Chile are either -German or of German descent, and the southern section of this country -reminds one more of a portion of Germany in its type of building, the -characteristics of the inhabitants, their dress, the nature of their -business and their modes of living than of a Latin nation. The same is -also true in the southern part of Brazil, where the Germans have many -colonies, each provided with public schools in which natives are really -taught German before acquiring their mother tongue. - -The real ambassador of commerce—the traveling man—courteous, polite, -affable, familiar with trade customs, national mannerisms, and speaking -both Spanish and Portuguese perfectly was on the scene early, paying -particular attention to the demands of the merchant. If a certain style -of cloth was too wide, the obliging German made it of the dimensions -required. If the color was too subdued for the aboriginal customer of -the native merchant, the pattern and pigment were changed to suit the -buyer. If plows were required with one handle instead of two, so that -the farmer could have the other free for manipulating his cigarette, his -wish was cheerfully complied with. The idea that filled the mind of the -salesmen from Europe was to give the customer just what he wanted, and -this rule was never deviated from. No attempt was made to force the -storekeeper to adopt the customs of Europe in anything, but stress was -laid on the fact that their only object was to oblige in every way the -buyer, and cater to his demands. The suggestion from the storekeeper -that he got six months’ time from England’s manufacturers, on this line -of goods, was combated with the unanswerable argument that the seller -would be pleased to bill the order at eight months if desired. - -Samples of native-made articles that sold well were also purchased by -the wide-awake representatives and sent home with full and complete data -as to price, cost of manufacture, quantities consumed, and any other -useful hint that practical observation might suggest, so that those in -Germany might have an opportunity to experiment with a view to reducing -the cost of the article and thereby obtain commercial control of this -particular line. In a word, no stone was left unturned to accomplish the -object always in view, namely—the complete capture of these markets. - -As orders began to come in and were ready for exportation Germany -suddenly realized that she was confronted with a problem which she had -not seriously considered before—that of a national merchant marine. -Without ships this vast business, now practically acquired, was at the -mercy of the foreigner who had vessels in which to convey it to the -markets across the seas. With the exorbitant freight rates which were -beginning to be charged, as cargoes multiplied and ships became scarce, -it became obvious that all this newly secured trade would be seriously -jeopardized, if not completely lost, unless the entire situation was -under the absolute control of the Government and in the hands of the -German people. Accordingly the State took up the question, and to make a -long story short, the result was the development of the enormous German -merchant marine,—perhaps the most complete and perfect in the world—with -subsidies from the national treasury, which enabled ship owners to quote -a freight rate per ton so low, that it was cheaper to ship German made -goods from Hamburg to Valparaiso, than from Hamburg to many of the -interior cities of the Fatherland for home consumption. This last stroke -of generalship in this business campaign for commercial supremacy gave -Germany the greatest impetus toward reaching the goal upon which her -eyes were fixed, and as a result her export trade as well as her import -trade, increased by leaps and bounds, making her the envy of all Europe, -a condition which in the opinion of many people undoubtedly had much to -do with precipitating the European War. - -This briefly is the story of how Germany secured control of not only -Latin American trade, but much of the over seas business of the world. -In the republics to the south of us the national effect of this -commercial invasion is very noticeable. Natives were invited to visit -and get acquainted with Germans in Germany, and when they accepted were -the recipients of such courteous treatment and became so thoroughly -impressed with the perfection of the German nation in every field of -enterprise, that they returned enthusiasts on the subject. One of the -results of this is seen to-day in the armies of Colombia, Mexico, Chile, -Argentine, Venezuela and some of the Central American countries. They -have all been instructed by German officers, imported for the special -purpose and kindly loaned by the German military authorities—a fact -worthy of serious thought when we think that some day Germany may turn -covetous eyes upon some parts of Latin America. To see some of these -troops march past with their peculiar knapsack, their goose-step and the -_pickelhaub_ helmet, makes one feel that one is in Germany for the time -being, anyway. Throughout the length and breadth of Central and South -America are to be found German delicatessen shops and hotels; German -stores and breweries; German banks and steamship lines; German salesmen -and German schools, each one dependent on the Fatherland for supplies, -and in turn playing an effective part and contributing a strenuous share -toward forcing Germany to the front in every way. - -In developing local markets their methods were equally unique and -practical. I recall for instance the first brewery started in Venezuela. -Venezuelans knew of beer in much the same way that we of the States know -of _mate_, the herb used so extensively in the Argentine, Uruguay and -Paraguay, for making a beverage—that is they had read about it and heard -people refer to it, but few really knew what it looked like or how it -tasted. All were naturally more or less suspicious of it. Nothing -daunted the phlegmatic Teutons who had invested their money in the -erection of the plant in pursuing their stolid, predetermined plan of -introducing beer as a national beverage in lieu of the light clarets and -other wines, formerly so much in use in these countries. A building on -the most prominent corner of the city of Caracas was leased and in it -chairs and tables were arranged as in German beer halls, while adjacent -to the bar at which the beer was served direct from the barrel, was a -lunch stand which provided excellent delicatessen food. When everything -was ready, invitations were sent broadcast to the better class families -to come and accept the hospitality of the brewing company without cost -for the purpose of becoming better acquainted with the health and -strength-giving properties of real German beer. Physicians were -“sampled” in detail and told when to prescribe and what to expect from -this wonderful beverage in certain diseases and especially during -convalescence. Within a few months’ time the saloon became a rendezvous -of the elite. Ultimately beer supplanted all other alcoholic drinks in -this particular city. The same plan was carried out in other towns and I -am certain that Latin America to-day can boast of more breweries, per -capita, than Germany. Other local trade problems were attacked and -solved in the same sensible, simple and practical manner, the result -always being that German products grew in favor and in demand. - -England, France and Italy of course developed their business in these -lands along much the same lines, but none of these nations showed the -deliberately planned aggressiveness and solidarity of purpose, or the -determined unity of spirit that animated the German. England did more to -establish her connections throughout Latin America along the path of -extensive investments in national and local securities, the building of -railroads, the dredging of harbors and erection of docks, while France, -relying upon the admitted and acknowledged fact that all the civilized -world looked to her for its fashions, styles, millinery, articles of -clothing and dress, toilet goods, and luxuries, very naturally took -advantage of existing conditions and used this as a foundation on which -to erect her trade. Whatever commercial prestige either Spain or -Portugal acquired in these countries was due almost entirely to the -presence of thousands of citizens of these nations, who created a demand -for articles of home production, and this is relatively small. - -In this simple but thorough manner was the trail to business success in -this field blazed. The experiences of our predecessors, and the lessons -they learned should stand us in good stead in our efforts and help to -direct our feet from all possible pitfalls. In fact we should, by -following and improving on their attempts, if this be possible, acquire -a commercial supremacy in this territory in less than half the time -taken by the Europeans. - - - - - XXI - METHODS OF DOING BUSINESS - - -The question of what method to employ in developing a business in Latin -America depends primarily upon your capital and the nature of your -product. Obviously we manufacture numerous things that these countries -cannot use. Many of our manufacturers seem to be totally unaware of the -goods suitable for these markets or their peculiar requirements. I have -met a man in Brazil selling, or rather trying to sell, snow plows. It is -quite apparent that no amount of exploitation or argument could possibly -produce results with such a commodity. With the exception of a few of -the more southerly cities of South America, and some located in the -highest mountains it would be useless to send a representative to these -fields for the purpose of introducing a heating system, no matter what -virtue it might have. I know of an American canoe manufacturing concern -advertising its wares in a portion of the Argentine which is absolutely -dry and without navigable water, as a result of which imported bull -frogs die of old age without ever having a swim. It therefore behooves -one to make a full and exhaustive investigation through all possible -sources of information, and ascertain if one’s goods are really -appropriate for these lands. Another point worthy of consideration is -that wares especially adapted to the uses of some countries may be -totally unfit for others. Accurate preliminary data of a reliable nature -may generally be obtained by addressing the United States Consuls -located at the various seaports of the Latin American countries. These -gentlemen are especially equipped for obtaining all the information -necessary, and are charged by the United States Government to supply -complete details to inquirers. - -[Illustration: - - A COMPARISON OF CLIMATES - - This map shows South America with its cities and countries placed just - as far to the north of the Equator as they naturally lie to the - south of it, in order to enable comparison at a glance of the - climatic relationship between the United States and the South - American markets. The effect is the same as if the map of the - Western Hemisphere were folded together at the Equator and the - impression of the South American part transferred upon the map of - North America. The longitudinal position of every part of South - America is thus correct. - - The map at first glance would lead one to say that Argentina has a - range of climate equal to that from the City of Mexico to Hudson - Bay, but the climate of South America can’t be judged that way. A - cold ocean current along the West Coast and a warm one along the - East Coast greatly modify it. The altitudes of parts of the - continent within the tropical zone also temper the heat. The extreme - north of Argentina is described as having the climate of Southern - Florida. The mean annual temperature at the very southermost part of - Argentina is said to be about that of Maine with a minimum hardly - lower than the moderate one of Puget Sound and a maximum no higher - than that of Nova Scotia. All Argentina is said not to have the - extreme range of temperature found in the United States. Going to - show how greatly ocean currents offset latitude, the islands of - Great Britain are also drawn in on the map in their position - relative to the Equator. London is farther north than the - northermost spot in the United States exclusive of Alaska. - - - (_Reprinted by permission of the editor of_ The Americas, _published - by the National City Bank of New York_). -] - -The wisest and best plan, once you are determined to enter these fields, -is for one of the heads of the firm or one of the leading officers of -the company to make a preliminary tour through the lands in question for -the purpose of studying the situation and ascertaining the demands -existing for similar lines. On such a trip prices should be carefully -observed, strict attention paid to duties, freight and other incidental -charges. It is by noting and studying these conditions that you will be -able to meet and overcome competition. Special care should be exercised -in giving the natives just what they want and not in trying to foist on -them the thing you wish them to have, even should it be better, cheaper -and more practicable. With this object in view, local dealers and -merchants should be interviewed and care taken to ascertain every detail -that might possibly have any bearing on your future marketing plans. -Being thoroughly prepared in advance helps materially in smoothing the -road to be travelled. Samples of competing lines with prices and minute -data of all kinds should be sent to the home office for reference -purposes. - -It will soon be apparent, assuming that the official or representative -who has gone over the field finds it pregnant with possibilities, that -your business in Latin America may be conducted upon one of the -following lines: - -First. The opening of your own branch house for each country, or for a -group of countries. - -Second. Establishing an exclusive agency for each country with a -resident merchant therein. - -Third. Selling through your own representative directly and conducting -your own shipping and banking. - -Fourth. Marketing your article through some American export commission -house. - -Fifth. Exploiting your goods through your own representative and turning -the account over to a local or native commission house or merchant for -forwarding the goods and collecting for the same. - -Sixth. Uniting with several manufacturers in allied lines and sending -one salesman to represent you, on a co-operative plan. - -Which of these particular forms of introduction is best adapted to your -special line is a matter for you alone to determine. - -Assuming that your capital and commodity warrants you in establishing a -branch house in each individual country or in a group of countries, -which is by far the best plan of conducting your business, the question -of prime importance is that you should be located in or near the leading -seaport in order that you may be close to shipping as well as to be able -to superintend personally the discharge of goods and their clearance -through the slow moving native custom houses. Great care should be taken -to be on the leading line of railway, or near as many different lines as -possible in order to facilitate the forwarding of goods to their -destination and to the interior. These are vital factors and should be -carefully weighed in determining your location. If your business is one -requiring the carrying of a large and varied stock, it will be rather -difficult to get proper warehousing accommodations especially in the -metropolis or port and it may be necessary to erect your own building -for this purpose. - -The adoption of this system of introducing a line of goods requires -careful planning and too much stress cannot be laid upon the selection -of a tactful and experienced manager for your venture. Banking -arrangements must be made. Municipal and state taxes must be provided -for and the thousand and one details attended to that are unknown and -unheard of in this country, each one of which requires patience and tact -in solving and means the expenditure of money and the apparent wasting -of much time. In other words the initial expense involved is far greater -than a similar undertaking would be in the United States or Europe and -only a business yielding large profits can be expected to withstand the -immense financial drains to be incurred. While the salaries of the -native office help will be comparatively smaller than the prices paid in -the United States, still there will be noted an increased cost in -maintaining a travelling force as well as the necessary American -employes of the staff. Transportation charges are high and the cost of a -salesman on the road in any of these lands means fully double the -expenses of a similar man in this country. Travel facilities are poor, -distances between markets long and much time must be consumed in each -city visited, especially in the preliminary trips, all of which -increases the cost of the traveller, and for the first few years makes -him a rather expensive luxury. This must be submitted to with patience -for upon his efforts depends your success. It therefore follows that the -business to be done must be a large one to afford such preliminary -charges and its future outlook must be of the brightest character. That -such agencies can be maintained at a profit however is proved by the -fact that all the large houses of Europe prefer doing business along -this line, and within comparatively recent years this is the method -being employed by the big American houses and corporations venturing -into these territories. The Standard Oil Company, the Vacuum Oil -Company, The Singer Sewing Machine Company, The National Cash Register -Company and many of the larger mercantile houses and manufacturing -concerns maintain their own branch offices in the principal cities of -the Latin American countries and are entirely satisfied with the -results. - -The establishment of your own agency in a country indicates to the -public your intention to become a portion of the native business -community and gives you a solid standing with the trade besides bringing -you in closer and more intimate touch with the consumer. It has many -other advantageous features which must be apparent. - -Should your business not warrant such an outlay, the next best method of -approaching the situation is the appointing of some high-grade, resident -merchant, either foreign or native, in each country, as your exclusive -representative. It is obviously unnecessary to state that in making such -a selection the greatest care should be taken to investigate most -thoroughly the business reputation and financial standing of the one -appointed. Very often it is wisest to give your agency to some small, -young aggressive firm, with limited capital, rather than to a staid old -house with much money and prestige. These suggestions are given for what -they are worth. Common sense will indicate the concern which in your -good judgment is best adapted to represent you properly. Old established -houses generally have the capital and means to introduce goods through -the country and will often guarantee to place a certain amount of -business within the year upon conditions to be specified. Once you have -placed your agency, be sure to turn over all inquiries or orders -received from within their territory to them for their attention. This I -regret to state has not been typical of American houses and has done -much to make responsible firms hesitate about accepting exclusive -agencies. A strict adherence to this suggestion will tend to establish -your honesty of purpose and will be deeply gratifying to your local -representatives. - -The house accepting your agency will have its own salesmen to travel the -country and to introduce your line to the trade in addition to other -appropriate means toward this end. They will be only too glad to have -your representative accompany their local man from time to time and are -highly appreciative of such an interest, because it stimulates both the -customer and their representative and at the same time gives you the -opportunity of knowing just what they are doing and what they have to -overcome in the way of prejudice and competition. It is always well to -aid the local agency with a small advertising allowance, to be spent as -your combined judgments may dictate. This gives a further evidence to -them of your desire to go after the trade and keeps their interest more -intense on your line. Unfortunately too many American houses think that -it is unnecessary to spend any money in advertising their goods in these -lands. The sooner they take advantage of the advertising possibilities -afforded by these virgin fields the larger and quicker will come the -returns. Very often it is advisable to make specific allowances to the -firm holding your local agency with a view to having their -representatives make special trips in your behalf. These are, however, -all details to be worked out advantageously between the contracting -parties and will suggest themselves as conditions develop. - -In the event of your organization having an export department, properly -equipped to conduct correspondence in the native tongue and give direct -attention to the banking problems arising as well as to shipping and -forwarding it is advisable to have your own traveller, or travellers, to -cover one or more of the countries or all of the territory involved. -This keeps the home office in closer touch with all the details of the -business and is to be commended in certain lines of trade but is only -advisable when one’s foreign department is thoroughly perfected and in -the hands of a competent manager. - -Orders sent in by your traveller will contain such complete and specific -instructions as to forwarding and banking that they can be intelligently -handled at a minimum of expense with your own force. It should be -observed however that your representatives for the first few years -should make the entire territory once every twelve months at least, and -oftener if conditions warrant, in order to keep your goods continually -before the dealers and to engrave upon their memories that you are in -the field to stay and wish to cater to them and their wants. - -If conditions are such that you cannot afford a personal representative -the commission export house offers opportunities for bringing your goods -to the attention of the native dealer. There are many of these concerns -situated in all of the larger cities of the United States; New York, New -Orleans and San Francisco being especially well provided with them, -owing to the fact that they are the largest ports in the East, South and -West respectively and have excellent forwarding facilities. As a rule -these firms are well supplied with capital and capable of rendering -effective and efficient services. They are open, however, to the one -objection that most naturally they will give the greatest attention to -the line yielding them the largest profit, and just how to induce them -to handle your goods to the exclusion of other competitors is a problem -to be solved by you with the concern you decide to use for your -purposes. Furthermore, it should be your express duty to see positively -that your customer is thoroughly protected against the commission house -making any additional charges or increasing the original price quoted by -you to your client. This has been a common practice, and has had the -effect of tending to retard business and prejudice trade in these lands. - -As a rule these agents pay cash for goods when delivered, a feature -which has its attractions to the manufacturer or merchant working on a -limited capital and requiring his money promptly. Their financial -connections are of a kind that enable them to do this, allowing a very -small commission for their trouble. In addition to all these features -they have a corps of experts familiar with shipping procedures, -insurance problems, the routing of freight, packing, banking, as well as -the details of foreign correspondence so that much of the complications -and annoyances of the export trade is taken from your shoulders and -borne by men familiar with the entire subject. Every few months it is -the custom of many of these organizations to send their representatives -through the entire Latin American territory with the idea of developing -trade and receiving orders. There can be no question as to their place -in this field or as to their general efficiency, and it is always well -to discuss with some high class commission export house what they can -offer your particular line when contemplating the possibilities of doing -business in these lands. - -A few American merchants have found it expedient to sell goods through -their own representatives, turning the accounts over for delivery to -some local concern for the purpose of forwarding the goods and making -the collections thereon. While this may be advisable under some -conditions, still it is not a practice to be commended and is only -warranted when the local or native commission agent is of a high grade -and financially responsible and where the purchaser is likely to impose -upon the buyer through some of the many methods in vogue among a certain -type of small native business men. - -Rather than entrust the future of one’s business in the export field -with an inferior representative, it would be better to co-operate with -several manufacturers in allied lines, and send one man to represent the -entire group. It is questionable if one traveller could do justice to -more than five or six lines and they for obvious reasons should be -related to each other, the principal idea being to economize the time -and expenses of the one handling them. For example, a representative -might carry neckties, shirts, collars, socks, and men’s underwear and -hats, or such lines as corsets, stockings, ladies’ underwear and shirt -waists might be effectively presented by one salesman. - -The strictest care should be taken in the selection of the person to -represent each group of merchants and under no circumstances should -lines which might sooner or later develop into competing ones be allowed -to be carried. - -Such an arrangement appeals particularly to the smaller manufacturer or -merchant in that it brings his goods to the attention of the foreign -dealer at a minimum of cost with a maximum of efficiency and paves the -way for developing the market. Many of the leading sellers in Latin -America to-day had their start along this line of co-operative selling. - -Whatever medium you may feel it wise to select in entering these fields, -bear in mind the fact that under no circumstances should your -representative overstock the buyer with goods. It is far better to -receive small orders at first than to sell large ones which may move -slowly. Climatic conditions are such that in Latin America many goods, -unless sold quickly, rapidly deteriorate and the consequent loss will -fall on the individual merchant and result in complaints from the buyer -if he becomes the possessor of damaged goods, thereby prejudicing your -article in his sight. The salesman in thus cautioning a dealer will -exhibit his material interest in the future welfare of the merchant and -more thoroughly establish a substantial business friendship with his -client. - -In many of the countries of Latin America, owing to their enormous -extent and lack of travel facility, as well as the exorbitant local -freight rates and great distances to be traversed it is often wise to -establish more than one agency. In Brazil for example, it might be well -to place agencies in Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Bahia, Pernambuco, and -Para, for the simple but sufficient reason that the freight on goods -from New York to any of these ports direct, is less than the local -freights between many of these cities. To get from Callao, Peru, on the -west coast to Iquitos on the eastern boundary of that republic is a -difficult problem. It is really quicker, cheaper and far more convenient -and comfortable to come first to New York, then go to Brazil and up the -Amazon, to Iquitos, than to undertake the hazardous journey of many -weeks across the risky overland trails through the interior of Peru. -Assuming that you were desirous of giving an agency for some special -line of merchandise liable to be a good seller in the eastern frontier -of Peru as well as throughout the republic, one agency should be placed -in Callao, or Lima and the other in Iquitos. In Chile, it is likewise -often advisable to place an agency for goods in one of the northern -ports of the republic as well as in Valparaiso, or Santiago, either -Iquique or Antofagasta being selected for this purpose, as being best -adapted to reach the center of the nitrate industries. - -[Illustration: - - _Photograph by Underwood & Underwood_ - - Drying hides and skins in Argentine -] - -Many of the Central American countries, particularly Nicaragua, -Guatemala, and Honduras, as well as Mexico, having seaboards on both -coasts will present problems for determining the location of agencies -accessible to both oceans. These and other conditions will be -continually arising. After discussing the matter with your factor or -your representative, common business judgment will be the only safe and -sane rule to warrant you in reaching a decision. - - - - - XXII - THE SALESMAN AND THE CUSTOMER - - -The success or failure of a business venture in Latin America depends -materially on the character of the representative sent to these marts of -trade. Never having seen or heard of you or your goods, it is most -natural for the foreign merchant to make his deductions from your -emissary. - -The typical ambassador of commerce for South American fields should -combine elegance of dress and courtliness of manners; be a linguist; a -scholar; a diplomat; a philosopher; always a student and a business man -as well. He should continually bear in mind that his visit is -unsolicited—that in a sense he is an aggressor, an intruder, and above -everything he should conform to the usages that custom has established -in this part of the world. - -European merchants and their travellers, with the hope of strengthening -their position have spread about the unwarranted idea that the Yankee is -tricky in all his dealings and this condition must at all times be -combated not theoretically but obviously and practically. Be frank with -prospective customers. Do not try to load them up with goods. Keep your -agreements to the letter. Live up to your contract even if you lose -money by doing so. Follow exactly whatever shipping instructions are -given. - -After an initial visit to a possible client it is advisable to develop -his social side. Ascertain to what clubs he belongs and get put up at -them, so that an opportunity may arise to see him after the cares that -infest the day are gone. You will find the Latin American a gentleman, a -past master of the art of etiquette, a Chesterfield in matters of -decorum and an agreeable companion. He, like ourselves, has his -weaknesses. Find what they are and cater to them. He will be responsive, -after he gets to know you. The amount of flattery that he will stand for -and assimilate is beyond belief. The Spanish language is especially -equipped for the purpose and provides means for raising to its _n_th -power the superlative degree. Do not for a moment get the idea that you -are dealing with a child, for though, like the Chinaman, he presents a -bland exterior, he is uncannily wise. He knows his line and prices and -market conditions. Existing in a world of little excitement, few -amusements, and one foreign mail per week, his mind is not diverted and -he unconsciously concentrates and becomes a specialist in his business. -Having always lived thousands of miles from markets he has learned to -prognosticate trade developments years ahead. - -He expects to talk to you in Spanish excepting in Brazil where the -language is Portuguese, and he will tell you that 100,000,000 people all -over the world speak in this tongue; that European salesmen converse -with him in this tongue. Obviously, if you can discuss affairs with him -in his own idiom you are on the road to success. He often speaks French -too, and if you cannot talk in the language of the Dons he will ask you -to do so in that of the Gauls. Only in the largest establishments of the -big seaport towns will one find merchants with an employe or two -familiar with English. It is therefore obvious without a knowledge of -Spanish a salesman in this territory is hopelessly and seriously -handicapped. In fact he is inefficient. Europeans recognizing the -importance of this employ only representatives speaking the languages of -the countries wherein they travel. I recall meeting a German in Assam -talking fluently the native tongue and later ran across him in Arabia -conversing in Arabic in the market place. Americans have never been -linguists, but in our business lexicon there should be no such word as -“impossible.” - -I remember an American traveller for an oil machinery house startling -those in the dining room of the leading hotel in Lima, Peru, by pointing -to the menu and alternately grunting and squealing aloud. He could not -talk Spanish. In a few moments the place was in an uproar. Some thought -he had gone crazy; others that he was insulting the Peruvians or the -proprietor of the hotel. The head waiter rushed to me and asked that I -ascertain what the trouble was. Imagine my surprise when my countryman -in explanation of his barnyard impersonation said: “I was trying to tell -these durned fools that I wanted ham.” Incidents like these are never -forgotten; always magnified when told and invariably hurt us seriously, -socially and otherwise. This little affair happening in a foreign -country where news is scarce was talked of in the hotels, clubs and -cafés, printed in the journals and illustrated in the comic papers. -Americans were always referred to by each narrator as uncouth and the -story gone into with great detail and precision. Grandparents in Peru -one hundred years from now will be telling this yarn to their -grandchildren. - -I have long ago ceased to wonder at the lack of common sense exhibited -by some large American houses in selecting the type of man they employ -for Latin America. I recall one well known concern in this country -sending a man to sell carbon paper and typewriter ribbons who spoke only -English. Of the man personally I will only state that by nature he was -the very antithesis of everything he should have been. Calling upon the -leading jobber in his line in Bolivia who spoke only Spanish he found it -impossible to do business, and undertook to tell his prices by yelling -them, a method in vogue among those who have command of one language and -who seem to feel that if you can repeat loudly in a crescendo voice, and -with great precision, what you have to say your hearer will ultimately -by some occult means understand. In the midst of this vocal exercise by -the American, a German happened to drop in, also desirous of selling the -dealer goods, and kindly offered to interpret for the Yankee, which -suggestion was eagerly accepted. The gentleman from the Fatherland was -also selling typewriter supplies and I heard him afterwards telling his -friends in the hotel with much gusto how he handled the matter. I shall -not try to repeat the conversation. It was humiliating for me to think -what a fool my fellow citizen had allowed himself to be made. When the -American said “These ribbons are $4.00 a dozen,” the German translated: -“These ribbons are $8.00 a dozen.” The American salesman told me -afterwards that he had written his house that they could not compete -with European prices in this market and I am certain that this concern -will never again be tempted even to consider Latin American -possibilities. These two cases strikingly serve to illustrate the -importance of being familiar with Spanish, or the language of the -country wherein you are expected to sell goods. - -Extremely sensitive and quick to appreciate a kindness, it pays to study -the social usages among Latin Americans and to live in conformity -therewith when among them. It is, for example, considered good taste to -walk always on the side of the street next the curb, to take off your -hat and stand uncovered as the funeral of peon or plutocrat passes, to -bow generally to those present as you enter a streetcar or café and to -salute them similarly as you depart, while gentlemen always raise their -hats when they meet. The observance of these frivolous niceties marks -the gentleman, the failure to do so the man, and the yawning abyss -between these two degrees of masculinity to the Latin American mind -cannot be bridged. - -Generally speaking every Latin American is named after some saint and -observes the festival of this canonized individual both socially and -religiously. Ascertain what day this is and always send some little -remembrance. It creates an intimacy hard for us cold-blooded northerners -to understand. Never forget church and national festivals. Both of these -are dearer to the impulsive natives than are our own and are celebrated -more elaborately. It pays to keep a memorandum book for this purpose, -noting data of this nature, so as to be always in close personal touch -with customers and prospective clients. Little cards and other -appropriate souvenirs from the north commemorating these events are -highly cherished as well as deeply appreciated and erect invisible and -effective barricades about the sympathetic Latin, sufficient to repulse -the attacks of other salesmen. - -Religion and political conditions should never be discussed. The Latin -American is almost always superstitiously religious and intensely -political. To take the wrong side of a theological argument may land you -in the hospital while an error in judgment on a political problem may -mean jail. Both are places to be avoided in these lands. Besides such -arguments always serve to make one decidedly unpopular and materially -hurt business prospects. - -Religious processions are frequent in the streets. They excite curiosity -and are often amusing viewed from our standpoint. Do what the populace -does as they pass: kneel or raise your hat, otherwise get away from the -scene as quickly as you can. Many clerical parades have been turned to -riots by some foolish foreigner failing to observe these suggestions. - -With but few exceptions, hotels in Latin America are terrible. Toilet -and bathing accommodations are poor, the cooking vile and the dishes -unpalatable, while the beds are intolerable. Vaults in American -cemeteries are far preferable as residential quarters in comparison with -some rooms I have slept in in this part of the world, especially in the -small towns and villages of the interior. Conditions become rapidly -worse the farther away one gets from the larger cities, and as one -penetrates out of the way places hammocks and your own food supplies are -to be recommended. It would be almost impossible to describe the -primitiveness which exists in this part of the Western Continent away -from the beaten path. Travel facilities are execrable. Trains are slow -and late and accommodations decidedly bad. Steamers are small and stuffy -and not safe. River boats are provided with few if any conveniences. -Going up the Magdalena River in Colombia from Barranquilla to Bogota, a -journey of about ten days, the traveller formerly had to provide his own -sleeping accommodations and this _was wise_, and it always showed good -judgment to carry tinned food and bottled water. - -Appointments are more often honored in the breach than in the -observance, more often forgotten or delayed than kept. Business for no -apparent reason is deferred to “mañaña” (to-morrow). Time is not -considered by our friends residing in the vicinity of the equator. - -These and many more heart-breaking conditions will confront you every -day of your trip through Mañaña land. Be a philosopher. Don’t grumble. -You came for business. These delays and deprivations are only incidents -in the game; they make the reaching of the goal all the more of a -victory. Grit your teeth and forge ahead. If fleas and mosquitoes and -bedbugs bite, don’t revenge yourself on your possible customer, by -telling him what you think of his country and countrymen. Learn to -smile. It helps more here than elsewhere. - -Be a student from the day that you sail from America to the day that you -hand in your last expense account. It will improve you mentally and help -your firm financially. Study the needs of the various countries through -which you pass. Observe what the people require. Listen to suggestions -from all sources. European successes in these markets were greatly -advanced by giving the people just what they wanted. Yours will come in -the same manner. Remember that a vast majority of the population whom -you will meet are either Indians or of Indian origin. Their tastes are -sure to be primitive, to incline to gaudy colorings and lack -practicability. Remember, too, that they are paying the bills. If they -want the things that offend your educated, æsthetic eye, forget it and -explain to the house why they should make them as desired. It is always -easier to follow styles in vogue for centuries than to create new ones -and foist them on the public. - -Latin America has always been a hotbed for disease. Be abstemious in -eating and drinking. Alcoholic beverages should be taboo, inasmuch as -they unnecessarily heat the system. Water supplies are inefficient and -often polluted. Your drinking water should be boiled; if good water is -not obtainable otherwise drink some reliable mineral water. Remember -that plague comes from the bite of the flea, and yellow fever and -malaria from the bite of the mosquito, so avoid as much as possible the -places where these pests are to be found. Daily baths are apt to remove -danger from flea bites and sleeping under a net minimizes the -possibilities of contracting yellow and malarial fevers. Personal -hygiene should always be observed. In twenty years of the roughest and -toughest travelling up creeks and down tropical rivers, through forests -heavy with dew, across barren, wind-swept plains, over mountains, in -high and low altitudes, by exercising these suggested precautions I have -had only one serious illness, yellow fever. Conditions have vastly -improved since I first began my trips and are getting better every year. -With judgment one could now take a journey all over Latin America -without any physical dangers or serious illness intervening, and with -less risk than he would be liable to encounter on a trip between New -York and Chicago. - -From a perusal of the requirements necessary for a salesman in this -territory, and I may add that I have not overcolored, or underestimated -them, it is apparent that the right man will be difficult to find. If a -house cannot see its way clear to enter this field with the right kind -of a representative, it had better remain out of it altogether or -combine with several concerns in allied lines and send one high grade -man to represent them jointly. It is extremely doubtful if any one could -do justice to more than five firms in such a venture. The plan adopted -by European houses is to send a capable young man to one of the -countries and let him live there until he has acquired the language, the -customs of the people and their ways of doing business. Then they put -him on the road. This serves to demonstrate the thoroughness which -marked every step of the European conquest of these markets. Our -American public schools are now instructing pupils in Spanish and Latin -Americans are coming to this country to acquire English in increasing -numbers right along, so that the possibilities are that within a few -years these conditions will change for the better. To-day, however, the -efficient, competent and reliable salesman for Latin America is so rare -and so much in demand that he can practically name his own salary. - -Nearly every country in Latin America requires that a license to sell -goods must be taken out by the salesman before he can do business within -its territory, and as a result there has arisen much cause for -complaint. As a rule these taxes or fees are entirely too high and out -of proportion to those charged anywhere else in the world, thereby -creating a natural tendency to evade the law by every possible means. In -some localities runners about the hotels stand in with the authorities -and for a small sum provide guests with the necessary paper entitling -them to sell goods, while in other places the law is practically -ignored. - -The right to collect this tax in many countries is sold yearly by the -municipal authorities for a lump sum to some individual, who always -endeavors to collect as much as he can from the concession. Beware of -the person who holds this right. He has at his beck and call a score of -petty employes about the city and around the hotels who report your -movements to him, and the result is generally disastrous to you, -especially if you try to do business without his permission. - -In the Argentine republic for example each province has a fixed fee for -this purpose and the total sum, if paid, would eliminate the profits -from the average amount of your sales. Failure to pay generally means a -term in jail. - -The merchant’s yearly taxes in many countries includes the right to sell -goods by travelling salesmen and if he is approached properly by a -non-resident representative will allow him to take advantage of his -business foresight and use this permit, thereby giving a legitimate and -legal opportunity to omit paying these obnoxious charges. By observing -these suggestions and the exercise of diplomacy and good judgment, -little need be feared from the authorities in this connection. - -Before entering a foreign country for the first time, it is well to -obtain letters of introduction to leading merchants and especially to -government officials. They prove wonderfully beneficial and are highly -successful in smoothing out the rough places which are sure to be met -with in the paths of business. It generally pays to act implicitly on -the advice given by responsible people living in the land wherein you -are a pilgrim, for they are well acquainted with local idiosyncrasies, -and can suggest the exact spot where a small tip will facilitate matters -materially. - -Be sure to cultivate the acquaintance of the high grade old time -traveller whom you will be certain to meet sooner or later on your trip. -You will find him pregnant with pertinent and useful suggestions, which -will do much toward making your initial trip a success. Years of -experience in the Latin American school of business have given him a -marvellous amount of wisdom, which you will always find him willing to -dispense if you are the right kind and not trying to impress the world -with your superior knowledge. - -Both as a matter of courtesy and as a good business proposition be sure -to call on the American consular officer whom you will always find at -the port. He is in touch with the local merchants, is generally well -informed as to market conditions and can give you many practical -suggestions. He also has a line on the financial standing of most -dealers throughout his territory. - -Be sure that your order blanks are printed in triplicate and in Spanish -for all countries except Brazil where the language is Portuguese. Ample -space should be provided under the captions “Terms”; “How Packed”; “How -Invoiced”; “How Shipped.” When possible, I have always insisted on the -buyer signing the order and filling in with his own handwriting the -spaces referred to. There can be no cause for refusal to accept the -goods, if you have complied with the written conditions of the merchant. -Very naturally when the order has been signed the merchant should have a -copy, another sent to the house, while you retain the third one for your -personal files and for future reference. - -If possible always carry your samples in one or more cases. Clothes -should never be packed with them, but in separate trunks. Now and then -you will find officious and over energetic customs officials. Treat them -with courtesy, even if they irritate you. Remember that they can make -you endless trouble and that they may understand any caustic remarks you -may venture to make in English. As a rule, however, these officials are -very considerate. If you are selling shoes, it is wise to bring only one -sample of each pair. If you carry a line of silverware, have each sample -sawed in half. This will at once remove suspicion from you as far as the -customs are concerned. - -If you are to travel the West Indies, Central America and the northern -countries of South America, including Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela and -Ecuador, light clothes should be relied upon. Remember too that in the -highlands and mountainous districts of these countries it is often cool, -especially at night, and a light overcoat is therefore advisable. In the -highlands of Peru, Bolivia and Chile, heavy clothes are always worn. The -climate of Southern Chile, Argentine, Uruguay and Paraguay is much like -our middle States, excepting that the seasons are reversed, their winter -corresponding to our summer and vice versa. A trunk packed for a -complete trip for all of Latin America should therefore include both -summer and winter clothing. - -It is wise to pay much attention to the style and nature of your -correspondence. American business men for years have been concentrating -and condensing their thoughts—saying in a few words the same thing that -formerly were expressed in pages. The Latin American has not yet -practiced this conservative method of expressing himself and as a result -his correspondence is voluminous and he indulges in word paintings that -are picturesque and unique but not practical. If you are not as -excessive in this respect as he is, the chances are, unless he knows you -exceedingly well, that he will construe your letters as brusque and far -from courteous. His letters will be filled with the sentimental phrases -of past ages. This is his idea of politeness and should be your guide in -addressing him. You cannot be too verbose in your communications. He -comes from a race noted for its grandiloquent declamations and this -typical characteristic, this desire to figuratively gild refined gold, -add a perfume to the violet and a whiteness to the lily, means much to -him. It is one of his ways of estimating your educational worth and of -calibrating your standing as a gentleman. I know of no better -exemplification of this than a comparison between the flowery way Latin -American letters are terminated and our own. It is more personal, more -deferential and more impressive to sign yourself, “Your attentive and -secure servant who kisses your hand,” than briefly and harshly, “Yours -very truly,” yet the former method is the one in which practically all -letters close coming from these sunny lands. - -[Illustration: - - Avenida Central, Rio de Janeiro -] - -Bills, catalogues, price-lists, in a word all “literature” should be in -the language of the country for obvious reasons and in having these -translated be sure to employ only experienced and able translators. -Nothing paves the way for so much ridicule as poorly expressed and badly -produced business documents, for the keen eye of the Latin notes errors -with great precision. Efficiently produced and artistically printed -materials of this nature impress one in these lands and help materially -in giving you and your firm a high standing in the minds of the native -merchants, while poorly got up pamphlets and the like open his flood -gates of criticism and prejudice both against you and your goods. All -weights and measurements should be in the metric system. - -Be sure always to bear in mind that first-class mail to Latin America, -excepting Panama, Mexico, Cuba and Porto Rico, cost five cents an ounce -or fraction thereof and three cents for each additional ounce or -fraction thereof; all printed matter, one cent for each two ounces or -fraction thereof. Be careful therefore to put full postage on all -correspondence, otherwise your mail will be delayed and its recipient -subjected to a series of fines for your sin in short postage which will -have the effect of hurting your cause. Mistakes of this kind are -unwarranted and you should caution the house and the one in charge of -the mail to put proper postage on letters. Latin American merchants -always look upon letters short-posted as a shrewd Yankee plan to make -them pay part of the expenses of your establishment. From their point of -view this is not far from right either, for they are never guilty of -this fault so very prevalent among Americans. - -If you have no fixed address instruct your correspondents to send all -mail in care of the consul of the United States of America, at each port -where you intend stopping. Remember that consuls are to be found only at -seaports. To address a letter Care of the Consul for the United States -of America, Bogota, Colombia, would practically mean that you would -never get the letter, for the reasons that these officials are found for -example in Colombia, at Barranquilla, Savanilla, Santa Marta, and along -the seaboard. It is unwise to send mail in care of the General Delivery. -Later on after you have been over the territory and established friendly -relations with some dealer or merchant, mail may be sent in his care. - -Passports are unnecessary in Latin America. - -Funds should be carried in the form of Letters of Credit. It is wise to -take one of these in Dollars and Cents and the other in Pounds Sterling, -as there will be many opportunities to use one of these advantageously -in selling exchange when the other cannot be so employed. This all -depends of course on the local demands for foreign exchange, and before -buying money, it is wise to ascertain which letter of credit can be used -more profitably. The saving which can be made in the course of a long -trip in closely watching the price of money and buying when conditions -favor you, is worthy of your best attention. - - - - - XXIII - CUSTOM-HOUSES AND TARIFFS - - -No one can fully appreciate what difficulties custom-houses and tariffs -can cause until he has had experience with those in Latin America. The -custom-house officials deem it their duty to harass, embarrass, annoy -and add to the troubles, worries and expenses of the merchant in these -lands. They are veritable boulders in the path of business progress. The -charges, fees, tariffs, taxes, and the hundred and one incidental and -unwarranted expenses which exist in no other custom-houses in the world -save in those of Latin America, change from day to day and are -susceptible to as many interpretations as there are government employees -having any work to do with the goods under consideration. It would be -the height of folly to attempt to give tariffs and other custom-house -charges in any Latin American country to-day, for by to-morrow fully -half of them would be changed, and let me add that the alteration is -always in the form of an additional charge and never a reduction. -Tariffs are extreme and exorbitant, subject to the whims and financial -needs of those in power and liable to complete variation without -warning. Customs officials are recruited always from the class of -“politicos” hereinbefore discussed. The positions which they fill are -the political plums of the land. These men have not the interest of -their country, their countrymen or the merchants within their borders at -heart. Their desire is to acquire wealth by exploiting those with whom -their official duties bring them in contact, and they have reduced this -to a perfect science. The doings of Tammany are in the kindergarten -class as compared with these exponents of the theory that to the victor -belongs the spoils. The schemes designed and resorted to by these modern -inquisitors are almost beyond belief, and could only emanate from the -brains of those whose ancestors received their schooling in the days -when the “_auto da fe_” was common and Torquemada reigned supreme. Let -me illustrate by a few custom-house rulings taken at random from -different Latin American ports. - -In a certain Central American country, clinical thermometers are -admitted duty free, according to the government tariff schedule. -Laboring under this belief a local druggist ordered one hundred. Imagine -his surprise when the customs collector charged him the duty assessed on -cut glass decanters, classing the thermometers as “etched glass -containers.” Their contents—mercury—was classed as an explosive at a -prohibitive rate and for “trying to evade the customs” a fine of $500.00 -was added, or instead of getting the goods in, without charges, the -importer was obliged to pay $642.50 or go to jail. - -In a shipment of pickles, because the invoice failed to state whether -they were put up in vinegar or mustard, a fine of $100.00 was collected. - -On a box of candy weighing five pounds, sent as a present, the nature of -the ingredients of each separate piece of candy was not indicated, and a -fine of $80.00 imposed and obtained. - -The bar of a famous ex-prize-fighter has been for years in a Latin -American custom house because the importer never could raise the money -to pay the arbitrary fine exacted. Brass pays a high duty according to -the schedule of the country to which this bar was shipped, because -cartridges can be made from it, although there is not an ammunition -factory in the entire land. In the decorations of the wooden pillars at -the end of the bar, there were one or two strips of brass about two -inches wide. The whole bar was assessed as of this metal and a duty and -fine amounting to several thousand dollars imposed, which caused the -American who bought it and who had intended to open a café in one of its -cities, to get out of the place on the first ship, leaving the bar as a -souvenir. - -An iron bed, with four hollow brass balls as ornaments on the end posts -met with the same treatment in the same custom-house, paying a duty of -$200.00. - -Theatrical appliances are free everywhere, especially if the property of -a traveling troupe. Despite this fact and a positive statement to this -effect in the tariff regulations, I knew one large Latin American -country, wherein a _carousel_, or “flying-horse” outfit, was refused -admission unless the owner paid the duty charged on live stock, each -wooden horse being assessed at the rate of $25.00, which is the tariff -on breeding stallions. - -Thefts by minor employees of the custom-house are only too common. As a -rule these men are poorly paid and add to their scanty income by -appropriating whatever comes within their reach. I have known of cases -of soap, provisions, perfumes, shoes and the like to be entirely -confiscated in this manner. There is absolutely no redress. Very often -the higher employees are implicated in these nefarious practices. In one -of the largest and most progressive of Latin American cities, all the -foreign and native merchants had been receiving cases short of their -invoiced contents. Complaints to the authorities did not remedy matters. -Finally the thieves became bolder and the thefts more extensive, many -merchants being offered their own goods for sale at prices less than -they originally cost abroad. Concerted diplomatic pressure was brought -to bear, and an investigation promised. The day before the official -hearing, the entire block of custom houses involved was burnt, a strange -coincidence being that the four car tracks in front thereof, were -occupied with loaded freight cars so that the fire engines could not get -near enough to stop the conflagration. All records were thus destroyed -and nothing could be done, the loss, involving millions of dollars, -falling as usual on the foreign merchant. - -Pages could be filled with similar data. All of our consular offices are -cognizant of these outrages, yet nothing definite has been attempted to -stop them. No matter what precautions the exporter takes, or how closely -he follows the shipping instructions, his customer can always be -victimized by these scheming officials. European nations suffer equally -with us and it would seem that the time is ripe for some united action -on the part of the great exporting countries to remedy this growing -evil, for that it hurts trade cannot be denied. - -Not only are there unwarranted and excessive duties charged on imports -but on exports as well, and on these exports we as the largest user of -the things produced in Latin America pay the bill. These conditions -should be attended to at once, and it should be the business of our -State Department to adjust them properly. - -On hides, coffee, rubber and sugar, which are the leading exports from -these countries, the United States charges no duty, or a merely nominal -one. The remarkable feature of this trade is that every Latin American -country imposes on all of these articles heavy export charges, which -according to their own laws are unconstitutional, and we pay the bills, -at the same time allowing them to impose exorbitant duties, outrageous -port charges, and illegitimate fines on our exports to them. It may be -argued that in the end the cost is finally borne by them, but the fact -nevertheless remains that there is much work here to be done by our -government to overcome these conditions for the benefit of all parties -involved. It is decidedly unfair for a country to collect revenues both -ways, namely, on its exports to us and on our exports to it. - -The importer is the one who bears the brunt of these burdens. He is -continually paying bribes or fines which are of course added to the cost -of the goods. Failure on his part to “come across” means delays, loss of -goods, higher port charges and incalculable annoyances. One of the great -objections to this system of robbery aside from its basic principle of -error is that one shipment does not serve as a means for calculating a -price on the next one. A new custom-house official (and custom-house -officials are changed in these lands as often as a chameleon changes -color) may have come into office between shipments requiring a higher -standard of fines and bribes to placate. This obviously hurts the sale -of any article and makes the merchant hesitate to renew orders. Both -importers and exporters have preferred to be harassed, fearing that -their failure to comply with these unwarranted and illegal demands would -result in the exclusion of their goods from the country, a condition -which has often been imposed. Concerted action on the part of all -nations to stop this blackmail would meet with the support of the -merchants and importers of these lands, and the sooner some step in this -direction is taken the better. - -Under the condition of affairs now existing, and the long-continued -attitude of our government toward all of Latin America, it seems as if -there is no hope for our people or merchants and that we must submit -uncomplainingly to these iniquities. There can be no doubt but that the -existence of such a state of affairs has done much to retard the healthy -growth of trade relations between all of these countries and the rest of -the world. Latin-American merchants are absolutely powerless to remedy -the situation by themselves. Attempts to improve must come from the -outside and be presented through diplomatic channels and most -emphatically insisted upon. A determined effort on the part of this -government would do much to bring about a change and would be a most -potent factor in extending our trade relations in these lands. - -It may be argued that despite the system of fines, bribes and graft -which are so intimately associated with the Latin American custom-houses -the lands are prosperous and their merchants thriving, but the fact -cannot be disputed that the practice is decidedly wrong and reflects -materially on the integrity and dignity of the nation permitting it and -positively hampers the legitimate growth of trade. - - - - - XXIV - TRADE MARKS - - -The registration of your trade mark should be attended to as soon as -possible if it is your intention to enter the Latin American field with -the article which you manufacture. In many of these countries the laxity -of the laws governing this important commercial protection work great -hardship on legitimately established enterprises. I regret to state that -in nearly every one of these lands, it is legally permissible for anyone -to register any trade mark on fulfilling certain simple conditions and -the payment of a small fee. The result is that a class of men without -scruples are continually on the lookout for articles which are being -well advertised in this country, knowing the probabilities are that -sooner or later there will be a demand for them throughout the world and -especially in the place wherein they reside. Magazines and periodicals -of all classes are watched with care and as soon as extensive publicity -campaigns are launched in the United States or Europe, the chances are -that the trade name of the article being exploited will be -simultaneously registered by a native in many Latin American Patent -Offices. The next step in the technique of these rogues is to wait until -some shipment of the goods in question arrives, a fact easily -ascertained by noting the shipping news from the States and reading the -invoices and the names of consignees, data which is eagerly sought after -and published with great detail by all the papers of the port. An -injunction is then immediately obtained and the entire shipment is -either prohibited from landing or held in the custom house pending -wearying and tiresome legal complications, with the result that the -quasi owner of the trade-mark in question is always victorious and the -shipment either excluded from the country in toto or awarded to the -unlawful owner of the brand, in lieu of court costs and legal fees. In -the latter event they are then sold, and the money derived therefrom -goes of course to the pirates who had the foresight to register the -name. These men often wait for years before accomplishing their purpose -and with the idea of ultimately making money from their venture have -been known to renew repeatedly the trade-mark, when it expired owing to -legal limitations. - -Of course on attaching a shipment of goods bearing one of these stolen -and registered trade-marks, the native owner always offers to sell out -his interest in the same, invariably asking a price absurdly excessive, -particularly so when one stops to consider that he is asked to pay a sum -for the right to use his own name. Knowing that he holds the whip hand -in the controversy, and that you must meet his terms and conditions, if -you wish to do business in the country, and further that he has you at a -decided disadvantage in many ways, the situation which develops is -trying in the extreme. Then follows a period of conferences, -time-wasting interviews during which much patience must be exhibited -until ultimately practically the original sum of money asked must be -paid. This has been the general experience of almost every one who has -been so unfortunate as to be confronted by such a situation. - -Good business judgment therefore dictates that when you register your -trade-mark in the United States, you should also protect yourself by -registering it in the principal countries of Latin America. The easiest -way to do this is through your patent attorney or legal adviser. If -however you have failed to take this precaution, the first duty of your -representative on arriving in each of the countries in question should -be the registration of your trade name in the proper department of the -government. - -In order to give this his personal attention he should have a power of -attorney authorizing him to act in this capacity. This paper may be -prepared by your attorney, and should be in Spanish for all countries -excepting Brazil, where the language is Portuguese. This document should -be signed with the firm name by the individual having the right to do so -and in the case of corporations by the proper officer, and the corporate -seal attached. The signature should then be sworn to before a notary -public, whose name and seal should be certified to by the Secretary of -State for the State wherein the firm or corporation does business or is -chartered. The notarial oath and the certificate of the Secretary of -State may be in English. These papers should then be sent to the -Secretary of State of the United States at Washington, D. C., who will -in turn certify to the fact that the signature of the Secretary of State -for the State in question is correct and they should then be forwarded -to the Ambassador or Minister or proper representative of the Latin -American country, wherein it is desired to register the power of -attorney, who will in turn certify to the signature of the Secretary of -State of the United States. Armed with this much verified and sealed -document, your representative is then in a position to sign your name to -the application for the trade mark on his arrival, and to conduct any -further business before the local government arising therefrom. A -separate legal document of this nature is required for each country in -which you propose to protect your trade name. - -In case your mark is not registered prior to the departure of your -representative for Latin America, it is wise to pursue the course above -outlined and have him take the matter up personally. It often happens -that by the exercise of judgment and through acquaintances which will be -made, or the prestige of the local attorney whom your agent will retain, -many objections which might seem unsurmountable can be easily overcome -by the man on the ground. Oftentimes too, the mark can be altered in -word or design, so as to evade one already registered without in any -manner affecting your rights. - -When one stops to consider that much over 80 per cent. of the population -of these countries are unable to either read or write, and that they are -therefore forced to recognize an article by some distinguishing sign or -character, the great value of an easily discernible, prominent and -effective trade-mark becomes obvious. As a matter of fact the Indians -who make up the greater portion of the purchasing public of these -countries know goods only by brands and ask the storekeeper for them by -their distinguishing names. - -Another feature to be most seriously considered in selecting a name for -your article in Latin America is that the Spanish alphabet contains no -“W.” This letter is formed, when it is necessary to use a word employing -it, by combining two V’s,—thus VV. Even to the educated native this -letter is unpronounceable. It is therefore quite obvious that no word -containing it should ever be used for distinguishing any brand. Such a -trade mark, for instance, as “White Wings” instead of attracting custom, -would act otherwise, owing to the extreme sensitiveness of the native in -fearing criticism in pronouncing the words. - -Once your trade mark is established, no matter how crude it may be, -never change it. I know of a firm in Baltimore who formerly did an -enormous business in lard with Brazil. The cans which they used for -export purposes were a gaudy blue color and decorated with a pig of -elephantine proportions. For economic reasons they decided to use plain -tin cans, stamping the porker in relief thereon, but preserving his -pachyderm proportions. The result was a package equally as good, as far -as shipping purposes were concerned, with a saving of about two cents on -each one. As a consequence of the alteration the merchant was absolutely -unable to sell the goods shipped in the new container, and when later on -the manufacturers tried to regain the field which they lost, by sending -their former tins, the natives were sure that they were being deceived -and refused to buy these goods also. Competitors who had eagerly sought -this market took advantage of the situation and the Maryland house was -completely shut out of the territory and absolutely lost their business. - -Another illustration may serve to impress the importance of maintaining -your trade mark in its entire originality. The Chinese are great -consumers of canned salmon, and our Western fisheries supply much of the -article. One firm in San Francisco had a brand well liked and very -famous among the Celestials. The label on the tin showed a highly -colored salmon having the wrong number of fins, with tail elevated in -the act of leaping over a waterfall down stream, while the background -was filled with tropical palms and cocoanut trees. The trade mark was -simplicity itself, and was recognized with favor all over the Flowery -Kingdom. Higher education however completely removed the brand from the -map. The head of the house had a son just from college, who had been -recently admitted to the firm. He started to clean up things—to be 100 -per cent. efficient. His æsthetic and educated eye at once saw that the -label on the brand which had made the firm’s fortune was a living lie. -Salmon were not colored like the rainbow; leaped up stream only; had -less fins and depressed their tails when doing acrobatic feats. And -horror of horrors—no tropical palms or cocoanut trees grew in the -vicinity of the salmon’s habitat. So the label was reconstructed and -made a work of art, scientifically and piscatorially correct, and not a -mere illegitimate combination of wrong details. Then goods with the new -and authentic label were shipped. When they got to China no Chinaman -could be induced to buy them. They became dubious at once of the changed -label. Living in a land of suspicion they knew intuitively that some -designing schemer was falsifying their favorite trade mark. “No samee -chop” was the laconic reply when told that these were the old and well -known goods in a new dress. Argument was useless. The brand was -completely lost to the market. I know one merchant in Hong-Kong who was -forced to throw two car-loads of this salmon into the sea, because space -in his “go-down” or warehouse was worth more than that occupied by -unsaleable stock. - -Should you for some reason contemplate altering your trade mark or the -color or shape or size of your container, always take the wise -precaution of consulting the merchant handling your goods abroad and if -possible adopt or be guided by his suggestions. He is on the firing line -and has his finger on the pulse of the buyers, therefore his opinion is -worthy of the most serious attention. - -As typical of the high-handed hold ups of the local Dick Turpins, who -have registered trade marks under their own names in Latin America let -me state that I know of two American patent medicine men whose products -have been extensively advertised and are almost household words in the -United States, paying $28,000 and $25,000 respectively for the privilege -of using their own names in one country of South America. Both of these -concerns had been doing business in the United States for forty years -and they afterwards ascertained that the gentlemen (?) who had -registered their names had been waiting patiently for their coming all -the time. A well known mineral water, within the past two years, paid -according to my positive knowledge $2500 for their trade-mark and -considered that they got off remarkably cheap. The price originally -asked was $20,000 and their representative spent three months on the -ground using every possible means to reduce the figures of the original -demand. In the meantime nearly 500 cases of the water in question were -held up by the authorities, who refused to allow them to be landed until -they had the written consent of the native holding the registration -papers. A prominent typewriter company flatly refused to pay the -excessively high sum demanded by the party holding the right to use -their trade mark, reversed its name, and now sells its machine by this -unpronounceable designation. Pages could be filled with similar -illustrations, showing the great importance of properly protecting your -trade mark at the start. - - - - - XXV - FINANCE AND CREDITS - - -The science of foreign banking is the most difficult to understand of -all the departments of modern finance. It requires the experience of -experts whose knowledge must be the most profound and complete and -includes such details as the conditions of the world’s markets, the -existing crops, factory productions, local and extraneous political -affairs, as well as external and internal commerce. - -European financiers and merchants soon recognized the importance of -reciprocal banking arrangements between the home countries and foreign -fields and as early as 1862, anticipating the growth of Latin America -and sensing the financial necessities of its future merchants, opened -the London and River Plate Bank, which with its ramifications of -branches and agencies in Argentine, Brazil, Chile, New York, and various -European countries has been a potent factor in developing and -controlling business along British channels. Following the pioneer move -of this corporation, other institutions were organized in England, until -to-day the amount of British capital invested in banks in all of Latin -America is close to $500,000,000. - -[Illustration: - - Calle Rivàdavia, Buenos Aires -] - -Realizing the benefits to be derived from such monetary connections in -these countries and knowing that a bank’s co-operation meant much to -both the buyer and seller and formed perhaps the strongest link in the -chain of foreign commerce with which they hoped to girdle the world, -Germany followed in the footsteps of England and opened a similar series -of institutions in the same territories, even going so far as to have -branches in England, knowing the decided preference for “bills on -London.” Through their offices in the English capital, they succeeded in -keeping as much as possible of the business they acquired abroad in -their own hands, reaping all possible profit from every transaction. In -their turn, and as their foreign trade demanded it, France, Italy, Spain -and Switzerland entered the field but on a much smaller financial basis, -at the same time restricting their activities so as to confine them more -to the home countries and to persons of their own nationalities engaged -in this field of commerce. - -Only recently have statutory and business conditions warranted the -advance of the American banker into this sphere of finance. To-day in -Latin America our banking institutions may be found in the Argentine, -Brazil, Panama, Cuba, Santo Domingo, Porto Rico, Mexico and to a small -extent in Haiti. As it becomes apparent that our merchants and those of -other countries require financial organizations to further and -facilitate trade with the United States, additional establishments will -be opened in these lands until ultimately the dollar will be so -enthroned in the estimation of the business world that it need pay no -homage to the Pound Sterling, which up to the present has been Emperor -Supreme in the Realm of Finance. - -That this movement is judicious no one familiar with this trade will for -a moment dispute. The ability of the British banks, through their strong -financial arteries, gave them exceptional opportunities to force -business into the hands of English merchants, by obliging the seller of -exchange, for example, in Buenos Aires on New York to pay from 1 per -cent. to 1.5 per cent. more than if he sold on London, or if he desired -to buy, to pay a correspondingly higher price for a draft on New York -than on London. In addition to exerting thus their powers through a high -rate of exchange to drive merchants into British markets, the profits in -the transfer of money incident to the transaction were enormous. The -truth of this statement is vividly apparent when we are told that in -1912, “bills on London” valued at $9,025,000,000 were sold, on every -penny of which a fraction of a per cent. of profit was made by English -bankers. - -It is not deemed necessary for the purpose of this work to go into the -intricacies of the banking problem in Latin America. Such incidents as -local loans, credits and financing, need not concern us, and are best -left for solution to those in this line of business. It is to be hoped -however that the presence of American banking institutions throughout -Latin America will result in the financing with American money of -municipal and national improvements such as water-works, sanitation, -electric and gas companies, subways, harbor improvements, -fortifications, building of warships, telephones, electric and steam -railways. It was the custom of the European financier in making such -loans to stipulate that the work should be done under the supervision of -citizens of, and with articles and machinery purchased in, the country -placing the loan. This was as it should be. It gave their engineers and -contractors an opportunity to force upon these countries their products -and methods, provided permanent employment for many of their countrymen, -who in return created a demand for articles of home production. - -We may therefore consider the banking situation only in so far as it -applies to the traveller, the house he represents and the customer he -sells in the accommodation it can afford them and the service it may -render all parties. One of its chief uses will be to give reliable -information as to the credit rating of customers. - -From a financial point of view all of Latin America may be divided into -seven groups: (1) the east coast countries of Brazil, Argentine, Uruguay -and Paraguay; (2) the west coast countries of Chile, Peru, Bolivia and -Ecuador; (3) the northern countries of Venezuela and Colombia; (4) the -Central American Republics of Guatemala, San Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa -Rica, Honduras, with which Haiti may be considered; (5) Mexico; (6) the -countries wherein American banking systems exist, such as Panama, Cuba, -Santo Domingo and Puerto Rico, and (7) the extensive group of foreign -possessions and islands such as British, French and Dutch Guiana, -British Honduras, Trinidad, Barbados, Jamaica, Martinique, Guadeloupe, -Curaçao and St. Thomas. - -The first and second groups of these South American countries are almost -entirely under the domination and control of the European financier, the -English being paramount, followed by Germans, French, Italians and -Spanish, in the order named. Throughout Brazil, Argentine, Uruguay, -Paraguay, Chile, Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador, in all the larger cities and -ports, as well as in the interior and isolated towns, where business is -to be had, may be found branches, agencies, or representatives of -banking houses of these nationalities. They keep their fingers on the -pulse of trade, know mine outputs, crop prospects, cattle productions, -stability of governments, possibilities of revolutions or political -unrest, the condition of business—in a word everything that has any -bearing on banking or that could by any possibility reflect on the money -market. Taking all these elements into consideration together with the -important factor of the question of supply and demand, they decide the -price of exchange each day or how much a merchant having a foreign -obligation to meet, must pay for the necessary sum to liquidate his -indebtedness. Very naturally a better price is quoted for the money -required if payment is to be made in coin of the bank’s nationality for -the reason that it necessitates less actual movement in the medium of -exchange, the entire transaction as a rule being done on paper. This -preliminary saving of a fraction of a per cent. in a big business means -much in the course of a year and it has a strong tendency to make the -buyer seek markets so situated that he might profit thereby. On the -other hand the Latin American trader desiring to remit to the United -States for goods bought in this country is forced because of lack of -direct financial connection in South America to buy his exchange on -London, Hamburg, Paris or some other European money center, thereby -giving the European banker a profit of a fraction of a per cent. on -every dollar of our foreign business. Furthermore, invoices and bills of -lading are frequently attached to banking documents for custom house -clearance and other purposes, thereby giving the European banker and -through him, his clients and friends, an opportunity of learning our -prices and terms. And so, not content with giving the foreign financier -a chance to make money on our export trade, we also aid our greatest -competitors by supplying prices and information to defeat our commercial -purpose. - -Some mercantile houses in the larger of these countries maintain for -their own use accounts in New York against which they draw when -liquidating bills in the States and do a general banking business as -well, including the cashing of drafts and selling of exchange. Obviously -only a large business concern could afford to do this and their natural -tendency is to sell direct exchange on New York as high as the European -banks. The dealer with small capital or the foreign merchant is -invariably for one reason or another forced as a general rule to do -business through the European banker when in need of American exchange. - -In both Venezuela and Colombia, their nearness to the United States, a -direct steamship service to our leading ports and the fact that we as a -nation take the bulk of their products, combine to overcome all attempts -on the part of Europeans to establish banks in these countries. As the -local exporters ship their goods to our shores where they are disposed -of they instruct their agents to deposit the moneys so received in local -American banks, against which they issue checks in liquidation of -indebtedness, thereby eliminating the necessity for the services of the -international banker. Local banks in these countries, never very strong, -and always subject to forced loans from financially embarrassed -governments, do not enter materially into the business life of the -community although they also maintain credits in New York and sell -drafts against them. The consequence is that every leading merchant -throughout these lands develops into a foreign banker, on a small scale, -and buys and sells exchange. As long as this condition prevails, and it -works most satisfactorily, the foreign bank will not be required to open -its doors. - -Practically the same state of affairs occurs in Central America, the -general tendency to political unrest and the existence of an -inconvertible paper currency in some of these countries, (similar -conditions being current in Colombia) serve to emphasize distrust in -local banks and concentrate banking operations in the hands of the -larger mercantile houses. - -Prior to the revolutionary troubles which are now convulsing Mexico, -American, English, German, French and Spanish banks were to be found -throughout that country. The presence of the American banker in this -territory and the great bulk of trade movements between Mexico and the -United States, kept the price of exchange within reasonable bounds. - -In Panama, Cuba, Santo Domingo and Porto Rico, American banks exist and -American currency is in use almost exclusively. All financial -calculations are made in dollars and cents and a complete and perfect -system of exchange on leading cities of this country is current so that -the subject need not be further discussed. - -As is to be supposed, the European countries having possessions in the -West Indies and South or Central America, very naturally have banking -facilities between these colonies and each mother country. In addition, -prominent Canadian banks have successfully established branches in the -largest of the British colonies for the purpose of building up direct -trade with the Dominion of Canada, thereby eliminating the tribute -London usually demands on exchange. Although we take much of the exports -and sell these possessions most of their necessities, still the -individual business done in each island or colony is relatively small -and the field of operation too restricted to warrant other banking -connections. Besides exchange on New York is cheaper here than -elsewhere, owing to the fact that both Canadian and English banks -maintain branches in that city. In the other colonies merchants, as a -rule, have personal accounts in American banks in the States and are -thereby enabled to handle their own transactions advantageously. - -There are four monetary systems in use in Latin America: (1) the gold -standard, wherein gold is the only legal tender, other forms of money -being maintained at a parity with or without a government guarantee; (2) -the gold exchange standard, wherein gold and other forms of money are -legal tender, the conversion of the legal tender into gold being -guaranteed by the government; (3) the silver standard, wherein silver is -the legal tender, and (4) inconvertible paper, the value of which -continually fluctuates and is dependent entirely upon the stability of -the government’s credit. - -The gold standard is used by Bolivia, Cuba, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru, -Porto Rico, Santo Domingo, Uruguay, the British, French, Danish and -Dutch West Indies and possessions. - -The gold exchange standard is in use in Argentine, Brazil, Mexico, -Nicaragua and Panama. - -The silver standard is current in Salvador and Honduras. - -Inconvertible paper is found in Chile, Colombia, Guatemala, Haiti and -Paraguay. - -The basis of exchange between countries depends primarily on the -relation existing between the gold value of their respective moneys, the -price paid being materially influenced by the condition of the balance -of trade and the social or political state of the country. For example, -with the balance of trade in favor of England, the price of exchange on -that country would go up a fraction of a point or so, while if a country -is in a state of political or economic unrest, or at war, the price of -exchange on it goes much higher than if conditions were normal. For -these reasons exchange in all countries varies daily, the price for the -day being decided upon the receipt of European cables from the home -institution. It will therefore be apparent that it is impossible to -determine a fixed rate of exchange for any definite period. By buying -when exchange is low and selling when it is high, much money can be -made, especially if the sum involved is large. The United States did a -gross business with Latin America in 1912 of $526,468,815, practically -all of which was paid for by European exchange. Assuming that the -commission charged was one-half of one per cent., the cost to the -American merchant would be $2,632,344, which in itself is a strong -argument for American banks in these lands. - -Furthermore the home offices of all of these European banks having -branches throughout Latin America, have had in mind the rendering of -financial assistance to the home merchant or manufacturer. This was -especially true of the German organizations, which were designed to -foster and facilitate commercial relations of all kinds abroad. In the -headquarters of these institutions, complete records and data are kept -regarding all overseas merchants, their credits and the financial -turnover of their business each year being known. As a consequence when -the exporter presented his shipping documents at say Hamburg, the bank, -should he so desire, knowing the rating of the importer, discounted the -bill, and for the service rendered charged a commission, while the Latin -American customer had the benefit of the time agreed upon for payment, -according to the terms of the sale. Compare this perfect system of the -banks extending courtesy to the exporters and the importers with the -American policy of “cash against documents” and we see another vital -reason why the Europeans succeeded in their conquest of these markets. -The American manufacturer with small capital was handicapped. His -business demanded a quick turnover; he had no way of ascertaining Latin -American credits and no American banking connections to accept his -export shipping documents at a discount. As a consequence, the door of -this trade was closed to him and his productions. - -Owing to the fact that gold coin is bulky and heavy to transport and -paper money of a foreign nation always worth as a rule much less than -its face value, a traveler is accustomed to carry what is known as a -Letter of Credit. This is a document issued by a bank to a person or -concern authorizing him or it to draw on the bank or its correspondents -drafts for the whole or any desired part of the sum named in the Letter -of Credit, by means of sight or time drafts. Customary means to prevent -forgery of the holder’s signature are provided. On presenting this -document to the bank’s foreign correspondent, the sum desired is -advanced in the money of the country or in the monetary terms expressed -in the Letter of Credit. These Letters of Credit are always time limited -and are made against cash or some suitable guarantee to the bank issuing -them. - -In traveling in South America it is advisable to have two different -Letters of Credit, one in Pounds Sterling and the other in Dollars. In -Central America, Venezuela, Colombia, the British, Dutch and Danish West -Indies it is often more advantageous to use dollars when buying exchange -or getting cash on the Letter of Credit, while in Chile, Argentine, -Brazil and Uruguay, pounds sterling are better. Before selling exchange -on your Letter of Credit or realizing money on it, always visit the -banks and see which one offers the best rate and whether English or -American gold is in demand. By taking advantage of these conditions much -money can be saved in the course of a long trip. The opening of American -banks in Latin America will do much toward making the dollar popular and -travelers are advised to take out letters of credit through United -States banks with local branches in these lands. - -It has been the understood custom for the correspondent banking house on -whom a letter of credit was drawn to give the holder all information -desired as to the rating and financial standing of local merchants and -to aid him in every way possible. This was done in theory more than in -practice. Assuming that your letter of credit was on an English bank in -Buenos Aires, and that you were selling cotton goods, it would be most -natural for the bank manager in Argentine to evade all direct -information as to a possible customer’s standing, especially if his home -institution had been discounting bills for a good client in England -drawn against the local merchant. This is generally the attitude of bank -managers in competitive lines and particularly when there is a tendency -to cut into the trade of their customers. In this regard they can hardly -be blamed for they are really protecting their patrons. If however, one -is selling flour, or something which England cannot produce, the desired -information is given fully and freely and every assistance rendered. -Native or private bankers are not so reliable or as trustworthy sources -of information. - -In only two or three South American countries are there responsible -commercial agencies; therefore, after getting what data you can from the -bank it is always well to verify it by any other means at hand. -Customers will often give references either in Europe or America as to -their standing, which should be corroborated. Inasmuch as you desire -information as to your clients’ credit and standing, you should be -equally willing to establish the reputation of your house and to that -end should assist as much as possible in supplying whatever facts in -this connection may be wanted. - -To illustrate the insufficiency of our knowledge regarding Latin -American credits, let me cite a personal experience. At the beginning of -the war in Europe, one of the largest daily papers in Buenos Aires was -refused credit for less than $100.00 a week of cable news, because there -was no really reliable means in New York of satisfying the manager of -the foreign press agency that the paper was of the highest financial -standing. A moratorium had been declared in the Argentine and Europe and -at that time no direct banking connections existed with the United -States. This condition of affairs only served to make the New York -manager insist that the service be paid for weekly. He was absolutely -unwilling to extend credit for even ninety days, provided the paper paid -the cable tolls in Buenos Aires, which it had offered to do. The -publication, its plant, equipment and the building it owns and occupies -are easily worth $5,000,000. Furthermore it is eminently responsible and -reputable. With all the manifold resources of a great, wealthy -newspaper, it was absolutely impossible for it to remit money to the -United States to get the war news so essential for its readers. Cables -to Europe were cut, as the world knows, thereby preventing it from -getting reports from this source. Its position was desperate. After -finding that efforts to obtain the desired service from the press agency -were useless and that no credit would be extended, the South American -editor, in despair, cabled me, and I financed the paper for five months, -paying weekly the bills incurred. With the opening of the National City -Bank in Buenos Aires, remittance in full with interest was made for the -money I had advanced, the draft sent me being one of the very first -issued by that institution. This American news association had a great -opportunity to establish a profitable connection in a country where a -service of this kind is badly needed, for the favorable attitude of the -press is of the greatest benefit in developing both business and -friendly relations between nations. Instead of taking advantage of the -situation, the position it assumed has positively hurt us as a nation. - -One of the things to be met and overcome is the question of long -credits. European merchants originally extended much time to reliable -customers. Instances are on record of from twenty-four to thirty-six -months being given. Goods were often shipped on consignment. The -tendency of late, however, as business became established in these lands -has been to curtail credits. This condition is one which demands -delicate and diplomatic handling and very naturally will be materially -controlled by circumstances. European banks were organized, as -hereinbefore explained, to discount long time paper, provided the drawer -and the drawee were considered good risks. The Federal Reserve Act, -however, falls short of helping us in this regard for the life of a -foreign negotiable draft is limited by it to ninety days. - -Long credits are not to be encouraged. They were excusable in the age of -the sailing ships and poor banking facilities, but with the quick -transportation service of to-day are unwise and unnecessary. Under no -conditions should more than six months time be allowed and that only for -some special line dependent upon some future contingency, such for -instance as crops—agricultural machinery being a good illustration. -Staples and necessities require less time to dispose of and ninety days -should be ample. If possible it might be wise to get the customer to -agree to pay one-third of the invoice on receipt of shipping documents -and the balance in sixty or ninety days. On overdue accounts, the Latin -American merchant has always been accustomed to pay a good rate of -interest. - - - - - XXVI - PACKING AND SHIPPING - - -The method of packing goods intended for the export markets of Latin -America is worthy of the greatest study and the most serious -consideration. Poor and improper packing, so characteristic of American -made goods, has caused us the loss of much business, and wherever I have -been in these countries it has formed the subject of much unfavorable -comment and highly warranted criticism. Of late there has been a slight -tendency toward improvement in this really important branch of the -foreign trade, but there is still much opportunity for bettering -conditions in this regard. - -In the United States with every forwarding facility, the largest, best -and most complete transportation systems on earth, we are prone to think -of the rest of the world as being similarly provided with modern methods -for handling goods. The fact is that the burro, the llama, the camel, -the elephant, the coolie and the Indian are yet the greatest common -carriers, and it will be many, many years before the shrill whistle of -the locomotive will supplant the jingling bells of the pack train, or -the slow moving caravan, in the outer edges of terra firma. In Latin -America to-day, in proportion to its size, there are comparatively few -railways, and fully another century will elapse before it possesses half -the amount of mileage that we have at present in the United States. This -is primarily due to the scarcity of population and secondarily to the -inaccessibility of many of its interior towns, built in early days in -remote and secluded spots so as to be free from the frequent invasions -of buccaneers, as were the coast cities, or for the purpose of being -near some rich mine or fertile agricultural district. The narrow -mountain trails that wend their circuitous and tiresome way along the -gigantic buttresses which Nature has so profusely placed throughout this -part of the world are the only routes to these inland cities. As a rule -they are hardly wide enough for two mules or pack animals to pass, -except at certain localities. On one side they are bounded by the walls -of snow-tipped mountains, which raise their majestic heads into the -clouds, while on the other yawning abysses, hundreds, sometimes -thousands of feet deep, open their gaping mouths, along the bottom of -which winding watercourses wend their way to the sea. - -[Illustration: - - _Photograph by Underwood & Underwood_ - - A Pack-train on the Andes Trail in Colombia - - “In the United States with every forwarding facility, the largest, - best and most complete transportation systems on earth, we are prone - to think of the rest of the world as being similarly provided with - modern methods for handling goods. The fact is that the burro, the - llama, the camel, the elephant, the coolie and the Indian are yet - the greatest common carriers” -] - -Many of the ports of Latin America are open roadsteads, such for -instance as Mollendo, Peru, one of the gateways to the interior of that -country and Bolivia as well. At certain seasons of the year it is almost -impossible for one to land and I have known of vessels to wait as long -as six weeks before getting their cargoes discharged into the rolling, -tossing lighters which continually thump and smash against the side of -the ship. After the lighters are loaded, they in turn have to wait days, -weeks and often months before a favorable opportunity arrives for -getting their contents ashore. Without being conversant with these -conditions one can hardly realize the strain and pressure exerted upon -packing cases at such times. - -After the goods have been brought to land by the none too gentle -longshoremen, they are opened by the customs authorities and examined, -and are then placed upon trains for forwarding into the interior points, -for practically all these ports are the terminus of some railway leading -into the remote inland districts. When they have gone as far as the -train can take them, they are then consigned to the tender mercies of -the muleteer, aided and abetted by the llama, burro or mule, and may be -weeks on the road to their final destination. - -The varying climatic changes to which they are subjected should also be -given due consideration. Leaving the ice-bound northern ports of the -States in winter, they come through the storm tossed waters of either or -both oceans to the port of disembarkation, where for days they may rest -under the broiling tropical sun. As they follow their path to the -interior, on train and by beast of burden, they pass through torrid heat -and tropical rains, across wind swept plateaus, through sand and snow -storms, sleet and hail, above the clouds in high altitudes, and down -into green valleys, across swollen streams, and on again up the sides of -steep canyons, and through gloomy woods. Each night they are unstrapped -from the animals’ backs, and roughly thrown on the ground along the -trail or in the filthy barnyard of some mountain hospice. Before the -stars have stopped their twinkling in the early dawn they are again -piled upon the backs of the unwilling, resisting beasts and the dreary, -wearying, monotonous march resumed. - -Custom has decreed the exact weight each burro, llama or mule will carry -and let me add that these animals know to a nicety their load, and are -life members of a union that prohibits its initiates from carrying more -than is expected of them. Attempts to overload bring forth growls, -groans and moans, and if these signals of protestation are overlooked by -the attendants, the animal flatly refuses to budge, until the burden is -made the standard union size, a condition of affairs that must be -extremely satisfactory to the cause of labor. - -The merchant living in the interior is always specific to state the -exact dimensions of each box and how he wishes it strapped and packed, -in accordance with the transportation which he will have available at -the time the goods arrive. Obviously a llama or burro cannot carry as -heavy a load as a mule, and the buyer, who generally owns his own pack -animals, gives his instructions in accordance with the nature and size -of the animals which will form his caravan. Extraordinarily heavy cases -may be carried suspended from poles between two mules. - -[Illustration: - - _Copyright by Underwood & Underwood_ - - Llamas in Cerro de Pasco, Peru, bringing in their burdens of copper - ore from nearby Indian mines - - “Custom has decreed the exact weight each burro, llama or mule will - carry, and let me add that these animals know to a nicety their - load, and are life members of a union that prohibits its initiates - from carrying more than is expected of them.” - - _See page 315_ -] - -Follow these shipping instructions to the letter. The man who makes them -out knows all about the difficulties that are to be overcome and is -familiar with every inch of the road that must be traveled. Do not let -the superior judgment of your shipping clerk alter one word of these -requirements. Near Durango, in Mexico, there lie practically all the -parts of a large plant, not made according to the instructions given the -man who took the order. In the draughting room of the shops which -constructed the machinery, they could not understand why the fly wheel -of the engine should be made in so many sections adapted to be bolted -together, and so they constructed it as if intended for shipment to -Buffalo, and not so that a mule might carry each component part on his -back. The entire order was executed in the same manner. As a result the -equipment they turned out is gradually resolving itself into iron oxide, -at the railway station nearest to the mine it was designed for, while -the people who purchased it are filled with contempt for American -methods and the American machinery company that received the business -has long since vowed never to accept another Latin American commission. - -If the packing instructions read:—“Each case to be made of half-inch -pine boards, strapped with iron bands, half an inch wide around each -end, and wrapped first in waterproof paper, then sewn in burlap, and NOT -TO WEIGH more than 40 kilos (about 100 pounds)”—do exactly this and -NOTHING more. - -The iron bands and the heavy wood of the packing case insure protection -against breakage during its ocean and railway voyage. The waterproof -paper will serve to keep the contents of the case from rain and snow -storms, to say nothing of preventing the spray of the ocean while it is -in the lighter, from damaging its contents. The burlap sewed over all is -a visible defense against theft en route, either by the customs -authorities or by the pack train men. The weight of 40 kilos means that -it may be strapped to the side of a burro, and form one of two such -packages to be carried by him. Furthermore the wood of the case being -half an inch wide, means that when the box reaches its destination, it -can be sold to the coffin maker for conversion into a baby’s casket, -because wood of this nature is scarce in many of these lands. The metal -strips will find another use and the waterproof paper and burlap -covering will serve some particular purpose, perhaps be sold to the -upholsterer. - -Your shipping instructions will also tell you exactly what signs or -marks to put upon the outside of the case or its covering. Observe this -with precision. The net and gross weights must also be marked thereon in -a legible manner. Be sure that in weighing and marking the case you use -the metric system for this is the only one used through all of Latin -America. They know nothing of pounds and ounces. It is a wise plan to -have your shipping clerk familiarize himself with this method, so as to -avoid mistakes in marking, which may cause the importer much trouble at -the custom house when the goods arrive. - -Never place anything of a foreign nature in a packing case unless -expressly instructed to do so by the shipper. Many exporters often take -advantage of a small space available in a box to enclose a package of -cards or some other advertising material. In most Latin American -countries it is against the law for a case to contain anything more than -what the bill of lading or the consular invoice expressly states, and -the trouble that ensues from this desire to really help the purchaser -can never be understood by those so far away from the native customs -official who seizes every opportunity to extort money from the local -dealer in the shape of fines and fees. - -The merchant in ordering will generally definitely state just how he -wants the goods which you are shipping him declared, so as to properly -conform to the classification in vogue in the local custom house and its -tariff regulations. Here it again behooves you to follow his -instructions word for word, otherwise the officious custom house employe -sees another chance to levy a fine and the unfortunate importer becomes -correspondingly disgusted with your methods of doing business with him. - -Finally, the packages should agree in number, weights, markings, -declarations and contents with the consular invoice and the bill of -lading. This will help materially all along the line from the receiving -clerk of the steamship company to the merchant who accepts the -consignment at its destination. - -It would be well if shipping clerks engaged in the export trade would -make a careful study of the geography of the Latin American countries, -and the various ways of routing goods, as well as the topography of each -state. This would do much toward eliminating complications. As an -illustration of the ignorance so frequently displayed in this -connection, let me recite what happened to a joint shipment of beer and -mineral water, intended for Leon, Nicaragua. In ordering goods from this -country the Latin American merchant will often have a shipment made up -of goods from different cities. He will instruct or request the exporter -living at the port from which the shipment is to be made, to assemble -the several cases which make up his various orders, and send them under -one consular invoice, his idea being to save money, in the many -incidental charges made by consuls and those handling his freight. The -beer came from Milwaukee and the mineral water from the warehouse in New -York City. The shipping instructions read as follows: - - - “Ship via Isthmus of Tehuantepec, to Salina Cruz then via first - opportunity to Leon, Nicaragua.” - - -The intellectual shipping clerk could see no valid reason for sending -goods intended for Nicaragua through Mexico, so he took upon himself -their routing, and as a result the goods were sent direct from New York -to Bluefields, Nicaragua, on the east coast of that country, with -instructions to a forwarding agent there to dispatch them to their -destination on the west coast. That was three years ago and the last I -heard of them was that they had been sold by the customs authorities to -pay storage and other accumulated charges. Of course the forwarding -agent in Bluefields realized that it would be easier to send goods to -the North Pole than across the country, as he had been instructed, owing -to the fact that there was hardly a mountain trail over which they might -be transported. In addition to this it would take several weeks to make -the journey, and the expense would be enormous. These facts were -communicated to the shippers who promptly decided to abandon the goods, -replying that they did not care to do business in such an inaccessible -country. As a result of this colossal error goods to the value of more -than $2500 were lost to the exporter and the importer, and bad feeling -engendered on both sides. The speculator who bought them at the custom -house sale, told me that the contents of the bottles had deteriorated so -that the goods were unsaleable after their long stay in the tropical -warehouse, and as a result he was the possessor of a large quantity of -bottles for which he had no sale. - -Shipments from the United States to a foreign country require what is -known as a consular invoice to accompany them. This document states -briefly the contents of the invoice, its weight, and value, from whom -and for whom intended. This paper must be made out before the consul or -vice-consul of the country to which the goods are to be exported, the -idea being to keep track of the business between the nations. This -document should always be in the language of the country for which the -shipment is intended, although all the consuls do not require this -condition to be rigidly complied with. They must be taken to the office -of the consul or vice-consul empowered to issue and sign them and as a -rule he requires one or more copies for his files and for forwarding to -his government, or to the customs authorities at the port to which the -goods are going. For this service he charges a fee, generally specified -by law. Great care should be exercised in the preparation of these -papers, as before intimated. The importer generally states just how he -wishes his goods declared in these documents and it is best to follow -his commands instead of those which may be issued or suggested by some -of the employes of the consular office, or even the consul himself. -Besides if you follow your shipping instructions there can be no cause -of complaint, on the part of the buyer, should unfavorable conditions -arise. - -It might be well in order to impress upon the reader’s mind some of the -great difficulties to be overcome and the many handlings that are -received by goods in transit to follow in detail a shipment actually -made from New York City to La Paz, Bolivia, the route being the usual -one taken by merchandise intended for that place. The order was placed -in February, 1913, early in the month and the goods arrived December -22nd, 1913, being more than ten months on the way. When the American -salesman received the order at La Paz, it was immediately forwarded by -the next mail to New York City, where it arrived in about five weeks. -The shipment of 854 cases was made from the factory in the middle West -about the 15th of April, 1913, and the vessel containing them sailed -from New York harbor, May 1st, 1913. Exceptionally bad weather in the -Atlantic, delays in the Straits, storms in the southern Pacific, and -time lost in discharging cargo intended for intermediate ports made it -September 1st, before the goods reached Mollendo, in Peru, the port of -discharge for the interior. Here, owing to bad weather, Mollendo being -one of the worst ports on the Pacific, and the further fact that the -roads and custom house were both congested with freight, a common -occurrence in this part of the world, another month was consumed before -the cases were finally got ashore and passed by the Peruvian -authorities. A few more days were lost in loading them on the narrow -gauge railroad that runs from Mollendo to Arequipa, an inland city of -Peru, and the end of the first railway. Here the goods were -trans-shipped to the road running to Puno, Peru, on the shores of Lake -Titicaca, where they were again discharged and allowed to wait for many -days before their turn came to be stowed on the small steamer plying -across this perpetually storm-tossed lake in the clouds, to Guaqui, -where after being put ashore they were again examined by the Bolivian -customs officials. They were next placed on the train which took them -across the wind swept plateaus of Bolivia, to the edge of the tea-cup -rim, at the bottom of which La Paz is situated. Here again they were -transferred, this time to an electric train which took them down the -face of the canyon wall, 1500 feet, to the station at the outskirts of -La Paz. At this point Indian cargadores took the cases, one at a time, -on their backs and carried them to the merchant’s warehouse, where they -were again opened, and checked up, after which they were repacked and -sent on into the interior towns, mining camps and his branch stores, via -llama, burro and mule. - -In this shipment there was nothing unusual. It went over the route -commonly selected and took about the average length of time. If you have -followed its many handlings by rough men, in all kinds of weather, you -will admit at once the necessity for strong packing cases and you will, -I am sure, cease to wonder why it takes goods intended for interior -cities so long to reach their goal. - -A wise precaution, and one to be recommended for all shipments to Latin -America, is to insure them against theft en route. This may add a little -to the cost of the article, but it is the only protection against petty -pilfering. The fact is that the minor employes of the custom houses, as -well as the porters, trainmen and pack train attendants are so poorly -paid, and so completely lacking in honesty that there is every tendency -in the world to appropriate whatever appeals to their fancy. I have -known what should have been cases of toilet soap to arrive at their -destination, filled with scrap-iron, so as not to attract suspicion by -their weight, and this after duty had been collected at the custom house -and freight paid by the shipper. Unless there is an insurance against -these depredations one has absolutely no protection, for it is -practically impossible to prove where and by whom the theft was -committed. Furthermore if a conviction were obtained it would mean that -in future all goods bearing your particular shipping mark would be -forever doomed to trouble. - -I am always forced to laugh when I think of the experience of a -traveller for a well-known baking company in the United States who was -making his initial trip to South America. The port at which he landed -was, as it generally is, the scene of a yellow fever epidemic. Fearful -of contracting this disease he decided to take the first train for the -capital, located in the mountains and as a rule free from the scourge -which infests the port. Inasmuch as the train left early, he deposited -his twelve sample cases at the custom house with the keys and the -request that after they had been inspected one of the men whom he had -tipped should send them by the evening train to his hotel. After waiting -for three days without receiving the trunks, during which time he -frequently sent telephonic messages to the customs authorities and -telegraphed and wrote the United States consul on the subject, he -decided to go in person, despite his fear of contracting fever, and -secure his samples. You may imagine his surprise on reaching his cases -to find every one empty—the cakes and biscuits and dainties had been -eaten by the customs employes. Of course it was impossible to place the -blame on any one, and his loud demands for redress resulted in the -police escorting him to the railway station and threatening to arrest -him if he persisted in continuing his demonstrations. His cable to the -house, - -“Samples eaten by the customs authorities. Send duplicates,” - -confirmed the belief of his employers that he had gone suddenly insane -and brought this brief reply:— - -“Return immediately.” - -As far as I know, this big company have made no further efforts to enter -these really profitable fields, which are still dominated by English -cracker and biscuit concerns. I trust that the moral will be patent to -my readers that it pays to keep close to your sample cases and never -trust them with unreliable or unknown natives. - - - - - XXVII - ADVERTISING - - -Advertising is in its infancy in all parts of Latin America. It has been -given neither thought, study or attention, by the native, and where some -particular article has made a “hit” or developed into a profitable -seller through publicity, the chances are that the campaign was -conducted by some foreigner more or less familiar with modern methods. -Thousands of dollars are yearly wasted by inexperienced persons in -trying to market goods along erroneous lines. - -The great thing which militates against successful work in this field is -the enormous percentage of illiteracy—some authorities placing it as -high as 85 per cent. Chile admits that 49 per cent. of her citizens -cannot read or write; Argentine 54 per cent.; Cuba 56 per cent.; Mexico -75 per cent.; Brazil 85 per cent. and Guatemala 92 per cent. This -condition is easily conceivable when we stop to consider the scarcity of -either public or private schools, and the large percentage of -aborigines, Indians, negroes and mixed breed population, especially in -the northern countries of South America, as well as in Central America, -Mexico and the Spanish-speaking West Indies. - -How to reach this class, each member of which is a potential possibility -from a purchasing point of view, is a problem requiring much -consideration. Bright colors attract them and posters and cards -illustrating your article, and showing its application and -practicability have their value. Such souvenirs are never thrown away -but are preserved for years. If any member of the village can read he is -asked to transcribe the printing on the medium, and this will in all -probability form the subject for much discussion so that ultimately -everybody becomes acquainted with whatever may be thereon related or -depicted, thereby fulfilling the mission for which it was intended. - -To advertise a luxury to the uneducated classes is a waste of money, for -they have neither the means nor the desire to indulge in such -extravagances. Very naturally the great demand among these people, as it -is among persons of this class elsewhere, is for the necessities of -life—cotton goods, textiles, patent medicines, shoes, farming -implements, hardware, machinery, tools and the like. These are the -things required by the farmer and the laborer who make up the greater -proportion of the world’s population, and perhaps the very best way to -reach them is through the influence of the middle man, the jobber and -the local storekeeper. Of these three, the village merchant is by far -the most important with the masses. He is always a man of standing in -his community. He is invariably respected and looked up to. His word -among many amounts to law—his judgment final. He is the moneyed man of -the neighborhood. He carries the peons on his books—helps them along in -hard times, and when crops are short—extends credit when he thinks it -wise to do so and curtails it when proper. He is therefore in a position -to force on this great class of the people whatever he wishes. I recall -one of these typical country merchants telling me that practically every -man in the neighborhood owed him money and that therefore he had them -all in his power, so that he could tell them just what he wished them to -do or buy or be closed out. The control held by such a man in these -remote communities is far-reaching and conclusive. It is quite obvious -that the proletariat may be reached through direct appeal to him. He -usually takes the local papers, and those published in his immediate -vicinity, and is certain to subscribe to one or more of the leading -metropolitan dailies, so as to keep in touch with the markets and -shipping conditions. He knows almost to a ton what this year’s crop will -amount to; what the output of the neighboring mines will be; how much -rubber will come from up country; if wool will bring a high price, or if -cattle will be lower than last year, and is generally an all around -encyclopaedia of useful information on every local subject. The course -to pursue is obvious—advertise in the papers he takes, and at the same -time cultivate his friendship. Get to know him personally and -intimately, and seek to do him favors when the opportunity offers. - -The educated and better class of people demand all the luxuries and the -nicer things that the markets of the world afford. In addition to their -native language, they have been taught to speak French and most of them -use this idiom as frequently as they do their mother tongue and have -perhaps at various times in their careers lived in the capitals of -Europe. Their tastes are most modern. They demand the best and have the -money to pay for it. Obviously it is a comparatively simple problem to -reach this class. In each Latin American country are to be found -numerous weeklies and monthlies, most of which are well got up -typographically and profusely illustrated, which are an excellent medium -for placing one in direct touch with this desirable portion of the -purchasing public. They also take the leading metropolitan dailies and -these papers are very effective in bringing to their attention articles -which they may desire. - -Sign boards are beginning to be well thought of and are making their -appearance throughout the larger cities. Posters, well executed, but in -glaring colors, and if possible displaying a portion of a nude female -always attract universal attention and for many lines are excellent -mediums. Some of the countries charge an internal revenue tax on all -sign boards, posters, placards and street announcements proportionate to -their size. Before undertaking a campaign requiring the use of this -class of material, it is therefore well to ascertain what this fee will -amount to and arrange for its payment. In some cities the hoardings are -sold for a period of years, to the highest bidder, who in turn rents -them to the user for a specified time. These spaces are often the -property of the municipality which contracts directly with the user for -them. In Buenos Aires these stands are so highly thought of that they -are often leased years in advance. - -Moving picture theatres abound in the larger cities as they do with us. -Between films it is the custom to run advertisements which are thrown on -the screen for a few minutes. This is a rather cheap and practical means -of announcing one’s wares, inasmuch as it reaches a good class of -people. - -Street cars are used as extensively as in the United States, and are -worthy of serious consideration in conducting an elaborate advertising -campaign. Not only are the inside spaces in the car for sale, but in -many cities the spaces outside both above and below the windows and the -front and rear dashboards are effectively used. - -Electric signs are as yet comparatively unknown. Some of the larger -cities such as Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires have a few but they are -the exception to the general rule. The streets are usually so narrow -that good locations for display purposes are difficult to find. This -condition will be overcome in time, in many of the metropolitan towns, -with the advent of municipal improvements, the broadening of streets and -the laying out of modern avenues. Another element which militates -against the universal use of the “flash” sign is the fact that they are -apt to get out of order and mechanics experienced enough to repair and -keep them in operative condition are not numerous in these localities. -It therefore follows that for some years to come, the fixed electric -sign would be the more ideal for this section of the world. - -I doubt if any business house in any part of Latin America is really -familiar with the value of the follow-up letter system such as we use so -satisfactorily in the United States. I am certain that its introduction -and regular use will be found profitable in developing any line of -trade, especially when intended for those who in the course of a year -receive comparatively little correspondence. - -With regard to advertising rates the Latin American publisher is -becoming more consistent of late. Time was when he asked $600.00 a year -and took $60.00. To-day he keeps closer to an established price, -although diplomacy and politeness can accomplish much toward a generous -reduction on his first quotation. Local dealers always are given a far -better rate than foreigners and before doing business with a paper it is -highly advisable to find out by some means the price paid by the larger -business houses of the place. This will serve you as a guide in -determining what to pay for your space. It is always customary to run -little “readers” in the columns especially if you have contracted for -much advertising, and as these cost nothing, it is well to provide -appropriate manuscript for them and insist upon its being used. - -Local copy in many sections of Latin America is far from our idea of -what it should be and may appear a bit startling to our notions of -propriety. In Peru, there is a mineral water known as “Jesus Water,” the -labels on the bottle, the colored posters and other advertising showing -Christ at the spring. - -A cognac company uses cuts, posters and large signs depicting the -Saviour in the act of pouring out a glass of brandy and saying to -Lazarus, lying in a coffin at his feet, “Lazarus, arise and take a glass -of Cognac Bisquit.” I have seen this announcement in colors on the back -page of the leading illustrated weekly. - -“You Furnish the Corpse and Do the Mourning—We Do the Rest,” is the -ingenious slogan announcing the advertisement of an undertaking firm. -Let me add that such advertisements are not considered sacrilegious or -brutal, but simply show how primitive conditions are in these fields. - -Doctors advertise patients and patients advertise doctors in these -favored lands of the sun. This is considered perfectly ethical and adds -to rather than detracts from the reputation of both parties. I recall a -picture in halftones in the leading weekly of South America showing the -photographs of a physician and his patient, a well known lady of the -city. Grouped between the two were reproductions of forty-eight stones -alleged to have been removed from the sufferer. Pictures of amputations -are shown in detail, with lifelike illustrations of the surgeon. -Executions are also minutely depicted. I mention these facts in order -that a more complete insight may be gained as to the advertising -disposition and temperament of the public. - -[Illustration: - - Chilean Infantry - - “To see some of these troops march past with their peculiar knapsack, - their goose-step and the pickelhaub helmet, makes one feel that one - is in Germany.” - - _See page 220_ -] - -[Illustration: - - De venta en los buenos establecimientos - - “Local copy in many sections of Latin America is far from our idea of - what it should be and may appear a bit startling to our ideas of - propriety.... A cognac company uses cuts, posters and large signs - depicting the Saviour in the act of pouring out a glass of brandy - and saying to Lazarus lying in a coffin at his feet, ‘Lazarus, arise - and take a glass of cognac!’” - - _See page 339_ -] - -Position in the greater number of papers is an unknown quantity and its -value little understood or appreciated. Those connected with the journal -positively do not realize its importance. Even if a definite location is -contracted for in your agreement you need not be surprised if the -advertisement appears anywhere on any page. This is not done to -antagonize you, but is due to the fact above mentioned. Attempts to -deduct for wrong position in making payments generally start all kinds -of trouble and result in caustic editorial comments. Here as in all -things in Latin America, friendship counts, and if you have taken the -precaution to get on the right side of the editor and the make-up man, -you can have your choice of positions. I know of a representative who -was advertising a well known American mineral water in South America -three years ago. One of the dailies in which he was doing much display -work had just added a new two-color press to its equipment and as he was -very intimate with the editor the advertisement appeared in red ink for -a long time in the center of the front page along with the foreign -telegraphic news, columns being broken for the purpose. No extra charge -was made for the service and the owner of the sheet felt that he had -done nothing more than exhibit his high regard for the gentleman from -the North. - -Before preparing your copy for Latin America it is well to study all -these conditions and see wherein you can take advantage of them for -there is no denying that peculiar opportunities exist which if profited -by may mean for you and your firm success in this territory. - -Once you have decided upon your copy and the size of the space you -intend using, it is advisable to have electro cuts made. This saves time -and insures for your advertisement a uniformity of text and type which -cannot be guaranteed if the same is to be set up in the office of the -paper for each issue. When these electros are to be used in rotation -they should be numbered and printed instructions for the foreman should -accompany them. - -[Illustration: - - South American appreciation of advertisements “made in U.S.A.” - - “They recognize Americans as the best advertisers in the world and not - being familiar with English appropriate and use our illustrations - irrespective of the fact that they have absolutely no bearing on - what they are advertising.” - - _See page 343_ -] - -Plagiarism is rampant. They recognize Americans as the best advertisers -in the world and not being familiar with English appropriate and use our -illustrations irrespective of the fact that they may have absolutely no -bearing on what they are advocating. - -Typical of this purloining I recall a well known picture from an -American cereal advertisement showing two men seated in a dining car, -eating breakfast food. Outside snow is all over the ground and trees; -“Smoke El Toro Cigar” is the announcement beneath the sketch and in no -place does a cigar appear or is any reference made to one. Whoever -selected this picture did not even have the good judgment to modify the -same to the extent of cutting out the snow storm, in a land where snow -is unknown or eliminating the raised spoons piled high with the cereal -and held in the hands of the travelers. - -The full page advertisements of Pillsbury’s Flour were bodily -appropriated and used by a local cement manufacturing concern. The fact -that they also put up cement in bags seemed enough to warrant them in -using this copy, although the picture of the cook surrounded by the -paraphernalia of his office was not altered in the least. - - - - - XXVIII - RECIPROCITY - - -Foreign trade to be permanent should be established on a reciprocal -basis. To expect to ship a nation your raw or manufactured materials, -receiving only in exchange therefor a monetary consideration, is neither -equitable, sensible nor practical. It is decidedly lacking in business -judgment and reflects on the sincerity of the country endeavoring to do -its trade along such lines. - -Perhaps the chief reason that European Powers have obtained such a -foothold in foreign markets is due to the fact that they take in -exchange much of the crude exports of these lands and convert them into -finished factory products. This from an economic standpoint is as it -should be. It gives employment to the citizens of the importing nations, -develops and maintains their merchant marine, necessitates less material -movements in the medium of exchange in payment for goods on the part of -those concerned in the transaction and more firmly entrenches each in -the other’s business and friendly relations. - -The various countries comprising Latin America are in no sense -manufacturing ones. They possess few if any factories or plants and -these are usually devoted to the perfection of some local necessity, -such as wines, cigarettes, cigars, soap, sugar, and other articles for -personal use or consumption. They are however the largest producers of -raw materials the world knows. Due to our shortsightedness as a nation, -we have allowed the European merchant and manufacturer to take these -products from Nature’s laboratory, elaborate the finished article -therefrom and during each stage of its perfection, from its origin to -its completion, we have paid a profit, not to one, but to several -enterprising foreigners. - -The Latin Americans—in fact no nation—will buy from us for sheer love or -their high regard for us as a people, or even from dire necessity for -that matter. Most of these countries achieved their independence from -Spain because they refused to be further exploited by the mother -country. It behooves us as modern and liberal minded, wide-awake -business men, to develop our trade in these territories so that our -exports to each country will be paid for by the things which we import -from it. This is not a difficult problem to solve, especially as at the -present time our imports from them exceed the value of our exports to -them by approximately $100,000,000 yearly. This sum should represent the -amount of trade expansion with the United States these countries will be -in a position to stand on a reciprocal basis. - -Another feature in this connection which has developed since the -beginning of the present war is the monetary situation in Latin America. -These countries as the world knows were borrowing nations, and -practically dependent upon Europe for all of their financing. To-day -Europe cannot aid them in this respect and they have turned toward us -for assistance, thereby placing us in a much more advantageous position -than we formerly occupied with relation to developing our trade along -reciprocal lines, for a lending nation can always dictate to the -borrowing one. - -Following the stringency in the European money markets and their -inability to lend further financial aid to Latin American enterprises, -there has been a decided slump in property values of all kinds, thereby -giving the American investor desirous of entering these fields an -excellent opportunity to acquire controlling interests at the minimum -expense in undertakings which will ultimately rehabilitate themselves as -money making propositions. These conditions should not be lost sight of -during the readjustment of values in this part of the world. - -To be more specific, perhaps 80 per cent. of the world’s supply of -bismuth comes from Peru. This metal is largely used in the arts and -medicine. An Italian company owns practically all the mines. Germans and -English buy the ore and ship it to their respective clients in Europe. -On its arrival it is sold to smelters which produce the metal therefrom. -Manufacturing chemists purchase this and convert it into the bismuth -subnitrate used so extensively by the physician of to-day. This product -is imported by the American drug broker who sells it to the jobber, -whose traveller in turn disposes of it to the wholesale chemist through -whom it reaches the local druggist and finally the consumer. It is safe -to say that fully 30 per cent. of the prescriptions written by the -doctor and compounded by the apothecary call for this drug. If the metal -is to be used in the arts it goes through as many hands before reaching -the ultimate user. It is not difficult therefore to see that from the -mine to the consumer there are six or seven profits made, several of -which might be eliminated, thereby reducing the cost of the article, -provided the ore was brought direct to this country and the reduction -made here. Furthermore instead of going around the Horn to Europe, the -freight through the Panama Canal to an American port would be much less, -consequently effecting a great initial saving. Why does not some -manufacturing chemical house take advantage of this opportunity? - -This same condition of affairs is true of cinconah, from which quinine -is made, iodine, opium, belladona, menthol, castor oil, licorice, -linseed and many other extensively used and well known drugs. What a -chance exists in this field alone to establish a reciprocal trade, and -at the same time to reduce the high cost of these medicines! - -Last year Bolivia sent to Germany and England 50,000 tons of tin. We -bought back 30,000 tons of this tin from the wide-awake Teuton and -Anglo-Saxon merchants, or expressed in figures we contributed more than -$16,000,000 to the bank accounts of these gentlemen. We are the largest -users of tin in the world and Bolivia is the second largest tin -producing country, with thousands of acres of unexploited tin fields yet -to be developed. It is about two-thirds as far again from Bolivia to -Europe as it is to the United States. With proper shipping facilities -and the use of the Canal or by going to California, the saving in -freight alone should be sufficient to interest some progressive concern -in the handling of this article direct. - -Europe sends its wool buyers to Argentine and Uruguay. I have attended -these markets and have yet to meet an American buyer representing any of -our woolen cloth manufacturers. We buy much of our wool from European -markets, thereby giving Belgians, French, English and Germans who have -initiative and enterprise a profit on their business acumen. Is this -sensible? It only adds to what each one of us pays for our clothes. - -Ecuador’s chief product is cocoa. It is the largest grower of this -commodity in the world. The bean is perhaps the richest and most highly -flavored and is in great demand in the trade. Europe buys 80 per cent. -of this article and although we are the biggest individual users of -chocolate on earth, our merchants purchase but 20 per cent. direct. Then -England and Germany, and even little Switzerland, turn around and sell -us back—at a profit of course—fifty per cent. of what they bought in -Ecuador. And we call ourselves merchants! Who exhibits the good judgment -in such a transaction? - -The linseed of the world is produced by Argentine and India. The small -farmer trades it for supplies to the village merchant, who in turn -exchanges it for goods with the jobber in the capital or seaport. To -these men come the buyers for the Greek firm which practically controls -this industry and purchase the seed, and we, the most extensive users of -linseed oil in the world, pay our toll and tribute to the able and -shrewd men who have their headquarters in Athens. Isn’t there something -radically wrong here? - -The alpaca gives a fine soft wool. Practically all of this material is -bought in Bolivia by Europeans who manufacture the cloth which they -afterwards sell us. I cannot understand why some sagacious American has -not entered this profitable market. - -The seasons in the southern part of South America are reversed, so that -they have summer when we have winter, which means that their fruits and -vegetables, melons and berries are ripe when we have snow on the ground. -The apples, peaches, pears, plums, apricots, nectarines, cherries, -grapes and melons of Chile are as good as our own. A profitable return -awaits the one who will forward these goods in refrigerator ships to our -big northern markets. - -In Colombia and Ecuador large quantities of _tagua_ or ivory nuts -formerly grew wild. They are about the size of a goose egg, or slightly -larger, very hard and a dead white, protected by a thin black skin. For -years no one knew what to do with them. Finally an enterprising German -found that they could be converted into buttons. To-day the ivory nut is -cultivated for this purpose, and forms one of the leading exports from -the countries named; the shipments for 1913 amounted to over $5,000,000. -The finished button is sold not only to the Latin Americans, but -throughout the world as well. - -Brazil is the second largest diamond producing country in the world. -English companies have $50,000,000 invested in these mines, which means -that the diamonds obtained therefrom pass through the hands of several -Europeans before they ultimately reach the wearer in the United States. -One State of Brazil—Minas Geraes—has for the past six years been -exporting gold to Europe, sometimes as much as $2,000,000 a month, -because Germans, Belgians and Englishmen own the mines. - -Chile contains the largest known deposits of “caliche”—that is, the -earthy material from which nitrate is made. This article is extensively -used in the arts, in the production of gunpowder and other high -explosives and also as a fertilizer. Last year she exported 50,781,241 -quintals, the world’s total consumption for the same period of time -being 51,296,489 quintals. I know of but one American house established -in these fields. The business is controlled almost entirely by English -and German companies. - -We should also make a more determined effort to finance municipal and -national improvements in these countries. The money lenders of Europe -have been quick to take advantage of such opportunities. They proved -good investments for them. We should also find them profitable, under -the right conditions. In this field there are and will be for years to -come great possibilities, especially in electric and gas plants, -electric and steam roads, water works, sewers, and sanitations, mines -and smelters. The benefits to be derived from such a source of -investment are only too obvious. They give our engineers and contractors -and all connected with such an enterprise an opportunity to force upon -these countries our products and methods, provide permanent employment -for many of our countrymen, who in return will create a demand for goods -made in America. England leads the world in outside investments of this -nature, having over $10,000,000,000 in various foreign lands, -$5,000,000,000 of which is in Latin America. The German long ago saw the -advantage of following in the footsteps of the Briton and is the second -largest investor in such enterprises abroad. - -International bankers when making loans to private persons or -governments interested in these progressive movements always stipulated -that the materials to be used should be purchased from the country which -furnished the money for the development. This was a fair and far-seeing -business proposition and should serve as a guide for us in our future -dealings with these markets. - -Chile to-day is spending $400,000,000 on harbor improvements and -fortifications, most of the work being in the hands of Europeans. The -plans contemplated will require many years to complete, and during all -this time European material will be used and workmen from the Old World -will derive profit from the undertaking. - -An American first had the concession to build the subway in Buenos -Aires. He spent months trying to get capital in the United States -without success. Finally a German raised the money in Hamburg and now -everything about the line from the electrical installation to the -motorman and his uniform is “Made in Germany.” Being the first and only -underground road in Latin America it was written about and talked of -everywhere, and at all times the Germans got credit for the enterprise -and were well advertised as efficient and wonderful engineers. This was -another opportunity lost to us. - -Before the European War started a syndicate of English, French and -Germans had agreed to expend $200,000,000 in Colombia building railways -and in making the Magdalena River, the only highway to the capital at -Bogota, navigable at all seasons of the year. Due to present hostilities -they had to abandon the project. The terms offered by Colombia were -excellent, including 5 per cent. interest on the capital and the further -provision that the government would ultimately within a specified period -take over the road, paying an exceptional profit to the original -investors. Here is an excellent opportunity for American capital to -develop a reciprocal market. - -One of the chief reasons for the scarcity of invested American capital -in Latin America is the indefinite and indifferent attitude of our State -Department in failing to protect its citizens abroad or in seeking -redress for injuries done individuals or business conducted in these -countries. - -No race of men are as enterprising or venturesome or more truly pioneers -in every sense of the word than we Americans. This trait is a natural -inheritance from our forefathers, who left comparatively civilized and -comfortable Europe to gain a livelihood in the wilds of unknown and -unexplored America. We are a practical people, also, and when through -years of trying experiences we became definitely impressed with the fact -that in our foreign ventures we had neither the co-operation nor the -protection of our government, very naturally we abandoned these tempting -fields of business and allowed them to be profitably tilled by the -citizens of European governments which sympathized with their subjects -in their efforts to develop trade and at the same time provided them -adequate protection of a substantial and impressive type. - -In the early days which marked the European campaign for the commercial -supremacy of Latin America, most of these countries were the scenes of -much bloodshed and the violence of devastating revolutions. As a result -of the instability of their governments, there was positively little or -no security of life or property. Concessions solemnly made were -ruthlessly cancelled. Business ventures involving the outlay of immense -patience and large capital were completely wiped out. In brief the -foreigner in these lands was looked upon as an intruder and treated with -scant consideration. When Americans were involved in such occurrences, -our State Department, with very few exceptions, ignored the petitions of -the victims, until its neglect in this regard became so notorious that -finally no promoter had the temerity to seek capital in this country for -any Latin American enterprise. This condition of affairs had much to do -with turning the current of these ventures toward European money -markets, an opportunity eagerly accepted by all parties. - -On the other hand, the European, whether prospecting in the snow-topped -mountains or uplands of Bolivia, or in the jungles of the Amazon, knew -that his government kept a watchful eye on him and encouraged his every -effort, first because this was the privilege and duty of a government -and secondly the success of the individual in these lands ultimately -meant prosperity for the nation. If he was robbed, imprisoned or -murdered, if the result of his years of labor was destroyed in national -or local uprisings, the warship would always materialize to emphasize -the collection of compensation when diplomacy failed. - -Such consideration for their people on the part of the European -governments duly impressed the Latin American mind, and more so -especially when he was heavily taxed to reimburse the foreigner for -injuries received. As a result the European became respected more and -more from Mexico to Patagonia, and was allowed to pursue his way in -comparative peace, the converse of this proposition being true of the -unfortunate American, who could not expect governmental protection and -who became the object of much abuse and ridicule in these lands. The -truth of these statements is so obvious that it is unnecessary for me to -cite any illustrations in support of them. - -Socially speaking all of Latin America may be divided into two general -classes, the politician and the business man. As a rule the “politico” -has been the cause of all the unrest and upheavals these countries have -experienced, while the advance and progress of these nations is due to -the “commerciante”—the man who uses his brain and invests his money in -its various ventures. The larger progressive enterprises in Spanish -America—the building of railroads, the developing of mines, exporting, -importing, in brief, commerce as a whole—is chiefly carried on by -foreigners, aided by a few ambitious, practical, far-seeing, native -business men, never the politician. Commerce is a great civilizing -agency. The higher in the scale of civilization a people are, the more -secure will trade relations with them be. The larger and more important -countries of Latin America have at last begun to realize that internal -peace means prosperity, that prosperity attracts, yes invites capital, -even from the timid and those whose government does not stand behind -them in a dignified manner. - -As a consequence, despite the unfavorable attitude of the United States -State Department toward foreign investment, and with the idea of showing -our Latin American friends that we are sincerely interested in -establishing our trade relations with them on a reciprocal basis, -American capital in large sums is beginning to find its way into this -hitherto, for us, closed market. Panama has just been loaned $3,000,000 -American money to be used in the construction of railways and roads, -thereby bringing the producer nearer to the markets and the shipping -points of the country. Within five years I venture to predict that as a -result of this investment, our trade with Panama will have materially -increased, owing to the fact that agricultural products heretofore -prevented from reaching the consumer will be able to do so with -comparative ease, especially in the case of tropical fruits, cocoanuts, -copra and sugar. - -American bankers have loaned the Argentine Government $15,000,000 in 6 -per cent. gold notes. The temperament of the public as to the -attractiveness of the loan may be readily estimated when I state that -the entire amount of securities to cover the indebtedness was sold -before four o’clock of the day on which they were offered. The -successful consummation of this business—the first ever concluded -directly between the Argentine Government and the bankers of this -country—will serve greatly to strengthen the “entente cordiale” now so -rapidly developing between the United States and the rest of Latin -America. - -Nor is this all. Movements are now on foot leading to investments of -American capital in large sums in practically all of our sister -republics. With each step in this direction we as a nation, and also our -manufacturers and merchants, become more firmly entrenched in the Latin -American commercial world, and our mercantile supremacy in these lands -is more positively assured. - -As a typical illustration of what can be done in these countries when -the subject is handled intelligently let me mention the case of the -United Fruit Company, which operates in Colombia, Cuba, and practically -all of Central America. Starting in 1870 with a small beginning, this -organization is now one of the most solid to be found anywhere in the -world. In Costa Rica alone they have invested over $19,000,000 in -bananas, while enormous sums are also being expended in other countries -in sugar, coffee, cocoa, cocoanuts, the development of mines and the -building of railroads and hotels. In fact the prosperity of all these -nations is directly due to the presence of this great organization, -which finds a market for its products in Europe and the United States, -and which through its various local branches and stores, as well as its -numerous employes, is a potent factor in introducing American goods and -American ideas to all with whom it comes in contact. Its large fleet of -ships come to all the leading seaports of this country, and the vast -trade which it now controls, and which is still in its infancy, is -capable of enormous growth. As one example of what its business means in -freight alone, I may state that from the port of New Orleans this -company shipped, last year, nearly 150,000 car-loads of bananas to the -West and Middle West. The model hospitals which it has installed in each -of the countries in which it operates for the free treatment of its -servants have caused our physicians to be highly respected throughout -this portion of Central and South America, and as a consequence the -native now comes to the United States for serious surgical operations -and medical treatment, instead of to Europe as formerly. Further than -this, the intimate association bound to result from so many Americans -living in Latin American communities has tended to develop in each due -respect for the ability and integrity of the other, and this has been -beneficial to all parties concerned. - -It is to be hoped that all the countries of Latin America will take -advantage of the disposition so apparent on the part of our financiers -to extend external credits among them and that every effort will be used -by those in power to establish lasting internal peace and a guarantee of -protection against unwarranted attacks on foreign capital. Such an -assurance will do much to develop the commercial side of these really -wonderfully productive lands. - -Is it not the duty of our State Department to assist such a movement by -giving capitalists and merchants of this country its positive and -definite assurance that legitimate investors and investments will be -efficiently and effectively protected by the United States Government, -along the same lines as those in general use by the European powers? -Such an edict on the part of the United States would remove the last -great barrier to American trade development in Latin America. - - - - - XXIX - HEALTH PRECAUTIONS - - -Travel in Latin America can be made comparatively safe, from a medical -point of view, by the strict observance of a few common sense -precautions. Perhaps the first thing to be considered is the question of -water. With but one or two exceptions, drinking water is notoriously bad -in all of these countries, being polluted and almost certain, if drunk, -to develop, sooner or later, either typhoid or some other intestinal -disorder. Credence should not be placed in the well-intentioned -statement of the native that the water is good. Like their ancestors, -through the continual drinking of the local water, they have become -self-immunized to any form of contagion from its use. Because the water -comes from snow-clad mountains does not insure its purity, either. Most -mountain streams, long before they reach reservoirs, are used for -washing clothes or bathing and become infected in this manner. It is -obviously out of the question to boil all water prior to drinking and if -you are obliged to take many trips to the interior or off the beaten -paths of travel, bottled mineral waters are not always obtainable. -Therefore it is wise for the purposes of such excursions to carry any of -the well-known makes of pocket filter, which come especially made for -such purposes. Let me take advantage of this opportunity to correct the -erroneous idea entertained by so many of the laity that locally made -aerated mineral waters are free from bacteria. They should be shunned as -much as the local unboiled water. The best thing to do if you are going -to these countries, is to have your system rendered immune to the -typhoid bacillus, by having your family physician give you the -anti-typhoid vaccination, such as is used in the American army and navy. -There is but little inconvenience attending its administration and you -can rest assured that after taking the treatment you will not contract -typhoid fever. Drink bottled mineral water when possible. Its purity is -certain to eliminate tendencies to either stomachic or intestinal -troubles. - -[Illustration: - - _Photograph by Underwood & Underwood_ - - The Plaza Hotel in Buenos Aires -] - -Pineapples, berries, melons or green uncooked vegetables such as -radishes, cucumbers, onions, water-cress, lettuce, salad and the like -should be avoided for the same reasons. Truck gardens wherein they are -grown mostly use dirty water for irrigation purposes. Even the native is -aware of this practice among many gardeners and I recall one man whose -farm on the outskirts of a large South American city bears this -announcement:— - - “The vegetables from this place are not irrigated with water from the - sewers.” - -Cholera, a rare visitor to these lands, need not be feared, if you are -careful in your diet and drinking water. Green vegetables, berries, -melons, and fruits should be avoided in the event of an epidemic and -only cooked vegetables eaten. - -There is much small-pox, especially in communities where there is a -large percentage of Indian population, but this need not be a cause for -worry if one is vaccinated. A popular South American hotel, having had -many cases of this disease among its patrons, has hanging in each room -this sign:— - - “Rooms disinfected when guests leave,” - -in order to inspire confidence in its new clients. This sign might have -as a companion, another one displayed in a leading Latin American hotel, -reading:— - - “Guests are requested not to spit through the mosquito netting.” - -Yellow fever always exists in many of the towns of Ecuador, Colombia, -Venezuela, Brazil and most of the Mexican and Central American ports. It -is due to the bite of a certain species of mosquito. By observing -precautions, such as sleeping under a net and staying away from -districts known to breed these insects, the chances for contracting this -disease are materially minimized. - -That bubonic plague is present in many localities cannot be denied. -Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru and Brazil have this disease more than any -other countries of South America. It is caused by the bite of a specific -flea. Daily baths have a tendency to wash away the germs deposited by -this insect. - -For the purpose of keeping away fleas, mosquitoes and other pests it is -well to apply daily to the exposed portions of the body a solution of -equal parts of spirits of camphor and oil of citronella, a pint bottle -of which should form part of one’s traveling kit. - -Leprosy need not be feared. My experience of several years in one of the -largest leprosy hospitals in the world, in a country with many lepers -among its inhabitants warrants me in saying positively that the -probabilities of a temporary resident contracting this disorder are -almost _nil_. - -It is a wise precaution, for obvious reasons, when travelling in remote -districts to carry your own pillow, sheets and bed-clothes, a hammock -being preferable to a bed because more sanitary and easily conveyed. - -Oranges, bananas, limes and the many other delicious tropical fruits -need not be feared. You will meet persons who will warn you against -them, but they do no harm when eaten in moderation. - -Whiskey, wines and beer, especially in the warm climates are to be -eschewed. They heat the blood and are over-stimulating. Every doctor -will tell you that the possibilities of recovery from disease are always -against the person who uses alcohol, and nowhere in the world is the -truth of this more exemplified than in Latin America. In one hospital of -which I was in charge in one of these lands, out of 47 cases of yellow -fever, among foreigners, during an epidemic, 44 succumbed. Each man who -died was an extreme user of alcohol in some form. Of the three -recoveries one man was a teetotaler, the other two being occasional -drinkers. - -The old doctor’s advice to keep your head cool, your feet warm and your -bowels normal in order to avoid sickness is as appropriate for Latin -America as for anywhere else. - -A small medical case containing calomel, quinine, soda-mint tablets, -peroxide of hydrogen, a bandage, some aseptic gauze, and a packet of -absorbent cotton is all that is needed for a trip. Symptoms of any -disorder should not be ignored or made light of. If they persist be sure -to call in the very best physician available. - - - - - APPENDIX - LATEST STATISTICS AVAILABLE IN 1915 ABOUT SOUTH AMERICAN IMPORTS - - - Argentine - - Articles. From United From United From From Total - States. Kingdom. Germany. France. Imports. - Automobiles $543,930 $430,530 $822,315 $2,252,835 $5,159,030 - Bagging 13,025 3,299,705 68,130 5,230 8,355,140 - Beams, iron 94,440 91,035 1,846,070 495,815 3,276,365 - Beverages 46,690 169,155 168,350 129,525 1,149,360 - Binder twine 2,729,950 10,655 5,835 8,760 2,765,130 - Books and - pamphlets 30,515 462,520 58,015 154,900 1,254,810 - Book paper 7,395 61,275 947,850 2,900 1,154,760 - Brick, paving 8,375 98,520 153,625 109,400 1,055,840 - Bridge materials 66,905 776,810 110,240 3,265 997,670 - Carriages and - cars, - accessories - and parts of 64,550 350,550 406,335 389,360 1,504,605 - Cement, - hydraulic 13,545 640,520 258,135 752,880 3,989,340 - Cheese 15,825 7,010 73,890 2,074,590 - Chemical and - pharmaceutical - products: - Candles, - stearin 1,700 272,460 104,675 9,520 1,094,570 - Medicinal - preparations 340,680 153,065 206,685 1,154,280 2,191,620 - Perfumery 27,550 206,740 86,690 1,043,180 1,411,500 - All other 1,982,965 2,086,355 1,764,010 1,101,350 9,083,685 - Cigars 32,045 21,605 20,935 8,685 1,415,630 - Coal 782,910 23,642,425 381,320 25,047,240 - Coffee 585 4,980 7,020 1,631,615 - Cotton and silk - goods 10,635 430,995 275,395 518,345 1,447,725 - Cotton and - woolen goods 75 682,520 303,845 76,075 251,842 - Cotton goods - made up 8,200 157,340 497,315 430,635 1,186,140 - Cotton hose 750 22,000 1,101,325 223,015 1,407,220 - Cotton laces $2,810 $559,200 $415,285 $123,525 $1,349,000 - Cotton tissues: - White 21,305 4,099,620 133,420 77,075 4,813,065 - Unbleached - (linen) 12,500 874,610 3,920 4,485 1,127,060 - Printed 1,605 2,610,395 460,140 68,935 3,693,435 - Dyed 9,370 4,377,675 920,095 244,910 10,315,680 - Color not - specified 3,015 534,595 170,910 121,190 1,059,655 - Cotton yarn: - Colored 2,705 111,845 129,475 20,195 1,003,695 - Unbleached 70,735 326,310 52,430 46,420 1,508,790 - Cotton goods, - all other 301,675 2,568,815 1,064,295 619,455 6,632,860 - Ducks 550 493,600 162,180 156,150 1,156,655 - Dyes and colors 249,550 997,635 722,980 199,185 2,427,250 - Dynamos and - motors, - electric 28,545 219,935 1,212,775 42,385 1,637,755 - Electric and - wire cable 102,885 1,205,515 1,227,695 96,465 3,087,700 - Furniture, - wooden 587,060 513,055 308,515 489,640 2,668,230 - Glass and plain - crystal 12,145 663,930 201,380 68,860 1,538,850 - Harvesting - machines 1,948,165 46,200 14 2,712,855 - Household and - cooking - utensils. 52,450 89,910 741,430 95,940 1,210,210 - Iron and steel - wire, - galvanized: - Smooth— - Up to No. 14 638,990 249,100 1,027,250 1,500 2,015,735 - No. 15 and - higher 625 53,430 13,590 465 75,945 - Barbed 635,030 106,320 137,085 2,825 926,250 - Twisted 3,599 16,485 3,410 27 25,300 - Iron and steel - wire, not - galvanized: - Up to No. 14 408,200 16,495 213,970 75 720,060 - No. 15 and - higher 19,645 2,905 15,975 175 41,395 - Iron and steel - wire, plated - (with bronze - copper, - nickel, or - tin) 79 5,750 27,630 307 35,605 - Iron axles and - wheels 87,685 1,156,005 7,750 1,256,735 - Iron bars and - sheets 408,135 656,150 2,489,430 80,800 6,288,590 - Iron, galvanized 1,398,165 4,088,950 381,955 24,985 6,160,145 - Iron, wrought 321,005 1,156,670 377,870 77,300 2,753,025 - Jewelry, fine, - except watches - and loose - precious - stones 15,885 180,215 769,525 620,660 1,849,545 - Leather and - manufactures 1,283,105 758,510 688,340 792,230 3,766,540 - Locomotives 1,847,135 293,845 627 2,188,660 - Machinery, - general 1,119,225 2,022,795 2,572,365 459,975 6,939,140 - Machines, spare - parts 1,132,290 684,510 692,340 119,950 2,909,925 - Malt 59,385 1,074,280 - Manufactures of - copper and - bronze 100,795 402,430 281,845 144,120 1,073,095 - Manufactures of - stone, earth, - glass, etc. 170,240 987,185 2,050,820 616,460 4,667,250 - Materials for - port works 105 110,280 66,075 14,580 204,035 - Materials for - sanitary works 962,525 57,135 3,045 1,066,365 - Motors: - Windmills, - with or - without - framework, - and pumps 372,580 13,980 555 393,275 - Other various 631,820 316,015 85,765 6,800 1,142,485 - News print paper 727,970 85,595 603,725 7,735 1,610,380 - Oil: - Lubricating 1,301,930 787,995 63,980 10,815 2,518,350 - Olive 146,075 3,645 5,240 143,525 4,748,915 - Kerosene 2,289,115 156 2,289,275 - Naphtha, - unrefined 5,495,150 126,010 75,895 43 5,710,755 - Pine, unplaned: - White 1,728,450 140,350 11,773 23,160 2,130,015 - Pitch 8,078,590 3,880 29,170 30 8,164,720 - Spruce 1,662,050 76,925 50,635 14,065 3,689,605 - Pipes, iron: - Galvanized 229,180 966,955 83,565 3,205 1,294,550 - Other 51,460 756,245 238,810 34,290 1,171,965 - Railway coaches 117,730 1,073,510 1,191,240 - Railway - couplings, - steel 136,585 485,835 397,810 2,480 1,147,350 - Railway freight - cars 558,855 2,650,155 74,190 16,095 3,812,510 - Railway - materials 132,810 4,152,660 237,460 93,345 5,013,430 - Rice: - Unhulled 30,685 286,055 - Hulled 378 76,860 5,020 2,476,215 - Sand for - building 115 1,024,380 - Sardines 516 27,130 26,120 44,485 1,031,425 - Screws and nuts $170,230 $401,675 $156,050 $183,830 $1,061,980 - Seeds: - Alfalfa 482 155,145 73,230 740,945 - Flax 1,020 100 1,335 - Corn 332 1 100 1,115 - Wheat 1,175 39 48 265 7,630 - Other kinds 41,510 26,170 281,195 201,115 1,069,415 - Silk 635 208,055 428,735 1,287,600 2,341,730 - Steel rails 737,685 2,226,600 1,343,315 17,290 5,088,405 - Spirits and - cordials 12,070 462,545 44,365 1,685,810 3,183,410 - Sugar: - Refined 215 467,710 228,260 852,550 - Other 1,669 1,110,785 1,575 1,117,385 - Tea 230 306,100 18,930 374 1,072,030 - Tin plate, - unworked 345,530 673,230 5 67 1,036,860 - Threshing - machines with - or without - motor 1,182,175 179,385 119,385 97 1,517,030 - Tobacco dip 95,545 2,153,045 6,285 520 2,348,005 - Tobacco, leaf 378,260 19,495 82,675 4,615 3,485,160 - Tramway - materials 107,725 506,110 599,020 20,920 1,688,460 - Watches: - Gold 2,270 15,420 64,010 209,035 593,300 - Other kinds 115,450 26,985 230,270 302,665 1,395,305 - Wines 9,160 21,235 39,985 8,031,335 9,830,910 - Woolen goods: - Made up 4,150 235,295 586,865 504,855 1,418,170 - Tissues, all - wool 4,425 3,571,105 1,039,340 888,125 5,957,735 - Mixed 3,245 2,018,030 441,055 133,225 2,799,150 - Yerba, Brazilian 4,946,085 - Imports by - parcel post, - etc. 3,070 609,945 839,485 944,510 3,308,795 - All other - articles 12,223,614 19,315,571 21,833,634 11,791,528 90,808,013 - ——————————— ——————————— ——————————— ——————————— ———————————— - Total $57,057,505 $114,515,800 $61,703,550 $36,301,925 $371,383,595 - - - Bolivia - - IMPORTS - - Articles. Value. - Animals, live: - Cattle $302,553 - Horses 482,528 - Arms and ammunition 692,047 - Breadstuffs: - Cereals 111,462 - Pastes, alimentary 72,617 - Rice 194,541 - Wheat flour 857,148 - Candles 366,220 - Cars and carriages: - Railway cars 272,219 - Other 102,944 - Cement 148,292 - Coal and briquettes 674,512 - Cotton manufactures, not mixed with other material 1,684,088 - Earthenware, tiles, and piping of, and porcelain 151,840 - Explosives, including powder 452,490 - Fish, fresh, including shellfish 125,027 - Fruits 100,636 - Gold, coined 107,082 - Hats 447,937 - Hides and skins, manufactures of 118,023 - Instruments, musical and scientific 107,238 - Iron and steel and manufactures: - Beaten, drawn, and in sheets 348,456 - Machinery and apparatus: - Electric 339,731 - Mining 446,881 - Other and parts 633,095 - Tools 225,340 - Iron manufacturers 2,046,497 - Jewelry: - Genuine (of precious metals) 105,702 - Other 104,271 - Leather boots and shoes 155,088 - Medicines, prepared 154,297 - Oils, mineral, and products 86,315 - Paints, colors, and varnishes 99,604 - Paper and manufactures 386,503 - Soap 97,209 - Spirits, wines, and malt liquors: - Beer, cider, and “chicha” 80,160 - Spirituous liquors 644,226 - Wines 380,603 - Sugar, refined 1,195,665 - Textile manufactures: - Laces, embroideries, and trimmings 188,666 - Knitted goods 174,418 - Wearing apparel, ready-made, except waterproof 763,364 - Wood and manufactures: - Unmanufactured, except dyewood 248,087 - Manufactures: - Furniture 130,702 - Other 75,794 - Wool, pure 689,861 - All other articles 1,887,017 - ——————————— - Total $19,258,996 - - - EXPORTS - - Bismuth $836,366 - Coca 286,417 - Copper 1,318,389 - Rubber 6,032,892 - Silver: - Crude $1,675,940 - Coined 168,204 - Tin 23,432,658 - Wolfram $202,165 - All other articles 1,104,816 - ——————————— - Total $35,057,841 - - - Brazil - - Articles United United - Year States Kingdom Germany - Arms and ammunition: - Ammunition 1912 $457,294 $1,369,956 - Firearms 1912 572,302 $21,756 1,111,676 - Asphalt 1912 39,334 - Belting 1912 44,394 206,090 42,740 - Bicycles 1912 37,116 103,249 41,287 - Blacking, boot 1912 19,573 29,039 17,163 - Breadstuffs: - Flours and meals, not wheat 1912 57,540 48,186 - Wheat 1912 213 - Wheat flour 1912 4,007,047 - Cars, carriages, motor cars, etc.: - Railway cars 1912 1,915,701 991,730 331,761 - Axles and wheels, for railway - cars 1912 271,653 268,616 431,786 - Carriages, etc. 1912 161,351 31,658 41,716 - Axles, etc., for carriages 1912 26,803 18,790 - Motor cars 1912 924,045 317,873 1,526,018 - Motor-car accessories 1912 110,530 112,434 320,209 - Cement 1912 275,942 1,138,048 2,525,183 - Cordage, jute and hemp 1912 12,168 34,919 17,643 - Cotton manufactures: - Piece goods— - Bleached 1912 12,094 1,310,654 - Unbleached 1912 4,386 237,242 - Dyed 1912 54,865 2,905,293 74,654 - Printed 1912 1,195 836,941 - Other 1912 69,650 4,608,054 1,461,724 - Other 1912 187,005 1,091,231 2,272,635 - Coal 1912 2,788,601 15,490,137 - Patent fuel 1912 2,099,247 - Clocks and watches: - Clocks 1912 100,479 93,059 - Watches 1912 10,027 14,586 - Chemicals and drugs: - Calcium carbide 1912 52,939 - Pills, etc. 1912 47,158 ..... - Pharmaceutical goods, etc. 1912 423,164 962,656 1,364,543 - Dynamite and other explosives 1912 10,257 417,202 91,324 - Electrical machinery and supplies: - Cable 1912 250,047 241,369 49,997 - Insulators 1912 55,044 125,582 - Machinery 1912 2,060,944 569,562 1,375,764 - Fishhooks, locks, stirrups, etc. 1912 140,729 106,077 236,351 - Fish: - Codfish 1912 279,415 449,641 - Preserved extracts, etc. 1912 144,028 - Fruits: - Dried 1912 19,544 . ..... - Fresh 1912 212,010 . - Preserved, and extracts 1912 33,304 - Glass and manufactures: - Bottles and tumblers 1912 58,245 564,005 - Window glass 1912 4,042 135,855 - Hats 1912 89,217 - Ink: - Printing 1912 18,148 59,066 - Writing 1912 2,923 25,160 . - Instruments, scientific: - Dental 1912 165,793 34,385 23,810 - Optical, and goods 1912 19,065 25,612 - Surgical, and goods 1912 36,873 70,598 - Other 1912 172,381 75,190 191,322 - Iron and steel, and manufactures - of: - Cutlery 1912 $178,465 $337,214 $576,594 - Enameled ware 1912 13,020 59,051 379,110 - Galvanized corrugated sheets 1912 328,994 1,540,600 91,931 - Furniture 1912 54,393 51,471 42,635 - Bars, rods, plates, and sheets 1912 114,879 529,803 569,338 - Cast, pig, and puddled iron 1912 7,019 331,278 - Locomotives 1912 1,871,639 459,850 1,290,737 - Motors and stationary engines 1912 425,918 333,763 507,533 - Machinery— - Agricultural 1912 409,458 84,233 179,056 - Industrial 1912 230,799 2,776,668 1,784,057 - Other 1912 3,556,371 2,379,798 2,249,642 - Nails, screws, etc. 1912 117,401 143,478 116,929 - Rails, joints, etc. 1912 1,868,840 751,474 1,344,151 - Scales 1912 67,337 24,013 31,839 - Sewing machines 1912 1,563,131 105,297 963,594 - Steel bars and rods 1912 94,276 518,345 81,098 - Stills, boilers, etc. 1912 77,836 466,263 78,623 - Structural material 1912 196,928 648,719 1,223,603 - Tubes, pipes, fittings 1912 419,678 1,988,125 985,359 - Typewriters and accessories 1912 354,833 60,116 - Tools 1912 694,927 1,537,651 661,834 - Telegraph poles, bridge and - fence material 1912 328,901 391,635 360,880 - Leather, and manufactures of: - Boots and shoes 1912 333,285 - Sole leather 1912 40 20,150 - Other leather 1912 561,458 224,854 1,585,747 - Manufactures of leather and - skins 1912 35,724 92,322 120,066 - Lighting apparatus 1912 60,656 107,021 223,470 - Meats and products: - Bacon 1912 157,373 ..... - Hams 1912 15,210 458,846 - Lard 1912 92,275 - Preserved, and extracts 1912 25,202 - Milk, condensed 1912 18,541 - Mills 1912 15,332 48,325 - Musical instruments: - Phonographs and accessories 1912 138,602 303,147 - Pianos 1912 126,894 607,091 - Oils: - Gasoline 1912 1,164,021 - Kerosene 1912 4,383,101 - Lubricating 1912 812,756 152,101 129,294 - Paper, and manufactures of: - Card and mill board 1912 4,413 261,009 - Playing cards 1912 4,414 2,451 - Printing paper 1912 13,595 61,101 881,228 - Stationery, etc. 1912 57,291 115,605 261,500 - Writing paper 1912 12,974 220,869 - Paraffine 1912 13,151 29,405 14,266 - Photographic apparatus and - accessories 1912 51,521 72,405 - Presses 1912 6,333 14,712 10,237 - Pumps, hydraulic, and parts 1912 92,776 118,906 86,698 - Pipe, lead 1912 1,776 45,491 - Plated ware 1912 3,368 32,398 26,423 - Perfumery, dyes, etc., and - materials for 1912 277,532 620,696 301,905 - Paints, prepared 1912 130,806 394,256 127,948 - Resin 1912 1,547,214 - Rubber manufacture 1912 182,828 278,553 288,933 - Soap, unscented 1912 35,734 198,953 56,998 - Starch 1912 1,502 59,796 69,984 - Salt 1912 137,923 - Tallow and grease 1912 2,871 15,137 - Tin plates, in sheets 1912 271,451 1,112,935 - Tinware 1912 6,678 47,953 - Tents 1912 2,054 13,480 14,226 - Type, printers’ 1912 2,089 107,021 - Tobacco leaf 1912 44,602 - Varnishes 1912 $49,260 $115,833 - Vegetables: - Dried 1912 815 $9,859 - Preserved and extracts 1912 15,389 - Wire: - Copper 1912 851,550 65,115 285,042 - Other 1912 823,876 227,990 1,403,714 - Wearing apparel 1912 40,577 214,689 222,144 - Wood, and manufactures of: - Furniture 1912 137,340 76,271 115,560 - Pine blocks and boards 1912 2,302,576 - Staves and hoops 1912 7,886 28,931 112,666 - Rough, sawed, planed, and - veneered 1912 33,123 25,621 - - - Articles - Year France Belgium Total - Arms and ammunition: - Ammunition 1912 $197,561 $2,178,121 - Firearms 1912 $488,328 2,280,796 - Asphalt 1912 172,889 - Belting 1912 49,137 351,719 - Bicycles 1912 31,837 258,786 - Blacking, boot 1912 72,676 - Breadstuffs: - Flours and meals, not wheat 1912 214,938 - Wheat 1912 14,026,977 - Wheat flour 1912 11,733,682 - Cars, carriages, motor cars, etc.: - Railway cars 1912 3,912,337 7,382,069 - Axles and wheels, for railway - cars 1912 337,014 1,328,604 - Carriages, etc. 1912 285,090 - Axles, etc., for carriages 1912 29,125 93,150 - Motor cars 1912 1,470,795 186,216 5,368,650 - Motor-car accessories 1912 483,508 1,265,430 - Cement 1912 117,025 960,125 5,263,961 - Cordage, jute and hemp 1912 11,058 91,014 - Cotton manufactures: - Piece goods— - Bleached 1912 1,457,021 - Unbleached 1912 255,016 - Dyed 1912 59,781 120,078 3,320,815 - Printed 1912 935,708 - Other 1912 376,106 438,478 8,329,407 - Other 1912 402,305 3,788,388 - Coal 1912 18,482,303 - Patent fuel 1912 56,702 2,214,749 - Clocks and watches: - Clocks 1912 227,530 - Watches 1912 247,059 - Chemicals and drugs: - Calcium carbide 1912 435,057 - Pills, etc. 1912 72,467 - Pharmaceutical goods, etc. 1912 1,537,131 4,908,461 - Dynamite and other explosives 1912 37,119 563,570 - Electrical machinery and supplies: - Cable 1912 579,885 - Insulators 1912 204,388 - Machinery 1912 537,636 4,811,052 - Fishhooks, locks, stirrups, etc. 1912 51,979 559,805 - Fish: - Codfish 1912 6,537,176 - Preserved extracts, etc. 1912 75,259 1,267,575 - Fruits: - Dried 1912 24,847 703,853 - Fresh 1912 961,797 - Preserved, and extracts 1912 14,359 64,082 - Glass and manufactures: - Bottles and tumblers 1912 73,050 776,833 - Window glass 1912 319,055 518,487 - Hats 1912 149,846 756,931 - Ink: - Printing 1912 32,535 111,969 - Writing 1912 36,576 - Instruments, scientific: - Dental 1912 230,589 - Optical, and goods 1912 36,965 85,485 - Surgical, and goods 1912 95,661 216,052 - Other 1912 110,639 586,037 - Iron and steel, and manufactures - of: - Cutlery 1912 $86,941 $1,193,260 - Enameled ware 1912 485,525 - Galvanized corrugated sheets 1912 2,060,072 - Furniture 1912 170,171 - Bars, rods, plates, and sheets 1912 $397,021 1,797,435 - Cast, pig, and puddled iron 1912 372,735 - Locomotives 1912 122,518 3,749,149 - Motors and stationary engines 1912 70,511 1,460,513 - Machinery— - Agricultural 1912 702,012 - Industrial 1912 354,519 5,758,613 - Other 1912 888,227 345,870 10,071,038 - Nails, screws, etc. 1912 80,627 547,469 - Rails, joints, etc. 1912 2,071,438 3,318,764 9,384,650 - Scales 1912 135,175 - Sewing machines 1912 2,548,510 - Steel bars and rods 1912 944,537 - Stills, boilers, etc. 1912 716,563 - Structural material 1912 384,630 564,202 3,099,101 - Tubes, pipes, fittings 1912 354,521 3,973,039 - Typewriters and accessories 1912 423,494 - Tools 1912 299,377 3,311,443 - Telegraph poles, bridge and - fence material 1912 25,509 469,437 1,478,680 - Leather, and manufactures of: - Boots and shoes 1912 27,181 531,639 - Sole leather 1912 20,842 - Other leather 1912 896,943 3,587,909 - Manufactures of leather and - skins 1912 76,573 412,719 - Lighting apparatus 1912 465,826 - Meats and products: - Bacon 1912 187,414 - Hams 1912 525,627 - Lard 1912 111,526 - Preserved, and extracts 1912 35,156 308,424 - Milk, condensed 1912 1,396,423 - Mills 1912 42,722 128,429 - Musical instruments: - Phonographs and accessories 1912 458,952 - Pianos 1912 79,795 866,547 - Oils: - Gasoline 1912 1,185,084 - Kerosene 1912 4,424,901 - Lubricating 1912 1,262,449 - Paper, and manufactures of: - Card and mill board 1912 451,045 - Playing cards 1912 9,058 - Printing paper 1912 111,916 2,107,646 - Stationery, etc. 1912 74,376 525,185 - Writing paper 1912 425,648 - Paraffine 1912 65,229 - Photographic apparatus and - accessories 1912 51,663 224,255 - Presses 1912 37,519 - Pumps, hydraulic, and parts 1912 365,636 - Pipe, lead 1912 51,542 - Plated ware 1912 72,960 - Perfumery, dyes, etc., and - materials for 1912 1,041,177 1,964 2,829,581 - Paints, prepared 1912 43,801 753,872 - Resin 1912 1,593,017 - Rubber manufacture 1912 111,358 962,267 - Soap, unscented 1912 289,575 - Starch 1912 56,828 212,972 - Salt 1912 731,785 - Tallow and grease 1912 80,022 - Tin plates, in sheets 1912 1,421,649 - Tinware 1912 29,369 100,931 - Tents 1912 41,336 - Type, printers’ 1912 37,188 233,373 - Tobacco leaf 1912 343,987 - Varnishes 1912 $198,527 - Vegetables: - Dried 1912 35,413 - Preserved and extracts 1912 $118,861 611,043 - Wire: - Copper 1912 1,293,638 - Other 1912 $344,331 2,880,837 - Wearing apparel 1912 247,057 1,140,662 - Wood, and manufactures of: - Furniture 1912 108,453 871,002 - Pine blocks and boards 1912 2,768,805 - Staves and hoops 1912 186,883 - Rough, sawed, planed, and - veneered 1912 464,835 - - - Chile - - Articles From From - United United From - States Kingdom Germany Total - Bottles for liquor $498 $523,145 $525,154 - Cars for portable and aerial - railways $18,727 335,521 393,922 850,535 - Cement, Roman 72,917 313,012 1,168,373 1,703,032 - Coal 502,787 7,103,652 278,210 11,129,959 - Coffee, grain 1,293 12,640 21,785 770,292 - Coke 155,402 176,455 383,753 - Colors, common, prepared with - waters and oil 13,893 306,272 84,326 409,157 - Cotton goods 770,188 6,923,309 3,413,980 14,161,177 - Cotton yarn 38,558 621,476 522,450 1,593,200 - Glassware 30,858 27,682 274,723 391,455 - Iron and steel, and - manufactures of 3,521,167 4,447,775 4,446,738 13,448,154 - Wire 465,300 28,459 146,187 694,661 - Iron articles for domestic - use 26,599 125,583 510,028 689,537 - Pipes, tubes, tools, etc. 152,906 813,813 568,463 1,883,638 - Nails 216,655 58,493 205,515 525,819 - Railway couplings and - plates 37,157 49,141 145,620 276,940 - Iron and steel, unworked, - in bars, plates, and - other forms 240,183 149,994 413,660 1,153,087 - Sheet iron, corrugated, - galvanized 967,402 776,490 4,150 1,748,128 - Rails for railways 516,384 488,551 443,247 1,516,485 - Live animals 3,919,088 - Cattle 3,286,871 - Locomotives and tenders 107,932 337,791 656,819 1,119,018 - Machinery, implements, etc.: - For arts and sciences 327,923 169,531 762,327 1,369,415 - Mining 99,827 250,047 296,913 652,828 - Agricultural 915,971 683,360 342,550 1,979,586 - Industrial 226,647 867,627 1,049,792 2,345,184 - Motors 81,737 1,022,549 304,967 1,471,558 - Parts 153,672 494,480 613,277 1,122,020 - Materials for Longitudinal - Railway 316,032 148,954 201,036 666,022 - Metals, other than iron and - steel 155,706 840,196 932,125 2,249,211 - Mineral water 9,450 145,113 90,612 401,054 - Olive and other edible oils 560,434 28,040 162,025 1,244,117 - Paper, unsized, for printing 225,398 40,477 893,543 1,220,867 - Paraffine in paste form 87,808 94,811 440,909 634,204 - Paraffine and petroleum, - naphtha, gasoline, etc. 1,134,728 10,102 186 1,144,624 - Petroleum, fixed, impure 273,881 58,466 34,337 365,026 - Petroleum, crude 1,240,221 2,527,758 - Pine lumber, rough 1,252,359 76,335 3,079 148,949 - Railway freight cars 13,205 187,866 62,022 430,473 - Rice 720 5,352 380,485 820,954 - Sacks, empty 220,705 1,105 3,285,198 - Salmon 373,640 10,613 12,292 401,314 - Silk thread and manufactures 2,716 24,903 333,584 1,183,838 - Sugar: - Refined 205 890 167,733 199,417 - White 409 19,618 81,182 - Granulated 5,460 52,151 2,261,793 - Raw 346 501 23,220 - Tea 5,700 829,158 60,937 933,672 - Woolen goods 8,920 3,211,547 2,445,224 7,047,551 - Woolen yarn $10,168 $54,294 $621,698 $705,738 - Yerba maté 790 78,150 23,503 689,646 - - - Colombia - - Articles From - United - States Total - Animals $1,608 $26,016 - Arms and accessories 27,203 57,439 - Ceramics, crockery, etc. 157,674 503,579 - Drugs and medicines 390,546 838,347 - Electric machinery and equipment 110,922 175,638 - Explosives 48,876 94,116 - Food products 1,573,257 3,054,952 - Metals 1,060,274 2,916,924 - Machinery: - Agricultural and mining 182,017 381,587 - Locomotive 876,863 1,031,711 - For arts and sciences 349,060 620,251 - Musical instruments 17,398 69,622 - Oils and fat products 94,457 171,733 - Perfumes, soaps, etc. 92,064 152,169 - Paper and cardboard 96,629 477,522 - Textiles 1,667,131 10,547,134 - Varnishes, paints, etc. 48,824 125,862 - Wines, liquors, etc. 68,172 835,772 - All other articles 749,062 1,884,249 - —————————— ——————————— - Total $7,612,037 $23,964,623 - - - Ecuador - - Articles Value - Animals, live $47,111 - Arms and ammunition 49,521 - Boats, launches, etc. 10,390 - Books, blank and printed 34,135 - Boots, shoes, and findings 234,302 - Candles 155,938 - Carriages in general 76,809 - Cement, stone, and earth 56,423 - Clothing, ready-made 624,959 - Cordage, twine, and thread 166,328 - Crockery and glassware 161,102 - Drugs and medicines 430,229 - Foodstuffs 1,849,847 - Gold and silver coins 285,333 - Hats and caps 140,185 - Iron and steel, and manufactures of: - Hardware 798,971 - Machinery 620,554 - Jewelry 19,807 - Leather 26,569 - Lumber, rough and finished 94,594 - Matches 26,917 - Mineral products 206,445 - Musical instruments 53,699 - Oils in general 115,092 - Paints and varnishes 41,063 - Paper in general 171,167 - Perfumery 79,065 - Textiles: - Silk fabrics, pure and mixed 18,143 - All other 2,784,944 - Vegetable products 54,899 - Wines and liquors 375,574 - Miscellaneous 830,728 - ——————————— - Total $10,652,843 - - - Paraguay - - Articles and countries Value - Beverages $281,844 - France 60,636 - Italy 61,203 - Spain 123,670 - Drugs 215,039 - United States 42,134 - Argentine 14,191 - France 33,084 - Germany 48,936 - United Kingdom 44,202 - Government supplies (for public works) 119,499 - United States 18,070 - Argentine 24,414 - Germany 62,351 - Haberdashery (small wares sold by dry goods stores) 380,518 - Argentine 19,865 - France 84,109 - Germany 171,797 - Italy $16,289 - Spain 18,640 - United Kingdom 60,874 - Hardware 836,621 - United States 103,467 - Germany 368,286 - United Kingdom 268,886 - Provisions 1,171,578 - United States 81,795 - Argentine 448,602 - Austria 106,492 - Germany 205,870 - Italy 64,926 - Spain 105,738 - Textiles 1,462,367 - France 64,441 - Germany 396,413 - Italy 83,121 - United Kingdom 835,666 - - - Peru - - Articles and countries 1910 1911 - Cotton textiles and manufactures: - United Kingdom $1,770,615 $2,131,482 - Germany 438,676 535,076 - Italy 224,175 404,303 - Belgium 132,222 169,378 - United States 149,202 139,605 - Spain 60,811 130,091 - France 59,629 99,281 - Japan 11,986 8,189 - Other countries 14,337 12,064 - —————————— —————————— - Total $2,861,653 $3,629,469 - - Wool and animal hair and manufactures: - United Kingdom $532,944 $638,459 - Germany 277,565 577,760 - Belgium 92,726 159,246 - Italy 61,532 84,559 - France 42,153 77,513 - Spain 8,189 - United States 2,501 6,856 - Other countries 29,026 10,138 - —————————— —————————— - Total $1,038,447 $1,562,720 - - Linen, hemp, jute, and other textile fibers and - manufactures: - United Kingdom $249,441 $280,042 - British India 88,969 188,683 - Germany 31,194 55,531 - Australia 19,636 42,027 - France 16,088 20,113 - Belgium 13,820 16,998 - United States 5,133 13,971 - Spain 10,390 - Italy $11,338 $10,283 - Chile 16,321 6,910 - Other countries 4,245 1,230 - ———————— ———————— - Total $456,185 $646,178 - - Silk, animal and vegetable, and manufactures: - Germany $121,146 $161,299 - United Kingdom 63,633 66,792 - France 58,120 63,964 - Italy 23,539 20,157 - Belgium 7,425 19,032 - Hongkong 10,399 - Japan 5,742 - United States $4,847 - Other countries $26,613 4,053 - ———————— ———————— - Total $300,476 $356,285 - - Hides, skins, and leather goods: - United Kingdom $58,957 $163,144 - United States 37,481 139,040 - Germany 40,727 100,897 - France 14,108 52,626 - Japan 22,814 - Italy 10,745 - Spain 4,618 - Other countries 17,988 13,935 - ———————— ———————— - Total $169,261 $507,819 - - Wearing apparel and notions: - Italy $108,746 $47,705 - France 124,469 26,166 - Germany 118,796 12,472 - United Kingdom 258,955 10,769 - United States 58,081 2,331 - Other countries 145,483 3,526 - ———————— ———————— - Total $814,530 $102,969 - - Furniture: - Germany $53,574 $49,516 - United States 40,226 45,004 - United Kingdom 44,007 42,912 - France 10,818 22,123 - Hongkong 4,540 - Other countries 6,732 7,536 - ———————— ———————— - Total $155,357 $171,631 - - Metals and manufactures: - United Kingdom $1,270,759 $1,948,984 - United States 498,529 1,579,651 - Germany 205,570 616,240 - Belgium 165,188 490,747 - France 36,814 182,843 - Brazil 24,424 - Italy 18,925 - Other countries 9,166 12,432 - —————————— —————————— - Total $2,186,026 $4,874,246 - - Stones, earth, coal, glass, and chinaware: - United Kingdom $272,100 $935,964 - Germany 142,845 476,249 - Belgium 67,955 237,524 - United States 51,925 127,507 - Australia 26,916 59,604 - France 15,178 60,305 - Chile 33,194 - Japan 32,011 - Italy 14,044 - Other countries 17,237 12,672 - ———————— —————————— - Total $594,156 $1,989,074 - - Woods, lumber, and manufacturers: - United States $322,726 $1,530,689 - Chile 17,421 49,034 - Germany 15,183 53,137 - Ecuador 16,059 36,035 - France 23,943 - Japan 17,601 - United Kingdom 17,333 16,063 - Hongkong 8,939 - Belgium 5,999 - Spain 5,693 - Italy 5,596 - Other countries 48,542 13,187 - ———————— —————————— - Total $437,264 $1,765,916 - - Paints, dyes, varnishes, bitumen, gum: - United States $213,200 $491,146 - Germany 67,604 223,551 - United Kingdom 62,403 152,262 - Belgium 16,433 72,282 - Salvador 15,985 43,812 - Mexico $22,760 - France 19,397 - Italy 6,467 - Other countries $12,896 4,960 - ———————— —————————— - Total $388,521 $1,036,637 - - Live animals: - Chile $10,088 $44,425 - Ecuador 10,292 - United States 5,313 - Germany $3,309 - United Kingdom 1,747 - Other countries 35,218 786 - ——————— ——————— - Total $45,306 $65,872 - - Stationery, paper, and cardboard: - Germany $154,574 $422,898 - Spain 21,689 108,503 - United Kingdom 35,680 98,794 - United States 46,829 97,310 - Belgium $28,424 $57,458 - France 16,706 36,999 - Italy 11,733 - Hongkong 4,550 - Other countries 4,897 5,880 - ———————— ———————— - Total $323,466 $859,404 - - Tools, ships’ stores, machines and vehicles: - United States $436,758 $749,864 - United Kingdom 269,136 809,800 - Germany 77,644 225,503 - Belgium 35,685 172,842 - France 57,998 49,253 - Italy 11,733 - Hongkong 4,550 - Other countries 17,066 10,725 - ———————— —————————— - Total $894,287 $2,034,270 - - Musical instruments: - Germany $19,986 $75,960 - United States 7,936 30,532 - United Kingdom $11,373 - France 5,499 - Other countries 8,187 14,168 - ——————— ———————— - Total $36,109 $137,532 - - Arms, ammunition, and explosives: - Germany $17,333 $172,171 - United Kingdom 67,225 123,851 - United States 39,331 102,317 - France 76,569 - Hongkong 27,009 57,847 - Belgium 8,968 - Other countries 34,778 9,076 - ———————— ———————— - Total $185,676 $550,799 - - Dry goods and miscellaneous articles: - United Kingdom $2,583,430 $336,527 - Germany 1,490,550 255,510 - United States 1,801,962 205,638 - France 1,495,523 142,928 - Chile 143,322 134,417 - Belgium 561,506 96,239 - Cuba 35,374 78,049 - Italy 62,563 17,509 - Mexico 16,020 - Ecuador 55,146 11,927 - Japan 11,810 - Hongkong 42,353 9,425 - Spain 37,349 7,922 - Other countries 156,830 3,314 - —————————— —————————— - Total $8,465,908 $1,327,235 - - Beverages: - France $160,715 $173,850 - Germany 88,049 87,241 - United Kingdom 82,375 118,708 - Portugal 69,449 63,736 - Italy 45,447 43,350 - Spain 31,919 51,224 - Belgium 25,111 25,417 - United States 16,394 10,331 - Hongkong 4,185 - Other countries 42,752 1,878 - ———————— ———————— - Total $562,211 $579,920 - - Comestibles and condiments: - Australia $801,639 $1,013,886 - Hongkong 507,400 626,795 - United States 547,456 568,416 - United Kingdom 370,549 322,906 - Germany 345,219 273,677 - Italy 182,726 185,579 - Chile 497,755 94,935 - France 89,290 - Belgium 38,065 59,390 - Spain 40,552 - Portugal 56,154 28,181 - Brazil 14,331 - Japan 7,586 - Other countries 227,306 6,466 - —————————— —————————— - Total $3,574,269 $3,331,990 - - Medicines and pharmaceutical products: - United States $118,766 $212,933 - Germany 131,346 210,426 - France 76,106 177,568 - United Kingdom 144,568 143,950 - Italy 49,701 53,793 - Belgium 12,983 - Hongkong 10,321 - Other countries 30,877 48,925 - ———————— ———————— - Total $551,364 $870,899 - - Articles not classified: - Germany $16,224 - United Kingdom 14,959 - United States $94,696 14,725 - France 51,229 7,494 - Other countries 52,453 10,888 - ———————— ——————— - Total $198,378 $64,290 - - - Uruguay - - Articles Value - Beverages $2,224,582 - Chemical products, etc. 1,433,804 - Chalk 52,661 - Cement, Portland 981,279 - Coal 2,742,100 - Chinaware 187,546 - Food products: - Cheese 113,573 - Coffee 365,174 - Codfish 90,894 - Chocolate 129,899 - Sardines 91,011 - Canned goods 89,599 - Fruits 370,006 - Indian corn 317,804 - Oils 737,926 - Potatoes $978,165 - Peas 113,028 - Wheat 109,620 - Yerba maté 1,236,542 - Sugar, refined and unrefined 2,338,379 - Rice 637,092 - Glass bottles and flask 97,323 - Glass, window 307,585 - Hides and skins and manufactures 66,805 - Iron, steel and manufactures: - Agricultural machinery and implements 552,319 - Beams 555,211 - Carriage springs 76,135 - Enameled ware 150,108 - Cutlery 63,195 - Fence wire 848,326 - Galvanized iron— - Bars and sheets 144,958 - For roofs 692,365 - Hoops 76,279 - Iron in bars and sheets 697,835 - Machinery, for trades 634,419 - Nails 38,933 - Pipes— - Iron 82,818 - Galvanized iron 81,450 - Rails 53,998 - Screws and nuts 50,125 - Live animals 905,318 - Metals (other than iron and steel and manufactures of) 749,770 - Oils: - Benzine 283,636 - Lubricating 129,168 - Gasoline 45,009 - Kerosene $85,784 - Paints, dyes, inks, etc. 378,382 - Paper, and manufactures of 1,031,812 - Porcelain 59,749 - Sulphur 79,996 - Textile goods: - Cotton 5,370,078 - Linen 249,387 - Silk 318,090 - Woolen 1,773,931 - Tobacco 1,321,860 - Wood and manufactures of: - Furniture 258,841 - Other 2,680,597 - - Imported from Value - United Kingdom $12,648,379 - Germany 7,894,644 - United States 5,671,318 - Argentine 4,173,155 - France 3,952,473 - Italy 3,348,233 - Belgium 3,333,938 - Spain 2,143,455 - Brazil 2,071,535 - Chile 312,828 - Australia 297,341 - Netherlands 242,552 - Cuba 186,004 - Paraguay 166,601 - Austria-Hungary 116,079 - Portugal 31,567 - ——————————— - Total $46,590,102 - - - Venezuela - - Articles United United - States Kingdom Germany France - Agricultural implements, - accessories $98,438 $166,525 $36,159 $408 - Arms and ammunition 201,728 10,067 38,391 16,429 - Automobiles and accessories 96,593 1,930 3,049 16,304 - Bags and bagging 6,677 215,460 12,213 101 - Beer 77 8,638 58,708 7 - Biscuits 96,547 20,563 12,111 1,912 - Bottles 493 6,884 129,871 93 - Butter 137,977 2,692 168,080 47,443 - Canned meats 95,892 17,050 20,418 16,950 - Carbonic acid gas 1,022 939 4,585 49 - Cement 66,461 23,246 25,954 17 - Cheese 990 461 5,436 1,454 - Coal 11,365 81,103 11,742 - Confectionery 32,978 23,480 6,132 12,546 - Cotton goods 449,663 2,745,304 378,992 75,396 - Cotton knit goods 1,363 17,826 114,133 26,110 - Drugs and medicines 287,718 32,625 111,579 130,989 - Earthenware and crockery 3,324 11,602 46,280 1,387 - Electrical apparatus and - accessories 120,585 2,626 8,530 76 - Flour 1,085,821 11,697 289 - Glassware 22,828 1,929 39,681 5,998 - Hams 72,697 795 679 20 - Hats 8,150 2,619 203,438 7,980 - Iron, and manufacturers of: - Domestic wares 18,609 23,054 118,941 803 - Manufactures 176,498 99,154 55,367 14,311 - Tubes 40,410 17,486 7,034 - Unfinished 42,356 17,708 10,400 214 - Lamps, lanterns, and - accessories 7,345 461 7,442 1,221 - Lard 382,184 6,199 17 - Leather 95,488 6,607 44,448 68,008 - Machinery 289,850 90,596 62,944 20,200 - Malt $125 $48,381 - Nails, iron 16,931 $7,528 17,130 103 - Oils: - Benzine, gasoline, and - naphtha 14,957 672 1,677 32 - Crude petroleum 970 427 - Engine 15,755 5,739 2,908 99 - Kerosene 160,958 2,523 - Linseed 4,298 1,597 14,548 57 - Olive 279 4,035 2,799 8,749 - Other 3,265 58 1,946 34 - Olives and capers 1,286 1,268 918 5,072 - Paints: - Ordinary 31,644 4,852 15,035 407 - Enamel and colors 7,368 180 11,257 1,363 - Paper: - Printing 41,368 110 617 3 - Other 26,427 5,999 53,263 2,045 - Perfumery 54,518 16,664 22,800 66,381 - Powder and dynamite 17,095 426 3,021 - Railroad material 41,974 82,754 23,090 - Rice 17,969 28,589 253,946 58 - Sardines 1,663 8,241 81,780 11,349 - Spices 27,115 268 5,708 123 - Stearin and suet 5,205 1,938 1,098 1,507 - Tobacco and products 5,171 2,392 2,946 106 - Turpentine 8,063 133 668 15 - Vegetables, dried 6,756 609 161 274 - Wall paper 4,698 200 3,695 317 - Window glass 942 207 4,088 569 - Wines and liquors 13,024 84,255 66,239 159,342 - Wire: - Barbed 138,388 994 3,755 - Galvanized and plain 13,762 2,537 4,982 - Woolen goods 4,526 170,149 40,553 49,002 - All other articles 1,079,696 178,356 767,354 987,960 - —————————— —————————— —————————— —————————— - Total $5,718,323 $4,281,026 $3,199,389 $1,761,410 - - Coin: - Gold 1,114,115 3,860 78,744 - Silver 778,176 - —————————— —————————— —————————— —————————— - Total, 1912 $6,832,438 $4,284,886 $3,199,389 $2,618,330 - Total, 1911 5,219,577 5,253,865 3,195,945 1,857,564 - - - Articles - Netherlands All Other Total - Agricultural implements, - accessories $34,770 $29 $336,329 - Arms and ammunition 17,816 74,834 359,265 - Automobiles and accessories 117,876 - Bags and bagging 10,135 2,658 247,244 - Beer 17,617 85,047 - Biscuits 2,577 987 134,697 - Bottles 1,643 316 139,300 - Butter 33,718 1,001 390,911 - Canned meats 10,156 21,483 181,949 - Carbonic acid gas 2,853 9,448 - Cement 13,874 96 129,648 - Cheese 55,255 3,678 67,274 - Coal 4,009 4,298 112,517 - Confectionery 6,374 16,522 98,032 - Cotton goods 325,087 388,695 4,363,137 - Cotton knit goods 44,657 226,667 430,756 - Drugs and medicines 37,817 34,170 634,898 - Earthenware and crockery 11,147 641 74,381 - Electrical apparatus and - accessories 2,625 2,285 136,727 - Flour 1,097,807 - Glassware 8,244 744 79,424 - Hams 309 58 74,558 - Hats 12,026 31,247 265,460 - Iron, and manufacturers of: - Domestic wares 25,872 331 187,610 - Manufactures 11,011 7,152 363,493 - Tubes 714 65,644 - Unfinished 501 434 71,613 - Lamps, lanterns, and - accessories 1,290 327 18,086 - Lard 388,400 - Leather 9,736 1,099 225,386 - Machinery 16,052 7,932 487,574 - Malt $170 $48,676 - Nails, iron 2,808 1,437 45,937 - Oils: - Benzine, gasoline, and - naphtha 47 17,385 - Crude petroleum 2,203 3,600 - Engine 312 1,932 26,745 - Kerosene 163,481 - Linseed 2,374 22,874 - Olive 5,382 180,728 201,972 - Other 90 360 5,753 - Olives and capers 891 13,746 23,181 - Paints: - Ordinary 1,751 2,332 56,021 - Enamel and colors 2,073 254 22,495 - Paper: - Printing 157 522 42,777 - Other 27,465 23,068 138,267 - Perfumery 28,527 3,971 192,861 - Powder and dynamite 1,955 22,497 - Railroad material 16,078 1,000 164,896 - Rice 311,139 3,030 614,731 - Sardines 38,743 108,475 250,251 - Spices 2,398 3,129 38,741 - Stearin and suet 291,085 17,236 318,069 - Tobacco and products 205 2,699 13,519 - Turpentine 8,879 - Vegetables, dried 95 1,257 9,152 - Wall paper 335 26 9,271 - Window glass 2,260 666 8,732 - Wines and liquors 27,981 213,335 564,176 - Wire: - Barbed 143,137 - Galvanized and plain 794 22,075 - Woolen goods 14,167 13,885 292,282 - All other articles 167,868 541,239 3,722,473 - —————————— —————————— ——————————— - Total $1,666,354 $1,962,895 $18,589,387 - - Coin: - Gold 4,648 1,201,367 - Silver 778,176 - —————————— —————————— ——————————— - Total, 1912 $1,671,002 $1,962,895 $20,568,940 - Total, 1911 1,340,904 1,527,034 18,394,889 - - - - - INDEX - - - Acre Territory, 13 - - Advertising, 331 - - Advertising medicines, 332–333–335–336–337–338 - - Advertising rates, 338 - - Africa, 13, 176 - - Alcoholic drinks in Latin America, 253–373 - - Almagro, de, Diego, 67 - - Alpaca, 88 - - American attitude toward investments, 358 - - American Banks in Latin America, 290–298 - - American loans, 363 - - Angostura bitters, 130 - - Anguilla, 206 - - Antigua, 206, 209 - - Anti-typhoid vaccination, 369 - - Appendix, 375 - - Appointments in Latin America, 252 - - Argentine, 10, 13, 31; - discoveries of, 31; - history, 32; - early government, 31; - present government, 32–33; - wars with England, 32; - area, 33; - Patagonia, treaty with Chile, 33; - boundary, 34; - population, 34; - immigration, 35; - typography, 35; - climate, 36; - crops, 36, 37, 38; - seasons reversed, 38; - butter and cheese, 38; - flour, 38; - animal products, 39; - number of cattle, 39; - minerals, 40; - woods, 40; - peat, 40; - petroleum, 40; - railways, 41–42; - factories, 41; - steamships, 43; - docks, 44; - British investments, 45; - German investments, 45; - daily papers, 45; - money, 46; - travellers’ tax, 46; - cities, 47; - exports, 47; - imports, 48, 375–376–377–378, 219; - illiteracy, 331, 356 - - Asphalt, 133, 207 - - Austria-Hungary, 3–5–10 - - Ayolas, de, Juan, 57 - - Alvaredo, Pedro, 139 - - - Bahamas, 206, 207, 210 - - Ballata, 132, 194, 196, 197 - - Bananas, 120–148–149, 172, 195, 196, 208, 364, 365 - - Banking, West Indies, 174, 195, 206 - - Barbados, 205, 207, 209 - - Barbuda, 206 - - Belgium, 5 - - Bermuda, 206, 210 - - Bills on London, 289, 291 - - Bismuth, 86, 87, 99 - - Bolivia, 13, 32; - area, 79; - climate, 80; - population, 82; - railways, 83; - minerals, 86; - forests, 87; - currency, 88; - drugs, 87; - travelers’ tax, 89; - cities, 89; - exports, 88–379–380; - imports, 88–379 - - Bolivar (Simon), 80, 106, 114 - - Braden Copper Co., 73 - - British capital invested, 289 - - Brazil, 192–215; - illiteracy, 332; - imports, 380–381–382–383–384 - - Brazil, 6, 7, 10; - area, 13; - boundaries, 13; - population, 14; - discoverer, 14; - history, 15; - language, 14; - early government, 15; - present government, 16; - climate, 17; - geography, 17; - coast, 17; - ports, 18; - rivers, 18, 19; - products, 19; - manufactures, 21; - mines, 22; - railways, 24, 29; - hotels, 24; - money, 24; - imports, 25, 26; - exports, 25, 26; - preferential duty, 25; - steamships, 27; - cities, 29; - travellers’ tax, 30 - - British Guiana, 13–15, 191; - early history, 192; - topography, 192; - temperature, 193; - area, 193; - exports and imports, 194, 195; - travelers’ tax, 194; - banking, 195 - - British West Indies, 205 - - Bubonic plague, 254–371 - - - Cabot, Sebastian, 31–57 - - Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, 14 - - Caicos Islands, 205 - - Canadian banks, 195–206, 299 - - Canal Zone, 143; - currency, 152 - - Carib Indians, 168 - - Castro, Cipriano, 9 - - Cattle raising, 172, 179 - - Caymans, 205 - - Central American Federation, 139 - - Chicle (gum), 148, 149, 163 - - Chile, 13, 32; - discoverers, 67; - Indians of, 67; - early history, 67; - government, 68; - area, 68; - coast of, 68; - mountains, 68; - climate, 68; - population, 69; - foreign colonies, 69; - railways, 69; - rivers, 70; - ports, 71; - nitrate, 71, 72; - iodine, 72; - copper, 73; - coal, 74; - minerals, 74; - crops, 74; - wine, 74; - cattle, 75; - forests, 75; - industries, 75; - fruits, 75; - exports, 76; - imports, 76, 77; - money, 76; - business in hands of, 77; - travellers’ tax, 77; - cities, 78; - how to reach, 78–215, 219; - illiteracy, 331, 356; - imports, 384–385 - - Clothes for Latin America, 260 - - Cocaine, 87–101–102 - - Cocoa, 20, 132, 179, 207, 364 - - Coffee, 19, 88, 110, 119, 131, 135, 149, 183, 188, 196, 208, 364 - - Colombia, 13; - discoverer, 114; - early history, 114; - area, 115; - topography, 115; - climate, 116; - population, 116; - present government, 117; - railroads, 117; - Bogota, 118; - travel, 118; - rivers, 119; - agriculture, 119; - coffee, 119; - bananas, 120; - Panama hats, 120; - tagua nuts, 120; - cattle, 120; - hides, 121; - mines, 121, 122; - emeralds, 121; - money, 122; - imports, 123, 386; - exports, 123; - travellers’ tax, 124; - cities, 124; - travel, 124; - steamships, 125; - ports, 125, 219–364 - - Columbus, Christopher, 114–126–139, 168, 176, 186 - - Commercial agencies, 306 - - Consuls for United States, 225, 259 - - Consular invoice, 323 - - Copper, 63, 110, 133 - - Copy, advertising, 339, 340; - position of, 341 - - Cortes, Hernando, 138, 156 - - Correspondence in Latin America, 261 - - Costa Rica, early history, 138; - present government, 140; - area and population, 142; - topography, 144; - railways, 145; - agriculture, 147; - forests, 148; - bananas, 149; - coffee, 149; - mines, 149; - exports, 149; - imports, 150, 151; - currency, 152, 153; - travellers’ tax, 153; - cities, 154; - steamships, 154, 364 - - Cuba, 1, 2, 5; - area, 169; - topography and population, 169, 170; - climate, 170; - government, 170; - railways and rivers, 171; - sugar, 171; - fruits, 172; - mines, 172; - exports, 173; - imports, 173; - currency, 174; - banks, 174; - travelers’ tax, 174; - principal cities, 175; - rail and steamship connections, 169, 175; - illiteracy, 331, 364 - - Curaçao, area, 200; - population, 200; - currency, 201; - banking, 201; - exports, 201; - smuggling, 201; - imports, 202; - steamer connections, 202 - - Custom House rulings, 268–269, 270 - - Customs of Latin Americans, 248, 249 - - Customs and Tariffs, 266 - - Cuzco (city), 104 - - - Denmark, 199 - - Devils’ Island, 197 - - Diaz (Porfirio), 158 - - Disease in Latin America, 109–253–254–264–369–370–371–373 - - Dominica, 206, 209, 210 - - Drinking Water in Latin America, 254–368–369 - - Dutch Guiana, 13–15, 191; - population, 196; - trade conditions, 196; - exports and imports, 196; - currency, 197; - steamship connections, 197 - - - Eating fruit, 373 - - Ecuador, 13; - early history, 106; - government, 107; - area, 107; - climate, 107; - area and topography, 108; - census, 108; - railways, 109; - revolutions, 109; - diseases, 109; - natural resources, 110; - currency, 110; - exports, 112; - travelers’ tax, 112; - imports, 112; - principal cities, 112; - how reached, 113; - imports, 386 - - Electro cuts, 342 - - England, 2–3–5–123, 174, 183, 184, 199, 208, 209, 210, 220 - - English investments, 355 - - Europe, 3–4–6–7–12 - - European attitude toward investors, 360 - - European Possessions in the West Indies, 199, 205 - - Exchange, basis of, 300–301 - - Exchange buying, 291 - - Exports, Bolivia, 379–380 - - Export duties, 272 - - - Federal Reserve Act, 309 - - Finance and Credits, 288 - - Financing improvements, 292 - - Foreign commerce statistics, 2–5–6 - - France, 5–13–47, 176, 183, 184, 197, 198, 199, 204, 205, 208, 220, 222 - - French banks, 290 - - French Guiana, 13–15, 191; - extent and population, 197; - exports, 197; - imports, 198; - travelers’ tax, 198; - language, 198 - - - Galapagos Islands, 107–112 - - Germany, 3–5–13–47–65–77–122–183, 184, 208, 215, 218, 219, 220 - - German banks, 289 - - German investments, 355 - - Gold exchange standard countries, 300 - - Gold standard countries, 300 - - Grenadines, 206 - - Granada, 206, 209 - - Guadeloupe (French possession), 204, 205 - - Guano, 99–102–134 - - Guatemala, early history, 139; - present government, 140; - area and population, 140; - topography, 144; - railways, 145; - agriculture, 147; - forests, 148; - bananas, 148; - coffee, 149; - exports, 149; - imports, 150, 151; - currency, 152, 153; - travellers’ tax, 153; - cities, 153; - steamships, 154; - illiteracy, 332 - - Guyara Falls, 61 - - - Haiti, early history, geography and climate, 182, 183; - roads, 183; - monetary system, 184; - travelers’ tax, 185; - principal cities, 185; - steamships, 185 - - Health precautions, 253–368 - - Henequen (rope), 163, 172 - - Holland, 15, 192, 199 (West Indian possessions), 200 - - Honduras (British), early history, 139; - present government, 140; - area and population, 143; - topography, 144; - agriculture, 147; - forests, 148; - bananas, 149; - exports, 149; - imports, 150, 151; - currency, 152, 153; - travellers’ tax, 153; - cities, 153; - steamships, 154 - - Honduras (Spanish), early history, 139; - present government, 140; - area and population, 141; - topography, 144; - railways, 145; - agriculture, 147; - forests, 148; - bananas, 149; - mines, 149; - exports, 149; - imports, 150, 151; - currency, 152, 153; - travellers’ tax, 153; - cities, 154; - steamships, 154 - - Hotels, Latin America, 250 - - Huerta (Victoriano), 158 - - - Illiteracy, 331 - - Imports, Argentine, 375–376–377–378 - Brazil, 380–381–382–383–384 - Bolivia, 379 - Chile, 384 - Colombia, 386 - Ecuador, 386 - Paraguay, 387 - Peru, 103–388–389–390 - Uruguay, 391–392 - Venezuela, 393–394–395 - - Inconvertible paper standard countries, 300 - - Intestinal diseases, 370 - - Irala, Domingo, 57 - - Island of Margarita, 134, 136 - - Isle of Pines, 169 - - Italian banks, 290 - - Iturbide, Augustin, 139, 157 - - Ivory nuts (see tagua nuts) - - - Jamaica, 206, 207, 208, 209 - - Josephine, Empress of France, 204 - - - Lake Titicaca, 83, 85, 96, 98 - - Latin America, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11 - - La Paz, 83, 84, 89 - - Leeward Islands, 205, 207 - - Leprosy, 372 - - Letters of Credit, 265, 303, 304 - - Letters of Introduction, 258 - - Literature for Latin America, 263 - - London and River Plate Bank, 288 - - Long credits, 309 - - Lopez, Carlos Antonio, 57–58 - - - Madero (Francisco), 158 - - Mail in Latin America, 264 - - Marie Galante (French possession), 205 - - Martinique (French), 204, 205 - - Medicines for Latin America, 372–374 - - Meiggs (Henry), 97 - - Mendoza, de, Pedro, 31 - - Merchant Marine, Germany, 218 - - Merchants’ tax in Latin America, 257 - - Methods of Doing Business, 224, 227 - - Mexico, early history, 156, 157; - revolutions, 158; - form of government, 159; - area, 160; - topography, 160; - population, 161; - railways, 161; - mineral wealth, 162, 163; - forests, 163; - exports, 164; - imports, 165; - monetary system, 165; - commercial tax, 165; - travel and hotels, 165; - principal cities, 166; - railroads, 166; - steamships, 167, 219; - illiteracy, 331 - - Monetary systems, 299 - - Montserrat, 206, 209, 210 - - Mountain sickness, 81 - - - Nanduti lace, 62 - - Napoleon III, 158 - - Napoleonic Wars, 2 - - National Cash Register Co., 231 - - National City Bank, 308 - - Nevis, 206 - - New Granada, 114 - - Nicaragua, early history, 138; - present government, 140; - area and population, 142; - topography, 144; - railways, 146; - agriculture, 147; - forests, 148; - bananas, 149; - coffee, 149; - mines, 149; - exports, 149; - imports, 150, 151; - currency, 152, 153; - travellers’ tax, 153; - cities, 154; - steamships 154 - - - Ojeda, de, Alonso, 114 - - Order blanks, 259 - - - Packing instructions, 316, 317–319 - - Packing and shipping, 311 - - Packing weights, 315, 316 - - Panama (Republic of), early history, 139; - present government, 140; - area and population, 142; - topography, 144; - railways, 146; - agriculture, 147; - forests, 148; - bananas, 149; - mines, 149; - exports, 149; - imports, 150, 151; - currency, 152, 153; - travellers’ tax, 153; - cities, 154; - steamships, 154 - - Panama hats, 101, 102, 111, 120, 123, 201 - - Paraguay, 13, 32; - discoverers and early history, 57; - present government, 58; - population, 58–60; - area, 59; - climate, 59; - roads, 60; - railways, 60; - soil, 61; - rivers, 61; - yerba mate, 62; - quebracho, 63; - minerals, 63; - woods, 63; - cattle, 63; - money, 64; - credits, 64; - exports, 64–387; - imports, 65, 387; - travellers’ tax, 65; - cities, 65; - shipping goods, 66 - - Passports, 265 - - Pearls, 134 - - Perry, Commodore, 213 - - Peru, 13; - early history, 91; - Chumus, 91; - war with Chile, 92; - government, 93; - area, 93; - population, 94, 95; - railways, 96; - mines, 99; - petroleum, 100; - exports, 100, 102; - Panama hats, 101; - currency, 101; - travelers’ tax, 103; - principal cities, 104; - exports, 103–388–389–390; - imports, 103 - - Peruvian Balsam, 148 - - Peruvian Corporation, Ltd., 96, 97 - - Petitgrain, oil of, 62 - - Petroleum, 23–40–53–99–100–103–110–132–133 - - Philippines, 1–2 - - Pizarro, 67, 79, 91, 106 - - Plagiarism, 343 - - Population, 5, 10, 14 - - Porto Rico, 1, 2, 5; - early history, 186; - climate, 187; - roads, 187; - government, 187; - exports, 188; - principal cities, 189; - steamship connections, 190, 204 - - Ports in Latin America, 313 - - Portugal, 223 - - Postage to Latin America, 263, 264 - - Power of Attorney, 279 - - Preferential duty, 25, 26, 208–210 - - - Quebracho, 40, 41, 63, 64 - - Quinine, 102 - - - Raleigh (Sir Walter), 192 - - Ratings of merchants, 305 - - Reciprocal opportunities, 347, 348, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354 - - Reciprocity, 345 - - Redonda, 206 - - Registration of Trade Mark, 279 - - Religious Processions, 250 - - Rubber, 20, 87, 96, 111, 120, 183 - - - St. Barts (French possession), 205 - - St. Croix (Danish West Indies), 202, 203 - - St. John (Danish West Indies), 202 - - St. Kitts, 206, 209 - - St. Lucia, 206, 210 - - St. Martins, 205 - - St. Thomas (Danish West Indies), 202, 203, 204 - - St. Vincent, 206 - - Salesmen and Customer, 242 - - Salesmen’s requirement, 242 - - Sample cases for Latin America, 260 - - Santo Domingo, 5; - early history, 176, 177; - revolutions, 177; - present government, 177, 178; - area, 178; - railways, 179; - exports, 179; - imports, 179; - moneys, 180; - American Bank, 180; - travelers’ tax, 180; - principal cities, 180; - steamships, 180 - - San Salvador, early history, 139; - present government, 140; - area and population, 141; - topography, 144; - railways, 145; - agriculture, 147; - forests, 148; - coffee, 149; - mines, 149; - exports, 149; - imports, 150, 151; - currency, 152, 153; - travellers’ tax, 153; - cities, 154; - steamships, 154 - - Shipping instructions, 319, 320, 321 - - Silver standard countries, 300 - - Singer Sewing Mch. Co., 230 - - “Sirroche” (mountain sickness), 81 - - Sisal (see Henequen), 163 - - Solis, de, Juan Diaz, 31, 49 - - Souza, de, Thome, 15 - - Spain, 1, 2, 168, 177, 192, 223 - - Spanish banks, 290 - - Standard Oil Co., 230 - - Subway, 356 - - Sugar, 19–57–62–102, 110, 171, 179, 188, 194, 195, 196, 203, 207, 208, - 209, 210 - - Swiss banks, 290 - - - Tagua (nuts), 110, 111, 120, 123, 353 - - Tannin, 41 - - Thefts in Custom House, 270, 328 - - Theft en route, 328 - - Tin, 86, 87 - - Tobacco, 19, 53, 62, 64, 171, 179, 188 - - Tobago, 205 - - Tonka (bean), 132, 135 - - Torquemada, 268 - - Trade commissions, 214 - - Trade development, 212 - - Trade Marks, 276 - - Travel in Latin America, 251 - - Travelers’ Tax, 174, 180, 189, 194, 245 - - Trinidad, 205, 206, 207 - - Tungsten, 99 - - - United Fruit Co., 121, 364, 365 - - United States attitude toward Latin America, 274; - indifference toward investments, 359–362 - - Uruguay, 13; - discoverer, 49; - early history, 49; - war with Brazil, 50; - government, 50; - area, 50; - climate, 51; - population, 51; - colonists, 51; - rivers, 52; - ports, 52; - railroads, 52; - agriculture, 53; - minerals, 53; - forest lands, 53; - grazing lands, 53; - packing houses, 53; - cattle census, 54; - money, 54; - exports, 55; - imports, 55, 391–392; - travellers’ tax, 55; - cities, 56; - steamships, 56 - - - Vacuum Oil Co., 230 - - Valdivia, Pedro, 67 - - Vanadium, 99–102 - - Velasquez (Diego), 168 - - Venezuela, 8–13; - early history, 126; - boundaries, 127; - government, 128; - population, 129; - rivers, 129, 130; - railroads, 131; - asphalt deposits, 132; - cattle, 133; - minerals, 133; - money, 134; - exports, 134; - imports, 135; - principal cities, 135; - commercial fees, 135; - steamships, 136, 192, 200, 219, 220; - imports, 393–394–395 - - Virgin Islands, 206 - - - Windward Islands, 206, 207 - - Wolfrain, 23–40–88 - - Woods, cabinet and dye, 21 - - - Yellow fever, 254–371–373 - - Yerba mate, 19, 62, 64 - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. 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